(1) SCALE AND PROPORTION
1:1.61.
ARCHITECTURE
Architecture applies science, art, and
mathematics. An architect arranges space,
form, and materials in a structure. This
process was highly affected by the concept of
proportion and scale which are critical in
determining the aesthetic and functional
matter of a building
PROPORTION
Definition: Relationship between building
elements in terms of size, scale, and visual
balance.
Methods: Calculation of ratios and use of
mathematical and geometric forms.
Examples: Golden ratio (1:1.618) for balance,
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns with
specific ratios.
Role in Architecture: Creates harmonious and
aesthetically pleasing compositions.
Example in Architecture: Seen in building
height-to-width ratio. Affects placement of
windows, doors, and columns. Classical
orders that follow specific height, width, and
base ratios.
Proportion refers to the proper or harmonious
relation of one part to another or the whole.
This relationship might be.
A Magnitude
Quantity
Degree
PROPORTIONING SYSTEMS
Definition: Set of rules guiding element
relationships in terms of size, scale, and
visual balance.
Unique Rules: Each system has distinct
guidelines.
Goal: Achieve harmonious and aesthetically
pleasing compositions.
GOLDEN RATIO
Uses mathematical ratio (1:1.61) for
balance to produce balanced, and
aesthetically pleasing composition
The golden rectangle is an architectural
shape that can be divided into a square and a
rectangle, forming a ratio of approximately
Since the dimension of these shapes
correspond to the ratio, this suggests that it is
possible to adjust structure hile still
maintaining these golden proportions
VITRUVIAN SYSTEM
Uses mathematical ratios based on human
anatomy for element size and placement.
Was developed by the ancient Roman
architect Vitruvius.
It shows the perfect proportion of an
individual. It helps the architecture by
presenting the size, scale, and proportions
which are key to design
MODULAR SYSTEM
Based on the human body for element
size and placement. It is an iteration of
the Vitruvian Man
The Modulor system is based on the height of
a man with his arms raised, reaching a height
of 2.262 m
SCALE
Definition: Relationship of an object's size to
a standard measurement (e.g., human body
or environment).
Use in Architecture: Creates harmonious and
aesthetically pleasing designs, considering
human scale and surroundings.
Comparative Aspect: Objects compared to
human scale or a common standard.
Importance: Impacts hierarchy, balance,
visual interest, comfort, safety, and
well-being.
Example: Life-sized, Miniature, Oversized,
and Enormous
TYPES OF SCALE
● HUMAN SCALE
Size and proportion relative to the human
body. It takes into account the average height
and size of a person.
This scale is used to provide environment
that is comfortable and functional by all ages,
size, and abilities.
 ● INTIMATE SCALE
Usually refers to small size and designed for
cozy feel of spaces. It is intended for smaller
and personal use. Also, providing a sense of
comfort and safety is one of its goal.
Often with a low ceiling height and enclosed
feel. Its is usually in contrast by monumental
scale.
● MONUMENTAL SCALE
Imposes grand and size of architectural
structures. Usually for public buildings,
monumental works of art, and landmarks. Its
purpose is to create a sense of awe.
This is characterized by its large size, high
ceilings, and grand public spaces.
● HIERARCHICAL SCALE
It shows sense of visual hierarchy and
emphasis. This scale increases the size of a
certain element to make it appear more
dominant than others.
It allows designers to highlight an element to
guide the viewer’s experience of a space.
Every small detail give immediate
response to the brain
SPATIAL PERCEPTION
Ability to be aware of your relationship
with the environment around you and with
yourself. Ability to perceived spatial
relationship in respect to the orientation
of one’s body despite distracting
information. (visually understand)
2 TYPES OF VISION
Binocular Vision
Monocular Vision
Binocular Vision
The ability to overlap views that are
slightly different into one image. This
visual process created an illusion of
three-dimensional depth, making it
possible to judge distances

(2) VISUAL ACUITY & PERCEPTION

VISUAL ACUITY
It is the ability to see every detail
The ability of the eye to see contours and
patterns in a detailed and sharply
delineated way

PERCEPTION
Oxford (The ability to see, hear, or
become aware of something through the
senses.)
Merriam (A result of perceiving, Retinal Disparity
observation) Britannica (The way you A binocular cue for perceiving depth: the
think about or understand someone or greater the disparity (difference) between
something. The ability to understand or the two images each eye receives of an
notice something easily) object, the closer the object is.

