• History of Sky observation

• Difference between Astronomy and Astrophysics

• Ancient Astronomical tools
• Measuring the universe
• Naked eye observation
• Telescopic observation

Basics of Sky Observation - 1

 BASICS OF SKY OBSERVATIONS

Astronomy is the oldest of natural science, going back to the initial days of agriculture. It is
believed that initially, astronomy was practised to predict rains necessary for a good crop. Later
on, these predictions became part of religious, calendrical and astrological practices. Many of
the earlier predictions say, for example, the zodiacs, which are constellations or groups of stars
still used in astrology.

In India, the rains are always connected with particular stars and associated with a myth like
Swati male (swati rain) or Bharani or Aridra etc. This supports the idea that the initial
astronomy gained popularity as it is connected with the rains or used as a calendar.

The night sky is a puzzle human have

always tried to solve, and observing its
vastness is something many enjoy.
Stargazing is humanity's oldest and
favourite pastime activity leading to
star grazing as one of the oldest
sciences on the record.

The night sky is constantly changing,

which gives the stargazers a chance to
witness the wonders of different stars.
The change may be intrinsic or just a
geometric effect as seen by the phases
of the moon. Fig. 1: Night Sky

History of Astronomy:

The earlier astronomy was limited only to naked-eye observations. Based on our little ancient
astronomical data, we could only assume how we understood the heavens.

The Babylonians who lived over 3,000 years ago are assumed to have given the concept of
Zodiacs by dividing the constellations into 12 equal parts as they already had a calendar with
12 months. The constellations were chosen such that Sun would appear to pass through each
of these constellations as Earth orbits around the Sun. The twelve months calendar of
Babylonians were again based on the phases of Moon.

History of Astronomy in India:

Indians always had a spiritual and religious outlook towards astronomy and made many
accurate observations for different events. Indians acted as a catalyst that helped immensely
grow the mathematics needed for observations and theories. The first astronomy events
recorded in India were around 4000 years back, as depicted in Rigveda.

Ancient Indian astronomers used astrological charts, made different models and explained
exciting theories. Rigveda shows how the year was divided into 360 days. Indian astronomers

Basics of Sky Observation - 2

constantly updated and tweaked their calendars. The first Vedic text to mention astronomical
data is the Jyotisa Vedanga. Jyotisa Vedanga which is believed to date back to 1300-100 BCE.
Later, a new branch of astronomy called the Siddhantic Era began. The new branch began with
a book series called Siddhantaor 'Solution', which charted the equinoxes, planetary moments,
eclipses, and lunar periods.

Around 1500 years back, Aryabhata (476-550 A.D.) and other Indian Astronomers began to
adopt a rigorous mathematical approach focusing more on calendars. Aryabhata proposed that
the Earth rotates around the Sun and not that the sky revolves around Earth. The influence of
Indian astronomers continued to be used by Islamic scholars. Hindu mathematical techniques
and Islamic observations together led to many advances in astronomy.

India's 'Golden age of Astronomy' was during the Sunga Empire. Brahmagupta (598-628 A.D.),
one of the pioneer astronomers, was the chief of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain. He
developed a methodology to solve many algebraic problems and developed many methods for
calculating the movements of planets, their conjunction, and the estimated period of eclipses.
In Vedas (the religious Indian literature), we find the first documented astronomical concepts.
A book called ' Shatapatha Brahmana' Yajnavalkya (4000 years old) shows the texts
explaining the movements of the Sun and moon.

Difference between Astronomy and Astrophysics:

Hi Krishna, can you tell me who is

astronomer and an astrophysicist? What
is the difference between them?

Sure Diya.

Imagine yourself sitting in the backyard of your house and observing the vast night sky with a
telescope. You make star charts, recognize various constellations, hunt for barely visible
celestial bodies. Doing all these makes you an amateur astronomer.

Now again, imagine yourself sitting in the backyard of your house and observing the night sky.
This time, instead of just observing, you start considering various mathematical parameters in
your observation and try solving equations to find out the star's lifetime before it becomes a
black hole, what and how are these stars made up of, or various other things that require the
application of principles of physics and mathematics. Then you are called an Astrophysicist.

