LUKASHYA TRADES TRAINING INSTITUTE

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL SECTION

ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

2.0 UNIT A1.1 ADHERE TO OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION PRACTICES AND PROCEDURES

2.1 Unit Introduction: On completion of this unit, the trainee will be able to observe and
practice occupational, health, safety and Environmental Protection and Process at places of
work.

2.2 Unit Outcomes

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

2.2.1 Carry out Safety Inspections

1. 2.2.2 Apply Environmental Protection
2. 2.2.3 Apply Safety And Health Procedures
3.0 Carry out Safety Inspections

3.1 Safety It is the condition of being protected against physical, social, spiritual, financial,
political, emotional, occupational, psychological, educational or other types or consequences of
failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any other event which could be considered non-
desirable.

Safety can also be defined to be the control of recognized hazards to achieve an acceptable
level of risk. This can take the form of being protected from the event or from exposure to
something that causes health or economic losses. It can include protection of people or of
possessions.

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3.1.1 Limitations
It is important to realize that safety is relative. Eliminating all risk, if even possible, would be
extremely difficult and very expensive. A safe situation is one where risks of injury or property
damage are low and manageable.

3.1.2 Types of safety It is important to distinguish between products that meet standards,
that are safe, and those that merely feel safe. The highway safety community uses these terms:

3.1.3 Normative safety

Normative safety is when a product or design meets applicable design standards and
protection.

3.1.4 Substantive safety

Substantive, or objective safety occurs when the real-world safety history is favorable, whether
or not standards are met.

3.1.5 Perceived safety

Perceived, or subjective safety refers to the level of comfort of users. For example, traffic
signals are perceived as safe, yet under some circumstances, they can increase traffic crashes
at an intersection. Traffic roundabouts have a generally favorable safety record yet often make
drivers nervous.

3.1.6 Security Also called social safety or public safety, security is the risk of harm due to
intentional criminal acts such as assault, burglary or vandalism.

Because of the moral issues involved, security is of higher importance to many people than
substantive safety. For example, a death due to murder is considered worse than a death in a
car crash, even though in many countries, traffic deaths are more common than homicides.

Safety is often seen as one of a group of related disciplines: quality, reliability, availability,
maintainability and safety. (Availability is sometimes not mentioned, on the principle that it is a
simple function of reliability and maintainability.) These issues tend to determine the value of
any work, and deficits in any of these areas are considered to result in a cost, beyond the cost
of addressing the area in the first place; good management is then expected to minimise total
cost.

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3.1.7 Importance of Safety inspections at workplaces
Workplace inspections help prevent incidents, injuries and illnesses. Through a critical
examination of the workplace, inspections help to identify and record hazards for corrective
action. Health and safety committees can help plan, conduct, report and monitor inspections.
Regular workplace inspections are an important part of the overall occupational health and
safety program and management system, if present.

3.1.8 Purpose of safety inspections

1. Inspections are important as they allow you to:
2. listen to the concerns of workers and supervisors
3. gain further understanding of jobs and tasks
4. identify existing and potential hazards
5. determine underlying causes of hazards
6. recommend corrective action
7. monitor steps taken to eliminate hazards or control the risk (e.g., engineering controls,
administrative controls, policies, procedures, personal protective equipment)

3.1.9 Inspections plans

Planning is essential for an effective inspection.

3.2 What to Examine

Every inspection must examine who, what, where, when and how. Pay particular attention to
items that are or are most likely to develop into unsafe or unhealthy conditions because of
stress, wear, impact, vibration, heat, corrosion, chemical reaction or misuse. Include areas
where no work is done regularly, such as parking lots, rest areas, office storage areas and
locker rooms.

3.3 Workplace Elements

Look at all workplace elements – the people, the environment, the equipment and the process.
The environment includes such hazards as noise, vibration, lighting, temperature, and

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ventilation. Equipment includes materials, tools and apparatus for producing a product or a
service. The process involves how the worker interacts with the other elements in a series of
tasks or operations.

4.0 Types of workplace hazards include :

1. Safety hazards such as those caused by inadequate machine guards, unsafe workplace
conditions, unsafe work practices.
2. Biological hazards caused by organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites.
3. Chemical hazards caused by a solid, liquid, vapour, gas, dust, fume or mist.
4. Ergonomic hazards caused by physiological and psychological demands on the worker,
such as repetitive and forceful movements, awkward postures arising from improper
work methods, and improperly designed workstations, tools, and equipment.
5. Physical hazards caused by noise, vibration, energy, weather, heat, cold, electricity,
radiation and pressure.
6. Psychosocial hazards that can affect mental health or well-being such as overwork,
stress, bullying, or violence.

4.1 Type of information do I need to complete an inspection report

Diagram of Area

Use drawings of the plant layout or floor plans to help you draw a diagram. Divide the
workplace into areas based on the process. Visualize the activities in the workplace and identify
the location of machinery, equipment and materials. Show the movement of material and
workers, and the location of air ducts, aisles, stairways, alarms and fire exits. Appendix A shows
a sample diagram. Use several simple diagrams if the area is large. Ask workers and supervisors
for their comments on the information - they know the area better than anyone else.

Equipment Inventory

Know what type of machinery or equipment is present. Review technical data sheets, or
manufacturers' safety manuals. Read work area records to become familiar with the hazards of
the equipment.

Hazardous Product or Chemical Inventory

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Determine which products are used in the workplace and whether safety data sheets are
available. Find out if all sources of exposure are properly controlled. Make sure that all workers
have received education and training in how to safely use, handle and store the products they
work with. Check that all hazardous products are labelled appropriately according to Workplace
Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) requirements.

4.2 Checklists
A checklist helps to clarify inspection responsibilities, controls inspection activities and provides
a report of inspection activities. Checklists help with on-the-spot recording of findings and
comments but be careful. Do not allow the inspection team to become so intent on noting the
details listed in the checklist that it misses other hazardous conditions. Use checklists only as a
basic tool. Refer to the related documents for sample checklists that you can use as a guide to
develop a checklist that is customized for your workplace.

4.3 Most Popular Safety Inspections

Below is a list of some of the type’s safety inspections that can be carried at places of work:

1. Jobsite Hazard Identification

2. PPE Inspection
3. Housekeeping Inspection
4. Electrical Cord, Plug Equipment, and Tool Safety
5. Fall Protection
6. Scaffolding Safety
7. First Aid/CPR/AED
8. Hand and Power Safety Tool
9. General Ladder Safety t

5.0 HIV/AIDS
Zambia has one of the highest HIV prevalence rates in the world, with almost 16% of the
population aged 15-49 infected (Zambia Demographic and Health Survey 2000/1). This equates
to over a million people in the country living with HIV and, of these, 200 000 are either in need
of or are already on antiretroviral therapy (ART). Those most affected by the virus are aged
between 15 and 49 – men and women in the productive years of their lives. It is for this reason
that the world of work is affected so severely by HIV. HIV has impacted on all types and sizes
of enterprises: the public, private and informal sectors; small, medium and large enterprises;
donor agencies; non-governmental and Government bodies. No workplace is untouched. The
safety consideration is to take prescribed measures outlined by health institutions. These
include information disseminated through Media, Posters and people experiencing the
pandemic.

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6.0 Apply Environmental Protection

6.1 Environment
The environment includes our physical surroundings like air (or atmosphere), water bodies, soil
(land and all the organisms such as plants, animals, human beings and micro-organisms like
bacteria and fungi (called decomposers). The waste materials produced by the various activities
of man and animals are poisonous to some extent and can be divided into two main groups:

1. Biodegradable Wastes: Substances that are broken down by the biological processes are said
to be biodegradable. These substances are decomposed through the actions of fungi, bacteria,
and other living organisms. Temperature and sunlight also play an important role in the
decomposition of biodegradable substances.
For Examples: Food waste, trees leaves, urine and fecal matter, sewage agricultural residue,
paper, wood, cloth, cow-dung etc.

2. Non-Biodegradable Wastes: Substances that are not broken down by biological

processes. These substances may be in solid, liquid or gaseous form. These substances are
inert and simply persist in the environment for a long time or may harm the various members of
the ecosystem.

For Health and Safety compliance procedures must be followed in accordance with programs
outlined for safely working with these materials.

6.2 Why protect environment?

Some of the reasons as to why the environment must be protected include:

6.2.1 Preserving the health of the community and its members. Clean air, water, and soil,
adequate open space, abundant resources – all of these, as well as other environmental factors,
ensure the health of individuals and contribute to building a healthy community.

6.2.2 Preserving community resources. Making sure that the community’s water supply, for
example, and the streams, swamps, and other bodies of water that feed it, are kept clean is not
just a matter of environmental quality, but one of necessity.

6.2.3 Creating a more pleasant and better quality of life. The physical attractiveness of the
community and its recreational and relaxation opportunities, make life more pleasant for

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community residents. A pleasant environment reduces stress and encourages interaction,
leading ultimately to a better quality of community life.

7.0 Apply Health and Safety Procedures

Working at heights means that an individual is working in a place that requires necessary
precautions to prevent them from falling at a distance, resulting in serious injury. Did you know
injuries from working at heights is one of the most prominent causes of major work related
injuries and fatalities? Falls from ladders, scaffolding, and lifts onto debris can cause serious
injury even when the height is perceived to not be dangerous. Employers need to ensure that
they take all measures necessary to lower the risk of their workers falling from a height using
preemptive hazard recognition to constant site assessment.

Fall prevention should not be taken lightly. Workers should try to avoid working at height if at
all possible. If they cannot, they should ensure that they use the right equipment and safety
procedures for their specific task, ensuring their personal workspace is safe for themselves and
others around the site. Remember to secure all items when at height, as falling tools is as big a
hazard as falling people.

8.0 THE DO’S & DON’TS OF WORKING AT HEIGHTS

DO as much work as you can while you are on the ground.

DO make sure that the employees can safely move to and from the area where they are
working at height.

DO ensure that the equipment that you’re using for the job is strong, stable and suitable
enough to get the job done. Inspect and maintain them regularly.

DO be careful when you are working near to a fragile surface.

DO ensure that you are protected from falling objects.

DO make preparations for emergency evacuations and rescues.

DON’T overload the ladders that they are working on, with equipment or materials.

DON’T try to reach too far when you’re on a ladder or stepladder.

DON’T use ladders or stepladders to do work that entail heavy or strenuous tasks. Only use
them to do work that’s quick and light.

DON’T allow incompetent workers do any work at height.

DON’T lean or place the ladder on or fragile upper surfaces.

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DON’T stay quiet when you feel someone is compromising their own safety or the safety of
others

9.0 SAFETY BARRICADE

A safety barricade is an improvised barrier erected across a street to prevent or delay the
movement of opposing forces. A barricade is anything that prevents people or vehicles from
getting through. Construction workers often barricade a street to block traffic.

The purpose of a barricade is to protect personnel by preventing or controlling access to hazard

area by installation or maintenance of barricades, demarcation and restricting access. The work
practice will provide guidance for the erection of permanent and temporary barricading and
demarcation to prevent people from being unnecessarily exposed to hazards’ by raising
awareness of the presence of hazards, or restricting access to an area of a workplace. The
objective is ensuring that the health and safety signs and barricades are placed in appropriate
places or points.

Types of barricade

I. Protective Barricade
II. Warning Barricade
III. Protective “Hard” Barricades
IV. Barricade Tape

10.0 SLIPS, TRIPS, & FALL

One of the most dangerous working conditions and also more exposed to accidents is the
electrical construction site for erections and installations. When you consider the diverse
range of activities going on at a construction site at any one time it seems
hardly surprising slips, trips, and falls happen on an almost daily basis.

Hence, according to statistics from the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), slips and trips are
the single most common cause of injuries at work, and account for over a third of all major
work injuries.

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 Fig. 1 CAUTION SIGN

The main causes of slips, trips and falls in the workplace are:

1. Uneven floor surfaces

2. Unsuitable floor coverings
3. Wet floors
4. Changes in levels
5. Trailing cables
6. Poor lighting
7. Poor housekeeping
8. Inappropriate Safety Footwear

Therefore To Eliminate Trip Hazards

Do:

Keep work areas neat and tidy, while putting tools, materials, and other items away after use.

Pick up items off the floor, hence you didn’t put them there.

Step over or around obstructions, not on them.

Walk slowly and change directions slowly, especially when carrying a load.

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Watch for changes in floor level—such as a few steps or a ramp up or down.

Report lighting problems, such as burned-out bulbs, to maintenance right away.

Use a flashlight if they need more light leaving the facility in the dark.

Don’t:

Leave boxes, bags, tools, or other materials on the floor-never!!

Block walkways with hand trucks, equipment, or materials-never!!!

Don’t leave cords or cables in walkways

Most of all, instruct employees to:

Clean up spills, drips, and leaks immediately.

Wear sensible shoes with non-skid soles, and also wipe their feet when they come inside on wet
days.

Shuffle feet on slippery surfaces.

Report slip hazards if they can’t fix them.

Footwear– Ensure workers choose suitable footwear with the correct type of sole.

