3.TOFD Slide Presentation

Time-Of-Flight-Diffraction
CSWIP Training Module 1
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013

Course Objectives
• To understand the theoretical background and limitations of
ToFD applications.
• To correctly select probe/wedge to examine welded butt
joints.
• To calibrate and set up the ToFD ultrasonic equipment.
• To locate and evaluate flaws in the weld body and HAZ.
• To differentiate defects from geometric features.
• To analyse scan data for location and size of defects in
typical welded butt.
• To understand and apply digital processing processes
(SAFT, linearization, averaging, filters etc).
• To compile written instructions.
• To meet the CSWIP and PCN syllabus requirements.

Agenda and Syllabus
• Day 1
– History and theory.
– Overview of TOFD – terminology.
– Fundamentals of TOFD and data visualisation.
• Day 2
– Digital control.
– Scanning equipment.
– TOFD systems.

Agenda
• Day 3
– Instrument requirements.
– TOFD sensitivity requirements.
– Modelling the weld inspection.
• Day 4
– Ringing issues.
– Depth calculations.
– Error calculations.

Agenda
• Day 5
– Data displays.
– Data analysis.
• Days 6
– TOFD quality assessment.
– TOFD data assessment.
– Flaw images.
• Day 7
– TOFD codes and standards.
Agenda
• Day 8
– Industrial applications.
– Written instructions.
• Day 9
– Complete practical sessions.
– End of course assessment.
• Day 10
– Final exam.

History
• Pressures in nuclear industry in 1960s and

1970s for increased safety!
• Heavier sections being used (RT not
practical).
• Periodic inspections detecting flaws.
requiring monitoring for potential growth.
• Required more accurate assessment of flaw
sizing with fitness for purpose engineering
concepts.

History
• Dr. Maurice G. Silk and his staff at the

National NDT Centre, in Harwell, UK are
credited with developing the TOFD
technique in the early 1970s.
• Impetus for their work was the need to know

with some accuracy, the vertical extent of
flaws detected in the pressure retaining
components.

Introduction to TOFD
Existing sizing options:

• -dB drop (eg -20dB or -6dB.
• -Max-Amp (just another version of dB drop).
• Relative amplitudes (eg AVG or DAC curves)-.
-6dB beam
edges
Top view Side View

Lateral (Length) sizing by basic -6dB -6dB
dB drop
a)
Generally acceptable for large

planar flaws but inaccurate for short
flaws.
Short flaw over estimates corrected Length (effective for defects longer than beam width)
by beam profiling (using IOW

blocks). b)
Hole ends and sides are used to

determine beam width and beam
height respectively. Apparent length
(defect is shorter
than beam width)

Relative amplitude
methods - assume
ideal flaw shapes and
sizes (AVG uses FBHs
and DACs usually use
SDHs).

Reluctance to change inspired round-robins to

show how much better the new idea of TOFD
was compared to the old ways.

TOFD Acceptance in NDT
• Programme for the Inspection of Steel Components

(PISC trials) for nuclear applications (PISC I was held in
1979, PISC II in 1986 and PISC III 1993).
• Defect Detection Trials (DDT) held by United Kingdom
Atomic Energy Authority (UKEA) 1983.
• Trials by the Dutch Welding Institute (NIL).
• Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).

Without exception each of the trials confirmed the

ability of TOFD to provide results for volumetric
defects with a greater accuracy than the conventional
methods against which it was compared.

All Methods
Sizing
comparison
from DDT
(line indicates
ideal sizing)
TOFD

NIL/KINT
thin-plate
project
This study shows that although the original goal of TOFD was to
provide improved sizing capabilities, it is now acknowledged to
have the added benefit of providing a fast and reliable detection
method.
Bill Browne, co-founder of the Sonomatic Group stated

in 1997:
TOFD has now been around for more than 25 years, its
effectiveness has been proven by performance
demonstration (more so than all other inspection
methodologies combined) and whatever mystery once
surrounded the technique has been completely
dispelled by repeated applicational success in the
hands of routinely qualified personnel using what is
now relatively standard equipment.

Principles of TOFD
Sound interactions in media include:
• Reflection.
• Refraction.
• Attenuation.
• Polarisation.
• Dispersion.
• Diffraction.
Of these boundary interactions, diffraction is the

important consideration in TOFD studies (naturally,
since the name time-of-flight diffraction derives its
name from the phenomenon!).

Principles of TOFD
Diffraction occurs when an obstacle distorts a wave, eg if the wave
travels through a gap it may be diffracted. It is the ability of a wave
to spread around corners. Hence, diffraction occurs at the edge of an
obstacle.
Long obstruction
Pulse source
Pulse source
Diffracted wavefront
Diffracted wavefront
Single slit

Principles of TOFD
As applied to
ultrasonics
diffraction is
seen as Diffracted
spherical waves
scattering off
the tips of a
flaw. Flaw

Principles of TOFD
Ultrasonic tip diffraction can also be seen in pulse-echo

testing off the tips of a flaw

Principles of TOFD
For the purposes of this training:

• TOFD will be considered the technique using forward
scattering.
• Backscattered tip diffraction will not be considered
TOFD.
• TOFD will use two probes (one transmitter and one
receiver).

Principles of TOFD
Basic TOFD configuration and signals
Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave
Back-wall reflection
LW BW
Upper tip Lower tip

Principles of TOFD
Note: Phased inversion of signals!!
Lateral wave
Back-wall reflection
LW BW
Upper tip Lower tip

Principles of TOFD
5MHz pulse
from 60° L
mode probe
diffracting on
1x3mm notch.
Identify all the
wave
interactions.

Principles of TOFD
Data visualisation
Early efforts at a TOFD display used isometric projections of the
A-scan waveform. Although some degree of assessment is
possible the demands of an accurate knowledge of the phasal
information was not well addressed.

Principles of TOFD
Data visualisation
The most effective option was to convert the amplitude
displacements on a normal A-scan with a small bar of
grey shading representing the amplitude at each point
along the timebase.

Data visualization
White
+
Amplitude
A-scan
Time
- Black
Time
One A-scan picture is replaced by
one gray-coded line
Data Visualization
Data visualisation
A single line of grey-scale is not much use…

but a collection of grey-scale A-scans is very useful.
For this we need probe motion.

Data Visualization (TOFD)
A-scan
Indication
Lateral wave Back-wall

Data Visualization
Scan types
Based on probe motion relative to beam direction
Non-parallel scan
Parallel scan

Data Visualization
B-scan or D-scan???
Traditional terminology:
• A cross-sectional display of ultrasonic data having the
upper surface and lower surface displayed has been called
a B-scan (the A-scan reserved for the scope display and C-
scan for the plan view).
• Since the introduction of TOFD some have decided to name
the display formed by the non-parallel scan as a D-scan
display and this same group reserves the display formed
from the parallel scan as a B-scan.
• Code EN-583-6 uses B-scan for both displays and does not
use the term D-scan.

Data Visualization
Typical TOFD Image (from a nonparallel scan)

Lateral wave
Back-wall echo

Data Visualization
TOFD pros and cons/advantages and limitations
Advantages (Page 28/29)
1. Repeatability.
2. Accuracy.
3. Data storage (retrieval).
4. Detection speed.
5. Volume coverage.
6. Sensitivity.
7. Ease of discrimination between flaw and geometry.
8. Insensitivity to flaw orientation.
9. Coupling status.
10. Reduced operator reliance.

Data Visualization

Limitations (Page 31/32)
1. Weak signals.
2. Dead zones.
3. Flaw classification limits.

Data Visualization

Flaw classifications
1. Point-like (No length or height: pores, small
inclusions).
2. Thread-like (Have length but no vertical height,
lower tip cannot be discerned).
3. Planar (Have length and vertical height).

Practical
Activities and goals for the practical portion of Day 1

Introduction to the Kit
1. Identification of components:
− Probes, cables, probe-holder, encoder, pulser,
computer interface (PCMCIA) and computer….TWI
TOFD demonstration plate.
2. Assemble the kit hardware as per instructions (start
with 50mm PCS on 20mm plate).
− Connect all components to the computer system.
3. Switch on computer and locate and run the
software.

Practical

Assembly
TD Pocket-Scan Power Supply

Notebook
Computer
Power PCMCIA-
Supply Umbilical Encoder/Scanner
Lead TD Assembly
Pocket- 1 to
Scan 8 Ultrasonic
Probe/s
Notebook PCMCIA
Computer Card Umbilical Interface Lead

Practical

Introduction to the software:
Double click the left mouse button on the TD Scan icon and
observe the A-scan display

Practical

Introduction to the software
Optimise the parameters for the probes selected
(Collection Hardware setup) and define TOFD gated
window.

Practical

Configure the scanner set-up for free running

Practical

• Couple probes to test piece and observe free-run
B-scan.
• Acquire a free-run B-scan and save it.
• Recall file and confirm it is as was saved.
• Review all steps and now include information on
other hardware setup features.

End of Module 1
Any questions ???


Agenda and Syllabus
Day 2
• Digital control.
• Scanning equipment.
• TOFD systems.

