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 ·...........................................................
Introduction
If you are studying p hysics for Cambridge IGCSE®, th en t his book is
d esigned for you. It explains the concepts t hat you will meet, a nd
s hould help you with your practical work. It is mostly written
in double-page units whic h we have called spreads. These are
grouped into sect ions.
Sections I to II The main areas of physics are covered here.
At the end of each of these sections there is a revis ion summary
givi ng the main topics covered in each spread.
History of Key Ideas Section 12 describes how scie nt ists have
d eveloped t heir understandi ng of physics over the years.
Practical physics Sectio n 13 te Us you h ow to p Jan a nd calTY out
experiments a nd interpret t he results. It includes suggest ions for investigations,
and gu idance on taking practical tests.
Mathematics for physics Section 14 su mmarizes t he math emat ical skills you
will need when studying p hysics for Cambridge IGCSE.
Examination questions There are practice examinatio n questions at t he end of
each section (1 to 11). Tn addit ion , Section 15 contai ns a collection of questions
taken mainly from IGCSE past papers including some alternative-to-practical
questions.
Reference section Section 16 includes essential equations, un its of measurement,
circu it symbols, a nswers to questions, a nd a n index.
Student CD-ROM This comes with the book. a nd includes the follo wing:
- interactive shon revision questions
- multiple choice questions similar to those in you r IGCSE exam ination
- examination quest ions from past IGCSE papers
- revis ion t ips and exam advice.

When you are using the book. keep a look out for t h ese marks:
A line d own t he s ide of the text means that the material is only required

U
for Extended Level. For s implicity, lines like this have not been put next
to related diagrams or panels in the margin.
An asterisk ind icates a spread or part of a spread that is providi ng extens ion
matel-ial to set phys ics in a broader context . You would not normally be tested
on t his material in an reCSE exam ination.
 .........................................................................................................
Contents
·Watch for t hi s symbol. below a nd t hroughout the book. It indicates spreads or
paI1s of spreads t hat have been included to provide extension material to set
p hysics in a broader contex t.
For information abou t the link b e twee n s pread s and the syll abus,
see pages 7- 8.

SyLLabus and spreads 7

..".'
,.,.,.
~O Measurements and units 9 ~O Forces and pressure 57

1 .01 Numbers and units 10 3 .01 Forces and turning effects 58

1 .02 A system of units 12 3 .02 Centre of mass 60
1 .03 Measuring length and time 14 3 .03 More about moments 62
1 .04 Volume and density 16 3 .04 Stretchi ng and compressing 64
1 .05 Measuring volume and density 18 3 .05 Pressure 66
1 .06 More about mass and density 20 3 .06 Pressure in liquids 68
Further questions 22 3 .07 Hydrau lic systems"' 70
Revision summary 24 3 .08 Pressure from the air 72
3 .09 Gas pressure and volume 74
3 .10 Pressure problems 76
• Forces and motion 25 Further questions 78
Revi sion summary 80

2.01 Speed, veLOCity, and acceLeration 26

2.02 Motion graphs 28
2.03 Recording motion 30
2.04 Free fall 32
2.05 More motion graphs 34 4 .01 Work and energy 82
2.06 Forces in balance 36 4 .02 Energy transformation 84
2.07 Force, mass, and acceLeration 38 4 .03 CaLculating PE and KE 86
2.08 Friction 40 4 .04 Efficiency and power 88
2.09 Force , weight, and gravity 42 4 .05 Energy for electriCity (1) 90
2.10 Action and reaction"' 44 4 .06 Energy for electricity (2) 92
2.11 Momentum (1) 46 4 .07 Energy resources 94
2.12 Momentum (2) 48 4 .08 How the world gets its energy 96
2.13 More about vectors 50 Further questions 98
2.14 Moving in circles 52 Revi sion summary 100
Furthe r questions 54
Revision summary 56
·....................................................................................... CONT E NTS

SO
7.11 Electromagnetic waves (2) 16.
Thermal effects 101 7.12 Sending and storing· 166
Further questions 168
Revision summary 170
5 .01 Moving particles 102
5 .02 Temperature (1) 10.
5 .03 Temperature (2) 106
5 .04 Expanding solids and liquids 108
Electri city
5 .05 Heati ng gases 110
5 .06 Thermal conduction 112 8 .01 Electric charge (1) 172
5 .07
5 .08
Convection
Thermal radiation
".
116
8 .02
8 .03
Electric charge (2)
Electric fields
174
176
5 .09 liquids and vapours 118 8 .04 Current in a simple circuit 178
5 .10 Speci fic heat capacity 120 8 .05 Potential difference 180
5 .11 Latent heat 122 8 .06 Resistance (1) 182
Further questions 12. 8 .07 Resistance (2) 184
Revis ion summary 126 8 .08 More about resistance factors 186
8 .09 Series and parallel circuits (1) 188

,. .0 Waves and sounds 127

8 .10
8 .11
8 .12
Series and parallel circuits (2)
Electrical energy and power
living with electricity
190
192
194
Fu rther questions 196
6.01 Transverse and longitudinal waves 128
Revision summary 198
6.02 Wave effects 130
6.03 Sound waves 132
6.04
6.05
Speed of sound and echoes
Characteristics of so und waves
13.
136
~ 0 Magnets and currents 199
6.06 Ultrasound 138
Fu rther questions , .0 9.01 Magnets 200
Revision summary '.2 9 .02 Magnetic fields 202

-~O .
Rays and waves 143
9.03
9 .04
9.05
Magnetic effect of a current
Electromagnets
Magnetic force on a current
204
206
208
9 .06 Electric motors 210
9 .07 Electromagnetic induction 212
7 .01 light rays and waves 144
9.08 More about induced currents 214
7 .02 Reflection in plane mirrors (1) 146
9 .09 Generators 216
7.03 Reflection in plane mirrors (2) 148
9.10 COils and transformers (1) 218
7.04 Refraction of light 150
9 .11 Coils and transformers (2) 220
7 .05 Total internal reflection 152
9 .12 Power across the country 222
7 .06 Refraction calculations 154
Further questions 224
7 .07 Lenses ( 1) 156
Revision summary 226
7.08 Lenses (2) 158
7.09 More lenses in action· 160
7.10 Electromagnetic waves (1) 162
CO N T EN T S

,
~
W
Electrons and
electronics 227
- 6) Practical physics 277

10.01 Electronic essentials 228 13.01 Working safely 278

10.02 More on components 230 13.02 Planning and preparing 280
10.03 Electronic switching 232 13.03 Measuring and recording 282
10.04 LogiCgates (1) 234 13.04 Dealing with data 284
10.05 Logie gates (2) 236 13.05 Evaluating and improving 285
10.06 Electron beams 238 13.06 Some experimental investigations 286
Further questi ons 240 13.07 Taking a practical test 290
Revision summary 242 Practical preparation 292

,'
I
'~

_$ Atoms and radioactivity 243 -~

!, ~
~
~ Mathematics
for physics 293

11.01 Inside atoms 244 The essential mathematics 294

11.02 Nuclear radiation (1) 246
11.03 Nuclear radiation (2) 248
11.04 Radioactive decay (1) 250 tt!I.
IGCSE practice
11.05 Radioactive decay (2) 252 - ~~ questions 297
11.06 Nuclear energy 254
11.07 Fusion future 256 Multichoice questions (Core) 298
11.08 Using radioactivity 258 Multichoice questions (Extended) 300
11.09 Atoms and particles (1) 260 IGCSE theory questions 302
11.10 Atoms an d particles (2)'" 262 IGCSE alternative-to-practical questi ons 314
Further questions 264
Revision summary 266

CD
~
Reference 317

~~ History of
-L' ,W key ideas 267 Useful equati ons 318
Units and elements 320
12.01 Force, motion, and energy'" 268 Electrical symbols and codes 321
12.02 Rays, waves, and particles'" 270 Answers to questions 322
12.03 Magnetism and electricity'" 272 Index 334
12.04 The Earth and beyond'" 274
Key developments in physics 276
 ·...... -...........................................................................
Syllabus and spreads
Below, is a n outl ine of t he Cambridge IGCSE syllabus as it stood at t he t ime
of p ubl icat ion, along wit h details of w here each topic is covered in t he book.
Before constructing a teachi ng or revis ion programme , please check wit h t he
latest version of t he syllabus/specification for a ny cha nges.

Spread(s)

Units and physical quafllilies 1.01, p320

1 General Physics
1. 1 length and lime 1.02-1.03
1.2 Malian 2.01-2.05
13 Mass and weight 1.02,2.09
1.4 Density 1.04-1.06
1.5 Forces
Effects of forces 2.06-2.08,2.13,2.14,3.04
Turni ng effecr 3.01 - 3.03
Conditions for equilibrium 3.01,3,03
Cefllre of mass 302
Scalars and veaors 2,01,2,13
16 Momentum 2.11-2.12
17 Energy. work, and power
Energy 4,01-4.03, 4.05
Energy resources 4,04-4.08, 11.06-11.07
Worl 4.01-4.02
Power 4.04
1.8 Pressure 3.05-106,3.08,1 10

2 Thermal Physics
2.1 Simple kinetic molecular model of matter
Stales of matter 5.01
Molecular model 5.01-5.02,5.05
Evaporation 5,09
Pressure changes 3.09,505
2.2 Thermal properties and temperalure
Thermal expansion of solids, liquids, alld gases 5.04-5.05
Measuremefll of temperature 5.02-5.Q3
Thermal capacity (heat capacity) 5.10
Melting and OOilil1g 5.03,5.09, 5.11
2.3 Thermal processes
COllduaion 5.06
Convection 5.07
Radiation 5.08
COllsequences of energy transfer 5.06-5.08
SY LL ABUS AND SPREADS

3 Properties of waves including light and sound

3.1 General wave propenies 6.01--6.02
3.2 light
Refledion of light 7.02-7.03
Refradion of light 7.04-7.06,7.12
Thin converging lens 7.07-7.08
Dispersion 01 light 7.04
3.3 Eledromagnetic spectrum 7.10-7.11
3.4 Sound 6.03-6.06

4 Electricity and magnetism

4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism 9.01-9.04
4.2 E~ct rical quanthies
Eledric charge 8.01-8.03
Current 8.04
Eledromotive force 8.05
Potential difference 8.05
Resistance 806-8.08
Eledrical working 8.05,8.1 1
4.3 Elea ric circuits
Circuit diagrams 8.04-8.06,8,09,
10.02-10.03, p321
Series and parallel circuits 8.09-8.10
Aa ion and use of circuit components 8.06,9.04, 10.01-10.03
4.4 Digital eledronics 7.12,10.01,10,04-10.05
4.5 Dangers of electricity 8. 12
4.6 Electromagnetic efieds
Elea fomagnetic induaion 9.07-9,08,9,10
AC generator 9.09
Transformer 9.10-9.12
The magnetic efied of a current 9.03-9,04
F"OIce on a currell1-carrying conduaof 9.05, 10.06
DC motor 906

5 Atomic physics
5.1 The nuclear atom
Atomic mode! 11.01,11.09
Nucleus 11.01,11.04,11,06-11.07
5.2 Radioaaivity
Deteaion 01 radioaaivily 11.02-11.03
Characteristics of the three kinds of emission 11.02,11.08
Radioactive decay 11.04
Half-life 11.05
Safety preca utions 11.03,11.06
 ll a s t l"ono mi ca l clock in

A Pra gue, in the Czech Republi c.

As well a s giving the time,
the clock a lso shows the positions of
th e Sun and Moon relative to th e
constellatio ns of the zodiac. Until
about fifty years ago, sden tis ts had
to rely on mechanical d ocks, such
as the one above, to measure tim e.
Today, they have access to atomic
docks whose time keeping varies by
less tha n a second in a million years.
 ................................................................................
M EAS URE M EN TS A ND U N I T S

Numbers and units

numbe r uM (m '5 the symbol for metre)

Whe n you make a measu rement, you m ight get a result l ike the one above: a
distance o f 10 m. The complete measurement is called a physical quanlilY.
It is made up of two parts: a number and a unit.
10 m really means 10 X m (ten t imes metre), just as in alge bra , l Ox means
10 X x (ten times x). You can treat the m just like a symbol in a n algebraic
equat ion. This is important w hen combining units.

Combining units
Advanced units
5 mls is a space-saving way of
8 I, In the diagram above , t he girl cycles 10 metres in 2 s. So she travels 5 metres
every second. Her speed is 5 metres per second . To work out the speed, you
writing 5 ~ _ divide t he d istance travelled by the time taken , like this :
But 5 ~ equals 5 m f. speed = 10 m (s is the symbol for second)
Also. f can be written as s-1.
2>
As m and s can be treated as algebraic symbols:
So the speed can be written
as 5 ms- 1 . speed = ..!Q . .!!! = 5m
This method of showing units 2 s s
is more (ammon in advanced To save space , S ~ is us ually written as Sm /s.
work.
So mJs is t he u nit o f speed.

Rights and wrongs

Tables and graphs
You may see table headings or
8 ;I This equation is correc t: speed =
10 m
-- =
2,
S mls

graph axes labelled like this: This equation is incorrect: speed = lQ = SmJs
2
diS~n(e or distance/m It is incorrect because the m and s have been left out. 10 d ivid ed by 2 equals 5,
That is because the values a nd not 5 m /s.
shown are just numbers, Strictly speaking, un its s hould be inclu ded a t all stages of a calculation , not
without units. So: just at t he end . H o weve l~ in t his book. t he 'incon'ect' type of equation w ill
If distance = 10 m somet imes be used so that you can follow the arithmetic w ithout u nits which
Then distance = 10 make t he calculation look mo re complicated .
m
 ·.. ..........................................................................................
MEASUREMEN T S AND UNITS

Bigger and smaller

You can make a unit b igger or smaller by putt ing an extra symbol, called a
prefL':, in fron t. (Below, W stands for watt , a unit of power.)

prefix meaning ell.ample Pow@rsof10

G (giga) 1000000000 (109) GW (gigawatt) 1000 = 10 x 10 x 10 = 103

100 =lOx 10 = 101
M (mega) 1000000 (10') MW (megawatt)
0.1 = 10- 1
10
k (kilo) 1000 (103 ) km (kilometre) 1
0.01 = 10- 2
= 100 =1(j2
d (deci) 1 (10- 1) dm (decimetre)
10 1 1 = 10- 3
0.001 = 1000 = ""j(jl
c (centi) ( 10- 2 ) cm (centimetre)
100
1 'milli' means 'thousandth',
m (milli) (10- 3) mm (millimetre)
1000 not 'millionth'
(micro) (10- 6) IJW (microwatt)
"
n (nanD)
1000000
1 (10- 9) nm (nanometre)
.. You would not normally be
tested on micro, nano or giga
1000000000 in a Cambridge IGCSE
examination (See also yellow
Scientific notation panel at the start of the next
An atlas says that t he population o f Iceland is t his : spread. 1.02).
320000
There are two problems with g iving the n u mber in this form. Writing lots of
zeros isn't very co nvenie nt. Also, you don't k now w hi c h zeros are accu rate.
Most are only t here to show you t hat it is a sL.... -figure number. T hese pl"Oblems
are avoided if the number is written us ing powers o f ten: d@cimal fraction sci@ntific
3.2 x IDS (l OS = 10 X 10 x 10 x 10 X 10 = 100000) nDtation
SOO 5 x 102
'3.2 x lOs' tells you tha t the fi gures 3 a nd 2 are importan t. The number is
being g iven to two significQm figures. If the p op ulatio n were known more 0.5 S 5 x 10- 1
10
accu rately, to t hree s ig n ificant figures. it m ig ht be written l ike this:
S 5 x 10- 2
3.20 x 105 0.05
100
Numbers written us ing powers of ten are in scientific notation or sta ndar d S 5 x 10- 3
0.005
fo rm. The examples on the r igh t are to one significant figure. 1000

(!)
... t How many grams are there in 1 kilogram? 5 Writ@down the following in km:
2: How many millimetres are there in 1 met re? 2000m 200m 2 x l04m
3 How many microseconds are there in 1 second? 6 Write down the following in s:
4 This equation is used to work out the area of a 5000 ms 5 X 101)Js
rectangle: area = length x width . 7 Using scientific notat ion, write down the following to
If a rectangle measures 3 m by 2 m, calcu late its area, two significant figures:
and include the units in your calcu lation. 1500m 1500000m 0.15 m 0.015 m

Related topics : SI units 1.02; speed 2.Dl

 ................................................................................
M EASURE M ENTS AND UN I T S

A system of units
Mass Length Time
em
lb oz hour
~d 5

line down the side of the text g kg mile d(l~ month

U means that the material is only

required for Extended Level.

* An asterisk indicates extension

ewt
ton It
km
1'111'11
~e(lf
ms

material. provided to set physics
in a broader con text. You would
not normally be tested on this in
a CIE IGCSE examination_
There are many d iffere nt units - including those above. But in scientific work,
life is much easier if everyone uses a common system of units.
51 units
Most scientists use S I units (full name: Le Sysleme International d 'Unites).
The basic 51 units for measu ri ng mass. t ime, an d length an~ t he kilogram . t he
second , a nd t he metre. Fro m t hese b ase units come a w hole range o f u ni ts for
measuring volume, speed , force, e nergy. a n d ot her qua ntit ies.
Other S I base units includ e the ampere (for measuring electric cune nt) and
th e kelvin (for measuring temperature).

• The mass of an object can be
found using a b alanc@li ke this _
The balance rea lly detects the
gravitat ional pull on the object on the
pan. but the scale is marked to show
the mass.
Mass
Mass is a measure of the amou nt of s ubstance in a n object. It has two effects :
• All objects are attracted to the Earth. The greater t he mass of a n object. t he
stronger is the Earth's gravitational pull on it.
• All objects resist a ttempts to make them go fastel: slowe r. or in a d iffen! nt
d irection. The greater t he mass . the grea ter is t he res istance to c ha nge in
motion.
The 51 base u nit of mass is the kilogram (symbol k g). The stand a rd kilogram
is a block of platinu m alloy kept at t he Office of Weights a nd Measu res in
Paris. Other units based on the kilogram al'e shown below:

mass tomparison w ith scientif ic

b ase un it notat ion

1 tonne (t ) - - - - - - - - - - - 1000 kg - - - 10) kg - - - - -

1 kilogram (kg) - - - - - - - - - - 1k, - ---------- o bag o f sug.1r

......
1 gram (g) - - - - 1 9 - - - - 1~ kg - - - 10·J kg - - - -

1 IllIlIigr.1m (mg) - - , ~a g - - - - 1 ~ IlOQ kg - - - 10"6 kg - - - - -

Note: the $1ba>e unit of mass IS the k ilogram . not the g ram human hillr
 M EASURE M EN TS A ND U NIT S
.............................................................................................
Time
The 5 1 base un it of time is t he second (symbol s ). Here are some shOitel' units The second was originally 0
based on th e second: defined as 60 x 6~ x 24 of a

1 mill isecond (ms) = --,

I
1000
day, one d<rf being the time it
takes the Eart h to rotate once.
But the Earth's rotation is not
I microsecond (Jls) =
I
1 000 000 s quite constan t. So, for
accuracy. the second is now
1 na nosecond (n s) = = 10 - 9 S defined in terms of something
1 000000000 s
that never changes: the
To keep time, clocks a nd watches need something th at beats at a steady rate. frequency of an oscillation
Some old clo cks used t he swings of a pend ulum. Modern digital watches which can occur in the
count the vibrations made by a t iny quartz crystal nucleus of a caesium atom.

Length
The 5 1 base unit of length is t he metre (symbol m ). At one t ime, the standard
metre was th e d istance between two m a rks o n a metal ba r kept at the Office of
We ights a nd Measures in Par·is. A m ore accu rate standard is now used. based
By definition, one metre is the
distance travelled by light in a
O
J
. I f
vacuum In 299 792 458 0 a
on the speed o f ligh t. as explained o n the r igh t. second.
There are larger a nd smaller units of length based on th e metre:

