1.TOFD Coursenote (TWI)

Time of Flight Diffraction (ToFD)
NDT40
Training & Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL, UK
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Rev 1 November 2010
Contents
Copyright  TWI Ltd 2013
Time of Flight Diffraction (ToFD)

Contents
Section Subject
Preliminary pages
Contents
Standards and Associated Reading
COSHH, H&S, Cautions and Warnings
Introduction to NDT Methods
NDT Certification Schemes
Both schemes offer NDT certification conforming to both EN473 and ISO9712;
Qualification and certification of NDT personnel.
1 History
2 The Principles of ToFD
2.1 General principles
2.2 Diffraction as it applies to ToFD
2.3 Data visualisation
2.4 ToFD advantages and limitations
3 Equipment Used
3.1 Digital control
3.2 Pulsers and receivers
3.3 Scanning equipment
3.4 ToFD systems
4 Calibration and Scanning for Weld Inspections
4.1 Instrument requirements
4.2 ToFD sensitivity requirements
4.3 Modelling the weld inspection
4.4 Summary of ToFD parameters
5 Depth, Ring-Time Issues and Errors
6 Data Displays and Analysis
6.1 Data Displays
6.2 Data Analysis
6.3 Essential ToFD analysis features
7 Data and Quality Analysis
8 Codes and Standards
8.1 ASME code case 2235
8.2 Written test instruction
9 Industrial Applications
9.1 Standard industrial applications
9.2 Turbine applications
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Contents
10 Other Reading and References

11 Glossary
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Section 1
History
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History
1 History
In the 1960s and 70s the construction of nuclear plants around the world
was reaching its highest levels. Dozens of plants were being built every year
and many had been in service for several years. The technology often
required new metallurgy and the service conditions were not always well
understood. This coupled with the extreme safety requirements for nuclear
projects meant that vessel construction was usually thicker than many
previous similar projects.
The NDT standards were based on radiography, with construction involving

heavier sections than previous and the concerns for weld integrity to assure
the safety of the vessels, radiography was not always the best option.
Radiography was generally slow due to very long exposures through thick
metal sections. As well, radiography was not always capable of detecting
some of the flaws due to the loss of resolution due to radiation scatter.
Pulse-echo ultrasonic testing soon found a popular niche for itself. It could
much easier punch through 300mm of steel than cobalt with no elaborate
radiation safety barriers and regulations to worry about and it was generally
known to be more sensitive to planar flaws that might go undetected by
radiography.
Nuclear plants are all required to undergo periodic inspections of the

components. This includes assessment of the pressure vessels welds.
When pulse-echo inspections began to locate flaw indications in the vessels
and piping during these periodic inspections a new demand was placed on
the NDT; how big are these flaws? The need to better assess the size of
these flaws became the origin of the Time-of-Flight Diffraction (ToFD)
technique.
Dr Maurice G Silk and his staff at the National NDT Centre, in Harwell, UK
are credited with developing the ToFD technique in the early 1970s. The
impetus for their work was the need to know with some accuracy, the
vertical extent of flaws detected in the pressure retaining components.
Around the same time, fracture mechanics engineering was developing into
an important tool in the understanding of how metals fail and the importance
of flaw size and shape in the failure mechanisms.
Fracture mechanics engineers have long known that the flaw dimensions as
well as the metal structural properties and service conditions need to be
quantified in order to determine if a component can operate without failing
(fracturing). This put a new demand on NDT in that accurate flaw sizing was
required as an integral part of the equation for determining whether or not a
component could be left in service, or required removal or repair.
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History
Until that time (and often even today) the standard method of flaw sizing
using ultrasonic methods relied on the beam boundary methods. Simply
stated, this assumes that the echo amplitude of a flaw has some relationship
to the ultrasonic beam dimensions. Options included:
 20dB drop.
 1dB drop.
 Max. amp. (Another variation on dB drop options).
 Relative amplitude (eg AVG/DGS).
Amplitude drop methods of sizing relate relative probe motion from

maximum amplitude to lower amplitude. In some techniques the centre of
the beam is used and others require beam dimensions be determined first.
-6dB beam
edges
Top view Side View
Figure 1.1 Angle beam probe.
Figure 1.1 shows two views of an angle beam probe and its 6dB sound
envelope in the test medium. If we assume we direct the beam at a reflector
having dimensions greater than the beam dimensions at that distance, a
maximum amplitude signal will result. For an ideal reflector, movement left
or right along the length of the reflector will maintain a constant sound path
and amplitude will remain constant until the edge of the reflector is
approached.
When the centreline of the probe aligns with the edge of the reflector one
half of the beam energy is no longer reflected. This reduces the echo signal
to half what it was at maximum, ie a 6dB drop is observed. Determining the
length of such an ideal defect is merely a matter of finding the points where
the signal drops 6dB from its maximum and measuring the distance the
probe has been moved, see figure 1.2a.
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History
-6dB -6dB
a) Length (effective for defects longer than beam width)
b)
Apparent length
(defect is shorter
b) than beam width)
Figure 1.2 Defect dimensions.
When the defect dimensions are less than the beam dimensions (see Figure
1.2b) lateral movement from a maximum amplitude results in immediate
reduction of signal amplitude. But the probe displacement is more a result of
beam dimension than defect dimension. This is more pronounced as the
ratio of beam width to defect width increases.
Similar conditions exist for vertical extent determinations. These are made
by moving the angle beam towards and away from the reflector. However in
this plane the amplitude of the reflector changes for two reasons;
1 Portion of beam interacting on the reflector’s surface.

2 Distance amplitude variation due to change in sound path distance.
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History
Since most defects will be smaller than the beam in at least one dimension,
amplitude drop methods are usually used with knowledge of beam
divergence and correction (by use of beam spread overlays) is made for this
divergence. The half angle of divergence for a 6dB drop can be estimated
from.
0
.
5 D
1
S
i
n 
   1
6
But this will not accurately correct for refraction differences from a wedge to
metal in contact testing methods. Accurate beam shapes are determined
empirically from calibration blocks. The Institute of Welding (IOW) block is
most often used for this purpose.
Hole ends and sides are used to determine beam width and beam height
respectively.
The MaxAmp technique is also an amplitude drop technique and relies on

the faceted nature of some flaws. The probe is moved until the last facet
seen to just start its amplitude drop. (Max Amp is described in Ultrasonic
Flaw Detection for Technicians, third edition, by J.C.Drury, Silverwing,
2004).
In 1958 Krautkramer developed a series of formulae to estimate the size of

a defect as an equivalent to a flat disc reflector. These relate echo height to
beam path and target size. With these relationships, Krautkramer developed
curves relating distance along the horizontal axis to gain in dB compared to
a backwall reflector at a proportion of the probe diameter. The original
German term for the system is AVG (Abstand, Verstrakung, Grosse).
Translated to English these words are distance, gain and size, hence the
term DGS. The general DGS diagram is shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3 DGS diagram.
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History
In the 1970s Prof. Dr I.N.Ermolov proposed equivalency equations that

allowed targets other than DSRs (flat bottom holes) to be used.
Figure 1.4 illustrates the predicted amplitude drops with increasing distance
for a specific probe (5MHz 16mm diameter) radiating into steel and
compares the rate of decay with distance for four different targets.
Figure 1.4 The predicted amplitude drop for four different targets.
These techniques were the norm throughout the 1970s and engineers had
to rely on the size values provided by NDT technicians using these
techniques. When the pressures of fracture mechanics were made to bear
on the sizing provided by these methods they were proven to be wanting.
Inadequacy of these methods was made clear as a result of a series of
famous round-robin trials.
Over the years there have been many international exercises carried out
comparing ToFD to the traditional inspection methods such as radiography
and pulse echo techniques. These have included the Programme for the
Inspection of Steel Components (PISC) trials for nuclear applications (PISC
I was held in 1979, PISC II in 1986 and PISC III1993), the Defect Detection
Trials (DDT) held by United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKEA) 1983,
as well as trials by the Dutch Welding Institute (NIL), the Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI) and the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME).
Without exception each of the trials confirmed the ability of ToFD to provide
results for volumetric defects with a greater accuracy than the conventional
methods against which it was compared. Only raster pulse echo, which has
now developed into the phased array technique, had a comparable success
rate.
When viewed with respect to the goal of determining the efficacy of sizing
ToFD constantly outperformed the other options. This is clearly illustrated in
Figure 1.5 (from Charlesworth and Temple).
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History
Figure 1.5 Amplitude versus diffraction sizing methods.
Figure 1.5 illustrates amplitude versus diffraction sizing methods from DDT
plate 1 (top: all sizing techniques, bottom: ToFD only).
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History
Similarly, reliability of inspection techniques was compared during the

NIL/KINT thin-plate project. Figure 1.6 (from Sonovation ToFD brochure)
indicates the reliability values derived for different inspection techniques.
These were a as a result of examinations of welded plates in a thickness
range of 6.15mm, containing some 250 implanted weld defects.
Figure 1.6 Reliability values from different inspection techniques.
All plates were examined with the techniques shown and later the results
verified by destructive testing. From these results it follows that the
mechanised pulse echo meander technique results in the highest probability
of detection and ToFD delivers the lowest false call rate. It should however,
be kept in mind that the mechanised pulse echo meander technique (2 axes
motorised raster scan) requires total scanning time many times that of
ToFD.
These studies show that although the original goal of ToFD was to provide
improved sizing capabilities, it is now acknowledged to have the added
benefit of providing a fast and reliable detection method.
Mr Bill Brown presented a paper on the internet (www.ndt.net) in September

of 1997 where he laid out some of the basics involved but also made a loud
statement on the mystique that had built up around ToFD by that time. He
stated about the misunderstandings of ToFD.
Some of this lack of understanding emanates from the mystique built up by

those responsible for its introduction. For many years scientists promoted
the technique as a highly specialised sizing tool - so complex that it required
their specialist knowledge and sophisticated technology to effectively apply
and unsubstantiated claims were made about what the technique could and
could not achieve.
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History
This may have been the case in the very early stages of evolution but ToFD
has now been around for more than 25 years, its effectiveness has been
proven by performance demonstration (more so than all other inspection
methodologies combined) and whatever mystery once surrounded the
technique has been completely dispelled by repeated application success in
the hands of routinely qualified personnel using what is now relatively
standard equipment.
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Section 2
The Principles of ToFD

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2 The Principles of ToFD

2.1 General principles
Ultrasonic inspection methods using pulse-echo techniques have been
primarily based on specular reflection. This implies a mirror-like reflection of
sound from the probe off the flaw and back to the probe again. In traditional
pulse-echo methods attempts are made to provide a beam path to the flaw
such that the beam strikes the flaw perpendicular to the plane with the flaw’s
major dimensions. This is intended to provide the maximum amplitude
response in pulse-echo mode.
But trying to arrange the beam to ALWAYS impinge on a flaw such that a
perpendicular incidence occurs is virtually impossible. This accounts for
some of the lack of detection by manual ultrasonic methods. Even a large
flat reflector may have a 20dB drop by the beam striking it only 5 degrees off
the perpendicular. This could mean that even large flaws could be missed if
detection is based on signal amplitude exceeding a threshold.
But sound (mechanical) waves have several possible interactions when they
strike a boundary. Reflection is only one thing that may occur. Refraction,
mode conversion, polarisation, attenuation and diffraction are also possible.
All these items are covered in basic Level 1 courses on ultrasonic testing. Of
these boundary interactions, diffraction is the important consideration in
ToFD studies (naturally, since the name time-of-flight diffraction derives its
name from the phenomenon!).
Diffraction occurs when an obstacle distorts a wave, eg if the wave travels

through a gap it may be diffracted. It is the ability of a wave to spread
around corners. Hence, diffraction occurs at the edge of an obstacle.
The typical examples used to illustrate the effects of diffraction are slits
(openings) in obstructions in a ripple-tank. The wave source generates a
pulse that moves towards the slit and the opening allows a portion of the
wavefront to pass through. As the wavefront moves through the slit the
centre portion of the slits allows the wave to move forward unimpeded but
the portions that touch the slit are retarded and bend the wavefront away
from the path along the central axis.
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Long obstruction
Pulse
source Pulse source
Diffracted wavefront
Single slit
Diffracted wavefront
Figure 2.1 Single slit and long obstruction.
Diffraction has been long discussed in ultrasonic basics. The single slit
example in Figure 2.1 is also the typical illustration used to explain beam
divergence. The illustration on the right with the model of the long
obstruction is representative of a planar flaw in the soundpath of a pulse
radiating from a probe.
A photoelastic image of the effect seen on the right is provided as Figure

2.2. Here a plane-wave pulse has moved from left to right and the diffraction
pattern off the ends of the notch is seen as well-formed circles.
Diffracted
waves
FLAW
Figure 2.2 Photoelastic image of long obstruction.
It is the fact that ToFD relies on the detection of diffracted waves that it
differs radically from pulse-echo ultrasonic methods. Perhaps not obvious to
all, is an underlying problem. Unlike a reflected wavefront, the diffracted
wavefront is very weak.
Whereas a large amplitude signal from a reflected wave is generally

(although not always correctly) assumed to have originated from a large
flaw, no such assumption can be made in ToFD since the amplitude of the
main diffracted beam will always be relatively weak.
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Detection and timing of the low amplitude signals diffracted from the tips of
defects forms a basis for absolute position and size measurement and has
little to do with amplitude response.
It is important to note that a diffraction effect can be detected in essentially

all directions. Strictly speaking it is therefore possible that the principles
could apply to the pulse-echo technique.
In fact there is a sizing method that uses this effect. The tip-echo technique
popular in Japan in the 1980s and documented by Gruber in Southwest
Research Institute in 1980 uses variation on the backscatter effects of the
specular and tip diffraction echoes as illustrated in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3 Specula and tip diffraction echoes.
Although this is a tip-diffraction sizing method it is not generally considered

ToFD. The ToFD concepts developed in Harwell are based on forward
scatter. This is achieved by using two separate transducers in a directly
opposed tandem configuration. The probes should be well matched with a
short pulse (ie broadband), wide beam (ie generally small element sizes) of
the same refracting angle. One is connected as a transmitter and the other
as a receiver.
The transmitted pulse is no different from the transmitted pulse in a pulse-

echo setup. It experiences losses via absorption and dispersion in the
material under test as well as reflections by flaws within its effective
envelope. The portions of the pulse-energy diffracted by the flaws are the
very low amplitude signals on that ToFD uses to assess the material
integrity.
The individual A-scans (ie the echo responses from a single position in the
test piece) are not generally informative. Only by capturing a series of these
responses and processing them in a useful fashion can they be used to
discriminate flaws from background. Then, with the proper time
measurements the flaw depth and size can be discerned.
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There is still some requirement to ensure that adequate instrument gain is

used in the process, however, because the technique does not rely on a
threshold amplitude for detection of the relevant signals it is not amplitude
dependant (for defect size measurement) and therefore not as susceptible
as pulse echo testing to consistent surface and consequently couplant
conditions.
As noted above, the normal ToFD setup uses a pair of reasonably matched
probes. Because the element size is relatively small the beam is divergent
(almost spherical instead of planar). This provides extensive volume
coverage so that the technique is not as dependant on variations in probe
position or defect orientation relative to nominal probe angle as would be
traditional pulse-echo methods.
Although most ToFD is done using compression mode it is not always

necessary and sometimes shear mode can be advantageous (although
potentially difficult to analyse). Coverage of shear mode ToFD will be
provided later.
Of the many deviations of the ToFD technique from standard pulse-echo, it

is probably the display of the signals that differs the most. ToFD was
introduced to NDT just as the computer age was dawning. It has arguably
been a result of the availability of computer capabilities that has made ToFD
the success it is today.
Without the ability to collect and display the signals used for ToFD analysis,
the use of simple A-scans as used in manual pulse-echo ultrasonic testing
would have rendered the new technique nothing more than an interesting
lab experiment. Because so much of the ToFD technique relies on
computing capabilities further coverage on computing and digitisation will be
provided.
2.2 Diffraction as it applies to ToFD

The basic ToFD setup is now accepted to be achieved by using two
separate transducers in a directly opposed tandem configuration. The
probes should be well matched with a short pulse (ie broadband), wide
beam (ie generally small element sizes) of the same refracting angle. One is
connected as a transmitter and the other as a receiver.
This results in a characteristic signal pattern when testing welds in plate that
is not excessively thick. The setup and the associated signals are drawn
schematically in Figure 2.4.
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Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave
Back-wall reflection
LW BW
Upper tip Lower tip
Figure 2.4 Welds in plate.
Several aspects of Figure 2.4 must be noted to recognise some of the

features of ToFD. The transmitter produces a single pulse which provides all
the signals detected at the receiver. Only the soundpath distances
determine the different arrival times of the signals indicated. The figure
assumes a single compression mode is present and ignores mode
conversions. Lateral wave is just the term given to the compression mode
that is just below the test surface and has the shortest metal distance
between the transmitter and receiver.
If the plate thickness is not too great a portion of the pulse will travel to the
far side of the plate and reflect to produce the signal identified as the back-
wall. Flaws within the plate thickness will be seen at points between the
lateral wave and back-wall signals. Figure 2.4 indicates the signals as
viewed in un-rectified mode (ie RF) so as to provide phase information.
Assuming the lateral wave is a reference phase, it is illustrated as having a
positive rise time. The diffracted upper tip and reflected back-wall signals
then have negative phase with respect to the lateral wave. When diffraction
is detected from the lower tip its phase will be the same as the lateral wave.
Diffraction effects have generally been theoretical discussions in most

ultrasonic classroom. Although similar effects can be represented in ripple-
tanks the complexities of events in a solid are not possible to duplicate in a
ripple tank. However, the effects are possible to see using photoelastic
visualisation.
A series of photos has been made using photoelastic imaging to illustrate

the sequence of events and the wave-modes present in a ToFD setup.
Figure 2.5 shows four exposures of a pulse generated by a ToFD setup
interacting with a notch. The probes are 6mm diameter 5MHz elements
mounted on refracting wedges that produce a nominal 65 degrees
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compression mode in the glass sample. Since this is a sub-critical angle for
the compression mode, Snell’s Law indicates that the conditions will also
result in a 34 degrees transverse mode.
Whereas the schematic in Figure 2.4 simplified the process by indicating

just the main compression mode interactions, photoelastic imaging reveals
the mode conversions to transverse mode as well.
Descriptions of the events along the pulse-path are included in the Figure
2.5 components. The notch is 1mm x 3mm and the vertical line is merely the
seam where the glass has been optically bonded to prevent acoustic
reflections at the bond boundary.
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A pulse is seen leaving the wedge with

65°L mode and 34°S mode well formed.
Lateral wave Shear Arcs due to the diffraction effects from the
headwave upper and lower tips of the piezo-element
Bulk shear are seen for both modes.
wave
As well, a well defined shear headwave is
Lower arc from forming as the lateral wave interacts at the
lower tip of element near surface at glancing incidence.
The 3mm high notch face reflects the L-

mode and mode converts a portion to a
strong reflected S-mode.
Lateral wave
Reflecting
The upper and lower tip signals have
L-wave
formed before the shear headwave arrives
Upper tip at the top of the notch.
Mode-
converted
Lower tip S-wave
The lateral wave has reached the receiver

wedge as the arc from the upper tip
diffracted signal approaches the surface
Shear headwave near the receiver.
Diffracts at notch
Upper tip The lower tip signal lags the upper and
both are seen to have the shape of circles
centred on their respective upper and
lower notch surfaces.
Lower tip
The shear headwave diffracts a separate
pair of tip signals.
The upper tip diffracted signal enters the
wedge and is seen to be soon followed by
the lower tip.
Faint tip signals can be seen from the

interaction of the shear headwave with the
Upper tip notch but these will arrive much later than
the tip signals off the compression mode.
Lower tip
Figure 2.5.Components and pulse-path.
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The signal not illustrated in Figure 2.5 is the strong backwall reflection. This
too is a complex item in that the arc formed by the diverging beam produces
another arc on reflection from the back-wall and this both reflects and mode-
converts.
The reflecting and mode-converting back-wall signals are illustrated in

Figure 2.6. In this figure the same sample was used but simply turned over
so the probes are placed on the side furthest away from the notch.
Reflecting
Backwall
Mode converted
from backwall reflection
Figure 2.6.Backwall reflection.
The above conditions require several aspects be captured in order that the
results are sensible to the operator. Capturing several A-scans is necessary
and results in:
 Large amounts of data collected.