PERCEPTION
Explain how the process visual
information. How your brain
analyze/interpret someting

Monocular Vision
ability to see with just one eye. It's the
type of vision that occurs when an
individual uses one eye to view their
surroundings, rather than using both eyes
together (binocular vision).
PRINCIPLES IN PERCEIVING THE
OBJECTS AND SHAPES
Figure-Ground
defined as a human's ability to visually
differentiate between an object and its
background. The target object becomes
the observer's main visual and mental
focus. In psychology, the object being
perceived is known as the figure while
everything else is referred to as the
background or ground.
Reversible Figure
Fluctuation
The phenomena of the alternating 'Figure'
and 'Ground' alternating perspective and
retinal rivalry provide examples of
fluctuation.
Impossible Figures
When three dimensional forms are
illustrated on two-dimensional surfaces
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS THAT
AFFECT THE ACCURACY OF SHAPE
PERCEPTION
VISUAL ILLUSIONS
have an effect because the observer's
perception is influenced by the inclusion
of their parts in the overall pattern.
GESTALT psychologist places a high
value on this tendency to perceive
shapes not exactly as they are but in a
slightly modified form. The word means
"FORMATION.
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
1. Proximity
The principle, also known as "grouping,"
is concerned with the effect produced
when a set of elements' collective
presence becomes more meaningful than
their presence as separate elements.
2. Similarity
According to the principle of similarity,
perception allows for the recognition of
stimuli that physically resemble each
other as being part of the same object.
3. Closure
The principle of closure refers to the
mind's tendency to see complete figures
or forms even if a picture is incomplete,
partially obscured by other objects, or if
part of the information required to create
a complete picture in the minds is missing
4. Good Continuation
When two or more objects intersect,
people tend to perceive each obiect as a
single uninterrupted object. This allows
for the differentiation of stimuli even when
they are visually overlapping.
5. Common Fate
Perception associates movement as part
of the same stimulus when visual
elements are seen moving in the same
direction at the same rate (optical flow)
6. Good Form
Symmetry and Order
The principle of good form refers to the
tendency to group forms of similar shape,
pattern, color, and so on together. Even
when two or more forms clearly overlap,
the human brain interprets them in such a
way that people can distinguish between
different patterns and/or shapes.
(3) SHAPES, FORMS & UNITY
SHAPE
According to Ching (2023, p. 36), "Shape
refers to the characteristic outline of a
plane figure or the surface configuration
of a volumetric form. It is the primary
means by which we recognize, identify,
and categorize particular figures and
forms.
In architecture, we are concerned with
the shapes of:
• floor, wall, and ceiling planes that
enclose space
• door and window with spatial enclosure
silhouettes and contour of building forms
FUNCTION OF A SHAPE
Gestalt psychology affirms that the mind
will simplify the visual environment in
order to understand it. Given any
composition of forms, we tend to reduce
the subject matter in our visual field to the
simplest and most regular shapes
PRIMARY SHAPES
CIRCLE
A plane curve every point of which is
equidistant from a fixed point within the
curve
A circle is a stable and self-centering
figure that can appear to rotate when
combined with angular forms or elements
along its circumference. Placing a circle
in the center of a field emphasizes its
centralit
TRIANGLE
A plane figure bounded by three sides
and having three angles
The triangle is a symbol of stability, but
when tipped onto one of its vertices, it
can become unstable and fall over onto
one of its sides
SQUARE
A plane figure having four equal sides
and four right angles
The square represents purity and reason,
with two equal and perpendicular lines of
symmetry. Other rectangular shapes can
be seen as modifications of the square by
changing its height or width. The square
is stable lying on one side and dynamic
standing on a corner. When its diagonals
are vertical and horizontal, the square is
in a harmonious and balanced state.
WHAT IS FORM?
A building's form is its shape or
configuration. The fundamental
components of architecture are form and
space
A form in architecture is a
threedimensional item or structure that is
perceived in place and time by the viewer
and is made possible by the interaction of
light and shadow. An example of a
structure that presents a complicated,
geometric form on the skyline is a
building.
WHY FORM IS IMPORTANT IN
ARCHITECTURE?
It is a crucial component of architectural
design since a building's form can affect
its use, aesthetic appeal, and overall
environmental impact. Many different
aspects, such as cultural, historical,
social, and technological settings, have
an impact on form.
02 Using form in graphic design allows
graphic designers to produce more
eyecatching and detailed work.
EXAMPLES OF FORMS
SPHERE
- Spherical architectural buildings
are rarely built; they often only
appear in utopian schemes.
- The shape of the sphere is more
like to the interior of the cave that
has been hollowed out,
CONE
- Cones have a comical