Equipment and Digitisation
Basic equipment requirements:
1. Provide a means of transmitting a pulse.
2. Provide a means of receiving a pulse.
3. Store data.
4. Display ultrasonic signals.
5. Provide a method of analysing signals.
6. Provide a fixed spacing between the transmitting and
receiving probes.
7. And preferably ensure that probe motion is encoded
and the position of the probe-pair maintained within
prescribed tolerances with respect to a reference
position such as the weld centreline.
Basic equipment:
Pulser Control
Receiver Amplifier A/D Digitizer
Position Control
Search Unit Holder
and Encoder
Tx Rx
Computer
Examination
Data
piece Monitor Storage

Digital controls:
• Old ultrasonic units were based on analogue or
continuously variable voltage.
• Terms such as CRT, sweep, persistence all related to
the old analogue technologies.
• New units are now controlled by integrated solid-state
electronics (but still have analogue side to them – eg
pulser output and amplifier inputs and power-
supplies).

Digital controls:
• Many input controls and some outputs are feasible
as digital signals.
• Digital signals are quantised packets of Boolean
logic (yes/no or 0/1).
• These can be used to allow control of system
inputs and signal outputs.

Advantages of digital controls:

• Accuracy of time-base (time or clock based instead of
deflector plates).
• Repeatability (exact settings can be recalled).
• Storage of settings to memory (all parameters
stored).
• Speed of setup (simply recall stored parameters).
• Signal processing.
• Display options, eg projection scans (tomographic
presentation of data).
• Data recall for reporting.

Pulsers and receivers:
Basic ultrasonic equipment uses a pulser and a
receiver.
Digital control is used for both.
• Pulser voltage is an output that can be varied in steps
(the steps are the digital intervals).
• The receiving probe vibrates (analogue) when the
received pulse hits the element and transfers the
vibration to the amplifier whose output is quantised
(digitised).

Pulser controls:
Pulser types defined by shape of voltage that hits the
element.
1. Spiked. Spike pulse
2. Bipolar tone burst.

3. Square wave.
TOFD units most likely

to use bi-polar square Tone burst pulse
wave tone-burst with

one cycle or a single
negative (or positive)
Square wave pulse
square wave half-cycle.

Pulser controls: Pulse RF signal

shape shape
Adjustment of Pulser
voltage and duration 495 V
is possible via digital
control.
550 V
540 V

Pulse RF signal
Pulser controls: shape shape
Adjustment of Pulser
voltage and duration 12 ns
is possible via digital
control.
25 ns
50 ns

Pulser controls:
Adjustment of Pulser voltage and duration a software
control.

Receiver controls:
Receivers must boost
weak received signals
1-5MHz filter 3-7MHz filter
• Amplification can be Wideband
7-15MHz filter
filter
digital.
• Frequency range
amplified can be Relative
Amplitude
filtered.
• B and pass filters are
used to eliminate
2 4 6 8 10
noise from higher and Frequency (MHz)
lower frequency Spectrum of a nominal 5MHz transducer
sources.

Receiver controls:
Receiver selection is digitally controlled.

Gate controls:
• Gates are electronic monitoring regions on the
timebase.
• 3 options of data to monitor:
1.Amplitude.
2.Time (of a signal with a specified amplitude).
3.Waveform.
• Digital control of gate start, stop (length) and
threshold.
• Gated waveforms use no threshold (eg TOFD).

Gate controls:
Gates are electronic monitoring regions on the timebase.
Time Gate set at 30% FSH threshold
Amplitude Gate set at 25% FSH threshold
Waveform Gate (threshold does not apply)

Gate controls:
Gates are electronic monitoring regions on the timebase.

Data acquisition:
• Collecting information about an object or
condition is generally considered data
acquisition.
• In TOFD this consists of collecting A-scans
(and usually position).

Instrument outputs
Electrical data can be considered a signal or waveform.
Usually a voltage varying with time.
Analogue signals are continuous and can change an

arbitrary amount in an arbitrarily small time interval.
Computers use digital signals (discrete values in

specified constant time intervals) so require analogue
signals to be converted to digital waveforms.

Digitising the waveform
A
Analogue
B
16
15
14
Sampled at regular intervals
13
12
11
10
and discreet amplitudes
9
8
7
6
assigned
5
4
3
2
1
0
C
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
Digitised (may be
9
8
7
6
subsequently biased)
5
4
3
2
1
0 7 9 10 11 12 8 5 7 7 6 7 11 14 9 5 7 7 5 6 6 4 6 9 9 5 4 8 6 4 6 10 4 3 7 13 5 3 7 5 5

Rate at which the sampling is made along time-base
called ADC rate (analogue to digital conversion rate).
10 MHz analogue signal 10 MHz digital signal 10 MHz digital signal

0.1 µs per division ADC at 100 MHz ADC at 20 MHz
i.e. 10 samples per div. i.e. 2 samples per div.
0.1 µs per division 0.1 µs per division

Rate at which the sampling is made along time-base called ADC
rate (analogue to digital conversion rate).
To ensure the maximum analogue amplitude is reproduced the

ADC rate must be high.
For reproduction within 3dB of analogue amplitude ADC must

be 4 times nominal frequency of waveform.
For reproduction within 1dB of analogue amplitude ADC must

be 5 times nominal frequency of waveform (preferred MINIMUM
rate for TOFD).
ADC rate also determines accuracy of timebase measurements!


Amplitude is also digitised.
Amplitude resolution is a function of both ADC rate

and number of levels of sampling eg number of bits.
For UT data acquisition systems 8 bit sampling is

presently the most common and 10bit, 12 bit and
even higher bit rates are available.

Bit rate is derived from binary treatment of data whereby there
are a defined number of bits to a byte.
Groupings of bits into bytes may apply to 8, 10, 12, etc in
computer terminology.
Here a bit is one of two options, ie the values 0 or 1.
When the binary value (or 2) is raised to the power of eight (8)
it is considered 8-Bit. If it was raised to the power of 10 it
would be 10-Bit eg.
• 8 bit = 28 = 256 ie 256 intervals of vertical sampling
(PipeWIZARD).
• 10 bit = 210 = 1024 intervals of vertical sampling
(Omniscan).

Bit rate and dynamic range
0 t o + 127
- 128 to 0
0- 256
8 Bit RF Signal (TOFD) 8 Bit Rectified Signal (Volumetrics)

As a result of digitised amplitude, software can be made to adjust
the signals displayed for the waveform!
Software gain can be used to increase and decrease signal
amplitude.
Original scan 2dB software gain

added


• Limitation of software gain exists!
• Saturating signals cannot be reduced in
amplitude.

File size and digital concepts
Caution about UT data collection:
• Too little and you cannot analyse results
properly.
• Too much and the system of collection slows
and storage issues may occur (file size too
big).


Suitable data content addressed by
• ADC rate minimum (4-5 times probe
frequency).
• Gated region limited to area of interest.

Concern for file size:
Can be estimated by simple calculations
• eg At 25MHz ADC, 25 samples are made each µs, therefore
for a gated time of 10µs, 250 amplitude samples will be
recorded for each A-scan taken every 1mm.
• 8 bits of amplitude information are recorded/collected
(8 bits = 1 byte).
• Scan length 275mm.
• Therefore file size will be: 250 (No of samples) x 1(mm) x 1
(byte) x 275 (scan length) = 68750 bytes or 68.8KB.
NOTE: increasing the ADC to 100MHz to improve image

quality, increases the file size by a factor of 4.

File size function of:
• Data type collected.
• ADC rate.
• Gated region.
• Bit rate.
• Scan length.
• Sample interval.


Data type collected:
• For just amplitude and/or time from gated region
there is low memory demand (1 byte per sample for
time and 1 byte for amplitude data).
– typical of strip-chart data (no good for TOFD).
• TOFD requires entire waveform be collected.

ADC rate
• The higher the ADC rate the more samples
collected along the time-base.
• More samples mean more memory required.

Gated region
• Refers to the length of A-scan waveform
collected.
• The longer the time window the higher the
memory requirements.


Bit rate:
• The higher the bit rate the greater the
number of samples in the vertical
(amplitude) axis so higher bit rates imply
higher memory demands.
• Traditionally 8 bits = 1 Byte.

Scan length:
• Obviously a scan length of 500mm will
require half the memory requirements of a
scan length of 1000mm, all other factors
being equal.

1. Scan length.
2. Sample interval.

Sample interval:
• Sample interval is the space between A-scan
sampling.
• Most TOFD inspections use 1 sample every 1mm

Calculate the file size for a TOFD B-scan
• 10MHz probe.
• 70° wedge.
• 15mm wall steel plate.
• Gated 0.5µs before lateral wave and 0.5µs after
backwall.
• 300mm scan length at 1mm sample interval.

• 10 MHz Probe requires ADC 50MHz.
• 70° wedge requires 54mm probe spacing.
• 8 bit digitiser is used.
• PCS 54mm at 5940m/s requires 9.09µs lateral wave.
• Backwall is 61.8mm Vee travel or 10.4µs.
• 10.4 - 9.09 = 1.31µs in metal plus 0.5µs before and
0.5µs after. = 2.31µs in the A-scan window.
• 50MHz ADC = 1 time sample every 0.02µs = 50 samples
per µs.

• A 2.31µs A-scan window at 50 samples per µs
provides 116 samples along the time-base.
• Each sample is 8 bit therefore 1 byte.
• Therefore each A-scan is 116 bytes.
• 300mm scan with one scan sample every 1mm means
300 A-scans are collected to make the B-scan.
• 300 samples x 116 bytes = 34800 bytes.
• (about 35 kiloBytes).