 Phase information requirement.
 Detection of small amplitude signals for display.
This has been best accomplished using a grey scale imaging of the RF
signals.
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2.3 Data visualisation

Earlier efforts at a ToFD display had used isometric projections of the full A-
scan waveform. Although some degree of assessment is possible the
demands of an accurate knowledge of the phase information was not well
addressed by the sort of display seen in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 A version of isometric A-scans.
The most effective option was to convert the amplitude displacements on a

normal A-scan with a small bar of grey shading representing the amplitude
at each point along the timebase. Each A-scan then became a line of
shading with the zero voltage indicated by a mid-range grey and maximum
positive and negative voltages indicated by the extremes (ie black and
white). The basics of the visualisation are seen in Figure 2.8.
White
+
Amplitude A-scan
Time
- Black
One A-scan is replaced by one gray-coded line Time
Figure 2.8 A-scan with amplitude displacements.
It must be noted however, the grey scale display is used for the overall
display when a scan is completed but it is a requirement of the ToFD system
to store the underlying A-scans that made up the grey scale image!
A single line of grey scale is not very informative. The great strength of this
display is seen when motion is added and an A-scan is capture and
converted to grey-scale at regular intervals along the scan. The effect of
adding motion to this display is seen in figure 2.9.
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A-scan
Indication
Probe Motion
Lateral Back-wall
wave
Figure 2.9 A-scan converted to grey-scale with probe motion.
Probe motion in ToFD always maintains a constant separation of the probes

and they must be constantly aligned facing each other. Since most (but not
all) ToFD inspections involve weld inspection it is normal for probe motion to
be made along the length of the weld (as in figure 2.9).
However, in some situations the operator may find it useful to move the
probe-pair perpendicular to the weld centreline. Of course this motion may
be limited if the weld cap has not been removed.
Terminology has resulted from relative probe motion and the associated
resultant displays. This has provided a source of some confusion and even
the experts are not always consistent in usage.
Figure 2.10 illustrates that the probe motion relative to the beam direction
defines the scan type. When the probes are moved along the weld length
the motion is perpendicular to the beam direction so the scan is called a
non-parallel scan. When the probes are moved in the same direction as the
beam is directed the scan type is called a parallel scan.
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Non-parallel scan
Parallel scan
Figure 2.10 Scan types.
To some users, this difference has rationalised a difference in the data

display naming. For many decades a cross-sectional display of ultrasonic
data having the upper surface and lower surface displayed has been called
a B-scan (the A-scan reserved for the scope display and C-scan for the plan
view). Since the introduction of ToFD some have decided to name the
display formed by the non-parallel scan as a D-scan display and this same
group reserves the display formed from the parallel scan as a B-scan.
This terminology is not consistent with all users. In fact, the De-facto code
on the matter (EN 583-6 Non-destructive testing, Ultrasonic examination,
Part 6: Time-of-flight diffraction technique as a method for defect detection
and sizing) uses B-scan for both displays.
2.4 ToFD advantages and limitations

If one was to listen to some of the proponents of ToFD it would seem that
ToFD is the panacea of inspection problems. This is clearly untrue. It has its
advantages and limitations, like any NDT method. Depending on the
application, ToFD may stand as a useful option on its own. In other
situations it is best used with support from other NDT methods or as a
support option to other NDT methods.
A brief list of ToFD pros and cons should help the practitioner to decide how
and when to best use this NDT tool.
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Advantages
Repeatability
ToFD (especially when used with a positioning encoded provides
measurements in real units (eg millimetres) that are much more useful to
engineers than dBs or equivalent scales of response. A scan made of a
weld with a ToFD setup by one operator will be essentially identical to a
ToFD scan made by another operator (assuming both use similar probes
and settings). This makes ToFD ideal for flaw monitoring.
Accuracy
Generally levels of accuracy attainable by ToFD are within ±0.5mm in terms
of (critical) through wall extent and ±0.5-1.0mm in terms of length. Position
along the weld and with respect to the weld centreline can usually be
established to within 0.5mm and angular dispositions can be resolved to
within a few degrees when appropriate scan procedures are used. This
accuracy and reliability makes ToFD a suitable NDT tool for fracture
mechanics assessment (otherwise destructive methods and physical
measurement would be required).
Data storage
ToFD systems now provide digital storage of all relevant parameters. They
can be retrieved and redisplayed at any time. Position information can
ensure that flaw locations can be reliably identified and results from periodic
inspections compared for changes. Digital data storage allows elaborate
analysis techniques including noise-suppression, pattern recognition
processes, signal subtraction and extraction and a variety of other digital
signal processes (DSP).
Detection speed
When a ToFD scan can be made using a single non-parallelscan, results
are fast (almost immediate) and limited by only the scanning speed. The
great debate about reliability being compromised by speed is not of the
same magnitude concern for ToFD. The many round-robins have shown
that it is fast AND efficient, having some of the highest probability of
detection of any of the NDT methods.
Commercial considerations make speed an important factor. The advantage

that ToFD can provide both detection and sizing from the same data without
recalibration and rescanning has a significant bearing on time and on cost.
Volume coverage
Most NDT methods have volume coverage and resolution linked to speed.
However, ToFD provides volumetric coverage by linearly scanning wide
beam transducers at relatively high speed and processing all positional and
inspection data in nearly real time. So unlike radiography where thicker
sections would require longer exposures on slower film (to maintain the
same resolution), it is possible to inspect thicker sections without a reduction
in speed or resolution when scanning with ToFD.
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The full volumes of weld material and HAZs at speeds which cannot even
be considered by conventional ultrasonic methods are made easily and
quickly with ToFD. Scan rates of 100-150mm/sec are common even using
manual probe movement and even higher rates of coverage can be
achieved when automated scanning is used. It should be remembered that
these rates relate to the length of weld volumetrically inspected in a single
pass of the transducers and not just the scanning speed of the probes.
Sensitivity
This item may be an advantage or disadvantage. It depends on your point of
view. ToFD is generally configured to see everything. This can mean
everything right down to grain structure. When the test specimen is relatively
clean or the material highly refined there is no issue with the sensitivity.
However, where the test materials contains many major anomalies to be
reported or in coarse material where the grain boundaries are on the order
of size of the flaws, ToFD sensitivity can be construed as a hindrance and in
certain circumstances, can make interpretation and sentencing a time
consuming ordeal.
When the data storage advantage is considered in light of sensitivity it might

be noted that one of the features of digital processing is the ability to
increase gain via software. That means that small (un-saturating) signals
can be increased after data collection.
Easy discrimination of defects and geometry

A common problem experienced in manual ultrasonic testing of welds is the
issue of operator skills in differentiating between flaw signals and signals
originating from surface geometries. When ToFD is carried out on a butt
weld with the root and cap re-enforcement left on the ToFD data display
provide un-ambiguous indications easily discriminated from the re-
enforcement metal.
Flaw orientation
Because of the omni-directional aspect of diffracted signals ToFD is
sensitive to virtually all types of defects regardless of orientation. This is also
partly attributable to the very wide angular coverage of the divergent beam
used. Providing the flaw falls within the effective beam envelope, the low
amplitude signals diffracted from its edges will be captured and displayed in
correct relative position.
Coupling status
ToFD data can be collected by manual or mechanised methods of probe
motion. Any manual ultrasonic operator doing pulse-echo testing monitors
the A-scan and can recognise when the coupling is not as effective by a loss
of the grass level.
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However, in the case of ToFD scanning the operator does not monitor the
A-scan and when scans are lengthy or when mechanised, the operator has
no sense of the coupling condition by simply looking at the probes moving
on the surface.
By observing the data collected for the lateral wave amplitude and the
associated grain-noise the ToFD display is an effective indicator of how well
the probes were coupled. Maintaining coupling is made somewhat more
difficult than standard manual scanning because both the transmitter and
receiver must be well coupled to the test surface.
Reduced operator reliance

Since ToFD data can be collected and stored to a computer file for later
analysis it is possible to reduce the reliance of the test on the probe
operator. Many applications can now be configured by a senior operator and
then the data acquisition assigned to a field team. This might consist of a
person that operates the computer data acquisition unit and another that
pushes the probe along the weld. Sufficient experience and competence is
required by this team to ensure that the data collected is good. Then final
assessment and sentencing can be carried out at a later time by the senior
operator.
Limitations
Weak signals
Typically the diffracted signals associated with ToFD are 20-30dB lower
than those associated with specular reflections using pulse-echo
techniques. This tends to put a strain on the ultrasonic receiver units and
most are operated near their maximum amplification capabilities. Electrical
noise is a common problem with many ToFD systems and attempts to
reduce this noise generally involve the use of pre-amplifiers near the probe
or remote pulser/pre-amp combinations.
Dead zones
The most widely accepted limitation to ToFD is the loss of information due to
ring time. This is especially noticeable at the entry surface but a similar zone
occurs on the far side (back-wall).
Brown points out that ToFD does suffer from a near surface effect caused
by its inherent lateral wave but his is not a serious problem unless very near
surface sizing is called for.
He further points out that very few near surface (included) defects can be
considered integrity critical and it is debatable whether the near field
characteristics of single compression probes and the inherent dead zone
effects of twin probes could provide better resolution using conventional
reflectivity methods.
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Radiography may (or may not) have some improved near-surface sensitivity
but provides no worthwhile through wall positional information.
If such defects are of genuine concern then a combination of ToFD and

remote field eddy current or ultrasonic head wave testing should be
performed.
Flaw classification limitation

Flaws detected by radiography are generally given some form of
identification; eg slag, porosity, lack of fusion. Manual ultrasonic tests
attempt to provide similar identifications by characterisation via echo-
dynamics of the signal with respect to probe movement. ToFD provides no
opportunity for the echo-dynamic assessments seen in manual methods.
Because of the limitations on the characterisation capabilities of ToFD a

simple but very useful scheme is recommended. ToFD signals may be
grouped into one of three flaw types:
1 Point-like.
2 Thread-like.
3 Planar.
Point-like flaws have neither length nor height (typically these are isolated
pores or very small inclusions).
Thread-like flaws have length but a vertical extent cannot be assessed from
the ToFD display. This means that the lower-tip signal cannot be discerned.
Planar flaws have both vertical extent and length (meaning a lower-tip signal
is discernable).
From a fracture mechanics point of view these categories are all that is
required to assess the effect that a flaw may have on the intended use of a
component.
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3 Equipment Used
An ultrasonic system for ToFD must be capable of providing a means of
transmitting, receiving, storing, displaying and analysing ultrasonic signals. It
must also provide a fixed spacing between the transmitting and receiving
probes. Although not essential, it is generally considered preferable to
ensure that probe motion is encoded and the position of the probe-pair
maintained within prescribed tolerances with respect to a reference position
such as the weld centreline.
The first systems described in the literature were manufactured by AEA

Harwell (Zipscan) and were disparate modules in a large rack-mount
housing that could be rolled to the inspection locations. Systems today are
much smaller, faster and obtain better resolution.
Basic components of a ToFD configuration are shown in the diagram in

Figure 3.1.
Pulser control
Receiver amplifier A/D digitizer
Position control
Search unit
Holder
& encoder
Tx R
Computer
Examination
Monitor Data
piece
storage
Figure 3.1 Basic ToFD Equipment.
Probes are indicated in Figure 3.1 as being held in place with a fixture.
Noted on the probe holder (but not drawn) is the encoder used for accurate
positioning of the probes. The pulser uses a co-axial cable directly to the
transmitter probe and another co-axial cable connects the receiver probe to
the receiver amplifier and the amplified signals are then digitised.
The encoder (when used) requires a voltage source and pulses generated
in the encoder are transferred and counted through the position control
mechanism. These features (pulser parameters, receiver parameters and
encoded position) are collected in a computer and the data when assembled
in a sensible way can be stored and displayed on the monitor.
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3.1 Digital control

Basic portable flaw detector instruments have traditionally been described
by illustrations of simple block diagrams of analogue controlled instruments
with analogue cathode ray tubes (CRTs) for presentation of time vs.
amplitude (A-scans). Nowadays most electrical functions on the ultrasonic
instruments are controlled by solid state integrated circuits. By means of
Boolean logic, these allow control of system inputs and signal outputs.
These are quantified in packets and this process is the foundation for digital
electronics. Incorporating digital control of analogue functions is now
common on many NDT instruments. Digital control allows ease of operation
and even remote operation via computer lines. Some aspects of UT are not
practical or possible to make digital; input power supply and the transmitted
and received ultrasound are always analogue. However, many input
controls and some outputs are feasible as digital signals.
Digital controlled ultrasonic instruments have many advantages of the older

analogue units:
 Accuracy of time-base (time or clock based instead of deflector plates).

 Repeatability (exact settings can be recalled).
 Storage of settings to memory. (all parameters stored).
 Speed of setup (simply recall stored parameters).
 Signal processing.
 Display options eg projection scans (tomographic presentation of data).
 Data recall for reporting.
Parametric control of the components described in Figure 3.1 provides

users with the ability to optimise the performance of the ToFD inspection.
3.2 Pulsers and receivers

Whether or not the parameters of the pulse to the transducer are digitally
controlled or not the pulse itself is an analogue signal. Similarly, the
ultrasonic vibration that a transducer senses from a reflection generates a
voltage across the transducer that is also an analogue response.
As a minimum, ultrasonic instruments have a single pulser and receiver.

Quality of the pulser and the receiver has a great effect on the information
obtainable in ultrasonic testing. The following will consider some of the
options and their features.
Pulsers
Essentially all that is required to vibrate a piezoelectric transducer is an
alternating voltage. However, characteristics of the pulse voltage will dictate
how the element vibrates. This is analogous to pushing a person on a
swing. If pushes are applied at the natural frequency of the loaded swing,
large amplitudes can be achieved. If not, a rough, low-amplitude ride results.
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In ultrasonic testing, maximum amplitude displacement is not always

desirable. When precise timing is needed (as would be for thickness tests
on thin wall material and most ToFD applications) short duration pulses are
better. Even a ringy probe can be made to dampen its vibration with the
correct pulse characteristics.
Three pulse shapes are commonly used in ultrasonic flaw detection units;
spiked, bipolar tone burst and square wave. These are illustrated in Figure
3.2.
Spike pulse
Tone burst pulse
Square wave pulse
Figure 3.2 Pulse types.
Spike pulsers
Figure 3.3 shows the components in a spike pulser.
thyristor
(switch)
dc power transducer
supply
charging
resistor tuned
charging circuit (with
+ capacitor damping resistor)
Figure 3.3 The spike pulser.
When the capacitor discharges, the rapidly applied voltage across the
transducer causes it to vibrate. The purpose of the damping resistor
(inductor) is used to increase the rate of voltage decay. This is the damping
available to the operator and is used to control the ring-down time.
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Tone burst
Tone burst pulsers allow maximum energy output from transducers by
adjusting the frequency of the voltage applied. This can be done in several
ways. A chopped voltage from a waveform generator allows selection of
pulses of different shapes, frequencies and durations, as in Figure 3.4.
Sine wave
Saw-tooth wave
Bi-directional square wave
Negative square wave
Positive square wave
Change shape Change frequency Change ring time and

pause time between pulses
Figure 3.4 Tune burst pulser, waveforms.
Tone burst signals usually consist of several cycles. These are preferred for
velocity determination using interferometry. As well, since very high
frequencies can be derived using tone burst pulsing it is used in acoustic
microscopy where frequencies in the gigahertz range are used.
Square wave pulsers

Square wave pulsers have become the preferred laboratory style of pulsers.
Similar to the spike pulser, the square wave pulser charges a capacitor
which discharges across the transducer. By holding the switch closed in the
circuit for a controlled amount of time, then rapidly restoring the pulse
voltage to zero cause two displacements of the transducer. The
displacements at the transducer are opposite in phase so by timing the
recovery voltage a constructive interference can be effected between the
original backward moving wave reflected off the probe backing and the
second impulse from the pulser.
Adjustment of pulse voltage and pulse width is possible with square wave
pulsers making them a versatile tool to optimise transducer performance. By
choosing the best pulse width to obtain constructive interference, less
voltage need be applied to the probe thereby reducing noise level. By
pulsing at a frequency higher than that for maximum output, bandwidth can
be increased and lower frequency components reduced. Pulsing a
transducer at a frequency lower than that for maximum amplitude increases
mechanical damping and provides a sharper cleaner signal with little ring-
on. These features of the square wave pulser are illustrated in Figure 3.5.
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Figure 3.5 Pulse width and how it affects transducer excitation.
In Figure 3.5 the square wave pulse shape is shown on the left. In the first
case the pulse is set to a fairly short duration, 12.375 nanoseconds (ns) and
the applied voltage is -498 volts. To the right of the received pulse shape is
the signal of a co-polymer transducer, nominally 30MHz, using a glass
target. Signal amplitude is relatively low implying that the transducer output
is not maximised. However, an advantage to this signal is that none of the
low frequency components of the transducer are excited and the bandwidth
is high.
In the second case in Figure 3.5, the pulse width has been adjusted to
provide a maximum output from the transducer at 25.15ns. Voltage applied
is -547 volts, up slightly from the first case (in the first case voltage was the
maximum possible for the pulse width applied). Lower frequency
components may be added to this signal compared to the first case, but the
bandwidth is reduced by the greater output near the resonant frequency.
In the third case the pulse has been increased to 51ns and the voltage is
essentially the same as applied in the second case. Transducer output is
reduced and the ring-on is virtually eliminated. It is therefore possible to
increase the damping of the transducers vibration by decreasing the pulse
length beyond the resonant frequency.
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Significant output increase can be achieved using a bi-polar square wave

pulser. This provides a voltage that is first negative going (or positive going)
and held to a maximum for a time equivalent to half the natural period of the
piezo-element and then reversing the voltage and allowing it to swing back
through zero volts to the same voltage maximum but the opposite sign and
then brining the voltage back to zero after holding to the maximum for
another half-cycle time. This would be comparable a single cycle in the bi-
directional square wave pulser in Figure 3.5.
Receivers
According to Krautkramer (Ultrasonic Testing of Materials text), pulsers
apply voltages of 100-1000 volts to the probe. However, received signals
are three to four orders of magnitude smaller (a few milli-volts to a few volts
(0.001-1V). This causes a couple of problems. One is the shock of the pulse
voltage that is transferred to the receiver in pulse-echo mode of operation.
The other problem is the need to amplify the relatively small signal from
flaws without amplifying noise. The latter is further complicated because the
frequency of the received signal may not be the same as the transmitted
pulse envelope (accounting for even smaller signals from the transducer).
When switched from pulse-echo to transmit-receive, there is no longer a

physical electric connection between the two components. Figure 3.6
illustrates this switching.
PRF & sweep PRF & sweep

generator generator
pulser receiver pulser receiver
Pulse-Echo connections Transmit-Receive connections
Figure 3.6 P-E versus TR connections.
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To obtain a signal capable of being displayed and subsequently processed

the received signal caused by the small transducer vibrations must be
amplified. The amplification process is quite involved and also includes
filtering and sometimes attenuation.
First stage is the circuit protection that protects the preamplifier from the
pulser voltage when in pulse-echo mode. The preamplifier can use
transistor type amplifiers that provide about 20-40dB of gain, frequency
response of the preamplifier is usually broadband and some high pass
filtering may be incorporated to improve signal-to-noise ratio by eliminating
some radial mode components of the probe and line interference.
Preamplifier bandwidths are usually flat from about 1-15MHz and this is not
operator adjustable.
Following the preamplifier, the signal is passed through a broadband

attenuator. This protects subsequent circuitry from saturation and it provides
a means of calibrated adjustment of signal height. Attenuation is usually
equipped with coarse (20dB) and fine (1dB) switching. Some portable
instruments have been made that use very large preamplifiers. As a result,
even with maximum attenuation, signals from normal beam inspections of
plate could not be reduced to below full screen height.
Attenuated signals are passed on to RF amplifiers, which can be linear or

logarithmic. Linear amplifiers are those most commonly found on UT
instruments. When using a linear amplifier for the receiver, amplitude of a
signal is proportional to receiver voltage. However, receiver gain control is in
dB increments; therefore signal amplification by 6dB gain doubles the signal
height. This limits the range of useful amplification to about 34dB (34dB
raises a 2% FSH signal to 100%).
When a logarithmic amplifier is used, the scale is dB linear so each increase

of 1dB gain is 1% of the screen height. Expressed another way, the dynamic
range of this logarithmic amplifier is 6.3 times greater than the linear. Some
logarithmic amplifiers can exceed 100dB dynamic range (ie 1dB gain results
in something less than 1% FSH).
Frequency filtering can be applied to RF amplified signals. Normally

bandpass filters are used to eliminate noise from higher and lower
frequency sources. These are selectable by the operator and are labelled to
correspond to the centre frequency of the filter.
Normally the bandpass filter is set to correspond to the nominal frequency of

the probe. Wideband filters are also available. Amplitude of signal compared
to the best bandpass filter does not significantly change when wideband is
selected but the signal will often be noisier. See Figure 3.7.
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1-5MHz filter 3-7MHz filter

7-15MHz filter
Wideband
filter
Relative
Amplitude
2 4 6 8 10
Frequency (MHz)
Spectrum of a nominal 5MHz transducer
Figure 3.7 Receiver filters.
Gates
Essential to computer imaging of ultrasonic data is the ability to extract
information from regions of time that can be selected to monitor for signals
in that time. The region being monitored is said to be gated.
Time along the gated region or amplitude within the gate when a signal
occurs or both time and amplitude can be gated. Alarm or recording
thresholds can be set for signals occurring in the gate. Gates are an
essential component in automating inspection systems. Gate positions are
usually facilitated by auxiliary controls. Gate positions on the screen are
noted by extra traces or markers on the A-scan display.
Gate controls include start and end adjustments, threshold setting

(amplitude at which a signal must reach before alarmed or collected) and
positive or negative settings. If positive gating is used, a signal must exceed
a set minimum threshold. If negative gating is used a signal in the gate must
fall below the threshold before alarming. Typical of positive gating is signal
amplitude monitoring for flaw detections. Typical of negative gating is a
coupling monitor using a through transmission signal that alarms a gate of
the coupling reduced and reduces the signal below a given threshold.
Figure 3.8 shows a digital A-scan display with 3 gates available. Data
collection options for gated regions may include time, amplitude and
waveform. When time or amplitude is selected a threshold is set by
positioning the vertical level (amplitude) of the gate. When Waveform
information is selected there is no amplitude threshold and the entire
waveform over a specified time interval is collected. It is in fact waveform
data that is collected in ToFD.
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Time Gate set at 30% FSH threshold
Amplitude Gate set at 25% FSH threshold
Waveform Gate (threshold does not apply)
Figure 3.8 Gating display.
Data acquisition and automated systems

Collecting information about an object or condition is generally considered
data acquisition. This usually involves collecting information about one
parameter with respect to another, eg monitoring temperature against time.
Data acquisition can be done simply by an operator recording readings
manually. In the temperature example the operator would watch a
thermometer (analogue or digital) and record the values of both temperature
and time at various time intervals. (Records of a single parameter would
have little meaning unless they can be related to something else).
Scientific and engineering applications today require very large numbers of

readings to be taken and these with exacting precision. Several hundreds or
thousands of readings over several hours are easily accomplished using
computers. When computers are incorporated into a data acquisition
process the process becomes automated. Computers can then be used for
not only collecting the readings, but also sorting it and subsequently
analysing it.
In ToFD data acquisition consists of collecting A-scans. The other

parameter collected is position or a pseudo-position by collecting A-scans at
a fixed clock rate (ie A-scans versus time). Positional aspects of data
acquisition are addressed later. Of significant importance to the ToFD
operator is the output seen on the display. This is made from the underlying
A-scans collected and in fact must also include some means of displaying
the A-scan making up the B-scans seen in ToFD.
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Instrument outputs
Electrical data can be considered a signal or waveform. This is usually a
voltage varying with time. Signals can be either analogue or digital.
Analogue signals are continuous and can change an arbitrary amount in an
arbitrarily small time interval. Computers use digital signals. These are
discrete values in specified constant time intervals. If the digital signal
amplitude intervals are small and the time intervals are also small the
resultant digital waveform can closely approximate the analogue waveform.
The difference in signal quality between analogue and digital is
demonstrated in Figure 3.9.
B
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
C
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 7 9 10 11 12 8 5 7 7 6 7 11 14 9 5 7 7 5 6 6 4 6 9 9 5 4 8 6 4 6 10 4 3 7 13 5 3 7 5 5
Figure 3.9 Analogue to digital shaping.
Figure 3.9 shows the steps in converting the continuous analogue signal to
a digital signal by a computer.
Frame A shows the raw input as a continuously varying amplitude. Frame B

shows how the conversion must assign an off-set that will ensure the
maximum negative displacement is above the lowest values. The vertical
division of the signals shows from minimum to maximum there are 16 levels.
In digital systems vertical divisions are multiples of 2 with 256 divisions

being common. Sampling along the horizontal axis is time-based and a
single sample is taken at each time interval. This value is the peak or
average and the closest whole value that the interval corresponds to in the
given time interval is the value assigned to that point.
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Frame C shows the converted digital representation of the analogue signal.

The amplitude axis is left for reference and the amplitude of each sample is
indicated at the bottom of each bar. The number of bits that each bar
indicates is easily converted to binary code and read by the computer, eg
the bar indicating 3 vertical bits would be read as 0011, 4 bits is 0100, 7 bits
is 0111.
The process of changing an analogue signal to the computer friendly digital

signal is called digitisation. The electronic device that accomplishes this is
called an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) and the associated electronics
to accomplish this conversion is usually incorporated on a printed circuit
board inserted as a card in the computer so the hardware is often called an
A-D card. The digital signal that results from this conversion is composed of
digital values of a known range termed the scale factor and these values are
separated by a fixed time interval termed the sampling interval.
The reverse process is also used, ie converting digital signals to analogue

signals. The device that accomplishes this is called a digital-to analogue
converter (DAC). Most people are aware of the reverse process in
entertainment devices whereby music information on a CD or DVD diskette
is played back on a set of speakers (the sound wave output. of the speakers
is always analogue).
Computers used in data acquisition come in a variety of sizes, formats and

price ranges. At one time three groupings applied; microcomputers,
minicomputers and mainframes. These were roughly based on size of
memory. Today, the differences are not so clearly defined. Except for
situations where the amount of data to be collected is large and must be
processed quickly in addition to performing many other functions
(multitasking), most inspection systems can be automated with some form
of a personal computer.
Integral to any automated data acquisition system is the data acquisition

software. Data acquisition software is used to collect data, analyse the data
and display the results. Without the ability to analyse and display the results
of data collection the millions of bits of data that can be collected would be
unintelligible to the average operator. Processed data can be output to
monitors or printers in the form of tables, graphs or even be made to
duplicate strip chart or oscilloscope (A-scan.) presentations.
Several varieties of specialised software exist in NDT inspection systems.