In simple words, Astronomy is s branch of science that deals with celestial objects, space, and
the physical universe as a whole. Whereas Astrophysics is a branch of Astronomy that
concentrates on the physical processes associated with everything that comprise this whole
universe.

Basics of Sky Observation - 3

Astronomical tools of ancient times:
Sundials in India
Sundial is one of the earliest devices used to
keep track of time. Another such device was
the hemispherical sundial, also known as the
hemicycle.

Jantar Mantar is an astronomical observatory,

declared a world heritage site by UNESCO.
The five such Jantar Mantar in India (Jaipur,
New Delhi, Varanasi, Ujjain, and Mathura)
feature the famous sun sundials. Out of which,
Vrihat Samrat Yantra, in Jaipur, is the biggest
Fig. 2: Jantar Mantar in New Delhi, India
sundial in the world.

Yasti Yantra and Gola Yantra

Bhaskaracharya (Bhaskara II: 1114-1185 A.D.) was an Indian astronomer and mathematician.
He wrote a book called 'Siddhanta Shriman', where he recorded his observations of various
celestial events like conjunctions, planetary positions, cosmography and geography.
Mathematicians like Lalla, Shripati developed the Yasti Yantra (Stick machine), but
Bhaskaracharya developed his unique calculation method. This machine has a stick that is
pivoted aboard. One must focus on the top and bottom of the object and draw the two lines on
the board. With the two lines, the triangle is constructed, and then the calculations are made
about the object's height.

Yasti Yantra demonstration

Another instrument named Gola Yantra was used for star positioning.
Gola yantra is a three-dimensional demonstration model of the celestial
sphere. It showed how various great circles are used in astronomy. It
was beneficial to measure the latitude and longitude of planets.

Fig. 3: Gola Yantra

Sextant
A sextant is a navigation instrument that measures the angular distance
between two visible objects. The primary use of an astronomical sextant is
to measure the angle between an astronomical object and the horizon. It
mainly measures the altitudes of the Sun and stars above the horizon. There
are two types of astronomical sextants, i.e. Mural instrument and a frame-
based instrument.
Fig. 4: Sextant

Did you know:

Elisabeth Catherina was born in Danzig in 1647 when the eminent astronomer Johannes Hevelius had an
observatory. Elisabeth slowly developed an interest in astronomy and later married Hevelius (after his previous
wife died). They both worked hard on octant and sextant. She went on to become one of the very first female
astronomers. She was also known as the first woman astronomer of the early modern era.

Basics of Sky Observation - 4

The three types of sextants include
1. Nautical Sextant - measures mainly the latitudes of celestial objects like the Sun and
Moon.
2. Box Sextant - measures both horizontal and vertical angles.
3. Sounding Sextant - has an extensive index glass compared to the nautical sextant. It
mainly measures the depth of water bodies.

Measuring the Universe:

Before going ahead with observational astronomy, let us explain a few concepts of coordinate
systems, which will be useful later.

A celestial coordinate system is a coordinate

system that helps sky observers to specify the
location of objects in the sky. The most common
coordinate systems used by researchers,
astronomers and scientists are the Horizontal
systems and the Equatorial system.

The horizontal or altitude-azimuth system is

based on the position of stars relative to an
observer's position on Earth. It is a useful
coordinate system to locate and track celestial
objects for observers from Earth.
The Equatorial system is centred at Earth's centre
and is fixed relative to the celestial poles. This
system is based on the location of stars relative to
the Earth's equator. Most professionals and
amateur astronomers use the equatorial system.
Fig. 5: Components of Celestial Sphere
Position of stars is identified in Right Ascension
and Declination if degrees.

It is very important to know the terms related to celestial coordinates and celestial sphere, and
they are listed below;

Celestial Sphere - It is a large imaginary sphere of an observer, being at the centre, and all
celestial objects are considered to be projected on the inner surface of the sphere.

Celestial Equator - A circle drawn at the centre of the celestial sphere projects the Earth's
equator called the Celestial Equator.

Celestial Poles - When imaginary points of the North and South poles of the Earth are extended
until it touches the Celestial Sphere, we get the Celestial Poles.