• Now calculate the file size when the gate is extended
to include the region 0.5µs past the first mode-
converted backwall signal.
• (Be careful…this involves a different acoustic
velocity!)

Other digital signal processing (DSP)
2 Types:
• One dimensional - works on the individual waveform.
• Two dimensional - works on the spatial image
structure (like B and C scans).
Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
One Dimensional Two Dimensional
Filtering Spectrum analysis

Other DSP
Example of 1 dimensional – signal filtering
indication
Original Raw data

Data
Filtering Filter process

DSP
1 MHz filter
indication
Processed
Data Enhanced signal

Other DSP
Example of 2 dimensional – synthetic aperture
focusing technique (SAFT)
Used to remove the over-sizing seen on B-scans due to lateral
beam spread.
Before SAFT After SAFT

Scanning issues
ADC rates
If large gated times are required for B-scans the ability of the
computer CPU to process the information may present a speed
limitation.
If the computer has not had enough time between samples, blank
lines on the B-scan result indicating missed data points.

Encoders
• Usually rotary optical encoders used on TOFD
scanners.
• A rotary optical encoder is a sensor that uses
light to sense the speed, angle and direction of a
rotary shaft.
• Light pulses are counted to assess distance and
the phase difference between 2 sets is used to
indicate direction.

Encoders
Pulse count
Phase difference
Reference pulse

System timing options
• Older systems used UT instrument clock.

• Data acquisition was synchronous.
• Newer (TOFD) systems use the encoder to trigger
acquisitions of A-scans so called synchronous.

System timing options
Asynchronous multi-element scanning system
Synchronous multi-element scanning system

TOFD systems
Minimum requirements:
• 1 Probe pair.
• Probe holder (to maintain probe spacing).
• Pulser-receiver (basic).
• Data acquisition system (computer with data display).

TOFD systems
Advanced systems
• 1 or more Probe pairs.
• Probe holder (to maintain probe spacing).
• Pulser-receiver(s).
• Pre-amp system.
• Data acquisition system (computer with data display).
• Encoder(s).
• Irrigation system for couplant.
• DSP data analysis software.

TOFD systems
Advanced systems

Practical
Practical work
1. Configure 60° TOFD Probes in holders with a
minimum PCS
(ie touching noses).
2. Couple to 20mm test block in notch-free area.
3. Setup A-scan window for data acquisition unit
(B-scan free-run).

Practical
Practical work
4. Set default pulser-receiver parameters
• Identify lateral wave, backwall and mode converted
signals.
• Adjust pulser voltage up and down and observe
results.
• Adjust pulser duration up and down and observe
results.
• Optimise for maximum amplitude lateral wave (hold it
at 80%pp).
• Observe ringtime and see if it can be reduced without
dropping amplitude to less than 50%pp.
5. Pull probes apart to 80mm maximum PCS
• Observe lateral wave retreat.
• Observe time difference between lateral and backwall
signals.
Practical
Practical work
1. Calculate the spacing required for the 60°
centrelines of the pulses to cross at two thirds
through wall.
2. Pull probes apart to that PCS and set lateral wave to
80%pp.
3. Adjust ADC rate and observe effects on A-scan
(then set to maximum).
4. Adjust averaging (increase step by step).
• Observe A-scan results.

Practical
Practical work
5. Adjust averaging back to 1 and then investigate
changes resulting from filter adjustment.
6. Adjust gate (A-scan window) to start at zero and
end at 50µs then try to find the 3 main signals.
Continue adjusting A-scan range and delay until
0.5mm prior to lateral wave is start point and
0.5mm after MC signal is end point.

Practical
Practical work
1. Attach the encoder to the scanner and connect it
to the computer.
2. Arrange the encoder to roll with correct
orientation for a non-parallel scan.
3. Calibrate the encoder.
4. Scan 100mm at 1mm per sample (observe file
size and calculate if it is close to theory).
5. Scan the same 100mm at 0.5mm and 2mm per
sample intervals (again observe file sizes).

End of Module 2
Any Questions ???


Agenda
Day 3
• Instrument requirements.
• Setting sensitivity.
• Modelling the scanning of a weld.

Instrument Requirements
TOFD instrument requirements
• Uniformity of performance required for repeatability.
• Complicated by the fact that there are multiple
components
– Pulser.
– Receiver.
– Probes.
– Cables.
– Coupling.
– Targets.
– Encoders.
– Software/computer hardware.

Difficulties can arise in comparing assessment results
due to
• Interdependence of components (trying to isolate
where the change may be occurring can be a
challenge).
• Basic issues where amplitude are used as a
comparison due to coupling consistency problems.
But these are essentially the same issues as for ANY
UT instrument performance assessment!


• Three areas of performance assessment can be
carried out
1. The display (old term was the scope or CRT).
2. Pulser and receiver-amplifier .
3. Probe.
• Assessments can be done using elaborate electronic
equipment (acceptable for equipment manufacturers
but not practical for field work).
• Most assessment for field applications can be made
using basic reference blocks.
Performance characteristics
Display (scope or CRT in old analogue units)
• Old units had electron beam with deflector plates
– Easily bumped out of alignment resulting on non-
linearity of time base and amplification display
(amplitude).
• No longer the same concern with computerised
displays since these are mapped based on voltage
responses and a very accurate internal clock used
for generating the timebase.

• TOFD has high demands for timebase accuracy but
is a non-amplitude-based system so not the same
demands on the vertical scale.
• In spite of reduced demands (compared to pulse-
echo displays) TOFD instruments are still held up to
the same rigours of assessment for display
requirements as regular UT instruments (besides,
many TOFD instruments double as pulser-receivers
for pulse-echo applications!)

TOFD Instruments therefore require timebase
and amplitude linearity checks identical to
other UT instruments.

Performance characteristics – pulser

• Pulser requirements are rarely addressed by
equipment characterisation assessment.
• Because it has such a significant effect on

amplitude and ring-time, caution MUST be taken to
ensure the pulser is tuned correctly and
consistently for the setup used.

Performance characteristics – receiver amplifier
• Amplifier linearity is a standard assessment for UT

(eg add 6dB and amplitude of signal doubles, or
subtract 20dB to reduce amplitude to 10%).
• In addition to linearity, TOFD performance

requirements add further expectations on receivers.

Performance characteristics – receiver amplifier
EN-583-6 items of TOFD requirement
• Bandwidth shall, as a minimum, range between 0, 5 and 2
times the nominal probe frequency at -6dB.
• Un-rectified signals shall be digitised with a sampling rate
of at least four times the nominal probe frequency.
• A-scan window start shall be programmable between 0
and 200ms from the transmitting pulse, window length
shall be programmable between 5-100ms.
• B-scans grey-scale at least 64 levels.
• Must be able to store A-scans (eg optical or magnetic
storage).
• Must be able to perform signal averaging.
Performance characteristics – probe
EN-583-6 requirements
• Number of probes: 2 (transmitter and receiver).
• Type – based on thickness tested.
• Wave mode: usually compressional wave.
• Both probes shall have the same centre frequency within
a tolerance of +/-20%.
• Frequency based on thickness tested.
• The pulse length of both the lateral wave and the
backwall echo shall not exceed two cycles, measured at
10% of the peak amplitude.

Performance characteristics – scanner

EN-583-6 requirements
• Tolerance on alignment with respect to weld
centreline (+/-10 of PCS).
• ASME Section V-Article 4 Requirements.
• Encoded position accurate to within +/-1% over
500mm.

Setting TOFD Sensitivity
TOFD sensitivity
TOFD is not an amplitude-based ultrasonic inspection

method.
However, TOFD still requires sufficient gain to be

applied to ensure that the subtle variations in phase
displacements on the A-scans can be discerned from
the background noise.

EN/TS 14751
Three options for setting sensitivity in TOFD
• Reference signal amplitude.
• Background noise level.
• A set amount of gain over a repeatable
target.

Reference signal amplitude
Lateral wave
40% FSH
Backwall at
100% plus
18-30dB

Background noise level
Electrical
noise prior to
lateral approx
5% and grain
noise after
lateral wave
approx 10%

Machined targets
Fixed amount of gain based on a documented target
provides repeatable settings
Side Drilled holes with Saw cuts to surface
ASME V-Art. 4 – one and two zone SDH targets

Machined targets
Fixed amount of gain based on a documented target
provides repeatable settings
Vee Notches Custom Geometry Block

TOFD Probe Selection
Selection and placement of probes
• A great compromise (like most TOFD)

Factors considered:
• Material tested.
• Geometry of component.
• Instrumentation available (single or multi-channel).
• Probes (size, frequency, angle(s), number of pairs).
• Detection requirements.
• Sizing requirements.
• Inspection speed and accuracy requirements.