These are often used in conjunction with specialised instruments. The data
acquisition software collects all aspects of the signals and records all
instrument parameters. Some software also addresses motion control and
positional information.
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Memory and digitisation aspects

In the description of analogue to digital conversion it was noted that typically
an 8 bit ADC is used thereby providing 28 or 256 levels of vertical
(resolution). The sampling rate of the ADC will dictate the time interval along
the A-scan that is captured and digitised. Flash A-D converter boards are
also available in a variety of speeds typically 20-100MHz but slower and
faster varieties are also available.
If a 100MHz ADC is used, sampling occurs every 0.01µs. In pulse-echo this

provides a resolution in steel of 0.016mm (shear) and 0.03mm (long). The
temporal resolution also dictates the quality of signal reproduced from the
analogue.
Figure 3.10 shows an analogue signal from a 10MHz probe. Digitising at

100MHz allows reasonable reproduction but at 20MHz the original analogue
trace is just barely recognizable (the dashed line of the analogue trace is
supplied as reference, only the dots would appear on the scope).
10 MHz analogue signal 10 MHz digital signal 10 MHz digital signal

0.1 s per division ADC at 100 MHz ADC at 20 MHz
i.e. 10 samples per div. i.e. 2 samples per div.
0.1 s per division 0.1 s per division
Figure 3.10 Digitising effects on oscilloscope waveform quality.
A minimum sampling rate of four times the nominal frequency of the probe
used is recommended. This will ensure the digitised amplitude will be within
3dB of the analogue value. Five times the nominal probe frequency is
preferred for ToFD and if the digitised sample is to be within less than 1dB
of the analogue signal amplitude. Eg for a 10MHz probe, an ADC rate of at
least 50MHz is recommended for amplitude critical work. As well, it will be
seen by the operators that the quality of the recorded signal at a higher ADC
rate is much closer to the original (analogue) and makes for improved signal
characterisation.
Whereas temporal or distance resolution is solely a function of ADC rate,

amplitude resolution is a function of both ADC rate and number of levels of
sampling eg number of bits. For UT data acquisition systems 8 bit sampling
is presently the most common and 10bit, 12 bit and even higher bit rates are
available.
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An important aspect of digitised amplitude is the effect on dynamic range.

As noted, the most common Bit rate has been 8 bit digitisation. Accuracy of
amplitude assessment is based on the number of divisions of sampling in
the vertical direction. The term bit rate is derived from binary treatment of
data whereby there are a defined number of bits to a byte. The groupings of
bits into bytes may apply to 8, 10 and 12 etc. in computer terminology. Here
a bit is one of two options, ie the values 0 or 1. When the binary value (or 2)
is raised to the power of eight (8) it is considered 8-Bit. If it was raised to the
power of 10 it would be 10-Bit.
Computer-based ultrasonic systems have been increasing the Bit-rates

used and the higher-end units are sometimes using 12-bit digitisation. The
product of the bit-rate is the number of samples that the vertical (amplitude)
range can be divided into. Eg:
 8 bit = 28 = 256 ie 256 intervals of vertical sampling (PipeWIZARD).

 10 bit = 210 = 1024 intervals of vertical sampling (Omniscan).
 12 bit = 212= 4096 intervals of vertical sampling (Tomo3).
This can be illustrated graphically. Figure 3.11 shows an RF waveform and

a rectified waveform presented on a graph with a colour code for amplitude
on either side.
0 to + 127
-128 to 0
0-256
8 Bit RF Signal (TOFD) 8 Bit Rectified Signal (Volumetrics)
Figure 3.11 8-Bit digitising effects on dynamic range.
Signal amplitudes are usually stated in dB and the concept of dB is simply a

ratio from dB = 20 log10 h1/h2 where h1 and h2 are the relative amplitudes
of two signals. For a rectified signal in an 8Bit ADC unit the voltage bias
places the zero point at the bottom and shifts all points positive so dynamic
range is 1/256 or 20 log10 (1/256) = -48dB. The smallest % interval on the
screen is (1/256) x 100 = 0.39%.
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For the RF signal the same 8 Bit ADC has no bias and signals are positive
and negative. The dynamic range is determined from the zero point to the
maximum displacement (128). 1/128 or 20 log10 (1/128) = 42dB.
Note: Half the amplitude is -6dB so reducing the number of points by a

factor of 2 reduces the dB dynamic range by 6 (ie 48-6=42) and the smallest
vertical screen interval is 0.8%.
When we use higher Bit-rates there is an interesting by-product!
Large amplitude signals that are 100% or greater can, of course, not be
assigned a real value. They are simply considered saturating. This applies
to analogue or digital displays.
When amplitude is an important factor and its absolute value is required this
means that a re-scan is required to assess the actual amplitude with respect
to the reference level. In an 8-Bit digitised rectified signal once the signal
has reached the 256 level it is saturated. A signal greater than 256 levels
may be 101% or it may be >500% with respect to the full scale display.
With a 10-bit digitisation rate we would then have the vertical range of any
signal divided into 1024 equal intervals. This would allow us to collect
signals at a lower receiver gain and electronically add gain after the data
had been collected. With 1024 amplitude levels we have four times the
resolution of the 8-Bit systems.
This means we could calibrate at a reference level of 20% (instead of the

typical 80% on an 8-Bit system) and collect all the A-scans at lower
amplitude. Signals on our new 10-Bit display reaching 25% screen height
would have been 100% on the 8-Bit display. The likelihood of troublesome
saturating signals using the 10-Bit digitisation would therefore be greatly
reduced. Using the same assessment of dynamic range as for the 8-bit
system, the 10-bit system is seen to have a dynamic range of 60dB for
rectified signals.
Either the display or a numeric gated output can be used to indicate the
greater amplitudes. Figure 3.12 illustrates where the gates are used to
measure the amplitude and even though the display no longer shows an
increase in signal level, the operator can read the measure amplitude as a
digital numeric output.
In the example, the digitisation is a 9-bit and the gate output of amplitude
shows that the signal on the extreme left is indicated as having a 200%
amplitude and occurs at 26.55mm. The next signal has a separate gate
(green) and the signal also saturates the display but not the gate level. That
signal is indicated as having amplitude of 176% and occurring at 39.03mm.
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Figure 3.12 9-Bit digitising gate display to increase dynamic range.
Figure 3.13 illustrates soft gain added to the display. The original scan is on
the left and a soft gain of 2dB is added to the view on the right.
Figure 3.13 Soft gain increasing amplitude.
Digitising an A-scan is the first step in constructing a B-scan. But each

sample must be saved to computer memory, therefore larger scan lengths
and larger time of the gated period, require more memory than small scans
and shorter gated times.
For the simple B-scan in Figure 3.13 used a 5MHz ToFD beam probe on a
50mm thick plate the gated time interval to include the mode converted
signals was 10µs. To maintain good quality A-scans we use the minimum
ADC rate of 5 times the nominal probe frequency or 25MHz. The scan
length was 275mm and a sample (full A-scan waveform) was taken every
1mm.
At 25MHz ADC 25 samples are made each µs, so for the gated time of
10µs, 250 amplitude samples will be recorded for each A-scan. At each
point 8 bits of amplitude information are collected (8 bits = 1 byte).
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Our B-scan is collected along the 275mm weld length so the data generated
would be:
250 x 1 x 1 x 275 = 68750 bytes (68.8kB).
 The first parameter is 250 points per A-scan.

 The second is 1 byte per sample point on each A-scan.
 The third is the number of A-scans per mm (1).
 275 is the length of the scan in mm.
Simply increasing the ADC rate to 100MHz to improve image quality

increases the file size by a factor of four.
In a multi-channel system where several B-scans (or D-scan) of ToFD scan

are collected the file size of even a simple linear scan parallel to the weld
axis (with no rastering) could quickly result in file sizes of several tens of
MegaBytes (MB).
Data processing
One of the added features of data acquisition systems is the ability to
perform subsequent processing of the stored signals. Since the advent of
digital storage, several techniques have been derived to enhance the
information collected. This process is generally termed digital signal
processing (DSP).
Effectiveness of DSP relies on the quality of the captured signal. Quality

determining factors include:
1 How well transducer and data acquisition system are matched.

2 Sampling period.
3 Signal quantisation level.
4 Calibration.
5 Material attenuation.
Any unwanted disturbance in the useful frequency band that is introduced to

the signal is considered noise. Noise may have several sources; the
transducer itself, instrumentation, spurious waves from scatter, geometry
and mode conversions, as well as surrounding electrical noise.
Defects may originate in areas where geometric configurations form stress

raisers or entrapments for chemicals that can lead to corrosion, cracking or
both. The defect occurring in this area may be corrupted or completely
masked by the surrounding conditions. Conversely, geometries may be
misinterpreted as defects. B-scans, C-scans or other imaging displays allow
defect detection by illustrating the big picture, where subtle trends are
noticeable that might not be evident in the static A-scan display.
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In spite of the improved notice-ability afforded by imaging, spurious signals

from noise sources may still mask defects. Various techniques have been
developed to enhance pertinent information to suppress the masking effects
of noise. Digital signal processing can be generally grouped into two
categories; one dimensional and two dimensional. One dimensional
processing is applied to the captured waveform and may be either filtering
or spectrum analysis. Two dimensional processing is concerned with
enhancing spatial structures of the image.
Digital signal processing (DSP)
One dimensional Two dimensional
Filtering Spectrum analysis
Figure 3.14 DSP.
One dimensional DSP has been touched on briefly. Use of fast Fourier
transforms in signal processing or simple averaging for increased signal to
noise ratio may be used. When noise is known to originate at a higher or
lower frequency than the pertinent UT signal, a bandpass filtering process
can be applied. This selectively removes spurious components from the A-
scan. Figure 3.15 illustrates such a process.
indication
Original Raw data

Data
Filtering Filter process

DSP
1 MHz filter
indication
Processed
Data Enhanced signal
Figure 3.15 Filtering by DSP.
A somewhat simpler form of processing is signal averaging. Signal

averaging allows a flaw signal to be drawn out of the background noise by
the principle that a flaw signal is coherent but noise is not.
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A coherent repetitive signal added to itself n times will increase by a factor

of n, whereas noise added to itself n times will increase by the square root
of n. After n iterations the signal to noise ratio of the averaged waveform is
improved by n.
Two dimensional DSP techniques are used to enhance spatial information.

As such, two dimensional DSP is applied to B-scan and C-scan images. It
may be noted that B-scans and C-scans contain no more information than
the A-scans used to generate them. However, they provide spatial
relationships not possible to determine from isolated A-scans.
Of the processing methods used with B-scans, synthetic aperture focusing

technique (SAFT) is the best known. Transit-time for the ultrasonic beam to
travel to and from a point is a hyperbolic function of the probe position and
target depth. When the equation of this hyperbola is known, A-scan signals
can be shifted in time and added together.
When a defect is present constructive interference of the waveforms form a

large signal. When no defect is present the interference is destructive and
the signal is small. This SAFT processing may be performed in either two
dimensions or three dimensions; however, three dimensional SAFTing
requires considerable processing time.
An example of the improved signal-to-noise ratio and lateral resolution of

SAFT processing are shown in Figure 3.16. In Figure 3.16 three 1mm
notches were scanned. The image on the left is the raw data as it would
appear in a B-scan and the image on the right is the result of SAFT
corrections to improve lateral resolution.
Before SAFT processing After SAFT processing
Figure 3.16 DSP by SAFT.
A variation of SAFT is the so-called German - Amplituden und Laufzent Orts

Korwen (ALOK). The expected travel time hyperbolic curves are used to
improve signal-to-noise ratio of defects however, no synthetic focusing
occurs.
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3.3 Scanning equipment

Scanning apparatus is required for positional information. Knowing a
reflector exists in a test piece is of little use unless its position can be
determined. Position will be crucial in ascertaining if the reflector is a flaw or
geometry; if the reflector is determined to be a flaw and it occurs in a weld,
position will assist in evaluation and characterisation. Although simple ruler
measurements from surface references are often used for manual scanning,
indexing devices are usually used in mechanised scanning.
When parts are moved past a probe the relative position is rarely recorded
precisely. Tube inspection stations are often equipped with strip-chart
recorders. Feed-speed and position of the indication on the chart can be
used to locate the indication. In pipe mills audio alarms and paint sprayer
markers alert the operator to when and where an echo breaks threshold.
The spray maker is located downstream of the probes and its operation is
delayed from the time of the alarm based on the travel speed of the pipe
past the probes.
When probe movement is made over a fixed object, several options exist for
mechanisation. In order to fix some sort of reference position, a probe
holder and associated framework is required. Position may be provided by
some form of encoder and the probe moved by hand. Alternatively,
movement may be facilitated by motors on the framework and again,
encoders may provide positional information.
Limitations of mechanised scanning

Not all aspects of inspection need be mechanised. There will always be
cases where manual techniques are more cost effective although given
unlimited funding all manual scanning could be mechanised to some
degree.
But it should be noted that mechanical limitations might apply to

mechanised systems. The most common of the limitations would be
scanning speed. Even when a computer and ultrasonic systems can
produce and collect the data at high rates of travel speed there may be
mechanical impediments to moving the probe(s) at the maximum speed that
can be computer collected.
On long scan gantries the gantry support may set up vibrations and shake
the probe so that coupling path or coupling quality is reduced. Or the
scanner may simply shake some components loose. The risk of damage by
something as simple as a small speck of weld spatter may be greater at
higher scan speeds than at lower speeds.
An example of technology advances may be seen in the pipeline girth weld

inspections. Older systems in the 1980s were based on the pulser PRF and
were hard pressed to scan a weld at more than 40mm/s.
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Today, the phased array systems can scan a 12 zone weld and collect full
waveform scans for ToFD, and 8 full waveform B-scans at more than double
the speed of the older systems (now about 80-100mm/s).
This is all the more impressive when the file size is considered. File sizes of
the older systems were on the order of 100kB and provided only amplitude
and time information, any projection scans (B-scans) were only images so
were given the term mappings as they did not preserve the waveform and
no ToFD was being provided. The modern system typically collects over
1,000 times more data (10-15MB) at twice the speed.
Scanning Speed
ADC rates have already been discussed and, if large gated times are
required for B-scans the ability of the computer CPU to process the
information may present a speed limitation. If the computer has not had
enough time between samples blank lines on the B-scan result indicating
missed data points.
However, computer CPU is not the only limiting factor. Even if computers
are not used for data acquisition, another limiting factor is the pulse
repetition frequency. Response times of the recording devices such as strip-
chart recorders may require several pulse signals to ensure the true
maximum amplitude is indicated. Therefore a probe must be in the vicinity of
a reflector or diffrator for a time sufficient for the recording equipment to
respond. This will be, in part, determined by the size of the beam and by the
size of the calibration or minimum target dimension.
Static calibration may indicate a gain setting to achieve the required signal
amplitude but when a dynamic run is made over the calibration at too high a
speed, the amplitude recorded will be something less than that for the static
calibration. Empirically established scanning speeds may be found or
specification or code can stipulate maximum speeds based on probe or
beam size and PRF.
An example of specification dictated speed states scanning velocity Vc shall

be determined by
 PRF 
3
VC=Wc  
 
Where Wc is the narrowest -6dB width at the appropriate operating distance

of the transducer determined by design requirements and PRF is the
effective pulse repetition frequency for each transducer. This example
requires three firings within the 6 dB beam width.
In a system where many probes are sequenced via a multiplexer the PRF is
divided amongst the total number of probes. Although many units have
PRFs of 2kHz, when 10 probes are used in the system, the effective PRF at
each probe is only 200Hz.
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Improved technology makes PRF considerations irrelevant. With the digital

control of data acquisition systems the entire process from firing the
element(s) to collecting, displaying and saving the received signals is all
computer controlled. There is still a master clock and the computer
sequences all activities off this clock.
In an encoded system the scanner is advanced by the motor (controlled via

a motor control unit and a communication link via the motor control card on
the controlling computer). This motion causes the encoder to turn and the
pulses generated indicate a specified number of pulses per unit distance. As
the encoder indicates the start of the 1mm acquisition interval, all functions
in the sequence commence:
The computer is instructed to record the encoded positions (calibrated in

millimetres, or perhaps inches, as referenced from a specified origin) the
computer is instructed load the display on the monitor.
1 Next fire the transmitters in the correct order and delay.

2 Arrange the receivers to receive the pulse from the transmitted signals.
3 Apply the correct receiver, gains to the applicable channels.
4 Collect the analogue waveform in the gated time interval.
5 Digitise the amplitude information from the gate.
6 Store the digitise waveform to memory.
7 Repeat the above steps for all channels (when multiple ToFD is
applicable).
8 Print one line of displayed data to the monitor.
9 Wait for the next 1mm increment pulse from the encoder and begin
again.
Many more small checks and functions are carried out but the overall effect
this tries to convey is that many functions are occurring based on the
initiating pulse from the encoder. Some systems have scan speeds around
100mm/sec. This means that the sequence of events that are required to
carry out all the steps in a single millimetre are repeated 100 times each
second.
There is still a limit to what a computer can do in a short period of time and if
the scanning speed is too fast to complete all the functions required in that
1mm interval then all or some of the information for that step is lost.
In pulse-echo methods using a colour palette this is seen as a black line on

some displays or white lines on others. On the ToFD B-scan the same effect
(missing data) is seen as a zero amplitude signal on the display. However,
since this display is a greyscale the zero value is a medium grey colour as
shown in Figure 3.17.
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Figure 3.17 Missing data points.
 PRF 
3
VC=Wc  
 
The equation does not apply for encoder-triggered data acquisition systems.
Instead, the fact that each firing of the pulser is dictated by the encoded
distance-interval means that the operator needs to determine the dimension
of the 6dB beam width (Wc) and ensure that the encoded sample interval is
less than 1/3 that distance to conform to the intend to the specification
requirement.
Encoders
A rotary optical encoder is a sensor that uses light to sense the speed,
angle and direction of a rotary shaft. A linear encoder reads a linear strip
instead of a disk to provide the same information for linear motion. Optical
encoders use light instead of contacts to detect position, so they are
inherently free from contact wear and the digital outputs are bounceless (no
contact bounce). Accuracy of an optical encoder is as good as the code
wheel. The code wheel patterns are created using precision digital plotters
and cut using either a punching system or a laser, each guided by closed
loop precision vision systems.
The light source used for encoders is usually a point source LED, rather
than a conventional LED or filament. Most optical encoders are transmissive
type, meaning that the light is collimated light into parallel light rays and
passes through the disk (or strip) pattern. The image of the pattern is
detected using a phased array monolithic sensor and converted to transistor
to transistor logic (TTL) digital quadrature outputs. Reflective type encoders
bounce collimated light off a patterned reflective code wheel. Fitting all of
the electronics of a reflective encoder onto one side of the code wheel
makes it a more compact design than transmissive types.
Figure 3.18 illustrates the components in an encoder using photodiodes to

produce a quadrature encoder output which enables this encoder to display
both distance and direction. In this case direction is determined via phase
difference between pulses.
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Figure 3.18 Optical encoder components.
Most incremental encoders have a second set of pulses that is offset (out of
phase) from the first set of pulses, and a single pulse that indicates each
time the encoder wheel has made one complete revolution. If the A pulse
occurs before the B pulse, the shaft is turning clockwise and if the B pulse
occurs before the A pulse, the shaft is turning counter clockwise. The C
pulse occurs once per revolution. Figure 3.19 illustrates the pulse pattern of
a quadrature encoder that provides the direction information (with channel C
being the reference pulse).
Figure 3.19 Optical encoder quadrature pulse patterns.
Automated scanning systems incorporating optical encoders require

calibration. This involves moving the scanner over a specific distance and
counting the number of pulses. Then a calibration factor is used (number of
pulses per millimetre). Because the contact point of these encoders on the
test surface can eventually result in wear, there is a requirement for periodic
verification of the number of pulses in a single rotation of the wheel.
Other positional indicating devices include potentiometers and resolvers.
Asynchronous versus synchronous systems

Most ultrasonic technicians having used a traditional mono-element probe in
pulse-echo mode are familiar with the concept of PRF (pulse repetition
frequency). This is the rate that the ultrasonic instrument pulses the probe.
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In a multi-channel system where several probes may be used PRF

controlled systems require high clock speeds to ensure that all the channels
are fired in the allowed sample interval. When the encoder position pulses
are interlaced with the ultrasonic pulses in such a system the ultrasonic PRF
and position pulses are said to be asynchronous. This is illustrated in the
upper portion of Figure 3.20.
Synchronising the UT pulsing with the position pulses ensures all channels
are fired in the sample interval. Only limit is computer through-put rate.
Asynchronous multi-element scanning system
Synchronous multi-element scanning system
Figure 3.20Asynchronous and synchronous systems.
When using an ultrasonic system for the ToFD ultrasonic pulses it is

preferable that the system be synchronous. This is perhaps even more
desirable when the system is multi-channel. Then the encoder-pulse
triggering the events must fire, acquire and process all the channels prior to
the next encoder pulse.
Data acquisition by the asynchronous systems often uses computer

algorithms to select the maximum, minimum or average values of the gated
information received by the ultrasonic instrument between encoder pulses.
That value is then transferred to the computer for data display (and to
memory). Synchronous systems have only a single firing (unless averaging
is used) for each channel so the single gated value (per channel or focal
law) is transferred to memory for display.
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A rule of thumb is often used in ultrasonic data acquisition systems. This

requires that at least three firings of the ultrasonic pulse for each channel is
had over a distance equal to the 6dB dimension of the beam. In fact, some
Codes or Standards actually state this in an equation format:
Wc * prf
V
3
This was addressed when considering scanning speeds. As noted there, the
equivalent is maintained for synchronous systems by having three samples
within the 6dB beam width. Therefore for synchronous or fire on position
systems, 1 sample every 1mm will achieve this if the beam width is 3mm or
greater. This is suitable for pulse-echo techniques; however, for ToFD the
beam is very wide and it may seem adequate to pulse less often (eg once
every 2 or 3mm). But this tends to pixelate the B-scan image (ie make it
appear blocky due to the large jumps between samples) and subtle trends
that may help characterise indications may be lost if the sample interval
along the encoded axis is greater than 1mm.
3.4 ToFD systems

ToFD equipment may be limited to the barest of essentials:
 1 Probe pair.
 Probe holder (to maintain probe spacing).
 Pulser-receiver (basic).
 Data acquisition system (computer with data display).
Figure 3.21 illustrates the basics using a laptop computer as the

acquisition/control computer, a single T/R pulser-receiver and a probe pair
and basic holder to keep the distance between them constant.
Figure 3.21 ToFD basic equipment.
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More extensive systems would include:
 1 or more probe pairs.