Construction workers should wear work shoes or boots with slip-resistant and puncture-
resistant soles.

Safety-toed footwear is worn to prevent crushed toes while working around heavy equipment or
falling objects.

Footwear selection has to take account of a number of factors in addition to slip resistance,
such as comfort, durability and any other safety features required, such as toe protection.

11.0 POSTERS SIGNS REQUIREMENTS

OSHA regulates most workplaces and requires safety signs at most locations where a hazard
threatens the safety of a worker. Each safety sign is classified by hazard risk to help determine
what sign to use, including DANGER, WARNING, and CAUTION.

11.1 DANGER SIGNS

Danger signs mark the most serious hazards. They indicate an immediate hazard where special
precautions are necessary; if the hazard is not avoided, it will result in death or serious injury.

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Danger signs mark hazards that, if not avoided, will result in death or serious injury.

11.2 WARNING SIGNS

Warning signs are one hazard level below danger signs. They describe a hazard that, if not
avoided, may result in death or serious injury.

11.3 CAUTION SIGNS

Caution signs indicate potentially hazardous situations that may result in minor or moderate
injury if they aren’t avoided. Use them to caution against potential injuries from unsafe
practices, or where a combination of injury and equipment damage is possible.

12.0 FALL PROTECTION SYSTEM TYPES AND SPECIFICS

Depending on the purpose they serve, and the activities they are used for, the safety
department in each organization must be able to recommend the appropriate safety fall
equipment for any given task:

Body belts restrain persons working in hazardous positions to reduce fall risk. They are for
positioning only, so they cannot replace fall arrest systems.

Chest harnesses can be used in environments with limited fall hazard that does not include
vertical free fall, or for retrieval of persons from tanks, bins, or narrow spaces.

Full body harnesses have the power to arrest the most dangerous falls.

Suspension belts can be used to support workers needing to adjust their position vertically or
to perform various activities while hanging.

Rope lanyards are used as restraint means due to their elastic properties.

Web lanyards are ideal for work environments with fall hazards under 2 feet.

Cable lanyards work best in hot or corrosive environments but should be backed up by shock
absorbing systems.

Shock absorbers reduce fall arresting forces and fall injury risks.

Rope grabs are deceleration devices travelling on lifelines, allowing safe ascension and
descent of the worker or locking of the lifeline in case of fall.

Retractable lifelines ensure fall protection and mobility in high fall hazard areas.

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Safety nets are best used for projects where there are no temporary floors or scaffolds, and
the fall distance is higher than 25 feet.

Rails can be used on fixed ladders and curved surfaces, to prevent falls.

Fig. 2 FALL ARRESTS

13.0 CONFINED SPACE

A confined space also has limited or restricted means for entry or exit and is not designed for
continuous occupancy. Confined spaces include, but are not limited to, tanks, vessels, silos,
storage bins, hoppers, vaults, pits, manholes, tunnels, equipment housings, ductwork, pipelines,
etc. Safety measures must be considered when working in confined spaces such as those in
figure below.

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Hazards in a confined space

13.1 What are other safety precautions?

Many other situations or hazards may be present in a confined space. Be sure that all hazards
are controlled, for example:

Any liquids or free-flowing solids should be removed from the confined space to eliminate the
risk of drowning or suffocation.

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All pipes should be physically disconnected or isolation blanks bolted in place. Closing valves is
not sufficient.

Use two blocking valves, with an open vent or bleed valve between the blocking valves when
isolating pipelines or similar conveyances to prevent entry of materials and hazardous
contaminants.

A barrier is present to prevent any liquids or free-flowing solids from entering the confined
space.

The opening for entry into and exit from the confined space must be large enough to allow the
passage of a person using protective equipment.

13.2 Basic Confined Space Rescue Equipment

One of the first pieces of equipment used in a confined space is some type of ventilator that
disperses any collected hazardous gases and introduces fresh air into the environment.
Ventilation blowers for rescues can be gas or electric as well as nonintrinsic or intrinsically safe.
The safest rescue option is an intrinsically safe electric blower. This blower has a special plug
that prevents it from providing a source of ignition in a flammable environment. Also, electric
blowers don’t produce CO as a byproduct of combustion, as gas-powered blowers do,
eliminating one more potential environmental problem.

13.3 Types of Rescues for confined space victims

There are three main types of confined space rescues: self-rescue, non-entry rescue, and entry
rescue.

In a self-rescue, as the name suggests, the worker identifies a critical condition or new hazard
and exits the confined space on their own. Otherwise, an entry monitor, who is outside of the
space, may recognize a new danger and order the workers to leave the area before they are
affected.

A non-entry rescue has the rescuers attempting to extricate the trapped person without having
anyone else enter the confined space. This can be performed through a safety line attached to
a tripod on one side and the victim in the confined space on the other, or by grabbing the
person with a rope, pole, or strap and pulling them to safety.

An entry rescue is a last resort option because having more people enter a confined area places
the rescuer at considerable risk for the many reasons explained above. A winch and harness are
often still used. In an entry rescue, standby rescuers are suggested in case the original entry
rescuer encounters trouble

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14 .0 WORKING IN HIGH TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS - HOT
In most cases, there is no high temperature environment in which an individual is allowed to
operate in.

14.1 Warning signs of heat stroke

In a very hot environment, the most serious health and safety concern is heat stroke. Heat
stroke can be fatal if medical attention is not available immediately. Heat exhaustion and
fainting (syncope) are also types of heat related illnesses which are not fatal but can interfere
with a person's ability to work.

The victims of heat stroke are unable to notice the symptoms when they are happening to
themselves, and therefore, their survival depends on co-workers' ability to identify symptoms in
others, and to get medical help.

While symptoms can vary from person to person, the warning signs of heat stroke can include
complaints of sudden and severe fatigue, nausea, dizziness, lightheadedness, and may or may
not include sweating. If a co-worker appears to be disorientated or confused (including
euphoria), or has unaccountable irritability, malaise or flu-like symptoms, the worker should be
moved to a cool location and get medical help immediately.

For more information please see our OSH Answers documents on Hot Environments - Health
Effects and First Aid.

14.2 Maximum or high temperature operations

Occupational exposure limits or guidelines for exposure to high temperatures actually depend
on a number of factors, not just the temperature. These other factors include:

1. relative humidity
2. exposure to sun or other heat sources
3. amount of air movement
4. work demands - i.e. how physically demanding the work is

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 5. is the worker acclimatized or unacclimatized to the work load under the conditions of
work
6. what clothing is worn (including protective clothing)
7. What is the work-rest regimen (% time work vs. % time rest break).

14.3 .Steps to take when working in very hot and/or humid environment

Employers have a duty to take every reasonable precaution to ensure the workplace is safe for
the worker. This duty includes taking effective measures to protect workers from heat stress
disorders if it is not reasonably practicable to control indoor conditions adequately, or where
work is done outdoors.

Certain steps can be taken to reduce discomfort. These include:

1. using fans or air conditioning

2. wearing light, loose fitting clothing
3. taking more frequent rest breaks
4. drinking cold beverages (ones that do not have caffeine or alcohol)
5. Allowing flexibility to permit less physically demanding activities during peak
temperature periods.

6. Using screens or umbrellas to create shade.

15.0 WORKING IN THE COLD ENVIRONMENT

A cold environment challenges the worker in three ways: by air temperature, air movement
(wind speed), and humidity (wetness). In order to work safely, these challenges have to be
counter balanced by proper insulation (layered protective clothing), by physical activity and by
controlled exposure to cold (work/rest schedule).

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For continuous work in temperatures below the freezing point, heated warming shelters such as
tents, cabins or rest rooms should be available. The work should be paced to avoid excessive
sweating. If such work is necessary, proper rest periods in a warm area should be allowed and
employees should change into dry clothes. New employees should be given enough time to get
acclimatized to cold and protective clothing before assuming a full work load.

16.0 WORKING IN WET CONDITIONS

The potential hazards present on a worksite can be exacerbated during inclement
conditions such as rain. Working in the rain can cause slippery surfaces and limited
visibility. However, steps can be taken to mitigate such hazards.

17.0 ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLIES AT PLACES OF WORK

Places of work generally supplied with power for the various processes to be done or carried
out successfully. This power supply may be 3 – phase (380 – 400V) or single phase (240V)
although some larger workplaces will receive electricity at a higher supply voltage.

17.1 The main hazards with electricity are:

1. Contact with live parts causing shock and burns

2. Faults which could cause fires;

3. Fire or explosion where electricity could be the source of ignition in a potentially flammable
or explosive atmosphere, e.g. in a spray paint booth. (This is dealt with in more detail in our

4. The risk of injury from electricity is strongly linked to where and how it is used and there is
greater risk in wet and/or damp conditions.

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18.0 BASICS OF CONTACT WITH ELECTRICITY
It is the level of voltage the body is exposed to and the resistance to flow of electrical current
offered by the body that determines the impact of exposure to electricity. The following factors
determine the severity of the effect electric shock has on your body:

1. The level of voltage

2. The amount of body resistance you have to the current flow
3. The path the current takes through your body
4. The length of time the current flows through your bod
if a worker has come into contact with electricity the worker may not be able to remove
themselves from the electrical source. The human body is a good conductor of
electricity. If you touch a person while they are in contact with the electrical source, the
electricity will flow through your body causing electrical shock. Firstly attempt to turn off
the source of the electricity (disconnect). If the electrical source cannot readily and
safely be turned off, use a non-conducting object, such as a fiberglass object or a
wooden pole, to remove the person from the electrical source.

19.0 Project Management & Commissioning Training & CompetencyBlogContact Us

WORKING ON HIGH VOLTAGE
A safe work environment is not always enough to control all potential high voltage electrical
hazards. Careful planning and adequate safety procedures are essential to prevent contact with
equipment under test. Do you know how to minimize the possibility of an electrical incident?
Below are a few ways you can protect yourself when working in a high voltage hazardous area.

19.1 ways to stay safe in a High Voltage:

1. Ensure proper personal protective equipment (PPE). This also includes approved
equipment used for live voltage and phasing checking at high voltage should be tested
immediately before and after use against a high voltage test supply.

2. The company Electrical Safety Regulations are followed and adhered to. .

3. Test voltage test indicators immediately. This includes before and after use against a
test supply designed for the purpose.

4. Never work alone. Always have a partner who knows your equipment and the risks and
hazards involved. That way, you have a second set of eyes to insure safety, and someone who
can shut off the power and get help if you are injured.

5. Never assume a circuit is safe just because it is powered off. Make sure to CHECK
that a safe, de-energized state has been achieved. Some equipment operates at voltages that
are so low that they cannot cause a harmful electric shock, but even at these extra- low
voltages, an arc can occur and burns can result from overheating.

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For information about High Voltage Safety training, please visit OCS Group website.

Fig. 4 ELECTRIC HARZAD

Implementing safety best practices for Medium Voltage equipment early in the
installation cycle reduces the potential of future faults, equipment failure and a
reduction on investment returns.

Safety or risk analyses should highlight a sequence of events that will reveal possible risk
factors. Once identified, these factors can be analysed so that protective measures can be put
into place. Two major situations are identified in the realm of electrical installation safety, the
arc fault and the electrical shock.

19.1 Undesirable events and their causes

Arc faults

Arc faults occur as a result of flashover between energised conductors or between conductors
and earth, most often the frame of the equipment. The dielectric breakdown resulting in the
flashover could be spontaneous, linked with some ageing effect of the insulation, or could be
caused accidentally by foreign objects or overvoltage. The energy released by the arc could be
major or minor, depending on the fault current involved. The situation will depend on the

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characteristics of the electrical network (short-circuit current, neutral management) and from
the fault location (in the case of a 3-phase fault). In most cases, the level of energy released is
very high and causes significant damage to the physical installation and, possibly to people in
the vicinity.

IEC 62271-200, which addresses metal-enclosed MV switchgear assemblies, provides a table

with possible arc fault locations within the switchgear assembly and their causes. The standard
also provides examples of internal arc preventive measures. There are multiple factors that
could contribute to arc fault, including equipment design, installation, operation, service
conditions and electrical parameters. Most causes could also apply to any arc fault outside
switchgear assemblies (e.g., on the connection point of a transformer).

Specifying internal arc-classified switchgear means that, in case of an arcing fault inside during
normal service, the switchboard device will limit the exposure to the arc effects of nearby
personnel.

Such a specification by itself, however, is not enough to address all possible situations. The set-
up of internal arc-classified switchgear assumes that the installation conditions defined by the
manufacturer are respected, otherwise performance could be compromised.

19.2 Electrical shock

Direct contact with live conductors can occur when conductors are not enclosed or when
personnel access equipment under live conditions.
Standards and regulations addressing desired installation procedures define minimal clearances
to avoid accidental contacts with bare conductors. However, some situations could introduce
risk factors not addressed by the regulations. Proper background information regarding the site
involved and access restricted to skilled individuals only are basic steps for safety. Influencing
parameters and unusual situations should also be considered for a more comprehensive
assessment of the risks.