Table from EN/TS 14751
Thickness Number Depth- Centre Beam-angle Element – Beam
t ( mm) of range frequency (degrees) size intersection
TOFD ∆t / f / MHz ( α long.- (mm)
set-ups mm waves)
6-10 1 0-t 15 70 2-3 2/3 of t
10-15 1 0-t 15-10 70 2-3 2/3 of t
15-35 1 0-t 10-5 70-60 2-6 2/3 of t
35-50 1 0-t 5-3 70-60 3-6 2/3 of t
50-100 2 0-t/2 5-3 70-60 3-6 1/3 of t
t/2-t 5-3 60-45 6-12 5/6 of t;
or t for
〈 α≤45° )
100-200 3 0-t/3 5-3 70-60 3-6 2/9 of t
t/3-2t/3 5-3 60-45 6-12 5/9 of t
2/3t-t 5-2 60-45 6-20 8/9 of t;
or t for
〈 α≤45° )
200-300 4 0-t/4 5-3 70-60 3-6 1.12 of t
t/4-t/2 5-3 60-45 6-12 5/12 of t
t/2-3t/4 5-2 60-45 6-20 8/12 of t
3t/4-t 3-1 50-40 10-20 11/12 of t;
or t for
〈 α≤45° )

Selection and placement of probes.
Table attempts to address volume coverage.
Good approximation of coverage obtained using 24dB

pulse-echo beam divergence.
There is a need to confirm suitability of probe for

coverage – use notches and SDHs.

Verification of adequate beam spread – far wall
Probe 1 Probe 1
PCS 57.19mm
-28.60mm 28.60mm
66.0%
7.17mm
16.50mm
25.00mm
1.33mm
Offset before notch not detected determines if sufficient spread

for flaw detection in HAZ
Probe 1 Probe 1
PCS 57.50mm
-21.85mm 35.65mm
66.4%
7.19mm
16.59mm
25.00mm
1.33mm

Verification of adequate beam spread –
upper-midwall
Offset if SDH not detected determines if sufficient spread for
multiple zone flaw detection – may require more zones
Probe 1 Probe 1
PCS 57.50mm
-21.85mm 35.65mm
66.4%
5.06mm
16.59mm
25.00mm
0.67mm

Directivity of diffraction
Divergence off probe is not the only divergence to
consider.
Diffracted pulses have a directional characteristic.
Some angles are more energetic than others (called
directivity).

Directivity of diffraction
Weaker diffracted
pressure
Stronger diffracted
pressure

TOFD angle compromises
• For optimum probe separation for maximum volume
en-sonification, a wide probe separation would be used.
• Optimum probe separation for resolving a separation
between the upper and lower tips of a flaw would be
when the total distance travelled is a maximum and that
occurs with a minimum probe separation.
• When considering the optimum diffraction pressure for
detection of diffracted signals from flaws, a PCS that
provides 120°included angle of the probe beam axes
at the flaw tip is required.

Modelling TOFD Inspections
Scan plans
• Part of documentation requirements
(specification/standards and codes).
• Could be hand drawn, but

Convenient computer options have developed
− Spread-sheet based.
− Simple ray tracing.
− Complex ray tracing.
− Finite element modelling.

Scan plans
• Hand drawings are not very good for
representing volume coverage (requires
divergence calculations).
• Finite element modelling is slow and overly
complex for a scan-plan.
• Leaving.
• Spread sheets.
• Ray tracing.

Spread sheet option
• Basic spread sheet allows simple cross section and
divergence representations.
• eg Excel-based option generated by RD Tech in the 1990s.
PROBES
Graphed beam
Probe type :
Probe frequency (fp) :
Material ultrasonic velocity (Cm) :
MSW-QCG
5.00
5.920
MHz.
mm./µs.
Data Entry Section spread
Wavelength (lambda) : 1.2 mm.
Refracted angle (ra) : 60.0 degrees
Crystal dimension inc. plane (di) : 6.0 mm.
Crystal dimension inc. plane (dp) : 6.0 mm.
Wedge velocity (Cw) : "plexi/rexolite" rexolite 2.330 mm./µs. PROBES : MSW-QCG / 5.00 MHz. / 60°L / PCS = 58 mm
Path in wedge (Pw) : 8.0 mm.
Near field depth (dNF) : -0.5 mm.
Opening angle inc. plane (theta_i) at : -12 dB. FF 40.4 degrees
Opening angle perp. plane (theta_p) at : -12 dB. FF 21.1 degrees
Pulse width RF-signal (puw) : 0.30 µs.
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
5
COMPONENT
0
Wall thickness (Wt) : 25.0 mm.
Width of weld + HAZ : 45.0 mm. -3.9
-5
Radius of curvature (R) : "> 0 convex" mm.
Weld type : CRC-type
Weld cap width : 18.0 mm. -10
Root opening : 1.0 mm.
Z-axis (mm.)
Root height : 2.0 mm.
Root angle : 37.0 degrees -15
Nose height : 1.1 mm. -16.7
HP height : 5.0 mm.
HP angle : 45.0 degrees -20
Opening angle : 10.0 degrees
-25
TOFD CONFIGURATION
-30
Depth of beam intersection (dbi) : 66.6 %D
Probe separation (PCS) : 57.7 mm.
Sampling frequency "recommended" (fs) : > 25 MHz. -35
Total probe delay "calculated" (tp) : 6.87 µs.
Arrival time lateral wave "calculated" (tlat) : 16.61 µs.
Arrival time backwall echo "calculated" (tbw) : 19.76 µs.
-40
Probe frequency parameter "ideally > 25" : 16 X-axis (mm.)
Near surface dead zone, up to : 7.21 mm.
Far surface dead zone, starting from : 23.62 mm.
Spatial resolution "non-parallel, 6 dB. drop" (res_p) : 4.76 mm.

Simple ray trace option Probe 3 Probe 2 Probe 1 Probe 1 Probe 2 Probe 3
PCS 200.00mm
PCS 66.32mm
173.68mm
-100.00mm-86.84mm -33.16mm 33.16mm 86.84mm100.00mm
12.1%
12.07mm
5.44mm
12.43mm
14.92mm
50.1%
50.11mm
Allows multi-zone
83.9%
83.91mm
100.00mm
construction
1.17mm 1.56mm
0.47mm
Top-end view
layout using
ESBeamTool
(Eclipse
150.00mm
Probe 3 -100.00mm
PCS 200.00mm
100.00mm Probe 3 Scientific

Instruments)
PCS 173.68mm
Probe 2 -86.84mm 86.84mm Probe 2
PCS 66.32mm
Probe 1 -33.16mm 33.16mm Probe 1

Summary of main TOFD parameters to plan a

TOFD inspection
• Purpose and extent of TOFD testing.
• Whether or not reference blocks are required
(specifications if required).
• Access and surface conditions and temperature.
• Reporting requirements.
• Acceptance criteria.
• Personnel qualifications.
• Equipment details (pulser/receiver, probes, encoder,
scanner, related settings).

Summary of main TOFD parameters to plan a
TOFD inspection continued
• Setup of probes (PCS).
• Couplant.
• Scan increment.
• Gating (time window).
• Sizing policies.
• Image quality factors (eg missing data lines).
• Reporting requirements.

Practical
Practical work
1. Assemble the TOFD kit with 60° probes and configure
the recommended setup as per EN/TS 14751 table for
scanning the 20mm demo plate.
2. Attach the encoder to the scanner and connect it to the
computer.
3. Compare the gain settings for three methods of
sensitivity setting;
• Lateral wave 40-80%.
• Backwall 100% plus 18-30dB.
• Grain noise at approximately 10%.
4. Scan a test weld (20mm thick?) at each of the settings
to see if there is a difference in the detection of any
indications.

Practical
Practical work
1. Assemble the TOFD kit with 60° probes and
configure the recommended setup as per EN/TS
14751 table for scanning the 20mm demo plate.
2. Locate the SDH 75% and peak the response (ie
make sure the SHD is at the PCS centreline) and
see how much gain is required to match the best
response for the sensitivity settings in previous
setups. Compare this with the SDH from the
opposite side (ie 25% deep).
3. Use the same approach and assess the responses
required using the 5mm notch from the near and
far sides.

Practical
Practical work
1. Practical demo by instructor on thick wall section
using a 60-80mm thick.
2. Requires a minimum of 2 TOFD zones.
Demonstrate how the lateral wave can be used for
the upper 20-25mm zone (60°) and the backwall
for the lower zone (45°).
3. Scan the weld.
4. Now ask how it is possible to know if the volume
was totally examined (did we achieve overlap?).

Practical
Practical work
1. Configure the kit for the 20mm demo block again.
2. Scan the block so the aligned notches are on the far
side (may like to use magnetic guide strips, but not
necessary on short scans),
3. Were all the notches detected? (1, 3, 5mm maybe not
1mm).
4. Turn the block over and repeat the scan but now the
notches on the opposite side are offset (5 and 10mm).
5. Were all the notches detected (maybe not 10mm offset).

Practical
Practical work
6. Use a parallel scan to assess the offset detection
limits on the far wall.
7. Repeat this for the 3mm and 5mm notches on other
side.
8. The SDH at 25% (or 75%) depth is a large target but
can it be offset and not detected?
9. Can you determine the divergence angles of the
beams used and are they close to the 20-24dB
boundaries predicted as the detection limits?

Practical
Practical work
Previous work assessing offset scan limits

used a 5MHz probe. Have at least one student
or have the instructor demo the same test
using a 10MHz probe.

End of Module 3
Any Questions ???


Agenda
Day 4
• Ringing issues.
• Calculating errors in TOFD.
• Frequency content issues.

Agenda
Warning
• Today is an exercise in mathematics!
(but do not worry….we supply a calculator)

Depths and Dead Zones
• Dead zones
− Identified earlier as a limitation of TOFD.
• Three dead zones!
− Lateral wave dead zone.
− Backwall dead zone.
− Spatial resolution.