 Probe holder (to maintain probe spacing).
 Pulser-receiver(s).
 Pre-amp system.
 Data acquisition system (computer with data display).
 Encoder(s).
 Irrigation system for couplant.
 DSP data analysis software.
These features are illustrated in Figure 3.22.
Encoder Pre-amp Pulse-echo or

phased-array probes
Multi-channel
UT system
with DSP-
equipped
data display
TOFD
Irrigation probes Probe-holder frames with adjustable
supply header standoffs and magnetic wheels
Figure 3.22 Enhancements to the ToFD basic equipment.
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Section 4
Calibration and Scanning for

Weld Inspections
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4 Calibration and Scanning for Weld Inspections

4.1 Instrument requirements
When an ultrasonic examination is performed results are often compared to
a calibration standard or previous results. Unless characteristics of the test
system are the same (within limits) variations can result. Since the test
system is composed of several components, variation can be attributed to a
number of sources. A typical test system consists of a UT instrument
(including interconnecting cables) and any ancillary motion control and data
acquisition apparatus. In addition to the hardware just listed, the operator
can also be considered part of the test system.
To ensure uniformity and repeatability of test results, steps are taken to

regulate all possible variables in the system. These steps usually take the
form of specifications, standards and codes. Test piece and coupling are
fixed by the test requirements. Of course a calibration standard should be
representative of the material to be tested and codes may stipulate the
dimensions of the reference targets eg flat bottom holes (FBH), side drilled
holes (SDH) and V notches are typical.
Coupling conditions should also be consistent, eg type and temperature of

couplant for contact testing and waterpath and water temperature for
immersion work. The operator is something of a qualitative variable and all
efforts made to ensure that operator performance is consistent usually
revolve around training and adherence to approved techniques. In spite of
all such efforts, operator experience will still be a factor which is not easily
controlled.
Probe and instrumentation performance are essentially the only aspects of

the test system where real scientific measurements can be made. Although
some of the instrument functions can be made somewhat independent of
the probe, performance characteristics of one will have an influence on the
other.
With the use of digital controls and displays, many of the measured
properties that applied to analogue displays are no longer universally
applicable. Some standards and codes have yet to address these changes.
Degree of precision required in the test may not always demand tight
tolerances. In such cases field verification of performance is often suitable.
Recent studies however, have shown that variability in field verification may
be far greater than was originally thought to exist. This is especially true for
some measurements made using contact test methods.
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Keeping in mind the short comings just mentioned ie:
 Interdependence of probe and instrument.

 New parameter determinations using digital equipment.
 Difficulties in repeatability using contact tests for performance.
Traditional performance tests are still required and useful even for ToFD
applications.
The traditional performance characteristics of UT equipment can be roughly

grouped into three areas; display (scope), pulser/receiver amplifier and
sound beam (probe). These are usually established in conjunction with
reference blocks of known dimensions and acoustic velocities.
Performance characteristics of the display (scope)

Traditional scope display uses a cathode ray tube. For ToFD we have
previously determined that the displays now used are invariably digital. The
old analogue displays often suffered linearity problems. This was due to the
deflector plates becoming misaligned, often by a simple bump to the
system.
Digital instruments now operate by easily controlled and very precise digital
clocks and ADC converters for amplitude placement of displayed signals.
These are never bumped out of alignment and minor voltage fluctuations in
power supply are regulated such that the system cuts off rather than
deteriorate the time or amplitude tolerances.
In spite of the consistent nature of digital instruments there are still

mandatory requirements for assessment of timebase and amplitude control
linearity. As will be noted, ToFD will rely strongly on the accurate timing
made along the timebase. However, amplitude aspects relating to amplitude
controls or knowing precisely the amplitude of a signal relative to a
reference is not so critical in ToFD.
In spite of the reduced demands on vertical linearity for ToFD applications,

the fact remains that a well-maintained instrument adhering to relatively
strict tolerances will ensure repeatable results from system to system and
from one inspection to the next when the same component is examined.
Therefore, instrument linearity checks monitoring vertical linearity, amplitude
control linearity (amplifier) and horizontal (timebase) linearity are typically
required in Codes regulating the application of ToFD.
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In addition to these items of linearity concern that might be considered

standard for all ultrasonic instruments, several ToFD specific
instrumentation requirements may be identified for compliance to tolerances
or requisite items for the instrument (as noted in EN-583-6):
 The receiver bandwidth shall, as a minimum, range between 0, 5 and 2

times the nominal probe frequency at -6 dB, unless specific materials
and product classes require a larger bandwidth. Appropriate band filters
can be used.
 The transmitting pulse can either be unipolar or bipolar. The rise time
shall not exceed 0.25 times the period corresponding to the nominal
probe frequency.
 The unrectified signals shall be digitised with a sampling rate of at least
four times the nominal probe frequency.
 For general applications combinations of ultrasonic equipment and
scanning mechanisms shall be capable of acquiring and digitizing
signals with a rate of least one A-scan per 1mm scan length. Data
acquisition and scanning mechanism movement shall be synchronized
for this purpose.
 To select an appropriate portion of the time base within which A-scans
are digitized, a window with programmable position and length shall be
present. Window start shall be programmable between 0-200ms from the
transmitting pulse; window length shall be programmable between
5-100ms. In this way, the appropriate signals (lateral or creeping wave,
backwall signal and one or more mode converted signals as described in
Clause 4.1) can be selected to be digitised and displayed.
 Digitized A-scans should be displayed in amplitude related grey or
single-colour levels, plotted adjacently to form a B-scan. The number of
grey or single-colour scales should at least be 64.
 For archiving purposes, the equipment shall be capable of storing all A-
scans or B-scans (as appropriate) on a magnetic or optical storage
medium such as hard disk, floppy disk, tape or optical disk. For reporting
purposes, it shall be capable of making hard copies of A-scans or B-
scans appropriate).
 The equipment should be capable of performing signal averaging.
Performance characteristics of the probes

Probe parameters identified by EN-583-6 for ToFD applications are
somewhat application dependent but have some minimum levels of
requirement to meet. These include:
 Number of probes: 2 (transmitter and receiver).

 Type: any suitable probe (see Clause 7.2 – based on thickness tested).
 Wave mode: usually compression wave; the use of shear wave probes is
more complex but may be agreed upon in special cases.
 Both probes shall have the same centre frequency within a tolerance of
±20%.
 Frequency based on thickness tested (see Clause 7.2).
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 The pulse length of both the lateral wave and the backwall echo shall not
exceed two cycles, measured at 10% of the peak amplitude.
 Pulse repetition rate shall be set such that no interference occurs
between acoustical signals caused by successive transmission pulses.
Methods to assess centre frequency and bandwidth (number of cycles in the

pulse) are found in several standards including ASTM E-1065.
Performance characteristics of the scanners

Probe motion with the now-rare exception of the timed sampling (where no
encoders are used) usually involves positional encoders. Some Codes (eg
ASME Section V Art. 4 Appendix III) require verification that encoded
position is accurate to within ±1% over 500mm.
EN 583-6 also requires tolerance limits on alignment with the reference

centreline of a weld. There it states guiding accuracy with respect to the
centre of a reference line (the centreline of a weld) should be kept within a
tolerance of ±10% of the probe index point separation.
4.2 ToFD sensitivity requirements

In addition to verifying the instrument parameters for general use, a
separate calibration is done to ensure uniformity or a minimum level of
sensitivity of an inspection. This is usually considered some form of
sensitivity calibration.
As noted in the description of the diffraction process by which ToFD works,

ToFD is not an amplitude-based ultrasonic inspection method. Instead, the
small amplitude displacement patterns seen on the B-scans are used to
identify and characterise flaws. However, this still requires sufficient gain be
applied to ensure that the subtle variations in phase displacements on the
A-scans can be discerned from the background noise.
Distance-amplitude techniques use a reference target to set detection

sensitivity. To this may be added corrections (extra gain) to compensate for
attenuation effects. These targets and additional gains can be recorded and
are usually set in specifications, standards or codes.
Although ToFD does not have the same requirement for distance amplitude
corrections, ToFD does require some means of assuring a minimum
sensitivity to ensure indications are seen over the background noise level
and also as a means of repeating the sensitivity used in subsequent
inspections.
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To this end there are three methods by which ToFD may be configured for
sensitivity calibration:
 Reference signal amplitude.

 Background noise level.
 A set amount of gain over a repeatable target.
This is based on the recommended practice in EN/TS-14751 where it

indicates how setup is made on the test piece and states:
For all examination levels the sensitivity shall be set on the test object. The
amplitude of the lateral wave shall be between 40-80% full screen height
(FSH). In cases where the use of the lateral wave is not appropriate (eg
surface conditions, use of steep beam-angles), the sensitivity shall be set
such that the amplitude of the back wall signal is between 18-30dB above
FSH. When the use of neither a lateral wave, nor a back wall signal is
appropriate, sensitivity should be set such that the material grain noise is
somewhere between 5-10 %FSH.
The British Standard BS 7706 identifies a fourth option; a representative

flaw sample. However, no two flaws are identical, so other than considering
such a flaw as typical of the sort being sought, there is little other than a
coarse indication of the gain required for that particular flaw when using this
method.
In fact the BS 7706 document identifies two specific targets and do not
actually identify a reference signal per se. The four BS 7706 methods are:
 Representative flaw sample.

 Diffracted signals from slits.
 Reflected signals from cross drilled holes.
 Grain noise.
In our classification we can group the target signals (slits and side drilled
holes) together and consider them as any machined target.
Artificial reflectors (and diffractors) do not respond in the same was as real
flaws. But since for ToFD there is generally no direct correlation between
the amplitude of the signal and the severity of the flaw, these machined
targets are merely a convenient method of providing an easily reproducible
target that allows others to produce similar sensitivities. (When one thinks
about it the same can be said for setting responses off targets for the pulse-
echo methods).
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In addition to providing reproducible sensitivities, machined targets also

provide demonstration of the distribution of the ultrasonic field and a means
of demonstrating inspection resolution. When setting up a scan there is
usually a requirement to record the sensitivity determination method and
settings. Typically a screen capture or a recorded dynamic scan is made to
augment this requirement.
Diffracted or reflected signals from machined targets

The common targets used in ultrasonic testing are slits, notches, side drilled
holes, through holes (ie through the thickness) or flat bottom holes. Of these
the through holes and flat bottom holes are not generally used in ToFD as
they are highly susceptible to probe skew.
Slits are may be surface breaking or subsurface but are generally

considered planar (having length and height) but the width is small
compared to the wavelength (typically less than half a wavelength). With
wavelengths in steels of 3-0.6mm (for frequencies 2-10MHz), mill cutting is
not a practical option for their fabrication so slits are normally made by
electro-discharge machining (EDM).
Notches may provide a similar planar shape with respect to length and
height but are generally wider. Square or V notches be made by mill cutting
if the depths of cuts are not too deep.
In order that a true diffracted signal be obtained, the width dimension of the
notch must be small (again less than half a wavelength) otherwise the signal
will be of a reflective nature and the signal will be relatively strong compared
to the diffractive signals from the narrower slits or V notches.
As with pulse-echo ultrasonics, the blocks containing these targets are

considered calibration blocks. These should be constructed within a close
tolerance of the thickness of that of the inspection task in hand and of a
similar material.
Side drilled holes provide a similarly useful target for setting sensitivity but
as with notches, the effect (off the top) may more accurately be considered
a reflection rather than diffraction. In order to discern the bottom diffraction
signal from a side drilled hole the diameter should be at least two
wavelengths.
Calibrating gain settings with slits, notches or side drilled holes is

accomplished by positioning the probe pair symmetrically on either side of
the target such that a diffracted/reflected signal is obtained from the notch
tip.
One way of ensuring that the signal is a diffraction is to arrange the notch or
slit to be surface breaking on the same side as the probe pair.
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The diffracted signal is then set to a peak-to-peak amplitude of 80% un-

rectified A-scan display and the image and settings recorded. Some of the
target layouts proposed are illustrated in Figure 4.1.
Saw cut
Side Drilled holes with Saw cuts to surface
Figure 4.1 ToFD calibration blocks-generic.
ASME V-Art. 4-one and two zone SDH targets.
ASME V-Art. 4 – Notch targets.
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Figure 4.2 ToFD calibration block-custom application.
Special applications with complex geometries generally combine sensitivity

and detection verification assessments. Such a design is illustrated in figure
4.2 where the design was used to verify detection of cracking in a turbine
rotor shaft.
Using the response from a target (either a reflected response from a notch
or side drilled hole) provides some advantages when configuring a ToFD
scan.
 Repeatable inspection sensitivities used in different inspections can be

achieved.
 A theoretical estimate may be extrapolated for delectability of a flaw of a
size comparable to the target assuring that a minimum detection level
has been achieved.
 Volume coverage may be assessed by using targets at different depths
and offsets.
When using side drilled holes as the reference target the maximised
response set to 80% peak-to-peak may not provide adequate scanning
sensitivity so it may be necessary to add a fixed amount of gain over that
level (15-30dB may be required depending on the material and hole
diameter).
Sensitivity gain setting using grain noise

Not all test objects and geometric configurations lend themselves to setting
up on calibration targets. As well, there may be cases where there is no pre-
judgement of allowable flaw size and it is required to merely investigate if
ANY flaws are present. To this end the maximum detection level possible is
limited by the material grain structure. In fact, the object’s grain structure
becomes the limiting sensitivity factor in all cases.
By using gain settings that are sensitive to acoustic scatter at grain

boundaries it is assumed that any flaws present would need to be
significantly larger than the responses from the grain boundaries. For fine
grained materials this is safe assumption. However, for austenitic materials
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the grain boundaries may be of a similar order of magnitude as flaws

deemed critical to service. Equally problematic, the grain size may be
approximately the same dimension as the wavelength so differentiating
flaws and grains is not feasible.
Setting the gain level is accomplished by a comparison of the A-scan

timebase before and after the lateral wave.
Placing the probe pair on the test object at the calculated probe separation
the operator displays the lateral wave and compression back wall reflection
(if appropriate). The pulse duration is optimised to provide the optimal pulse
shape with maximum signal-to-noise ratio. Gain is then adjusted by
observing the grass level after the lateral wave so that acoustic grain-scatter
is set to about 10% screen height. Amplitude of the electronic noise prior to
the arrival of the lateral wave should be at least 6dB below the amplitude of
the grain noise (ie 5%).
Note: This technique operates on the assumption that flaws of concern will
provide greater amplitude diffractions than the grain boundaries. This may
not always be the case and care should be taken in abnormally coarse
structures, such as austenitic materials and electroslag or heavy wall
submerged arc welding.
Surface flaw
Unflawed
Figure 4.3 Grain structure seen in ToFD.
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(From On Qualification of ToFD Technique for Austenitic Stainless Steel

Welds Inspection Rafael MARTINEZ-OÑA, Tecnatom, San Sebastián de los
Reyes (Madrid), Spain, Sylvain VIGGIANIELLO, Alexandre BLEUZE,
Metalscan, Saint-Rémy, France; ECNDT 2006)
Probe selection and placement

Having decided on the preferred method of establishing scanning sensitivity,
the ToFD operator needs to then position the ToFD probe pair(s) in a way
that ensures the area(s) of concern is (are) suitably ensonified. This requires
consideration of several factors, some of which are inter-related. Design of
the ToFD technique is a compromise of all the parameters considered.
Factors considered include (but are not limited to:
 Material tested.
 Geometry of component.
 Instrumentation available (single or multi-channel).
 Probes (size, frequency, angle(s), number of pairs).
 Detection requirements.
 Sizing requirements.
 Inspection speed and accuracy requirements.
Applications involving complex geometries such as T, K and Y joints can be

inspected using ToFD. However, the calculations involved will often require
dedicated algorithms to determine indication positions relative to the test
surface. These calculations are not standard and generally require
customised software. Such calculations and applications are outside the
scope of this manual. This manual will consider only the more common
configurations of basic butt welds.
Initial probe selection will be based on the material tested. ToFD

considerations for frequency are identical to pulse-echo. Coarse grained
materials and very thick materials will require lower frequencies to overcome
the attenuation effects.
Then the probe size is considered and this is also based, at least partially,
on the material tested. To some extent larger probe dimensions produce a
higher intensity pulse over a greater distance. But the need for divergence is
better addressed using smaller probe dimensions.
Probe refracting angle is selected based on the geometry of the component

tested. Very thick sections will require small refracted angles to ensure the
back wall can be detected. When the weld cap is not removed it will present
a restriction that may require a higher angle of refraction to ensure that the
near-surface is adequately addressed. Because of the large divergence in
ToFD probes, the actual angles used may be off by as much as 5o and no
significant deterioration of the technique will result.
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Thickness of the component tested may be sufficiently large that no single

probe pair can be expected to cover the entire thickness. Guidance on all
these items can be found in the several codes and standards now available
for ToFD. EN/TS 14751 provides a table indicating the minimum number of
zones that must be used to address the thicknesses of welds tested by
ToFD. That table is reproduced below.
Table 4.1 Recommended ToFD set-ups for simple butt-welds dependent on wall-
thickness.
Thickness Number of Depth- Centre Beam-angle Element Beam
t ( mm) ToFD range frequency (degrees) – intersection
set-ups ∆t / mm f / MHz (α long size
waves) (mm)
6-10 1 0-t 15 70 2-3 2/3 of t
10-15 1 0-t 15-10 70 2-3 2/3 of t
15-35 1 0-t 10-5 70-60 2-6 2/3 of t
35-50 1 0-t 5-3 70-60 3-6 2/3 of t
50-100 2 0-t/2 5-3 70-60 3-6 1/3 of t
t/2-t 5-3 60-45 6-12 5/6 of t;
or t for
  45 C )
100-200 3 0-t/3 5-3 70-60 3-6 2/9 of t

t/3-2t/3 5-3 60-45 6-12 5/9 of t
2/3t-t 5-2 60-45 6-20 8/9 of t;
or for
  45 C )
200-300 4 0-t/4 5-3 70-60 3-6 1.12 of t

t/4-t/2 5-3 60-45 6-12 5/12 of t
t/2-3t/4 5-2 60-45 6-20 8/12 of t
3t/4-t 3-1 50-40 10-20 11/12 of t;
or t for
  45 C )
Having selected the appropriate probe pair parameters for the application
the operator need to then position the probes to provide appropriate volume
coverage. But this should also take into consideration the effects of energy
re-distribution upon diffraction.
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As a guide to volume coverage we can initially use the 24dB pulse-echo

beam divergence calculations. When designing a ToFD setup it is accepted
that a symmetrical arrangement should be used to indicate the beams. This
in spite of the fact that only one probe is transmitting. Since the probes used
are to be matched with respect to frequency, size and angle the reciprocity
concept of transmitter and receiver can be assumed (ie they may be
interchanged with no apparent effect on the signal).
To verify the beam divergence and associated detection a simple

experiment can be set up. Using a small slit 1.5-2mm high in a 25mm plate
(or a small side drilled hole in a thicker section) the ToFD pair is placed
symmetrically with respect to the slit on the opposite side. Moving the pair
perpendicular to the slit (parallel scan-wise with PCS fixed) until the slit is no
longer detected the exit point of the transmitter positions for the peaked and
dropped detection points can be compared.
These will usually be close to the calculated divergences at the 20-24dB

drop angles for that probe. When calculating the divergences for a ToFD
probe the standard formula is used with the medium used for calculations
being the wedge material. The standard formula provides the half-angle of
divergence so in order that provision be made for the angled incidence from
the wedge the rays are drawn from the probe element centre at the half
angles until the interface with the test materials (eg steel or aluminium) and
then Snell’s law is applied. All three rays are usually used, ie the front and
back of beam and the centre ray. These are illustrated in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4 ToFD far surface detection verification.
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An offset of approximately 7mm would indicate the limits of detection for the
setup of a 6mm diameter 5MHz probe for nominal 60o refraction. In ToFD
the exit points of the wedges are used as the reference for setting the probe
separations. The probe centre separation is abbreviated PCS and used as
the parameter of measure for probe placement.
As noted, although only one probe is used in transmit mode, the centre ray
that corresponds to the nominal refracting angle is drawn for both the
transmitter and receiver probes. The crossing point is set based on these
centre rays. This is used to determine the beam Intersection referred to in
Table 4.1 above.
In the Figure 4.4 above the front of beam edge is not actually seen and it
may be expected that a lateral wave can be detected. For a probe with a
smaller divergence (such as would occur for a 10MHz probe under the
same conditions) the front of beam could be assessed by the detection of a
side drilled hole placed near the test surface. This is indicated in Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5 ToFD volume detection verification.
Beam assessments (to establish coverage) are in fact one of the functions
of the calibration blocks and machined targets described above (in addition
to setting sensitivity).
Simply drawing divergence boundaries to verify coverage is however, not a

guarantee of detection. A further consideration must be made for the
pressure variation with respect to angle. Optimum diffraction energy is
obtained when the included angle at the centrelines is approximately 120
degrees. This is based on diffraction theory for a vertical slit diffractor.
EN 583-6 suggests that a working region of -35-+45 degrees from this value
may still provide useful signals. This produces an incident angle range of
about 8-38 degrees with the vertical slit. However, at the 38 degree
incidence nearly all compression energy is lost as that coincides with the
critical angle. Therefore examinations that rely on angles in that range (35-
40 degrees) should be avoided.
In addition to the pressure drop associated with the transmitted beam, there
is a further consideration for the beam pressure distribution. Figure 4.6
illustrates a pulse emitted from a probe striking a vertical oriented crack.
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This figure illustrates how a specular reflection occurs for the bulk of the
beam and as it radiates off the crack it has a directivity that includes lobes.
The rings representing the diffraction off the crack tips. These diffraction
rings are also subject to directivity effects. The elaborate nature of the
pressure distributions are covered in an Appendix in Charlesworth and
Temple.
Figure 4.6 Diffraction directivity.
In the lower part of the image the intensities are colourised for an incident
compression wave striking an angled planar crack. The pulse is moving
from the top of the figure to the bottom with the incident pulse having just
arrived at the bottom of the figure.
The longer arrow points in the direction of the strongest portion of the
diffracted wave from the upper tip while the shorter arrow is drawn from its
source at the lower tip along the path that it produces the strongest
diffracted signal.
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The angles are not exactly equal. The diffraction directivity is dependent on
many parameters including the probe frequency, the flaw size and the flaw
orientation. (Modelled image courtesy Prof. R. Marklein, University of
Kassel, EFIT Simulations for Ultrasonic NDE).
A similar directivity assessment was made by Martinez et al and shows

something of an obliquity effect where the amplitude drops about 25dB
beyond 40o incidence in Figure 4.7.
ToFD Amplitude vs Angle of Skew .
Figure 4.7 Diffraction directivity with obliquity effect.
(from On Qualification of ToFD Technique for Austenitic Stainless Steel