In many instances, live work procedures are well-defined as the severity of working with live
conductors makes operators aware of the delicacy of the situation. Live work situations are
never considered “usual” and, as a result, they are less prone to operator negligence. Accidental
contacts rarely occur during live work.

Contact with energised parts (indirect contact) implies that a non-active conductive part such as
a frame or an enclosure presents a safety threat due to lack of an efficient grounding
connection which, in turn, can result in accidental energisation (see Fig. 1). This can occur
because of insulation failure or the flow of a fault current through the part to ground when the
impedance of the part and/or the grounding connection is not low enough. Such indirect
contact situations are well documented as either “step voltage” or “touch voltage”. The design
rules that apply to grounding systems provide a relevant level of protection provided that the
connections remain effective and the values used for calculation are not exceeded.

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Fig. 1: Direct contact versus indirect contact, both creating “touch voltages”.

The potential by itself is not dangerous, but differences of potential are very dangerous. The
key point for individual safety is to maintain a situation of equipotentiality around the
installation. This situation comes into play when work is performed on transmission lines with
operators at the line potential. In these cases, a good interconnection must be assured for all
conductive parts which the operator may touch (see Fig. 2).

20.0 MAINTENANCE POLICY

Maintenance, regardless of whether it is periodic, predictive or corrective, implies human access
to electrical rooms (and to conductive parts usually energised). As a result, maintenance
policies must define:

When maintenance is to be performed.

Which individuals are going to perform the work.

What the prerequisites are.

What the defined working procedures are.

Any scheduled, periodic or predictive maintenance should allow for enough time to ensure that
safety aspects and procedures are adhered to. Preparation time should be built into the overall
schedule.

In a corrective action scenario, the preparation stage window is narrow, as the pressure from
users or an emergency event is elevated. An experienced professional operator helps to
maintain safety under such situations of duress.

The prerequisites for any maintenance operation represent a critical success factor. These
include:

The knowledge of the general setup (e.g., buildings, rooms, supply circuits).

Identification of the piece of equipment under consideration.

Technical knowledge and training for intervention on the equipment.

The proper definition and securing of the work area.

The responsibility for managing prerequisites in maintenance situations can be shared by

multiple individuals. For example, the preparation steps of separation, earth-ing and locking can
be executed by a team leader while other individuals can perform the actual maintenance. The

21
compliance with such an organisation is sometimes challenged, and rules may be breached
under exceptional circumstances.

The maintenance programme should balance between worker safety and other performance
parameters of the installation. A common example could involve special protection settings
during maintenance work to limit the possible consequences of any electrical fault occurring
during the work. Such special settings usually impair the global performance of the protection
plan by forbidding auto-reclose attempts and by weakening co-ordination schemes. Such
approaches can impact service continuity.

A maintenance policy should define clearly the task limits for each individual involved in the
intervention. For example, is the person in charge of monitoring an installation able to perform
any action, or should he refer to other persons for actions? Are these other persons actually
available on short notice to deal with events? What is the back-up plan in case the designated
individual is unavailable that day?

Equipment maintenance policies should be built around the recommendations issued by the
manufacturer of the equipment. However, both the type of service required and the local
conditions could influence how that maintenance must be performed. The field experience of
maintenance personnel should be leveraged to adapt to changes. A maintenance policy should
be reviewed both periodically and immediately after any known changes to the installation.

Attention should also be paid to so-called general maintenance such as room and vent cleaning,
the condition of doors and other openings and plumbing checks among others as they can
introduce change to the electrical installation environment.

20.1 Work procedures

Work procedures are established to provide a check-list for the operators; formalise safety
policies and rules, and to build a referential of good practices.

Work procedures should not be regarded as constraints. They should be recognised as a means
for better defining operations, tools and methodology surrounding the safety aspects of
maintenance, and should be viewed as a tool for keeping track of lessons learned. When the
steps for accomplishing a specific task are written down, an opportunity presents itself for
challenging old habits. In addition, it helps to share a common understanding among
stakeholders. Both parties share a similar concept as to why a given tool is necessary, how long
an operation may take, which knowledge is applied, and what restrictions should be recognised
and respected.

22
20.2 Tools and personal equipment

Working in a high voltage environment requires specialised equipment adapted to the task at
hand. Such equipment is not restricted to personal protective equipment (PPE) which may be
necessary and/or mandatory under some conditions, but also to practical day-to-day equipment
and attire.

Doing what it takes to make a maintenance worker more physically comfortable creates
circumstances and an atmosphere less prone to mistakes. Some protective equipment is viewed
as burdensome and is sometimes neglected. To avoid a situation where safety is compromised,
any need for such equipment should be documented to ensure proper understanding of the
risks and the reasons why such safety equipment is being recommended or mandatory.

Steps should be taken to avoid such negligence. For example, in the realm of arc-flash
protection, specialised equipment should be required as soon as a live piece of switchgear is
open, regardless of the reason. When organising single line diagrams which include dual-
feeding options, design work can be done to allow the board to be de-energised before access.

Working with the tools suited for the task also contributes to safety. Using the wrong tool can
lead to injuries or falls. Work procedures should list any unusual or specialised tools needed for
a given task. Limiting the overall volume of tools also helps to ensure that these tools will be
readily available for use when needed

20.3 Low-Voltage Electrical Safety

Low-voltage electrical systems serve most homes and commercial buildings. Every day,
hundreds of workers in many projects work safely on and around low-voltage electricity. Small
or large, the job is usually handled without incident. Occasionally, however, something goes
horribly wrong — an unexpected hazard is overlooked and a worker becomes the victim of a
sudden explosion or a serious shock.

This part explains why energized low-voltage systems are dangerous and outlines the basic
steps to de-energize and lock out equipment. This part also describes the hazards that are often
overlooked when working on or around low-voltage systems. It tells you what to look for and
how to avoid accidents.

Utility poles generally carry both low-voltage and high-voltage conductors (power lines), as well
as communications lines, such as cable television and telephone. High-voltage conductors are
always installed at or near the top of the utility pole. Low-voltage conductors are usually
installed as single conductors mounted one above the other If there is a transformer on the
pole, lines from the high-voltage conductors feed the transformer, which reduces the voltage
for distribution through low-voltage lines to homes (240 V) and commercial and light industrial

23
buildings (typically 380/400 V). Electricity travels through the low-voltage distribution lines to
the service drop (located on the building), taking power to individual customers.

20.4 Why energized low-voltage systems are dangerous

People often think that low-voltage contact is much less dangerous than high-voltage contact.
They may believe that a mistake made while working on a low-voltage system means only a
quick flash and the tripping of a circuit breaker. This is a common misunderstanding.

There are more injuries from low-voltage systems (especially 347 V systems) than there are
from high-voltage systems. An electrical current through your heart can cause an irregular
heartbeat or a heart attack.

Electric shock can also cause your muscles to contract and may prevent you from releasing your
grip, thus extending your exposure to the current. In some instances, low voltage contact can
cause serious shock and burn injuries and even death.

Two factors can make energized low-voltage equipment extremely hazardous. First, the small
working clearances between low-voltage components leave little room for error when using
tools.

Second, low-voltage equipment in some industrial services may be supplied by an electrical

system that can feed incredible amounts of energy into a fault (caused by a short-circuit, for
example). In such cases, a fault can cause an intense, persistent, and rapidly expanding arc of
electrical energy to build in a split second. This energy is released suddenly in a restricted
space. The flames can cause terrible burns on anyone within the arc’s range, which may reach
up to 3 m (10 ft.). Arcs of this kind often leave the electrical structure a charred and melted
wreck — stark evidence of the intense heat generated, which can be several thousand degrees.

Almost all voltages are potentially dangerous because of the shock hazard. With low voltages
fed by high-capacity transformers, the danger of arc-flash burns is an additional hazard that can
cause serious injuries.

As well as causing fire, the heat from an arc can melt solids, vaporize liquids, and expand
gases. This results in a huge buildup of pressure, which causes an arc blast. The blast can
throw workers across a room, destroy equipment, and hurl objects and pieces of metal onto
nearby workers. In some tests, the noise from an arc blast reached 140 decibels.

24
20.5 Working near energized equipment

Uninsulated, energized parts of low-voltage electrical equipment and conductors must be

guarded by approved cabinets or enclosures unless the energized parts are in a suitable room
or enclosed area that is accessible only by qualified and authorized persons.

Each entrance to a room or other guarded location containing uninsulated and exposed
energized parts must be marked with warning signs limiting entry.

If uninsulated, energized parts are not guarded with approved cabinets or enclosures:

Suitable barriers or covers must be provided if a worker unfamiliar with the hazards is working
within 1 m (3.3 ft.) of those parts or

The worker must be informed of the potential hazards and must follow written safe work
procedures

Fig. 5 De-energization and lockout

Because of the hazards of working on energized low-voltage equipment, the first choice is to
de-energize and lock out the equipment before doing maintenance work on it. De-energization
and lockout prevents the release of energy that could cause injury or death. Locks are used to
make sure no one accidentally turns on equipment while workers are performing maintenance
on it.

25
Maintenance is any work that keeps machinery or equipment in a safe operating condition. This
includes installing, repairing, cleaning, and lubricating equipment, as well as clearing
obstructions to the normal flow of material.

As a worker, you must follow your employer’s safe work procedures to de-energize and lock out
equipment. At a minimum, a procedure should include the following five steps:

Identify the machinery or equipment that needs to be locked

Shut off the machinery or equipment. Make sure all moving parts have come to a complete
stop. Also make sure the act of shutting off equipment does not cause a hazard to other

Identify and deactivate the main energy-isolating device (for example, a switch or valve) for
each energy source. There may be more than one source of power, such as backfeed from the
load side or control voltage from a separate

Apply a personal lock to the energy-isolating device for each energy source. Ensure that all
parts and attachments are secured against inadvertent movement. Each worker must apply a
personal lock unless you are following a group lockout

Test the lockout to make sure it’s effective and to verify that all live components have been de-
energized. First, ensure that all workers are in the clear and that no hazard will be created if the
lockout is not effective. You can test lockout after each energy-isolating device is locked out or
after a group of nearby devices is locked

26
Fig.6 Applying lock to the electrical disconnect switches before working on the
equipment.

Safe work procedures for work on electrical equipment should include the following:

Steps to ensure that all work has been completed on a circuit before it is connected to the
power source

Who is qualified to test electrical circuits?

What types of testing devices are acceptable?

Working on energized equipment

27
 Unit Summary

This Unit is based on and intended for learners of electrical Engineering. Using this Unit
content a course text and for assignments, more time can be spent by the trainee in
practical work where machines and equipment can be demonstrated, handled, and
used. Activities at the end of this unit are related to the content as a means of
reinforcing the learning process.

Unit Activity

FIRST ACTIVITY

1. Name three materials from which straightedges are made.

2. What is meant by tolerance?
3. A 200 mm sine bar is used to check an angle of 30° 12ʹ. Calculate the size of gauge
blocks necessary. (ans. 100.604 mm).
4. By means of a sketch show the GO and NOT GO arrangement of a taper plug
gauge.
5. What is the name of the calibration service within the UK?
6. British standard numbers are often prefixed BS EN ISO. What do these prefixes
mean.
7. State two recognised uses of gauge blocks.
8. Name three types of square used in industry.
9. State the reason why standards are necessary in industry.
10. At what temperature are gauge blocks calibrated and intended for use?

SECOND ACTIVITY
1. State the main function of a dial indicator.
2. What is the measuring accuracy of a
micrometer without a vernier scale?
3. Describe the basic principle of the vernier
scale.
4. What is the difference between the
graduations of an external micrometer and a
depth micrometer?
5. State the types of measurement which can
be carried out using a vernier caliper.
6. Name two types of dial indicator and state a
typical use for each.
7. What measuring accuracy can be obtained

28
when using a vernier bevel protractor?
8. State four limitations of a vernier caliper.
9. What do the initials CMM stand for and give
a brief description of its main functions.
10. State two main advantages of the use of
articulated measuring arms.

References

Health And Safety Of Employees- Randburg

29
21.0 UNIT A1.2 MEASURING PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

21.1 Unit Introduction: On completion of this unit, the trainee will be able to measure
physical quantities and tabulate their values.

Unit Outcomes

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Measure Length, Width, Height, depth, and Angles

2. Measure Mass
3. Measure Illumination Density, Irradiance, Temperature, Pressure and Flow rate

21.2 Measure Length, Width, Height, Depth, and Angles

Physical quantity is the property of an object that can be quantified. For

instance, the physical quantities are the length of a rod or the mass of a
body. Measurement is the act of comparing a physical quantity with its unit. Measurement
result is the value of a physical quantity obtained by means of measurement

The seven base quantities and their corresponding units are:

• time (second)
• length (metre)
• mass (kilogram)
• electric current (ampere)
• thermodynamic temperature (kelvin)
• amount of substance (mole)
• luminous intensity (candela

21.3 Length Measurement

Length is the measurement or extent of something from end to end; the greater of two or the
greatest of three dimensions of an object.

Tape measure
A tape measure or measuring tape is a flexible ruler used to measure size or distance.