Dead zones
• Regions of information loss
− Upper tip not seen.
− Lower tip not seen.
− Or both upper and lower tip of a flaw not
seen.

Depth determination
• Dead zone are a concern as we attempt to
determine flaw depth.
• Flaw depth measurement in TOFD is not a
simple linear relationship between timebase
travel and metal depth!
• Separation between signals nearer the
surface is a shorter time duration than the
same physical separation deeper in the part.

Depth determination (– just solves Pythagoras)

S S
t0 t0
t=
2• (S 2
+d2 ) + 2•t c
2
d =   • (t − 2t0 ) − S 2
2
2
0
c
Initial pulse
LW BW

Height determination
• Simply subtract the 2 calculated depths (based on
phase).
2S
d1
d2

Depth determination
• Useful for flaw sizing and calculating depth
to the surface of an indication.
• What about these dead zones?
– All to do with the pulse-duration!

Pulse duration and equivalent depth
tp
tp
tp
ie How Deep is tp equal to?
How deep is tp equivalent to is determined by

Pythagoras.
• For the lateral wave.
• tp is the pulse duration to where the amplitude is 10%

of peak.
• S is half the PCS.
• c is the velocity of sound of the mode used.


Pythagoras.
• For the backwall
c 2 ( t w + t p )2
Ddw = − S2 − W
4
• tw is the backwall time of flight and W the wall
thickness of the component.
• tp the pulse duration where the amplitude is 10% of
peak
S is half the PCS.
Pythagoras.
• For the points between the lateral wave and backwall the upper tip of
the flaw becomes the start of another ringing.
• The spatial resolution defines the ability to resolve upper and lower
flaw tips.
  c 2 (t +t )2  
  − s2   − d
d p
R=
 4 
   

• tp the pulse duration where the amplitude is 10% of peak.
• td the time of flight at the depth d.
• S is half the PCS.
td tp

• Ring-time dead zones are solved using a simple
Excel spreadsheet (handout).
• Enter values in yellow region and values in green are
calculated with graphic output.

Experiment with the calculations:

• Locate a scan with known probe parameters
(probe frequency, 1.25 cycle, PCS and wall
thickness).
• Run the calculated values and compare with
measured values.

TOFD Errors
Position errors (depth errors)

• Result of uncertainties in the parameters in
the depth equations.
• Uncertainties exist for:
- timing.
- acoustic velocities.
- PCS.
- lateral position of the flaw.

TOFD Errors
Calculating position errors
• More math
• Convention
– c = Velocity.
– d = Depth to indication.
– S = Half the PCS.
– δy = Lateral position uncertainty.
– t = Time of flight to indication.

TOFD Errors

• Timing errors
− Function of the digitisation rate.
− At 100MHz ADC rate the error would be
plus or minus one sample interval, or
10ns.
− Equation for the error in depth is:
δd = c δt [d2 + S2]½/2d

Timing vs Depth Error
Timing vs Depth error
0.7
A change in t causes a change in d
0.6 δd = c δt [d2 + S2]½/2d
Depth Error (mm)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Timing Error (micro seconds)

Timing vs Depth Error
• Timing errors are fairly negligible for modern
equipment and are generally controlled by the ADC
(analogue to digital conversion rate), which controls
the accuracy of the time base.
• 0.01mm/μs is equivalent to an ADC rate of 100MHz.
• 50MHz to 0.02mm/μs (1/50 = 0.02) and so on. The
minimum recommended ADC rate is nominally 5x the
probe frequency for adequate sampling of the time
base.

TOFD Errors
• Velocity errors
− Function of the uncertainty of acoustic
velocity.
− Due to alloy or measurement variations.
− Equation for the error in depth is:
δd = δc[d2 + S2 - S(d2 + S2)½]/cd

Velocity VS Depth Error
Timing vs Depth
Velocity vs Depth Error error
0.3
A change in c causes a change in d
0.25 δd = δc[d2 + S2 - S(d2 + S2)½]/cd

Depth Error (mm)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Velocity Error (mm/micro second)

Velocity vs Depth Error
• Velocity errors are subject to the accuracy of

calibration during setup and are generally controlled
by operator skill. Typical error values are shown
above.
• Error values of 0.050mm/μs (50m/s) to 0.15mm/μs
(150m/s).
• Ensure during calibration that the lateral and back wall
echo are located (CAUTION! do not get backwall echo
confused with shear mode).

TOFD Errors

• PCS errors
– A function of mechanical flexing of the probe.
– In/out or skew changing spacing.
– Equation for the error in depth is:
δd = δS[(d2 + S2)½ - S]/d

PCS Error vs Depth Error
PCS Error vs Depth error
3
A change in S causes a change in d
2.5 δd = δS[(d2 + S2)½ - S]/d
Depth Error (mm)
1.5
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
PCS Error (mm)

PCS Error vs Depth Error
• Movement of the probe during non-parallel scanning

can affect the accuracy of depth measurement.
• Accurate calculation of the required PCS and correct
measurement during setup can increase accuracy.
• Once scanning begins it is essential to maintain the
PCS in relation to the centre line. Using magnetic tape
or some other device may be appropriate in order to
achieve this.
• The chart illustrates the possible errors due to poor
setup or probe movement during scanning.

TOFD Errors
• Lateral uncertainty errors
– A function of flaw offset from centreline.
– Equation for the error in depth is:
S S
t0 t0
δd = (c2t2 - 4S2)½ (δy2/c2t2)/(1 - 4δy2/c2t2)½

Lateral Uncertainty vs Depth Error
Lateral Uncertainty vs Depth error
3
A change in y causes a change in d
2.5
Depth Error (mm)
δd = (c2t2 - 4S2)½ (δy2/c2t2)/(1 - 4δy2/c2t2)½

2
1.5
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Lateral Uncertainty (mm)
Weld centre line

Lateral Uncertainty vs Depth Error
• Not all weld defects will lie on the centre line of the
weld.
• Lack of side wall fusion (LOSWF), heat affected zone
cracking, slag, porosity and other defects may be
positioned a distance away from the centre line. This
error needs to be taken into account when sizing the
depths of defects.
• The above chart illustrates error values for off centre
defects. In order to accurately size defects it may be
necessary to perform additional scans (parallel scan) in
order to centre the probes over the defect to reduce the
lateral uncertainty error.
TOFD Errors
• All errors are possible.

• The amount of error in each case is not
always the maximum possible.
• Worst case is the sum of errors.
• Most likely it will be something less (standard
deviation is used).

TOFD Errors
Example of all errors

• TOFD setup
– Nominal PCS 100mm, assumed velocity 5900m/s,
depth of signal of interest 16mm using 100MHz
ADC.
• Uncertainties
– Timing +/- 10ns.
– Velocity +/-100m/s.
– PCS +/- 3mm.
– Lateral position 27mm.

TOFD Errors
Example of all errors

Using these uncertainties with equations given depth uncertainties are
as follows:
• Uncertainties
– Timing +/- 10ns 0.1mm
– Velocity +/-100m/s 0.14mm
– PCS +/- 3mm 0.47mm
– Lateral position 27mm 2.12mm
– Maximum possible error 2.83mm
– Standard deviation errors 0.96mm

TOFD Errors
Another handout
• Excel spreadsheet provided to solve these
equations.

TOFD Errors
Locus of equal time

• The curve traced by the semi-ellipse with foci at the probes
accounts for why a flaw at edge of beam appears shallower than if
midway between the probes.
dmin dmax
t1
t2
Constant time
locus
(t1+t2=constant)

TOFD Errors
Effect of locus of constant time
• Curve made by parallel scan shows how the minimum time (minimum
depth) occurs for the point where the flaw is midway between the
probes.
• Note how indications near backwall can be missed if not midpoint.
Potentially undetected on
non-parallel scan
TOFD Errors
Couplant thickness
• Most TOFD will be by contact techniques (as opposed
to immersion).
• Couplant variation (increases) may occur due to small
surface irregularities delaying the soundpath to the
indication (not generally significant).

TOFD Errors
Couplant thickness
• More concern should be paid to mechanical gaps used by some
designs for couplant flow.
• Results in a double lateral wave.

TOFD & Frequency
Frequency content
• TOFD probes are broad band due to short ringing time (1-1.5 cycles).
• Seen in plot of output energy versus frequency plots.
Narrow band
Broad band

TOFD & Frequency
Frequency content
• Probe half angle of divergence a function of frequency.
• Higher frequencies spread less and lower spread more.
• eg γ = sin-1 (0.51λ/D).
• Considering multi-frequency content of a probe this
means more spread occurs for the lower frequency
components.

TOFD & Frequency
Frequency content
• Spread variation for nominal 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10MHz.
• Implies lateral wave suffers further ring-time issues due to
lower frequency content.

Practical
Practical work
Practical verifying theory
1. Configure TOFD setup with 5MHz 60° probes for 20mm
plate.
2. Observe A-scan in microseconds and record lateral
wave and backwall arrival times. Compare time
difference to calculated.
3. If the arrival time is known for the lateral wave, and the
velocity of the steel plate is approximately 5950m/s,
what is the time in the wedges?

