11.

4 Sexual Reproduction

Essential idea: Sexual reproduction involves the

development and fusion of haploid gametes
 Gametogenesis
11.4.U1 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell
growth, two divisions of meiosis & differentiation

• Gametogenesis = process where diploid cells

undergo meiosis to form haploid gamete cells
• In males  spermatogenesis  form spermatozoa
• In females  oogenesis  to form oocyte (egg cell)
• The process of gametogenesis involves:
• Mitotic division to form multiple precursor germ cells
• Meiosis I & II to form haploid cells
• Differentiation of haploid cells to functional gametes
Recall Male reproductive organs
 Seminiferous tubule
11.4.S1 Annotation of the diagrams of seminiferous tubule and
ovary showing the stages of gametogenesis

• The testes is composed of a bunch of seminiferous

tubules where the spermatozoa develops
• Interstitial cells (Leydig cells) between the tubules
produces testosterone*  stimulate meiosis II and
differentiation
• Each tubule is surrounded by a basement membrane
lined with germinal epithelium cells (2n) – also called
spermatogonium
• This germinal epithelium cells (spermatogonium) will
divide endlessly by mitosis to produce more diploid
germ cells
 *FSH stimulate the start of meiosis
Spermatogenesis *Production of testosterone is stimulated by LH

• Some of the spermatogonia will grow larger to form

primary spermatocytes (2n)
• Each primary spermatocytes will undergo first
division of meiosis I to form 2 secondary
spermatocytes (n) *
• Which will undergo meiosis II to form four
spermatids (n)
• The spermatids will then undergo cell differentiation
to form into spermatozoa (n)
• This is helped by Sertoli cells that nourish and help
the development of spermatids into spermatozoa.
Sperm will eventually detach from Sertoli cells and carried
out of testis by fluid in the lumen of the tubules

It is then stored and developed into mature sperm in the epididymis

 Oogenesis
• Oogenesis starts in the ovaries of female fetus
• The germ cells (oogonia) in the fetal ovary divides
by mitosis and distribute themselves in the cortex
of the ovary
• The oogonia will then grow and start dividing by
meiosis but will stop in Prophase I  they will
only develop further during puberty
• At this halted stage, the primary oocyte (2n) is
surrounded by follicle cells to form primary
follicles.
• There are around 400, 000 primary follicles in the
ovaries at birth.
 Oogenesis & ovary
• On the onset of puberty, during each start of the
menstrual cycle, a batch of primary follicles will
be stimulated by FSH to complete the first
division of meiosis
• This forms a large secondary oocyte (n) and a
small polar body (unequal division of cytoplasm)
• The follicle cells will continue to proliferate to
form secondary follicle
• The secondary oocyte continues on the start of
meiosis II  but halt at metaphase II  will
complete it upon fertilisation
 Ovulation & Fetilisation
• Out of the many secondary follicles, only one
will mature into the dominant Graafian follicle
• This mature Graafian follicle will rupture and
release the secondary oocyte into the
fallopian tube
• The rest of the follicle cells in the ovary will
form the corpus luteum that secretes
progesterone
• Upon fertilisation, meiosis II will be
completed to form an ovum and another
polar body before fusing its nucleus with the
sperm nucleus to form a zygote
Ovary
11.4.S1 Annotation of the diagrams of seminiferous
tubule and ovary showing the stages of gametogenesis
Primary follicle & primary oocyte (halt Late primary follicle  completing Secondary follicles  start meiosis II
at this stage until puberty) meiosis I
Secondary Follicles
Graafian Follicle

http://medcell.med.yale.edu/systems_cell_biology/female_reproductive_system_lab.php
Compare and contrast
11.4.U2 Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different
amounts of cytoplasm

• In oogenesis, unequal division of

cytoplasm forms a large ovum that
retain all the cytoplasm and 2-3
smaller polar bodies
• This is important as a large cytoplasm
provides all the requirements needed
for the development of embryo
• On the underhand, the development
of spermatids eliminates most of the
cytoplasm
• The egg cell is much larger compared
Form only one ovum
to the sperm cell from one oogonia
Form four sperms from
one spermatogonia
 Oogenesis Spermatogenesis
Begin with meiosis followed by mitosis
Cell enlargement before meiosis
Differentiation to produce haploid gamete cells
Occur ‘mostly’ in ovaries Occur entirely in testes

Start during development of fetus (pre-natal) Start during puberty

Halted/arrested (pause) in stages during Continuous development

development
Unequal division of cells  large cytoplasm Equal division of cells + reduction in cytoplasm

Produces one haploid gamete cell - ovum (the Produces four haploid gamete cells -
rest become polar bodies that degenerate) spermatozoa

Continuous production and release anytime

Release every 14th day of the menstrual cycle during sexual intercourse
Ends by menopause (around age 45-55) Lifelong  but reduces with age
 Sperm vs Egg cell
11.4.S2 Annotation of diagrams of mature sperm and egg to indicate function

Helical mitochondria to
provide large amount of ATP
for tail to move

Follicle cells provide support

and nourishment for egg cell

Releases
Contain
enzymes that
hydrolytic
prevent Centriole needed by zygotes
enzymes that
polyspermy in order to divide
digest the
zona pellucida
Glycoproteins matrix that prevent sperm from entering cell
 Fertilisation
11.4.U4 Fertilisation involves mechanism that prevents polyspermy
G: fertilisation involves acrosome reaction, fusion of the plasma membrane and the cortical reaction