It consists of a ribbon of cloth, plastic, fibre glass, or metal strip with linear-
measurement markings. It is a common measuring tool. Its design allows for a measure
of great length to be easily carried in pocket or toolkit and permits one to measure
around curves or corners. Today it is ubiquitous, even appearing in miniature form as a
keychain fob, or novelty item. Surveyors use tape measures in lengths of over 100 m

30
21.4 Width Measurement
the measurement or extent of something from side to side; the lesser of two or the least of
three dimensions of a body.

A Mircometer is used for high accuracy marking out and testing. The micrometer is
used to measure small diameters and thickness of thin maters. Tends to be used
with metal.

Fig. 7

21.5 Inside calipers -are used for measuring the inside diameters of tubes

Fig. 8

31
21.6 Outside calipers-are used for measuring the outside diameters of bars
And tubes

Fig. 9
21.7 Try-square (Wood)– Can also be known as a cabinet maker’s
try square. This tool is used on wood and it has a wooden handle or stock with a metal black. It
is used for marking, measuring and testing 90 degree angles when prepared material to size.

Fig. 10
21.8 Engineers square (Metal) –
It is similar to the Try-square this tool marks and tests 90 degree angles but only with metal.

Fig. 11

21.9 Height Measurement

32
Height is the measurement of someone or something from head to foot or from base to top.

Depth Measurement
Depth is the Measurement of the distance from the top or surface to the bottom of something.

22.0 Beam balance

The beam balance is a device used for the determination of the mass of a body under
gravitation. It consists of a beam supported at the centre by an agate knife edge resting on a
support moving inside a vertical pillar. The beam carries a light pointer which moves over a
scale.

Beam balance is an apparatus used to measure mass of different objects by comparing it with a
known mass. It consists of a horizontal beam with a support at its centre and depends on the
gravitational pull on it.

Fig. 11

Fig.

22.1 Spring balance

A spring scale or spring balance or Newton meter is a type of mechanical force gauge
or weighing scale. It consists of a spring fixed at one end with a hook to attach an
object at the other. It works by Hooke's Law, which states that the force needed to
extend a spring is proportional to the distance that spring is extended from its rest
position. Therefore, the scale markings on the spring balance are equally spaced. A
spring scale cannot measure mass, only weight

Main uses of spring balances are to weigh heavy loads such as trucks, storage silos, and
material carried on a conveyor belt. They are also common in science education as

33
basic accelerators. They are used when the accuracy afforded by other types of scales
can be sacrificed for simplicity, cheapness, and robustness.

Fig. 12

22.2 Angle Measurement

Angle is a measurement of the space (usually measured in degrees) between two intersecting
lines or surfaces at or close to the point where they meet.

Mass Measurement

Mass is a measure ofa body or object of matter which may have definite shape or not.

22.3 Illumination density Measurement

Illumination is the action of supplying or brightening with light or the resulting state.
Illuminance, on the other hand, describes the measurement of the amount of light illuminating
the surface area and is measured in lux or foot-candles and correlates with how humans
perceive the brightness of illuminated areas.

The lux (symbol: lx) is the SI derived unit of illuminance, measuring luminous flux per unit
area. It is equal to one lumen per square metre. In photometry, this is used as a measure of
the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface. It is
analogous to the radiometric unit watt per square metre, but with the power at each
wavelength weighted according to the luminosity function, a standardized model of human
visual brightness perception

34
 Light Intensity Measuring Meter

Fig. 13

Digital LuxmetruUnitest It is composed of:-1-LCD display;-2-display measuring range;-3-

start button;-4-data memory button;-5-choice button;-6-sensor (photodiode with silicon).
The digital used lux meter has four measuring ranges, ie 0-20 lx, 0-200 lx, 0-2.000 lx and
0-20.000 lx, the corresponding errors to the four areas being 0,01 lx, 0,1 lx, 1 lx and 10
lx. To determine the luminous flux emitted by different sources, the Ulbricht lumen meter,
shown in Figure 3, was used. His property is a uniform light scattering or diffusion effect.
The incident light rays on any point on the inner surface of the sphere are evenly
distributed at all points of the sphere, by multiple reflections with the purpose to create
an equal light flow over the inner surface of the sphere. The effects of the original light
direction are minimized. The integrating photometer is generally used as an light source
and a detector to measure optical power.

22.4 Irradiance Measurement

In radiometry, irradiance is the radiant flux (power) received by a surface per unit area. The SI
unit of irradiance is the watt per square metre (W⋅m−2).

Irradiance is a measurement of solar power and is defined as the rate at which solar energy
falls onto a surface. The unit of power is the Watt (abbreviated W). In the case of solar
irradiance, we usually measure the power per unit area, so irradiance is typically quoted as
W/m², that is, Watts per square meter

35
 Irradiance measuring meter

Fig. 14

22.5 Temperature Measurement

Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. In a laboratory

temperature measurements are used to establish purity of substances (melting point and boiling
point), control over distillation processes, reaction kinetic studies and in several other
measurements such as viscosity, density, phase transition studies, determination of flash points
of flammable oils, etc.

A single temperature measurement device is not applicable across all situations. The article
discusses some of the common temperature measurement devices for different laboratory
applications.

36
Temperature Measurement devices

1Hand held infra red laser thermometer

Fig. 15

Liquid in glass thermometers

Fig. 16

A liquid in glass thermometer is the most commonly used temperature measuring device used in
laboratories. This thermometer has a glass bulb attached to a sealed glass tube, known as the
stem or capillary tube.

A bore, which is a very thin opening, exists from the bulb and extends down the centre of the
tube. The bulb is filled with liquids like mercury or red-coloured alcohol.

When the temperature increases, the liquid expands and rises up in the tube, and contracts and
moves down the tube when the temperature decreases.

37
A liquid should have the following desirable properties for use in glass thermometers:

• Uniform coefficient of thermal expansion over the temperature range of the device
• Low freezing and high boiling point so as to cover large temperature range.
• Good conductor of heat for fast response to heat changes i.e. its specific heat should be
low.
• Free flowing and should not wet the glass surface.

2. Mercury in glass thermometer

Fig. 17

Mercury in glass is the most predominant temperature measurement device in laboratories as it

meets requirement of most common applications.

Mercury remains in liquid state from −39 0 C to 357 0 C and has all the desired properties listed
above. Its only disadvantage is its toxicity and requires special cleanup procedures in case of
breakages. Mercury is used mostly in glass thermometers because –

• It is visible.
• It has a low freezing point (-39 °C).
• It has a very high boiling point (357 °C).
• It expands linearly.
• It gives accurate measurements.
• It is a good conductor of heat.
• Fast response time.
• It has a wide range of temperatures.

3. Alcohol in glass thermometer

38
Alcohol in glass thermometers finds major applications in measurement of low temperatures as
alcohol has a freezing point of −114 0 C and a boiling point of 78 0 C .

Its use above ambient temperatures is not recommended as it is not as good a conductor of heat
as mercury and expands more than mercury. As alcohol is colorless a dye is added to aid clear
visibility.

Some of the important properties of alcohol which makes it a suitable choice for this type of
glass thermometer are –

• It has a low freezing point (-112 °C).

• It has a boiling point of (78 °C).
• It is used to measure high temperatures.
• It is not a good conductor of heat.
• It has a bright colour.
• It expands more than mercury.

Apart from mercury and alcohol, other liquids such as Pentene, Toluene and Creosote are used
in glass thermometers.

4. Bimetallic Strip Thermometer

These thermometers are made up of bimetallic strips formed by joining two different metals
which have two different thermal expansion coefficients. Bimetallic strip here acts as a
mechanical element which can sense temperature and transform it into a mechanical
displacement.

Various techniques such as bolting, riveting, fastening are used to bond two layers of diverse
metals in a bimetallic strip. The bimetallic strip is attached to the pointer of a measuring
instrument or a position indicator.

The mechanical action from the bimetallic strip can also be used to activate a switching
mechanism for getting the electronic output. Usually, welding is done to make the process. As
there are two metals used to construct a bimetallic strip, the instrument is called a Bimetallic
Strip thermometer.

This process is one of the oldest techniques to measure temperature. They are fully compatible
to work at quite high temperatures i.e. up to 500°F or 260°C.

Major application areas of a bimetallic strip thermometer include various household appliances
such as ovens etc.; thermostat switches; wall thermometers; grills; and circuit breakers for
electrical heating devices.

39
The working principle of bimetallic thermometer depends on the two fundamental properties of
the metal.

• Property of thermal expansion (the metal expands and contracts according to the
temperature)
• The temperature coefficient of all the metals involved should not be the same so that the
expansion or contraction of metals are different at the same temperature.

5. Probe Thermometers

Probe thermometers have specially designed probes to permit immersion or penetration in viscous
or semi-solid porous materials such as oils, grease and foods.

Apart from use in laboratories such thermometers are used in manufacturing industries, food
catering establishments and retail outlets. Probe thermometers are provided with digital display
and are portable for convenience of use by field staff.

There are two types of probe thermometers. Fixed probes offer a pen-like structure and are
often cheaper and simpler to use, whereas, wired probes are often more complex with at least
a 1-metre cable and extra features.

Probe thermometers are portable and are very easy to use with simple displays. Probes do vary
in size, material, and manoeuvrability. Wired probe thermometers maximize utility without
compromising accuracy. It has a variable measurement range, resolution and accuracy.

6. Infra-Red Thermometers

Infrared thermometers are a class of non-contact measurement hand held devices. These are
based on measurement of radiation from a hot object. They are also called laser thermometers
as a laser beam is used to target the probe to the Centre of the measurement area. Infrared
thermometers find application in measurement of high temperatures beyond 2000 0 C.

The non-contact feature of this thermometer makes it one of the best tools for measuring
extremely low or high surface temperatures. Out of all thermometers, these thermometers can
be the most complex to use due to issues like spot-size and emissivity.

They are used in the automotive trade and air conditioning systems. Manufacturing processes
which involve extreme temperatures also find this thermometer useful.

7. Electronic Thermometer

Electronic thermometers detect temperature changes using a thermosensitive device. It

assesses electrical resistance variations which are then converted to temperature changes. This
device is either a thermistor or a thermocouple which is incorporated into the tip of a probe.

40
Thermistors are very small in size and thus respond rapidly to changes in temperature. The
current flow from a thermistor is translated into a temperature reading, which is further
displayed on a digital readout.

8. Temperature data loggers

Temperature data loggers can be set for temperature recording and display on continuous basis
or at pre-set time intervals. The data output can be in digital or graphical formats and can be
shared online or stored for subsequent review.

Such devices find use in storage areas of temperature sensitive chemicals and standard reference
materials as well in stability chambers used for evaluating shelf life studies.

9. Resistance Thermometers

Resistance Thermometers or Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD’s) measure temperature

through changes in electrical resistance of a pure metal wire due to change in temperature.
Common materials are Platinum, Copper or Nickel. The pure metal wire is wound around an inert
ceramic or glass core.

Platinum is the most widely used material as it has a large resistance change over temperature
range measured. The temperature ranges from −200 0 C to 1000 0 C with an accuracy of
0.001 0 C.

Platinum resistance thermometer or PRT finds global acceptance as a temperature measurement

and calibration reference standard because of its high accuracy and precision of measurements.

10. Pressure measurement

Pressure is a continuous physical force exerted on or against an object by something in contact
with it.

There are three methods for measuring pressure and these are absolute, gauge, and
differential. Absolute pressure is referenced to the pressure in a vacuum, whereas gauge and
differential pressures are referenced to another pressure such as the ambient atmospheric
pressure or pressure in an adjacent vessel.

11. Pressure Measuring Devices

a) Barometer:
b) Piezometer or Pressure Tube
c) Manometers
d) Bourdon Gauge
e) Diaphragm Pressure Gauge
f) Micro Manometer

41
 Fig. 18

Analogue pressure measuring meter

Fig. 19

Digital pressure measuring meter

12. Flow rate measurement

The measurement unit to express the rate of flow actually refers to the velocity of the flow, or
how rapidly the substance moves. A flow rate is a measure of the distance a particle of a
substance moves in a given period of time. Feet per second is a unit commonly used to
measure flow rate.

Flowing fluids are characterized by a quantity called the flow rate, which is defined as the
volume of fluid flowing through an area each second. In a pipe or other enclosed region, the
flow rate can be expressed in terms of the fluid speed and the cross-sectional area of the pipe

42
 Fig. 19

Unit Summary

Some form of precise measurement is necessary if parts are to fit together as intended
no matter whether the parts were made by the same person, in the same factory, or in
factories a long way apart. Spare parts can then be obtained with the knowledge that
they will fit a part which was perhaps produced years before. To achieve any degree of
precision, the measuring equipment used must be precisely manufactured with reference
to the same standard of length. That standard is the meter, which is a now defined using
laser. Having produced the measuring equipment to a high degree of accuracy, it must
be used correctly. You must be able to assess the correctness of size of the work piece
by adopting a sensitive touch or ‘feel’ between the instrument and work piece. This ‘feel’
can be developed only from experience of using the instrument, although some
instruments do have an aid such as the ratchet stop on some micrometers. Having the
correct equipment and having developed a ‘feel’, you must be capable of reading the
instrument to determine the work piece size. It is here that the two main standard types
of length-measuring instrument differ: the micrometer indicates the linear movement of
a rotating precision screw thread, while the vernier instruments compare two scales which
have a small difference in length between their respective divisions.