Practical
Practical work
Practical verifying theory continued
4. Now calculate the acoustic velocity of the wedge plastic
(need to measure its thickness from probe to exit point).
5. Calculate the times to the 1, 2, 3 and 5mm deep farside
notches and mark on a graph, representing the A-scan
timebase, the arrival times along with the lateral wave
and backwall.
6. Now collect and save a B-scan of the notches and
compare the relative spacing in time to your
calculations.

Practical
Practical work
1. Repeat the scan of the 1, 3 and 5mm deep farside notches
but use a 10mm offset (may require a magnetic strip to keep
the alignment straight).
2. Record the times of arrival for the same indications. The
lateral wave and backwall remain unchanged but the
notches are different….are they earlier or later than when
aligned on the centreline? (Locus of Constant Time)
3. Did you detect all the notches?
4. Flip the block over and repeat with the notches nearside.
5. What do you expect will happen to the time of arrivals when
the offset is made?

Practical
Practical work
1. Using the recorded B-scan of the farside notches, linearise
the display for true depth (requires relevant data entry).
2. Note the display change (some software leaves the display
and changes the cursors).
3. Compare the displayed depths to the actual.
4. Now do the same for the notches nearside (what phase are
you supposed to use in each case?).
5. Now repeat the linearisation for the offset scans.
6. What are the indicated depths (probably not the actual
depths)… do the indicated depths compare to the
calculations for lateral error compensation?

Practical
Practical work
1. Scan a weld (making any necessary PCS and
sensitivity alterations and making sure the encoder is
calibrated).
2. Locate the embedded defect and indicate its vertical
extent and depth (repeat this exercise with the other
plates provided).

End of Module 4
Any Questions ???


Agenda
Day 5
• TOFD displays
• Software features

Software
TOFD displays
Three aspects of software and displays
• Ultrasonic setups (A-scans)
• Data acquisition
• Data analysis

Software
TOFD displays
Ultrasonic setups (A-scans)
For establishing ultrasonic displays

Software
UT parameters
Probe delay The probe delay for the displayed channel.
Velocity This field shows the programmed ultrasonic velocity for the selected channel.
Gain This field shows the gain setting for the selected channel.
Ch The channel number who’s A-Scan is being displayed.
TX Transmit transducer number.
RX Receive transducer number.
Start This is the time at the left edge of the A-Scan display.
Zoom Controls the amount of data displayed in the A-Scan display window.
DAC view This list controls the display of the DAC curve on the A-Scan display. (Only available for pulse echo
channels).
Show Activates the peak search gates and real-time amplitude, range & depth reading boxes.
Cursors This button when clicked opens the cursor control dialog box.
Persist Activates a coloured fill-in on the A-scan display that remains on-screen after the A-scan peak has moved.
80 Sets the vertical scale to show 80% full scale, with –6dB steps.
400 Sets the visible scale to 400%
+2dB / -2dB Increases / decreases the gain in 2dB steps

Software
TOFD displays
Data acquisition
For establishing hardware settings (including scanner)
Menu displays for other features controlled include:
• Pulser parameters (voltage and pulse duration).
• ADC rates (typically 25, 50 and 100MHz with some options for
higher and lower).
• Bit rates (8, 10 and 12 bit sampling are the standard options
but for some equipment this is fixed with no option for
changes.
• Filters.
• Averaging.
• Data compression.
• Instrument pulse repetition frequency.

Software
Example data acquisition displays

Software
Example data acquisition displays - scanner

Software
TOFD data analysis software

Options
• Basic displays require both B-scans and underlying
A-scans.
• May include a single TOFD channel or may be multi-
channel if system has multi-channel capabilities.

Software
TOFD data analysis
Single channel
example
Multi channel
example

Software
TOFD data analysis
Essential features of the analysis software would
include:
• Reference position cursor.
• Measurement position cursor.
• Reference time cursor.
• Measurement time cursor.
• Depth linearization algorithms.

Software
TOFD data analysis
Advanced features or enhancements would include such
features as:
• Soft gain.
• Palette adjustment.
• Zoom (in and out).
• Lateral wave straightening.
• Lateral wave removal (or backwall removal).
• Synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT).
• Parabolic cursors.
• Lateral wave amplitude equalisation.
• Notation addition.
• Geometry corrections (cylindrical, tee, other).

Software
Essential analysis features
Cursors scan axis measurement
Reference Measurement
cursor cursor

Software
Cursors time axis measurement
Reference
time cursor
Measurement
time cursor

Software
Linearization algorithms
• Needed to make sense of the time base in
microseconds.
• Recall relationship between time, velocity and
spacing.
2
c
d =   • (t − 2t0 ) − S 2
2
2

Software
• Nonlinear relationship due to Pythagoras.
S
X
d1 ct1
d2 ct2
ct3
Y d3

Software
• Process linearises either cursors or data display.
Cursor
linearised

Software
• Process linearises either cursors or data display.
Display
linearised

Software
Enhanced analysis features
Software gain
• Takes advantage of digitised A-scan.
• Can add or subtract equivalent dB gain to underlying A-scans
and enhance relevant signals or reduce noise levels.

Software
Software gain
• Example original on left -6dB on right (saturating signals
cannot be reduced!)

Software
Palette adjustment
• Change of greyscale range.
• Change start and end of black and white.
• Change colours.

Software
Palette adjustment

Software
Zoom image:
• Standard windows feature for images.
• Allows more or less detail to be seen.
• Observe the entire B-scan time window and scan
length.
• Or just a few mm scan length and the flaw of
interest.

Software
Wave straightening:
• Usually lateral wave used.
• May select to straighten based on backwall if you
wanted to preserve a near-surface flaw feature.
• Useful when probe spacing wanders causing
irregular arrival times.
• Typically required on rough surface or where probe
carriage is flexing and allows probes to change
relative position.

Software
Wave straightening
Straightened
region

Software
Wave removal:
• Vectorial subtraction of a reference signal (actually
the negative is added to all the samples so requires
wave straightening prior to removal).
• Usually lateral wave subtracted.
• Can be backwall subtracted.
• Allows flaws to be exposed that are masked by ring
time.

Software
Wave removal
Reference
waveform region Upper tip
seen
Lateral wave
removal region
Backwall
removed

Software
SAFT _ synthetic aperture focusing technique
• two dimensional DSP.
• removes the tails resulting from beam spread.
• improves sizing (usually restricted to length sizing).

Software
SAFT _
Pre-SAFT Processing Post-SAFT Processing

Software
Parabolic cursors
• Hyperbolic is more accurate.
• Graphic (not DSP).
• Also used to correct for oversizing.
• Same concept as SAFT.
• Used for length sizing.

Software
Parabolic cursors

Software
Amplitude equalisation
• Usually applied to lateral wave.
• Adjusts gain to set lateral wave to specified
amplitude.
• Useful pre-processing after straightening and
before wave removal to ensure more uniform
nulling of removed wave.

Software
Amplitude Equalisation
Before After

Software
Annotation on images
• Handy for enhancing reports.

Software
Geometry corrections
• Required to correct for probe elevations.

Software
Advanced digital signal processing (DSP)
Split spectrum technique
A mathematic processing technique on A-scans to
eliminate (reduce) the effects of coarse grain noise

Software
Split spectrum technique
Philippe Rubbers
Sunninghill, 2195, Gauteng, South Africa Philippe.Rubbers@eskom.co.za

Practical
Practical work
1. Scan the 1, 3 and 5mm deep notches on the demo
block (making any necessary PCS and sensitivity
alterations and making sure the encoder is
calibrated).
2. Save the scan to file.
3. Linearise the scan using the reference and
measurement cursors to locate the reference
signals’ phase points correctly.

Practical
Practical work
4. Assess the depths (are they correct for the PCS
used/ entered?).
5. Apply soft gain to the file.
i. Add 6dB and assess the notch indications.
ii. Add 12dB and assess the notch indications
(when do you lose the 1mm and 3mm notches?)
iii. Remove 6dB from original scan (are all the
notches visible yet?)

Practical
Practical work
1. Using the same scan file adjust the palette and observe if
the same effects of enhancement or deterioration can be
made to notch detection as was seen with soft gain
adjustment.
2. Estimate the notch lengths with the 2 straight scan
cursors.
3. Apply the hyperbolic cursors and re-measure the notch
lengths (are these estimates closer to the real values?)
4. Run the SAFT algorithm on the data and assess the notch
lengths (how do they compare to the original and
hyperbolic cursor assessments?)

Practical
Practical work
1. Configure a TOFD setup for a single vee weld with a wide cap.
Adjust the PCS so the probes (60°L) are just touching the weld
cap edges.
2. The weld will ideally have a flaw approximately 5mm from the
test surface and a near-surface surface-breaking flaw.
3. Make a scan that ensures proper coupling but it may suffer
some lateral wave movement.

Practical
Practical work
Practical verifying theory continuing
1. Save the scan to file.
2. Apply lateral wave straightening to the entire scan length.
3. Apply amplitude equalisation over the scan length.
4. Apply lateral wave removal and identify the upper tip of the
subsurface flaw approximately 5mm from the surface.
5. Note the backwall distortion where the surface breaking flaw
has pulled the signals too close!

Practical
Practical work
1. Using the scan made of the wide cap weld in the
previous exercise re-do the wave straightening
using the backwall.
2. Now assess the flaw depth of the near-surface
surface-breaking flaw.
3. Setup a TOFD scan for a long sea on a cylindrical
section approximately 30cm diameter and 25mm
thick.
4. Note the depth assessment problems of notches in
the sample.