dirtance comparison wi1h scientific approximate s i~e

base unit notation

1 kilometre (km) - - - - - - - 1 000 m - - - - - - 10'm - - - -

~~~~;
1: -~
--.,,~
-~ 10 footbal l pitches

1 metre (m) - - - - - - - - - 1 m
,
.. ---- ~

"
<-+
1 centimetre (em) ,io m
- - - - - - - -,!,; 10-<m em
mm
2 3 4
10 20 30 40
1 millimetre (mm) -------."k ,
, 000 m 10 l m - H -

,
1000 000 m lO~m ~~
!':"<f.." b d ~ bacteria

1 nanometre
,
(nm) - - - - - ,"""""'"
, 000 000 000 m
10 -9 m -' ~
atoms

ot What is the 51 unit of length? 7 km

m, ,
'9 t nm kg m
2 What is the 51 unit of mass? 9 mm
~ What is the 51 unit of time?
"'
Arrange the above un its in three columns as below.
4 What do the following symbols stand for? The units in each column should be in order, with the
9 mg t (.Jm ms largest at the top.
5 Write down the val ue of
a 1564mm inm b 1750ginkg

F!''''
c 26 t in kg d 62 (.Js in s
e 3.65 x l04ginkg f 6.16 x l0- 7mminm
6 The 500 pages of a book have a mass of 250 kg.
What is the mass of each page a in kg b in mg?
largest ......
un,t

fi BS, Flen
9f11

Related t opics: nu mbers an d units 1.01; mass 2.07

 ................................................................................
M EASURE M ENTS AND UN IT S
o 10
mm
--
o
cal ip€r~
... If the rule cannot be placed next
to the object being measured.
calipers can be used_
Ched and record your 'zero-error'
reading and amend your answe r
accordingly_
I I
55
I I
Add:
... Reading a micrometer
Measuring Length and time
Measuring length
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Lengths from a few millmetres up to a metre can be measured using a nt1e.
as s hown above. When us ing the rule, t he scale s hould be placed r ight next
to th e object being measured . If tlu s is not poss ible. calipers can be used .
as s how n on t he left. The calipers are set so t hat t heir points exactly match
the ends of t he object. Then t hey are moved across to a l1Jle to make t he
measuremen t.
Lengt hs of several metres can be measured us ing a tape w ith a scale on it.
With small objects, more accurate length measurements can be mad e us ing
th e methods shown below.
Micr ometer (below left) This has a revolving barrel w ith a n extra scale on
it. The barrel is connected to a screw thread and, in t he example sh own, each
t urn of t he barrel closes ( or opens) t he gap by one m illimetre. Fi rst, t he gap is
opened w id e. Then it is closed up until t he object being measured j1.lst fits in it
(a 'clicking' sound is heard). The diagram shows you how to take t he reading.
Vernier calipers* (below righ t) This is an extra sl iding scale fitted to some
length- measuring instru ments. Its divisions are set slightly closer together
than normal so t hat one of t hem coincides wit h a divis ion on t he fixed scale.
The diagram s hows you how to take t he read ing. (The vernier s hown is part
of a set o f cal ipers used for making external measurements. A second type o f
caliper has jaws for making internal measurements.)
fi>:I~d scale on gap being fixed
! 1\
scale revolving barrel measured scale
<C- --J>
I
,0 ,10
mm ~ -I
1 I
~ ' : ' I
Read the scale on the Read t he highest scale See where diVi~,ons cOIncide .
barrel. puffing a decimal divjsion befo re t: Read this on sli ding scale,
pomt 10 fro nt: puning a decima l poin t in f ront:
I I
0.32 7 04
I I
I I
5.82 mm Add: 7.4 mm
... Reading a vernier
 M EASURE M EN TS A ND U NIT S
.............................................................................................
Measuring time Zero error
Ti me intelvals of many second s or m inutes can be measured using a
You have to allow for this on
s topclock or a stopwatch. Some instru men ts have an analogue d isplay, w it h many measuring instruments.
a needle ('hand') moving round a circular scale. Others have a dib>ital display, For exampJe, bathroom scales
whic h s hows a n umber. There are buttons for starting the tim ing, stopping it, might give a reading of
a nd resetting the instrument to zero. 46.2 kg when someone stands
Wit h a hand-operated stopclock or stopwatch , making accurate measurements on them, but 0.1 kg when
of short time intelvals (a few seconds or less) can be d ifficult. This is because o f they step off and the expected
reading is zero. In this case.
the time it takes yo u to react w hen you have to press the button. F011:Unately, in
the zero error is 0.1 kg and
some experiments, there is an s imple way of overcoming th e p roblem. H ere is
the corrected measurement
a n example:
is 46.1 kg.

rigid suppon -===+=::J To find the zero error on a

micrometer or vernier calipers,
you take a reading when the
gap is fully closed.
A pendulum can be set up to
investigate- the time taken for
a single swing.
'-...II electromagnet
Q ' to release billl
: .
'. -' light
stri ng - - - - -- j one complete sensor

r~ -I:----~J
to start
~ Measuring the ti me ti mer
si mple
pendulum t it takes fo r a steel ball
to fall a distance h.

,,
The pendulum above takes about two seconds to make one complete swing. h
Provided t he sw ings a re small , every swing takes t he same time. Th is time is
ti me r
called its period. You can fi nd it accurately by measuring t he t ime for
25 sw ings, a n d then dividing t he result by 25. For exam ple:
Ti me for 25 swings = 55 seconds
So: time for 1 swing = 55/25 seconds = 2.2 seconds
Another meth od of improving accuracy is to use a utom atic t im ing, as shown
light
in the e.-xample on the right. Here, the t ime taken for a small o bject to fall a
short d istance is being measured. The ti mer is started a ut omatically w he n the - ~eI O Stop
ball ti mer
ball cuts one light beam and stopped when it cuts another.

o1 A student measures the time taken for 20 swings of a 0

pendulum. He f inds that the time taken is 46 seconds. ~

or ,"
"
" ..':1
,, 'I
i= .,"
a What time does the pendulum take for one swing?
b How could the student have found the t ime for one
0 ::::
,-
"
;0

swing more accurately? / I::- "" ""

Z A student wants to find the thickness of one page of this I
zero error readln9 for copper ~we
book. Explain how she might do this accurately.
~ A micrometer is used to measure the diameter of a length of Ia Wha t is the zero error of the micromet er?
copper wire. The zero error and scale reading are as shown. ~ What is the correct diameter of the wire?

Related topics: units of length and lime 1.02; liming a fa lling object 2.04
 ................................................................................
M EAS URE M EN TS A ND U NI T S
Cubic m etre (ml)
1m
1000 litres (I)
1 cubic metre (ml ) is the volume of a
cube m e3suring 1 m x 1 m X 1 m.
.. The glowing gas in 1he tail of a
comet stretches for millions of
kilometres behind the comet's core.
The density of the gas is less than a
kilogram per cubic kilometre.
VoLume and density
Volume
The quant ity of space a n object takes up is called its volume.
The SI un it of volume is t he c ubic met re (m 3). However, t his is rather large
for everyday work. so ot her units are often used for convenie nce. as s hown in
the diagrams below:
Cub,c ce ntimet re (em')
litre (lor l ) or millilitre (ml or mL)
No te: t he symbo l
I for litre can be
conf u~d wit h a
1 (one).
1000 cub ic centimetres (cm »
1000 millilitres{m l)
1 cub IC cen timetre (c m) IS
t he volume of a cu be
measuring 1 cm x 1 em x I cm.
I litre ,s t he same volume as 1 cubIC It IS the same volume as
decimetre (dml) 1 millilitre (mI)
Density
Is lead heavier th an water? Not necessarily. It depends on the volumes of lead
a nd water being compared. However. lead is more dense t ha n water: it has
more kilogra ms packed i.n to every cubic metre.
The d e n s ity of a matel"ial is calcu lated like th is:
density = mass
volume
In the case of water:
a mass of 1000 kg of water has a volume of 1 m 3
a mass of 2000 kg of water has a volume of 2 m 3
a mass of 3000 kg of water has a volume of 3 m 3 • and so on.
Using a ny of these sets of fi gures in the above equation , the dens ity of water
works out to be 1000 kglm 3 .
If masses are measured in grams (g) and volumes in cubic centimetres (cm 3 ) ,
it is s impler to calculate d ensit ies in glcm 3 . Convelting to kglm 3 is easy:
1 glcm 3 = 1000 kg/m J
The density of water is I glcm 3 . This simple value is no accide nt. T he kilogram
(1000 g) was originally s upposed to be t he mass of 1000 cm 3 o f water (pure,
a nd at 4 ~C). However, a very slight error was made in th e early measurement,
so t his is no longer used as a defin it ion of the kilogram.
 M EASURE M EN TS AN D U N IT S
.............................................................................................
su bstance d ensity density s ubstance density de nsity
---
J
-g/cm]
-- The densities of solids and
kg/ m g/cm J kg/ mJ
liquids vary slightly with
air 1.3 0.00 13 granite 2700 2.7 temperature. Most substances
expanded polystyrene 14 0.014 aluminium 2700 2.7 get a little bigger when heated.
wood (beech) 750 0.75 steel (stainless) 7800 7.8 The increase in volume reduces
the de nsity.
petrol 800 0.80 copper 8900 8.9
The de nsities of gases can vary
ice (0 <>C) 920 0.92 lead 11400 11.4 enormously depending on how
polythene 950 0.95 mercury 13 600 13.6 compressed t hey are.
water (4 °C) 1000 1.0 gold 19300 19.3
The rare metal osmium is t he
concrete 2400 2.4 platinum 21500 21.5 de nsest substance found on
glass (varies) 2500 2.5 osmium 22600 22.6 Earth. If this book were made of
osmium. it would weigh as
much as a heavy suitcase.
Density calculations
The equation linki ng dens ity, mass, a nd vol u m e can be written i n symbols:

p
m
=:- w h ere p =: d e nsity, III = mass , and V = volume
V
This equat io n can be reatTanged to give: V= m and m :=: Vp
p

Th ese are u seful if t he densi ty is k nown, but th e volume or mass is to be

calcu lated . O n th e r igh t is a method o f finding all th ree equations.

Example Using d ensity d ata from th e table above, calculate th e mass of

steel h avin g t he same vol u me as 5400 kg of al u m inium.
.. Cover V in the triangle a nd you
F irst, calculate t he volume of 5400 kg of al u mini um. In t h is case, can see what V is equal to. It works
for m and p as well.
p is 2700 kg/m 3 , 111 is 5400 kg, a nd V is to be fou nd . So:

V = !!!. = 5400kg = 2m3

p 2700 kg/m3
In the density equation, the
This is also t h e volume o f the steeL T h e refore, for t he steel, P is 7800 kg/m3, symbol p is the Greek letter
V is 2 m 3 , and m is to be fo und . So; 'rho'.
m = Vp = 7800 kg/ m 3 X 2 m 3 = 15600 kg
So th e mass o f steel is 15 600 kg.

o 1 How many cm 3 are there in 1 m 3?

2: How many cm 3 are there in 1 lit re?
3 How many ml are there in 1 m 3 ?
• A tilnkful of liqu id has a vol ume o f 0.2 m3. What is t he
vo lume in a litres b em 3 ( m l?
5 Al umi niu m has a density of 2700 kg/ml.
a What is t he de nsity in glcm 3 ?
b What is the mass of 20 cm3 of a lum inium?
c What is the volu me of 27 9 of a luminium?
Use th e information in the ta ble of densit ies at the to p of
the page to answer the fo llowing :
6 What mate ria l, of mass 39 g, has a vo lume of 5 cm 3 ?
7 Wha t is the mass of a ir in a roo m measuring
5 m x 2 m x 3 m?
8 What is the volume of a storage tank which w ill hold
3200 kg of petrol?
9 What mass of lead has the same vo lume as 1600 kg of
petrol?

Related topi cs : pressure in liqulds 3.06

 ................................................................................
M EASURE M ENTS AND UN I T S

Measuring voLume and density

Measuring volume
HXXl em) - - - rTlI?asuring
cylinder Uquid A volume of about a litre or so can be measured us ing a m easu ri ng
cylinder. When the li quid is poured into t he cylinder, t he level on t he scale
gives t he volume.
Most measu l'ing cylinders have scales marked in m illilitres (ml) , o r cub ic
centimetres (cm 3 ).
- - - level on scale Regu1ar solid If a n object has a simple s hape, its vol ume ca n be calculated .
gives volume
of liquid For example:
volume of a recta ngular block = length X widt h x height
volume of a cyli nd er = Tt X radius 2 X height
.. Measuring t he volume of a liquid Irregular solid If t he s hape is too awkward for t he volume to be calculated ,
the solid can be lowered into a partly filled measu ri ng cylinder as shown on
the left. The rise in level o n the volu me scale gives t he volume o f th e solid.
If the s olid floats , it can be weighed down wit h a lump of metal . Th e
total volume is found . The volu me of the metal is measured in a separate
experiment a nd t hen s ubtracted from t his total.
Increase
in level -r- Using a displacement can If t he solid is too big for a measuring cylindel; its
gives
volume volume can be found us ing a displacement can, s hown below left. First, t he
1- ___ 0~0'~ _ - ('r'- can is filled up to the level of t he spout (this is done by overfilling it, and t hen
wait ing for t he surpl us wate r to run out). Then t he soli d is slowly lowered into
t he water. The solid is now taking up space once occup ied by the water - in
, I) ot her words, it has displaced its own vo lume of wate r. The displaced wate r is
collected in a beaker a nd emptied into a measuring cylinde t:
.. Measuring the volume of a small
The displacement met hod, so the story goes, was discovered by acc ident , by
solid
Archimedes. You can find out how on t he opposite page.

Measuring density
The density of a material can be found by calculation, once th e vol ume
a nd mass have been measured . The mass of a small solid or of a liquid can
be meas ured using a bala nce. However, in th e case of a l iqu id, you mu st
remember to allow for th e mass of its containec
Here a re some read ings from a n experiment to fi nd t he de ns ity of a liq uid:

voluw..t of liqUlct LIA- w..tClSuri.vcg c!jLLvcdn· (A)

~S!'. ofw.tClsuri"-0 c.tJ li~tr = :2-+0 9 (B)
(C)

Therefore: mass of liquid = 560 g - 240 g = 320 g (c - B)

.. Using a displacement can . Provided
the can is filled to the spout at the
'
T Ilerelore " 0 floIqUi-d =
d eosHy mass = 320 g = 0 .8 glcm 3
volume 400 cm 3
start, the volume of wa ter collected in
the beaker is equal to t he volume of
the object lowered into the can.
 M EASURE M EN T S A ND U N IT S
.............................................................................................
Checking the density of a liquid'
A qu ick meth od of fi ndi ng the density of a l iquid it to use a small float called
a h ydrometer. There is a n example on t he r igh t. It is based on the idea th at / "\
a float ing o bject floats higher up in a de nser liq uid . You can read m o re about -
floating, s inking, and the link w ith density in t he next spread , 1.06.
stem -
~ ./
The scale on a hyd rometer normally ind icates the relative de ns ity (or 'specific
wit h scale
gravity') of t he liquid: t hat is t he density compare d wit h water (\ 000 kg/m3). hydrom et er
A reading of 1.05 means t ha t the de ns ity of the liquid is 1050 kglm 3 . liqUid
der test
De nsity checks like this are im portant in some product ion processes. For
example, creamy m ilk is slightly less dense th a n skim m ed m ilk, a nd strong wel9hted

bee r is slightly less de nse t ha n weak beer. U bu lb

Archimedes and t he crown

Archimedes, a Greek mathema tician. lived in Syracuse
(now in Sicily) around 250 BeE. He made important discoveries
about levers and liquids, but is probably best remembered for his
clever solution to a problem set him by t he King of Syracuse.
The King had given his goldsmith some gold to make a
crown. But when the crown was delivered, t he King
was suspicious. Perh aps the goldsmith had stolen
some of the gold and mixed in cheaper silver
instead. The King asked Archimedes to test the crown.
Arch imedes knew th at the crown was the correct mass. He also knew that silver
was less dense than gold. So a crown with silver in it would have a greater volume
than it should have. But how could he measure t he volume? Stepping into his bath
one day. so the story goes. Archimedes noticed the rise in w ater level. Here was the
\ answer! He was so excited that he Jept from his bath and ran naked through the
streets. shouting "Eureka! which means "I have found it l ".
fl.

Later, Archimedes put the crown in a container of water and measured the rise in
level. Then he did the same wit h an equal mass of pure gold. Th e rise in level was
different. So the crown could not have been pure gold.

o ..?1.
empty liqUid added 5tone added

148
em'
100
nownA crown B crown C em'
masY g 3750 3750 3750

volumel cm l 357 194 315

I density: gold t 9.3 glc ml; silver 10.5 g1cml 90g 170 9 190 9

, Use the information above to decide which crown is :z Use the information above to calculate:
gold, which is silver, and which is a mixture, a the mass, volume, and density of the liquid
b the mass, volume, and density of the stone.

Related topics : vol ume and denSity 1.04

 ................................................................................
M EASURE M ENTS AND UN IT S

More about mass and density

Comparing masses
Density essentials
mass
density ~ ---
volume
beam

unknOW'n mass standard masses

50 0 9

~ A simple beam balance

The device above is called a beam balance. It is t he simplesT. a nd probably

.. A more modern type of balance. It
detects the gravitational pul l on the
object on the pan. but gives its
reading in units of mass.
the oldest, way of fi nd ing t he mass of something. You put the object in one
pan , t hen add standan::l masses t o t he other pan until t he beam balances in a
level position. If you have to add 1.2 kg of standard masses, as in t he di agram,
then you know t hat t he object also has a mass of 1.2 kg.
The balance is really comparing weights rather tha n masses. We igh t is t he
downward pull of gravity. The beam balances when the downward pull on
one pan is eq ual t.o t he downward pull on t he othel: However, masses can be
compared because of the way gravity acts on them . If the objects in the two
pans have the same weigh t, they must also have the same mass.
When us ing a balance like the one above , you m ight say that you were
'weighi ng' some thi ng. However, 1.2 kg is t he mass of the object. not its weight .
Weight is a force, measured in force uni ts called newtons. For m ore on this ,
and t he di ffere nce between mass and weigh t, see spreads 2.07 and 2.09.
A more mode rn type of balance is shown on th e left.

o
~ 1 On the Moon, the force of gravity on an object is on ly
about one sixth of its value on Earth. Decide whether
each of the fo llowing wou ld give an accurate
measurement of mass if used on the Moon.
a A beam balance like the one in the diagram at the
top of the page.
b A balance like the one in the photograph above.
:2 A ba lloon like the one on the opposite page contains
2000 m3 of air. When t he air is cold, its density is
1.3 kg/ml. When heated, the air expands so that some
is pushed out of the hole at the bottom, and the
density falls to 1.1 kg/m 3 . Calculate the following.
a The mass of air in the ba lloon when cold.
b The mass of air in the ba lloon when hot.
c The mass of air lost from the balloon during heating.
 M EASURE M EN T S A ND UN IT S
.............................................................................................

Float or sink?
You can tell w het her a material w ill float or sink by comparing its density with that of the
surround ing liquid (or gas). If it is less dense, it will float; if it is more dense, it will sink. For
example, wood is less dense than water, so it floats; steel is more dense, so it sinks.
Density differences are not the cause of flO<lt ing or sinking, just a useful guide f or predicting
which will occur. Floating is made possible by an upward force produced whenever an
object is immersed in a liquid (or gas). To experience this torce, try pushing an empty boule
down into water.

... Hot air is less dense than cold

air, so a hot-air balloon will rise
upwards - provided the fabric gas
cylinders, basket, and passengers
do not increase the average
... Ice is less dense than water in its liquid form, so icebergs float. density by too much .

Related topi cs : mass 1.02; volume and density 1.04- 1.05; force 2.06 ; ma ss and weight 2.09; convection 5.07
M EA SURE M EN T S AND UN IT S FURTHER QUESTIONS

1 Copy and complete the table s hown below: 6 Which of t he follow ing statements is/are correct?
A One milligram equals one million grams.
measurement unit symbol B One thousand milligrams equals one gram.
length ? ?
C One million milligrams equals o ne gram.
? kilogram ? D O ne million milligrams equals one kilogram. [2]
? ? ,
7 m g/cm3 m' km em'

2 Write down the number of

[6]
kg m, ml kg/m 3 ,
A mg in 1 g Which of the above are
B g in I kg a units of mass?
C mginlkg b units of length
D mm in4km c units of volume?
E cm in 5 km [5] d units of t ime?
e units of density? [10]
3 Write down the vaJues of
a 300 e m , in rn B Which block is made of t he densest material?
b 500 g, in kg
c 1500 m. in km block masvg length/em breadth/em height/em
d 250 ms. in s A 480 5 4 4
c 0. 5 s. in ms B 360 10 4 3
f 0. 75 lan. in m C 800 10 5 2
g 2.5 kg, in g 0 600 5 4 3
h 0 .8m , in mm [8] [1]
4 The volume of a rectangular block can be 9 The mass of a measUli ng cylinder a nd its conte nts
caJculated using t his equation: are measured before and after putting a stone in it.
volume = length x w idth x height
mt'a~ rm g
Using t his information. copy and complete t he cyl inder
table below. [4]
same voju me
length/em width/em heighVem volume of E::::~---- of water ----{
rectangular :-;..:<
blocklcmJ :i i
2 3 4 , StOrl!!

5 5 ? 100 I = j-- "",," --j ,I

6 ?
? 10
5 In eac h of t he follow ing pairs. which quantity is
t he larger?
a 2 km or 2500 m?
b 2 mol' 1500 mm?
c 2 to nnes or 3000 kg?
d 2 litres or 300 cm l ?
5 300
Which of the follow ing could you calculate using
10 50
measurements taken from the apparatus above?
A th e d ens ity of the liquid only
B th e dens ity of the stone only
C th e densities oEthe liq uid a nd the stone [2)
10 A plastic bag filled with a ir has a volume of
0.008 ml. When a ir in the bag is squeezed into a
rigid container. the mass of t he container (with a ir)
[4]
increases fr.·om 0.02 kg to 0.03 kg. Use t he form ula
density = mass
volume
to calculate t he density of t he air in t he bag. [2J
 FURTHER QUESTIONS MEAS U REMENTS AND UNITS

11 13 The table shows the density of various substances .

substance density/ glcmJ

copper 8.9
iron 7.9
kerosene 0.87
mercury 13.6
water 1.0

O.5m Consider t he follow ing statement s:

O.5m
liquid X
mass 80 kg
O.S m
liQuldY
mass SO kg
In the diagram above. t he tanks contain two
di fferent liqu ids. X and Y.
a What is the volume of each liquid in m 3 ?
b If you had 1 m 3 of the liquid X, w hat
would its mass be?
c What is the density of liqu id X?
d What is t he dens ity of liquid Y?
12 Use the table of data on page 17 (Spread 1.04)
to a nswer the following:
a Whic h of the solids or liquids in the
table will Aoat in water? Give a reason
for your answeJ:
b Whic h of the solid s or liqu ids in the
table will float in petrol?
A 1 emJ of mercury has a greater mass than 1 em J
of any other substance in this table - true or
false?
B 1 em) of water has a smaller mass tha n I cm 3 of
any other substance in this table - true o r false ?
C 1 g o f iron has a smaller volume than 1 g of
co pper - true or false?
D Ig o f mercury has a greater mass t ha n 1 g o f
copper - true or false? [2]
14 A student decides to measure the period of a
pend ulum (the period is t he t ime taken for one
complete swing). Using a stopwatch . he finds t hat
e ight complete swings take 7 .4 seconds. Wit h his
calculator. he then uses t his data to work out t he
t ime for o ne swing. The number shown on his
calculator is 0.925.
a Is it acceptable for t he stude nt to claim t hat
the period of the pendulum is 0.925 seconds?
Explain your a nswer. [2 ]
[2]
b H ow could t he stud e nt measu re t he period
m o re accurately? [2 ]
[2]
c Later, a nother stude nt fin ds that 100 complete
[2]
swings take 92.8 seconds . From t hese
[2]
measurements. what is t he period o f t he
pend ulum? [2]
[4]
[2]
M EASUREMEN T S AND UNI T S REVISION SUMMARY

Use the list below when you revise for you r IGCS E examination . You can e ithe r
photocopy it or print it from t he file on t he CD accompanying t his boo k.
The spread number, in brackets, tells you whe re to find more information.

Core Level Extended LeveL

o How to use un its. (1.01) As for Core Level , plus t he follow ing:
o Making bigger or smaller units us ing o How to read a m ic rometec (1.03)
prefixes. (1.0 1)
o Wr iting num be rs in scie ntifi c (standard)
notation. ( 1.01)
a Signincant fi gures. (1.0 1)
a $1 units, includ ing the metre , kilogram , a nd
second . (1.02)
a The meaning of zero errOl: (1.03)
a H ow to measure s hon. in tervals of t ime. (1 .0 3)
a How to find the period of a simple
pend ulum . ( 1.03)
CJ Units for measuring volume. ( 1.04)
o How de nsity is d efi ned . ( 1.04)
o Using t he equation linking dens ity. mass, a nd
volume. (1.04)
o Find ing th e volu me of a regula r solid. (1.05)
o Using a measuring cylinde r to find the volume
of a liqu id. (I .05)
o Measuring t.he de nsity of liqu id . (1.05)
o Measuring t he de nsity of a regular solid. (1.05)
o How to use a d isplacement ca n. (l.05)
o Measuring t he de nsity of a n irregular solid. (1 .05)
o How to compare masses wit h a beam
balance. (1.06)
o Use de nsity data to pred ict w het her a material w ill
s ink or fl oat. (1 .06)

© OUP: this may be Il:'proouce(! for ctass use solely for the purchaser's inst iture
 bun gee jumper leaps more

A than J 80 metl'"e s from th e

top of the Sky Tower in
Auck land , New Zea land. With nothing
to o ppose hi s fall, he would hit the
ground a t a speed o f 60 metres per
second. However, his fall is slowed
by the resista nce of the a ir rus hing
past him , and eventually slopped by
the pull of the bungee rope. Side