Welds Inspection Rafael MARTINEZ-OÑA, Tecnatom, San Sebastián de los
Reyes (Madrid), Spain, Sylvain VIGGIANIELLO, Alexandre BLEUZE,
Metalscan, Saint-Rémy, France; ECNDT 2006)
The compromise requirements for ToFD configurations should now start to

be apparent. In order to obtain optimum probe separation for maximum
volume ensonification, a wide separation would be used. Optimum probe
separation for resolving a separation between the upper and lower tips of a
flaw would be when the total distance travelled is a maximum and that
occurs with a minimum probe separation. When considering the optimum
diffraction pressure for detection of diffracted signals from flaws, a PCS that
provides 120o included angle of the probe beam axes at the flaw tip is
required.
The recommendations in Table 4.1 indicate the beam intersections to occur

at 2/3 the thickness of the zones. This will result in an included angle of near
120o. Because of the compromises that are required to obtain suitable
coverage, resolution and detection amplitudes, the exact angle and PCS in
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Table 4.1 should be considered as guidance and the optimum combination

of parameters is to be established based on the specifics of the application.
As noted previously, the precise angle used is not normally critical and
deviation or 5o is usually tolerable.
Under some conditions where the Table 4.1 indicates that one probe set-up
may be adequate to fulfil all inspection requirements, the operator may still
decide that more than one probe pair and more than one PCS may be
required in order to obtain improved coverage and resolution. This may then
require more than one scan.
4.3 Modelling the weld inspection

A requirement of nearly all national or international standards is the
inclusion of a description of the volume coverage of the test piece. This is
variously called the scan plan, the scanning technique, written instructions
or the procedure, depending on the terminology used in the specific
industrial venue. With single element fixed angle beams in pulse-echo, the
process was relatively simple and often a pencil sketch was adequate to
indicate the probe movement to achieve coverage of the weld and HAZ.
With the complexity of three dimensional issues when addressing nozzles

and the complexities of beam divergence to ensure volume coverage in
ToFD, many users have found it convenient to develop computer assisted
drawings. Several options have developed:
 Spread-sheet based.
 Simple ray tracing.
 Complex ray tracing.
 Finite element modelling.
Because of its iterative nature making compromises between the many

variable, ToFD has not found much use in scan plan developments using
the complex ray tracing and finite element modelling. For most ToFD
applications spreadsheet-style models and simple ray trace models have
proven adequate. Besides, the ToFD configuration is almost always
required to be demonstrated on a block so fully modelled scan plans
requiring many hours to assemble would not be practical.
Simple ray trace beam modelling

Earlier in this section it was noted that beam divergence was a necessary
factor to consider in ToFD setups. Calibration and demonstration blocks are
often required to verify the coverage but the operator designing the
technique must first decide on the appropriate options for the application.
Although the problem can be addressed by making the theoretical

calculations from the beam divergence equations and applying Snell’s law to
the boundary rays, this tends to be tedious to apply with pencil, ruler and
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paper. It is also very inconvenient when small adjustments to PCS or angle

are required.
Fortunately there are now computers to make this aspect easier. CAD and
other drawing software can provide one method of designing the probe with
associated ray paths and moving them around on the component cross-
sections.
This still requires calculations and manipulation of the ultrasonic parameters

to make adjustments to improve coverage prior to the purchase of probes
and wedges. But even this aspect is now addressed by some specialty
software.
Scan Plan by Sonovation and ESBeamTool by Eclipse Scientific Products

have incorporated the ability to design the part, select the optimum wedge
angle and probe and position them on the component to estimate the
coverage that might be expected.
These can even permit the design of techniques using multiple ToFD
configurations with different PCSs, see Figure 4.8.
In order to meet the requirements of codes and the stated need for
technique details, a detailed list of parameters on the probe, scan sample
increment (eg 1 sample/mm) digitisation rate, calibrations, ranges, etc would
be added to the images showing angles, volume coverage and scanning
directions.
Figure 4.8 Simple ray trace modelling for ToFD.
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Figure 4.8 illustrates the use of multiple probes on a 100mm thick section.
Probe dimensions are 3mm diameter 10MHz 70o for the uppermost 15mm;
6mm diameter 5Mz 60o for the region from 12-70mm and 6mm diameter
4MHz at 50 degrees for the region from about 50-100mm.
The placement of the probes is seen as symmetric about the weld centreline
but probes 2 and 3 (for the middle and deepest zones) require off-setting to
allow the probes to be positioned without overlapping. Either probe pair 2 or
3 could have been positioned behind probe pair 1. This would result in
reducing the length along the weld of the scanner.
Even the probe configured for the upper 15mm must be carefully monitored
once placed on the actual part. Technique design makes some allowance
for weld geometry such as weld cap width but this is not always well
controlled in the fabrication so slight adjustments from the design may be
required.
Spreadsheet-based beam modelling

RD Tech provided an earlier version of computer assisted modelling for
ToFD coverage. It used features of the common spreadsheets to draw weld
cross sections and project rays based on divergence basics.
In the example in Figure 4.9, parameter input is made in a data entry table
and the programme then calculates and displays the approximate beam
coverage for the probe defined. In this example the application of Snell’s law
is simplified to omit the divergence effects in the wedge and moves directly
to the metal with allowance for equivalent wedge path.
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PROBES
Probe type : MSW-QCG

Probe frequency (fp) : 5.00 MHz.
Material ultrasonic velocity (Cm) : 5.920 mm./µs.
Wavelength (lambda) : 1.2 mm.
Refracted angle (ra) : 60.0 degrees
Crystal dimension inc. plane (di) : 6.0 mm.
Crystal dimension inc. plane (dp) : 6.0 mm.
Wedge velocity (Cw) : "plexi/rexolite" rexolite 2.330 mm./µs.
Path in wedge (Pw) : 8.0 mm.
Near field depth (dNF) : -0.5 mm.
Opening angle inc. plane (theta_i) at : -12 dB. FF 40.4 degrees
Opening angle perp. plane (theta_p) at : -12 dB. FF 21.1 degrees
Pulse width RF-signal (puw) : 0.30 µs.
COMPONENT
Wall thickness (Wt) : 25.0 mm.

Width of weld + HAZ : 45.0 mm.
Radius of curvature (R) : "> 0 convex" mm.
Weld type : CRC-type
Weld cap width : 18.0 mm.
Root opening : 1.0 mm.
Root height : 2.0 mm.
Root angle : 37.0 degrees
Nose height : 1.1 mm.
HP height : 5.0 mm.
HP angle : 45.0 degrees
Opening angle : 10.0 degrees
TOFD CONFIGURATION
Depth of beam intersection (dbi) : 66.6 %D

Probe separation (PCS) : 57.7 mm.
Sampling frequency "recommended" (fs) : > 25 MHz.
Total probe delay "calculated" (tp) : 6.87 µs.
Arrival time lateral wave "calculated" (tlat) : 16.61 µs.
Arrival time backwall echo "calculated" (tbw) : 19.76 µs.
Probe frequency parameter "ideally > 25" : 16
Near surface dead zone, up to : 7.21 mm.
Far surface dead zone, starting from : 23.62 mm.
Spatial resolution "non-parallel, 6 dB. drop" (res_p) : 4.76 mm.
PROBES : MSW-QCG / 5.00 MHz. / 60°L / PCS = 58 mm
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

5
0
-3.9
-5
-10
Z-axis (mm.)
-15
-16.7
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
X-axis (mm.)
Figure 4.9 Spreadsheet modelling for ToFD.
4.4 Summary of ToFD parameters

Any inspection using the ToFD technique would generally have a
requirement to produce a written document detailing the parameters of the
inspection for the application.
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Some codes/specifications are sufficiently well detailed that they provide

adequate information to address all the parameters required by addressing
that document. For example, EN 14751 permits the use of that document (ie
EN 14751) to be used in lieu of a company written instruction. This greatly
simplifies the pre-job documentation preparations required.
But not all applications have the advantage of working to EN 14751 so some
degree of pre-job documentation will be required. The written instructions
should include the following items:
 Scope (detailing the project).

 Referencing documents (codes, standards, project specifications).
 Personnel qualifications.
 Purpose and extent of ToFD testing.
 Examination levels eg whether or not a written test instruction is
required, whether or not reference blocks are required.
 Specification of reference blocks, if required.
 Manufacturing or operation stage at which the testing is to be carried out.
 Requirements for access and surface conditions and temperature.
 Reporting requirements.
 Personnel qualifications.
 Equipment details.
 Setup of probes (PCS).
 Scanning mechanisms.
 Couplant.
 Volume inspected.
 Scan increment.
 Sensitivity methods calibration block materials and targets.
 Gating (time window).
 Verification intervals for sensitivity.
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Section 5
Depth, Ring-Time Issues and Errors

Rev 1 November 2010
5 Depth, Ring-Time Issues and Errors

In Section 2 we briefly touched on the loss of resolution that occurs in the
lateral wave due to the ring time effects. This was one of the limitations of
ToFD. Most users of the ToFD technique are familiar with the loss of
information that occurs immediately under the test surface. This is
sometimes referred to as the lateral wave dead zone. It results due to the
fact that the pulse ring-time limits the resolution of flaws immediately below
the surface for a time approximately equal to the depth equivalent to that
ring time for the probe configuration used.
However, some users of ToFD seem to be unaware that the same effect
occurs at every diffraction interface below the surface and a similar effect is
had from the backwall reflection boundary.
These three dead zones are identified and approximated in the EN standard
EN-583-6. No special corrections are made for wedge angle variations with
depth and the assumption is made that the indication is at the midpoint of
the Probe centre Spacing; the approximations are generally adequate for
most applications.
Estimations of resolution limits of ToFD are one of the most important

considerations when using ToFD with fracture-mechanics based acceptance
criteria. When using ToFD to estimate flaw size (height) the smallest
resolvable flaw is a function of the PCS, probe frequency and damping
quality and the depth of the flaw below the surface. Failure to understand
this could lead to grossly overestimating the capabilities of a system.
Failure to understand this has resulted in impossible expectations of ToFD

capability. Eg a specification issued for a large corporation required extreme
sizing capabilities on the inside surface of a putatively critical component
nearly 40mm thickness. Small (<0.5mm high) surface breaking flaws were
considered critical and ToFD was identified as the means to both detect and
size any flaws on that surface.
This seems to have been the result of an assumption that the improved time
resolution as one approaches the far wall would allow sizing and detection
on this minute scale. This assumption optimistically ignored the ring-time
limits. Even when using a 10MHz probe with a 45 degrees L wave, detection
and sizing capability of <0.5mm would be unlikely.
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Depth and ring-time calculations

The calculations of the three dead zones are derived from relatively simple
trigonometric equations. Figure 5.1 illustrates the basic layout and
associated A-scan. It is assumed that the ultrasonic energy enters and
leaves the specimen at the index points of probes. When a flaw is assumed
to be midway between the two probes, depth d to the flaw is given by:
c 2
2
t
2
t
0
S
d
2
 
      
 
Where c is the acoustic velocity, t the time in the metal, t0 the time in the
wedge and S is half the probe spacing (ie half the PCS).
S S
t0 t0
t
2 S 2
d2   2t c
2
d     t  2t0   S 2
2
0
c 2
Initial pulse
LW BW
Figure 5.1 Depth-time for ToFD.
Simply identifying the same parameters for the lower tip signal allows the
flaw height to be determined. This is seen in Figure 5.2.
2S
Transmitter
Receiver
d1
d2
Figure 5.2 Flaw height from ToFD.
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Depth d2 is calculated using the same formula as used for the upper tip so
we need only subtract the depths to determine the flaw height. This is then
given as:
h
d2
d1
 
The same parameters can be used to identify the limits of resolution in

ToFD. The lateral wave is seen as a pulse. This pulse requires a set amount
of time based on its frequency. The start of the pulse may be considered the
entry point or zero depth. Therefore, the time required to complete that cycle
(or 1.5 cycles) is seen as the lateral wave and has a depth in the metal
equivalent to the pulse duration. This is shown in Figure 5.3.
tp
Figure 5.3 Lateral wave pulse duration.
To calculate the equivalent depth in the test piece we need only solve
Pythagorean’s theorem using the acoustic velocity and pulse duration to
determine the travelled equivalent distance for the lateral wave (correcting
for the fact that it is the total distance from transmitter to receiver and half
the PCS.
The ring time near the test surface is then defined by the pulse-duration
tp is the pulse duration to where the

amplitude is 10% of peak.
Where: S is half the PCS.
c is the velocity of sound of the mode
used.
From the equation we can see that reduction of lateral wave dead zone is by
decreasing PCS or use probes with shorter pulse duration (and to some
extent a higher angle).
Backwall signals present another source of lost information again due to the
ring time of the pulse. However, because the angle made at the backwall is
smaller, the equivalent depth for the same time is less. The equation to
calculate the backwall dead zone uses that fact that the reflection of the
pulse uses up the equivalent depth and subtracts the wall thickness from the
total pulse-duration equivalent depth.
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The equivalent depth ring time near the backwall surface is defined by the
equation:
c 2 (t w  t p ) 2 tw is the backwall time of flight.

Ddw   S 2 W Where W is the wall thickness of the
4 component.
Reduction of the backwall dead zone is by decreasing PCS or use probes

with shorter pulse duration (and to some extent a smaller angle).
Spatial resolution defines ability to resolve upper and lower tip signals
(between the lateral wave and backwall):
c 2 (t d  t p ) 2 tp is the length of the acoustic

R  S2 d Where pulse.
4 td is the time-of-flight at depth d.
Resolution increases with increasing depthand can be improved by

decreasing the probe separation or the acoustic pulse length. If the flaw is
less than the ring time at the depth calculated it will not be possible to
provide an estimate of flaw size based on the ToFD principles of much less
than the ring time equivalent depth.
td tp
Figure 5.4 Flaw resolution limit for ToFD.
For the most part ToFD probes are relatively broadband, ie have short pulse
durations on the order of a single cycle or 1.5 cycles. Since these are
approximations for ideal conditions they are to be used as a guide only.
A worked example is given below. The data in Table 5.1 illustrates the
parameter entry (yellow) and calculated values (green) for a test setup on a
32mm wall thickness. The user must decide the depth at which the flaw is
located to determine the depth resolution. In the example in Table 5.1 this is
12mm.
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Table 5.1 Worked example of dead zones.
As an aid to visualising the limits of resolution a simple plot is provided. This

is illustrated in Figure 5.5 for the setup defined in Table 5.1. The three ring
times are denoted by the coloured lines extending back to the scale on the
left. The red line indicates the lateral wave dead zone, the yellow lines
indicate the resolution that may be expected for a flaw at the specified depth
(ie the minimum flaw height to see a separate upper and lower tip signal)
and the blue line indicates the height above the opposite surface that a flaw
must exceed before it is reasonably detected as separate from the backwall
echo.
Figure 5.5 Ring-time resolution limits for ToFD.
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Near and far surface dead zones are also calculated and illustrated in the
ESBeam images (eg Figures 4.4, 4.5 and 4.8) and the old RD Tech display
(Figure 4.9).
To validate the calculations the following images in Figure 5.6 are provided.
The scan is of a weld section 32mm thick using a 7MHz probe with a
100mm PCS.
Figure 5.6 Confirmation of dead zone calculations for ToFD.
Flaw position errors

Due, primarily to uncertainties in the main parameters in the equations
above, there is a potential for error in depth estimates. Uncertainties exist
for timing, acoustic velocities, PCS and the lateral position of the flaw (ie the
actual position of the flaw between the transmitter and received probes).
These uncertainties can be reasonably approximated and the potential error
in depth that could result can be quantified.
Timing error
Timing errors result from the fact that our timebase becomes digitised in
order to display data on the computer. Error in timing is primarily a function
of the digitisation rate. For 100MHz ADC rate the error would be plus or
minus one sample interval, or 10ns. For 50MHz the error band increases to
±20ns.
The depth error due to timing inaccuracy is quantified by the equation:
δd = c δt [d2 + S2]½/2d
Where c is the acoustic velocity, d the depth to the flaw, δt the timing
uncertainty and S half the PCS. This incorporates the timing uncertainty into
the pythagorean equation so the depth error due to timing uncertainty is also
a function of flaw depth.
Using the parameters in our example in Figure 5.6 the error in depth
estimate at 16mm assumed depth for a digitisation rate of 50MHz (ie 20ns
per sample interval) would result in a depth uncertainty of 0.2mm.
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Acoustic velocity error

Acoustic velocity is another source of uncertainty. It has been assumed by
most users that the acoustic velocity for the compression mode in steel is
5920m/s. In fact, the acoustic velocity can vary depending on the alloy and
rolling or casting conditions. Even basic low alloy carbon steel can vary from
about 5800-6100m/s or more. This is further complicated by the anisotropy
of some steels. This implies that velocities can change with changes in
direction (eg one velocity is observed at 30o refracted angle and a different
velocity is measured at say 70o refracted angle. Even when the
assessments are relatively accurate there is some uncertainty and ±30m/s
is about as accurate as most measurements can be made.
The effect on depth estimate error due to just acoustic velocity error is given
by the equation:
 d =  c[d2 + S2 - S(d2 + S2)½]/cd
Where c is the acoustic velocity, d the depth to the flaw, δc the acoustic
velocity uncertainty and S half the PCS.
estimate for a possible error in velocity assumption of 50m/s from the
assumed 5920m/s would result in a depth uncertainty of 0.07mm at an
assumed depth of 16mm.
Although velocity can vary with angle in a specimen (called anisotropy) the
effect is not usually significant in ToFD. Velocity of a material can easily be
determined using the ultrasonic instrument in a pulse-echo mode with a zero
degrees probe. This is done by accurately measuring a section with parallel
faces using a vernier calliper and obtaining the pulse-echo time between the
backwall and next multiple using a digitisation rate of 100MHz. Velocity is
then obtained by
2d
V
t
where:
V = velocity
d = sample thickness (physically measured)
t = time interval (measured by pulse-echo)
Using these simple tools it is reasonable to expect thickness to be

accurately assessed to within ±0.01mm and time ±0.01µs. This provides
velocity accuracy of approximately ±50m/s.
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PCS error
Probe centre spacing (PCS) might be considered an assumed absolute
value. However, this setting is usually set by a ruler being slid under the
probes and a simple alignment of the exit point marks with the ruler
markings. Parallax error is one source of error here as is rounding of the
value. Another source of error arises during the scanning. The probes
mounted in holders are often seen to move slightly due to mechanical
springing. The probes can be seen to be moving relative to each other.
These motions can be of two basic forms; closer and farther apart
(especially when weld caps are large and can catch the probes) and
skewing (one probe centreline does not align with the probe opposite). The
skewing may occur due to rough surfaces or mechanical recoil as the probe
pair is slide along the weld causing one probe to be slightly ahead or behind
the other. These effects are easily seen as a wandering of the lateral wave.
The effect on depth estimate error due to PCS variation is given by the
equation:
δd = δS[(d2 + S2)½ - S]/d
Here only the depth estimate and the PCS are involved in the error
calculation. In this equation d is the depth to the flaw, δS the error (variation)
in PCS and S half the PCS.
estimate for a possible variation of 1mm from the assumed 100mm would
result in a depth uncertainty of 0.14mm at an assumed depth of 16mm. This
parameter has a fairly significant effect on results. Variations of 3-4mm due
to mechanical springing are not uncommon and depth variation of a
millimetre or more can easily result depending on the depth to the flaw.
Lateral position error

The last source of error we discuss occurs due to the fact that there is some
uncertainty as to the flaws’ exact position between the probes. This is
considered lateral positioning uncertainty.
This lateral uncertainty is given the notation δy and is best explained by the
illustration in Figure 5.7 where it is seen as the displacement of the actual
flaw from the theoretical centreline between the probe exit points.
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Transmitter
S S Receiver
t0 t0
y
Figure 5.7 Lateral uncertainty of flaw position.
Depth error estimation then incorporates the lateral uncertainty using the
equation:
δd = (c2t2 - 4S2)½ (δy2/c2t2)/(1 - 4  y2/c2t2)½
In a weld inspection there is some practical limit to how far off the centreline
the flaw might occur. Typically this will not be further than the heat affected
zone (HAZ) dimension. For our example in Figure 5.6, the error in depth
estimate for a flaw 10mm from the weld centreline would be 0.25mm at an
assumed depth of 16mm.
Constant time locus

Related to the lateral position uncertainty is a concept called the constant
time locus. For a given depth, the time taken for the sound to travel from the
transmitter to the flaw tip to the receiver is a minimum when the flaw is
midway between the transmitter and receiver. However, as a result of the
lateral position uncertainty, that time value t could be experienced by any
combination of soundpaths t = t1 +t2 (see Figure 5.8) where t1 and t2 are the
path lengths from the transmitter to the flaw tip and the flaw tip to the
receiver respectively.
In Figure 5.8 it is seen that this is constant time traces out a semi-ellipse
with focuses at the probe exit points. This implies that, theoretically, a flaw
seen on the A-scan at a given time could have originated from any point
along that locus. However, there is a practical limit to this set of points. In
order for a flaw to be detected it need be located in the effective beam of the
probe. This then limits the lateral positional off-set that the flaw MIGHT
have. In Figure 5.8 the shaded region indicates the effective beam area
where a flaw might be detectable. If the flaw was located at the mid-point
between the transmitter and receiver it would have a maximum assessed
depth for that time. If the flaw was off-set to one edge or another in the
beam its actual depth would be slightly less (as calculated using the depth
error estimation for the lateral uncertainty equation).
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dmin dma
t1 t2
Figure 5.8 Constant time locus.
The practical observation in this theory relates to how the parallel scan is
used in ToFD. Since lateral position uncertainty prevents us assessing the
true depth of a flaw with just a non-parallel scan it will be necessary to
perform a parallel scan to improve depth estimates. Once the operator has
located the flaw using the nonparallel scan they then position the probe pair
at the flaw and offset the pair so the transmitter or receiver exit point is
centred over the weld centreline (if the weld cap is not removed this extent
of offset may be restricted). The encoder would then need to be rotated 90
degrees if the positional data was to be collected or a free-running data
collection could be made (ie time based as opposed to accurate positional
based data acquisition). The operator then moves the probe pair
perpendicular to the weld centreline such that the opposite probe-exit point
reaches the weld centreline.
The result is an arc as the beam passes over the flaw. The point on the arc
exhibiting the shortest time (apex of the arc) will correspond to the probe-
pair position that straddles the flaw such that the transmitter and receiver
are equidistant. Figure 5.9 illustrates the sort of motion (left) and the image
shape that would result with a parallel scan. The B-scan on the right side of
Figure 5.9 illustrates the arcs that form from a parallel scan over 5 notches
on the opposite wall ranging in size from 0.5-5mm height.
(Courtesy COFREND, France – Journées Cofrend 2005).
Figure 5.9 Parallel scan arcs.
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The error on height estimation of internal (small) flaws is negligible. The

operator should be cautious for small flaws situated at the backwall. The
constant-time locus will compound the problems of dead zone due to pulse
width. Even slightly larger (higher) flaws may be poorly resolved and go
undetected if located far enough from the PCS midpoint. This shortcoming
on the backwall may be partially addressed by increased PCS and off-set
scans. Offset scans are those where non-parallel scans are made with the
PCS midpoint not equal to the weld centreline.
Couplant thickness – no excuse for an error

Another source of depth error estimate indicated in BS 7706 is couplant
thickness variation. Although it is possible to use immersion methods for
ToFD most practical applications use contact testing. But couplant thickness
should not be a concern for contact tests. In fact, the coupling gap should be
kept to a minimum (ie 0mm or no gap between the wedge and test piece).
Operators, who adjust wear pins or other gap control mechanisms, do so at
the expense of gross deterioration of the resolution capabilities of the ToFD
technique. A gap between the refracting wedge and test piece results in a
portion of the sound being reflected in the couplant. This results in a double
lateral wave as the direct and couplant multiple incident pulse enters the test
piece. The effect is frequency dependent but typically more than about
0.1mm gap (the thickness of a sheet of paper) will result in an interfering
multiple lateral wave.
For those concerned by the effect of local dips (areas blended by surface
grinding) where the couplant thickness might locally increase, there is a
correction equation:
δd = δW v d/(4c(d2 + S2)½)
Where δW is the change in thickness of couplant and v is the couplant

velocity.
estimate at 16mm assumed depth for a 1mm water gap would result in a
depth uncertainty of 0.01mm.
Frequency Content Effects

A factor not often considered when describing resolution limitations of ToFD
is the effect of frequency reduction in the off-axis portions of the beam. It
must be remembered that ToFD uses a broadband transducer. The short
pulse results in broad-spectrum frequency content.
A ToFD probe is usually considered to have a bandwidth of 80% or more.