End of Module 5
Any Questions ???


Agenda
Day 6
• TOFD quality assessments.
• TOFD data assessment.
• TOFD flaw images.

Analysis
Summary to date
• TOFD history and diffraction principles.
• TOFD equipment and digital concepts.
• TOFD calibration methods.
• TOFD issues with ringtime and errors.
• TOFD displays and analysis enhancements.

Analysis
Summary to date
• We have even scanned plates with notches and
welds in them.
• We have also had practice in assessing flaw depths
and lengths!
• ????
• But how did you know it was a flaw in the welds?
Even the surface breaking cracks are well hidden
from view!

Analysis
Summary to date
Even day one we did not spend time on identifying a
flaw…yet most people recognised it!
A-scan
Indication
Lateral Back-wall
wave
Analysis
How did you know it was a flaw?
• It was intuitive.
• There was a break in the uniformity of the grey.
• It popped out between the two lines (lateral wave and
backwall).
• Clearly it was something that should not be there.
– (a bit like reading a radiograph for those familiar
with radiography.)

Analysis
Ultimately TOFD can be a relatively easy
technique to use and analyse
• Provided we have good data to analyse.

Analysis
Step 1 after data collection is therefore
Quality assessment
• Is the data collected useable?
• Could you see a flaw if it was present?
• If the answer is no you need to redo the scan!
• Only when scan data quality is suitable can you
proceed to evaluate for flaws.

Analysis
But TOFD is soooo easy!
What can go wrong?
The most common problems experienced in TOFD
scan quality are:
• Data collection gate positioning.
• Gain settings (too high or too low).
• PCS settings (too large or too small).
• Electrical issues (triggering and electrical noise).

Analysis
Examples of what can go wrong
(provided by Dr M Moles from ONDT)
First a good scan
OD surface-breaking flaw
Lateral wave
Near surface flaw Buried flaw
Region of
porosity –
often difficult
to detect
Backwall

Analysis
Gain too low
Signals
becoming
invisible in
this area

Analysis
Gain too high

Lateral wave and
flaw signals have
excessive ringing

Analysis
Gate too early
Ghost signal
Lateral wave

Analysis

Gate too late
L-wave
backwall
signal
S-wave
backwall
signal

Analysis
Gate too long
Lateral wave
L-wave
backwall signal
S-wave
backwall signal

Analysis
PCS too long
Weak lateral
wave
Distorted L-wave
backwall signal or
unusually strong

Analysis

PCS too short

Strong lateral
wave
Weak L-wave
backwall signal

Analysis
Electrical noise

Analysis
Missing data

Analysis
Trigger threshold level errors
Data not
missing but
offset by half
cycle or
multiple of
half cycles

Analysis
Coupling gap too large
Lateral wave
multiples

Analysis
Data assessment
• When quality issues are resolved the scan
data is reviewed for flaw.
• Results (findings) are compared to
acceptance criteria.

Analysis
Data assessment
• A special indication exists that is not a flaw
but a geometry often associated with a flaw.
• Mismatch (or hi-lo) can be the cause of a
flaw or potentially mask a real flaw.

Analysis
Data assessment
• Limited characterisation possible with
TOFD (one of the limitations listed earlier).
• Three groups of flaw indications
– Point-like.
– Thread-like.
– Planar.

Analysis
Data assessment
Point-like
• Indications identified as flaws but having
neither length nor height.
• Hyperbolic cursor fits arc with no
secondary match along scan length.
• No lower tip discernable separate from
upper tip signal.

Analysis
Data assessment
Thread-like
• Indications identified as flaws.
• They have length but no height.
• Hyperbolic cursor fits arcs along scan length
at two notable points.
• No lower tip discernible separate from upper
tip signal.

Analysis
Data assessment
Planar
• Indications identified as flaws.
• They have length and height.
• Hyperbolic cursor fits arcs along scan
length at two notable points.
• Lower tip discernible separate from upper
tip signal.

Analysis
Data assessment
Surface breaking
• Indications identified as flaws that are so close to
either ID or OD surface present a resolution
problem.
• Since they have no upper tip for a near surface-
breaking flaw or no lower tip for a far surface-
breaking flaw they cannot be simply grouped into
threadlike, since by definition there is only one tip.
• Hyperbolic cursors may indicate length.

Analysis
Data assessment – flaw examples
Point-like

Analysis
Far-side surface
1
breaking
2
3
Concave root
2
3
Incomplete
penetration

Analysis
Near-side surface breaking

Analysis
Midwall
1
Nature of flaw may
2
be speculated on
3
4
with knowledge of
Incomplete penetration weld profile and
using parallel scan
1
2
3
Sidewall nonfusion

Analysis
Transverse flaws
1
2
1
2
3
3
• Flaw has characteristics

of point diffractor.
• Need further
investigation to assess
true nature.

Analysis
Interpass nonfusion
1
2
• Large amplitude no lower tip.

• Parallel scan may indicate a flat top instead of arc.

Analysis
Porosity
2 1
• No single simple pattern.

• Irregular top with no discernible lower tips.
• Multiple points.
Analysis
Cracking
Example of
midwall copper
cracking
• No single simple pattern

• Many forms, may require extra techniques for definite
characterisation
Analysis
Mismatch – the non-flaw indication (geometry)
Lateral
High side
Low side
Sides even
Characterised by splitting of backwall

Practical
Practical work
1. Configure TOFD kit for weld samples given.
2. Set up ideal conditions for sensitivity and encoding.
3. Scan sample to make a good quality TOFD B-scan.
4. Rescan at 2-3 times the speed.
• Assess issues for quality.
- Missing data?
- Missing coupling?
- Incomplete data (may miss start of end data points of a
preconfigured scan length).
- Significantly varying lateral wave amplitude.
5. Compare ideal scan to scans made with too much or too little gain, too
much or too little PCS.
6. Make a scan that includes lateral wave, LL backwall, LS backwall and
SS backwall then compare file size of basic scan to long gated scan.
7. Look at scan speed differences possible with long gate and regular
gated A-scan length without losing data (long gated scan should have
lower maximum scan speed).
Practical
Practical work
1. Continue TOFD weld scans for available blocks.
2. Characterise flaws and provide possible types where
scan data can support such identification.
• eg parallel scan used to assess sidewall nonfusion
or interpass nonfusion.
3. Complete a recording table for each weld scanned with
details of:
• Plate ID.
• Thickness.
• PCS.
• Test surface and reference location.
• Indications detected with start, depth, height, type
(threadlike, planar, surface breaking).
• Speculated flaw type.
End of Module 6
Any Questions ???


Agenda
Day 7
• TOFD codes and standards.

Codes and Standards
TOFD codes and standards
• Generally codes and standards are
considered to rank high on the list of dull
topics.
• Second only to the theory and mathematics.

Codes and Standards
• Lack of codes and standards have been the
biggest drawback to the application of TOFD.
• First real code available 1993.
- BS 7706 December 1993.
- Guide to calibration and setting-up of the
ultrasonic TOFD-technique for the
detection, location and sizing of flaws.
• Great information and guidance.
- (but no acceptance criteria so no place to
implement the technology).

Codes and Standards
• Next Code available 1997.
- ENV 583-6 (European pre-standard) January
1997.
- TOFD as a method for defect detection and
sizing.
• Great information and guidance with more
mandatory treatment of parameters than
BS7706.
- (but no acceptance criteria so no place to
implement the technology).

Codes and Standards
• Recall that TOFD was introduced in 1976!
• It had been in dozens of round robins!
- It had performed far superior to other UT
options in these round robins.
• But 20 years on and there is still no place to
use TOFD in industry.
- BECAUSE OF A LACK OF ACCEPTANCE
CRITERIA!

Codes and Standards
• 1996 ASME introduces Code Case 2235.
- Permission to use UT in lieu of RT (using
standard manual pulse echo) on vessels with
wall thickness over 4 inches (100mm)
- Still no mention of TOFD!
• In the year 2000 a technical paper presented at a
Pressure Vessel Conference introduced a new
concept that was sponsored by ASME committee.
- This was the rationale for the CC2235-2!

Codes and Standards
• ASME CC2235-2 became the door opening that TOFD
was waiting for.
• The revised code case provided the opportunity to
use UT in lieu of RT and made the requirement for
computerised systems with a vertical sizing
requirement and a complicated acceptance criteria
based on the height and length of the flaw.
• It was even ahead of the ASME pressure vessel code
(section V) where non-distance amplitude based
techniques were not introduced until the July 2002
revision of the 2001 code!

Codes and Standards
• ASME’s use of the term non-distance
amplitude based techniques was (is) an
unfortunate twist.
• TOFD has become the most recognised
version of non-distance amplitude based UT.

Codes and Standards
• But CC2235 is performance demonstration
based!
- Requires a test block with flaws that are to
be demonstrated to be detected.
- Rules for how it was done left up to the
user in ASME.
• Now the guidelines from Europe for TOFD
become very useful.

Codes and Standards
Since the ASME code case, other codes have
incorporated similar acceptance criteria based
on the height of detected flaws:
• ASME code case 2235.
• API 620 (American Petroleum – welded
storage tanks).
• API 650 (American Petroleum – welded steel
tanks for oil storage).
• NEN 1822 (Netherlands standard).