ropes are also being used lostop him
c rashing into the towel:
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO TI ON

Speed, veLocity, and acceLeration

--
~ . .-.~. ~'",' .--.-..-.,... -- ~': ..... '. _... _.. ~-~
-- ..

.... Thrust superson ic car travelling

fas ter than sound. For speed records, Speed
cars are timed over a measured If a car travels between two points on a road . its average speed can be
distance (either one kilometre or one calculated like this:
mile). The speed is worked out from
the average of two runs - down the average speed = d ist.ance moved
course and then back again - so that
t ime taken
the effects of wind are cancelled out. If d istance is measured in metres (m) and t ime in seconds (s) , speed is
measured in metres per second (m/s). For example: if a car moves 90 min 3 s.

",?r
its average speed is 30 m/s.
Travel t imes
tim, "'eo w On most journeys. t he speed of a car varies, so the actual speed at a ny
1 kilometrE' ( 1000 m) moment is usually d ifferent from t he average speed . T o find a n actual speed.
you need to discover how far t he car moves in th e s hortest time you can

Runner
~ 150 s
measure. For example. if a car moves 0.20 metres in 0.0] s:
0.20 m
speed = - -- = 20 mls
0.0 1 s
Velocity
Grand Prix car Velocity means the speed of somet hing and its direction of travel. F or
example, a cycl ist m ight Ilave a velocity of 10 m ls due east. On papel~ this
velocity can be shown using an alTOw:
ojfl::;;;'~""';""~""j""~""~""~O:::' 4, 10 mJs
Passenger Jet >
For motion in a straight line you can use a + or - to indica te d irec t ion.
[])))))))))))))))])~~~) 3, For example:
Sound + 10 m/s (velocity of 10 m/s to Ihe right)
- 10 mJs (velocity of 10 mJs to the left)
Note: + 10 rnJs may be written w ithout the +. just as 10 m /s.

Space Shuttle 0.1 S

Quant ities, such as veloci lY. which have a direclion as well as a magn itude
(s ize) are called vectors.
 FORCES AND MO TI ON
.............................................................................................
Acceleration
Something is accelerating if its velocity is changing. Acceleration is calculated
like this:
. c ha nge in veloc ity
average accelera non = -'---'--"'-'----:-"''''''-
time taken

i n symbols: a
v- u
~-­
I time velocity

Os o m/s
w here II is t h e init ial velocity a nd v is t he final veloc ity.
1s 3 m/s
For example. if a car increases its velo city from zem to 12 mls in 4 s: 2s 6 m/s
a verage acceleration = 12/4 = 3 m/s 2 (omitting some units for 3s 9 m/s
s implicity) 4s 12 mls
Note that accelerat ion is measured in metres per second! (m/s2). The velocity of this car is increasing by
Accele ration is a vectOl: It can be s hown us ing an arrow (usually d ouble- 3 m/s fNery second. The car has a
hea d ed ). Alternatively, a + or - sign can be used to indicate w hether th e "'-eady acceleration of 3 mJs2.
velocity is increasing or decreas ing. For example:
+ 3 m/s 2 (velocity increasing by 3 mls every second )
- 3 m/s 2 (velocity decreasing by 3 mls every second)
A negative acceleration is called a dece1eration o r a retardation.
A t/nifoml acceleration means a constan t (steady) acceleration.

Solving a problem
Example The car on the righ t passes post A with a velocity of 12 m/s. If it
has a stead y acceleration of 3 m/s2, w hat is its velocity 5 s later, at B?

The car is gaining 3 m/s o f velocity every second . So in 5 s , it gains an extra

15 mls on top o f its orig inal 12 m/s. T herefore its final veloc ity is 27 m/s. Note
that t he res ult is worked out Like this:
final velocity = orig inal velocity + extra velocity
So: fi nal velocity = orig in al velocity + (acceleration X t ime)
The above equation also works for retard ation. If a car has a retard ation o f
3 m/s2, you treat t his as a n acceleration o f - 3 m/s2.

o 1 A car travels 600 m in 30 s. What is i15 average speed?
Why is its actual speed usua lly d ifferent from its
average speed?
l.! How is velocity different from speed?
3 A car has a steady speed of 8 m/s.
a How far does the car travel in 8 5?
b How long does the car take to travel 160m?
4 Calcu late the average speed of each thing in the chart
of travel times on the opposite page.
A car has an acceleration of + 2 m/sl. What does this tell
you about the velocity of the car?
6 A car takes 8 s to increase its velocity from 10 mls to
30 m/s. What is its average acceration?
7 A motor cycle, travelling at 20 mis, ta kes 5 s to stop.
What is its average retardation?
8 An aircraft on its take·off run has a steady acceleration
of 3 mN.
a What velocity does the aircraft gain in 4 s?
b If the aircraft passes one post on the run way at a
velocity of 20 mis, what is its velOCity 8 s later?
9 A truck travelling at 25 mfs p uts its brakes on for 4 s.
This produces a retardation of 2 m/5 2. What does the

L What is meant by an acceleration of - 2 mls2? truck's velocity drop to?

Related topics : units 1.01; vectors 2.13

 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO T ION

Motion graphs
Distance-time graphs
Graphs can be useful when studying motion. Below. a car is travell ing along
a straight road, away from a marker post. The car's d istance from the post is
t
., I measured every second. The c harts an d graphs show four different examples
~,€S\\
~\?>\J Iy of w hat t he car's motion might be.
______________J O n a graph . the line's rise on t he veltical scale d ivided by its rise on t he
, horizontal scale is called t he gradie nt . as s hown on the left. With a
distance- time graph . the gradient tells you how m uc h extra d istance is
... On a straight line graph like this.
travelled every second . So:
the gradient has the same value
wherever you measure y and x.
On a d istance-t ime graph , t he grad ient of t he line is nu merically equal to
the speed.

ti me f"t>\
C) taken \...:.}
dl~tance _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~'

"~'"'d ~
r
A Car travelling at steady speed B Car t ravell ing at higher steady speed

ti me/s 0 2 3 4 5 tlme/s 0 1 2 3 4 5
d i~tancel m 0 10 20 30 40 50 di~tal'lCel m 0 20 40 60 80 100
100 100
80 80
E E
~ 60 ~ 60
; 40 ; 40
~ ~

'0 20

o , 3 , 5 ti met ~ o , 3 , 5 li me! s

The line rises 10 m on the distance scale for every 1 s on The line is steeper than before. It rises 20 m on the distance
the time scale. scale for iNery I s on the time scale.

C Car accelerating o Ca r stopped

tlllle/s 0 2 3 4 5 tme/s 0 1 2 3 4 5
distance/m 0 10 25 45 70 100 d,stancel m SO SO SO SO SO So
100 100
80 80
E E gradien t = 0
~ 60 ~ 6°t-_ _ _c> . P"
.:.:;dc=
....0_ _ _ _•
; 40 ; 40
~ ~
20 20

'0 ~'-,'-"-~3'-"-'S ti me! 5 0C--' - -"-C3'-"--<5 ti me! s

The speed rises. So the car travels further each second than Th e car is parked 50 m from the post. so this distance stays
the one before, and th e line curves upwards. the same.
 FORCES AND MO TI ON
.............................................................................................
Speed-time graphs
Each speed- t ime graph below is for a car travelling along a straight road. The Velocity-time graphs
grad ient tells you how m uc h extra speed is gained eve ry second. So: Velocity is speed in a particular
direction.

l On a speed- time graph. the grad ien t o f the line is nu meIically equ al to the INhere there is no change in the
acceleration. direction of motion, a velocity-
time graph looks the same as a
speed- lime graph.
In graph E , t he car travels at a steady 15 mls for 5 s. so the distance travelled
is 75 m. The area of the s haded rectangle. calculated u s ing t he scale nu m bers .
is also 75. This principle works for more compl icated grap h lines as well. I n
grap h F. the area of t he s haded tria ngle, 1/2 X base X height, equals 50. So t he
d istance travelled is 50 metres.

On a speed- time graph . the area under the line is numerically equal to the
distance travelled .

E Car travelling at steady speed F Car with steady acceleration

I ~::~~mls I~ 141~ 1 132 1 1~12~ 1

tlme/s a 1 2 3 4 5
speedl mls 15 15 15 15 15 15

ti me/s timels

The speed stays the same, so the line stays at the same level. As the car gains speed. the line rises 4 mls on the speed
scale for every 1s on the time scale.

o 1 2

t imel s time/~

The distance-time graph above is for a motor cycle
travelling along a straight road.
a What is the motor cycle doing between points D and
E on the graph?
b Between which points is it accelerating?
I~~
c Between which points is its speed steady?
~ What is this steady speed?
e What is the distance travelled between A and D?
f What is the average speed between A and D?
The speed-time graph above is for another motor cycle
travelling along the same road.
a What is the motor cycle's maximum speed?
What is the acceleration during the first 10s?
What is its deceleration during the last 5s?
d What distance is travelled during the fif!it lOs?
e What is the total distance travelled?
f What is the t ime taken for the whole journey?
9 What is the average speed for the whole journey?

Related topics : speed, velocity, and acceleration 2.01

 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO T ION

Recording motion
Using ticker-tape

trolley pulled ticker-tape timer

across bench
paper tape (
(

so dot$ punched on
tape every second

In the labo ratory. motion can be investigated using a trolley like the one
above. As the trolley travels along the bench. it pulls a lengt h of paper tape
Speed, velocity. and (ticker-tape) behind it. The tape passes t hrough a ticker-tape t imer wh ic h
acceleration essentials punches carbon dots on the tape at regular intervals . A typical timer produces
speed ' = distance moved 50 dots every second.
time taken
Togeth e t~the dots on the tape form a complete record of the motion of the
velocity is speed in a particular
direction trolley. The furt her a part the dots . the faster the trolley is moving. Here are
change in velocity some examples:
acceleration * = -'---;;=-;:;=-'-~
time taken
*average ,
stan
I
f . .. .. . . . · . . ¥
steady speed distance between dots stays the same

~ . . . . . . · . .
higher steady speed distance between dots greater than before

T Motion can also be recorded ~ ... - . . . . . . i

photographically. Th ese images of the acceleration distance between dots Increases
Sun were ta ken at regu lar intervals.
at midsummer. in Alask a. Even at i
_..... . . . . . . . . . . . · .....- ~
midnight, the Sun is still above the acceleratlon then retardation
horizon.
-
 FORCES AND MO TI ON
.............................................................................................
Calculations from tape

'. d • ,.
,,
,,
1 0.ls O. ls 0. 1 s 0.1 s , 0.1 s
,,
, \1
I
!
stan
When the sections above are
arranged side-by-side as below.
the chart has the shape of a
speed- time graph.

The tickel-:..tape record above is for a trolley w ith steady acceleration.

The tape has been marked off in sections 5 dot-spaces long. One dot-space is
the distance travelled by the trolley in 1150 second (0 .02 s). So 5 dot-spaces
is t he d istance travelled in 1110 second (0.1 s). -
If the tape is c hopped up into its 5 dot-space sections. and the sections put
s ide-by-side in ordel: t he result is a c hart like t he one on t he right. The c hal1 is
t he shape of a speed-time graph. The lengths of t he sections represent speeds
because the t rolley travels furt her in eac h 0.1 s as its speed increases. Side-by- -
s ide, th e sections provide a t ime scale because each sect ion stans 0.1 s after
the one before.
I : he acceleration of t he trolley can be found from measurements on t he tape.
~o questions 2 and 3 below to d iscover how. ~
0,. Oh 01> 01s 0,.
f
I
- .04,
- - j•

o,
,
stall
c Measure t he d istance from C to D, then calculate the
average speed of the tro lley between C and D.
~. Section CD was completed exactly one second after
section AB. Calcu late the acceleration of the tro lley
in mmlsz.
Describe the motion o f the trolley that produced the ] Look at the chart above.
ticker-tape record above. a Using a ru ler. measure t he distance travelled by the
2 The dots on the tape below were made by a ticker-tape trolley in the f irst 0.1 5 recorded on the tape.
timer producing 50 dots per second. b Calculate t he trolley'S average speed during this
a Count the number of dot-spaces between A and B. first 0.1 s.
Then c.a lculate the t ime it t ook the t ape t o move c Measure t he d istance t ravelled by the trol ley in t he
from A to B. last 0.1 s recorded on the tape.
b Using a ru ler, measure the d istance from A to B in d Calculate the average speed during this last 0 .1 s.
mm. Then ca lculate the average speed o f the trolley e Calculate the gain in speed during the 0.4 s.
between A and B, in mmls. L.! Calcu late the acceleration of the trolley in mmls2.
start A 8

Rel ated t opi cs : speed, velocity, and acceleration 2.01; motion graphs 2.02 and 2.05
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO TI ON

Free faLL
The acceleration of free fall, g
if you d rop a lead weight a nd a feather. both fall downwards becau se of
gravity. However, the feat her is slowed m uch more by the air.
The d iagram on t he left s hows w hat would happen if t here were no air
resistance. Both objects would fall with t he same dovmward acceleration:
'"
removed - -
9.8 m/s 2• This is called t he acceleration of free fall It is the same for all
objects fall ing near the Earth's s urface, light and heavy alike.
The acceleration of free fall is represented by the symbol g. Tts value varies
sJigh dy from one place on the Earth's surface to another, because t he Earth 's
gravitational pull varies. H owever, the val.'i ation is less than 1%. Moving away
from the Ean h and out into space. g decreases.
feather ~~ • '----_
• Iead
Note that the value of g n ear the Earth 's s urface is close to 10 m/s 2 • This s imple

""'" figure is accurate enough for many calculations. and will be the on e used in
this book.

... In the experiment above. all the air

has been removed from the tube.
Without air resistance. a light object
falls with the same acceleration as a
heavy one.

'-.J'II electromagnet
~ to release ball

. ' --' lig ht

sensor
to start
TImer

.&. On the Moon. the acceleration of free fal l is only 1.6 mls 2 . And as there is no atmosphere. a
feather would f all with the same acceleration as a lead weight.

t ime t
Measuring g*
h
An experimen t to find g is shown on the left. The principle is to measure the
t, mer time taken fo r a steel ball to drop t hrough a known height. and to calculate
the acceleration from this. Air resistance has li ttle effect on a smail, heavy ball
falling only a short distance, so the ball's acceleration is effectively g.
The ball is dropped by cutting t he power to the electromagnet. The electronic
timer is automatically switched on when the ball passes through the upper
light beam, and switched off w hen it passes through the lower beam. If the
lig ht
height of the fall is II and the time taken is t, th en g can be calculated using
- ~eI O
sensor
10 stop t his equation (derived from other equat ions):
ball t, mer
,},
g ~ ­
... Experiment to measu re 9 I'
 FORCES AND MO TI ON
.............................................................................................
Up and down' Om!,
Tn t he foll ow ing example, assu me th at g is 10 m/s2, a nd that t here is no air (3 5)
resistance.
The ball on t he right is thrown upwards w ith a velocity of 30 m/s . The d iagram 10 mls 10 mls
shows t he velocity of t he ball every second as it rises to its h ighest point and
(2 s)
t J,<4"
then falls back to where it started. ~
~
I
As a n u pwmd velocity of 30 mls is the same as a dowl'lIva rd velocity of
I
- 30 mIs, the motion of the ball can be d escribed like t his:
I I
At 0 s .... the downward velocity is -30 mls
After 1 s .... the downward velocity is -20 mls
10 m/s
r I
After 2 s .... the downward velocity is - 10 mls
is being I :=.
added to t he
t '"
20 m/s
o mls
After 3 s ....
After 4 s ....
t he downward
the downward
velocity
velocity
is
is + 10 mls
downward
velocity every
( 1 s)
i ~
~
{S s}

After 5 s .... t he downward velocity is + 20 mls

second
After 6 s .... the downward velocity is + 30 m/s
Whether t he ball is travellin g up or do wn , it is gaining downward velocity at I
the rate of 10 mls per second . So it always has a downward acceleration of
10 mls 2 , w h ic h isg. Even when the ball is moving upward s, or is stational), at
I
its highest point, i t still has downward acceleration. I
Below, you can see a velocity-time graph for the motion. I
I

30 m/s
(0 ,)
--- I' m!'(6 5)

.& A ball in Ilight. As 9 is 10 mls2.

Ihe ball's velocity changes by 10 m/s
every second .

.... The velocity- time graph for the

ball's motion is shown on the lelt.

(!)
... Assume that 9 = 10 mls2 and that there is no air resistance. 4 Th is question is about the three points, A, S, and C. on
1 A stone is dropped from re5t. What is its speed the graph above left.
a after 1 5 b after 2 5 C after 5 s? a In which direction is the ball moving at point C?
2 A stone is thrown downwards at 20 mls. What is its b At which point is the ball stationary?
speed c At wh ich point is the ball at its maximum height?
a after 1 s b after 2 s c after 5 s? d What is the ball's acceleration at point C?
3 A stone is thrown upwards at 20 m/s. What is its speed e What is the ball's acceleration at point A?
a after 1 5 b after 2 5 C after 5 s? f What is the bali's acceleration at point B?
9 At wh ich point does the ball have the same speed as
when it was thrown?

Rel ated topi cs : acceleration 2.01; motion graphs 2.02 and 2.05; gravitational force 2.09
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO T ION

More motion graphs

Motion graph essentials
Here are four examples of velocity- time graphs for a car travelling along a straight line:

20 20 20 20
~ ~
E E '£ ~
~n ~ ~ ~
10 10 10 10
~
•
0
•
0
" 0
" 0 "'-
5 5 5 5
time! s timels tlmels time! s

Steady acceleration Steady acceleration Zero acceleration Steady retardation

of 2 m / s2
The speed of the car increases
by 2m/s every second.
The initial speed IS z:ero, so the
car is starti ng from reSt.
of 4 m / sl
The speed of the car increa:>es
by 4m/s every second.
The initial speed is zero, so the
car is starting from rest.
Theo car has a steady speed of (deceleration) of 4 m / s2
20mls. The s~d of the car dec reases
by 4 m/~,2. Inother words:
the acceleration IS-4m/s2.
The fi nal speed is zero, so the
(ar comes to reost.

Uniform and non-uniform acceleration

A car is travell ing along a straight road. If it has unifo nn acceleration , this
means t hat its acceleration is steady (constant). In ot her words, it is gaining
velocity at a steady rate. In practice, a car's acceleration is rarely steady. For
example, as a car approaches its maximum velocity, t he acceleration becomes
less and less until it is zem , as shown in the example below. Also t he car
decelerates slightly during gear c hanges.

~
f acceleration is not steady t hen it is non-uni(onn . On a velocity-time graph ,
as below, th e maxim um acceleratio n is w here the graph line has its highest
gradient (steepness).

geoar

'1"'" zero acce leration I

at maximum speed

geoar

'1"""
/ _______ hi 9he5l gfadient:
~ greoiltest acceleoratlon
 FORCES AND MO TI ON
.............................................................................................
Here are more examples of unifOlTl1 a nd non-uniform acceleration:
A stone is d ropped Emm a great height. Wit h no air resistance , t he velociTY~
time graph for t he stone would be as s hown below left. The acceleration
would be uniform. It would be 10 m/s2, the acceleration of free fall. g.
I n pract ice, t here is air resistance on the stone. Th is affects its mo tion,
pmducing non-uniform acceleraTion , as s hown below I·ight. ATthe instant t he
stone is dropped , it has no veloci ty. This means t hat its initial acceleration
is g because t here is not ye t any air resistance on it. However, as t he velocity
increases, a ir resistance also increases. Eventually, the air resistance is so
great that (he veloci ty reaches a maximum and the acceleration falls to zero.
o

li me lime

... Uniform accelera tion of a falling stone with no air resistance ... Non-unrtorm acceleration of a falling stone with air
acting. resistance acting.

On a speed~t ime grap h , t he area under t he l ine is numerically equal to

the d istance travelled . This applies whether t he mot ion is un ifo rm or
non-un iform ~ in other words, w hether the graph line is straigh t or cu rved .
Wit h a stmigh t-lin e graph, t he area can be calculated . Wit h a curved -line
graph , t his m ay not be possible, alt hou gh a n estimate can be made by
counting squares. When doing tiu s , remember that th e area m ust be worked
out using the scale numbers on the a'l( is. It isn't t he '['eal' area on the paper.

o 1 A boat moves off from its mooring in a straight line.

A speed-time graph for its motion is shown on the
right. The graph has been divided into sections, AB, BC,
CD, and DE. Over which section (or sections) of the
graph does the boat
a have its greatest speed?
b have its greatest acceleration? c D

c have retardation?
d have uniform acceleration or retardation?
e have non-uniform acceleration or retardation?
f travel the greatest distance?
2 Sketch a speed-time graph for a beach-ball falling from E
a great height. How w ill this graph differ from that for ,,~

a falling stone, shown above right?

Related t opics : speed, veloc ity, and acceleration 2.01; motion graphs 2.02; g and free fan 2.04
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO T ION

Forces in balance
A [orce is a p us h or a pull, exerted by one object on a nother. It has direction
Typical forces in
newtons
force to swi tch on
8( as well as magn itude (s ize), s o it is a vector.
The 51 unit of force is [he newton (N). Small forces can be measured using a
spring balance like t he one below. The greate r t he force, the more the spring is
a bathroom light lON stretched and t he hi ghe r t he ,"ead ing on t he scale:
force to pull
open a drinks can .. 20N
applied
force to lift
a heavy suitcase ..... 200 N
force from a
large jet engine.. 250000N

I
force reading in newton$

Common forces
Here are some examples of forces;

Upthrust The upward force

from a liquid (or gas) that
makes some th ings float.

_. , t;:.. ,
- - Tension The force in a
stretched material.
f riction The f orce that opposes
the motion of one mat erial
sliding past aoomer.

Weight The gravitationa l

Thrust The f orward force Air resist ance
force on an object.
from an aircraft engine. One type of fnction.

Motion without force

On Earth , unpowered vehkles soon co me to rest because o f frictio n. But with
no frict ion, gravity, or oth er external force on it, a m oving object will keep
moving fo r eve r - at a steady speed in a straight line. It doesn't need a force to
keep it moving.
This idea is summed up in a law first put forward by S ir Isaac Newton in 1687:

If no external force is act ing on it, an object w ill

- if stationary, remain stationary
• Deep in space with no forces to - if moving. keep moving at a steady speed in a straight line.
slow it. a moving object will keep
moving for ever. This is known as Newlon's flrSt Jaw of motion.
·.. ..........................................................................................FORCES AND MO TI ON

Balanced forces
An object may have several forces on it. But if the forces are in balance. t hey
cancel each other out. The n, the object behaves as if there is no force on it at
all. Here are some examples:

upward f orce
from bern be am

Stationa ry gym nast Skater w ith st eady ve locit y Skydi ve r w ith s.te ady velocity

With balanced forces on it, an object is either at rest. or moving at a steady

velocity (stea dy speed in a straight line), That follows from Newton's first law.

Terminal velocity
When a skydiver falls from a hovering helicopter, as her speed increases,
the a ir resistance on her also increases, Eventually. it is enough to bala nce
her weight, and she gains no more speed . She is at her tcnninal velocity.
lYpically, t his is about 60 mis, t hough the actual value depend s on air
cond itions, as well as the size. s hape, and weight of t he skyd iver.
When the skydiver opens her parachute, the extra area of material increases
the air resista nce. She loses speed rapidly until t he fOL"CeS are again in balance.
at a greatly reduced telminai velocity.
If air resistallce hala/lces her weight, why doesn't a skydiver stay still? If s he
wasn't moving, there wouldn't be any air resistance. And w ith only her weight
~ If a skydiver is falling al a steady
acting, she would gain velocity.
velocity, Ihe forces on her are
Surely, if she is travelling downwards, her weight must be greater than rite air balanced: her weight downwards is
resisfallce? O nly if is s he is gaining velocity, At a steady velocity, the forces exactly matched by the air resistance
must be in balance. That follows from Newton's first law, upwards.

o1 What is the 51unit of force?

Z What does Newton's f irst law of motion tell you about the forces on an object
that is a stationary b moving at a steady velocity?
3 The parachutist on the right is descend ing at a steady velocity.
a What name is given to this velocity?
b Copy the diagram. Mark in and la bel another force acting .
c How does this force compare with the weight?
d If the parachutist used a larger parachute, how wou ld this affect the steady weight

velocity reached? Explain why,

Related topics: friction and moving vehicles 2.08; weight and mass 2.09
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO TI ON

Force, mass, and acceLeration

Inertia and mass

~ Once a massive ship like this is

moving. it is extremely difficu lt to stop _

If an object is at rest, it takes a force to make it m o ve. If it is moving, it takes

a force to make it go fastel: s!o wel: or in a di fferent direction. So all objects