Bandwidth is determined by looking at the frequency content of the pulse. It
is determined by the equation.
BW= [(fu-fl)/fc] * 100
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Where fu is the upper frequency at the 6dB drop, fl is the lower frequency at
the 6dB drop and fc is the centre frequency.
Figure 5.10 illustrates the frequency distribution of a narrow band (upper

image) and broadband (lower image) transducer.
Figure 5.10 Transducer bandwidths.
Since a probe has more than one frequency in the pulse content, it follows
that the diffraction patterns for each frequency must obey the laws of
diffraction. This implies that beam divergence for lower frequencies is
greater than higher frequencies for pulses off the same aperture (probe
diameter). Figure 5.11 illustrates the effect of variation in beam spreads with
the frequency content from a broadband probe. Figure 5.11 models a
nominal 5MHz probe with frequencies ranging from 2-10MHz. The 2MHz
has the broadest divergence (portions from 2-4MHz form the lateral wave)
and the 10MHz region is limited to small angles off the centre beam.
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Figure 5.11 Frequency content variation.
An exercise to verify this is carried out by performing an FFT (fast fourier

transform) on the lateral wave and backwall signals from a nominal 5MHz
probe. This is done in Figure 5-12 and the signals analysed indicate a
centre frequency for the lateral wave is about 1.9MHz and the backwall is
3.3MHz. This is in accord with the modelled approximations in Figure 5.11.
The cause of this effect is termed dispersion.
Lateral wave centre frequency Backwall centre frequency 3.3MHz

1.9MHz
Figure 5.12 Frequency content variation.
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Section 6
Data Displays and Analysis

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Data Display and Analysis
6 Data Displays and Analysis

6.1 Data displays
ToFD systems are used with computer controlled systems that divide the
activities into three basic stages:
 Ultrasonic setup.
 Data acquisition.
 Analysis.
Software menus provide the operator with the options to control the probe
parameters set the displays used to monitor acquisition in near real-time
and to subsequently analyse the data for identification, location and sizing of
indications.
Ultrasonic setup options

Setup menu options for ToFD are mostly to establish the Ultrasonic
parameters so these are associated with the A-scan.
Figure 6.1 ToFD A-scan and menu (courtesy AGR).
A typical menu for A-scan and probe parameter setup is seen in Figure 6.1.
Since the ToFD technique is used with a standard pulser-receiver system it
is common for some of the controls to be unrelated to ToFD applications.
DAC, TCG and some gate aspects (eg amplitude, time and trigger on peak
or shoulder) may therefore be available but not used for ToFD.
Table 6.1 gives a description of the parameter controls seen on the setup
display for the image in Figure 6.1.
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Table 6.1 A description of the parameter controls on the setup display.

Menu Item Description
Prb Del The probe delay for the displayed channel.
Velocity This field shows the programmed ultrasonic velocity for the selected
channel.
Gain This field shows the gain setting for the selected channel.
Ch The channel number who’s A-Scan is being displayed. This value may be
modified by using the mouse left button over the Up/Down arrow to the
right of the text, or by using the Up/Down arrow keys.
TX Transmit transducer number.
RX Receive transducer number.
Start This is the time at the left edge of the A-Scan display. Changing this value
scrolls the A-Scan Left/Right. Values may be entered via the keyboard (the
Enter key must be pressed for the software to use the value), or the
Up/Down - Arrow/Page keys. The shift key may be used in conjunction
with the Up/Down – Arrow/Page keys to scroll faster. Left Click and hold
mouse button to scroll left or right.
Zoom Controls the amount of data displayed in the A-Scan display window.
Values of 1:1, x2, x3, x4, x5, x6, and FULL are available.
DAC view This list controls the display of the DAC curve on the A-Scan display. (Only
available for Pulse Echo channels).
Show Activates the peak search gates and real-time amplitude, range and depth
reading boxes.
Cursors This button when clicked opens the cursor control dialog box.
Persist Activates a coloured fill-in on the A-scan display that remains on-screen
after the A-scan peak has moved.
80 Sets the vertical scale to show 80% full scale, with –6dB steps.
400 Sets the visible scale to 400%.
Increases/decreases the gain in 2dB steps.
Acquisition options
Acquisition menu details are generally those items that relate to how the
probes and scanner are configured so as to allow the operator to
subsequently analyse the data acquired. There is no consistently from one
manufacturer to another how the division between setup and acquisition are
separated. Some of the items that might be considered ultrasonic setup
parameters by one company are grouped with acquisition menus by
another.
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Menu displays for other features controlled include:
 Pulser parameters (voltage and pulse duration).

 ADC rates (typically 25, 50 and 100MHz with some options for higher
and lower).
 Bit rates (8, 10 and 12 bit sampling are the standard options but for
some equipment this fixed with no option for changes).
 Filters.
 Averaging.
 Data compression.
 Instrument pulse repetition frequency.
Windows and tabs are the common displays for these menus. Figure 6.2
illustrates the collection hardware setup window for the A-scan seen in
figure 6.1. It is seen with the channel tab opened.
Figure 6.2 ToFD Acquisition menus (courtesy AGR).
For ToFD applications part of the configuration involves entering details of

the probe and part. Included in the extra probe details would be PCS, angle
and crossing depth (this refers to the depth in the part where the centre of
beam rays cross).
Part details would include the acoustic velocities, wave type (compression
or shear), thickness, curvature (when option for correction due to ID or OD
testing is available) and the scan direction (eg parallel or non-parallel). An
example of some of the data entry options for the probe and part options is
seen in Figure 6.3.
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Figure 6.3 ToFD probe and part entry menu. (Courtesy AGR).
Associated with the data acquisition information is the scanner input details.
This information is required to identify scan direction(s), scan length,
encoder accuracy and sampling interval (eg 1 A-scan waveform every 1mm
or 0.5mm, etc.) and the display seen during the data collection. Figure 6.4
illustrates an example of scanner some of the scanner inputs on one tab of
a scanner setup window.
It is this window that some manufacturers might provide option to set the
data collection in free run mode. If in free run mode the data acquisition is
then triggered by the internal clock and timed intervals are used to display
the A-scan changes (eg five samples per second).
Figure 6.4 ToFD scanner entry menu. (Courtesy AGR).
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Once all parameters have been input the entire setup is usually saved to a
setup file. This ensures that if anything is seen to be incorrect or inadequate
that only minor adjustments are necessary to the setup instead of having to
start over and make entries in each data entry box.
When the operator is satisfied that a good scan will result based on the
settings used they can start the actual data acquisition by simply pressing a
start function button on the software. This puts the computer into a mode
that is geared to collecting the A-scans from the gated region. The scan can
be stopped manually or will automatically stop once the distance entered
has been reached or the timed interval (for free-run mode) has elapsed.
During the data acquisition there is usually a display of the scan in progress.
A set display that should be used is not possible to make for all applications.
The operator will need to determine what views are best for the application
at hand.
Generally, for a single channel ToFD scan the basic B-scan display is
adequate. However, some applications may have multiple ToFD channels
(and perhaps pulse-echo as well). All scans displayed on the monitor at the
same time may not be suitable.
Using multiple displays will result in each displayed B-scan having its
resolution reduced in order to fit all the others on the monitor. Since one of
the concerns for ToFD (and any automated or semi-automated) scan is
consistency of coupling, it is probably best to select a channel that indicates
the most pronounced lateral wave. By monitoring the amplitude of the lateral
wave the operator can assess the efficacy of coupling (at least for that probe
pair). If problems are seen during data acquisition the scan can be aborted
and a re-scan made.
6.2 Data analysis

When a scan is complete and the operator determines that it is of
acceptable quality it is then usually saved to a file. File naming should be
unique and relate to some aspect of the project. File naming protocol is not
a trivial item. In a large project where many different components and welds
are to be inspected there must be some means of identifying the data
collected. This is further complicated by the fact that some welds may be
quite long and therefore scanned in sections. Overlap between section s is
essential to ensure no regions are missed.
Having saved the file of the acquired ToFD scan to a specified location on
the computer the operator can then open the file with the analysis software.
Unlike the medical industry where every manufacturer must ensure that their
software can be read by any other medical industry software, file formats in
NDT do not have such a nice compatibility. This means that data made by
one system can only be viewed by the software provided for analysis by that
system.
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As with data acquisition displays, data analysis displays are also configured
to meet the needs of the application and operator’s preferences.
There are only limited options for the data displays. Views will be composed
of either B- or A-scans. Usually both are used in analysis. Operators may
choose which goes where on the monitor and the orientation (rotation) of
each.
Examples of some ToFD displays are shown in Figure 6.5. Although the A-
scan on its own is not useful, all ToFD analysis software display should
have the ability to extract the specific A-scan from the B-scan so as to
improve the phase and time analysis features.
(courtesy AGR and courtesy Sonotron)
(courtesy US Ultratek and courtesy ONDT)
(courtesy ONDT, multi-zone display)
Figure 6.5 ToFD analysis displays.
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Figure 6.5 indicates that all manufacturers have a very similar selection of
ToFD display options.
In addition to the basic A-s and B-scan presentations, ToFD analysis

software needs several features to make it useful as a sizing tool. Some
features are essential and some features might be considered advanced
enhancements. Those features considered advanced or simply
enhancements are not found on all software packages so these may be
considered non-essential (but handy).
Essential features of the analysis software would include:
 Reference position cursor.

 Measurement position cursor.
 Reference time cursor.
 Measurement time cursor.
 Depth linearisation algorithms.
Advanced features or enhancements would include such features as
 Soft gain.
 Palette adjustment.
 Zoom (in and out).
 Lateral wave straightening.
 Lateral wave removal (or backwall removal).
 Synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT).
 Parabolic cursors.
 Lateral wave amplitude equalisation.
 Notation addition.
 Geometry corrections (cylindrical, T, other).
6.3 Essential ToFD analysis features

Cursors
ToFD B-scans are composed of the grey-scale amplitude images with time
on one axis and distance travelled on the other. Both axes contain
information that allows us to determine position of flaws within the volume of
the test piece. Along the scan axis the position is given as a distance
travelled from an origin. Here lies the advantage (need) for encoded
position. Without encoding of distance via a calibrated encoder output we
cannot use the analysis display to indicate the length of a flaw. We can
identify the start and end of a flaw on the display but unless the scan axis is
calibrated in distance units there is no length assessment possible.
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When the scan is encoded scan axes cursors are linked to the encoded
position and a scan coordinate is indicated at the cursor or somewhere on
the display. It is usual to have a reference cursor and a measurement
cursor. Typically, the reference cursor is also the location of the A-scan that
is displayed (when A-scan display is configured as part of the data analysis
display).
Figure 6.6 illustrates the basic display with two scan axis cursors. The
reference cursor (left) is also the location along the scan axis from which the
A-scan (right) was extracted. There are digital readouts on this display at the
top of the cursors indicating the position along the scan (62 and 95mm are
indicated). The horizontal axis is therefore the scan axis and the cursors are
aligned with the scale.
Reference Measurement
Cursor Cursor
Figure 6.6 ToFD scan axis cursors.
The vertical scale in Figure 6.6 is the time axis (the units illustrated are in
microseconds). Distance relates to depth and the A-scan extracted can be
used to precisely identify the phase peak of the waveforms. To ensure that
the measurements for sound-travel are made at well-defined points on the
waveform (eg peak positive, peak negative of the zero crossing points) a
second set of cursors is required on the time scale. These should be
available to the A-scan as well. Figure 6.7 illustrates the same display as in
figure 6.6 but with the time cursors added to both the B- and A-scan so as to
allow identification of the upper and lower tip signals.
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Measurement
time cursor
Figure 6.7 ToFD time axis cursors.
Figure 6.7 illustrates the reference time cursor at the lateral wave (16.6µs) and the
measurement cursor at the backwall (19.7µs). The reference time cursor is located
at the maximum negative peak of the A-scan at the lateral wave and the
measurement time cursor at the maximum positive peak of the backwall. These
peaks are easier to locate on the A-scan than on the B-scan. The same process of
identifying the upper and lower tips by phase orientation and aligning the time-axis
cursors is used to determine flaw depth and vertical extent.
Linearization algorithms
The other essential requirement for analysis software is the linearisation of
the data displayed. A flaw seen at 17.4µs is useless to the operator and the
client. Only when the depth and height of a flaw can be provided in real units
of distance are they meaningful. The process of translating the time along
the A-scan into real units of distance is called linearisation.
Recall that depth to an indication was given by the equation.
2
c
d     t  2t0   S 2
2
2
This is effectively solving the Pythagorean equation for depth. Right angle
triangles are made by the three points; the exit point from the probe, the
point above the flaw and the depth to the flaw. The triangles legs are formed
by half the PCS (indicated as S in Figure 6.8), the hypotenuse made by the
soundpath ctx where c is the acoustic velocity and tx the time of travel to the
specified depth and the depths are indicated by dx. This indicates that the
depth is determined by taking the square root of the hypotenuse squared
less the half PCS squared. Flaws need not be present and since the PCS
defines the base of the triangle then it is possible to calculate a scale along
the Y axis (depth) based on the distance travelled for different soudpaths to
the line at distance S on the X axis.
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S
X
d1 ct1
d2 ct2
ct3
Y d3
Figure 6.8 Non-linear relationship of depth with time.
This process can be applied to either the time-base on the A-scans

collected or the A-scans can be unaltered and the cursor readouts corrected
for depth.
When the cursors are linearised for the image we used in Figures 6.6 and
6.7 the reference time cursor is seen as 0mm depth and the measurement
time cursor is seen to be located at 25mm (on a 25mm thick plate). This is
illustrated in figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9 ToFD Cursor Linearisation.
The other option provides a linear scale and stretches the A-scans as
required to ensure the linear scale. Figure 6.10 is a B-scan image using
linearised data. The display shows the depth as the horizontal scale with the
lateral wave positive peak set to 0mm and stretched.
Linear depth scale
Figure 6.10 ToFD data linearization.
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Both methods require input of reference values. In all cases the PCS will be
entered. In some cases there will be a reference signal that can be used.
This may be the lateral wave, in which case its depth is known and for a
plate is considered 0mm. Under some conditions there will be no lateral
wave and it may be the backwall that is seen. This too can be entered as a
known depth. Under some conditions (eg multi-zone ToFD where no lateral
wave and no backwall signals are seen) the PCS, the estimated acoustic
velocity and the wedge delay (total time of the sound in the transmitting and
receiving wedges) will be required to linearise the ToFD data or cursors.
These steps are usually reduced to a simple data entry window such as are
seen in Figure 6.11.
Figure 6.11 ToFD linearisation data entry windows.
Enhanced ToFD analysis features

If all the ToFD indications encountered in the field were as obvious as the
illustrations given in the text books there might be little need for further
enhancements to ToFD. Unfortunately ToFD is subject to many aspects that
make the results less than ideal. Improvements to the analysis processes
have been made using computer enhancements. All the items discussed
are done after the data has been collected. Raw A-scans collected are
unaltered and all the enhancements can be redone without corrupting the
original data.
Most of the enhancements might be considered post-processing.
Soft gain
Software gain re-calculates the amplitude of each time-sample along the A-
scan using the amplitude basic dB ratio (ie dB=20Log(A1/A2). This gain is
usually applied to the whole data set and can be positive or negative. Figure
6.12 indicates an original scan on the left and the same scan with 6dB
removed by software gain correction on the right. Note that saturating
signals cannot be reduced and will always be indicated as saturating.
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Figure 6.12 Software gain.
Palette adjustment
Palette adjustment can be of two varieties. Most common is to change the
amplitude level to which the maximum grey scale goes to. This has the
advantage of enhancing the contrast between small amplitude signals.
Alternatively, the palette may be changed to other colours; however, this
has limitations in that some of the detail can be lost if the palette is too
colourful.
Examples of these two palette options are provided in Figure 6.13. On the
left is a symmetric adjustment of greyscale with the +100% and -100%
signals corresponding to the maximum white and black respectively. The
adjacent two examples show the maximum values to achieve white and
black are reduced to ±60% and then ±40%. To the right is a selection of
alternative colour options for the palette.
Greyscale palettes Colour palettes
Figure 6.13 Palette adjustment.
Zoom (in and out)

Zooming or magnification of the ToFD image is useful when scans are long
and the full detail cannot be perceived from the B-scans. Scans two or three
metres long are sometimes made along a weld. At one sample per
millimetre that represents a total of 2000-3000 data points. These scans
must then be displayed on a computer monitor.
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Monitor resolution is measured in pixels and there are typically 1280x1024

or less pixels on a monitor. Even if the display could present the 3000mm
san as the full width of the monitor (1280 pixels) it would require that over
2.3mm of scan be crammed into 1 pixel width.
Computer algorithms are used to decide which item is displayed since it is

not possible to put 2.3mm of scan into one pixel width. A similar concern
would exist for high digitisation rates on long A-scans.
A 45-50mm thick plate may require a 15µs window. At 100MHz sampling

this would be 1500 samples along the time axis. Even if all 1024 pixels in
the vertical plane of the monitor could be used there would be more than 1
time sample per pixel.
For accurate sizing of length or depth the ability to magnify the image is
necessary. In Figure 6.14 the detail of the notches are poorly seen in the full
view but the individual time and scan steps can be seen on the zoomed
image.
180-290mm full scale Zoomed to 225-245mm
Figure 6.14 Zoom feature.
Lateral wave straightening

Mechanical movement of the ToFD probe pair results in slight variations in
the arrival times of the lateral wave. This can be a result of drag effects from
the scanner or even weld cap interference pushing the probes apart. The
result is an irregular lateral wave as seen in Figure 6.15. This is clearly not a
result of flaws as it can be seen that the backwall is moving in the same
pattern. Several options are available by which to straighten the lateral wave
should this occur. Once straightening has been achieved the lateral wave is
much more uniform in its arrival time and can be used as a reference for
depth sizing over the entire straightened distance.
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Straightened region
Figure 6.15 Lateral wave straightening.
Lateral wave removal (or backwall removal)

Throughout the literature on ToFD the problems of dead zones are
explained. These are a result of the pulse ring-time interfering with signals
that could occur in the same time frame. This problem is primarily seen at
the lateral wave but also can be experienced on the backwall.
By straightening the lateral wave (and backwall) the reference signal (ie the
lateral wave or backwall) is seen to be generally quite uniform over
significant lengths of the scan. By identifying the shape of the dominant
reference signal it can be mathematically removed. This processing is
usually a vector addition of the inverse of that shape.
When the processing is completed the lateral (or backwall) signal is nulled
and any signal shapes that were not the same as the lateral or backwall can
be exposed. This allows detection of the flaws in regions often considered to
be blind spots.
Figure 6.16 illustrates the two step procedure. On the left the raw data is
prepared by locating the region of concern (between the blue cursors) and
the reference waveform is selected between the green and red cursors.
After subtraction the image on the right is shown with the upper tip of the
flaw not seen in the raw data now clearly defined and available for sizing. (A
small section was similarly treated for backwall signal removal and is also
indicated on the right side image in Figure 6.16).
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Reference waveform region
Upper tip
Lateral seen
wave
removal Backwall
region removed
Figure 6.16 Lateral wave removal.
Synthetic aperture focusing technique

Synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT) is a computer processing
technique that is intended to provide an accurate measurement of the extent
of flaws. The transit-time for the ultrasonic beam to travel to and from a point
is a hyperbolic function of the probe position and target depth. Knowing the
equation of this hyperbola for the specific probe, A-scan signals can be
shifted in time and added together.
The intent of SAFT is to remove the arcs that form as a result of the beam
divergence and to provide an improved size (usually length) for the flaws.
Figure 6.17 is an example of before and after SAFT processing.
Pre-SAFT processing Post-SAFT processing
Figure 6.17 SAFT processing.
Parabolic cursors
SAFT processing is a complicated mathematic process requiring every A-
scan portion of the affected region to have the SAFT algorithm applied to it.
A less computer intensive option to correct for the over-sizing that beam
divergence causes is to simply overlay the hyperbolic curve on the B-scan
image. Identified as either a hyperbolic or, less correctly, a parabolic cursor,
this curve is calculated from the probe parameters for the depth at which the
indication is seen.
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By fitting the curves of the cursors (usually two are used) to the indication
tails the portion between the centres of the curves are approximately the
length of the flaw. This ultimately addresses the same problem as the SAFT
post-processing algorithms but with far less processing time required. Figure
6.18 illustrates an example of the ToFD cursors used on an indication.
Figure 6.18 Parabolic cursors.
Lateral wave amplitude equalisation

Lateral wave amplitude equalisation is a process where low-amplitude A-
scans are amplified so that a constant lateral wave amplitude is maintained
throughout the scan length.
Some reference A-scan must be selected as the primary A-scan. This is the
A-scan that all other A-Scans will be amplified to. The process is usually
limited to a specific scan length so the left and right sides of the affected
area are selected and data outside of this area are amplitude corrected.
Figure 6.19 illustrates the before and after condition for amplitude.
Figure 6.19 Amplitude equalisation.
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Notation addition
A simple feature useful for reporting is the ability to add text and arrow to a
scan display. This makes for informative reporting when the operator needs
to provide specific details on one or more features on a report.
Figure 6.20 Notation added.
Geometry corrections (cylindrical, T, other)

BS-7706 provides some indication as to the problems with ToFD on
components other than simple flat plate. When ToFD is carried out on
cylinders, tee structures or even tapered sections the effect is to put the
transmitter and received at a different elevation with respect to the mid-point
or the PCS. This requires corrections for apparent depth of indications within
the specimen. Such calculations are usually elaborate, time-consuming and
costly. Figure 6.21 illustrates the conditions as provided in BS 7706.
The cylindrical inspections illustrated in Figure 6.21 differentiate between

the lateral wave and so-called creeping wave. When a cylinder long seam is
inspected from the outer surface the probes are located lower than the apex
of the arc formed by the cylinder. The path that is followed by the diffracted
beam moves along the circumference while the portion that is not interacting
with the outer surface travels a straight path to the receiver.
Equations for depth estimates use the wall thickness as the nominal zero
and maximum depths with respect to the probe exit points. When mounted
on a cylinder as in the upper left image in Figure 6.21 the probes are lower
than the zero depth at the midpoint of the PCS. This makes the apparent
depth to the backwall (and flaws) less than the actual depth.
A probe elevation offset is required to correct for this. A further problem

exists with this case due to excessive ringing in the near surface dead zone.
This dead zone is extended under these conditions because there are two
arrivals; the direct lateral bulk compression mode and the slightly longer
path taken by the diffracted (creeping) wave that moves along the
circumference.
When ToFD is carried out from the inside surface of the cylinder (as in the
lower image of Figure 6.21) the probe exit points are higher than they would
be for the plate condition so the apparent depth is greater than it would be
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for the flat plate condition. However, there is no straight path available for
the compression wave so it must travel the long route just under the surface
as the diffracted (creeping) wave so the ring time is not as big a problem for
the near surface as it was for the inspection from the OD surface.
Figure 6.21 Complex geometry correction requirements.
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Section 7
Data and Quality Analysis

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7 Data and Quality Analysis

The ultimate goal of a ToFD scan is of course to generate an image that can
be interpreted. Preceding chapters have provided information on how sound
travels and interacts with boundaries in the test piece. Descriptions of the
presentation formats, the tools commonly made available for analysis and
enhancement of the data collected have also been addressed. It now
remains to explain how the results are assessed.
ToFD assessments can be broadly grouped into two categories:
 Quality assessment.
 Data assessment.
By quality assessment we mean the characteristics of the data collected.