Codes and Standards
What do TOFD-style acceptance criteria look
like?
• (based on the principles of fitness-for-
purpose)

Codes and Standards
API 620 and API 650
Acceptable Flaw Lengths (l)mm (in)
Thickness at Weld For Surface Flawb with For Subsurface Flaw with Height, (h) mm (in)
(t)a mm (in) Height, (h) mm (in)
h 2(0.08) 2.5(0.10) 3(0.12) 2(0.08) 3(0.12) 4(0.16) 5(0.2) 6(0.24)
10(0.375)to<13(0.50) 8 8 4 14 5 4 Not Not

(0.30) (0.30) (0.15) (0.55) (0.20) (0.15) Allowed Allowed
13(0.50)to<19(0.75) 8 8 4 38 8 5 4 3
(0.30) (0.30) (0.15) (1.5) (0.30) (0.20) (0.15) (0.10)
19(0.75)to<25(1.0) 8 8 4 75 13 8 6 5
(0.30) (0.30) (0.15) (3.0) (0.50) (0.30) (0.25) (0.20)
25(1.0)to<32(1.25) 9 8 4 100 20 9 8 6
(0.35) (0.30) (0.15) (4.0) (0.80) (0.35) (0.30) (0.25)
32(1.25)to<38(1.50) 9 8 4 125 30 10 8 8
(0.35) (0.30) (0.15) (5.0) (1.2) (0.40) (0.30) (0.30)
38(1.50)to<44(1.75) 9 8 4 150 38 10 9 8
(0.35) (0.30) (0.15) (6.0) (1.5) (0.40) (0.35) (0.30)

Codes and Standards
NEN 1822

Codes and Standards
• ASME CC2235-9
– 3 tables using aspect ratios.
– Table 1 from 0.5 to 1 inch.
Flaw acceptance criteria for 0.5in to

less than 1in thick weld
a/t L
Surface flaw ≤0.087 ≤0.25 in.(6.4mm)
Subsurface flaw ≤0.143 ≤0.25 in.(6.4mm)

Codes and Standards
ASME CC2235-9
• Table 2 from 1-12 inches
FLAW ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR 1IN TO 12IN THICK WELD
1in ≤ t≤ 2.5in [Note (1)] 4in ≤ t≤ 12in [Note (1)]
Aspect Surface Subsurface Surface Subsurface
Ratio Flaw Flaw Flaw Flaw
a/l a/t a/t a/t a/t
0.00 0.031 0.034 0.019 0.020
0.05 0.033 0.038 0.020 0.022
0.10 0.036 0.043 0.022 0.025
0.15 0.041 0.049 0.025 0.029
0.20 0.047 0.057 0.028 0.033
0.25 0.055 0.066 0.033 0.038
0.30 0.064 0.078 0.038 0.044
0.35 0.074 0.090 0.044 0.051
0.40 0.083 0.105 0.050 0.058
0.45 0.085 0.123 0.051 0.067
0.50 0.087 0.143 0.052 0.076

Codes and Standards
ASME CC2235-9
• Table 3 over 12 inches
FLAW ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR LARGER THAN 12IN THICK WELD
Aspect Ratio Surface Flaw Subsurface Flaw
a/l a, inches (mm) a, inches (mm)
0.00 0.228 (5.79) 0.240 (6.01)
0.05 0.240 (6.10) 0.264 (6.71)
0.10 0.264 (6.71) 0.300 (7.62)
0.15 0.300 (7.62) 0.348 (8.84)
0.20 0.336 (8.53) 0.396 (10.1)
0.25 0.396 (10.1) 0.456 (11.6)
0.30 0.456 (11.6) 0.528 ( 13.4)
0.35 0.528 (13.4) 0.612 (15.5)
0.40 0.612 (15.5) 0.696 (17.7)
0.45 0.618 (15.7) 0.804 (20.4)
0.50 0.624 (15.9) 0.912 (23.6)

Codes and Standards
ASME CC2235-9
• Aspect ratios require individual thicknesses to be assessed for
allowed flaw dimensions
Surface Breaking Flaw Lengths
6.0
Calculated values for
5.0 55mm thick steel
Flaw Vertical Extent
4.0 using ASME CC2235-9

3.0
2.0
1.0
Subsurface Flaw Lengths
18.0
0.0
16.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
Allowed Flaw Length 14.0
Flaw Vertical Extent

12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0
Allowed Flaw Length

Codes and Standards
General application codes on TOFD
• These do not include acceptance criteria
1. BS 7706 (1993) Guide to Calibration and setting-up of the
ultrasonic time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) technique for
detection, location and sizing of flaws. British Standards
Institute 1993.
2. CEN prEN 583-6 Time of Flight Diffraction Technique as a
method for defect detection and sizing.
3. ASTM E-2192 Standard Guide for Planar Flaw Height Sizing
by Ultrasonics.
4. ASTM E 2373 Standard Practice for Use of the Ultrasonic
Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique.
5. ASME Section V Article 4 Appendix III and Appendix N.
6. EN 14751, Technical Specification.
• Welding – Use of time-of-flight-diffraction technique
(TOFD) for Testing of Welds.
Codes and Standards
Written instructions
• Codes and standards are national and international
documents.
• In-house documents are required to describe how
codes and standards will be addressed for specific
applications.
• In-house documents generally involve procedures
and techniques or written instructions.

Codes and Standards
Written instructions
• Part of any level 2 responsibilities involves writing a written
instruction.
• CSWIP requires an example of this document be written as part
of CSWIP examinations.
• CSWIP defines procedure and written instruction.
− NDT procedure: An inspection procedure is a written
description of all essential parameters and precautions to be
observed when applying an NDT technique to a specific test,
following an established standard, code or specification.
− NDT instruction: An NDT instruction is a detailed and
unambiguous written description of the precise steps to be
followed in testing to an established standard, code,
specification or NDT procedure.

Practical
Practical work
1. Go to course handbook on TOFD and review the
outlined example for a written instruction in TOFD.
2. A weld plate being used in class will be selected as
the specimen to be tested.
3. Write a written instruction for the specimen
selected.
4. Identify a suitable acceptance criteria for the
application described by the instructor.
5. Scan the specimen in accordance with the written
instruction and complete the report as required by
the written instruction.

Practical
Practical work
1. Design a technique for a heavy-wall weld that requires 3 TOFD zones.
2. Include in the design the methods for establishing sensitivity and
assessing volume coverage (remember potential need for offset scans).
3. Arrange demo of this if possible.

End of Module 7
Any questions ???


Agenda
– Practical and exam preparations

Practical
Practical work
• Theoretical aspects for Level 2 TOFD now
covered.
• Remaining training time devoted to exam

preparation and answering questions.

Practical
Practical work
Exam Breakdown – what to expect last day
• Theory TOFD 20 multiple choice questions.
− (like the daily exercises from handbook)
• Theory General UT 40 multiple choice questions (if required).
• Written Instruction – given a specific task.
• Practical:
− Calibrate for single zone TOFD
− Calibrate encoder
− Scan two weld samples
− Report on quality of scans
• Data analysis (identify problems (quality and flaws)
in 4 pre-scanned welds

Practical
Practical work
Pre-scanned files:
Using sample files provided, analyse for quality
and flaws.
Demonstrate you know how (and when) to use:
• Lateral wave straightening.
• Backwall wave straightening.
• Amplitude equalisation.
• Wave removal.

Practical
Practical work
Practice TOFD weld examinations:
• Fill out data sheets on welds scanned.
• Ensure that at least one scan on each is followed
up with a parallel scan.
• A minimum of 5 welds reports should be completed
by end of Day 9.

Practical
Practical work continued
• Weld samples should include

− Steel single Vee (12-15mm wall) with backing bar
− Steel single Vee (12-15mm wall) without backing
bar
− Steel double Vee 15-25mm wall
− Aluminium double Vee 25-40mm wall
− Aluminium or steel weld with corrosive attack
(pitting, grooving, cracking and any other nasty
stuff that might happen to metals)
• Extras
− Tee weld
− Long seam
• End of Module 8 is completed by mid to end of
Day 9
– To be followed by End of Course test
– Any Questions prior to the Certification Exam???

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Time-Of-Flight-Diffraction

CSWIP Training Module 1

Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013

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• Pressures in nuclear industry in 1960s and

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• Dr. Maurice G. Silk and his staff at the

• Impetus for their work was the need to know

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Existing sizing options:

Top view Side View

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Generally acceptable for large

by beam profiling (using IOW

Hole ends and sides are used to

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Reluctance to change inspired round-robins to

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• Programme for the Inspection of Steel Components

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Without exception each of the trials confirmed the

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Bill Browne, co-founder of the Sonomatic Group stated

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Of these boundary interactions, diffraction is the

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Ultrasonic tip diffraction can also be seen in pulse-echo

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For the purposes of this training:

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Upper tip Lower tip

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Upper tip Lower tip

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A single line of grey-scale is not much use…

For this we need probe motion.

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Lateral wave Back-wall

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Typical TOFD Image (from a nonparallel scan)

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TOFD pros and cons/advantages and limitations

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TOFD pros and cons/advantages and limitations

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Activities and goals for the practical portion of Day 1

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Activities and goals for the practical portion of Day 1

TD Pocket-Scan Power Supply

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Activities and goals for the practical portion of Day 1