resist a cha nge in veloc ity - eve n if t he veloci ty is zero . This resistance to
c hange in velocity is called inertia. The m o re mass somethi ng has . the more
inen ia it has.
Velocity is speed in a
particular direction. Any cha nge in velocity is a n acceleration. So the more mass something has,
the mOl'C di fficult it is to m ake it accelerate.

These twO forces_ .. Resultant force

In the diagram on t he left. t he two fOl'ces are unbalanced . Togethel: t hey are
3 N "'~ _ _ _. ' 5 N equivalent to a single force . This is called the resultant force.
If forces are balanced. the resultant force is zero and there is no acceleratio n .
are equivalent to a single
force of (S-3) N._ Any other resultant force causes an acceleratio n - in the same d irect io n as the
resulta nt fo rce.

Linking force, mass, and acceleration

This IS the resultant force .
There is a link. between t h e resultant force acting, the mass, a nd the
acceleration prod uced . For example:
If t his resultant force ... acts on t his mass ... th en t his is t he acceleratio n ...
IN I kg I m/s 2
2N 2 kg I m/s 2
4N 2 kg 2 m/s 2
6N 2kg 3 rnIs 2

Symbols and units

0: In all cases . the follow ing eq uatio n applies:

F = force. in newtons (N) resultant force = mass X acceleratio n

m = mass. in kilograms (kg)
I n symbols: F = ma
a = acceleration.
in metres/second 2 (m/s 2) This relationship between force, mass. and acceleratio n is somet imes called
Newton's second Jaw of motion.
·.. .......................................................................................... FORCES AND MO TI ON

Example W hat is the accelel'ation of the model car on t he right?

m,"
First , work out the resultant force o n t he car. A fo rce o f 18 N to the right
co m bined w ith a fo rce of 10 N to the left is equivalent to a fo rce of (1 8 - 10) N
..,..._'
ION +-
1' IB N

to the right. So t he resultant fo rce is 8 N.

Next , w o rk out t he acceleration w hen F = 8 N a nd m = 2 kg:
I
total force
I
fr ic1lOnal f orce from motor
F = ma
So: 8 = 2a (om itting units fo r simplicity)
Rearra nged , this give s a = 4. So the car's acceleration is 4 m/s 2•

Finding the link

tic ker: r timer

p aper tape

> trol leys

2 uMS of mass

I flat bench I
The link between force, m ass, a nd accelera t ion can be found expe r im entally
us ing t he equipment above. Diffe rent forces are applie d to the trolley by
pulling it along wi th one, two, o r t hree elast ic co rds , stretched to t he same
length each tim e. Dur ing each run , t he ticker-tape tim e r marks a series of dots
on t he paper tape. The accelera t ion can be calcu lated from t he spacing of the
do ts. To vary th e mass, one, two, o r th ree trolleys are u sed in a stack.
1 unit of force

Defining the newton

A 1 N res ultant fo rce act ing on 1 kg produces an accele ration of 1 m /s 2 . This
s imple result is no accident. It a rises from the way t he newton is defined: ~2 units of for~e
1 newton is the fo rce required to give a mass of 1 k ilogram a n acceleration
of 1 m/s 2 .
-
Further effects offorces
Forces do not only a ffect mot ion. If two or m ore forces act on somet hing, they
c ha nge its sh ape o r volume (or both). The effect is slig ht w ith ha rd obj ects,
but ca n be very noticea ble wit h fl exible ones, as show n on the rig ht.
Forces causing a shape cha nge

What equation li nks resultant force, mass. and 2 a What is the resultant force on the car below?
What is the car's acceleration?

L~
acceleration?
Use this equation to calculate the resu ltant force on If the total frictiona l force rises to 1500 N, what
each of the stones shown below. happens to the car?
mass
800 kg

5 00N
1
total -
~.~=-_~1 ~~~~.~1500i" force
frictional force from engll'l€

Related t opi cs : mass 1.02; acceleratio n 2.01; using tic ker-tape 2.03; ba lanced fo rces 2.06; stretching and compressing 3. 04
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO T ION
reducin9 fri ction
I roller beall~g + grease
l
brake pad tyre gripping road
uSing friction
.. This wheel is mounted on ro ller
bearings to reduce friction.
T Air resi stance is a form of dynamic
friction. When a car is travelling fast,
it is the largest of alilhe frictional
forces opposing motion.
Air resistance wastes energy, so less
air resistance means betler fuel
consumption. Car bodies are specially
shaped to smooth the air flow past
them and reduce air resistance. A low
fron ta l area also helps.
Friction
Frict ion is the force t hat t l·ies to stop matet·ials sliding across each o Lher.
There is friction between your ha nds w hen you rub them togethe r. and friction
between your s hoes a nd t he ground w hen you walk along. Friction prevents
machi nery from moving freely a nd heats up its moving parts. To reduce
friction, w heels are mounted on ball or roller bearings, w it h oil or grease to
make the moving su rfaces slippetY-
Friction is not always a nuisance. It gives shoes and tyres grip on t he grou nd,
a nd it is used in most braking systems. On a b icycle , for example. rubber
blocks are pressed against the w heels to slow them down.
Two kinds offridion
When t he block below is p ulled gen tly, friction stops it moving. As the force is
increased , th e frict ion rises until the block is about to slip. This is t he starting
or slatic friction. Wit h a greater downward force on th e block, the static
friction is higher. Once the block starts to slide, the friction d rops: moving or
dynamic friction is less t han static friction .
static frICtion is greater than. . .. dynam iCfrict ion
Dy namic friction heats materials up. When somet hi ng is moved against t he
force of frict ion, its energy o f mot io n (called kinet ic energy) is c hanged into
thermal e nergy (heat). Brakes and ot her machi nery must be designed so that
they get rid of this thermal e nergy. Otherwise their moving parts may become
so hot that t hey seize up.
 FORCES AND MO TI ON
.............................................................................................
Friction highs and lows
As t he Eal1h m oves t hrough space, it runs into small
bits of matet"ial , also orbit ing t he Sun. T hese m ostly
range in s ize (rom grains of sand to small pebbles,
a nd they can hit t he atmosphere at speed s of up to
70 km/s (150 000 mph). Flict ional h eating makes
t hem burn up, causing a streak of light called a meteor
(or 'sh ooting star,), as on t he r ight. Sometimes, the
burning produces a fireball.
Below are more examples of frict ion in action.

... A curling stone slides across the ice towards a target. To make
the stone travel furthe r. the sweepers brush vigorously in front of
it with brooms. Friction from the brooms has a heating effect
which melts some of the ice. The melting layer reduces friction
under the stone.
... The top of a surfboard is otten given a wax coating. Tiny
bumps of wax increase friction by sticking to the surfer's feet.
However. the underside of a surfboard has a smooth. glassy
surface so that it can slide across the water with as little friction
as possible.

o t In a car, friction is essential in some parts, but needs to
be reduced i n others. Give two examples of where
fr iction is a essentia l b needs to be reduced.
Z Why are car bodies designed so that air resistance is
reduced as much as possible?
~ A car is travelling at 30 mls. Sudden ly, the driver sees a
danger ahead and decides to do an emergency stop.
The driver's reaction time is 0.6 s.
Comparing the top and bottom of a surfboard:
a On which surface does the friction need to be high?
Explain Why.
b On which surface does the friction need to be low?
Explain Why.
4 Write down whether each of the fo llowing is an
example of static friction or dynamiC friction, and
whether there is a heating effect:
a The soles of your shoes gripping the ground when
you are standing on a slope.
b A crate being dragged across the ground .

Related t opi cs : speed 2.01; brakes 3-07

 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO T ION
• Near the Earth's surface, a 1 kg
mass has a gravitational fo rce on it of
about 10 newtons. This is its weight.
Itg
...-..eight
lO N
(gravitational force)
Symbols and units
W = weight. in newtons (N)
m mass. in kilograms (kg)
9 gravitational field
strength, 10 N/kg near
the Earth's surface
Force, weight, and gravity
Gravitational force
If you hang an object from a spring balance, you measure a downward pull
from the E arth . This pull is called a gravitatio na1 force.
No one is s ure what causes gravitational force. but here are some o f its main
feat ures:
• All masses attract each ot her.
• The greater the masses, the stro nger th e force.
• The closer the masses, t he stronger the force.
The pull betwee n small masses is extremely weak It is less th a n 10- 7 N
between you and this book! But t he Earth is so massive t hat its gravitat io nal
pu ll is strong en ough to hold most thi ngs firmly on the ground.
Weight
Weight is a nother name for the Earth's gravitational force on a n object. Like
ot her forces, it is measured in newtons (N) .
Near t he Eru1h 's su rface, a n object of mass 1 kg has a weight of 9.8 N, though
10 N is accu rate enough for many calculations and w ill be u sed in this b ook.
Greate r masses have greater weights. Here are so me examples:
H g SO kg m
9 = gravitational
field strength
20 N SOO N
= 10 Nl\(g
Gravitational field strength, g
A gravita tional fi eld is a region in w hi ch a mass experiences a force d ue to
gravitat ional attraction . The Earth has a gravitational fi eld around it. Near
t he surface , t his exerts a force of 10 newton s on each kilogram of mass: t he
E art h's gravita tional fi eld strength is 10 newtons pe r kilogram (N /kg ).
Gravitational field strength is represented by the symbol g. So:
weight = mass X g (g = 10 N/kg)
In symbols: W = mg
In everyday language, we o ften use the word 'weight' w hen it s houl d be 'mass'.
Even bala nces . w hic h detect weight , are normally marked in mass un its . But
the person in the d iagram above doesn't 'weigh' SO kilograms. He has a mass
of SO kilograms and a weight of 500 nev,!to ns.
·.. .......................................................................................... FORCES AND MO TI ON

Example W hat is the accelel'ation of the rocket o n th e right?

3000 N
force from
To fi nd t he acceleratio n, yo u need to know th e res ultant force o n the rocket, rocket
And to fi nd th at, you need to kno w t he rocket's weight: engine

weight "" mg = 200 kg X 10 N/kg = 2000 N ""'''

200 kg
So; resultant force (upwards) = 3000 N - 2000 N '" 1000 N weight

But: resultan t fo rce = mass X accele ratio n

So; 1000 N = 200 kg x acceleratio n
Rearranged , [his gives : acceleratio n = 5 m/s 2

Changing weight, fixed mass

On the Moo n , yo ur weig ht (in newtons) wo uld be less than on Eal1h , because
the Moon's gravitatio nal fi eld is weakel:
Even o n Earth , yo ur weig ht can vary sligh tly from place to place, because
the Earth's gravitational field strength varies. Moving away from the E arth ,
your weight decrease s. If you could go d eep into space , and be free of a ny
gravitatio nal pull , your weight would be zero.
Whether on t he Ear1 h, o n t he Moon , o r dee p in space, yo ur bod y always
has t he same resistance to a c hange in m o t io n. So your mass (in kg) doesn't
c ha nge - at least , no t under no rmal c irc umstances. But...
According to Einstein 's the o ry of relativity, mass call c ha nge. Fo r example, it
increases whe n a n object gains speed. However, t he c ha nge is far too small to
detect at speeds m uc h below t he speed of light. For all pra ctical purposes , you
ca n assume t hat mass is c onstant.

Two meanings for g*

In t he diagram op posite, t he acceleratio n of each object can be wo rked out
us ing t he eq uation fo rce = mass x acceleration. For example, the 2 kg mass
has a 20 N force on it, so its acceleration is 10 m/s 2 •
You get t he same res ult fo r all t he other objects. In each case, the acceleration
works out at 10 m/s 2 , o r g (whe re g is t he Ealih's gravitational fiel d strength,
I ON/kg).
So g has two meanings;
• g is the gravitational field strength (1 0 newtons per kilogram).
• g is the acceleration of free fall (1 0 m e tres per second 2 ).

o Assume that g = 10 NlI<.g and there is no air resistance. 2 A spaceuaft travels from Earth to Mars, where the
gravitational field strength near the surface is 3.7 NlI<.g.
The spacecraft is carrying a probe which has a mass of
5 kg 10 kg 100 kg when measured on Earth.
a What is the probe's weight on Earth?
b What is the probe's mass in space?
The rocks above are falt ing near the Earth's surface. c What is the probe's mass on Mars?
a What is the weight of each rock? d What is the probe's weight on Mars?

L b What is the acceleration of each rock?

c What is the gravitationa l field strength?
L
e When the probe is fa ll ing, near the surface of Mars,
what is its acceleration?

Rel at ed t opi cs : kg 1.01; resulta nt force and acceleration 2.rY]; energy and mass 11.0 6
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO TI ON

Action and reaction *

Action-reaction pairs
A s ingle force cannot exist by itself. Forces are always pushes or pulls between
two objects. So they always occu r in pairs.
The experiment below s hows the effect of a pair of forces. To begin wit h, t he
two trolleys are stationary. One of t hem conta ins a spring-loaded p iston w hic h
s hoots out w hen a reJease p in is hit.

.=::
81?fOfl? SPflng ,~ re/I?i1So::d
release pin ----I

S?
{. .
•
Aher spring is rffl?i1So::d
spring-loaded
piston shoots out

I
<;- •

When the piston is released , the trolleys s hoot off in opposite directions.
Although the piston comes from one trolley only, two equal but opposite
forces are produced, one acting on each trolley. The paired forces are known
as the action a nd t he reac tion , but it doesn't matter w hich you call w hic h.
One cannot exist w ithou t t he ot h el~
Here are some more examples of action- reaction pairs:

forwa rd
force 00
bullet: bullet
hoots out

backward "'f4o
force on gun·
gun rec()! ls
Earth p"", d"wow",d;
on skydiver

,
runn er
skyd;ver pulls upwards
backwards 00
on Earth
ground runner

I( (orces always occllr il1 pairs, why don't they callcel each other Ollt?
The forces in each pair act on differw! objects, not the same object.
I( a skydiver is plllled downwards, why isn't the Earth pulled uptvards?
It is! Bu t t he Earth is so massive that t he upward force on it has far too small
a n effect for any movement to be detected .
 FORCES AND MO TI ON
.............................................................................................
Newton's third law of motion
Isaac Newton was the first person to point out that every force has an equal
but opposite partner acting on a differe nt object. This idea is summed up by fuel:
Newlon's third law of motion : liqUId hydro gen

If o bject A exerts a force on object B, t he n object B w ill e."\elt a n equal but

oppos ite force on object A.
liqUid oxygen
Here is anoth er way of stat ing the same law:

To eve!), action there is a n eq ual but opposite reaction.

Rockets and jets

Rockets use t he action- reaction principle. A rocket e ngine gets t hrust in one com bust ion
direction by pushing ou t a huge mass of gas vel)' qui ckly in the opposite chamber
direction. The gas is produced by bu ming fuel a nd oxygen. These are either
stored as cold liquids, or the fuel may be stored in c hemical compounds w hich nozzle
have been compressed into solid pellets.
How can a rocket accelerate througl, space i{tl,ere is I'lothing {or it to push
.... A rocket engine. In the
against? Irdoes have somet hing to push against - t he huge mass of gas from combustion chamber. a huge mass of
its burning fu el and oxygen. Fuel and oxygen make up over 90% of the mass of hot gas expands and rushes out of
a fully loaded rocket. the nozzle. The gas is produced by
Jet engines also ge t thrust by pushing out a huge mass of gas. But t he gas is burning fuel and oxygen.
mostly a ir t h at has been drawn in at the front:

"""'--I
...... I ........
fuel (kerosene)
injected

com bu~tlon

--+ I
"',, ~;;[ ,
chamber

... A jet engine. The big fan at the

• front pushes out a huge mass of air.

q

,1
"
- • However, some of the air doesn't
come straight out. It is compressed
and used to burn fuel in a

--+~
t urbine combustion chamber. As the hot

~ Ii -
exhaust gas expands. it rushes out of
compressor

,,, the engine, pushing round a turbine

as it goes. The spinning turbine drives
the fan and the compressor.

ot The person on the right weighs 500 N. The diagram shows the force of his feet
pressing on the ground.
a Copy the diagram. Label the size of the force (in newtons).
b Draw in the force that the ground exerts on the person's feet. Label the size of
this force.
Z When a gun is fired, it exerts a forward force on the bullet. Why does the gun
recoil backwards?
~ In the diagram on the opposite page, the forces on the runner and on the ground
are equal. Why does the runner move fOIWards, yet the ground apparently does
not move backwards?

Related topics: force 2.06; gravitational force z.09

 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO T ION

Momentum (1)

~ -
~~

.. Momentum = mass X velocity, People say t hat a heavy ve hicle travelling fast has lots of momentum.
and this truck has lo ts of it. However. momentum has an exact scientific definition:

momentu m = mass x velocity

Fo r example. if a model car has a mass of 2 kg and a velOCity of 3 mIs, its

momentum = mass x velocity = 2 kg x 3 mls = 6 kg mls
Like velocity. momentum is a vector. so a + or a - is often used to indicate its
Two versions of the di rection. For example:
same law momentum of car moving to the right = +6 kg mls
__ ~ F momentum of car moving to t he left = -6 kg mls
1._,-----, ,.: --"4»;.~:;~:;;:;t.
Linking force and momentum: Newton's second law of motion
ct:l <!> With a resultant force on it, an object will accelerate. Therefore. its velocity
w ill ch a nge. and so will its momentum. The force a nd the momentum c ha nge
A resultant force F acts on an
are linked by t his equation:
object of mass m for a time t.
As a result. its velocity increases
resultan t force = -
oCch=a=n~g=e=;=nc""ccoc""=ce=
.
n=tu:cc""
fro m u to v. its acceleration over time
this t ime being a.
From Newton's second law of or: resultant force = rate of c ha nge of mo mentum
mot ion: The li nk: between a resultant force and the rate of c ha nge of momentum it
resultant produces is known as Newton's second Jaw of motion .
change in momentum
force = .
The above equation is really a nother way of saying that 'force = mass X
time
mv- mu
acceleration', The panel on the left explains w hy.

F~j~~U)
So:

Impulse
From the previous equation, it follows that:

But:
,~(,~u) resultant force X t ime = c hange in momentum

So: F = ma The quantity 'force x time' is called a n illlpulse.

In words:
Newton noted that , when the same force acted for the same time on different
resultant fo rce = mass x
masses. a large mass would gain less velocity t han a smaller one, but the
acceleration
c ha nge in 'mass X velocity' was t he same in evely case. It was t hi s observation
that led to t he concept of momentu m a nd the second law,
·.. .......................................................................................... FORCES AND MO TI ON

Solving problems mM'

lkg
Example J A model car of mass 2 kg is travelling in a straight li ne. If its
velocity increases from 3 m1s to 9m/s in 4 s, what is th e resultant force on it?
I
To begill wirh :
velcx ity irxreases
momentum = mass X velocity = 2 kg X 3 mls = 6 kg mls from 3 mIs
4 secOIuis later: to 9 m's
In 4 s
momentu m = mass X velocity = 2 kg x 9 mfs = 18 kg mls
So: change in momentum = 12 kg mJs

But: resultan t force = -==:.::..::c,

.
time
.::.:::::===
c ha nge in momentum 12 kg m/s
4<
So: resultant force = 3N
The problem can also be solved by w orking out t he car's accelerat ion and t he n
using the equ ation: resultant force = mass x acceleration.

Example 2 A small rocket pushes out 2 kg of exh aust gas every second at a
velocity of lOOmIs. What t hrust (force) is produced by the engine?

By Newton 's t hird law of motion, t he forward force on the engine is equal to
t he backward force pus hing out t he exha ust gas. That force can be calculated
by findi ng t he rate of c ha nge o f momentum of the gas:
I n 1 second , 2 kg of gas increases its velocity from 0 to lOOmIs.
So: change in momentum = mass x velocity cha nge
= 2kg x lOO mis = 200 kgmls
100 mls

force on gas = .
,c,h,a,n"g"ec"n""m
.
ti me
,oc,n',e,n,l,u,m
, 200 kg mls
1<
I , 2kgofgas
.......... pu5hed ou t
every second
So: thrust = 200 N

o1 What equation is used to calcu late momentum?

2 What equation links the resu ltant force w ith the
c What is the change in momentum?
d What is the change in momentum every second?
change in momentum it produces? e What is the resu ltant force on the trolley?
] When a resu ltant fOfce acts for 3 seconds on the trolley Now you will calculate the resu ltant fOfce on the trolley
below, its velocity increases to 6 m/s. using d ifferent steps:
a What is the momentum of the trolley before the f What is the trolley's change in velocity?
force acts? 9 What is the trolley's acceleration?
b What is the momentum after the force has acted? h What equation links force, mass, and acceleration?
What is the resu ltant force on the tro lley?
4 A jet engine pushes out SO kg of gas (mainly air) every
) second, at a velocity of 150 mls.
a What thrust (force) does the eng ine produce?
b If the engine pushed out twice the mass of gas at
half the velocity, what would the thrust be?

Rel at ed t opi cs : velocity, acceleration as vectors 2.01; force, mass, acceleration, Newlon's 2nd law 2.0 8; Newton's yd law 2.10; momentum
and molecules 5.05
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO T ION

Momentum (2)
Before spang IS released

mass 2 kg
mass 4 kg
A B

-
After sfYmg is released

V1'! loclt y 0.5 rrvs velocIty 1,0 rrvs

--==k5
)

~ 4 k9 2 kg
I~ 61 S2
81

moment um = 4 ~g x 0.5 m/s moment um _ 2 ~g X 1.0 m/s

= 2 ~g rrvs (to the left) = 2 kg mls (to the right)

To begin w ith , th e trolleys above are stationary. But whe n a spling-loaded

VeloCity and momentum 8; p iston is released between t hem, they shoot off in opposite di rections. The ir
essentials
Velocity is speed in a particular
I velocities can be measured using ticker-tape t imers.
When the trolleys s hoot apart, the trolley w ith least mass has most velocity.
direction. The d iagram s hows typical mass and velocity values. These illustrate a rule
momentum = mass x velocity w hich applies in all suc h experiments:
(kg mls) (kg) (mls)
mass X velocity to t he left = mass X velocity to the right
Velocity and momentum are
(trolley A) (trolley B)
vectors. They have direction as
well as magnitude (size). Their This result is to be expected . From Newton 's t hird law of motion, t he forces o n
direction can be shown using an the two trolleys are equal but opposite. Also, the forces act for the same t ime.
arrow, ora + or-. So they should cause equal but opposite c ha n ges in momentum (as force X
Time = ch ange in momentum).

Conservation of momentum
Wit h the mass and velocity values above, the total momentum of th e trolleys
before a nd aft.er separation can be fou nd. As momentum is a vectOl: its
di rection m ust be allowed for. In t he follow ing calculations, a momentum gain
to t he right is counted as positive (+):
Before the sprin.g is released: total momentum of trolleys = 0
After the spring is relensed:
momen tum of trolley A = mass x velocity = 4 kg x -0.5 mls = - 2 kg mls
momentum of trolley B = mass x velocity = 2 kg X 1.0 mls = +2 kg mls
total momentum of trolleys = 0
So t he total momentum (zero) is unchanged by t he release of t he spring. This
is a n example of t he law of conservation of momentum :

When two or more objects act on each ot her, t heir total moment um
remains consta nt. provided no e.xternal forc es are acting.
 FORCES AND MO TI ON
.............................................................................................
Collision problem
Before the collision

velocity 2 rrJ s velocit y 3 ml s

~ (
m(lss 1 kg sticky m(lleri(ll ~ m(ls54 kg
IA
SO; OJ al
SO;

After the collision

velocit y?
~ combined m(lss
r=J "9
OJ10 81
S:2

Example When t he two trolleys above coll ide, they stick together. What is Momentum and energy
t heir velocity after the collis ion? Moving objects have kinetic
energy (see spread 4.01). In a
Accord ing to t he law o f con servat ion of m omentum , t he total momentu m of collision, some of that energy mCfol
t he t rolleys is the same after the coll is ion as before: be changed into other forms.
Before the collision: If a collision is elastic, the total
m omentum of trolley A = mass x velocilY = 1 k g x 2 mls = + 2 kg mls kinetic energy of the moving
momentum of trolley B = mass x velocity = 4 kg x - 3 mls = -12 kg mls objects is the same after the
So: total mo men tum of trolleys A a nd B = - 10 kg mls collision as before. In other
words, there is 'perfect bounce'.
A(ter the collision:
However, most collisions are not
total momentum of trolleys A a nd B = -} 0 kg m/s (as above)
like this, The total kinetic energy
So: combined mass X velocity = - 10 kg m/s is less after the collision than
So: 5 kg X velocity = -10 kg m's before. In such cases, the
'missing' energy is changed into
So: veloci ty of trolleys = -2 m!s
heat (thermal energy).
Therefore the trolleys have a velocity of 2 m/s to t he left.

o 1 A trolley of mass 2 kg rest s next t o a t rolley of mass
3 kg on a f lat bench. When a spring is released between
t he trolleys, and they are pushed apart, the 2 kg tro lley
travels to the left at 6 mls.
Before separation:
a What is the tot al momentum of the trolleys?
After separation:
b What is the total momentum of the trolleys?
c What is the momentum of the 2 kg trolley?
d What is the momentum of the 3 kg trolley?
e What is the velocity of the 3 kg trolley?
2 A 16 kg mass t ravelli ng t o t he right at 5 mls collides w ith
a 4 kg mass t ravelli ng to the left also at 5 mis, When
t he masses collide, they stick t ogether and move along
t he same line as before.
Before the collision:
a What is the momentum of the 16 kg mass?
b What is the momentum of the 4 kg mass?
c What is the t ot al mo mentum of the masses?
After the collision:
d What is the total momentum of the masses?
e What is the velocity of the masses?

Rel at ed t opi cs : velocity and vectors 2. 01; using ticker-tape 2.04; Newton's 3rd law 2.10; kinetic energy 4. 01- 4.03
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO TI ON

More about vectors

Vectors and scal ars
When th~ are added __ Quantit ies such as force, w hich have a di rectio n as well as a magni tude (size),
30 N are called vectors .
t ~ Two vectors acting at a point can be replaced by a s ingle vector wit h rhe same
40 N
the re5 ultant i~ .. effect. This is t heir resultant. On t he left, you can see how to find it in two
s imple cases. Finding th e resultant of two or more vectors is called adding the
70 N
vectors .
••••••••
Quantit ies such as mass a nd volume , which have magnitud e b ut n o direction,
are called scalars. Adding scalars is easy. A mass of 30 kg added to a mass of
When these are added .. 40 kg always gives a mass of 70 kg.
30 N 40 N
Adding vectors: the parallelogram rule

".
the resultant is ..

IO N

Why the rule works

To see why the parallelogram rule
8 I;
works, consider this simple
example using displacement
vectors:

The parallelogram rule is a metho d of fin di ng the resultant in s it u atio ns like

the one above, where the veeton; are no t in line. It works like this:
To fi nd t he resultant of two vectors (for example, forces of 30 Nand 40 N
acting at a p oi nt 0 , as in the diagram below):
Above. someone starts at O.
walks 40 m east. then 30 m
°
On paper; draw two lines from to represent th e vectors . T he directions
m ust be accurate, a nd the length of each li ne m ust be in proportion to the
north. From Pythagoras'
magnitude of each vector.
theorem. the person must end
2 Draw in two more li nes to complete a parallelogram.
up SO m from O.
3 Draw in t he diagonal fwm 0 and measure its length. The diagonal
represents the resultant in b ot h magnitude a nd direction. (Below, for
30m

----------------
\)~ , , , " ,,
..
example, the resultant is a force of 60 N at 26" to the horizontal.)

,
Abo/e, the journey has been ~o ,
,
shown as the sum of two ,&,0\'I.~~ · # ,, ,
displacement vectors. IN"hen the ,
parallelogram is drawn. its diagonal -",,"
gives the correct displacement. OA,;;,-::::=-::--.;
force: 40 N
1 mm
represents 1 N
 FORCES AND MO TI ON
.............................................................................................
Components of a vedor'

,,
,,
,, , ,,

--_....
component: 40 N
. ,,
,
,,

..
COrn ... fit
'!)orrent· ~... __ .-
· <5N~
,-
'
,,
,
, ,,
--------- ....
wmpooent: 54 N

The parallelogram r ule also wo rks in reverse: a single vecto r can be replaced
by two vecto rs havin g t he same effect. Scientifically speaking. a single vector
ca n be resolved into two components. W hen using the parallelogram IUle in
Calculating components
The horizontal and vertical
8:
this way, t he s ingle vector forms the diagonal. components of a force F can be
Above, you can see so me of the ways in whic h a 60 N fo rce can be resolved calculated using trigonometry:
into two co mpone nts. There are e ndless other possib ilitie s.
Components at right angles in working out t he effects of a fo rce. it
sometimes h elps to n~solve t he force into co m ponents at r ig ht angles. For
example. wh e n a h elicopter tilts its m a in rotor, the fo rce has vertical a nd
horizontal compone nts w hich lift the helicopter and m ove it forward:
In the tinted triangle above:
Fx . F~
lift from -- l vertICal cosO = - and SinO = -
main rotor component F F
I supportS
I weight So:F. = Fees () and F~ = Fsin 0

The horizontal and vertical

, , components of F are therefore as
horizontal component :
moves helicoptl"r forward ~
,, shown below:

F cos fI

o1 How is a vector different from a scalar? Give an

example of each.
b If the lawn mower weighs 300 N, what is the total
downward force on the ground?
2 Forces of 12 Nand 5 N both act at the same point, but c: If the lawn mower is pulled rather than pushed, how
their directions can be varied. does this affect the total downward force?
a What is their greatest possible resultant?
b What is their least possible resultant?
c If the two forces are at right angles, find by scale
drawing or otherwise the size and direction of their ,
\ \'
resultant.
)* On the right, someone is pushing a lawn mower. "
a By scale drawing or otherwise, find the vertical and
horizontal components of the 100 N force.

Related topics: vectors 2.01; force z.o?

 ................................................................................
FORCES AND MO T ION
.--~----
...
: string
···
··
breaks
~r-- ........... .
centri petal forc e
(tenSIOrl irl stri ng)
to V\ttlen a motorcycle goes round a
corner like this, the sideways friction
between the lyres and the road
provides the necessary cent ripetal
force.
Centripetal force ...
Centripetal force isn't produced
by circular motion. It is the force
that must be supplied to make
something move in a drde rather
than in a straight line.
...and centrifugal force
When you whirl a ball around on
t he end of some string. you feel
an outward pull on your hand.
But there is no such thing as a
'centrifugal force' on the ball
itself. If the string breaks. the ball
moves off at a tang ent. It isn't
flung outwards.
Moving in circles
Centripetal force
On the left. someone is w hi rling a ball a round in a horizontal circle at a steady
speed . An inward fo rce is needed to make the ball follow a circular path . The
tension in the string provides t his force. Wit hout it, t he ball would travel in a
straight line, as predicted by Newton's first law of motion. This is exactly w hat
happens if the string breaks.
This inward force needed to make an object move in a circle is called t he
centripe tal force . More cen tripetal force is needed if:
• the mass of th e object is il1creased
• the speed of t he object is if/creased
• the radius of the circle is reduced.
Changi ng velocity
Velocity is speed in a particular direction. So a c ha nge in velocity can mean
either a c hange in speed or a c hange in direction, as s hown in t he diagrams
below. Diagram B s hows w hat happens during circular motion .
If somethi ng has a c hang in g velocity, then it has acceleration - in the same
di rection as t he fo rce. So, w it h circ ular motion, t he acceleration is towards
the centre of the circle. It may be difficult to imagine something accelerating
towards a point w ithout getting closer to it. but t he object is always moving
inwards from t he pos ition it would have ha d if travelling in a straig ht line.
A
•
force ac ts at nght angles ~,/
to direction of travel /
force acts In direction of t rawl },./ V
--o- -o- - o-+-~ - -o-+- -- -o-+-­
velocity cha nges
--{)---{}---~:~---------------
velocity charlge5
~
(han9~ In speed chang2 In dl r~ctlon
no change in direct ion no change in speed
 FORCES AND MO TI ON
.............................................................................................
Orbits'
Satellites a r ound the Earth A satell ite travels round t he Earth in a c Uived
path called a n orbit , as s hown below. Gravitatio nal pull (in ot her words, the
satelli te's weight) provides th e centr ipetal fo rce needed. When a satellite is put
nudeus
into orbit. its speed is carefully c hosen so that its path does not take it further @
out into space or back to Eart h . Heavy satellites need the same speed as light
ones . If t he mass is doubled , twice as muc h cent ripetal force is required , but
that is supplied by t he doubled gravitat ional pull of th e Earth.
Plane t s around the Sun The Ea11 h and other planets move in approximately ~ _ _ _ _- ,electron
circular path s a round the Sun. Th e centripetal force need ed is s upplied by th e
Sun's gravitational pull . .. Model of a hydrogen atom:
a single electron orbits the nucleus.
Electrons around the nucle u s In atoms, negatively c harged paJ1icles called
(According to quantum theory,
electron s aJ'e in orbit around a pos itively c harged nucle us. The attraction electron orbits are much more
between opposite c harges (sometimes called an electrostatic force or electric complicated than that shown
for ce) provides the centri petal force needed . in this simple modeL)

"" .--<', •. --- .. _-. -•.•

- lower ~peed •
,
.--t\ in higilEor orblt "" "
"
... .
.'
".-.. -- -... _' .
" """'"
.: xnellltex.,:
,'centriPetal force "'"
.: / (weight) ",
" "
'-.
,',' ,,
"" ,,, ,,
,, ,
,,
,, ,, ,,
,,
", ,,,
,, ,
, ,, ,,
,, ,,
,,
,/
,
"
"
'"
..-----.- ... .'.'

/
,,
" "
'" ", '
..- .'

"
.-. -
... A satellite close to t he Earth orbits at a speed of about .. The further a planet is from the Sun. the less speed it has,
29000 km per hour. The further out the orbit, the lower the and the longer it takes to complete one orbit. The time for one
gravitat ional pull. and the less speed is required. o rbit is called the period.

L
A piece of clay is stuck to the edge of a potter's wheel. What supplies the centripetal force needed for
Drawa d iagram to show t he path of t he day if it comes a a planet to orbit the Sun
unstuck while the wheel is rotating . b an electron to orbit the nucleus in an atom?
A car travels round a bend in the road. What supplies 5 A satellite is in a circular orbit around the Earth .
the centripet al force needed? a Draw a d iagram to show any forces on the satellite.
] . In question 2, how does the centripetal force change if Show the direction of the satellite's acceleration.
the car b" If t he satellite were in a higher orbit, how wou ld this
a has less mass affect its speed?
b travels at a slower speed CO If the satellite were in a higher orbit, how wou ld this
c travels round a tighter curve? affect the centripetal force required?

Retated topics : velocity 2.01; Newton's 1St law 2.06; force and acceteration 2.07; gravity and weigh t 2.09; electriC charge 8.01; atoms 11.01
FORCES AND MOTION FURTHER QUESTIONS

1 a Write down. in words. t he equation connecting a i Describe how c hanging t he force affects t he
speed. distance a nd t ime. [I ] acceleration. [2]
b A car travels at a steady speed of 20 mls. Calculate ii Write down, in words . the equation
t he distance travelled in 5 s. [2] connecting force. mass, and accelerat ion. [ 1]
2 iii Use the data from the graph to calculate t he
mass of the trolley. [21
b Sketch the graph and draw the line that would have
been obta ined for a trolley oflarger mass. [1 ]
4 A car has a mass of 900 kg, It accelerates from rest
at a rate of 1.2 m/s 2 ,
a Calculate t he t ime taken to reach a ve10city of
10m
30 m/s. (3]
The diagram shows t he posit ions of a ball as it b Calculate the force requ ired to accelerate t he car
rolled down a track. The ball took 0 .5 s to roll from at a rate of 1.2 mls 2 , [3]
one pos ition to t he next. For example, it rolled from c Even with t he e ngine working at full power, the
A to B in 0.5 s a nd from B to C in 0.5 s and so on. car's acceleration decreases as the car goes fastet:
a Write down: Why is this? (3]
j the d istance travelled by the ball from A to E : [1] 5 The d iagram below s hows some of the forces acting
ii t he t ime taken by the ball to reach E. [lJ on a car of mass 800 kg.
b Calculate t he average speed of the ball in rolling
from A to E. Write down the formula that you u se direction of motiOn

and s how your working. [3 ]

•
driving force
c Explain : 2000 N • • total drag forc!?

how you can tell from the diagram that t he

ball is speeding up: [l ] a State t he size of the total drag force w hen t he car
II w hy the ball speeds up. [1 ] is travelling at constant speed. [\ ]
3 ligh t ~nso~ / light sen~r b The driving force is increased to 3200 N.

"" , Find the resultant force on the car at this

./ instant. [1 ]
ii Write down . in words. t he equatio n
force
connect ing mass. force and acceleration. [1 ]
iii Calculate the initial acceleration of the car, [2J
A student measu res the acceleration of a trolley c Explain why the car will eventually reach a new
using the apparatus above. The light sensors are higher constant speed . [2]
connected to a computer w hich is programmed to 6
calculate the acceleration. The results obta ined are
3N
shown on t he acceleration- force graph.
acceleratloro'mls2

2.5

~----------------~ 4N
1. 5
a Using a scale drawin g (for example. on graph
paper). find the resultant of the forces above. [3]
b Draw d iagrams to show how. by c hanging t he
0.5
direction of one of t he forces. it is possible to
prod uce a resultant of i 7 N ii I N. [4]
 FURTHER QUESTIONS FORCES AND MO TI ON

7 This q uest ion is about S PEE D a nd ACCELERATION. 10 a S ke tch a veloci ty-time graph fo r a car m oving
A cycle tra ck is 500 metres long. A cycl ist completes wit h uniform acceleratio n fro m 5 mls to 25 m /s
10 laps (th at is , he r ides completely rou nd t he track in 1S seconds. [3]
10 t imes), b Use the sketch graph to find values fo r j t he
a Ho w ma ny kilometres has t he cyclist travelled ? [1 ] accelera tion , ii the total di stance travelled
b On avel'age it took t he cyclist SO seconds to duri ng acceleratio n. S how clearly at each stage
complete ooc lap (th at is, to ride round just o nce). how yo u used the graph. [4]
j What was t he average speed of t he cyclist? [2]
11 ~1~~=c2J
..:.::
. .: ... .
( 10 m/s
ii How lo ng in m inutes a nd seconds did it take
Q/stone
"9
the cyclist to complete the 10 laps? [2]
c Near the end of t he r un t he cycl ist put o n a spurt.
,
'
. ..
Dur ing t his spurt it took the cycl ist 2 seconds to ,"
increase speed from 8 m/s to 12 mls. What was A stone o f mass 3 kg is sliding across a froze n pond
t he cycl ists acceleration during t his spurt? [2] at a speed o f 10 m/s w he n it collides head on w ith
a lump of clay of mass 7 kg. The stone sticks to t he
8 This quest ion is about FO RCE a nd ACCELERATION.
clay a nd the two slide o n togethe r across t he ice in
The dr ivet' of a car m oving at 20 m/s alo ng a stra igh t
th e same d irection as befo re. Calcula te t he following
level road applies the brakes. The car decelerates at
(assume that there is no friction from the ice) :
a steady rate of S mls 2•
a The m omentu m of the stone befo re
a Ho w long does it take the car to sto p? [2]
t he coll is ion. [2 ]
b What kind a fforce slows th e car d own ? [1 ]
b The total moment um of t he stone a nd
c Where is t his fo rce applied ? [1 ]
clay after t he collis ion. [1 ]
d The mass o f the car is 600 kg. What is the s ize
c The to tal mass of the sto ne and clay. [1 ]
of t he force slow ing the car down? [2]
d The speed of th e stone a nd clay after
9 A girl wearing a parachute jumps from a helicopter. t he coll is ion. [2 ]
S he does n ot o pen the parach ute straight away. The
12 In t he diagram below, someone is swinging a ball
table s hows her speed d ur ing the 9 seconds after s he
round on the e nd of a piece of string.
ju mps.
time in seconds 0 1 2 3456789
speed in mrs 0 10 30 40 25 17 12 10 10 x
a Co py and complete the table by writing dow n the
speed a t 2 seconds. [3]
b plot a graph of speed aga inst t ime. [1 ]
c How many seconds after she jumped d id the
girl open her parachute? H ow do the res ults
show this? [2]
d j Wh at force p ulls t he girl down? [ 1]
ii What force acts upwards? [J ]
ii i Which of these forces is larger:
at 3 seconds? a What name is given to the force needed
at 6 seconds? to make t he ball m ove in a c ircle? [I]
at 9 seconds? [3J b Copy a nd complete t he d iagram to show
e How w ill the graph cont inue a fter 9 seconds if sh e where t he ball will travel if the string breaks
is still fall ing? [1 ] when the ball is at point X. [2 ]
[ The girl makes a second jump w ith a larger area c Planets m ove around t he Su n in approximately
parachu te. S he falls th rough t he a ir for t he same c ircular orb its . What provides t he force
time befo re openi ng her new parachute. Ho w will necessary for th e orb it? [I]
this affect t he graph:
j d uring t he first fou r seconds? [ 1]
ii after t hi s? [ 1]
FORCES AND MOTION REVISION SUMMARY

Use the list below when you revise for you r IGCSE examination. You can e ither
photocopy it or print it from t he file on the CD accompanying t his book.
The spread number, in brackets, tells you where to find more information.

Core Level Extended LeveL

o Measul"ing speed. (2.01)
o Linki ng acceleration w it h c ha nging speed. (2.01 )
o Representing m ot ion using dista nce-time and
speed-t ime graphs. (2 .02 )
o Recogn izing from t he shape of a distance- t ime
graph whe n a n object is
- stationary (at rest)
- moving at a steady speed
- moving w ith c ha nging speed. (2.02)
o Recognizing acceleration a nd deceleration on a
speed- t ime gra p h . (2.02)
o Calculating t.he di stance travelled from a sp eed- t ime
gra p h. (2 .02)
o H ow the acceleration of free fall , g, is
co nstant. (2.04)
o Measur ing force. (2 .06)
o The nev,rton, unit of fo rce. (2.06)
o Weight is a gravitational force. (2.06)
o How a n object m oves if t he fo rces on it are
balanced. (2.06)
o The meaning of res ultant force . (2.07)
o The resultant of n\.'o forces in line. (2.07 a nd 2. 13)
As for Core Level . plus t he follow ing:
o The d iffere nce between speed a nd veloci ty. (2.0 1)
o Calculating accelerat ion. (2.0 1)
o Deceleration is negative acceleration. (2 .0 1)
o Calculating speed from the gradie nt of a
d ista nce-time grap h. (2.02)
o Calculating acceleratio n from the gradient of a
speed- t ime graph. (2.02)
o Recognizing the d ifference between un ifonn
(constant) a nd non-uniform (non-constant)
accelerat ion from t he shape of a speed- t ime
graph. (2.05)
o Mass as resistance to c ha nge in motion (2.0 7)
o The link between for·ce. mass. a nd
acceleration. (2.0 7)
o Defi ning t he newton. (2.0 7)
o How a n object falls in a uni form (constant)
gravitat ional field
- w ithou t a ir resistance. (2. 04)
- w ith a ir res istance. (2 .05 a nd 2.06)
o Terminal velocity. (2 .06)
Q The di ffere nce betwee n weight a nd mass. (2.09)

o H owa force can c ha nge t he mot ion of a n o Calculating moment um . (2 .1 1)

object. (2.07)
o How forces can cha nge shape and volume, as well
as motion. (2 .07)
o The effects of fl-iction. (2.08)
o Air resistance is. a form of friction. (2.06 a nd 2.08)
o Using t he equat ion weight = mass X g (2 .09)
o The li nk between force a nd momentum
cha nge. (2. 11)
o Calculating impulse. (2 . 11 )
o The conserv ation of mome nt um . (2. 12)
o The di ffere nce between vectors a nd scalars . (2.13)
Q Add ing vectors us ing t he parallelogram rule. (2. 13)
o Motion in a c ircle, a nd centripetal force. (2. 14)

© oup: this may be ~produced for ctass use solely for the purchaser's lnst lture
 ha rks like this a re ve l)' effective

S hu nters . Their s ha t'p teeth give

the m a dangerous bite, a lthough
because of thei r lo ng j aws, thei r' biti ng
fo rce is not muc h mo re tha n tha t of a
huma n. However, wh en it comes to
diving, sharks beat hu m a ns easily. Som e
types ca n reac h depths o f Q v e l ' 2000
metres, where the water pressu re is fa r
too great for a ny huma n divel:
 ................................................................................
FORCES A N D PRES S URE

Forces and turning effects

Moment of a force
I t is d iffic ult to tighten a nut w ith your fin gers. But w ith a spanner. you can
J produce a larger turning effect. The t urning effect is even greater i f you
increase the force or use a longer s pa nner: The turning effect of a force is
called a moment. I t is calculated like t his:

.... A large force at the end of a long moment of a force = force x perpendicular distance
spanner gives a large turning effect. about a po int fro m t he p oint

Below. there are so me examples of forces a nd their moments. Moments are

described as c10c kwise o r anlic1ockwise. depending on their direct ion. The
moment of a force is also called a torque.
3N

=======1
3m moment 2m
t moment
3N
moment

~
m

a,~.
about 0 ------- about a
. b,",O
=4Nx3m o =3Nx2m O =3Nx2m
'" t2 N m ",6N m ",6N m
(clockWIse) (anticioc kwise) (antidockWlse)
4N

The principle of moments

Unit afforce In diagram A below. the bar is in a state of balance, or equilibrium . Note
Force is measured in newtons (N) that the a nt ic1ocl..·w ise mo ment a bout 0 is equal to t he cIoch."W ise m ome nt.
O ne t urn ing effect balances t he other. In diagram B. the re al'e more forces
acting but. once again. th e bar is in equilib rium. Th is time. the total clockw ise

Taking moments
o moment a bout 0 is equal to the anticlocbvise moment.
These examples illustrate the principle of moments.

Calculating the moments about a If a n object is in equilibrium:

point is called taking moments the sum of the clockwise moments about a ny point is equal 10 th e s um of
about the point. the anticlockwise moments about that point.

A B
~2 m ,,
lI! 4m ,,
,I r'------ 4 m ------~------ 4 m ------4'1

p
I
I
,
,,
0
,,
, ,
,,I ,,:
'

3N
support b" SN
(negligible 8N
weight)
IO N IO N

~m'c"-'--------m
-o-m
Je;;-
about 0 about 0
=SNxlm =3 N x4m
moment moment moment ",8N m '" 12Nm
abOl.ll 0 about 0 about 0
= I ON x2 m =5Nx4 m = I ON x2 m tol al mOli"ll"nt
= 20N m = 20 N m = 20N m '" 20N m
(anti ciockwise) (clockwise) (anticlock wise) (clockwise)
·.. ..........................................................................................FORCES AND PRESSURE

Conditions for equilibrium

C~ O
If a n object is in eq uil ibrium, t he forces on it m ust balance as well as t heir
turning effects. So:
• The sum of t he forces in one direction m us t equal t he sum of the forces in
t he oppos ite direction.
• The principle of moments m ust apply. Clockwise .... or
For example, in diagram A on the opposite page, t he upward force from anticlockwise?
the su pport m ust be 15 N, to balance t he 10 N + 5 N t otal dow nward force. In the diagram below, the
Also, if you take moments about any point , for example P, t he total clocJ.....w ise 500 N force has a clock wise
moment m ust equal the to tal a ntielockwise moment. moment about A, but an
anticlockwise moment about B.
When taking moments about P, you need to include th e moment of the
To decide whether a moment is
upward force from t he s upport. This doesn't arise whe n taking moments clockwise or anticlockwise about
about 0 because th e force has no moment abou t t hat point. a point, imagine that the
diagram is pinned to the table
SoLving a probLem
through the point, then decide
which way the force arrow is
£rample Below right, someone of weight 500 N is standi ng on a pla nk
trying to turn the paper.
supported by two trestles. Calculate the upward forces , X a nd Y , exerted by
the trestles on t he plank. (Assume t he plank has negligible weight.)

The system is in equil ibrium , so the principle of moments applies. You ca n

take moments about any po int. Bu t taking moments about A or B ge ts rid of r-- 2 m ,,
,
,
I I< 3 m~

,,I
,
o ne of the unknowns, X or Y. ,
X
I
Ta king moments about A: Y
clockwise moment = 500 N X 2 m = 1000 N m
A B
anticlo oo",ise moment = Y X 5m
As the moments balance, 5 Y m = 1000 N m
So:Y = 200 N SOO N

From here , th ere are two methods of fmding X. Either take moments a bout B
a nd do a calculatio n like the one above. Or use t he fact t hat X + Y m ust equal
the 500 N dow nward force. By either meth od : X = 300 N

o
... 1 The moment (turning effect) of a force depends on two c Will the plank balance? If not, which way will it tip?
factors. What are they? d What extra force is needed at point P to balance the
2 What is the principle o f moments? What other rule also plank?
applies if an object is in equi li brium? e In which direction must the force at Pact?
3 Below, someone is trying to balance a plank w ith 4 In diagram B on the opposite page:
stones. The plank has neglig ible weight, a What is the upward force from the support?
a Calculate the moment of the 4N force about o. b If moments are taken about point P. which forces
b Calculate the moment ofthe 6N force about o. have clockwise moments? What is the total clockwise
moment about P?
,
~2m )I( 2m ,
I' 4m
c Which force or forces have anticlockwise moments
p 0

1
6N
(}) r
4N
about P? What is the total anticlockwise moment
about P?
d Comparing moments about P, does the principle of
moments apply?

Related topics: force, balanced forces 2.06

 ................................................................................
FORCES AND PRESSURE

upward force
on rule
G (cen tre of mass)
gravltatlonal l orces on
particles of be am
Centre of mass
Like other objects, the beam o n the left is made up of lots of tiny particles,
each w ith a small gravitational fo rce on it. The beam balances when
suspended at one particul ar point, G, because the gravitat ional forces have
turning effects about G w hic h cancel out.
Togethel: the small gravitational forces act like a s in gle force at G . In other
words, they have a resultant at G. This resultan t is the beam's weight. G is the
centre of mass (or centre of gravity).

Finding a centre of mass

In diagram 1 below, the card can swing freely from the pin. When the card
is released , the forces on it turn the card until its centre of mass is vettically
under t he p in, as in di agram 2. Wh ic hever point the card is suspended from , it
w ill always ha ng with its centre of mass veltically under t he pin. This fact can
upward force
G (centre of mass)