• Membrane of sperm has receptors that can detect

chemical released by egg
• The following events occur to ensure only one
sperm enters the cell, to prevent polyspermy
1. Acrosome Reaction
• The zona pellucida is a coat of glycoprotein that
surrounds the egg cell
• The sperm pushes through the follicle cells
(corona radiata) and binds to the zona pellucida
• This releases the enzymes from the acrosome
which digests the zona pellucida
2. Fusion of membrane
• The acrosome reactions exposes the membrane at the tip of
the sperm that has plasma proteins to bind to the egg
membrane
• The membrane of the sperm and the egg fuses and the
nucleus is released into the egg cell

3. Cortical Reaction
• The fusion of membrane stimulate the release of cortical
granules via exocytosis
• The cortical granules releases protease enzyme that digest
the binding protein so no other sperm can bind to the egg
cell
• It also ‘hardens’ the zona pellucida, making it impenetrable
by other sperms
External vs Internal fertilisation
11.4.U3 Fertilisation in animals can be internal or external
Zygote  Blastocyst
11.4.U5 Implantation of the blastocyst in the endometrium is essential for the continuation of pregnancy

• Upon fertilisation, the zygote will undergo

several mitotic division to form a ball of cells
called morula
• Further unequal cell division and migration of
cells will form a hollow ball of cells called the
blastocyst.
• At 7 days old, the blastocyst has reached the
uterus after being moved down by cilia cells in
the oviduct walls.
• At this stage, the zona pellucida which protects
the cell breakdown and the cell is in needs of
external source of nutrients as the reserves of
the egg cell has been used up.
 Implantation
• The blastocyst sinks into the uterus lining
by secreting digestive enzymes to
degrade the uterus lining
• and develop finger-like projections
(placental villus) to penetrate the uterus
lining
• The placental villus allows exchange of Inner mass cells
materials with the mother’s blood, = embryo

gaining nutrients and oxygen

Become
• They will then grow rapidly and by 8 placenta
weeks  considered a fetus as it starts
to form bone tissue
 hCG hormone
11.4.U6 HCG stimulates the ovary to secrete progesterone during early pregnancy

• It is important for the inner lining of the uterus wall –

endometrium to be maintained for the developing foetus
• During early pregnancy, the embryo secretes hCG hormone
 human chorionic gonadotropin
• hCG stimulates the corpus luteum in the ovary to continue
secreting progesterone
• The hormone progesterone prevent the degeneration of the
uterus lining – allowing implantation & formation of
placenta
• Progesterone also inhibits FSH & LH
• *without hCG, uterus lining breaks down and menstruation
 Placenta secrete P & O
11.4.U8 Oestrogen and progesterone are secreted by the placenta once its formed

• By about the ninth week of pregnancy (1st

trimester)
• The placenta is developed enough to secrete
sufficient oestrogen & progesterone to maintain the
pregnancy, so corpus luteum is no longer needed
• There is a danger of miscarriage is this switch over
fails
• Besides maintaining the endometrium, the placenta
also allows the exchange of materials between
maternal & fetal blood (without mixing of blood)
Placenta
11.4.U7 The placenta facilitates the exchange of materials between mother and fetus

• Chorionic villi or placental villi are finger-like tissues

that increase in numbers as the fetus develops
• This structure increases the surface area to allow
higher rate of diffusion
• Maternal blood flows around the intervillous space
around the villi - bathing the villus with maternal blood
• And fetal blood circulate in blood capillaries close to
the surface of the villus
• Very thin placenta membrane barrier between – short
diffusion distance & selectively permeable
Hormones during Birth
11.4.U9 Birth is mediated by positive feedback involving oestrogen and oxytocin

• During pregnancy, progesterone inhibits secretion

of oxytocin, which inhibits contraction of the
outer uterine wall – myometrium
• The process of birth is stimulated by hormone
releases from the fetus and the increase level of
oestrogen
• Signalling the placenta to stop the secretion of
progesterone
• Allowing the release of oxytocin & increasing the
oxytocin receptors on the smooth muscle of the
myometrium
Oxytocin
11.4.U9 Birth is mediated by positive feedback involving oestrogen and oxytocin

• Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the

smooth muscle fibres of the uterus
• And contraction are detected by stretch
receptors which stimulates the pituitary
gland to secrete even more oxytocin
• Increase level of oxytocin will increase
frequency of contraction
• This is a positive feedback system that allows
the gradual increase of contraction for birth
Birth
• The cervix dilates and contractions will
burst the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid
will flow out
• Further contractions over several hours will
push the baby out of the uterus through
the cervix and vagina
• The umbilical cord is then cut and the baby
takes its first breath
• Placenta will then detach from uterus wall
(after birth) and is expelled out of the body.
Animal Size vs Gestation Period
11.4.A1 the average 38 week pregnancy in humans can be positioned on a graph
showing the correlation between animal size and development of the young at
birth for other animals

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/150828-baby-
mammal-size-differences-panda-kangaroo-science
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=izOa3-AX8zQ