Diffraction

• Diffraction occurs when a wave

encounters a series of regularly spaced
obstacles.i.e (i) are capable of scattering
the wave and (ii) have spacing that are
comparable in magnitude to the
wavelength. Further more ,diffraction is a
consequence of specific phase
relationships that are established between
two or more wave that have been
scattered by the obstacles
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X-Ray Diffraction and Bragg’s Law
• X-ray are a form of electromagnetic
radiation that have high energies and short
wavelengths- wavelengths on the order of
the atomic spacing for solids. When a
beam of x-rays impinges on asolid
material ,a portion of this beam will be
scattered in all directions by the electrons
associated with each atom or ion that lies
within the beam’s path.
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X-Ray Diffraction and Bragg’s Law

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 d-spacing
• d-spacing

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Diffraction Technique (Diffractometer)

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 Microscopy
• Microscopy is the technical field of using
microscopes to view samples and objects
that cannot be seen with the unaided eye
(objects that are not within the resolution
range of the normal eye).

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 Types
There are three well-known branches of
microscopy
• optical microscopy
• electron microscopy
• scanning probe microscopy

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 Principle of operation
• Optical and electron microscopy involve the
diffraction, reflection, or refraction of
electromagnetic radiation/electron beams
interacting with the specimen, and the
subsequent collection of this scattered radiation
or another signal in order to create an image .
• Scanning probe microscopy involves the
interaction of a scanning probe with the surface
of the object of interest

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Optical Microscope

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 Components
• Light source, a light or a mirror (7)
• Diaphragm and condenser lens (8)
• Objective (3)
• Ocular lens (eyepiece) (1)
• Objective turret (to hold multiple objective
lenses) (2)
• Stage (to hold the sample) (9)
• Focus wheel to move the stage (4 -
coarse adjustment, 5 - fine adjustment)
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 Basic configurations
• There are two basic configurations of the
conventional optical microscope, the simple
(one lens) and compound (many lenses).. A
magnifying glass is, in essence, a basic single
lens microscope. In general microscope optics
are static; to focus at different focal depths the
lens to sample distance is adjusted and to get a
wider or narrower field of view a different
magnification objective lens must be used. Most
modern research microscopes also have a
separate set of optics for illuminating the sample
.
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Single lens (simple) microscope
• A simple microscope is a microscope that uses
only one lens for magnification, and is the
original design of light microscope. Van
Leeuwenhoek's microscopes consisted of a
small, single converging lens mounted on a
brass plate, with a screw mechanism to hold the
sample or specimen to be examined.
Demonstrations by British microscopist have
images from such basic instruments. Though
now considered primitive, the use of a single,
convex lens for viewing is still found in simple
magnification devices, such as the magnifying
glass, and the loupe.
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 Compound microscope
• A compound microscope is a microscope which uses
multiple lenses to collect light from the sample and then a
separate set of lenses to focus the light into the eye or
camera. Compound microscopes are heavier, larger and
more expensive than simple microscopes due to the
increased number of lenses used in construction. The
main advantages of multiple lenses are improved
numerical aperture (see resolution limit below), reduced
chromatic aberration and exchangeable objective lenses
to adjust the magnification. A compound microscope also
makes more advanced illumination setups, such as
phase contrast.

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Operation

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 Electron microscope
• An electron microscope is a type of
microscope that uses a particle beam of
electrons to illuminate the specimen and
produce a magnified image. Electron
microscopes (EM) have a greater resolving
power than a light-powered optical microscope,
because electrons have wavelengths about
100,000 times shorter than visible light
(photons), and can achieve better than 0.2 nm
resolution and magnifications of up to
2,000,000x
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Transmission Electron Microscope

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Scanning Electron Microscopy

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Scanning Probe Microscope

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