on rule be used to fmd the centre of mass .
In diagram 3. the centre o f mass lies somewhere along t he plumb line, w hose
position is marked by t he line AB. If t he card is s uspend ed at a differe nt point.
weight a second line CO can be drawn . The ce nt re of mass m ust alsO' lie along t his
(resu ltant of gravit ational forces)
line. so it is at the point w here AS c rosses CD.
upwal d !o lce flam p in

A
pm
pm

centre of centre of centre of

~" ~" ma ss
\...i"::::::~ plu mb
, 2 3
line

,, - - - - 1.0
r-:
' m---, Heavy bar problem
, , I n s imple problems. you are often told t hat a balanced bar has negligible
:,0.2 m : weight. In more complicated problems, you have to include t he weight.
o Example If a uniform bar balances. as o n the left, with a 1.5 kg mass
1. 5 kg attached to one e nd . w h at is its weight? (g = 10 N/kg)

To solve the pro blem . red raw t he diagram to show all the forces and d istances ,
as in the lower d iagram. As g = 10 N/kg . the 1.5 kg mass has a weigh t of 15 N.
, 0.2 m ,, 0.3 m ,
'Un iform' means that the bar's weight is evenly d istributed, so the centre of
, mass of t he bar (by itself) is at t he mid-point. 0.5 m from one end . The bar's
:
!,
fo rce ,
from
,, cent
bar's
re of weight HI acts at this po int.
,
support , , m ass
Now take moments about the support , O. The upward force has no moment
a bout t his p oint. but t here is a n a nt iclockwise moment af 15 N X 0.2 m a nd a
W (\Neig ht of bar) clockwise mamen t of W X 0.3 m. As t he bar is in equilibrium:
15N
15 N X 0.2 m 5 W X 0.3 m
So: the bar's weight W is 10 N.
 FORCES AND PRESSURE
.............................................................................................
Stability

centre of
m a~s

upward
f orce weigh t
f rom
ground "'~

This bo>:: is in equilibrium. The With a small tilt, the forces With a large tilt, the forces will A bo>:: with a wider base and a
forces on it are balanced. and so will turn the bo>:: back to its tip the bo>:: over. lower centre of mass can be
are their turning effects. original position. tilted further before it falls over.

If t he box above is pus hed a little a nd then released, it falls back to its original
position. Its position was stable. If th e box is pus hed much fU1i her, it topples.
It starts to topple as soon as its centre of mass passes OVel" t he edge of its base.
From then on, t he forces on th e box have a tu rning effect w h ich tips it even
further. A box with a wider base a nd/or a lower centre of mass is more stable .
It can be tilted to a greater angle before it starts to topple.

States of equ1l1brium
Here ere three types of equilibrium: centre of
m",
Stabl@@quilibrium If you tip the cone a
little, the centre of mass stays over the base.
50 the cone falls oock to its original position.

Unstable equilibrium The cone is

balanced. but only briefly. Its pointed 'base'
is so small that the centre of mass
immediately passes beyond it.

Neutral equilibrium Left alone. the ball

stays where it is. When moved, it stays in its
nf'!-N pOSition . Wherever it lies, its centre of
mass is always exadly over the point which
is its 'base'.
o .. He will stay balanced - as long as
he keeps his centre of mass over
the beam.

o 1 The stool on the right is about to topple over.

a Copy the diagram, showing the position of the centre of mass.
b Give two features wh ich wou ld make the stool more stable.
2 A uniform metre rule has a 4 N weight hanging from one end. The rule
balances when suspended from a point 0.1 m from that end.
a Draw a diagram to show the rule and the forces on it.
L? Calculate the weight of the rule.
] Draw diagrams to show a drawing pin in positions of stable, unstable, and
neutral equ ilibrium.

Related topi cs: resultan t force 2.07 and 2.11; mass, weigh t, and g 2.09; turning effects, moments, and equilibrium 3.01
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND PRESSURE

More about moments

Force and moment essentials According to the principle of moments:
force If a system is in equilibrium (balanced). the sum of the
clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum
of the anticlockwise moments about that point.
If an object is in equilibrium, the forces on it must balance and
also their turning effects_ So:
distance • The sum of the forces in one direction must equal the sum
A moment is the turning effed of a force: of the forces in the opposite direction.

moment of a force"" force x perpendicular distance • The principie of moments must apply.
about a point from the point

Testing the principle of moments

9N

~
~ring balance
reading 0.1 m
9N
rO.2 m ~.~
, --,-I~'~1-0, 2 m-1f----O.4 m --~,
!, I !!
I
i
I

x
~
200 9 y
mass of

=
=
;;;;
metre rule
F=
~
2N
3N

'00 9 300 9
"
m. . m a~s

Equipment Force diagram

You can test the principle of moments by carrying out an experiment like the
one above. H ere. a metre rule has been suspended from a spring balance.
Weights have been hung from t he rule and their positions a djusted so that
t he system is balanced - i t is equilibrium. The second diagram s hows all the
forces on the r ule. includi ng t he weight of the rule itself. (Each 100 g of mass
is assu med to weigh 1 N).
The p ri nciple of moments s hould apply about allY point. So, for example.
c hoos ing point X (and omitting some units for simplicity):
• The 2 Nand 3 N forces each have a clockwise moment about X.
So, sum of clockwise moments = (2 X 0.2) + (3 X 0.6) = 3.2 N m
• The 9 Nand 4 N forces each have an Qmiclockwise mome nt about X.
So, sum of anticlockwise mo men ts = (9 X 0.2) + (4 x 0. 1) = 3.2 N m
The two su ms are equal, as predicted by t he principle. You could express
this result in ano ther way: call ing the clockw ise moments positive. and t he
a nt iclockwise moments n egative, the net moment (combined total) is zero.
 FORCES AND PRESSURE
.............................................................................................
Crane problem
Example The diagram o n the tig ht shows a model
crane. The crane has a counterbalance weighing 400 N , counter-
w hich can be m o ved further o r closer to 0 to cope with bal ance

di ffere nt loads. (With no loa d o r co unterbalance. the

4<lO N
top sectio n would balance at point 0 .)
a With the 100 N load shown. how far from 0 should '''''
100 N
the co unterbalance be placed ?
b Wh at is t he maximum load the crane can safety lift ?

a To prevent t he crane falling over, its top section m u st balance at point O.

So t he moment of t he 400 N force (the counterbalance) m ust equ al t he
moment of t he 100 N force (the load ). That follows from t he princ iple of
moments.
Let x be the d istance of the 400 N force from O.
Taking 11l0/l1e1lts about 0:
Centre of mass
clockwise moment = a nt iclockwise moment
essentials
400 Nxx = JOONx2m
Allhough weight is distribUled
x = 0.5 m
through an object. it acts as a
So: the counterbalance s hould be placed 0.5 m from O. single. downward force from a
b Let F be t he maximum load (in N). With this load on the crane. t he point called the cent"' of mass
counterbalance must produce its maximum moment about O. So it m ust (or centre of gravity).
be t he greatest possible d istance from 0 - in o ther words . I m from it. As For an object to be stable when
the crane is in eq uilibrium, the princ iple of moments applies: resting on the ground. its centre
Taking mO/1lellts about 0: of mass must be over its base. 11
clockwise moment anticlockw ise m o ment an object is pushed. and its
400 Nxlm = Fx 2m centre of mass passes beyond
F = 200N the edge of its base. it will
topple over.
So: the maximum load is 400 N.

(!)
1 In the diagram on the right. a plank weighing 120 N is. supported by j i m: 1m 1 2m:
two trest les at points A and B. A man weighing 480 N is standing on ,, ,, ,,
the p lank. Al-
centre of
, ,,,
a Redraw the diagram. showing a ll t he forces acting on the plank.
b calcu late the total clockwise moment of the two weights about A-
c Use the p ri ncip le of moments to ca lculate the upward force from
I
, ,l
I mass
:

•
,,
, 1
of plane
i 1/ ,,,
A weight we ight B
the trestle at B. of man of pl ank
d What is the tota l downward force on the trestles? = 480 N = 120 N
.I. L .I.
e What is the upward force from the trestle at A?
f The man now walks past A towards the left·hand end o f the plank.
What is the upward force from the t restle at B at the instant the plank starts to tip?
9 How far is the man from A as the plank tips?
2 In Testing the princi ple of moments on t he opposite page. moments were taken about X. ca lculate the moments
again, on ly about point Y. Are the sums of the clockwise and anticlockwise moments sti ll equa l?

Retat ed t opi cs : balanCed forces 2.06 ; moments and equilibrium 3.0 1; cent re of mass 3.0 2
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND PRESSURE

Stretching and compressing

Elastic and plastic
I f you bend a ruler slightly and release it. it springs back to its original s hape.
Materials that behave like this are elastic. However. they stop being elastic if
bent or stretched too far. They either break or become permanently deformed
(out of s hape) .
If you stretch or bend Plasticine, it keeps its new shape. Materials that behave
like this are plastic. (The materials we call 'plastics' were given t hat name

Force and weight

essentials
8) because they are plastic a nd mouldable when hot.)

J Stretching a spring
Force is measured in newtons (N). In t.he experiment below, a steel spring is stretched by ha nging masses from
Weight is a force. one end. T he force applied to t he spring is called t he load . As g is 10 N/kg. the
On Earth. the weight of an load is 1 N for every 100 g of mass hung from the spring.
object is 10 N for each kilogram
As the load is increased, the spring stretches more a nd more. Its c:xtcnsion is
of mass.
the di ffere nce between its stretched a nd unstretched lengths .

E
E
~
.~
c
~
20 extenSion

4
1N load! N

2 N load

load extension
- N- mm
0 0
1 10
2 20
3 30
4 40
5 58
The readings on the left can be plotted as a graph , as above. Up to point X, t he
graph line has these features:
• The line is straight. and passes through t he origin.
• If t he load is doubled. t he extension is doubled , a nd so on.
• Extension -'- load always has the same value (1 0 mm/N).
• Every 1 N increase in load produces t he same extra extension (10 mm) .
Mathematically, th ese can be summed up as follows :
Up to point X, the extension is proportional to the load . X is the linIit of
proportionality.
Point E marks a nother ch ange in the spring's behaviour. Up to E, t he spring
behaves elastically and returns to its original length when t he load is removed .
E is its clastic limit . Beyond E, t he spring is left permanently stretched.
·.. .......................................................................................... FORCES AND PRESSURE

Hooke's law
In t he 1660s. Robert Hooke investigated how springs and wires stretched
w he n loads were appl ied . He found t hat. for many ma terials. the extens ion
and load were in proportion. provided the elastic lim it was not exceeded:

A material obeys Hooke's law if. beneath its elastic Lim it, t he extens ion is
proport ional to the load.

Steel wires d o not stretch as much as steel springs, b ut t hey obey Hooke's law. Imd
Glass a nd wood also obey th e law. but I1..Ibber does not. ... Extension-load graph for rubber

Spring constant
For t he sprin g on t he opposite page . up to point X on the graph , d ividing t he
load (force) by the extens ion always gives the same value, 0.1 N/mm. This is
called the spring cons tant (symbol k):

lo ad = spring constant X extens ion In symbols: F = k X x

Knowin g k, you could use t his equation to calculate t he extension produced by

any load up to t he limit of proportionality. For example. for a load of 2.5 N:
2.5 = 0.1 X extension (om itt ing units for s implic ity)
Rearranged , this gives: extens ion = 2.5/0.1 = 25 mm

Compressing and bending·

Materials can be compressed as well as stretched . If t he compression is elastic .
the material will return to its original shape w hen the forces are removed .
When a material is bent. t he applied forces prod uce compression on one s ide
and stretching on t he other. If t he elastic limit is exceeded . the bend ing is
permanent. This can happen w hen a metal sheet is de nted .

~OMPRESSION P .. The Oriental Pearl Tower in

Shanghai is over half a kilometre high.
In high winds. its top can move by a
quarter of a metre. But, being elastic,
its steel and concrete structure always
returns to its original shape.

1 What is meant by an elastic material? d Mark the elastic limit on your graph.
2 What is meant by the elastic limit of a material? e Over wh ich section of the graph line is the extension
Look at the small graph at the top of the page. Does proportional to the load?

L r ubber obey Hooke's law? Explain how you can tell

from the graph whether this law is obeyed or not.
4 The table on the right shows the readings taken in a
spring·stretching experiment:
f What load would produce a 35 mm extension?
9 What load would make the spring stretch to a length
of 65 mm?

loadl N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
a What is the unstretched length of the spring?
b Copy and complete the table. length! mm 40 49 58 67 76 88 110
c Plot a graph of extension against load. extension/ mm

Rel ated topi cs : forces 2.06; mass, weight. and g 2 .09

 ................................................................................
FORCES AND PRESSURE

Pressure
Blocks A and 8 o n the left are resting on soft gro u nd. Both weigh the same
and exert the same force on the grou nd . But the force from block B is spread
over a larger area, so the force 011 each square metre is red uced . The pressure
under block B is less tha n that under block A.
For a fOl'ce acting at right a ngles to a surface. the pressure is calcu lated like
this:

pressure = force
area In symbols: p = ~

[f fo rce is measured in newto ns (N) and area in square metres (m 2 ). pressure

is measured in newton/sq uare metre (N/m 2) . 1 N/m 2 is called 1 pascal (Pa):
If a 100 N force is spread over an area of 1 m 2 • the pressure is 100 Pa .
If a 100 N force is spread over an area of 2 m 2 , the pressure is SO Pa .
If a 100 N force is spread ove r an area of 0.2 m 2 , the pressure is 500 Pa .
If a 200 N force is spread over an area of 0.2 m2, the pressure is 1000 Pa.
Fo r most pressure measu rements . t he pascal is a vely small unit. In practical
s ituations, it is ofte n mOl'e co nvenient to use the kilopascal (kPa).
lkPa = 1000 l'a

Increasing th e pressure by reducing the area Reducing th e pressure by incrtNlsing the area

The studs on a footb all SkiS have a large area to

OOot have only a small reduce the pressure on the
area of (Orltact WIth the SIlOW so that they do not
ground. The pressure sink in too far.
under the studs IS high
enough for them to. sink
into. the groun d, which
gIVE's extra gnp.

Wal l foundations have a

The area under the edge large honzontal area. ThiS
of a knrfe'$ blade is reduces the pressure
extremely small. Beneath underneath so that the
~. the pressure is high wal ls do oot '>Ink further
enough for the blade to into the grou nd.
push easily th rough the
material.

A load-spreading washer
Under the ti ny area of the ensures that the nut ISnot
pulled IOto the vvood
point of a drawH19 pm,
when ti ghtened up.
the pressure is far too high
for the vvood to
wi thstand.

@l
 FORCES AND PRESSURE
.............................................................................................
TypicaL pressures

20 k:Pa

Pressure problems
Example 1 The wind pressure on the wall on t he rig ht is 100 Pa. If t he wall
has an area of 6 m 2 • w hat is the fOl"Ce on it?

To solve t his problem, you need to rearrange the pressure equa tion:
force = pressure X area
= 100 Pa X 6 m Z = 600 N
So the force on t he wall is 600 N.

Example 2 A concrete block has a mass of 2600 kg. If the block measures
05 m by 1.0 m by 2.0 m. w hat is the maximum pressure it can exert w hen
resting on t he grou nd ? (g = 10 N/kg)

As g is 10 N/kg. t he 2600 kg block has a we igh t of 26 000 N. so t he force on the

ground is also 26 000 N.
~'4. I~. \<;,... ,
To exert maximum pressure, t he block m ust be resting on the s ide w it h the I .... l~ "', ,
,~ \ -
smallest area. This is the side measuring 1.0 m X 0.5 m . as s hown on the right. ,Y.' ;... ,./
1.-. 1 ', ,<l
0' in
Its area = 1.0 m X 05 m = 0.5 m 2 . So : _, ~_

~'-:, ' .... : 0.5.m\ "

pressure = force = 26 000 N = 52 000 Pa
area 0.5 m 2
So the maxim um pressure is 52 000 Pa. or 52 kPa.

Assume that 9 = 10 Nlkg, and that all forces are acting
at r ight angles to any area mentioned.
1 A force of 200 N acts on an area of 4 mZ•
a What pressure is produced?
b What would t he pressure be if the same force
acted on ha lf the area?
:z What force is produced if :
a A pressure of 1000 Pa acts on an area of 0.2 m2?
b A pressure of 2 k:Pa acts on an area of 0.2 m 2?
3 Explain why a tractor's big tyres stop it sinking too
far into soft soil.
4 A rectangu lar block of mass 30 kg measures 0.1 m by
0.4 m by 1.S m.
a Calcu late t he weight of the block.
b Draw diagrams to show how the block must rest
on the ground to exert i maximum pressure
ii minimum pressure.
c Calculate the maximum and minimum pressures
in part b.

Rel ated t opI cs : force 2.06; mass, weight, and g 2 .09

 ................................................................................
FORCES AND PRESSURE
Pressure acts in all directions.
Pressure increases with depth_
• •B
A
The pressure at points A. B. C. and D
is the same.
~ Deep-sea diving vessels are built to
withstand the crushing effect of sea
water whose pressure pushes inwards
from all directions.
Pressure in liquids
\ 7
pll?Ssure
acts In ail
d lrectlon~
A liq uid is held in its conta iner by its weight. This ca uses pressure on t he
container, and pr·essure on any object in the liquid.
The following propelties apply to any stationary li qu id in an open container.
The experiments on the left demonstrate three of them.
PresslITC acts in all directions The liquid pushes o n every surface in contact
w ith it. no matter whic h way the surface is faci ng. For example, th e d eep-sea
vessel below has to withstand t he crushi ng effect of sea water p ushing in on it
from all sides . not just downwards.
Pressure increases with depth The deeper into a liquid you go , the greater
the weight of liquid above and the higher the pressure. Dams are made thicker
at the bottom to w ithstand t he higher pressure there.
Pressure depends on the density of the liquid The more dense the liquid.
the higher the pressure at a ny particular depth.
Pressure doesn't depend on the shape of the container Whatever the
s hape or w idth , t he pressure at a ny particular depth is the same.
 FORCES AND PRESSURE
.............................................................................................
Useful con nections
For calculations like those below, you need to know the connedions between these:
Pressure and weight
essentials
volume (in m3) density (in kg/ml) mass (in kg) weigh t (in N) 9 (10 Nlkg) For a force ading at right angles
For example, you might know the volume and density of a liquid, but need 10 find its to a surface:
weight. For this, the equaHons required are: force
pressu re = area
density:. mass weight:. mass x 9
volume If force is in newtons (N) and
area in square metres (m2), then
From these equat ions, it folloW'S that:
pressure is in pascals (Pa).
mass = density x volume weight = density x volume x 9

Calculating the pressure in a liquid

The conta iner on the right has a base area A. It is filled to a depth II w ith a
liqu id o f density p (Greek letter 'rho'). To calculate the pressure on t he base
due to the liquid, you first need to know the weight of t he liqu id on it:
volume of liquid = base area x depth = All
mass of liquid = dens ity X volume = pAh
weight of liquid = mass X g ~ pgAh (g ~ 10 Nlkg)
So: force on base = pgAh density p
dep th
This fo rce is acting on an area A. h

force pgAh
= -- ~ pgll

1
So: pressure -- =
area A
At a d epth II in a liquid of density p:

pressure = pgll
base area
A
Example I f t he de nsity o f wate r is 1000 kgfm J ,
what is t he pressure due to
the water a t t he bottom of a swimm ing pool 2 m d eep?

pressure = pgh = 1000 kgfm J X 10 N/kg X 2 m = 20 000 Pa

9 = 10 N/kg; density of water = 1000 kg/m3; density of paraffin = 800kg/m:l

1 In the diagram on the right: =
a
b
How does the pressure at A compare w ith the pressure at B?
How does the pressure at B compare w ith the pressure at D1 T - r- water- -
c How does the pressure at A compare w ith the pressure at C?
d If the water in the system were replaced with paraffin, how would this affect
the pressure at B?
2 A rectangular storage tank 4 m long by 3 m wide is filled w ith paraffin to a depth
-F
1m
-- A---- ------- .(

of 2 m. Calculate:
a the vo lume of paraffin b the mass of paraffin
J~ -- B ---- r-_--, ~D

b
c the weight of paraffin
L
the pressure at the bottom of the tank due
to the paraffin
~ In the diagram on the right, calcu late the pressure at 8 due to the water.

Relat ed t opi cs: denSity 1.04; mass, weight, and g 2.09; pressure 3.0 5
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND PRESSURE

Hydraulic systems*
In some machi nes. the fo rces are transm itted by liquids under pressure rather
than by levers or cogs. Machi nes like this are called hydrau1ic machi nes. They
make use of these properties of liquids:
• Liquids are virtually incompress ible - t hey cannot be squashed .
• If a trapped liquid is put under pressure, the pressure is transmitted to all
parts of the liquid.

Hydraulic brakes

d iSC attached
to

brake

brake pedal

Car brakes work hydraulically. The diagram a bove s hows t he princ iple. When
the brake pedal is pressed , a piston forces brake fluid from o ne cylinder along
a connecting p ipe to anot her cylinder. There , the fluid pushes on a nother
piston. This presses a brake pad against a metal disc attached to t he rotating
w heel of t he car. The fri ction slows the w heel.
In practical braking systems , t he re a re p ipes to all four wheels, pad s on either
s ide of each disc, a nd usually 'power assistance' as well.

Pressure essentials 8 I) Hydraulic jack

For a force acting at right angles
A load is easier to lift if you use a jack. The diagram at t he top of t he next page
s hows a simple hyd raulic jack. A downward fo rce on the input p iston puts
to a surface:
pressure on t he oil. The pressure is transm itted by the oil. It produces a larger
force
pressure = area upward force on the output piston.
If force is in newtons (N) and Knowing the input force a nd piston areas, the output force can be calculated :
area in square metres (m2).
III the input cylinder:
pressure is in pascals (Pa).
An input force of 12 N acts on an area ofO.Olm2.

So: pressure o n oil = ~~~: = 0.~21 .r:z 1200 Pa

In the conllecting pipe:

The pressure , 1200 Pa, is transmitted by the oil.
111 the output cylinder:
The pressure , 1200 Pa, acts on a piston of area 0.1 m 2 .
So : output force = pressu re x area = 1200 Pa x 0.1 m 2 = 120 N
 FORCES AND PRESSURE
.............................................................................................
simple hydraulic jack
object bell'lg
lifted
input high

input ...
iICI~ on caused
because

large
area:

caU;lrlg "',
high
oil
011 ;t

A force multiplier Wit h t he jack above. you put in a force of 12 N a nd get.

out a force of 120 N. The jack is a force multiplier. In t hi s case, it multiplies Hydraulic jack
the inp ut force by a factor 10. But t here is a price to be paid for the gain in For a frictionless jack:
force : t he ou tput p iston is raised only Ill(} of the distance that the input piston oulpul force output piston area
is pushed down. inpul force input piston area
In the case of the jack above:
The calculation of output force assumes t hat t he jack is frictionless. In a real
jack. t here is friction TO overcome. Th is reduces t.he output force. 120N = O.lm2
12N O.01m2

Hydraulic press
A hydraulic press is used for
compressing (squashing) things.
It is like a hydraulic jack. but
with a metal plate fixed rigidly
above the output piston. so that
the gap closes as the piston
moves upwards .

... The shovel and arm on this digger

are operated hydraulically, and the
caterpillar tracks are moved by
'hydraulic motors'. The high-pressure
oil comes from a pump driven by a
diesel engine.

o
.... 1 The diagram on the right shows a simple hydraulic jack.
Assuming that the jack is friction less:
Input Output

20N
a What is the pressure at A? area:
b What is the pressure at B? 0.5
c What is the output force?
d Explain why the jack can be called a force multiplier.
2: In the jack on the right. what would be the effect of
a increasing the area of the output piston?
b decreasing the area of the input piston?

Retated topics: pressure 3.05; pressure in liquids 3.06

 ................................................................................
FORCES AND PRESSURE

Pressure from the air

'""

)
air removed
by vacuum
p ump
The atmosphere is a deep ocean of air w hic h surrounds t he Ean h. In so me
ways, it is like a liquid:
• Its pressure acts in all d irect ions.
• Its pressure becomes less as you rise up through it (because t he re is less
al mosph enc a nd less weigh t above).
p ressure
crushes ca n Unlike a liqu id, a ir can be compressed (squas hed ). This makes the atmosphere
den ser at lower levels. The atmosphere stretches hundreds of kilometres into
space, yet t he bulk of t he air lies withi n about 10 kilometJ'Cs of the Earth's
surface.

.. Demonstrati ng atmospheric
p ress u re When the air is removed
fro m the can. there is nothing to
resist the outside pressure. and the
can is cru shed.
Atmospheric pressure