appearance, but they also serve a
purpose. They are frequently
employed in roofs because of their
ability to shed water, offer
protection from the elements, and
produce an uplifting interior
atmosphere.
CUBE
- The cube is a threedimensional
SQUARE; it is a symbol of stability
 and permanence, of geometric
perfection.
CYLINDER
- The cylinder is a threedimensional
shape that is significant in
architecture. Many structures,
including arches, ceilings, and
roofs, are supported by cylinders
WHAT IS UNITY?
the state of being joined together or in
agreement
refers to how different elements work
together to create a sense of wholeness
ELEMENTS OF UNITY
Texture
Refers to the appearance and feel of a
surface
Color
Here colour refers to hue (colour range
Tone
The colour theory and varies from the
neutral scale of white to black
ELEMENTS OF UNITY
Direction
These are strong elements that suggest
vertical and horizontal direction.
Proportion
The geometric relationship of
the sides of volumes
Solid and Void
The relationship between solid (walls,
roofs, etc) and void (windows and other
openings
Form and Shapes
Repetition or variation of a particular form
can provide strong elements of
composition
(4) BALANCE & GRAVITATIONAL
CURVE
What is Balance?
● Equality
● Composition
● It is the foundation upon which
arrangement,harmony and
adjustment of weights, tones,
valuesetc. are developed.
● Satisfies the eye with reference to
the relative importance of the
various parts of design
Axis
● Demands balance
● Means of organizing forms
● and spaces in Architecture.
● Imaginary and not visible
● Qualities of length, width and
induces movementalong its path.
Types of Balance
I. Symmetrical
A. Centralized
Central axis- the easiest and simplest
kind of Balance in which the elements are
arranged in precisely the same manner
on either side of a central axis or line
B. Formal Type Symmetry –
approaches absolute symmetry. General
mass and grouping may appear similar,
but there are dissimilarities in plan,
elevations or details
C. Radial Type Symmetry –
characterized where all parts radiate from
a center
Subtle and elusive. Difficult to attain
Informal grouping of shapes in attempt to
satisfy the eye’s instinctive need to
observe balance without making effort to
place equal masses at similar distances
GRAVITATIONAL CURVE
● Complete adaptation to
surroundings
● Emphasizes picturesqueness
instead of symmetry.
● Results freely rely on natural
surroundings instead of manmade
structures
Group 5
(6) KINETHETIC QUALITY OF SPACE
WHAT IS KINESTHETIC?
● it is the sensation of movement or
starin in muscles, tendons and
joints.
● a person's awareness of the
position and movement of the
parts of the body by means of
sensory
HOW IS KINESTHETIC PRINCIPLE
APPLIED IN SPACE?
In the context of architecture and design,
the kinesthetic quality of a space involves
how the physical environment influences
and interacts with human movement,
bodily sensations, and spatial awareness
In the context of architecture and design,
the kinesthetic quality of a space involves
how the physical environment influences
and interacts with human movement,
bodily sensations, and spatial awareness
EARLY JAPANESE GARDEN
The early designers of the Japanese
Garden apparently understood something
of the interrelationship between the
Kinesthetic experience of space and the
visual experience. Lacking wide-open
spaces, and living close together as they
do, the Japanese learned to make the
most of small spaces.
EARLY JAPANESE GARDEN
FEATURES
Water
Many early Japanese gardens include
water features such as ponds, streams,
and waterfalls. Water is the major
element that defines a Japanese garden.
It embodies different meanings
depending on its state. Still water
signifies a reflection of life, while flowing
water represents its continuity.
Rocks
Rocks generally represent stability,
although pebbles or gravel can symbolize
water. Vertical rocks, including volcanic
ones, symbolize mountains, while flat
rocks denote islands or the earth itself.
Smooth rocks often serve as stepping
stones or pathways
Plants
The Japanese garden stands as a tribute
to nature, wherein plants are used to
embellish the space and hide the outside
world. Plants are chosen based on their
blossoming seasons and the
transformation of their foliage across
different times of the year.
Tea Houses
Tea houses and designated rest areas
are strategically placed within the garden.
These spaces encourage visitors to
pause, appreciate specific viewpoints,
and engage in the physical act of sitting
and resting.
JAPANESE ROOM
Art Deco
In the use of interior space, the Japanese
keep the edges of their rooms clear
because everything takes place in the
middle
EUROPEAN ROOM
Art Deco
In the use of interior space, the
Europeans tend to fill up the edges by
placing furniture near or against the walls.
As a consequence, Western rooms often
look less clustered to the Japanese
HIDDEN ZONES IN AMERICAN
OFFICES
People's reaction to office space reveals
that the most important criterion is what
people can do in the course of their work
without bumping into something. Offices
provides different spatial experiences.
One office would be aquadate, another
would be not.
One of example is an employee who had
a habit of pushing herself away from her
desk and leaning back in her chair to
stretch her arms, legs, and sp
THREE HIDDEN ZONES IN AMERICAN
OFFICES
Cramped
01) The immediate work area of the
