b) Radial muscle cells contracted; circular
Page 141 How does a nerve fibre transmit a
signal?
1. Examples of answers:
 All or nothing - Japanese deer scarers/geyser
eruptions/starting flow through a siphon (for
example flushing a lavatory).
 One-way – non-tidal river flows/blood flow in
the human circulation system/time.
 Domino – movement of waves/peristalsis in
the esophagus/spread of rot in stored apples.
2. Infectious disease is similar in that disease is
passed from an individual that has it to another
that doesn’t and a nerve impulse is passed from a
region of a nerve fibre undergoing a nerve impulse
to another region that has not yet received it;
different in that nerve impulses are carried
linearly along a nerve fibre and not to multiple
other fibres whereas disease transmission can be
to many different individuals.
3. Reaction - because one point along the neuron
influences the next region but is not itself
influenced by that next region.
Page 143 What is a reflex action?
1. a) A reflex action happens without us being
aware of it; it can happen even when we are
unconscious; it is controlled by unconscious
parts of the brain; we do not have to think
consciously about the reflex for it to happen.
b) We cannot override the reflex consciously; it
does not happen through our free will/we
cannot exert conscious choice over whether it
happens or not; we do not carry out the reflex
deliberately.
2. It is faster; fewer synapses have to be crossed;
shorter distances for impulses to travel if the
receptors and effectors are closer to the spinal
cord than the brain.
3. Reaction - because the hot water causes the leg to
be withdrawn whereas the leg does not influence
the hot water.
4. A reflex action does not occur through conscious
intention; but previous acts that lead to a reflex
action and the harm that it causes could make the
action culpable.
Page 143 Experiment
1. Iris moves/extends inwards; pupil is constricted.
2. a) Circular muscle cells contracted; radial
muscle cells relaxed.
1
muscle cells relaxed.
3. a) Increase the amount of light entering the eye
through the pupil; more photons of light
reach the retina/rod cells; clearer image
formed; useful in dim light conditions.
b) Reduce the amount of light entering the eye
through the pupil; reduce the number of
photons reaching the retina; protect the
retina from damage due to an excess of light;
useful in bright light conditions.
Page 145 How are decisions made by the nervous
system?
1. a) Probably not; because there was no post-
synaptic impulse when only A sent
neurotransmitter.
b) No post-synaptic impulse because D sends an
inhibitory neurotransmitter.
c) There will probably be a post-synaptic
impulse because B + D = no and B + D + C =
yes.
d) Definite post-synaptic impulse because three
neurons send stimulatory neurotransmitter.
e) A + C; B + C; A + B + C + D
2. a) Distance between prey and predator
increasing/prey accelerating; predator tiring;
another stronger predator catches the prey.
b) Distance between prey and predator
decreases/prey decelerating; prey is running
towards an impasse; predator is very hungry.
3. Interaction - because the actions of predator and
prey influence each other.
Page 146 Experiment
1. a) Scale for response time on the y-axis with
units and a legend; individuals on x-axis with
legend; gaps between bars on the chart;
range bars showing highest and lowest times
for each individual.
b) The smaller the range bars the more reliable
the mean response times; the larger the
overlap between response times of
individuals and the larger the range bars the
less likely that differences are significant.
2. Variation in concentration/distraction; chance
effects; cheating by anticipation; variation in
visual clues about when the ruler will be dropped.
3. Withdrawal reflexes are instinctive; due to neural
pathways already developed; catching a dropping
ruler is not a natural reflex; involves thinking;
longer pathways of neurons needed to carry out
the response.
© Oxford University Press 2017
Page 147 Chain reaction
1. Time taken will probably decrease over the first
few trials and then reach a minimum.
2. Divide the total time by the number of people in
the chain minus one (because the first person
starts the process rather than reacting).
3. Not known; but there are synapses between touch
receptors, sensory neurons, association neurons,
motor neurons and muscle fibres so even without
thought processes in the brain there are four
synapses per person.
4. Not really appropriate because a chain is a linear
sequence of links whereas a chain reaction in
chemistry involves spread to more and more
particles.
Page 148 Data-based question: Taking penalties
1. Velocity of ball is 31.11 meters per second; time
taken is 11/31.11 seconds = 0.35 seconds.
2. Possible to run 100 meters in 10 seconds and
therefore 3.5 meters in 0.35 seconds; but not from
a standing start; so time taken would be more
than 0.35 seconds.
3. 85% of penalties scored; 12% saved.
4. Impossible to see which way the ball is being
kicked and then jump in the correct direction in
time to catch it; goalkeeper has to guess which
way the ball will be kicked; even if the goalkeeper
jumps the correct way he/she may fail to catch the
ball; if goalkeeper jumps to left and right and the
ball is kicked to the middle of the goal he/she will
miss it.
5. Impossible to see which way the ball is being
kicked and then jump in the correct direction in
time to catch it; goalkeeper has to guess which
way the ball will be kicked; even if the goalkeeper
jumps the correct way he/she may fail to catch the
ball; if goalkeeper jumps to left and right and the
ball is kicked to the middle of the goal he/she will
miss it.
6. Goalkeeper looks lazy/indecisive.
Page 149 Can past experiences influence reflexes?
1. Modified reaction; the stimulus alters; the new