We must determine if the data collected is possible to interpret. Having
collected data it is only useful if the data provides clear and unambiguous
information about the structure tested.
Data assessment
Can only follow if the data collected is of sufficient quality that indications of
potential flaws can be reliably detected. Data assessment is also a multi-
stage operation. B-scans are reviewed and if any indications are seen their
origins need to be determined. Not all indications are flaws and not all flaws
are defects. Usually there is a set of expectations for quality level
(acceptance criteria) and the flaws need to be compared to the allowed
limits to assess if the component is acceptable or not.
Quality assessment
ToFD scanning is subject to a variety of conditions that may not always be
optimum. There are some common problems that can occur when
performing a ToFD data acquisition. These will be described below. The
results may or may not render the data un-interpretable. This will need to be
determined prior to saving the data to a file. Such concern is similar to
producing a radiograph. If, for example, the radiograph is too dark, too light
or has interfering scratches or chemical marks due to processing, it will be
necessary to re-shoot the film. For ToFD the deleterious effects may require
re-scanning the section.
The most common problems experienced in ToFD scan quality are:
 Data collection gate positioning.

 Gain settings (too high or too low).
 PCS settings (too large or too small).
 Electrical issues (triggering and electrical noise).
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These issues are described with examples in the following figures; however,
the first image is one of a good quality scan. (Images courtesy of M.D.C
Moles, ONDT).
OD surface-breaking flaw
Lateral
wave
Near Buried flaw

surface
flaw
Region of
porosity –
often difficult
to detect
Backwall
Figure 7.1 A good ToFD scan.
Acceptable noise levels, flaws, lateral wave and longitudinal wave backwall.
Signals
becoming
invisible in
this area.
Figure 7.2 Incorrect gain – too low.
The lateral wave and some of the diffracted signals are starting to
disappear. At yet lower gain levels, some of the diffracted signals would
become undetectable.
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Lateral wave
and flaw
signals have
excessive
ringing.
Figure 7.3 Incorrect gain – too high.
Incorrect high gain setting

The noise level increases to obscure the diffracted signals; this can lead to
reduced probability of detection and poor sizing. High noise levels can also
arise from large grains. In this case, the solution is to reduce the ultrasonic
frequency. The lateral wave is saturating and the ring masks more than the
calculated minimum.
Ghost signal
Lateral wave
Figure 7.4 Incorrect gate start– too early.
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As a minimum, the gates should encompass the lateral wave and

longitudinal wave backwall signal; the gate can extend to the shear wave
backwall, if required. This example shows the gate set too early, the lateral
wave is visible and the backwall is not. Any inside (ID) near-backwall flaws
will be missed.
L-wave
backwall
S-wave
backwall
signal
Figure 7.5 Incorrect gate start– too late.
The example shows the gate set too late. The lateral wave is not visible.
The first signal is the backwall and the second signal is the shear wave
backwall. With this setup, all the outside (OD) near-surface flaws will be
missed.
Lateral wave
L-wave backwall signal
S-wave backwall signal
Figure 7.6 Incorrect gate length– too long.
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The example illustrates the gate set too long. Though this is not technically
incorrect, the image will show the diffracted backwall shear-shear wave
signal. These S-S waves may show additional and confirmatory information.
The diffracted shear waves show the porosity more clearly than the
diffracted longitudinal waves and there is a strong mode-converted signal
that occurs just before the shear wave, which could cause interpretation
problems.
Weak lateral wave
Distorted L-wave
backwall signal or
unusually strong
Figure 7.7 Incorrect PCS– too long.
Incorrect transducer separation (too far apart).This results in the backwall

signal becoming distorted or excessively strong, the lateral wave becomes
weaker and some of the diffracted signal amplitudes drop.
Strong lateral wave
Weak L-wave
backwall signal
Figure 7.8 Incorrect PCS– too short.
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Incorrect transducer separation (too close together). This results in the

lateral waves becoming stronger and the backwall weaker. Near surface
flaw signals improve at the expense of those nearer the far side.
Figure 7.9 Electrical noise.
Noise spikes can seriously impair ToFD interpretation. Noise can come from
a number of sources such as surrounding electrical equipment or ultrasonic
instrument or probe issues. Unlike noise from coarse grain scatter which
occurs only in the material (ie after the lateral wave) electrical noise appears
as isolated spikes and sometimes as an interference pattern, depending on
the noise source. Once the occurrence of the electrical noise increases
beyond a certain point, interpretation becomes essentially impossible.
Figure 7.10 Missing data.
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When data acquisition is occurring at a rate faster than the computer can
handle there will be portions of the A-scan data not held in memory. The
method of data handling may be different from one system to another.
Figure 7.10 illustrates lines of the uniform grey (zero amplitude level). In this
system the computer has not had time to process and allocate the A-scan to
a memory location before the scanner moved on to the next encoded 1mm
sample interval. As a result, the entire A-scan has been missed.
Some systems are able to store the portions collected. They may be able to
salvage a portion of the A-scan before moving to the next encoded interval,
but the dropped data remains the same in that there is a grey line with zero
amplitude.
Some missing data may be tolerated. IN some ToFD codes the amount
permitted missing is regulated (typically not more than 10% of the scan with
no two adjacent sample interval missing).
Figure 7.11 Trigger threshold level problems.
Time-base triggering sensitivity set too high results in a stuttering of signals

if the initial pulse signal has small variations. This is evident by the time-
base shifting to next half cycle. The effect may initially look like missing data
but the data is still seen, just not aligned.
Lateral wave multiples
Figure 7.12 Coupling gap too large.
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Excessive coupling feed or using probe wear-pins that protrude can result in
a reflection within the couplant gap that forms a second lateral wave signal.
This will be seen as an extra ringing under the initial lateral wave signal and
can be misinterpreted as a flaw or may mask other flaws.
This effect may also be seen when there are surface irregularities that
cause the couplant to increase in slightly hollowed areas where the probe
edges are on a surface that is higher than where the pulse enters the test
piece.
Data assessment
Having corrected any issues with image quality, the next step after data
acquisition is to assess the ToFD images for potential flaw indications. In
addition to actual flaw identification, ToFD is also useful to help identify the
geometric condition of mismatch (or high-low) which is not generally
considered a flaw in ultrasonic testing.
Flaw characterisation with ToFD is not as detailed as pulse-echo methods.

In Section 2 we noted this as one of the limitations of ToFD. This reduced
characterisation capabilities of ToFD to a simple, but very useful scheme
grouping flaw indications into one of three types:
 Point-like.
 Thread-like.
 Planar.
Point-like flaws have neither length nor height (typically these are isolated
pores or very small inclusions). Thread-like flaws have length but a vertical
extent cannot be assessed from the ToFD display. This means that the
lower-tip signal cannot be discerned. Planar flaws have both vertical extent
and length (meaning a lower-tip signal is discernable).
Many of the following flaw examples are from a book on phased array
technology (Introduction to phased array utrasonic technology applications
by published by RD Tech). However, a similar set of images has appeared
earlier in BS 7706 and more recently in the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code Section V.
This section provides several examples of ToFD images and the

interpretation/explanation. Caution is made here in that there can be
significant variations amongst flaws and ToFD setups and displays, so the
following images should be used as a guide only.
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7.1 Flaw images

Point diffractors
Point flaws, such as porosity, show as single multicycle points between the
lateral and backwall signals. Point flaws typically display a single pulse-cycle
signal since this type of flaw has a height smaller than the ring-down of the
pulse.
Point flaws usually show parabolic tails where the signal drops off towards
the backwall with no associated length between the two tails. This is
illustrated in figure 7.13 where the hyperbolic cursor has been fit to the arc
shape of the indication.
It can be seen that there is reasonably good fit of the calculated curvature to
the shape of the indication. When the peak of the curve matches the peak of
the indication the tails fit both sides of the indication (ie the second cursor is
not required as there is no length and no lower tip is discernable.
Concave root
Incomplete penetration
Figure 7.14 Far-side flaws.
Outside (OD) near-surface-breaking flaws

A near-surface-breaking flaw shows perturbations in the lateral wave (see
Figure 7.15). The flaw interrupts the lateral wave, so ToFD can be used to
determine if the flaw is surface-breaking or not. Only a lower tip signal is
present so that signal can then be used to measure the depth of the flaw.
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However, if the flaw is not surface-breaking, ie just subsurface, the lateral

wave will not be seen to shift to a later time. If the flaw is near-subsurface
and shallow (that is, less than the ringing time of the lateral wave or a few
millimetres deep), then the flaw will probably be invisible to the unprocessed
ToFD image and lateral wave removal will be required to expose the
indication.
Figure 7.15 Near-side flaw.
Midwall flaws
Midwall flaws show complete lateral and backwall signals, plus diffraction
signals. For a planar flaw the presence of both the top and bottom tip
diffracted signals on the B-scan image will depend on the depth and vertical
extent of the flaw and the PCS of the ToFD setup. Flaw tip echoes (if
observable) can provide a good profile of the actual flaw.
Figure 7.16 Incomplete penetration in double V.
If a midwall flaw is shallow, ie less than the transducer pulse ring-down (a

few millimetres), the top and bottom tip signals cannot be separated. This
would be considered a threadlike flaw. Under these circumstances, it is not
possible to differentiate the top from the bottom of the flaw, so the evaluator
can only say that the flaw is less than the ring-time depth equivalence
(which depends on transducer frequency and damping, etc.).
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Figure 7.17 Lack of sidewall fusion.
Speculation as to the origin of the flaw will require further assessment.

Figure 7.16 illustrates incomplete penetration in a double V weld. To assess
the flaw as such will require knowledge of the weld process. Further
assessment can be made using a parallel scan. If the depth corresponds to
the root position and the parallel scan indicates that the flaw is located on
the centreline there is good evidence to call this incomplete penetration.
If the flaw is sidewall lack of fusion, as in Figure 7.17 the depth would
probably not coincide with the root and the parallel scan would place the
shortest time travel with the probes centred at some point off the weld
centreline.
Lack of sidewall fusion may often occur near the test surface. This can
result in the upper tip occurring in the dead zone, ie partly buried in the
lateral wave. This may increase the amplitude of the lateral wave as a clue
at the upper tip will not be possible to identify without lateral wave
subtraction.
Transverse flaws
Transverse flaws when detected using a nonparallel scan are similar to a
point diffractor. The ToFD scan displays a typical hyperbola. Normally, it
would not be possible to differentiate transverse flaws from near-surface
pores using ToFD. Further inspection using other techniques would be
recommended (eg pulse-echo UT or MPI or LPI) would be needed to better
establish the nature of the flaw causing the indication.
Figure 7.18 indicates a signal seen from a parallel scan past a transverse
crack.
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Figure 7.18 Transverse flaw.
Some techniques have used a supplemental scan with the ToFD probe-pair
skewed 45o to the weld axis. This is intended to increase the diffracting area
and thereby increase the signal amplitude to enhance the probability of
detection. Ability to use this option depends on the weld cap size.
Interpass non-fusion
The only difference (from a UT perspective) between interpass (inter-run)
non-fusion and lack of side-wall fusion is the orientation of the unfused
metal. Interpass non-fusion presents a large area for the beam to interact
with. As a result, the beam is reflected rather than diffracted. The result is a
very large amplitude signal. The principles and signals are shown in Figure
7.19.
Lateral
Reflected
Back wall
L B
Reflection
Figure 7.19 Lack of interpass fusion.
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Porosity
Porosity appears as a series of hyperbolic curves of varying amplitudes,
depths and lateral positions as illustrated in Figure 7.20. B-scan images of
cluster porosity superimpose the hyperbolic curves since the individual
pores are closely spaced.
Since the scattering nature of pores can provide multiple paths after
interactions with several adjacent pores, there is no way to use the depth of
the lower arcs to estimate the lower bound of the pore cluster. ToFD may be
a useful method to detect the porosity but other methods should be used to
improve sizing.
Figure 7.20 Porosity.
Cracking
Cracking has a variety of causes and shapes. Therefore no single
description is appropriate to describe the ToFD signals associated with
cracks.
The B-scan image in figure 7.21 illustrates the signal that results from
copper pickup in a gas metal arc weld (GMAW) process. The copper
introduced into the melt embrittles the metal and a dendritic crack forms as
the molten metal solidifies. As subsequent weld passes are made the
remelting of the lower metal puts the copper back into solution and draws it
up to higher and higher levels. The indication is generally short (the
illustrated crack is only about 20-30mm long) but extends from the region
near the root up to the penultimate weld pass nearest the test surface.
Due to its dendritic nature, this flaw is poorly (if ever) detected by pulse-
echo UT. Cracks in tension tend to ensure the facets are open to air,
however, under compression the facets may be pressed hard against one
another and the acoustic impedance at the boundary will be closely
matched. This can make some cracks transparent.
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Figure 7.21 Copper cracking.
Mismatch (high-low)
Mismatch is not a welding flaw. It is a geometric condition whereby one side
of a butt weld is higher or lower than the other (and assumes equal
thicknesses are being joined). Although it is not a flaw condition, it is of
concern because it can be the source of real welding flaws.
When the welder (manual or automatic) tries to adjust the arc to

compensate for the unequal spacing between the two bevel faces it can
result in a failure to fuse in the root area. A common defect that can occur
as a result of mismatch is therefore incomplete root penetration.
This is problematic for ToFD in that the most likely place the non-fusion
occurs in the root is on the low side. In the ToFD configuration the low side
is lost in the backwall and so the flaw may go undetected.
Figure 7.22 illustrates the conditions leading to the ToFD signals and Figure
7.23 illustrates the typical splitting that is seen on the backwall signal where
mismatch occurs.
The image in Figure 7.22 uses a 2mm difference between the low side (left)
and high side (right). A heavy black line on the bottom of the figure
illustrates the nominal wall thickness for the plates when equally positioned
and the ToFD beam divergence for the nominal condition is illustrated in
shading.
The soundpath from the midpoint of the backwall to the ToFD receiver is
indicated as approximately 32mm. When the mismatch occurs the probe on
the right is raised and path from the low side increases to 36mm and on the
high side it decreases to 31mm.
Both the high and the low side backwall signals are detected but the high
side now occurs earlier than the arrival for the condition when both were at
the same height and the low side occurs later than when both sides were at
the same height.
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Figure 7.22 Mismatch soundpaths.
If the mismatch results in adequate separation the deviation can be

measured. Figure 7.23 is a mismatch region with the lateral wave
straightened. If the negative phase (black) of the lateral; wave is used as the
reference the backwall in the level condition is seen to be approximately
32mm in the area around 1000mm scan distance (on the left). At
approximately 1550mm scan distance the earlier (high side) indication of the
backwall arrives at approximately 31mm and the later arrival (low side) is at
approximately 34mm.
Lateral
High side
Low side
Sides Even
Figure 7.23 Mismatch B-scan.
This is not a complete coverage of all possible defects and conditions that
could be detected and assessed with ToFD. As noted earlier, the sort of
characterisation of flaws typically allowed by manual pulse-echo (or
radiography) is not possible when using ToFD so the methodology of
classification as noted in BS 7706 (point, threadlike and planar) is
recommended.
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Double imaging and shear mode

Caution must be had to avoid overcalling indications that might be a result of
mode conversion to shear in the interval between the lateral wave and
backwall. Although this region is primarily associated with just the
compression mode there are conditions that can result in a doubled
indication. The opposite mode conversion is possible too, ie shear to
compression, and the same result may occur.
We can consider these mode conversion effects by closer review of the

photoelastic image of the ToFD pulse. Figure 7.24 illustrates a close-up of
the diffraction patterns that occur when the compression mode and shear
headwave passes a flaw (notch).
1 2 3 5
6
1 Initial compression.
2 Shear headwave.
3 Upper tip compression.
4 Lower tip compression.
5 Mode converted shear off upper tip.
6 Mode converted compression off shear headwave.
Figure 7.24 Mode conversion at flaws.
The compression mode (1) is generating the shear headwave (2) at the part
surface. The compression wave velocity ensures that it is the first arrival at
the notch and forms the upper and lower diffracted compression waves (3
and 4). But this diffraction of the compression mode also generates a mode
converted shear (5).
Then as the shear headwave hits the notch it too diffracts a shear mode but
also mode converts to form a compression wave (6). Since it is nearly
double the velocity, the mode converted compression (6) will arrive at the
receiver before the mode converted shear (5).
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When the flaw is so close to the receiver the travel time for the mode
converted compression off the shear headwave may arrive prior to the
compression reflected backwall signal.
Depending on the depth and the relative signal strengths, it may be possible
to see both the direct compression mode diffracted signals (3 and 4) and the
diffracted mode converted shear signals. This is common enough for signals
seen after the backwall verifying the presence of a flaw seen (sometimes
poorly) from the longitudinal diffractions.
Conditions for both signals to arrive prior to the backwall must satisfy certain
timing requirements. These are indicated in Figure 7.25.
T2 L1 T1
L2
Ls T4 S3 T3
L6 T6 L5
T5
T5+T6>T3+T4 shear component occurs prior to backwall

S3 is shear headwave and T3 is time shear headwave takes
from transmitter to upper tip.
Figure 7.25 Mode converted arrival times.
Similarly, the mode converted shear from the direct incident compression
wave may also provide a signal that can arrive prior to the backwall.
When the full time range is displayed the indication can be seen multiple
times. This is indicated in Figure 7.26 for a flaw 5mm below the surface with
a vertical extent of 8mm. The upper tip indication is seen again at 22mm
depth and the multiples are seen in the mode converted region after the
backwall.
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Flaw seen by L mode
Flaw seen before backwall
Flaw seen twice

after backwall
Figure 7.26 Double image.
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Section 8
Codes and Standards

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Codes and Standards
8 Codes and Standards

Lack of related codes and standards has probably been the greatest
detractor to the use of ToFD in a more general way in NDT. Even with the
introduction of the well-reputed document on the use of ToFD, BS 7706,
there was still reluctance to use it because it was not generally possible to
assess acceptability of a weld to ToFD. This was due to the fact that all
regulating documents (Codes and standards) methods of acceptance
criteria were based on length of a flaw exceeding some reference amplitude.
A few companies derived workable specifications, but these were in-house

documents and not widely accepted. It has only been since about the year
2000 that ToFD has actually become widely accepted, and that due to the
change in the way flaws are assessed for acceptance.
In 2000 an ASME code case (Code case 2235) was published that
permitted the use of ultrasonic test methods in lieu of radiography on all
ASME Section VIII welds one half inch (12.5mm) thickness and greater.
Provided the ultrasonic technique used met a list of prerequisites any
ultrasonic technique could be used.
The prerequisites were not trivial. They included:
1 The ultrasonic examination area shall include the volume of the weld,
plus the HAZ plus 6mm beyond the heat affected zone on each side of
the weld, provided the following requirements are met:
a The extent of the weld HAZ is measured and documented during the
weld qualification process.
b The ultrasonic (UT) transducer positioning and scanning device is
controlled using a reference mark (paint or low stress stamp adjacent
to the weld) to ensure that the actual HAZ plus an additional 1⁄4in.
(6mm) of base metal is examined.
2 A documented examination strategy or scan plan shall be provided

showing transducer placement, movement and component coverage.
The scan plan shall also include ultrasonic beam angle used, beam
directions with respect to weld centerline and vessel volume examined
for each weld.
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3 The ultrasonic examination shall be performed in accordance with a

written procedure conforming to the requirements of Section V, Article 41.
The procedure shall have been demonstrated to perform acceptably on a
qualification block(s).
The qualification block(s) shall contain a minimum of three flaws,

oriented to simulate flaws parallel to the production weld’s fusion line as
follows:
a One surface flaw on the side of the block representing the vessel OD
surface.
b One surface flaw on the side of the block representing the vessel ID
surface.
c One subsurface flaw.
d If the block can be flipped during UT examination, then one flaw may
represent both the ID and OD surfaces.
Flaw size shall be no larger than the flaw in tables provided in the code
case for the thickness to be examined. Acceptable performance is
defined as response from the maximum allowable flaw and other flaws of
interest demonstrated to exceed the reference level.
Alternatively, for techniques that do not use amplitude recording levels,

acceptable performance is defined as demonstrating that all imaged
flaws with recorded lengths, including the maximum allowable flaws,
have an indicated length equal to or greater than the actual length of the
flaws in the qualification block.
4 The ultrasonic examination shall be performed using a device employing

automatic computer based data acquisition.
5 Data is recorded in unprocessed form.

6 Personnel performing and evaluating UT examinations shall be qualified
and certified in accordance with their employer’s written practice.
7 Contractor qualification records of certified personnel shall be approved
by the certificate holder and maintained by their employer.
8 In addition, personnel who acquire and analyse UT data shall be trained

using the equipment in (d) above and participate in the demonstration of
(c) above.
9 Data analysis and acceptance criteria shall be as follows:
a For amplitude-based techniques, the location, amplitude, and extent

of all reflectors that produce a response greater than 20% of the
reference level shall be investigated.
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Codes and Standards
b For non-amplitude-based techniques, the location and extent of all

images that have an indicated length greater than the limits in the
points provided in the code case shall be investigated.
c The final data package shall be reviewed by an UT Level III individual.
This is not the complete set of details in the code case (now revised
numerous times) but from this we can see the highlights include requirement
for a computerised UT system with data recording, sizing capabilities of
height and length of flaws and a demonstration of detection capabilities.
Clues to the applicability of ToFD may not be obvious at first glance as it is

not specifically stated but Items (c) and (i) refer to non-amplitude-based
techniques. Clearly ToFD is non-amplitude-based. In the requirement to
determine flaw size from the tables in the code case the height of a flaw
must be determined and from that height an allowed length is established.
This puts two requirements on UT:
 Detection.
 Sizing.
The detection is common enough to most NDT methods including pulse-

echo UT. However, sizing places an entirely new requirement on UT and it
is a requirement that ToFD is well positioned to provide. Although other
methods for sizing can be used (we will look briefly at tip echo methods in
pulse-echo mode later), only ToFD can easily be used as both the detection
and sizing tools.
Although the European Standards BS 706 and EN583-6 relating to the use
of ToFD predated the ASME Code Case 2235, they had no acceptance
criteria so it remained a good idea that was not widely used. The concepts
on which the ASME Code Case 2235 is based are called fitness-for-purpose
and these establish the tolerance to a flaw based on the toughness of the
material and its thickness and service conditions.
Subsequent to the ASME code case several other codes have incorporated
similar acceptance criteria based on the height of detected flaws. The list of
useful codes that allow ToFD and incorporate acceptance criteria includes:
 ASME code case 2235.