Ecliptic Circle is the imaginary circle, which is the apparent orbit of the Sun viewed from
Earth, and this circle intersects the celestial Equator at two places and are
called Equinoxes. The star constellations observed in the belt of the sky, near the ecliptic
circle, are the 12 Zodiachal stars constellations. The Indian Calendar uses 27 Indian Nakshatra
Constellations to fix religious festivals derived from Moon’s position in the Ecliptic Circle.

Basics of Sky Observation - 5

Horizon - If a circle is drawn on the celestial sphere, it divides the sphere into two hemispheres,
the upper hemisphere, which is visible, is our Horizon, and the lower one is hidden by the
Earth.

Zenith - The Zenith is a point directly above the observer in the sky. A celestial equator passes
through the Zenith for an observer on the Earth's equator.
Nadir - The nadir is a point in the sky directly below the observer. I.e., opposite of the Zenith.

Right Ascension: The angle between the Vernal Equinox on the celestial equator and the
selected star's projection on the celestial equator.

Declination - The angle between the celestial equator and a selected star/celestial object
measured north or south along a line of constant right ascension is called Declination.

Naked eye observations:

Constellations
People have been inexplicably drawn to the stars for centuries. Our culture has reflected this
fascination to a great extent. There are many examples in children's songs to "Starry Night"
calling Moon as 'mama' and other art pieces. The night skies provide an inexhaustible pool of
knowledge that can be used to understand outer space and how our planet functions.

Our ancestors found patterns in the stars and used them as a guide for navigation. By projecting
heroes and symbols onto stars, they embedded their culture and beliefs into the sky. That is
how the first constellations came into existence. During the 2nd century, Ptolemy, a Greek
philosopher, identified and listed 48 constellations. His notes became a benchmark in
astronomy and were used for centuries.

There are 88 internationally recognised constellations in the sky today. Some constellations
like Big Dipper, Orion, Andromeda etc., are very well known and easy to identify, and some
are not too familiar. Nowadays, several apps are available to identify constellations and overall
sky watching. One such app is Stellarium*. In the olden days, knowledge was passed onto
generations via spoken words. What else can be there to associate this knowledge with a story
to make it easy to remember. There are several stories created to identify and connect different
constellations. One such example is the Orion constellation, which is a hunter, his dog Sirius
killing a Scorpio to save Andromeda. The creativity of those who came up with these stories is
seen in the observations of the constellation. Say, for example, the Scorpio constellation will
set when the Orion rises, and in the story, this is depicted as the Scorpio getting killed by Orion.
Indian mythology includes many stories of stars and constellations. E.g.: Dhruva Nakshatra
(Pole star), Krithika Nakshatra, Arundati Nakshatra, etc.

The Ursa Major in Indian mythology is called Saptarshi Mandala. The Arundati
star typically shown during a marriage is part of the constellation. Students may
try to find out the name of the Arundati star in the constellation and identify it
in the constellation as an exercise.

Basics of Sky Observation - 6

The Big Dipper/Ursa Major
Although technically not a constellation, the Big Dipper
is a part of a constellation known as Ursa Major.
Regardless, the Big Dipper is usually the easiest way to
identify stars in the northern hemisphere, so starting from
there is an excellent way to orient ourselves. Stargazers
of any skill level are probably already familiar with the
Big Dipper's 'cup' and 'long handle'. It is most easily
observed in the northernmost part of the sky in the
summer months. As soon as we locate the Big Dipper, we
can see that the handle is Ursa Major, the 'Great Bear'. In
the bottom right corner of the cup are the bear's 'front legs'
that extend to the bear's chest. We can quickly identify
Ursa Major once we have located the Big Dipper.
Fig. 6: The big dipper constellation

Orion - The Hunter

The constellation of Orion is also one of the easiest to spot in
the night sky. Find the three bright stars that form the straight
line of the hunter's belt. As you follow the armpit of the hunter
eastward, you should be able to make out Betelgeuse, the
bright star that is the hunter's armpit. You should be able to
see the hunting sword hanging from the hunter's belt in the
rectangle surrounded by stars on the upper body.

