Section 3

Cross Sections, Shoulders and

Drainage

PROJECT
SELECTION

SUBGRADE PAVEMENT DESIGN

ENVIRONMENT CROSS SECTIONS
EVALUATION MATERIALS TRAFFIC
Section 2 Section 3
Section 4 Section 5 Section 6

Implementation, Feedback,
NEW OR Validation and Refinement
New Rehabilitation
REHABILITATION of Design and
Rehabilitation procedure

FLEXIBLE & SEMI- GRAVEL SMALL ELEMENT EVALUATION & OVERLAYS &
RIGID PAVEMENTS
RIGID PAVEMENTS PAVEMENTS PAVEMENTS MAINTENANCE REHABILITATION
Section 9
Section 7 Section 8 Section 10 Section 11 Section 12

COMPARISON
OF DESIGNS
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CONTENTS

3 CROSS SECTIONS, SHOULDERS & DRAINAGE...................................................................................1

3.1 CROSS SECTIONS .................................................................................................................................1
3.2 SHOULDERS .........................................................................................................................................1
3.3 DRAINAGE ............................................................................................................................................1
3.4 EMBANKMENTS .....................................................................................................................................3
3.5 CUTTINGS.............................................................................................................................................4
3.6 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................5

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3 CROSS SECTIONS, SHOULDERS & DRAINAGE

3.1 Cross Sections
The cross section design for a road is determined by the geometric standards applied to the project,
including technical considerations such as problem soils in the subgrade. Standard cross sections and
geometric standards for AACRA are specified in the AACRA Geometric Design Manual and are not included
in this manual.
In developing and expanding cities such as Addis Ababa pavements may be constructed in stages as traffic
increases and finances permit. If stage construction can be shown to be economical, then this policy is still
appropriate, but the first stage of construction should be compatible with subsequent improvements. For
example, it is known that the performance of asphalt surfacing is dependent on the stiffness of the underlying
layer. Therefore, if it is proposed to provide asphalt surfacing at a later date, the initial pavement should be of
adequate stiffness (Austroads, 1992).

3.2 Shoulders
Surfacing for shoulders shall be bituminous or concrete in urban areas. Gravel surfaced shoulders are not
part of standard cross sections for paved roads in the Addis Ababa urban environment and shall not be used
for reasons that include (MoW, 1999):
ƒ Excessive maintenance is required in order to ensure adequate performance
ƒ Increased risk of water ingress into the pavement layers
ƒ Reduced traffic safety where shoulders are unpaved
ƒ Edge drop from the surface to the gravel shoulders increases traffic hazards
Shoulders are particularly important when granular materials are used in the base course, requiring lateral
support for the layer. Important functions of paved shoulders are (MoW, 1999):
ƒ provision of lateral support for pavement layers
ƒ minimising risks of moisture ingress into load bearing parts of the pavement
ƒ reducing changes in moisture contents in pavement layers
ƒ improved traffic safety by allowing occasional traffic outside the carriageway
The use of the same pavement structure for the shoulders as for the adjacent carriageway is the preferred
method of construction. The additional cost of using more expensive materials in the shoulders is generally
offset by the lower cost of the simplified construction method.

3.3 Drainage
One of the most important aspects of the design of a road is the provision made for protecting the road from
surface water or ground water. If water is allowed to enter the structure of the road, the pavement will be
weakened and it will be much more susceptible to damage by traffic.
A good road drainage system, which is properly maintained, is vital to the successful operation of a road and
the road designs are based on the assumption that the side drains and culverts associated with the road are
properly designed and function correctly.
Drainage within the pavement layers themselves is an essential element of structural design because the
strength of the subgrade used for design purposes depends on the moisture content during the most likely
adverse conditions. It is impossible to guarantee that road surfaces will remain waterproof throughout their
lives, hence it is important to ensure that water is able to drain away quickly from within the pavement layers
(TRL, 1992).
Drainage of the road surface is ensured by providing sufficient crossfall of the carriageway and shoulder in
accordance with the standard cross sections (TRL, 1992).
Proper drainage of granular pavement layers is essential for their performance and is ensured by appropriate
attention to cross section details. Where a granular base course and paved shoulders are used, the base

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course and subbase layers shall be extended to the full width of the shoulders or into subsoil drains located
under kerbs (MoW, 1999).
In some cases it may be more economical to adopt boxed instead of full-width construction. Extreme care
must be taken with this form of cross section to avoid softening of the subgrade because of poor drainage
during construction, and to ensure that excessive moisture does not collect in the pavement during its
service life (Austroads, 1992).
Boxed-in pavement structures, where water may be trapped in the pavement, shall not be used. Appropriate
measures to ensure proper drainage of the pavement layers shall be included in the design where internal
drainage of the layers may be impaired for any reason. The following circumstances carry particular risks of
attaining a boxed-in structure (MoW, 1999):
ƒ where shoulders are designed with different materials than the carriageway using
unfavourable combinations of materials
ƒ where kerbstones are extended into granular layers of the pavement .
ƒ where un-paved shoulders made of near impermeable materials are used
Provision of sufficiently deep open side drains or kerbs and subsurface drains will ensure proper drainage of
the subgrade. Special consideration to design and construction details is required where the occurrence of
rock may trap water in the subgrade or pavement structure.
Sufficient depth of open side drains is essential for the proper drainage of the subgrade. Open side drains
shall at no point be less than 0.5 metres deep, measured from the bottom of the drain up to the formation
level.
The general requirement for the depth of open side drains in cuttings is minimum 1.0 metres measured from
the bottom of the drain up to the top of subgrade. This depth can be reduced to 0.5 metres provided cement
or lime modification of the subgrade is employed. In such cases the minimum depth of cement or lime
modification is 200 mm. The given requirements refer to cuttings in soils. For cuttings in solid rock the
required drainage measures depend on site conditions and shall be decided in each individual case (Mow,
1999).
The method for drainage of cuttings shall be specifically described in the detailed design of projects. The
need for subsurface drains as an alternative to open side drains in cuttings shall be assessed (Mow, 1999).
The need for subsurface drains depends on site conditions and requires careful consideration due to the
high construction cost of these facilities. Urban areas, occurrence of subsoil wells and cuttings are among
typical conditions where use of subsurface drains shall be considered (Mow, 1999). The traffic safety
hazards of deep open side drains may in urban areas prompt the use of subsurface drains in combination
with a subsurface storm water system.
Based on the geometric, safety and drainage requirements outlined above it is recommended that kerbs with
subsoil drains are provided on all pavements in the Addis Ababa urban environment as shown in Figure 3.1.