desktop and chair
Small
02) A series of points within arm's reach
outside the area mentioned above.
Adequate or ample
03) Spaces marked as the limit reached A room with a ceiling you can touch is
when one pushes away from the desk to quite different from one with a ceiling
achieve a little distance from the work eleven feet high
without actually getting up
PLANNED TRAFFIC FLOW
WHY IS KINESTHETIC SPACE
IMPORTANT Behavioral trajectory of the people and
goods flowing inside a building.
kinesthetic space is an important factor in
day-to-day living in the buildings that The Family of Man
architects and designers create. “The Family of Man” is an example of a
hotel rooms are too small when a person planned traffic flow. It is an photographic
cannot move around them without art exhibit that contains 503 pictures
bumping into things. comparing two occupying some 2.700m of wall space in
rooms, identical in shape and area, the New York’s Museum of Modern Art
one that permits the greater variety of Planned. This exhibit is by Edward
free movement will usually be Steichen and was made by Architect Paul
experienced as larger. there is certainly Rudolph
great need for improvement in the layout
of our interior spaces, so that people are to give the show pace and rhythm,
not always bumping into each other tesichen and rudolph wanted to be sure
that people saw the pictures in a certain
WHAT DIFFERENTIATE ONE SPACE order. so he placed and arranged the
FROM ANOTHER photos, large keynot pictures alternating
with contemplative images, sorroful
Given the fact that there are great subjects distributed with lighthearted
individual and cultural differences, there ones.
are still certain generalizations which can
be made about what it is that
differentiates one space from another.
Briefly, what you can do in it determines
how you experience a given space.
A room that can be traversed in one or
two steps gives an entirely different
experience from a room requiring fifteen
or twenty steps.
A small restaurant with say twenty-five
small tables for four people, when filled
up will always look crowded and will give
a person the experience he is eating in a
famous restaurant, while a spacious
restaurant with 80 tables for four when
occupied, by the same amount of number
as the small restaurant will still look
empty and gives an impression of not
fully occupied.
(7) SPACE ARTICULATION AND
TERRITORIALITY
WHAT IS SPACE?
Merriam-Webster: Space is the distance
from other people or things that a person
needs in order to remain comfortable.
Architectural Space: is defined as a
concretization of man’s existential space.
it has to adapt itself to the needs or
organic action as well as facilitating
orientation through perception.
PHYSICAL SPACE
It is when an individual’s physical
characteristics are taken into
consideration in planning rooms inside a
house or a building to accommodate the
user’s comfort
● Anthropometrics
● Ergonomics
VISUAL SPACE
it is a form of Physical space wherein it is
a place where you can rest your eyes. It
is how we obtain privacy without being
alone
SPACE TO SPACE RELATIONSHIP
SPACE WITHIN A SPACE
A large space can contain a smaller
space within its volume.
INTERLOCKING SPACE
Results from overlapping of two volumes
and the resultant area of shared spac
ADJACENT SPACE
allows each space to be clearly defined
and to respond to specific functional or
symbolic requirements.
SPACES LINKED BY A COMMON
SPACE
Two separate spaces can be linked to
each other by a third, intermediate,
space. The spatial relationship between
the two spaces depends on the qualities
of the third space which they share
SPACE ARTICULATION
BASE PLANE
A horizontal plane laying as a figure on a
contrasting background defines a simple
field of space.
ELEVATED BASE PLANE
A horizontal plane elevated above the
ground plane establishes vertical
surfaces along its edges that reinforce
the visual separation between its filed
and the surrounding ground.
DEPRESSED BASE PLANE
A horizontal plane depressed into the
ground plane utilizes the vertical surfaces
of the lowered area to define a volume of
space.
Extroverted - The act of stepping up to an
elevated space; implying significance of
place.
Introverted - Lowering of a space below
its surrounding’ protective/sheltering
qualities.
OVERHEAD PLANE
A horizontal plane located overhead
defines a volume of space between itself
and the ground plane
PRIMARY TERRITORY
An area that is owned, used exclusively,
recognized by others, is controlled
permanently, and becomes a major part
of the daily activities of its inhabitants.
Example: Bedroom
SECONDARY TERRITORY
An area that is not too used exclusively
by a person or group of people who have
a relatively wide area coverage,
periodically controlled.
Example: Personal Desk
PUBLIC TERRITORY

INTRODUCTION TO TERRITORIALITY An area that is used and can be entered

by anyone but he must comply with
DEFENSIBLE SPACE THEORY existing norms.
According to Newman (1972), Defensible Example: Beach
Space theory creates a social structure
that shields itself and aims at physical
restructuring that helps the residents to
gain control over the area of their homes
with established common values and
lifestyles (Newman, 1996).

TYPES OF TERRITORIALITY
Territoriality is the relationship between
space with humans, the study approach
with a focus on cultural norms, and
different societies will generate a form
and a different concept of space