Fig. 7: Orion constellation

Gemini - The Twins

Orion can also be used to locate the constellation
Gemini. They can be found above and to the side of the
hunter's upraised arm. There is a striking resemblance
between the constellation and two stick figures with
arms outstretched. The heads and rest of the pattern
should be straightforward. The twins have torsos, arms,
and legs, and the left twin appears to be lifting a leg,
possibly dancing.
Fig. 8: Gemini Constellation

Eclipses:
Solar Eclipse
As long as people have gazed at the sky, they have regarded the eclipses of the Sun as
mysterious and even terrifying events. When the sky went dark in the daytime, many ancient
cultures feared that a monster might be devouring the Sun. Some attempted to rescue the Sun
by making noise, banging on drums, throwing weapons skyward, or even performing sacrifices.
Today we know why eclipses occur.

Basics of Sky Observation - 7

It all has to do with the moon’s orbit around Earth. As the moon circles our planet, it passes
between the Earth and the Sun about once a month. Usually, it misses a perfect alignment
because the moon’s orbit is slightly tilted with respect to the plane of Earth’s orbit around the
Sun. The new moon passes either above or below the Sun most of the time. However, roughly
once in six months, a perfect alignment may be possible. The moon can cast its shadow directly
on to Earth’s surface. Observers in the path of the shadow will see the silhouette of the new
moon blocking all or part of the Sun’s disk from view.

How can the tiny moon do this when the sun is 400 times its diameter?
The sun happens to be 400 times farther than the moon. So, to observers on Earth, they both
appear to be the same size in the sky (angular size). However, during a total solar eclipse, the
entire sun is obscured, allowing its pale outer atmosphere or corona to be seen.

The path of the Moon around Earth is not an exact circle but an ellipse. Moon is closer to Earth
sometimes and slightly farther sometimes. If the eclipse occurs when the Moon is a little farther
away, its angular size will be slightly smaller and fail to cover the Sun completely, leaving a
thin ring of light visible around the Moon’s silhouette. In this scenario, this bright annulus of
light washes the Sun’s corona* from view.

Observers not located on the path of the Moon’s shadow will see only a partial eclipse in which
the Moon’s silhouette does not entirely block the Sun from view. In some cases, the centre of
the Moon’s shadow misses Earth altogether, and no one gets to see the totality of the annulus.
However, a partial eclipse can still be observed.

Fig. 9: Solar Eclipse and types of solar eclipses

As with all solar observations, one must take proper precautions to protect our eyesight.
Looking at a bright sun without any protection may cause permanent irrecoverable eye damage.
Proper filters are specifically designed for observing the sun. The best options include mylar
or thin-polymer eclipse viewing glasses. Please avoid Sun goggles or mask used by welders.

Another safest way to observe the eclipse is to project its image through a telescope or a pair
of binoculars focussed on producing a sharp image.

Basics of Sky Observation - 8

Lunar Eclipse
Like a Solar eclipse, a lunar eclipse is
caused by a perfect alignment of Earth, the
sun and the moon. However, a solar eclipse
only occurs when the Sun and Earth are on
opposite sides of the moon, with the sun
casting the moon's shadow onto Earth. On
the other hand, a lunar eclipse occurs when
the Earth and the sun are on the same side
of the moon so that the sun is casting the
shadow of Earth onto the moon. Fig. 10: Lunar eclipse

What is unusual about total lunar eclipses is that when the moon passes entirely into Earth's
shadow, it doesn’t just darken and disappear against the night sky's darkness; instead, it turns
a coppery red colour. This reddish colour made some ancient cultures think that the moon was
bleeding due to an attack by an evil demon. Today, we know why that colour appears. It is the
colour of the Earth's shadow. One might expect the shadow to be completely dark. However,
it is not. As the sun shines on our planet and casts its shadow into space, it passes through our
atmosphere, where dust particles and air molecules scatter out the blue colour in its light,
producing our blue skies. That leaves the mostly reddish light to make it all the way through.
Because the sun has a perceptible diameter and is not a point source of light, it does not cast a
precise, razor-sharp shadow. Instead, the shadow it casts has two parts.
A dark inner shadow - Umbra
The faint outer shadow - Penumbra

When the moon enters the penumbra

of Earth's shadow during the Lunar
eclipse, most observers cannot
perceive the very subtle shading that
results. It is much more apparent in
photographs. The moment the moon
enters the umbra is known as the "first
contact", and shortly after this, the
Earth's shadow can be seen gradually
encroaching on the moon's disc,
creeping in from the moon's western
edge. While the moon is entering the
umbra, observers will notice the
curved shape of the Earth's shadow.
Fig. 11: Total Lunar Eclipse

"The fact that it always has this shape convinced the Greeks that Earth is a spherical object."