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Figure 3.1 – Pavement Cross Section with Sub-soil Drains (QDoT, 1990)
The use of a properly designed drainage layer underneath a granular pavement may be an effective means
to remove water which has infiltrated through the surface, shoulders or from beneath the pavement. To be
effective, such a layer needs to be constructed using a coarse filter material and in some situations, a layer
of fine filter material is also required where the subgrade material is fine grained. Such materials are difficult
to lay and compact and to compact upon, and may be rendered ineffective as a result of rutting by
construction traffic. Unless a considerable quantity of water is likely to infiltrate under a head from beneath
the pavement, such drainage layers should be omitted and a cement or bituminous bound material (which is
less sensitive to the effects of water) used in the pavement (Austroads, 1992).

3.4 Embankments
Some amount of embankment and cutting will be required to obtain a satisfactory alignment on most roads.
High embankments impose a considerable load on the underlying soil and settlement should always be
expected. Potentially compressible soils should be identified at the survey stage which precedes new
construction (TRL, 1993).
During the survey it is also essential to look for evidence of water flow across the line of the road, either on
the surface or at shallow depth. Temporary, perched water tables are common within residual soils and may
not be readily apparent in the dry season. Drains must be installed to intercept ground water, and culverts of
suitable size must be provided to allow water to cross the road alignment where necessary. It is also
important to identify any areas of potential ground instability which might affect embankments. Particular
care is required in gullies, which themselves may be indicative of weakness in the geological structure, but
steep side-sloping ground may also be suspect and evidence of past soil movement should be sought.
Evidence of past (dormant) instability is revealed by a range of slope features (TRL, 1993).
Almost all types of soil, ranging from sandy clays through to broken rock, can be used for embankment
construction, the main limitation being the ease with which the material can be handled and compacted.
Material of low plasticity is preferred because such material will create fewer problems in wet weather. With

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more plastic soils, greater care is necessary to keep the surfaces shaped and compacted so that rain water
is shed quickly (TRL, 1993).
Particular care is needed with expansive soils which are present in Addis Ababa. If construction in such soils
cannot be avoided, earthworks must be designed to minimise subsequent changes in moisture content and
consequent volume changes. Nevertheless some volume changes must be expected with expansive soils
and any cracks which develop, either in the side slopes or shoulders, should be sealed before water enters
the structure. When the subgrade is a particularly expansive soil, it may be necessary to replace the
expansive material with non-expansive impermeable soil to the depth affected by seasonal moisture
changes (TRL, 1993). Uniformity of compaction is of prime importance in preventing uneven settlement of
the embankment. Although some settlement can be tolerated it is important that it is minimised, especially
on the approaches to bridges and culverts where adequate compaction is essential.

3.5 Cuttings
Cuttings through sound rock can often stand at or near vertical, but in weathered rock or soil the conditions
are more unstable. Instability is usually caused by an accumulation of water in the soil, and slips occur when
this accumulation of water reduces the natural cohesion of the soil and increases its mass. Thus the design
and construction of the road should always promote the rapid and safe movement of water from the area
above the road to the area below, and under no circumstances should the road impede the flow of water or
form a barrier to its movement (TRL, 1993).
Generally lined cut-off drains will be necessary to divert run-off water from the area above the cutting. Such
drains should be lined and properly maintained to prevent water from entering the slope.
Control of ground water in the cutting slopes is sometimes necessary. Various methods are available but
most are expensive and complex, and need to be designed with care. It is advisable to carry out a proper
ground water survey to investigate the quantity and location of sources of water and specialist advice is
recommended. As with embankments, it is essential that provision is made to disperse surface water from
the formation at all stages of construction. Temporary formation levels should always be maintained at a
slope to achieve this (TRL, 1993).
Drainage is critically important because pore water pressures created by the available head of ground water
in the side slopes can cause rapid distress in the pavement layers. Subsoil drains at the toe of the side
slopes may be necessary to alleviate this problem. The subsequent performance, stability and maintenance
of cuttings will depend on the measures introduced to alleviate the problems created by rainfall and ground
water. Invariably it is much more cost effective to install all the necessary elements at construction rather
than to rely on remedial treatment later (TRL, 1993).

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3.6 References
Austroads, 1992, Pavement Design – A Guide to Structural Design of Road Pavements, Austroads, Sydney,
Australia.
Ministry of Works, 1999, Pavement and Materials Design Manual, The United Republic of Tanzania, Ministry
of Works, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania.
Queensland Transport, 1990, Pavement Design Manual, 2nd edn, Queensland Department of Transport,
Brisbane, Australia.
Transport Research Laboratory, 1993, Overseas Road Note 31 - A guide to the structural design of bitumen-
surfaced roads in tropical and sub-tropical countries, 4th edn, Overseas Centre, Transport Research
Laboratory, Crowthorne, Berkshire, United Kingdom.

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