At sea level. atmospheric pressure is a bout 100 kPa (100 000 newtons per
square metre) - equivalent to t he weigh t of ten cars pressing on every squ are
metre. Bu t you aren't cru shed by th is huge pressUl'C because it is m atched by
t he pressUl'C in you r lungs and blood system.

Vacuum cleaner A fan lo..vers the air pres!.llre

Drinking t hrough a straw You JUSt beyond the bag. The atmosphere rushes In,
expand your lungs to reduce the air carl"ylng dust and dirt with it. The bag acts as a
pressure inside the straw. As a result filter, stoPPII"1g the dust and dirt, but not the a lf.
almosphenc pressure pushes the
liqu:d up the straw.
·.. .......................................................................................... FORCES AND PRESSURE

The mercury barometer

Instruments that measure atmospheric pressure are called baromctcni.
The barometer on the right contains the liquid metal mercury. Atmospheric
pressure has pushed mercury up the tube because the space at t he top of the
tube has no air in it. It is a vacuum. At sea level, atmospheric pressure w ill
su pport a column of mercUlY 760 mm high. on average . For convenience.
scie ntists sometimes d escribe this as a pressure of 760 'millimetres of
mercury'. However. it is easily converted into pascals a nd other units . as you
Barometer
can see below.
The actual value of atmospheric pressure varies sl ightly depending o n the
weather. Rain clouds form in large a reas of lower pressure. so a fall in the vacuum
barometer reading may mean t hat rain is on the way. Atmospheric pressure
also decreases w ith height above sea level. This idea is used in the a1timeter.
a n instrument fi tted in a ircraft to measure altitu de. mercury

Standard atmospheric pressure

The pressure that will su pport a column of mercury 760.0 mm high is known
- - glass t ube
as standard atmospheric pressure. or 1 abnosphere (1 atm). Its value in
pascals can be foun d by calculating the pressure due to such a colu mn.
At a depth h in a liquid of density p. the pressure = pgh . where g is
9.807 N/kg (or 10 N/kg if less accuracy is needed). As the density of mercUlY is
13 590 kg/m 3, and th e heigh t of t he colum n is 0.760 0 m :
1 atm = pgh = 13590 kglm3 x 9.807 N/kg x 0. 760 am = 10 1 300 Pa Manometer

In calculations. for simpl icity. you can assume that 1 atm = 100 0 00 Pa. In m
~
weather forecasting, the millibar (mb) is often used as a pressure uni t.
1 mb = 100 Pa . so standard atmospheric pressure is approximately 9"
suppl y
00 ----r-
100 0 mill ibars . height diffe rence
, ~
= exce ~s p res~u r e

In mm of mercury
The manometer m" - -- - ~-

A manometer measures pl"essure difference. The one in t he d iagram on th e

~ mercury
right is filled w ith mercury. The height di fference s hows th e extra pressure
that t he gas supply has in addit ion to atmospheric pressure. This extra
pressure is called t he excess pressure. To find the actual pressure of t he gas
supply. you add atmospheric pressure to this excess pressure.

o
... t Write down two ways in which the pressure in the
atmosphere is like the pressure in a liquid .
2: Explain why, when you 'suck' on a straw, t he liquid
travels up it.
3 If a mercury barometer were carried up a mountain,
how would you expect the height of the mercury
column to change?
4 Look at the diagram of the manomet er on this page. If
atmospheric pressure is 760 mm of mercury:
a What is the excess pressure of the gas supply (in mm
of mercury)?
b What is the actual pressure of the gas supply (in mm
of mercury)?
c: What is the actual pressure of the gas supply (in Pap
5"" lf, on a particular day, atmospheric pressure is 730 mm
of mercury. what is this a in pascals b in atmospheres
c: in millibars?
6 The density of mercury is 13 590 kg/m3, the density of
water is 1000 kg/m 3, and 9 is 9.81 Nlkg.
a What is the pressure (in Pa) at the bottom of a
column of water 1 metre long?
b If a barometer is made using water instead of
mercury, and a very long tube. how high is the water
column when atmospheric pressure is 1 atm (760 mm
of mercury)?

Retated topics: denSity 1.04; pressure 3.05; calcutating the pressure in a liquid 3.06
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND PRESSURE

Gas pressure and voLume

When dealing wit.h a fIXed mass of gas, there are always th ree factors to
consider: pressure, volume, and tem perattlre. A c ha nge in one of these fact ors
always prod uces a change in at least one of t he others. Often all t1u ee
c ha nge 31 once. This happens, for example , when a balloon rises t hrough the
atmosphere, or gases expand in the cylinders of a car engine.
This spread deals wit h a s impler case: how t he pressure of a gas depends on
its volume if the temperature is ke pt constant. The link between the pressure
a nd the volume can be fo u nd from t he following experiment.

Linking pressure and volume (at constant temperature)

.... When this balloon rises, the
The equipment for t he experiment is s hown in t he diagra m below left,
pressure, volume, and temperature
w he re the gas being studied is a fi xed mass of dry air. The a ir is t J"apped in a
can all change.
glass tube. Its volume is reduced in stages by p umping air into the reservoir
so that oil is p ushed furt h er up the tube. E ach time the volume is red uced,
the pressure of t he trapped a ir is measured on t he gauge.

~
,p,
pressure volume
em'
" glass tube 200 50

, 250 40 ~•
volume scale ~

400 25 i'
~ pressure
~
;
\. . gauge 500 20
, . air from 1000 10
~

., -
pum p

oil 0
"" reselVOir volumel em 3

Squashing the air warms it up slightly. So before taking each reading, you
have to wait a few momen ts for the air to return to its original temperature.
The gauge actually meas u res the pressure in t he reservo ir, bu t this is the same
as in the t ube because the o il tra nsm its t he pressu re.
Above, you ca n see some typical readings a nd t he graph t hey prod uce.
Results like t his show t hat the relat ionship between t he pressure a nd volume
is a n inverse proportion. It has these features:
1 If t he volume halves, t he pressure doubles, a nd so on.
2 Pressure X volume always has the same value (1 0 000 in this case).
3 If pressure is plotted against 1 , the graph is a straight li ne through the
volume
origi n, as shown on t he left.
volume The find ings can be expressed as a law:

For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the pl'essure is inversely

proportional to t he volume.

This is known as Boyle's law.

 FORCES AND PRESSURE
.............................................................................................
Here is anoth er way of writing Boyle's law. if t he pressu re of a gas c ha nges
from PI to P2 when the volume is c hanged from VI to V 2: Pressure essentials
PI X VI := PI X V 2 (at constant temperature) pressure = force
area
If force is measu red in newtons
Example An a ir bubble has a volume of 2 em J when released at a depth (N) and area in square metres (m2).
of 20 m in wa tel: What wi.ll its vol ume be when it reaches th e su rface? pressure is measured in pascals
Assu me that the tempe rature does not c ha nge a nd th at atmosphe ric (Pa): 1 Pa = 1 N/m2.
pressure is equivalent to t he pressure from a col um n of water 10 m deep . Standard atmospheric pressure,
called 1 atmosphere (atm). is
In t his case: PI = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to 20 m of water approximately 100000 Pa.
1 atm + 2 atm atm
= 3

Also: 3
1 atm. VI = 2 em , and Vz is to be found .
As the temperature does not c ha nge, Boyle's law applies. So:
PI X VI = Pz X V2 (at constant temperature)
So; 3 x 2 = 1 X Vz (om itting units for simplicity)
This gives V2 = 6, so on the surface, t he volume of t he bubble is 6 em 3 •

Explaining Boyle' s law·

The kinetic theory, summarized on the right, explains Boyle's law like t his .
I n a gas, the molecules are constantly striking and bouncing off the walls of The kinetic theory
the container. The force of these impacts causes the pressure. I f the volume According to this theory, a gas is
of the gas is halved, as shown below, there are twice as many molecules i~l mad~ up of tiny. moving
each cubic metre. So, evely second , t here are twice as many impacts w it h each particles (usually molecules).
square metre of the container walls. So t he pressure is doubled. These are spaced out with
A gas t hat exactly obeys Boyle's law is called an idea] gas. Real gases come almost no attractions between
them. and move about freely at
close to t his provided they have a low density, a temperature well above their
high speed. The higher the
liquefying poi nt, and are not full of water vapour. Unless these conditions are
temperature, then on average,
met, attractio ns between molecules affect their behaViour. An ideal gas has no
the faster they move.
attractions between its molecules.
vol ume hal\€d

pfl:'5sure doubled

o
.. 1 If you squash a balloon, the pressure inside it rises. How 3 The readin gs below are for a fixed mass of gas at
does the kinetic theory explain th is? constant temperature:
2 A balloon contains 6 m 3 of helium at a pressure of
pressurE>i aim 5.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.4
100 kPa. As the balloon rises through the
volumel em] 4 5 10 20 40 50
atmosphere, the pressure fa lls and the balloon
expands. Assuming that the temperature does not a How can you tell that the gas obeys Boyle's law?
change, what is the volume of the balloon when the b Use a calculator to work out values for llvolume.
pressure has fallen to Plot a graph of pressure against l/volume and
a SO kPa b 40 kPa? describe its shape.

Related topics : pressure 3.05; air pressure 3.08; kinetic theory 5.01 ; tempera ture 5.02; water vapour 5-09
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND PRESSURE

Pressure probLems
Pressure essentiaLs At a depth h (m) in a liquid of density p (kglm3):
pressure due to liquid = pgh (Pa)
force
pressure = area w here 9 = Earth's gravitational field strength = 10 Nlkg
The pressure acts in all directions.
If force is measured in newtons (N) and area in square met res (m l ),
then pressure is measured in pascals (Pa),
lPa=l N/m<
For convenience, air p ressure is sometimes measured in
atmospheres (atm), 1 atm, standard atmospheric pressure,
is abou t 105 Pa.
P,V, =p 2VZ
This is Boy le's law.
J
If the pressure of a gas changes from P, to Pl when its volume
changes f rom VI to V2, at constant temperature:

H ere are some examples o f problems which can be solved using th e

infonnat ion in t he box above .
vacuum

r------
0.5 m
Mercury barometer probLem
Example A researcher sets up a mercu ry barometer (sh ow n o n th e left) at
L __ mercury
th e top o f a m ounta in. She find s that t he len gth o f th e mercu ry c olu m n is
0.50 m. Wh at is th e atmosp heric pressu re in Pa ? (Assu me, for sim plicity,
that th e d e nsity o f mercu ry is 13 600 kglm 3 and g is 10 N/kg.)

As t he atmosph ere is su ppOitin g th e co lumn o f mercu ry, its pressu re must

equal t he pressu re d ue to t h at co lu mn - in o ther word s th e pressur e at a depth
o f 0.50 m in mercury, Th at can be calculated as follows:
pressure = pgh = 13 600 kglm 3 x 10 N /kg x 0. 50 m
= 68 000 Pa
So: atmospheric pressure up t he mountai n is 69 000 Pa (68 kPa).

Water barometer probLem

o Example A stud ent wan ts to make a barometer conta ining water instead
o f mercuty a nd n eed s to eSTimate h ow tall it s hould be , Calculate the
lengTh o f a colu m n o f water wh ic h can be suppo rted by t he atm osphere at
sea level. (Assume th at atmo spheric pressu re at sea level is 100 000 Pa , t he

o d ensity o f water is 1000 kglm 3 , and g is 10 NIkg.)

Let h be th e h e igh t of t he column . Omitting u n its for s implic ity:

o pressure d ue to colum n = pgll = 1000 x iO x II = 10 000 II

.A. A water barometer would
tall to be of practical use.
But th is pressu re m ust equal atmospheric pressu re, 100 000 P a.
So: 10 000 II = 100 000
This g ives:" = 10
So , atmospheric pressu re will su pport a colu mn o f water 10 m hig h .
be too
 ............................................................................................. FORCES AND PRESSURE

Diving bell problem

Example T he diving bell o n t he r ight contains 6 m 3 of ail: It has a hatch
of area 0.5 m 3 . While the bell is on the s urface, at sea level. the hatch is
closed and sealed . Then the bell is lowered through the water on a cable. dWlI19
a If t he diving bell is lower'ed to a depth of 30 m, w hat is t he force on the bell
hatch due to the water pressure? (Assume that th e d ens ity of watel" is
1000 kg/m3, a nd g is 10 N/kg.) trapped
b If water leaks into the bell when it is 30 m deep, 'w hat will the volume ai t

of air be reduced to? (Assume that atmospheric pressure at sea level

will SUpPDlt a 10 m colum n of water, a nd t hat t he temperature is
constan t.)

a First, t he pressure d ue to the water at a depth of 30 m must be calculated:

pressure = pgll = 1000 kg/ m 3 X 10 Nlkg X 30 m
= 300 000 Pa
This pressur e acts on a hatch of area of 0.5 ml. As pressure = force/area:
force = pressure X area = 300 000 Pa X 0.5 m 2 = 150 000 N
So t he fo rce on t he hatch is 150000 N (I50 kN).
b When water leaks ioro the bell. the volume of th e air ins ide is reduced , a nd
its pressu re r ises until it matches the external pressure. The new volume
can be found using Boyle's law. I n applying the law, it is simplest to express
!
pressures in 'metres of water'. Atmospheric pressure is 10 m of water.
At 30 m d epth , t he external pressure is 30 m of water plus atmospheric
pressure, 10 m of water. So it is 40 m of water in total.
On the surface: pressure of a ir in bell = PI = 10 m of water
...""-
'\.•
/-'
On surface: volu me of a ir in bell = VI = 6 m3
,/
At 30 m d epth:
At 30 m d epth:
pressure of a ir in bell = P2 = 40 m of water
volu me of a ir in bell = (to be fo und)
.
I
• ,I
'

~
V
2
"
As PI VI = P1V1 r I~------.-' -"'" ""~,
10 X 6 = 40 X V z (o m itt ing units fo r simplicity) I
I
I
I
II II
I I I I
I I I I
This gives V z = 1.5 I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
So, t he volu me of the a ir in the bell is red uced to 1.5 m). I
I I
I I
I
I
'-oJ ~_ ..I

(!)
1 A rectangu lar storage tank, of base area 5 m 2 , is filled to a depth of 2 m with water.
i l - - vol ume 300cm 3
If the density of water is 1000 kg/m l , and g is 10 Nlkg :
a What is the pressure at the bottom of the tank due to the water?
b What is the downward force on the base due to the water?
c How wou ld your answers to a and b be affected if the area of the base were
halved? 20 m
2 When an upturned beaker is placed on the surface of water, as on the right. it
contains 300 cm 3 of trapped air at atmospheric pressure. If the beaker is taken 20 m
beneath the water surface, what w ill be the volume of the air inside? (Assume that
the temperature is constant, and that atmospheric pressure wi ll support a column of
water 10 m high.)
--n V01ume
?

Rel ated t opi cs : pressute 3.05; pressute in liquids 3.06; barometers, atmospheric ptessute 3.08, Boyle's law 3.09
FORCES AND PRESSURE FURTHER QUESTIONS

1 The diagram shows a pair of nutcrackers. Forces F b At t he s urface, t he bell holds 6 m 3 of a il: [f t he
are applied to th e handles o f t he nutc mckers. bell is lowered to a depth of 20 m, a nd n o more
ail' is pumped into it, w hat will be t he volume
F
of the trapped air? (Assu me no c hange in
temperatu re.) [3J
. ,
,---- - -.
4 The figUJ'e shows an empty wheelbarrow whic h
-'--..c weighs 80 N.
'"' , The operator p ulls upwards on the ha ndles w ith a
force of 20 N to keep the handles horizo ntal.
F The point marked M is the centre of mass of t he
wheelbarrow.
a The forces on t he nut are bigger t han F. Explain
this. [1] upwards pull
b The nut does not crack. State two c ha nges t hat 20 N

t
1.5 m
could be made to crack t he nut. [2]
2 Th e diagram below shows a uniform metre rule, \
weight W. pivoted at the 75 cm mark and balanced
by a force of 2 N acting at the 95 cm mark.
a Copy t he figure a n d draw arrows t o s how

r
Oem 50cm 75cm 95cm
the ot her two vertical forces t hat act on the
I
I
I
w 2N
wheelbarrow.
b Determ ine
[2J

i t he moment of the 20 N force abou t t he centre

of t he wheel A,
a Calculate t he m o ment of the 2 N force about t he
ii the d istance between points A and M. [3]
p ivot. [2]
b Use t he principle of mome nts to calculate the 5 The following resul LS were obta ined when a spring
value of w in N. [2] was stretched.

3 The diving bell below contains trapped air at t he load IN 1.0 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5
same pressure as t he water outside. At the sutface. a ir length of spring fem 12.0 15.5 19.0 22.0 25.0
pressUl"t' is 100 kP a. As t he bell descends. t he pl"t'ssure
on it increases by 100 kPa for evely 10 m of depth. a Use t he results to plot a graph of length of spring
against load . [ 1]
colble fro m ship
b Use the graph to find the
water
unload ed length of th e spring, [ 1]
ii extensio n produced by a 7.0 N load , [1 J
iii load required to increase t he length of
th e spring by 5.0 cm . [1]
6 a A glass window pane covers a n area of 0.6 ml.
The force exerted by air pressure on th e outs ide
of t he glass w indow pane is 60 000 N. Calculate
the pressure of the a ir. Write down t he formula
that you use a nd show y OUI" working. [3J
b Explain why t he w indow does not break under
this force . [I ]
a What is the pressure on the diver at depths of 0 m ,
10 m. 20 m. a nd 30 m? [2]
 FURTHER QUESTIONS FORCES AND PRESSURE

7 A fitness enthusiast is trying to strengthen his calf The pressure on t he grou nd from stack B is _ _ __
m uscles. the pressure Dum stack A, because the area in
He uses th e exercise machine below. His heels contact w ith the ground for B is for A. [3 ]
apply a force to t he padded bar. This li fts t he heavy b Write down, in words, the eq uation connect ing
we ights. pressure, force and area. [I ]
c If t he weight of stack A is 500 N a nd t he area in
F end of h()(i zon tai
contact w ith the ground is 200 em!, calculate the
~teel bar
/ pressure on the ground in N/cm 2• [2 ]
- - __ padding for
: -\ bar 9 The .figure shows a tyre used on a large earth-moving
vehicle.

..--- metal f rame

c
250 N weights
='-'======"='0.2
a The centre of mass of t he weights is at C.
Draw a diagram to s how where and in whic h
direction the force of gravity acts on the
weigh ts. Label this force W. [2]
b The narrow steel bar is padded, Why does
t his feel more comfortable w hen lifting
t he wei g hts? [2 ]
c The heels press against the pad with a force a When t he vehicle is loaded. t he area of each tyre
F and cause a turning effect about t he pivot. in contact with the ground is a rectangle of sides
Calculate t he val ue of F when the weights 1.0 m a nd 0.5 m.
are in th e positio n shown in the diagram. i Calculate the area in m 2 of contact of one tyre
S how your working. [3] with the ground.
d Why does it become harder to lift the weights ii The vehicle has four of these tyres. Calculate
when th ey move to the r ight? [2] t he total area in m 1 of contact w ith the
ground. [4]
8 Three concrete blocks can be stacked in two different
b When the vehicle is loaded, it weighs 100 000 N.
ways as shown below.
Calculate the pressure in N/m 1 exerted on the
ground by t he tyres . [3 ]
10 A rectangular storage tank has a base measuring
3 m by 2 m . The tank is filled with water to a d epth
A
of 2 m . The density of the water is 1000 kg/ml, a nd

~
/
• g is 10 N/kg. Draw a diagram of t he tank wit h t he

r: water in it , a nd mark all the d imens ions on yOUl"

d rawing. Then calculate t he follow ing:
a The volume of water in the tank
b The mass of water in t he tan.k.
[2 ]
[2 ]

a Iless than Ithe same as Imore than c The weight of water in t he tank (i n N).
~ The pressu re at the bonom of the tank.
[2 ]
[2 ]
Copy and complete the paragraph below using a
ph rase from the boxes above. E ach phrase may be
used once, more t ha n once or not at all.
The force of stack A on t he ground is ____ the
force of stack B.
fORCES AND PRESSURE REVISION SUMMARY

Use the list below when you revise for your IGCSE examination. You can either
photocopy it or print it from the fi le on the CD accompanying this book.
The spread number, i n brackets, tells you where to find more infor mation.

Core LeveL Extended LeveL

o Factors affectin g t he moment (turning effect)
of a force. (3 .0 1)
o How to calculate t he moment of a force. (3.01)
o Applying t he principle of moments to a balanced
beam. (3.01)
o The cond itions applying whe n an object is
eq uilibrium. (3.0 \)
o The meani ng of centre of mass. (3.02)
o Finding the cenu'e of mass of flat sheet by
expel·imem. (3. 0 2)
o How the posit ion of t he centre of mass affects
stabil ity. (3.02)
o How forces can produce a c ha nge in size and
s hape. (3.04)
o How t he extension c hanges w ith load w hen a spri ng
is stretched . (3. 04)
o How to obtain extens ion-load graphs by
e.'periment. (3.04)
o 1·low to interpret extension-load graphs. (3.04)
o How pressun~ d epends on force and area. (3.05)
o Using the equat ion linking pressure, force, a nd
area. (3.05)
o The faCtors affecting the pressure in a liqu id. (3.06)
o Usi ng a men::U1Y barometer to measure atmosphedc
pressure. (3 .08)
o Using a manometet: (3.08)
o Describing, using ideas abou t particles (molecules),
how the pressure of a gas c hanges wit h volume
w he n t he temperature is kept constant. (3.09)
As [01' Core Level. plus the follow ing:
o Solving problems using the prin ciple of
moments. (3.01 and 3.03)
CI Testing the principle of momenlS by
experiment. (3.03)
o Hooke's law, and how it applies to metal splings
a nd wires. (3.04)
CI Using the equat ion linking extension, load, and the
spring constant. (3.04)
CI The meaning of lim it of propOitio nalily. 0.04)
D The pascal, unit of pressure, a nd its definition. (3.05)
CI Calculating the pr'essure at a particular depth in
a liquid: the equation linking pressure. d ept h ,
and g (3.06)
CI How. if a gas is at constant temperature and obeys
Boyle's law, pV is consta nt. (3.09)
CI Us ing the equation PI VI = Pl V1 for a gas at constant
temperatu re . (3.09 and 3.10)

Ig) OUP: thts may be I"l!produce<! f or class use solely for th~ purchas~r's InstItute
T
h e Niagara Fa ils, on the
USA-Can ada bord e l: Th e
p hotograph s hows the highest
section o f the falls, wh ere the wa ter
tum bles over 50 m et res to th e river
below. Nearly three m ill ion litres of
water flow over the falls ever.')' second.
Most of the energy is wasted , but
some is ha rnessed by a hydroelectric
power sta ti o n which ge n era tes
electricity fo r the surround ing area.
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND ENERGY

Work and energy

1 J of wo rk is done when ..
Work
1n everyday language, work m ight be writ ing an essay or digging t h e garden .
d f orce
of lN Bu t to scie nt ists and engineers, work has a precise mea ning: work is done
w henever a fo rce makes s o mething move. The greater the force a nd the
greater the distance moved, the m o re wo rk is done.
The 51 uni t of work is [he joule (1):

1 joule of work is do ne w he n a fOl"ce of 1 newton (N ) m oves a n o bject

... m(MIs 1 m
1 metre in the direction o f the fo rce.

Work is calculated u sing t his equation:

work do ne = force x d istance moved in the d il·ection of the fo rce

in symbols: W = Fxd

For example, if a 4 N fo rce moves a n object 3 m, th e work done is 12 J.

Energy
Things have energy if they can be used to do wo rk. A compressed spring has
energy; so does a tankful of petro!. Like work, energy is measured in joules (J).
Alt ho ugh people talk abo ut energy being stored o r given out, energy isn't a
'thi ng'. If. say, a compressed spring stores 100 joules of energy, t his is just a
measurement of how much work can be done by the spring.
Energy can take di ffere nt forms. These are described on the opposite page. To
understand t hem, you need to kno w the following:
• Moving objects have e nergy. For example, a moving ball can do work by
knocking something over.
• Materials are made up of ato ms (or groups of atoms). These are constantly
.. Atoms vibrating in a solid. The
in motio n. For example, in a solid such as iron, the ato ms are vibrating. If
at oms have energy because of their
t he solid is heated and its temperature r ises , t he atoms m o ve faster. So a
motion.
material has more e nergy when hot t ha n when cold .

III- A fully flexed bow s10res about

300 joules of energy.
 FORCES AND ENERGY
.............................................................................................
Forms of energy
To describe d ifferent forms of energy, these names are sometimes used: Typical energy values
Kinetic energy This is enel'gy due to motion. AU moving objects have kinetic kinetic energy of a
energy. football when kicked ...... SO J

Potential energy Tlus is e nergy whic h a n object has because of its c hanged gravitational potential
posit ion , shape, or state. There are several di fferent types of potential e nergy. energy of a skier at the
topofaskijump. 15OO0 J
Here are so me of t he terms used to describe them:
chemical energy in
Gravitational potential energy A stone held up in t he air can do work w he n
a chocolate biscuit ... 300000 J
d ropped because gravity will p ull it downwards. The stone has gravitational
kinetic energy of
potent ial energy.
a car travelling at
Elastic potentia1 energy (strain energy) A st retched rubber band can do 70 mph (30 mls) ...... 500000 J
work when released, so can a compressed spring. Both have elastic potential
thermal energy
e ne rgy. needed to boil a
Chemica1 potential e n ergy When a fuel burns. its energy is released by kettle full of water ..... 700000 J
c hem ical react ions. The energy stored in the fuel is called chem ical potential electrical energy
energy. or c h emical energy for s hort. Batteries also store it. So do foods. supplied by a fully charged