stimulus causes a reaction in the animal; but the
reaction doesn’t affect the stimulus.
2. New connections between neurons; new
synapses; growth of nerve fibres; pruning of
synapses; plasticity of the nervous system.
3. Cat hears larder door opening/closing; responds
by going to food bowl.
4. Animal’s behaviour becomes attuned to its
environment; appropriate responses happen more
rapidly; anticipation of opportunities/threats;
learning how to fit behaviour to patterns in the
environment/in events.
© Oxford University Press 2017
Page 151 Data-based question: Red and grey
squirrels
1. Predation, competition or parasitism could have
caused the effect; but not mutualism.
2. Parasite uses another organism to provide
services; that it cannot provide for itself; unrelated
organism more likely to be able to provide
services that the parasite is unable to;
cuckoo/cowbird is a nest parasite; using another
bird to raise its young;
broomrape/toothwort/ghost orchid is parasitic on
another plant.
3. Competition more likely to cause extinction; no
advantage to a predator in driving prey to
extinction; no benefit to a competitor if the species
it competes with persists.
4. Do not introduce alien species; unless their effects
on native species have been rigorously
investigated; and unless it can be shown that they
will not become invasive; precautionary principle.
Page 152 Data-based question: Canada lynx and
snowshoe hare
1. a) Nine.
b) 1935 – 1845 = 90 years; 90 years/9 cycles =
10 years per cycle.
2. a) Increases in the availability of hares/more
food for lynx.
b) Increases in the predation of hares/more
lynx catching hares.
c) Decreases in the availability of hares/less
food for lynx.
d) Decreases in the predation of hares/fewer
lynx catching hares.
3. a) Competition; interspecific.
b) Extra food source; reduces competition from
lynx for prey.
4. Availability of food/plants; severity of weather
conditions; prevalence of disease.
5. a) Lynx prevent hare population rising as high
as it otherwise might; reduces competition
among hares for food; eliminates slowest
hares/hares least able to escape from their
predator; enables evolution of hares.
b) Size of hare population limits the lynx
population; fast-running hares cause natural
selection for fast-running lynx.
c) Yes - it’s an interaction as the predator and
prey both affect each other.
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Page 153 What are the differences between
predators and parasites?
1. A predator is an animal that hunts/kills another
animal for food.
2. a) Both harm their prey/their host; both obtain
food from their prey/host.
b) Predator lives on or in its host but parasite
does not; parasite is usually smaller than its
host but predator is usually larger; predator
usually kills its prey but parasite often does
not kill its host.
3. Reduce the health/growth rate of host; reduce the
breeding rate of host; cause hosts to move to other
areas with fewer parasites; intensity of parasitism
increases as density of host increases (density-
dependent).
4. Tapeworm is a parasite;
mosquito is not a typical parasite because it does
not live on or in its host; but it isn’t obviously a
predator either as it doesn’t kill its prey;
castor bean tick is a parasite;
cockroach is neither a predator not a parasite of
humans; cockroach is a pest in certain
circumstances;
hookworm is a parasite;
vampire bat does not live on or in its host so does
not satisfy that part of the definition of a parasite;
but a predator is expected to kill and eat its prey
which the vampire bat does not do.
5. Parasites are influenced by the density of the
population of its host; the behaviour of the host
can influence whether a parasite can spread to a
new host; for example a ring of repugnance
around cattle feces prevents transmission of gut
parasites from one cow’s feces to another cow’s
gut; defensive mechanisms in the host lead the
parasite to evolve so that it can evade these
defences.
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Page 155 What types of relationship are possible
between members of a species?
1. Territoriality and sexual conflict are competitive
relationships;
group defence and parental care are co-operative
relationships;
monogamy is a co-operative relationship between
the male and female and prevents competition
from other potential partners;
predation is neither competitive nor co-operative;
infanticide by one male prevents competition
between his offspring and the other male’s
offspring.
2. Answers to this question depend very much on
personality.
Page 156 Can social animals prevent cheating?
1. Low levels of cheating can be tolerated by a social
group/community; but beyond a certain level co-
operation between members of the community
will break down.
2. Identification of cheats; ostracization/punishment
of cheats.
3. a) Tax-avoidance/insurance fraud/stealing
from shops/ignoring a red stop traffic
light/selling cars that breach emissions
limits.
b) Laws; policing; strong moral values;
regarding cheating as unacceptable;
education.
4. a) Competition for food becomes too intense.
b) Shoals of fish feeding together; flocks of
starlings at roosting time; herds of wildebeest
migrating; Christmas Island red crabs in the
breeding season.
5. Both; genes will influence the predilection to cheat
or co-operate; learning/experience will affect
whether an individual becomes more of a cheat or
co-operator.
© Oxford University Press 2017
Summative assessment: Whales
1. a) Predation on squid, octopus and rays; competition with other species
that feed on the same prey; predation by orcas and pilot whales when
sperm whales are young/weakened/injured.
b) Competition for food; co-operation/communication between
individuals within family groups; parental care; courtship between
males and females.