 API 620 (American Petroleum –Welded Storage Tanks).
 API 650 (American Petroleum – Welded steel tanks for Oil Storage).
 NEN 1822 (Netherlands standard).
The tables found in these standards are summarised below. Note: That
Tables 1 and 2 of the ASME code case do not provide a direct value.
Instead, an aspect ratio is indicated that requires a specific calculation for
the material thickness tested.
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Table 8.1 Appendix U from API 620 and API 650.

Acceptable Flaw Lengths.(l)mm (in.)
Thickness For Surface Flawb with For Subsurface Flaw with Height, (h) mm
at Weld (t)a Height, (h) mm (in.) (in.)
mm (in.)
h 2(0.08) 2.5(0.10) 3(0.12) 2(0.08) 3(0.12) 4(0.16) 5(0.2) 6(0.24)
10(0.375) 8 8 4 14 5 4 Not Not
to<13(0.50) (0.30) (0.30) (0.15) (0.55) (0.20) (0.15) Allowed Allowed
13(0.50)to< 8 8 4 38 8 5 4 3
19(0.75) (0.30) (0.30) (0.15) (1.5) (0.30) (0.20) (0.15) (0.10)
19(0.75)to< 8 8 4 75 13 8 6 5
25(1.0) (0.30) (0.30) (0.15) (3.0) (0.50) (0.30) (0.25) (0.20)
25(1.0)to<3 9 8 4 100 20 9 8 6
2(1.25) (0.35) (0.30) (0.15) (4.0) (0.80) (0.35) (0.30) (0.25)
32(1.25)to< 9 8 4 125 30 10 8 8
38(1.50) (0.35) (0.30) (0.15) (5.0) (1.2) (0.40) (0.30) (0.30)
38(1.50)to< 9 8 4 150 38 10 9 8
44(1.75) (0.35) (0.30) (0.15) (6.0) (1.5) (0.40) (0.35) (0.30)
Table 8.2 NEN 1822.
8.1 ASME code case 2235

To be read in conjunction with this summary.
Tables
Note: This code is subject to revision check tables for actual values.
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Codes and Standards
Table 8.3 ASME code case 2235 (Table 1).

Flaw acceptance criteria for 1⁄2 in. to less than 1 in. thick weld
a/t L
Surface flaw ≤0.087 ≤0.18
Subsurface flaw ≤0.143 ≤0.18
General notes:
a t= the thickness of the weld excluding any allowable reinforcement. For a butt weld
joining two members having different thickness at the weld, t is the thinner of these
two thicknesses. If a full penetration weld includes a fillet weld, the thickness of the
throat of the fillet weld shall be included in t.
b A subsurface indication shall be considered as a surface flaw if the separation (S in
Figure 1) of the indication from the nearest surface of the component is equal to or
less than half the through dimension (2d in Figure 1, sketch (b)) of the subsurface
indication. (See code case for details of interaction in figures quoted).

Flaw acceptance criteria for 1-12in thickness weld
1 in. ≤ t≤ 2.5 in. (Note (1)) 4 in. ≤ t≤ 12 in. (Note (1))
Aspect Surface Subsurface Surface Subsurface
Ratio, Flaw Flaw Flaw Flaw
a/l a/t a/t a/t a/t
0.00 0.031 0.034 0.019 0.020
0.05 0.033 0.038 0.020 0.022
0.10 0.036 0.043 0.022 0.025
0.15 0.041 0.049 0.025 0.029
0.20 0.047 0.057 0.028 0.033
0.25 0.055 0.066 0.033 0.038
0.30 0.064 0.078 0.038 0.044
0.35 0.074 0.090 0.044 0.051
0.40 0.083 0.105 0.050 0.058
0.45 0.085 0.123 0.051 0.067
0.50 0.087 0.143 0.052 0.076
General notes:
a t= thickness of the weld excluding any allowable reinforcement. For a butt weld
b A subsurface indication shall be considered as a surface flaw if separation (S in
less than half the through thickness dimension (2d in Figure 1, sketch (b)) of the
subsurface indication.
Note:
(1) For intermediate flaw aspect ratio a/l and thickness t (2 ½ in. < t < 4 in.) linear
interpolation is permissible.
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Codes and Standards

Flaw acceptance criteria for larger than 12in thickness weld
Aspect Surface Subsurface Flaw,
Ratio, Flaw, a, inches
a/l a, inches
0.00 0.228 0.240

0.05 0.240 0.264
0.10 0.264 0.300
0.15 0.300 0.348
0.20 0.336 0.396
0.25 0.396 0.456
0.30 0.456 0.528
0.35 0.528 0.612
0.40 0.612 0.696
0.45 0.600 0.804
0.50 0.624 0.912
General notes:
a For intermediate flaw aspect ratio, a/_ linear interpolation is permissible.
b t = the thickness of the weld excluding any allowable reinforcement. For a butt weld
c A subsurface indication shall be considered as a surface flaw if separation (S in
less than half the through thickness dimension (2d in Figure 1, sketch (b)) of the
subsurface indication).
Not all codes and standards provide acceptance criteria. Some provide just
the test requirements and leave it to construction standards to provide the
acceptance criteria.
Examples of standards regulating the implementation of the test method

include:
 BS 7706 (1993) Guide to Calibration and setting-up of the ultrasonic

time-of-flight diffraction (ToFD) technique for detection, location and
sizing of flaws. British Standards Institute 1993.
 CEN prEN 583-6 Time of Flight Diffraction Technique as a method for
defect detection and sizing.
 ASTM E-2192 Standard Guide for Planar Flaw Height Sizing by
Ultrasonics.
 ASTM E 2373 Standard Practice for Use of the Ultrasonic Time of Flight
Diffraction (ToFD) Technique.
 ASME Section V Article 4 Appendix III and Appendix N.
 EN 14751, Technical Specification.
 Welding: Use of Time-of-Flight-Diffraction Technique (ToFD) for Testing
of Welds.
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Codes and Standards
Standards such as those listed above are the attempts of industry to ensure
a minimum level of functionality or quality. When a new method arrives
industry often lacks the research and development associated with that new
method. This was the case with ToFD where it took over twenty years from
its introduction in 1976 to establish the first Standards. It took another
fourteen to then establish the tools to use ToFD in day to day applications.
An important aspect in the practical application of ToFD relating to these

documents is the need for accompanying documentation. General aspects
of a company’s standard practices for an NDT test method are contained in
a document called a procedure. EN 14751 is a convenient option to avoid
writing a separate document in some applications! Although in EN 14751 it
states concerning a written instruction.
8.2 Written test instruction

For examination levels A and B, this document satisfies the need for a
written test instruction.
Based on its content and the definition of requirements for a procedure in

PCN CP/25, it would seem more likely that the more extensive coverage
expected in a procedure is addressed by the contents of EN 14751. For
those required to draft such a document (ie a ToFD Procedure) it is at least
recommended they review the contents and layout of EN14751.
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Section 9
Industrial Applications
Rev 1 November 2010
9 Industrial Applications
ToFD may have had a slow start getting into industrial applications but now
several examples exist where users have found the advantages superior to
that of conventional manual UT. Several examples are provided in this
section.
9.1 Standard industrial applications

Industry has taken advantage of ToFD for its improved potential for
detection and sizing in many venues.
Pressure vessel construction

Construction of pressure-vessels, such as the butane spheres in Figure 9.1,
is an ideal candidate for ToFD. 100% of the welds on these spheres in
Brazil were inspected. This provided more coverage than radiography
(radiography would only have been required to do a spot check of about
10% of the weld lengths) and it was done without the interruption to
production that radiation hazards would have involved.
It was decided that the increased speed of ToFD could be used to increase
the amount of inspection and thereby increase probability of detecting any
serious flaws. The wall thickness (nearly 60mm) would have made it
necessary to use Cobalt 60 compounding the safety issues and reducing
the detection capability.
Figure 9.1 Butane sphere ToFD inspection, Image courtesy NDT do Brazil.
Weld root erosion

Process and transport piping systems can be subject to chemical attack
causing structural breakdown particularly in the area of welds adjacent
parent metal. If the breakdown occurs the affected material can be more
readily eroded by product flow.
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The technique employed for this problem used a ToFD profiling of the
backwall because conventional (zero degree compression wave) wall
thickness measurement techniques were inappropriate due to poor surface
access and inability to accurately determine the mis-oriented surfaces of the
irregular flaw conditions involved. The principles are illustrated in Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2 Weld root erosion Images, courtesy NDT Inspection and Testing Ltd.
Cladding interface inspection

Refinery vessels are often constructed with a corrosion resistant liner clad to
the interior surface of the vessels. This liner material is deposited by
explosive or fusion welding. As a result of impingement erosion it is possible
to break down regions of the bonded protective cladding and the vessel may
suffer attack of the ferritic steel.
Figure 9.3 illustrates the combination of ToFD and normal beam corrosion
mapping on a Monel clad vessel in a refinery in India. Areas of cladding
breakdown were identified and depth assessed. This allowed the affected
areas to be monitored and repaired.
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Cladding breakdown
Cladding interface
Baseline
Figure 9.3 Cladding interface inspection.
Fatigue cracking
Vibrations or cyclic loading can set up conditions that risk fatigue on
components. When potential areas are identified for this failure mechanism
they can be monitored. An internal attachment in a heat exchanger was the
site for such a problem.
Figure 9.4 illustrates the location and ToFD detection of a deep (80%
through wall) crack. Note: In spite of being 80% through wall the backwall is
not completely washed out in the ToFD image (although this
characterisation of washed out backwall is often used as the identifier of a
deep surface connected flaw). MPI was used for confirmation of flaw
removal prior to repair and ToFD was again used to assess the quality of
the weld repair.
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Figure 9.4 Fatigue cracking detection, Images courtesy NDT Inspection and
Testing Ltd.
Shear mode ToFD

Great debate continues in some circles on the ability to size flaws by
ultrasonic means. A wide variety of performance demonstrations and round-
robin trials have been carried out on weld flaws. These have typically
provided a precision (using standard deviation of error in sizing) of just over
1mm.
A notable difference can be made when the material and geometry is more
uniform like that of butt welds. On nuclear materials using much shorter λ
and perfect geometry, repeatable accuracies of ± 0.1mm have been
achieved using shear mode ToFD1. Lindenshmidt used an immersion ToFD
configuration with 25MHz probes and a 45 degrees shear mode to size
cracks in Zirconium/Niobium tubing having a wall thickness of only 4mm.
ToFD by phased array

Figure 9.5 shows ToFD scans from two different projects. The left side uses
a single element ToFD probe 6mm diameter 10MHz and the plate is 45mm
thick.
On the right is a ToFD scan using a 7.5MHz phased array probe using
twelve elements (equivalent to a 12mm element) on a 32mm wall thickness.
The only differences are those relating to signal duration. The phased array
results are seen to have lower frequency content (as determined by the
longer duration of lateral wave).
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Whereas an operator is limited to the results obtainable from a single

element ToFD pair, a phased array operator can optimise conditions to
some extent. Adjusting the number of elements to vary the beam coverage
and adjusting the angle by a couple degrees up or down to improve near
surface resolution is possible using phased array generated ToFD.
The phased array operator has the ability to use a focused beam to improve
sizing resolution. Phased array features such as multiple beam angles and
beam divergence characteristics can be carried out simultaneously in a
single scan whereas a single element process would require a large
scanning array or multiple scans of the same test specimen.
Figure 9.5 Conventional versus phased array ToFD.
Backscatter sizing
Early in this manual we defined ToFD to be the ultrasonic technique that
uses diffracted signals from forward scattering so uses two probes.
However, diffraction effects result in a spherical or cylindrical wave so also
has components that are scattered backwards towards the transmitter.
When we reviewed the requirements in the ASME code case 2235 it was
seen that the techniques used could be non-amplitude based. It was also a
requirement that the technique used had to be capable of sizing flaws
detected. Some have opted to use the traditional pulse-echo techniques as
the detection method and then use a time-of-flight, or tip-echo technique to
size any flaws detected by the pulse-echo inspection.
Figure 9.6 illustrates the principles of the backscatter sizing technique for a
surface-breaking flaw. Note: The same principles can be used for both
single element and bi-modal dual element probe techniques but the
examples indicate a simple shear mode with the two conditions of the probe
positioned to peak on the flaw tip in the first half skip (upper) or second half
skip (lower).
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Figure 9.6 Tip diffracted signal using pulse-echo shear wave.
For a midwall planar flaw the general condition for the origin of tip diffracted
signals can be described as in Figure 9.7. The delta time between D1 and D2
does allow for some estimate of sizing via the equation
 2D 
t   sin 
 c 
Where D is the distance between the defect extremities and θ is the angle
that the incident beam makes with the line perpendicular to the planar
defect.
Reflec ted wave


Diffrac ted wave D2
Inc ident wave
Diffracted wave D1
Flaw of Size D
D1 D2
Example A-scan with diffracted signal separation
Figure 9.7 Tip signal origins.
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This information on backscatter tip diffraction sizing has been added here
merely to indicate that not all time of flight diffraction signals are treated the
same; however, the origin of the diffracted pulses is identical in both cases.
A slight advantage sometimes exists to use backscatter diffraction as it can

provide a slightly better precision that forward scanner. This is simply
because of the pulse duration and time-distance equivalence. Eg a spatial
resolution of 1.6mm exists for a flaw at 20mm depth with a 100mm PCS with
a 7MHz probe but in pulse-echo the ring-time reduces that spatial resolution
to 1.0mm.
9.2 Turbine applications

Turbine disks
Turbine disks present a challenge for inspections due to their size, mass
and complex shapes. ToFD has been found useful in several applications
on turbine disks.
Disks of low-pressure turbine rotors are highly-stressed components which

are subject to ageing due to the environment in which they operate.
Mechanical stresses, especially in area of the shrink fit, may result in stress
corrosion cracking exacerbated by the temperatures during turbine
operation.
The dendritic inter-crystalline stress corrosion cracks occur preferentially on

the hub inside surfaces and on the axial anti-rotation devices (keyways) of
the disks and exhibit axial-radial orientation, due to the tangential direction
of the main stress. As a result, unallowable crack growth or in extreme
cases, disk rupture may occur after long periods in service.
Turbine disk are constructed in a series of disks mounted on a shaft by a

shrink-fit process. Inspection is carried out by several ultrasonic techniques
including ToFD, using a long arm on which the probes are mounted.
The gantry from which the probes are moved is moveable from disk to disk
and the scans carried out by rotating the turbine unit so the entire volume of
concern is scanned.
Figure 9.8 illustrates the turbine with the cover removed and the probe
gantry positioned to access one of the disks. The image on the right
illustrates the scans made. These include a small angle shear pulse-echo
relying on the corner effect, a high angle shear pulse-echo relying on the
tangential effect, a zero degree in the radial direction to assess for corrosion
and ToFD to size and flaws detected by the pulse-echo techniques.
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Stress corrosion cracking in keyway crown,

(courtesy SWRI).
Figure 9.8 Turbine disk inspection, photo courtesy Siemens.
Turbine rotors
Another application of ToFD is carried out on the turbine rotor shaft. This is
machined to hold the disks and couple to the generator. The transitions from
one diameter to another present a particular concern for thermal fatigue
cracks.
Space is limited and the elevation differences between the probe access
surfaces means that the ToFD techniques for some of these geometries
provides no lateral or backwall signal. Figure 9.9 illustrates a turbine rotor
shaft packed on a rail car ready to deliver to the location where the turbine
disks will be shrunk-fit.
Figure 9.9 Turbine rotor shaft photo courtesy Japan Steel Works.
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A paper by Nath describes a ToFD technique for inspecting a critical groove

region subject to thermal fatigue cracking. This geometry had the probes
either side of the groove and both were placed well above the radius surface
(See Figure 9.10). Sizing of surface-breaking flaw depth was the goal of the
technique and it proved to be effective down to the 5mm deep slits used.
Figure 9.10 Groove showing cracking.
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Section 10
Other Reading and References

Rev 1 November 2010
10 Other Reading and References

Materials have been drawn from many sources to compile this handbook.
Websites are listed with credits to the authors where they are used in the
body of the book. These and other websites are also listed here.
Websites
NDT-Inspection – UK (several case examples).
http://www.ndt-inspection.co.uk/Inspection/ToFD.html.
Time of Flight Diffraction-Its Limitations-Actual and Perceived, by Bill Brown,

NDTnet-Spet.1997, Vol.2, No.09
www.ndt.net/v02n09.htm.
ToFD PROOF - Homepage University of Stuttgart – Stuttgart Germany

http://www.mpa-lifetech.de/ToFD/.
Texts
Automated Ultrasonic Inspection of Welds, IIW Sub-Commission VC, The
International Institute of Welding 1989.
Crack Depth Measurements in Thin-Walled Tubing by Time-Of-Flight,

Review of Progress in Quantitative Non-Destructive Evaluation, Vol. 11, p.
2093 Lindenschmidt K. and M. Moles, 1991.
Engineering Applications of Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight Diffraction, Second

Edition, by J.P. Charlesworth and J.A.G. Temple, publisher Research
Studies Press, 2001, ISBN 0 86380 239 7.
Handbook Automated Ultrasonic Systems, O. Barbian et al, IIW, 2005.
Introduction to Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology Applications, by R/D

Tech Inc., Published by R/D Tech Inc., 2004, ISBN 0-9735933-0-X.
Sizing of surface-breaking cracks in complex geometry components by

ultrasonic Time-of-Flight Diffraction (ToFD) technique, Insight, Vol. 9, No.
49, April 2007 by S.K. Nath, K Balasubramaniam, C V Krishnamoorty and B
H Narayana,
Ultrasonic Flaw Detection for Technicians- third edition, by J.C.Drury,

Silverwing, 2004.
Ultrasonic Instruments and Devices: Reference for Modern Instrumentation,

Techniques, and Technology, by Emmanuel Papadakis (Editor), Publisher:
Academic Press; (January 2000) ISBN: 0125319517.
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Journal articles
Sizing crack like defects by ultrasonic means, by M.G. Silk, in Research
Techniques in Non-destructive Testing, vol. 3, ed. by R S Sharpe, Academic
Press, London, 1977.
ASME (The American Society of Mechanical Engineers)

Cases of ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code case 2235-9
Use of Ultrasonic Examination in Lieu of Radiography Section 1; Section
VIII, Divisions 1 and 2; and Section XII.
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Glossary
Rev 1 November 2010
Glossary
Glossary
The terms found in this glossary are the result of a contribution from several
of the industry manufacturers and users.
Backwall echo A specular reflection from the back-wall of the

component being examined.
Creeping wave Term sometimes used to describe the lateral

wave (divergent compression wave) that
follows the contour of a curved surface.
Diffraction When a wave front direction has been

changed by an obstacle or other in-
homogeneity in a medium, other than by
reflection or refraction.
Free run Taking data, without the movement of the

probes (eg held stationary), using timed
acquisition of the lateral wave and back wall
reflection to check system software output.
Head wave A shear wave that is generated by mode

conversion when a compression wave travels
at a grazing angle on a free solid surface.
Lateral wave A compression wave that travels by the most

direct route from the transmitting probe to the
receiving probe in a ToFD configuration. Term
usually used when testing plate butt welds
(where both transmitter and receiver are at
the same elevation).
Non-parallel or longitudinal A scan whereby the probe pair motion is

scan perpendicular to the ultrasonic beam (eg
parallel to the weld axis).
Parallel or transverse scan A scan whereby the probe pair motion is

parallel to the ultrasonic beam (eg
perpendicular to the weld axis).
Probe centre spacing The distance between the marked exit points
(PCS) of a pair of ToFD probes for a specific
application.
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Time of Flight Diffraction (ToFD)

Training & Examination Services

Time of Flight Diffraction (ToFD)

10 Other Reading and References

The NDT standards were based on radiography, with construction involving

Nuclear plants are all required to undergo periodic inspections of the

Amplitude drop methods of sizing relate relative probe motion from

Top view Side View

Figure 1.1 Angle beam probe.

a) Length (effective for defects longer than beam width)

Figure 1.2 Defect dimensions.

1 Portion of beam interacting on the reflector’s surface.

The MaxAmp technique is also an amplitude drop technique and relies on

In 1958 Krautkramer developed a series of formulae to estimate the size of

Figure 1.3 DGS diagram.

In the 1970s Prof. Dr I.N.Ermolov proposed equivalency equations that

Figure 1.5 Amplitude versus diffraction sizing methods.

Similarly, reliability of inspection techniques was compared during the

Figure 1.6 Reliability values from different inspection techniques.

Mr Bill Brown presented a paper on the internet (www.ndt.net) in September

Some of this lack of understanding emanates from the mystique built up by

The Principles of ToFD

2 The Principles of ToFD

Diffraction occurs when an obstacle distorts a wave, eg if the wave travels

Figure 2.1 Single slit and long obstruction.

A photoelastic image of the effect seen on the right is provided as Figure

Figure 2.2 Photoelastic image of long obstruction.

Whereas a large amplitude signal from a reflected wave is generally

It is important to note that a diffraction effect can be detected in essentially

Figure 2.3 Specula and tip diffraction echoes.

Although this is a tip-diffraction sizing method it is not generally considered

The transmitted pulse is no different from the transmitted pulse in a pulse-

There is still some requirement to ensure that adequate instrument gain is

Although most ToFD is done using compression mode it is not always

Of the many deviations of the ToFD technique from standard pulse-echo, it

2.2 Diffraction as it applies to ToFD

Upper tip Lower tip

Figure 2.4 Welds in plate.

Several aspects of Figure 2.4 must be noted to recognise some of the

Diffraction effects have generally been theoretical discussions in most

A series of photos has been made using photoelastic imaging to illustrate

Whereas the schematic in Figure 2.4 simplified the process by indicating

A pulse is seen leaving the wedge with

The 3mm high notch face reflects the L-

The lateral wave has reached the receiver

Faint tip signals can be seen from the

Figure 2.5.Components and pulse-path.

The reflecting and mode-converting back-wall signals are illustrated in

Figure 2.6.Backwall reflection.

 Large amounts of data collected.

2.3 Data visualisation

Figure 2.7 A version of isometric A-scans.

The most effective option was to convert the amplitude displacements on a

One A-scan is replaced by one gray-coded line Time

Figure 2.8 A-scan with amplitude displacements.

Probe motion in ToFD always maintains a constant separation of the probes

Figure 2.10 Scan types.

To some users, this difference has rationalised a difference in the data

2.4 ToFD advantages and limitations

Commercial considerations make speed an important factor. The advantage

When the data storage advantage is considered in light of sensitivity it might

Easy discrimination of defects and geometry

Reduced operator reliance

If such defects are of genuine concern then a combination of ToFD and