The moment the entire disc of the moon is enveloped in the umbra is called the second contact,
and it marks the start of totality. This is when the moon is wholly immersed in the Earth's
shadow and looks like a deep coppery red. During totality, the moon's light is dimmed
considerably, allowing you to see another object in the sky that could not be visible a few hours
earlier due to the moonlight.

If the moon doesn't completely enter the umbra, totality doesn't occur, and it is called a partial
lunar eclipse.

Basics of Sky Observation - 9

Lunar eclipses only occur at full moon. There may be as many as four lunar eclipses per year,
usually in some combination of total, partial, and barely noticeable penumbral lunar eclipses.
Unlike the solar eclipses, lunar eclipses can be seen from the entire side of the planet from
which the moon is visible. They are safe to observe and do not require special eye protection
filters.

Comets
Comets are created in the deepest reaches of
the Solar system. They travel in giant
elongated orbits far away unless some force
knocks them out of their orbit towards the sun.
When a comet approaches the sun, its ices and
gases called volatiles vaporise to produce the
tail in a process called sublimation. Although
a comet is mostly ice and dirt, its surface is a
shell of carbon that forms as the volatiles
below the surface collect on it during the Fig. 12: Comet Neowise captured from Thrissur,
sublimation process. Kerala. (Credits: Sujay Sreedhar)

For observers, the only distinction between They orbit either in asteroidal debris* called
a comet and an asteroid are the tail. the Asteroid belt or in a more distant band of
debris called the Kuiper belt.

Meteor Shower

The Earth is hit by nearly 50 tons of space debris every day. While some debris fades into the
atmosphere, others exhibit a spectacular light display. Earth's orbit intersects with a comet's
orbit to produce meteor showers. Comets leave behind rocky trails, often the size of pebbles or
grains of sand, but sometimes as large as boulders. The Earth crosses these trails of debris every
year, known as meteoroid streams, and the surface becomes sprinkled with rocky material.
Upon entering the atmosphere, the debris creates friction with air particles and tremendous
heat. As debris falls, the heat vaporiser illuminates it, causing streaks of light in the sky,
commonly referred to as "shooting stars".
As seen from Earth, these celestial light
shows are often named after the
constellation where they appear to originate.
Perseid meteor showers originate from
Perseus, while those from Gemini are called
Geminids. There are approximately 30
meteor showers visible from Earth during
the year, and since the showers coincide
with Earth's orbit, they occur on a regular
cycle. For example, the Perseid meteor
shower occurs every August, and the
Gemini meteor shower occurs every
December.
Fig. 13: Perseid Meteor Shower

Basics of Sky Observation - 10

Meteor showers have inspired admiration and awe for millennia, reminding us of our place
within this dynamic cosmic ecosystem.

Telescopic Observations:
Although Galileo Galilei did not invent the
telescope, he observed celestial objects for the first
time and systematically recorded his observations.
Among the observations he made were those of the
Moon, Jupiter, and the Milky Way. These
observations and his interpretations led, ultimately,
to the demise of the geocentric Ptolemaic model of
the universe and its replacement by a Copernicus
proposed heliocentric model in 1543.

Fig. 14: Ground based optical telescope

Like Galilei’s observations, various celestial phenomena and bodies can be observed with a
modern-day telescope. A few of them are:

1. Moon
2. Planets
3. Moons of other Planets
4. ISS and Satellites
5. Nebula
6. Galaxies and stars cluster.

We will learn more about telescopes and other modern instruments, identifying objects through
mobile apps, sky maps, and other topics in Sky Gazing Chapter.

Glossary:
• Stellarium - An application used to locate the stars and celestial bodies with respect to
time and place.
• Solar corona - The outermost atmosphere of the Sun.
• Mylar - A form of polyester resin used to make heat-resistant plastic films and sheets.
• Debris - Waste or space junk.

All the images used in this content are completely for educational purpose and not intended for
any commercial usage. We respect and thank all the copyright owners.

Basics of Sky Observation - 11