43
 Unit Activity

1. State the main function of a dial indicator.

2. What is the measuring accuracy of a micrometer without a vernier scale?
3. Describe the basic principle of the vernier scale.
4. What is the difference between the graduations of an external micrometer and a
depth micrometer?
5. State the types of measurement which can be carried out using a vernier caliper.
6. Name two types of dial indicator and state a typical use for each.
7. What measuring accuracy can be obtained when using a vernier bevel protractor?
8. State four limitations of a vernier caliper.
9. What do the initials CMM stand for and give a brief description of its main functions.
10. State two main advantages of the use of articulated measuring arms

References

Workshop processes, practices & materials / Bruce Black. – 5th edition.

44
23.0 UNIT A1.3 CARRYING OUT MASONRY WORK
Unit Introduction: On completion of this unit, the trainee will be able to carry out work using
masonry tools in relation to electrical practical work such as installing conduit pipes, mounting of
fittings and fixtures on the wall, etc. the trainee will also be able to mix cement and sand to make
different types of mortars for different applications.

23.1 Unit Outcomes -ddddddddddd

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Use masonry tools safely

2. Use the right type of mortar for different types of works
3. Use concrete to cover chiseled parts after installing conduits and any other type of fittings
and fixtures

23.2 Masonry tools

Masonry tools in the construction industry works.Masonry work requires tools for various
purposes, i.e. for handling of mortar, for the dressing of stone, for cutting of bricks to get
required shape etc.

45
 Fig. 20 Wheelbarrow

Clearly we can see the load is between the fulcrum and effort, and thus a lever of the
second order.

Shovel is a tool used to dig as well as to move loose, granular materials (like dirt,
gravel, grain, or snow) from one spot to another. Spade is a tool used for
digging straight-edged holes or trenches, slicing and lifting sod, and edging
flower beds or lawns

Fig. 21 Spade

46
In gardening, a spade is a hand tool used to dig or loosen ground, or to break up
lumps in the soil. Together with the fork it forms one of the chief implements
wielded by the hand in agriculture and horticulture. It is sometimes considered a
type of shovel.

Fig. 22 Pick (pick-axe)

A pickaxe, or pick is a generally T-shaped hand tool used for prying. Its head is typically
metal, attached perpendicularly to a longer handle, traditionally made of wood, occasionally
metal, and increasingly fiberglass.

A standard pickaxe, similar to a "pick mattock", has a pointed end on one side of its head and a
broad flat "axe" blade opposite. A gradual curve characteristically spans the length of the head.
The next most common configuration features two spikes, one slightly longer than the other.

The pointed end is used both for breaking and prying, the axe for hoeing, skimming, and
chopping through roots.

Developed as agricultural tools in prehistoric times, picks have evolved into other tools such as
the plough and the mattock. They also have been used in general construction and mining, and
adapted to warfare.

47
 Fig. 23 Mattock
A mattock is a hand tool used for digging, prying, and chopping. Similar to the pickaxe, it has a
long handle and a stout head which combines either a vertical axe blade with a horizontal adze
(cutter mattock), or a pick and an adze (pick mattock).

Fig. 24

48
Spirit level
A spirit level is used for determining horizontal and vertical levels and can be used on a variety
of DIY projects in and around the home. A spirit level is used to design to indicate whether a
surface is level on the horizontal or vertical planes, and there are a variety of sizes and designs
for every project.

Fig. 25

Compactors (Soil)
Soil compactors stabilize soil by compressing, kneading, or vibrating it to remove air
pockets and increase density. Different compactors are used depending on the type of
soil. Due to weight, frequency, and force of movement, soil compactors can cause
serious or fatal injuries if used improperly.

Unit Summary

Masonry work is one of those home improved skills that need to be mastered and used
in electrical works. Safety must be taken into
VVVVVVVVVVVVV
consideration when using masonry tools. These include handling and taking correct
measurements. This Unit considers some of the commonly used masonry tools and how
they are called.

Unit Activity

1. State Four masonry tools

2. Name the parts of the tools mentioned in 1. Above
3. State the purpose of the tools mentioned

49
 References: cmpstone.com.au>cnctools

24.0 UNIT A1.4 MARKING OUT ON VARIOUS SURFACES

Unit Introduction:.

Unit Outcomes

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Mark out on metals

2. Mark out on concrete surfaces
3. Mark out on wood surfaces
4. Mark out glass surfaces
5. Mark out on PVC surfaces

24.1 Mark out

Accurate measuring and marking out is needed for well-made products

Measuring and marking-out is a key part of any practical project. Planning for this will help
ensure the success of the project and reduce the chance of mistakes and waste.

The aim is to prepare the materials you are working with for the next stages of the
production process. Failure to measure and mark-out materials properly can lead to joints that
do not match up or are incorrectly aligned and

50
 Fig. 26

24.2 Marking out using a scriber

A scriber is a hand tool used in metal work to mark lines on work pieces, prior to machining.
The process of using a scriber is called scribing and is just part of the process of marking out. It
is used instead of pencils or ink lines, because the latter are hard to see, easily erased, and
imprecise due to their wide mark; scribe lines are thin and semi-permanent. On non-coated
work pieces marking blue is commonly used to increase the contrast of the mark lines.

They are a rod with a tip made of cast steel that has been hardened and tempered. The point is
sharpened to an angle of 30 or 40 degrees.[2] Some scribers have a point at both ends. It is
used by dragging the point over the surface of the work piece to leave a shallow scratch on its
surface.

24.3 Centre punch –

A centre punch, used for locating centres and making a dent in material before
drilling. The dent helps to guide the drill so that it doesn't wander off the middle. It
can also be used to make a dent so the engineer divide does not slip when marking
circles on hard materials such as metals.

Fig. 27

51
24.4 Engineer divider –Is used for scribing arcs and circles on materials. The distance
between the legs is set by placing them on a steel rule. A pair of compasses, as used in math,
could be used on wood for drawing circles and arcs.

Fig. 28

24.5 Pencil marking

A pencil is an implement for writing or drawing, constructed of a narrow, solid pigment core in a
protective casing that prevents the core from being broken or marking the user's hand.

Pencils create marks by physical abrasion, leaving a trail of solid core material that adheres to a
sheet of paper or other surface. They are distinct from pens, which dispense liquid or gel ink
onto the marked surface.

Grease pencils are used to make markings on metallic surfaces. These can be used to write on
virtually any surface (including glass, plastic, metal and photographs). The most commonly
found grease pencils are encased in paper (Berol and Sanford Peel-off), but they can also be
encased in wood.

52
Carpenter pencils are used to make marking on wooden surfaces. They have main properties:
their shape prevents them from rolling, and their graphite is strong.

24.6 Marking-out plastics

Chinagraph pencil or marker pen – Used to draw on plastic as it is more visible than pencil
and doesn't leave a permanent engraved line like a scribe.

Unit Summary

Marking out is the scratching of lines on the surface of a workpiece, known as scribing,
and is usually carried out only on a single workpiece or a small number of workpieces.
The two main purposes of marking out are:
1. to indicate the workpiece outline or the position of holes, slots, etc. If the excess
material will have to be removed, a guide is given for the extent to which hacksawing
or filing can be carried out;
2. to provide a guide to setting up the workpiece on a machine. The workpiece is
set up relative to the marking out and is then machined. This is especially
important when a datum has to be established when castings and forgings are to
be machined. It is important to note that the scribed lines are only a guide, and
any accurate dimension must be finally checked by measuring.
This Unit ensures that the trainee gains skills in the marking of various surfaces safely
and accurately.

Unit Activity

1. State two uses of a centre punch when marking out.

2. What are trammels used for?
3. Name the three heads which comprise a combination set and describe the use of
each one.
4. When would a vee block be used during a marking out operation?
5. Where would it be necessary to use a marking dye?
6. What are the two main purposes of marking out engineering components?
7. Why are surface tables and plates used when marking out?
8. Why is it necessary to create a datum when marking out?

53
9. Describe where jacks and wedges would be used.
10. State the difference between rectangular and polar co-ordinates

References

Workshop processes, practices & materials / Bruce Black. – 5th edition.

25.0 UNIT A1.5 CUTTING AND DRILLING ACROSS

Unit Introduction: On completion of this unit, the trainee will be able to cut and drill through
various types of materials safely.

25.1 Unit Outcomes

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Cut across materials

2. Drill through various types materials

Cutting is manufacturing by removal of material. Particles of material, the chips, are

mechanically removed from the raw material or from an unfinished part by cutting edges of a
tool. The tool has one or several cutting edges, which can be geometrically defined by number,
shape, and position (cutting by geometrically defined cutting edges), whereas in abrasive
processes the separation of chips takes place by numerous cutting edges which have to be
statistically described and which are randomly distributed inside the tool.

54
 Fig. 28

25.2 Carbon steel pipe cutting

Carbon steel piping is a durable material made from carbon steel, a steel alloy with iron and
carbon. Because of its strength and ability to withstand stress, carbon steel pipe is used in a
variety of heavy-duty industries like infrastructure, ships, distillers, and chemical fertilizer
equipment.
Heavy-duty steel pipe and tube cutters are usually the easiest to use, but for tight spaces, an
angle grinder or reciprocating saw may be needed. When using a metal pipe cutter, align the
tool around the marked place on the galvanized pipe and rotate so that the wheel cuts deeper
into the pipe until severed.

55
 Fig. 29

25.3 Galvanized pipe cutting

Galvanized pipe is made of steel with a zinc coating to reduce corrosion and rust inside the
pipe. Heavy-duty steel pipe and tube cutters are usually the easiest to use, but for tight spaces,
an angle grinder or reciprocating saw may be needed.
25.4 Tips on how to Cut Metal Pipe:

Now that you know about metal cutting tools, let’s look at the step-by-step instructions
for using each.

Tube Cutting Tool

Step 1: Take Measurements

Before using the cutting tool, take precise measurements. Once you have marked each
pipe, you can move on to the next step.

Step 2: Place Pipe in Cutting Tool and Tighten

The cutting tool has two rollers and a cutting wheel. Place the pipe in position and
tighten. The three points will move around the pipe and make precise cuts.

Step 3: File

After cutting the pipe, you will need to file the inside edge to remove the burr that was
created.

Angle Grinder

56
Step 1: Gather Safety Materials

Before using a power tool, make sure you have the proper safety gear.

Step 2: Measure and Mark

Make your measurements and mark the cut on your pipe.

Step 3: Cut the Pipe

Be sure that the grinders are running before they touch the pipe. Give the blade time to
speed up before touching it to the metal. After you’ve started the grinders, move the
blade to the pipe and make the smooth cut.

Hacksaw

Step 1: Secure the Pipe

It is crucial to secure your pipe before cutting it with a hacksaw. Otherwise, the sawing
motion could cause the pipe to move during the cutting process. Be sure to support the
longer end of the pipe before making your cut.

Step 2: Be Patient as You Cut

Hacksaws take longer to cut through pipe than power tools. Be patient as you saw
through the pipe. You don’t need to apply a lot of pressure. Instead, use a gentle,
consistent pressure and motion as you saw.

Step 3: File

After making your cut, you will need to file the cut end to make it smooth. You can use
a metal file or sandpaper to smooth out the burrs.

A pipe cutter is a type of tool used by plumbers to cut pipe. Besides producing a clean
cut, the tool is often a faster, cleaner, and more convenient way of cutting pipe than
using a hacksaw, although this depends on the metal of the pipe. There are two types
of pipe cutters.

57
25.6 Cutting PVC Pipe

Compared to wood and metal, PVC has a many different methods available to cut it into
manageable and necessary sizes for a project.

PVC cuts extremely easy. Other materials take an extremely long time to cut when
using standard hand tools. PVC on the other hand does not. This is because PVC only
requires that, like metal, you cut the outside diameter of the pipe. While wood and
metal leave behind splinters or metal filaments which can be come cumbersome, PVC
only leaves behind small traces of plastic particles which can easily be cleaned up by
hand without injury.

What is the best way to cut PVC pipe? We'll leave that up to you. Much of it depends
upon your need and your budget. Read through our different options below and
determine your ideal way on how to cut PVC pipe.

Caution!

A mouth mask must be worn besides the recommended PPE because when cutting PVC
material. PVC pipe, when cut, can emit small particles that can irritate the lungs or
throat. PVC, when heated to its melting point, can also emit chlorine gas, which with
long-term exposure, can be dangerous.

Fig. 30

PVC pipe is one of the most versatile and useful structural building materials available,
but you still need a method to reduce it down to the right size. There are many ways
(including many types of tools/cutter brands) to cut PVC, but we've provided a few
methods and tools, shown below, to cut PVC pipe easily and safely.