2. Protection; co-operation over finding food; co-operation over feeding

calves; shared vigilance and warning of threats.

3. Less food available due to a larger sperm whale population; possible

negative feedback mechanism in breeding behaviour so fewer young are
produced if the population is already strong; possibility of
territoriality/intolerance of other family groups in an area so some
individuals fail to breed; other harmful influences that by chance
correspond with the end of whaling might have had an impact on
breeding.

4. Large brain size needed for large body; sperm whales are intelligent; large
brain needed for higher order tasks such as vocalization and
communication.

5. Lungs not ventilated during the dive; therefore no oxygen absorbed into
the blood stream; so pumping blood does not carry oxygen to the tissues;
pumping blood through respiring tissues might cause too much carbon
dioxide to enter the blood.

6. Immersion of face in cold water might give same stimulus as whole-body

immersion; body therefore responds as though it is diving; and therefore
no ventilation of the lungs is occurring.

7. Design should include clear statements of independent, dependent and

control variables, a rationale for the method, practical details of the
method including the number of people to be used in the trial and how
they will be selected, awarding marks on a scale from 0 marks for a
completely inadequate design to six marks for an exemplary design.

8. Explanation should include how the experiment will be carried out

without any risk to the people used as subjects and how it will be ethically
acceptable, including how informed consent will be obtained, with marks
awarded on a scale from 0 for an entirely inadequate explanation to 3 for a
detailed and convincing explanation.

9. No narwhals have been kept alive in captivity; no narwhal’s age is known

with certainty; therefore methods of deducing age have not been
correlated with known ages.

10. Method uses a known chemical process; which should allow a wide age
range to be determined; but the ages cannot be checked against known
ages of the sample individuals; relatively few older individuals could be
included in the trial.

11. a) 110-115 years

b) 0-9 years
c) Too young/had not yet reached puberty.

© Oxford University Press 2017

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12. a) Award marks on a scale from 0 marks for an age pyramid without
merit up to three marks for a clear and accurate pyramid.
b) Hunting of narwhal causes lower life expectancy/steeper decline in
numbers with increasing age; human life expectancy is increased by
health care/good nutrition/lack of competition for food/fewer
physical dangers; any reasonable reason for larger numbers of male
than female narwhal.

13. Award marks on a scale from 0 marks for an inadequate attempt at a

reference up to 3 marks for a reference without any errors of style, such as
Eva Garde, Mads Peter Heide-Jorgensen, Steen H Hansen, Gosta Nachman
and Mads C. Forchhammer, Age-specific growth and remarkable longevity
in narwhals (Monodon monoceros) from West Greenland as estimated by
aspartic acid racemization. Journal of Mammalogy, 88, 49-58 (Feb 2007)

14. Award marks on a scale from 0 marks for an

incomprehensible/misleading account up to 3 marks for a clear and
informative account written in scientific language that non-scientists
could understand.

15. a) Not a true predator-prey relationship; low numbers of narwhal

cannot cause the Inuit population to decrease; not a true interaction
between two populations.
b) Hunting with high-velocity rifles is not a cultural tradition; sales of
tusks to collectors is not a cultural tradition; narwhal not now needed
as food to sustain the Inuit population; Inuit should not be allowed to
hunt narwhal unless it is done sustainably.
c) Precautionary principle states that it is up to those pursuing a policy
to demonstrate that it does not have harmful effects; nothing/almost
nothing is known about the effects of narwhal hunting on family
groups/populations of narwhal; so it should not be permitted.

© Oxford University Press 2017

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