The tools that can be used to cut PVC material include: hacksaw; backsaw; scissors –
style pipe cutter; ratchet – style pipe cutter; power miter saw etc.

58
25.7 Softwood cutting

Softwood is wood from gymnosperm trees such as pines and spruces. Softwoods are
not necessarily softer than hardwoods.[1] In both groups there is an enormous variation
in actual wood hardness, the range of density in hardwoods completely including that of
softwoods. Some hardwoods (e.g. balsa) are softer than most softwood, while the
hardest hardwoods are much harder than any softwood. The woods of longleaf pine,
Douglas fir, and yew are much harder in the mechanical sense than several hardwoods.

Softwoods are generally most used by the construction industry and are also used to
produce paper pulp, and card products. In many of these applications, there is a
constant need for density and thickness monitoring and gamma-ray sensors have
shown good performance in this case.

Types of power tools for cutting wood: Table Saw; Circular Saw; Miter Saw;
Reciprocating Saw; Jigsaw; Band Saw

25.8 Hardwoods

Hardwoods have a more complex structure than softwoods and are often much slower
growing as a result. The dominant feature separating "hardwoods" from softwoods is
the presence of pores, or vessels The vessels may show considerable variation in size,
shape of perforation plates (simple, scalariform, reticulate, foraminate), and structure of
cell wall, such as spiral thickenings.

As the name suggests, the wood from these trees is generally harder than that of
softwoods, but there are significant exceptions. In both groups there is an enormous
variation in actual wood hardness, with the range in density in hardwoods completely
including that of softwoods; some hardwoods (e.g., balsa) are softer than most
softwoods, while yew is an example of a hard softwood.

Types of power tools for cutting wood: Table Saw; Circular Saw; Miter Saw;
Reciprocating Saw; Jigsaw; Band Saw

25.9 Using Hacksaw to cut through steel

59
As a classic plumber's tool, the hacksaw is primarily a tool for cutting metals, such as
steel pipes or sheet metal, but it can also be very useful for cutting plastic.

Hacksaws were originally and principally made for cutting metal, but can also cut
various other materials, such as plastic and wood; for example, plumbers and
electricians often cut plastic pipe and plastic conduit with them.

There are two types of Hacksaw Frame, a fixed and an adjustable. The fixed frame can
only take one length of Blade, but is more rigid that the adjustable type, which can take
Blades of different lengths.

Fig. 31

Some tips on how to use a hacksaw:

Replace dull blades with fresh ones.

Let the saw do the work.

The forward stroke does the cutting, so don't put a lot of pressure on the backward
stroke.

Lubricate the blade with WD40 before using it (this reduces friction and helps keep the
teeth free of metal).

More teeth on the blade are not always better even though it might be faster: more
space between teeth creates like a “chisel effect” when cutting because of the offset
(18 teeth per inch is good for all around purposes.

Put your body into the forward stroke

Junior Hacksaw
Junior hacksaws are a smaller variant used when space is limited, or more precise
cutting is required. They feature softer, half-sized blades and so are not suitable for
cutting harder substances. Junior hacksaws are compact, easily portable hand tools.

60
Junior hacksaws are commonly used for cutting through metal pipes or plastic tubing.
The blade of a junior hacksaw is much smaller than a regular one, so the tool can be
used for more precise cutting or for applications that require a neater finish

Tenon Saw

A Tenon Saw is any hand saw which has a stiffening rib on the edge opposite the
cutting edge, enabling better control and more precise cutting than with other types of
saws. Backsaws are normally used in woodworking for precise work, such as cutting
dovetails, mitres, or tenons in cabinetry and joinery. Because of the stiffening rib,
backsaws are limited in the depth to which they can cut. Backsaws usually have
relatively closely spaced teeth, often with little or no set.

Bow saw

A modern bow saw is a metal-framed crosscut saw in the shape of a bow with a coarse
wide blade. This type of saw is also known as a Swede saw, Finn sawor bucksaw. It is a
rough tool that can be used for cross-cutting branches or firewood, up to six inches
(150 mm) in diameter. The name 'Swede saw' probably derived from the ovate metal
tubular frame version, invented in the 1920s by the Swedish company
SandvikensJernverk, and additional patents by two Swedish immigrants to the US. A
bow saw is a woodworking tool used for straight or curved cuts

Fig. 32

Protect Your Eyes

61
Fig. 33

It only takes one tiny metal fragment to cause a serious eye injury, so proper eye
protection when drilling metal is an absolute must. For the best protection, choose
safety glasses that wrap around the sides of your face.

Fig. 34

Here’s How to How Drill a Hole in Tile

Mounting towel bars, shower doors and other bathroom accessories often require
drilling holes in tile.

Lubricated Bits Last Longer

For drilling holes in steel that's 1/8 in. or thicker, use cutting fluid or a multipurpose oil
like 3-IN-ONE. Lubricating the bit reduces friction and heat buildup, which makes
drilling easier and your bits last longer. For easier-to-drill metals like aluminum, brass or
cast iron, lubrication isn't usually necessary.

62
 Clamps
Prevent Stitches

Fig. 35

Never hold a piece of metal in one hand while trying to drill through it with the other.
The drill bit for metal could catch, instantly causing the work piece to spin, strike and
slash (sharp metal edges slice to the bone!). Always use a minimum of two clamps to
securely hold down your work piece.

Need a big hole? Start small! Most twist bits are available in sizes up to 1 in. in
diameter, but you'll get the best results by starting with a 1/4-in. hole and drilling
successively larger holes with your drill bit for metal until you reach the size you want.
Learn more about which twist bits to pick.

Deburr the Hole

After drilling a hole in metal, it's a good idea to remove any sharp edges or burrs left
behind. You can buy fancy deburring tools to smooth sharp edges, but before spending
money on one, try this trick: Take a twist bit slightly larger in diameter than the hole
you just drilled, and gently hand-twist it over the top of the hole. This will smooth out
the edge of the hole and grind away any burrs.

63
 Hole Saws Cut Bigger Holes

Fig. 36

For large holes, a hole saw gets the job done cleanly and quickly. Like twist bits, hole
saws chuck right into your drill and will cut through thin-gauge sheet metals like
aluminum and steel. Use a scrap of plywood as a backer for the hole saw's pilot bit and
to protect your work surface.

Drill at a Slow Speed

The faster a bit spins, the hotter it gets. And heat dulls bits quickly. In general, it's a
good idea to drill through metal using as slow a speed as possible using a drill bit for
metal. Hard metals like steel and larger drill bits require even slower speeds. With a
small twist bit (1/16 in. to 3/16 in.), you can drill through most metals at 3,000 rpm.
For larger twist bits (11/16 in. to 1 in.), 350 to 1,000 rpm is recommended.

Fig. 37

64
Make a Sandwich

For clean, precise holes in thin sheet metal, make a wood sandwich. Simply sandwich the sheet metal
between two pieces of wood and clamp everything down on a table or workbench. The wooden 'bread'
layers of the sandwich keep the sheet metal flat and prevent the drill bit from wandering as it bores
through the sheet metal.

Step drill bits are designed to drill holes in sheet metal and other thin materials. They're just the thing
when you need a perfectly sized, clean hole in a steel junction box, electrical service panel or even a
stainless steel sink. A step drill bit for metal allows you to drill holes in a variety of diameters, and some
will drill through metal up to 3/8 in. thick. Step bits are more expensive than regular bits.

Step Up to a Drill Press

While it's fairly easy to drill most holes in metal using nothing more than a handheld drill, you'll almost
always get greater accuracy and better results using a drill press. Most drill presses are actually built
with metalworking in mind. Pulling down on the handle causes the bit to plunge straight down into a
work piece and make a very precise hole.

Drill presses also come with beefy cast-iron tables with tilt and height adjustments, and allow a variety
of clamping options. Speed changes are as easy as opening the lid and moving a rubber belt from one
pulley to another. The most expensive drill presses are floor-standing models, but you can buy a decent
bench top unit for about $100.

Below are some of the steps that must be taken when cutting and making holes through PVC
materials.

Step 1: Measure and Mark

I like using a smaller tape measure for PVC projects because I know I am never going to have
to cut a length longer than 10 feet. A small measuring tape is usually thinner too, and easier to
stabilize around thin pieces of pipe.

Most often I use a dry erase marker to mark on PVC tube because it dries quickly and wipes
away quickly with a dry rag. We'll bust out the markers again when it's time to assemble parts
too.

Taking careful measurements before cutting will save you time having to cut down new parts,
and trips to the hardware store to get more pipe to correct your errors.

Step 2: Tools for Cutting

65
PVC is very easy to cut. Most makers rely on three different tools to cut down lengths of PVC.
They are: a ratcheting pipe cutter, a hacksaw, or a chop saw. Let's go over how to use these
tools to cut down PVC pipe, in order of cost.

A ratcheting pipe cutter uses a stepped ratcheting arm to move a VERY SHARP blade through
the tubular plastic. This tool is cheap and can get through pipe quickly. However, these cuts are
not very precise. You are often left with crooked edges. I found with some practice, you can get
good at making close-to-90-degree slices.

To use this tool, place a length of pipe into the jaws of the of the cutter, and repeatedly
squeeze until the blade has cut all the way through the tube. Voila! Check the angle of your cut
and if it's too wonky or crooked, consider using a hacksaw.

The hacksaw is only slightly more expensive than the ratcheting pipe cutter, but this is a key
tool in any maker's arsenal. To cut PVC pipe with a hacksaw, I recommend using a miter box to
ensure that you are getting the straightest cut.

It's important to clamp down your pipe so it doesn't roll around while you are cutting it. The
miter box I found has little pegs that help secure material so that I just have to clamp down the
box, and the box secures the pipe.

The method of cutting pipe is slow and will leave you with burrs on your pipe. To remove burrs,
you can pick at them with your fingers, use a deburring tool if you have one, or a piece of
rough sandpaper if the burr is really stubborn. If you have to make a lot of precise cuts, you
may want to consider using a chop saw instead.

If you have access to a chop saw to cut down PVC pipe, by all means, use that tool. It is fast
and precise. You can get perfectly squared cuts with just a quick pass of the blade.

Other tools like metal pipe cutters don't work as effectively, and table saws are down-right
dangerous to cut tubular material on.

If you're really in a pinch and feel like channeling your inner MacGyver, or if you need to cut a
12" diameter tube, try using a piece of nylon string. Seriously. Take a length of nylon and 'saw'
it along the outer diameter of the pipe. The cut may go slow in the beginning, but once you've
sunk the string into the tube, it begins to cut like butter. The nylon will get HOT so watch your
fingers.

Step 3: Securing PVC

66
Sometimes you will need to cut a piece of PVC down that won't fit into a miter box, and is too
large for your ratcheting cutters. A hacksaw is still your best bet for making this kind of cut, but
because PVC pipe is round, you need to prevent it from rolling or slipping when you're cutting
or drilling.

To prevent the pipe from rolling around while cutting, try clamping it to the table. A lot of
makers make notched wood or plastic jigs called V-blocks to create a grove that their pipes can
be pressed into to be stabilized.

I have gotten pretty good results by putting a shop rag under a pipe and then using bar clamps
to tighten it to a work table before I make a cut. I may clip the workbench with the hacksaw
every once in a while, but it's few and far between.

Step 4: Making Holes

The best way to make holes in PVC is by using a drill or rotary tool.

Using a drill is the best way to get perfectly circular holes in pipe. PVC is soft, you can use
either wood or metal bits to make holes with a drill. For making larger holes, use a hole saw
with a mandrel to punch through the tube. A spade bit is not advised because of the way it
removes material, the bit cannot properly ‘grab’ the curved surface like a hole saw can.

Using a rotary tool allows you to make shapes that are beyond the circle! Since the PVC
machines so easily, you can use all the bits that your rotary tool comes with to experiment with
making awesome designs and cut-outs. Rotary tools spin very fast, and it may cause the PVC to
heat up if you aren’t careful, or if you are using a bit that is too abrasive. Be sure to wear a
respirator whenever you are heating PVC.

If you don't have a drill or rotary tool, all is not lost. Since PVC pipe is so soft, you can make
small holes with screws or nails. Just drive them in with a screwdriver or hammer, and voila!
Pipe punctured.

Step 5: Deburring

It is important to deburr your pipe after cutting. Any loose plastic flakes will make it harder to
fit your pipe into a joint.

My favorite way to deburr pipe is with this awesome chamfer and deburring tool. It works a
little bit like a pencil sharpener and can be used on both the inside and outside diameter of the
pipe.

Running the chamfer tool along the circumference of the outside edge of the pipe, will result in
a perfect 22° filleted edge. Ideal to glide into a PVC joint without snagging.

67
A slightly slower way to deburr and chamfer your edges is with a file or sanding block. Keep
your sand paper at an almost parallel angle to the pipe to remove chips and flakes of plastic. If
you really need clean edges, a hand file helps get chips from the inner diameter of

26.0 Masonry drills bits

Masonry drills bits feature a arrowhead-shaped tip and are used for drilling holes into tough
materials such as brick, stone and concrete. They are typically made from steel and used with a
hammer drill, which hammers the bit into the surface as the drill bit rotates

Masonry bits look like larger twist drills with a slightly tighter corkscrew shape. You can identify
them thanks to their wide arrow-shaped heads. They're commonly used in hammer drills to
grind masonry down as they cut through it.

A masonry bit drills into tough materials such as concrete, brick and other masonry. Some work
with a standard corded or cordless rotary drill, but those designed for use with a rotary hammer
or hammer drill can help the concrete drill bit bore into masonry moreeffectively.

27.0 Twist Drill

A twist drill is basically a cylindrical piece of steel with special grooves. One end of the
cylinder is pointed and the other end is so shaped that it can be attached to the drilling
machine. The grooves are usually called flutes. The flutes formed by twisting a flat piece of
steel into a cylindrical shape and such types of cylindrical shape drills are called twist drills.

Twist drills (also commonly referred to as twist bits) are the most widely used of all drill bit
types; they will cut anything from wood and plastic to steel and concrete. They are most
frequently used for metal cutting, so they are generally made from M2 high-speed steel.

28.0 Thermostat
A thermostat is a regulating device component which senses the temperature of a physical
system and performs actions so that the system's temperature is maintained near a desired
setpoint.

Thermostats are used in any device or system that heats or cools to a setpoint temperature,
examples include building heating, central heating, air conditioners, HVAC systems, water
heaters, as well as kitchen equipment including ovens and refrigerators and medical and
scientific incubators.

Unit Summary

68
The majority of drilling work is carried out on pillar drilling machines, so called because
the machine elements are arranged on a vertical pillar. The machines in the heavy-duty
range have power feed, are driven from the motor through a gearbox, and have a
drilling capacity in steel up to 50 mm diameter. Smaller sensitive machines, have a
hand feed, giving the sensitivity, are belt driven from the motor through pulleys, and
have a maximum drilling capacity in steel ranging from 5 mm up to 25 mm diameter.
These machines may be bench- or floor-mounted. As mentioned above it is important
to consider safety precautions when operating such machines for cutting and drilling to
avoid fatal accidents. This gives a guide in the way these machines operate and
configured.

Unit Activity

1. By means of a sketch show how a clamp is positioned to give maximum clamping

force to the workpiece.
2. What is the purpose of using a reamer?
3. What is the quill of a drilling machine?

4. State the purpose of a Morse taper.

5. Why is it necessary to clamp work during a drilling operation?
6. State the precautions necessary when drilling holes in sheet metal.
7. What piece of equipment is used to remove a shank from the drill spindle?
8. State two precautions to be taken when drilling plastics materials.
9. State the purpose of a counter bore.
10. When screwing two workpieces together why is it necessary to drill a clearance
hole in the top part?

References

Workshop processes, practices & materials / Bruce Black. – 5th edition.

29.0 UNIT A1.6 JOINING VARIOUS MATERIALS

Unit Introduction: On completion of this unit, the trainee will be able to cut and drill through
various types of materials safely.

69
 Unit Outcomes

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

3. Cut across materials

4. Drill through various types materials

29.1 Joining metal techniques

Mechanical joining includes bolting, riveting, caulking, shrink fitting, and folding,
all of which join workpieces by using mechanical energy. Metallurgical joining
includes fusion welding, pressure welding and brazing/soldering which use
different energies.

There are many different ways of joining metal:

Welding

Welding offers a permanent method of fastening and fabricating products from a wide range
of materials. Welding is the joining of two materials (usually metal) in their liquid form which
solidifies and fuses together to form a joint that is as strong as the parent metal.
Industrially there are many ways of achieving this fusion. Within school workshops two basic
methods of welding metal are possible:

1. oxy-acetylene
2. Electric arc.

Oxy-acetylene welding

70
In oxy-acetylene welding a heat source of around 3500oC is produced by burning acetylene gas
in oxygen. Fine adjustment to the ratio of gases is made on the hand held blowpipe. Excess
oxygen gives the hottest flame, but a neutral flame, with equal amounts of gases, is the most
widely used, this all depends on the thickness and type of metal being welded.
During the welding process a pool of molten metal is created. A filler rod of the same metal is
dipped into this and melts filling the joint.

Fluxes are used with some materials, but not steel.

Fig. 38

Electric Arc Welding

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In electric arc welding an electric arc, of low voltage but high current of 10 – 120A, is
struck between a metal electrode and the material to be joined.
The electrode, as well as carrying current, is a flux – coated filler rod.

Fig. 39

Very intense heat is produced at the end of the arc, melting the electrode and the metals to be
joined to form the weld bead.
The special flux gives protection from oxidation. This generates a gaseous shield, forming a
molten blanket over the weld pool. As it solidifies a brittle glassy slag is formed, which can be
easily chipped away when cold.
Different metal thickness require different diameters of electrode and different currents. This
process is widely used because of its low capital and running costs.

Fig. 40

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To achieve an effective joint, paint, rust and any galvanized coating must be removed. The
edges of thicker metal may require to be bevelled so the weld penetrates the metals and
achieves high strength.

Spot welding

Spot welding is commercially used to give intermittent welding and some pre-tacking may be
necessary with long runs.
Other types of welding are MIG & TIG.
Soft soldering

Fig. 41

Soft soldering is a quick method of joining most metals such as copper, brass, tinplate and
steel. An exception is aluminium. The process is best confined to light fabrication where joints
are not subjected to heat and vibration and so do not need to be very strong.

The surfaces must be clean before soldering is attempted. In the joining process close fitting
joints are essential to ensure that the capillary action unites the surfaces. An electric soldering
iron is cleaned, while hot, using a wet sponge and then “tinned” with a thin film of solder. The
heat and solder should be applied together.

Brazing

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 Fig. 42

Brazing is a technique similar to soldering, except that considerably higher temperatures are
needed. Brazing spelters is an alloy of copper and zinc (brass) and melts in the range of 870 –
880oC. This results in a much stronger joint, since brass is stronger than solder.
An air blown gas torch is needed to maintain a hot flame. This does create a limiting factor,
making it too hot to use on brass and copper but it is ideal for mild steel.
Joints do benefit from interlocking, but they should all be wired or held securely to allow for
expansion during heating.

Fig. 43

Riveting

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Riveting is a quick and convenient method of fixing two or more pieces of material together in a
permanent fashion, it is ideally suited to industrial application providing a cheap alternative to
threaded fastening. The choice of rivet depends on its use.
Traditionally used with sheet metal, this method is increasingly applied to plastics and even
wood.
Rivets are classified by;
Length, Diameter,
Material, Head pattern.

Fig. 44

They are made from soft easily deformed materials such as iron, aluminium and copper.

Fig.45

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Pop rivets

Fig. 46

Pop rivets are quicker to use than ordinary rivets and can also be used when access is only
available from one side, but they do not give as strong a joint. They consist of a hollow rivet
mounted on a head pin.
In application the pin is gripped in the rivet gun and the rivet placed in a pre-drilled hole.
Squeezing the gun with draws the pin.

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29.2 Machine screws, nuts and bolts

Machine screws

are available in a wide range of diameters, lengths, materials, head shapes and thread forms.

Bolts

Fig. 47

made from high tensile steel are mechanically strong, square or hexagonal headed, they are
threaded for all or just part of their length.

Nuts

Fig. 48

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 Washers
Fig. 49

protect the surface when nuts are being heightened loosening caused by vibration.
Self Tapping screws
are suitable not only for thin sheet metal but also plastics. Made from hardened steel, they cut
their own thread as they are screwed in. Preparation requires a clearance hole and a pilot hole,
equal to the screw’s core diameters.

Joining metals by seaming

Seaming is a process whereby flat sheets of metal are rolled and joined at their 'seam'
to form cylinders or cones as a starting point for further work when creating Beaten
Metalwork articles.

Features and Applications

Fig. 50

The 'seams' are commonly joined by Hard Soldering using Silver Solder. Straight 'seams'
are common, and are suitable for most purposes, but traditional Copper Kettles, for
example, have 'seam' joints Dovetailed for extra strength before soldering.

78
Once soldered together, the 'seamed' form can be further worked by Raising or similar
techniques and then Planished. Bases can be added, as can embellishments such as
spouts, feet or surface decoration, by working through the grades (i.e. melting points)
of Silver Solder and finally down to Soft Solder.

Fig. 51

The Seaming Process

The flat sheet is first rolled into the required cylinder or cone and the 'seam' filed to the closest
fit possible (all solders flow by a process of Capillary Action so the joint needs to be clean and
close fitting).

Fig. 52

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Filing at this stage also helps to ensure that the metal edge is filed to a slight bevel such that
close metal to metal contact is maintained throughout the sheet thickness.

Some Silversmiths prefer to hold the 'tang' of a file in a vice and simply rub the 'seamed' joint
backwards and forwards along it to achieve a good close fit.

Fig. 53

Once a close fitting 'seam' has been achieved, the metal is thoroughly cleaned (e.g. with Emery
Cloth) and held together with hoops of soft iron binding wire prior to soldering. Twisted loops
are included which can be further twisted to pull the joint together. Conical forms also require
wire hoops around the ends to which the circular hoops are attached so that they don't slip
towards the narrower end of the cone.

After soldering, the 'seamed' object is Pickled to clean it of oxides after which it is ready for
further work (e.g. one end can simply be flared out by holding it at an angle to a cylindrical
Stake and striking it with a Raising Hammer or Collet Hammer).

Once the seamed product is completed, it can be trued, the metal Work Hardened and polished,
by a process known as Planishing. It is important that the metal is thoroughly cleaned before
Planishing(e.g. by Pickling and/or scouring) to avoid any grit, oxides or other contaminants
being hammered into the surface. Bases, handles, lids, and any applied decoration for example,
may be added by Silver Soldering, Soft Soldering, or Riveting.

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29.3 Joining wood using dowels
A dowel joint, shown below provides another invisible connection. Butt the pieces to be joined
and mark dowel positions on both faces. Position a doweling jig over the marks, and drill holes
0.625mmdeeper than half the dowel length. On one piece, spread glue within the holes, insert
the dowels, and clamp it to a flat surface. On the other piece, glue the end grain and holes, force
the pieces together, and clamp until dry

Fig. 54

Joining wood using bolts and nuts

Bolts used in joining wood have dowel type heads and nuts. The bolts’ heads have coarse
heads with washers.

To make wood joints, the bolts are placed through pre – drilled holes and nuts and washers are
tightened on the application (joint) such that the members of the connection fit tightly together.

Joining wood using self-tapping screws

As the name suggests, self-tapping screws are screws that have the ability to tap threads into
the material. Self-tapping screws are used for all sorts of material including wood, metal, and
brick. These screws cannot drill through metal and require a pilot hole to be pre-drilled before
installation

Pointed nose self-tapping screws do not require a pilot hole. The action of driving the screw in
will result in the self-tapping screw cutting a thread into the material and securing the materials
together. Self-tapping screws are typically used to secure wood, plastic, metal and brick
together.

Fig. 55

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Using wood glue to join wood
Most wood glues are a type of polyvinyl acetate (PVA wood glue). Also sometimes called
carpenter's glue, wood glue is formulated to penetrate wood fibers, making glue joints that are
stronger than the wood itself.

Solvent Jointing PVC materials using Glue System

This method, otherwise known as a Solvent Weld, is the most popular and requires alow skill
capability.

PVC ‘solvent cement’ or ‘glue’ is in essence the chemical mixture that when applied to the
mating surfaces of the PVC pipe, fitting or valve connections, welds them together by means of
a chemical reaction creating what is technically known as an ‘homogenous bond’ i.e. the two
separate surfaces are now chemically fused to become one.

Joining PVC pipes using couplings

Couplings are one of the most simple (and inexpensive) types of PVC fittings. They are a
small part that connects or "couples" one part to another, usually permanently. They can
connect pipe to pipe and pipe to fitting. Some of them even reduce so you can connect a small
pipe to a large pipe or vice versa.

Unit Summary

Some method of joining parts together is used throughout industry, to form either a
complete product or an assembly. The method used depends on the application of the
finished product and whether the parts have to be dismantled for maintenance or
replacement during service.
There are five methods by which parts may be joined:
1. mechanical fasteners – screws, bolts, nuts,rivets;
2. soldering;
3. brazing;
4. welding;
5. adhesive bonding.
Mechanical fasteners are most widely used in applications where the parts may need to
be dismantled for repair or replacement. This type of joint is known as non-permanent.
The exception would be the use of rivets, which have to be destroyed to dismantle the
parts and so form a permanent joint. Welding and adhesives are used for permanent
joints which do not need to be dismantled – any attempt to do so would result in
damage to or destruction of the joints and parts. Although soldered and brazed joints
are considered permanent, they can be dismantled by heating for repair and
replacement. This Unit provide a safe guide in carrying out joining of various materials.

82
 Unit Activity

1. What is the composition of a general purpose soft solder?

2. State four advantages of using adhesives instead of mechanical or heat joining
methods.
3. How does welding differ from soft soldering or brazing?
4. Name four methods used to join parts.
5. State the purpose of using a flux during a brazing operation.
6. Name three types of thread systems.
7. To what process does MAGS refer and where would it be used?
8. Name four types of locknut.
9. What considerations should be made in designing a soft soldered joint?
10. State two types of adhesive used in metal joining.
11. Name the two gases associated with gas welding.
12. State three types of flame setting used in gas welding. Which is most commonly
used and why?

References

Workshop processes, practices & materials / Bruce Black. – 5th edition.

Copyright © 1979, 1997, 2004, Bruce J. Black. All rights reserved

30.0 UNIT A1.7 MOUNTING FIXTURES AND FITTINGS

Unit Introduction: On completion of this unit, the trainee will be able to mount fixtures and
fittings on the wall, floor, and roof provide hangings for assorted tools.

Unit Outcomes

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

83
 1. mount fixtures and fittings on the wall
2. Erect fixtures and fittings on the floor
3. Mount fixtures on the roof
4. Hanging fittings

30.1 Mounting fixture and fittings on the wall

A fixture is a work-holding or support device used in the manufacturing industry. Fixtures are
used to securely locate (position in a specific location or orientation) and support the work,
ensuring that all parts produced using the fixture will maintain conformity and interchangeability.
On the other hand, afitting is any item that is free standing or hung by screws, nails or hooks

30.2 erect fixture and fittings on the floor

Erecting fixture and fittings on the floor can be done when an asset that is installed or otherwise
fixed in to a building or land so as to become part of that building or land and it is intended to be
reasonably permanent and is fixed to the property through the application of plaster, cement,
bolts, screws, nuts or nails.

Unit Summary

The unit serves to explain the activities of mounting and fitting safely.

Unit Activity

Demonstrate mounting adevicesnd fitting of electrical

Reference

ZAMBIA BUREAU OF STANDARDS DZS 791 – 1: 2013

84
31.0 UNIT A1.8 CARRYING OUT RIGGING
Unit Introduction: On completion of this unit, you will be able to carry out rigging works
associated with electrical practical works.

Unit Outcomes

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Use lifting devices

2. Move loads on the ground (floor)

85
 3. Use scaffolds
4. Use signals when carrying out lifting equipment operations

31.1 Using lifting devices

Lifting operations are inherent to many occupations in industry. They can be performed
manually or using lifting equipment. Both manual lifting and mechanical lifting operations can
be used.

A lifting operation is an operation concerned with the lifting and lowering of a load. A load is the
item or items being lifted which could include a person or people. A lifting operation may be
performed manually or using lifting equipment. Manual lifting, holding, putting down, carrying
or moving is often referred to as ‘manual handling of loads’

Lifting operations in industry occur during transportation of material from the storage place to
the place where it is being processed, and during the processing of materials. A load includes
any material or people that are lifted or lowered by lifting equipment.

31.2 Lifting equipment in used in industry (general)

Lifting equipment includes any equipment or machinery used at work for lifting or lowering
loads or people, including accessories and attachments used for anchoring, fixing or supporting
the equipment.There is a wide range of lifting equipment in the construction industry. Typical
examples are:

a) A hoist: is a device used for lifting or lowering a load by means of a drum or lift-wheel
around which rope or chain wraps. It may be manually operated, electrically or
pneumatically driven and may use chain, fibre or wire rope as its lifting medium.
b) A crane: is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist, wire ropes or chains,
and sheaves, that can be used to lift and lower heavy materials and to move them
horizontally. Different types that can be found in construction are:
c) A tower crane: is a balance crane that consists of the same basic parts. Fixed to the
ground on a concrete slab, tower cranes offer height and high lifting capacity. The base
is then attached to the mast which gives the crane its height. The mast is attached to
the slewing unit (gear and motor) that allows the crane to rotate.
d) Telescopic crane: has a boom that consists of a number of tubes fitted one inside the
other. A powered mechanism extends or retracts the tubes to increase or decrease the
total length of the boom. These types of booms are highly adaptable, are often truck
mounted and used for short term construction projects.
e) A mobile crane: is a cable-controlled crane mounted on crawlers or rubber-tired
carriers or a hydraulic-powered crane with a telescoping boom mounted on truck-type
carriers or as self-propelled models. They are designed to easily transport to a site and
use with different types of load and cargo with little or no setup or assembly.
f) All terrain crane: is a mobile, truck mounted crane with the necessary equipment to
travel at speed on public roads, and on rough terrain at the job site using all-wheel and
crab steering.
g) A crawler crane: is a crane mounted on an undercarriage with a set of tracks (also
called crawlers) that provide stability and mobility. They need little set-up and can travel
with a load but are very heavy and cannot easily be moved from one job site to another.

86
 h) A power shovel (also stripping shovel or front shovel or electric mining shovel) is a
bucket-equipped machine, usually electrically powered, used for digging and loading
earth or fragmented rock and for mineral extraction conveyor systems.
i) A telescopic handler, or telehandler, is a type of crane, with the versatility of a single
telescopic boom that can extend forwards and upwards from the vehicle. On the end of
the boom several attachments can be fit, such as a bucket, pallet forks, muck grab, or
winch.
j) A fork lift truck is a powered industrial truck with hydraulic lift system and forks to
pick up and transport materials.

31.3 Lifting equipment for lifting people:

An aerial work platform, elevating work platform, or mobile elevating work platform
(MEWP), is a mechanical device used to provide temporary access for people or
equipment to inaccessible areas, usually at height. There are distinct types of
mechanized access platforms and the individual types may also be known as a
"cherry picker" or a "scissor lift". They can be vehicle-mounted, self-propelled or
trailer-mounted.

A passenger lift or passenger hoist or construction elevator is commonly used on

large scale construction projects, such as high-rise buildings to transport persons

31.4 Moving loads on the ground (floor)

In taking steps to avoid hazardous manual handling operations, first check whether the
load needs to be moved or whether the following operation can be carried out next to
the load. Consideration should be given to automation, particularly if new processes are
involved and can be incorporated at an early stage, or mechanisation such as the use of
a fork-lift truck. However, care must be taken to avoid creating new hazards which may
arise through the use of automation or mechanisation. In assessing and reducing the
risk of injury, the employer needs to carry out a risk assessment.
The problems to be examined are:
1. the tasks and what they involve;
2. the nature of the loads;
3. the working environment;
4. the individual’s capacity to carry outthe task;
5. handling aids and equipment;
6. work organisation.

The risk assessment should result in a number of ways of reducing the risk of
injury. The task – can you
1. use a lifting aid;
2. improve workplace layout to improve efficiency;
3. reduce the amount of twisting and stooping;
4. avoid lifting from floor level or above shoulder height;
5. reduce carrying distances;

87
 6. avoid repetitive handling;
7. vary the work pattern, allowing one set of muscles to rest while another is
used;
8. push rather than pull?
Nature of the load – can you make the load
1. lighter or less bulky;
2. easier or less damaging to grasp;
3. more stable?
Working environment – can you
1. remove obstructions to free movement;
2. provide better flooring;
3. avoid steps and steep ramps;
4. prevent extremes of hot and cold;
5. improve lighting;
6. consider less restrictive clothing or personal protective equipment?

31.5 Using scaffolds

Scaffolding, also called scaffold or staging is a temporary structure used to support a work crew
and materials to aid in the construction, maintenance and repair of buildings, bridges and all
other man-made structures. Scaffolds are widely used on site to get access to heights and areas
that would be otherwise hard to get to Unsafe scaffolding has the potential to result in death or
serious injury. Scaffolding is also used in adapted forms for formwork and shoring, grandstand
seating, concert stages, access/viewing towers, exhibition stands, ski ramps, half pipes and art
projects. This is covered in detail in Unit 1.8 element 1.2.3.

There are five main types of scaffolding used worldwide today. These are tube and coupler
(fitting) components, prefabricated modular system scaffold components, H-frame / facade
modular system scaffolds, timber scaffolds and bamboo scaffolds (particularly in China and
India

31.6 Using signals when carrying out lifting equipment operations

88
These Regulations cover various means of communicating health and safety
information. As well as the use of signs, they set out minimum requirements for
acoustic signals, verbal communication and hand signals. Hand signals, when moving
loads, must be precise, simple, expansive, easy to make and to
understand and clearly distinct from other such signals. Where both arms are used at
the same time they must be moved symmetrically and used for giving one sign only.
The person giving the sign, or signalman, who must be competent and trained in their
correct use, uses arm/hand movements to give maneuvering instructions to an
operator and must be able to monitor all man oeuvres visually without being
endangered. The signalman’s duties must consist exclusively of directing maneuvers
and ensuring the safety of workers in the vicinity.
The operator must interrupt the ongoing maneuver in order to request new instructions
when he is unable to carry out the orders he has received, with the necessary safety
guarantees. The operator must be able to recognize the signalman without difficulty.
The signalman must wear one or more brightly coloured distinctive items such as
jacket, helmet, sleeve or armbands or carry bats.
The set of coded signals are shown in the above figure.

Unit Summary

A load is defined as a distinct movable object. Common injuries are sprains or strains
often to the back which arise from incorrect application and/or prolonged use of body
force though hands, arms and feet are also vulnerable. Some of these injuries can
result in what are known as musculoskeletal disorders or MSDs which can affect the
body’s muscles, joints, tendons, ligaments and nerves. Typically MSDs affect the

89
back, neck, shoulders and upper limbs. Health problems range from discomfort, minor
aches and pains to more serious medical problems. It is now widely accepted that an
ergonomic approach will remove or reduce the risk of manual handling injury.
Ergonomics can be describe as ‘ fitting the job to the person rather than the
person to the job ’ . This ergonomic approach looks at manual handling taking account
of a whole range of relevant factors including the nature of the task, the load, the
working environment and the capability of the individual.

Review questions
1. State four steps to take in the working environment to reduce the risk of injury.
2. List four safety requirements of lifting equipment in use.
3. State the three measures to be taken to reduce the risk to employees under the
Manual Handling Operations Regulations.
4. List four observations which should be made for safe stacking of objects.
5. Define ’ ergonomics ’ .
6. State four duties of an employee in avoiding risk to himself or others.
7. List four safety rules to be observed when carrying out any lifting operation.
8. State five requirements for lifting equipment under the Lifting Operations and Lifting
Equipment Regulations.
9. List the sequence to be observed when manually lifting a load.
10. By means of a sketch show the hand signal for emergency stop.

Workshop processes, practices & materials / Bruce Black. – 5th edition.

pages cm
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-138-78472-7 (pbk. : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-1-315-76822-9 (ebook) 1.
Machine-shop practice.
I. Title. II. Title: Workshop processes, practices, and materials.
TJ1160.B52 2015
670.42'3–dc23
2014034244
ISBN: 978-1-138-78472-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-76822-9 (ebk)
Typeset in Univers LT by
Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshir

90
32.0 UNIT A1.8 ADHERE TO THE ZAMBIAN CODE OF PRACTICE OF WIRING
PREMISES

Unit Introduction: On completion of this unit, the trainee will be able to adhere to the Zambian
Code of Practice when wiring premises.

Unit Outcomes

On Completion of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Select and erect electrical equipment

2. Inspect and test electrical equipment
3. Apply principles of protection for safety
4. Erect special installations

91
 32.1 Selecting and Erecting electrical equipment

Common rules are stipulated under section 1.2 of the Zambia Bureau Of Standards

DZS 791 – 1: 2013 of the Public Comment Draft.

External influences are classified and can be referred to chapter 2 of DZS 791 part 3 of the
Zambian standard.

The equipment shall have a degree of protection of at least and are also classified as follows;

4. Protection for safety

5. Pprotection against shock
6. Fault Protection
7. Protection against thermal effects
8. Protection against overcurrent
9. Protection against overcurrent
10. Protection against fault current
11. Protection against power supply interruptions

32.2 Inspecting and Testing electrical equipments

During erection and on completion of an installation or alteration to an installation, and before it

is put to service, appropriate inspection and testing shall be carried out by competent the persons
to verify that that the requirements of the standard have been met.

Appropriate certification shall be issued in accordance with sections 4.1 and 4.2 of DSZ 791 part
4. Emphasis is put on Periodic Inspections and Testing.

32.3 Applying principles of protetion for safety

The requirements of DZS 791 PART 2 are intended to provide for safety as eluded in
the summary below and classified above in 24.1

32.4 Erecting special installation

Common rules are stipulated under PART 5 Section 5.2 of the Zambia Bureau Of Standards

DZS 791 – 1: 2013 of the Public Comment Draft.

92
 Unit Summary

The Zambian code of practice for wiring premises gives rules for design, selection, erection,
inspection and testing of electrical installations. The rules are intended to provide for safety of
persons, livestock and property against dangers and damage arise in the reasonable use of
electrical installations and to provide for proper functioning of these installations.

,[ Unit Activity

1. Demonstrate practical Ability to carryout Domestic installation

2. Demonstrate practical Ability to carryout Industrial installation

References

ZAMBIA BUREAU OF STANDARDS DZS 791 – 1: 2013

93