Wit hout it, your muscles could not move. car battery ............. 2ooo000 J
Electrical potential energy I n circuits, the current is a flow o f t iny c harged chemical energy in
particles called electrons. These come from atoms. Electrons can transfer all the food you eat in
e nergy from. for example, a battery to a light bulb. They have electrical one day ............... 11000000 J
potent ial energy, or electrical e nergy for s hort. chemical energy in one litre
Nuclear potentia1 energy An atom has a nucleus at its centre. This is made of petrol .............. 35OOO000 J
up of particles, held there by strong forces. In some atoms, the particles
become rearra nged , or the nucleus splits, and energy is released. This is called
nuclear poten t ial energy, or nuclear energy for short.

The following terms are sometimes used when describ ing energy w hich is
1 "Iojool, IkJI ~ 100088
(lO J J)
being transferred from one place to a nother. or from one object to anot he r: 1 megajoule(MJ) = 1000000J
(1 Q6 J)
Thenna1 energy When hot objects cool down, their a toms a nd molecules
slow down and lose energy. This is known as thermal e nergy, or heat. Engines
use t hermal energy to do \'lork. For example, in a car engi ne. b urning fuel
produces hot gases w hic h expand , p ush on pistons, and make them move. The
motion is used to tur n the w heels of the cat:
Radiated energy The Sun rad iates light. Loudspeakers radia te sound. Light
a nd sound bo th travel in t he form of waves. These carry energy.

o
I' How much work is done if a force of 12 N moves an object a distance of 5 m?
l! If you use a 40 N force to lift a bag, and do 20 J of work, how far do you lift it?
~ Express the following amounts of energy in joules:
a 10kJ b35MJ cO.5MJ dO.2kJ
4 Using information in the chart of energy values on this page, estimate how
many fully charged car batteries are needed to store the same amount of
energy as one litre of petrol.
5 a Write down three forms of energy which the apple on the right has.
b Using the energy chart on this page as a guide, decide in which form you
th ink the apple has most energy.
.' -
Related topi cs: SCientific notation 1.01; SI units 1.02; force 2.06; particles 5.01; electro ns in Circuits 8.0 4
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND ENERGY

Energy transformation
Conservation of energy
To do work. you have to spend e nergy. But . like money, energy doesn't vanis h
w hen you spend it. It goes somewhere else! People talk about 'usin g e nergy' ,
but energy is neve r used u p . It just c ha nges into differe nt forms, as in t he
example below.
A stone IS t hrown upwards. ... and fa lls to the ground

1 • 1 st one at
highest
point
stone f alls
to ground

stone hi ts
wall

chem ical kinetic potential kinetic thermal

energy t energy t energy energy t energy

When energy c hanges from one fo rm to a nothcl; scientists say that e nergy is
Transform or transfer? 8~ lransfonncd. The d iagram a bove shows a sequence of energy transformations .
When energy changes form, The last o ne is from kinetic energy into t hermal energy (heat). When the sto ne
some SCientists describe t hiS as hi ts t he ground , it makes t he atoms and molecules in the stone a nd the gmund
an energy 'transfer'. However, move faster, so the materi als warm up a little.
in this book, 'transfer' will
During each transformation. t he total amoul1t of e nergy stays the sa me. This is
only be used if energy moves
an example of t he law of consc rvation of energy:
from one place to another -
for example. radiant energy
Energy cannot be made or destroyed. but it can cha nge fmm one form to
travelling from the Sun to the
Earth. A change in form will
another:
be a 'transforma tion '.
Wasting energy
The above diagram s hows the e nergy transformations as a s imple cha in . In
reality, e nergy is lost from t he system at d ifferent stages. For example. m uscles
Work and energy
convelt less t han \15th of t he stored energy in food into kinetic energy. The rest
essentials
is wasted as theITI1al energy - whic h is w hy exercise makes you sweat. And
Work is done whenever a
w hen objects move t hrough the air. some of their ki netk energy is c ha nged into
force makes someth ing move.
thelmal energy because o f fIi ction (air resistance). Even sou nd is eventually
work done
'absorbed', w hic h leaves the a bsorbing materials a little wan ner tha n before.
= force x distance moved
The diagram at the top of the next page shows how all of th e OIi ginai e nergy
Things have energy if they can
of t he t hrower even tually ends up as th ermal e ne rgy - although most of it
be used to do work.

J
is far too spread out to de tect. Despite the apparent loss of en ergy from the
Work and energy are bot h
syste m, the law of conservation of e ne rgy still applies. The total amount of
measured in joules (J).
e nergy is unc ha nged .
 FORCES AND ENERGY
.............................................................................................
thermal energy
(wast ed in body) The arrow th ickness represents
. the amount of energy

th ermal energy
.• ' (wasted ·because of air resistance)
chemIcal
energy
(,n mU"o(ies)

therma l energy

potential kinetiC
) therm al energy
(in ground
energy energy
and stone)

stone throWfl upwards stOfle at highest poim stone hits grourICI

Work done and energy transformed

Whenever work is d o ne. energy is transformed . In t he d iagram on the righ t,
20 J pote ntial
for example, a falling brick loses 20 J of po ten t ial energy. Assuming no a ir energy
resistance, this is c ha nged into 20 J of kinetic energy. So 20 J of work is d one
in accelerat ing the bri ck. If the brick h its the ground a nd comes to rest, 20 J
of kinetic energy is changed into thermal energy. Again 20 J of work is done as
the brick. fl attens the ground beneath it.
in all cases:

w o rk done = e nergy transfo rmed

~ .••::.-: .'. • ' .. ,,~..! '

20 1 20 J .;~
20J
energy wo<k erlergy In
'n one form
d"", anot her f orm

'': ;: ' :::

o1 50 J of work must be done to lift a vase from the ground up on to a shelf.

a When the vase is on the shelf, what is its gravitational potentia l energy?
b If the vase fa lls from the shelf, how much kinetic energy does it have just before
it hits the ground? (A5sume that air resistance is negligible.)
( What happens to this energy after the vase has hit the ground?

-
l What is the law of conservation of energy?
J On the right, you can see someone's idea for an electric fan that costs nothing to
run . The electric motor which turns the fan also turns a generator. This produces
elec tncity fo r mOl or
electricity for the motor, so no battery or mains supp ly is needed! Ex plain why this
idea will not wor k.

Related topics: work and forms of energy 4.01

 ................................................................................
FORCES AND ENERGY

CalcuLating PE and KE
The ball below has potent ial energy because of the Earth's gravitational pull
on it a nd its pos itio n above the ground. This is called b'ravitalional potential
energy (PE). If the ball fa lls . it ga ins kinetic energy (KE). Both PE a nd KE
can be calculated.

Calculating PE
The gravitational potent ial energy of t he ball on the left is equal to t he work
w hic h would be done if t he ball were to fall to the ground. Assum ing no a ir
res istance, it is also equal to the work done in lifting the ball a distance h up
weig ht mg
from the grou nd in th e first place:
downward force o n ball = weight of ball = mg

So: upward force needed to lift ball = II'Ig

So: wo rk done in lifting ball = force x distance moved

= mgh
h
For a n object of mass m at a vertical height II above the ground :

gravitational potent ial energy = mgh

For example , if a 2 kg mass is 3 m above the ground, a nd g is 10 N/kg:

gravitational PE = 2 kg X 3m X iO N/kg = 60 J

Calculating KE
speed zero

,,,
"\, , ,

Units
,, "" ,
Mass is measured in

J
The ki netic energy of the ball above is equal to t he work w hic h t he ball could
kBograms (kg).
do by los ing all of its speed . Assum ing no air res istance, it is also equal to the
Force is measured in ne'NIons (N).
work done on the ball in increasing its speed from zero to v in t he fi rst place:
Weight is a force.
Work is measured in joules (J)- work done = fo rce X distance moved
Energy is measured in joules ~). = mass X acceleration X d istance moved
gain in speed
= mass X X average speed X time taken

Useful equations
average speed = dist~nce ~OVed
8( = 1/1
t ime take n
= mass X gain in speed X average speed
x v x
time ta en
. gain in speed
accelerat IOn = k
time ta en For a n object of mass m a nd speed v:
force = mass x acceleration
weight = mass x 9 I.g = 10 Nlkg) kinetic e nergy = V2 mv 2
wOO< dore = fcree x distance rn.JI.€<I
work done = energy transfollT\ed For example , if a 2 kg mass has a speed of 3 m/s:
kinetic e nergy = V2 X 2kg X (3 m/s)2 = 1/2 X 2 X 32 J = 9J
·.. .......................................................................................... FORCES AND ENERGY

Scalar energy
Energy is a scalar quantity: it h as magn itude (size) b u t no d irection. So you
do not have to allow fo r d irection w hen doing energy calculations.
On t he righ t. objects A and B have t he same mass and are at the same heigh t
above the ground . B was lifted vel1icaliy but A was moved up a smoo th slope.
Altho ugh A ha d to be moved fu rther, less force was needed to move it, and
the work d o n e was the same as for 8. As a result, both objects have the same
PE. The PE (mgh) depends on t he vertical gain in he ig h t h and not on the
pat1 ic ular path taken to gai n t hat he igh t.

KE and PE problems
Example If t he stone on the r igh t is dropped , w hat is its kinetic energy
w hen it has fallen half-way to t he ground ? (g = 10 Nlkg)

In problems like this, you don't necessarily ha ve to use KE = 1/2 II1V 2 • When t he
stone falls, its gail? in KE is equal to its loss in PE, so you can calculate that instead:
he igh t lost by stone = 2 m 4m
So: gravitational PE lost by ston e = mgh = 4 kg X 10 N/kg x 2m = 80 J
So: KE gained by stone = 80 J
As the stone stalted w ith no KE, t his is t he sto ne's K£ half-way down. 1
Example The stone on the r igh t slides down a smooth slope. What is its
speed when it reaches the bottom? (g = 10 N/kg)

Th is problem can also be solved by consid ering ene rgy ch anges. At the top of
the slo pe. the stone has extra gravitational PE. Whe n it reaches the boltom, ali
o f t his PE has been transformed into KE .
gravitatio nal P E at top of slope = II1gh = 4 kg X 10 N/kg X 5 m = 200 J

~
So: kinetic energy at bottom of slope = 200 J
So: '/2 mv 2 = 200 J
Jl __________________
So: Y2 X 4 kg X v 2 = 200 J
This gives: v = 10 m/s
So t he stone's speed at t he bottom of the slope is 10 m/s.
Note: if the stone fell vertically, it would start w ith t he same gravitational PE
and end up w ith t he same KE, so its final speed would still be 10 m/s.

oAssume that 9 is 10 Nlkg and that air resistance and other

frictional forces are negligible.
1 An object has a mass of 6 kg. What is i15 gravitational
potential energy
a 4 m above the ground b 6 m above the ground?
Z An object of mass 6 kg has a speed of 5 m/s.
a What is i15 kinetic energy?
b What is its kinetic energy if its speed is doubled?
3 A ba ll of mass 0.5 kg has 100 J of kinetic energy. What
is the speed of the ball?
4 A ball has a mass of 0.5 kg. Dropped from a cliff top.
the ball hits the sea below at a speed of 10 mls.
a What is the kinetic energy o f the ball as it is about to
hit the sea?
b What was the bali's gravitational potential energy
before it was dropped?
c From what height was the ball dropped?
d A stone of mass 1 kg also hits the sea at 10 mls.
Repeat stages a, b, and c above to find the height from
which the stone was dropped.

Related topics : speed and acceleration 2.01; force, mass, and acceleration 2.07; mass and weight 2.09; work and energy 4 .01- 4.02
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND ENERGY
Force, work, and energy
essentiats
Work is measured in joules (J)-
Energy is measured in joules U).
work done = energy transformed
Force is measured in newtons (N).
work done = force x distance
moved
Inputs and outputs
In any system. the total energy
output must equal the IOtal
energy input. That follows
from the law of conservaHon
of energy. Therefore. the
equations on the rig ht could
also be w ritten wilh 'tolal
energy output' replacing 'total
energy input'.
Typicat power outputs
washing machine
motor 250W
athlete 400W
small car engine 35000 W
large car engine 150000 W
large jet engine 75 000000 ~
1 kilowatt(kW) = l000W
The horsepow er (hp) is a
power unit which dates back
to the days of the early steam
engines: 1 hp = 746 W
(about 3,,:< kilowatt)
Efficiency and power
Engines and motors do work by making things move. Petrol a nd d iesel
0 I, e ngines spend the energy stored in their fueL Electric motors spend energy
su pplied by a battery or generator. The human body is also a form of e ngine.
It spends t he energy stored in food.
Efficiency
An engine does useful work with some of t he energy supplied to it. hut t he
rest is wasted as t hermal e nergy (heat). The efficiency of an engine can he
calculated as follows:
. useful w ork d one useful energy output
e iii clency = 0' efficie ncy = "'=~='"''--C==
total energy input total ene r gy inpu t
o( For example, if a petrol e ngine does 25 J of useful work for every 100 J of
e nergy supplied to it, t hen its efficiency is lit. or 25%. In other words. its
useful energy output is % of its total energy input.
energy supplied useful work done efficie ncy
100 J 25! 25%
100 J 35! 35%
100 J electri~ 80%
moto r , , 80!
0; 100 J hom," ~ 15 ! 15%
I body
The ch art above shows t he efficienc ies of some typical engines a nd motors.
The low efficie ncy of fuel-burni ng engines is n ot d ue to poor desig n. When
a fuel burns, it is impossible to tran sfo rm its thermal energy into k inetic
I (mot ion) e nergy w ithout wasting much of it.
Power
A small e ngine ca n do just as much work as a hig engine, h ut it takes longer
to do it. The h ig engine can do work at a faster rate. The rate at wh ic h work is
done is called the powe r.
The SI unit of power is th e w a ll (W). A power of 1 watt means th at work is
being done (or energy transfo rmed) at t he rate of 1 joule per second. Power
can be calculated as follo ws:
work done energy transformed
powe r = cc-- co- - 01 power = --~--;-,--­
t ime take n t ime taken
For e:'(ample, if a n engine does 1000 joules of useful work in 2 seconds, its
power outp ut is 500 watts (500 joules per second).
 FORCES AND ENERGY
.............................................................................................
As energy a nd power are related , t here is a not her way of calculating t he
efficiency of an e ngine:

. useful power output

e ffi cle ncy = -,--,-,'-------,--'-:-
total p ower inp ut

Power problems
Example 1 The crane on the r ight lifts a 100 kg block of concrete through U' .
a vel1ical he ight of 16 m in 20 s. If the power inp ut to t he m oto r is 1000 W,
w ha t is the efficiency of t he m o tor? mm
100 kg
,n
On Eanh , g is 10 Nikg, so a 100 kg block has a weight of 1000 N. Therefore,
a force of 1000 N is needed to lift t he block. w hen t he block is lifted :
t
work done := force X d istan ce = 1000 N X 16 m "" 16 000 J time
ta ken
20,
t
useful power output := useful work done := 16 000 J = BOO W
time taken 20 s
t 16m
.
e ffi c lency =
useful power output
= BOO W = O.B
power
input t
total power input 1000 W 1000W~
So t he moto r has a n efficie ncy of BO%. t
I I [I
U _L-
Example 2* The car on t he rig ht has a steady speed of 30 m/s. If t he total
frictio nal fo rce o n the car is 700 N, w hat useful power outpu t does the
steady
engine deli ver to the d r iving wheels? 30 m/s
)
As t he speed is steady, the e ngine must provid e a forward force of 700 N to
balance the total frictio nal force . In 1 second , the 700 N force m oves 30 m,
so: work do ne = fo rce X d istance = 700 N X 30 m = 21000 J.
As the engine does 2 1 000 J of useful work in 1 seco nd , its u seful power output
must be 21 00 0 W, o r 21 kw. 10 lal
fn(l,onai
force due
Problems of t his type can also be solved w ith th is e q uation : lorce (air
('t>Slstance, toel'l!;l'i"Il'
etc. )
useful po wer output = force X speed

o 9 = 10 N/kg 4 Someone hauls a load weighing 600 N through a

vertical height of 10 m in 20 s.
1 An engine does 1500 J of useful work with each 5000 J
a How much useful work does she do?
of energy supplied to it.
b How much useful work does she do in 1 s?
L a What is its efficiency?
c What is her useful power output?
b What happens to the rest of the energy supplied?
5 A crane lifts a 600 kg mass through a vertical height of
If an eng ine does 1500 J of work in 3 seconds, what is
12m inlBs.
its useful power output?
a What weight (in N) is the crane lifting?
3 A motor has a useful power output of 3 kW.
b What is the crane's useful power output?
a What is its useful power output i n watts?
6 ' With frictional forces acting, a forward force of 2500 N
b How much useful work does it do in 1 s?

l
is needed to keep a lorry travelling at a steady speed of
c How much useful work does it do in 20 s?
20 mls along a level road. What useful power is being
d If the power input to the motor is 4 kW, what is the
delivered to the driving wheels?
efficiency?

Related topics : Slunils 1.0 2; force, mass, weight, and g 2.09 ; law of conservation of energy 4.02; work and energy 4.02- 4 .03
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND ENERGY

Energy for eLectricity (1)

~ Part of a thermal power station.

The large, round towers with clouds
of steam coming from them are
cooling towers.

I ndustrial societies spend hu ge amounts of energy. Much of it is su pplied by

electricity w hic h comes from generators in power stations.

Thermal power stations

stea m

",,,
bUrrJ mg fuel:
,1
na tural gas
~
nuclear reactor water

(condensed steam ) cables

thennal energy source boiler tu rbines generator

In most power stations, t he generators are turned by turbines, blown round

by high pressure steam. To produce the steam, water is heated in a boiler.
The th ermal energy comes from burning fuel (coal. o il , or natural gas) or
from a nuclear reactor. Nuclear fuel does no t b um. Its e nergy is released
by n uclear reactions w hi c h spli t ura niu m atoms. The process is called
nudear fission .
Once steam has passed th rough the turbi nes, it is cooled and condensed
(turned back into a liquid) so t hat it can be fed back to the boiler. Some power
stations have huge cooling towers, w ith draughts of air up through th em.
Others use the coolin g effect of nearby sea or river water.

fuel thermal
fuel burners or energy steam rOtation electricity
f----+ boiler turbines generator
nuclear
... A turbine reactor
~ Block diagram of what happens
in a thermal power station
 FORCES AND ENERGY
.............................................................................................
Energy spreading
Thermal power stations waste more energy than t hey delivel: Most is lost efficiency
as thermal energy in t he cooling water a n d waste gases . For example, the useful energy output
efficiency of a typical coal-burni ng power station is only about 35% - in other energy input

words, only about 35% of the energy in its fuel is transformed into electrical useful power output
• power input
energy. The d iagram below sllO"wS w hat happens to t he rest:

energy output fro m generators The power output of power

stat ions is usually measured in
ener9Y Input megawatts (MW) or in
from fuel gigawatts (GW):
1 MW,.. l 000000W
( 1 million watts)
1 GW,.. l000MW
(1 billion watts)

1
... Typical energy-flow chart for a
thermal power station. A chart
like this is called a Sankey diagram.
ener9Y loss energy loss energy loss 10 energy to run The thickness 01 each arrow
in boilers in turbjnes generators pcrwer ~ t at i on
represent s the amount of energy_
Engi neers try to make power stations as efficient as possible. But once energy is
in thermal form, it cannot all be used to dl-ive the genemtors. Thermal energy is Combined cycle gas
the energy of randomly moving particles (such as atoms a nd molecules). It has turbine power stations
a natural tendency to spread out. As it spreads, it becomes less a nd less useful. These are smaller units which
For example. the concentrated ene,'gy in a hot flame could be used to make can be broug ht up to speed or
steam for a turbine. But if the same amount of t hermal energy were spread shut off very quickly, as the
demand for electricity varies.
through a huge Tankful of water, it would only warm the water by a few degrees.
In them, natural gas is used as
This warm water could not be used as an energy source for a turbine.
the fuel for a jet engine. The
Dislricl heating* The unused thermal energy from a power stat ion does not shaft of the engine turns one
have to be wasted. Us ing long water p ipes. it can heat homes. offices, a nd generator. The hot gases from
factories in t he local area. This works best if the power station is I1..I n at a the jet are used to make steam
sligh tly lower efficiency so that hotter water is produced. to drive another generator.

o
, 1 Write down four different types of fuel used in thermal power
stations.
power
station
power
station
X y
Z In a thermal power station:
<oal nuclear
a What is the steam used for?
power input from fuel in MW 5600 5600
b What do the cooling towers do?

• The table on the right gives data about the power input and
losses in two power stations, X and Y.
power losses in MW:
- in reactorslboilers 600 200
- in turbines 2900 3800
a Where is most energy wasted? - in generators 40 40
b In what form is this wasted energy lost?
, What is the electrical power output of each station? (You can
power to run station in MW
electrical power output in MW
60
?
60
?
assume that the table shows all the power losses in each
station.)
Ld What is the efficiency of each power station?
Related topi cs: energy 4 .01- 4.02; effiCiency and power 4.04; genera tors 9.09; electricity supply 9.12; nuclear energy 11.06 - 11.07
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND ENERGY
Energy units
The electricity supply industry
uses the kilow att-h o ur (kWh)
as its unit of energy
measurement:
1 kWh is the energy supplied by
a 1 kW power source in 1 hOUL
As 1 wall = 1 joule per second
(Jls), a 1 kW power source
supplies energy at the rate of
1000 joub per second. So in 1
hour. or 3600 seconds. it
supplies 3600 x 1000 joules (J).
Therefore:
1 kWh = 3600000 J
.. One effect of acid rain
1 kWh of
electr ical energy
can be supplied
using ..
Energy for eLectricity (2)
Reactions for energy·
8; When fuels bu rn, t hey combine with oxygen in the air. With most fuels ,
I includ in g foss il fuels, the e nergy is released by this chemical reaction:
,fuel + oxygen , b u yning ) ,carbon d i o~ id e + water, + thennal energy
I""~ are lheie wasle gas~
u$<'d up au made
There may be ot her waste gases as well. For example, b ur ning coal produces
some sulfur dioxide. Natural gas, wh ich is mainly meth ane, is the 'cleanest'
(least polluting) of the fuels burned in power stations.
In a nuclear power station, the nuclear reactions produce no waste gases like
th ose above. However, they do prod uce rad ioactive waste.
Pollution problems
Thermal power stat ions can cause pollution in a variety of ways:
• Fuel-burning power stations p ut extra carbon d ioxide gas into t he
atmosph ere. This traps the Sun's energy and may be adding to glo bal
warming. Coal-burning power stations emit almost twice t he amou nt of
carbon dioxide per kJ output compared w it h those burning natural gas.
• Unless low-sulfur coal is used, or desulfu rization (FGD) units are fitted,
coal-burning power stations emit sulfur d ioxide, w hich is harmful to health
a nd causes acid rain.
• Tra nsporting fuels can cause pollu tion. For example, there may be a leak
from a n oil tanke!:
• The rad ioactive waste from nuclear power stations is highly dangerous.
It m ust be can'ied away a nd stored safely in sealed con ta iners for many
years - in some cases , thousands of years.
• Nuclear accidents are rare. But w hen they do OCC U 1~ radioactive gas and
d ust can be carried thousands of kilometres by winds.
Power from water and wind
Some generators are turned by t he force of moving water or w in d. There are
th ree examples on the next page. Power schemes like t his have no fuel costs,
a nd give off no polluting gases. H owever, they can be expensive to b uild , a nd
need large areas of la nd. Compared with fossil fuels, moving water and wind
are much less concentrated sources of energy :
... 0.5 Iitres of oil (b urning) ,. .5000 litre5 of fast·flowing wate r (20 m's)
 FORCES AND ENERGY
.............................................................................................
Pumped storage scheme This is a form of hydroelectric scheme.
At night, when power stations have spare capacity, power is used
to pump water f rom a lower reservoir to a higher one. During the
day, when extra electricity is needed, the water runs down again to
turn generators.
/ wind turbine
generat or
., ...

,
Hydroelectric power scheme River and rain water fil l up a lake
behind a dam. As water rushes down through the dam, it turns
turbines which turn generators.

Tidal power scheme A dam is built across a river where it meets
the sea. The lake behind the dam fills when the tide comes in and
empties when the tide goes out. The flow of water turns the
generators.
•
Win d farm This is a collection of aerogenerators - generators
driven by giant wind turbines ('windmills').

power stat ion A B C D E

coal combined nuclear wind fa rm large ti dal
(1 MW= l000000 W) (non-FGD) cy<:1e gas scheme
power output in MW 1800 600 1200 20 6000
efficiency (fuel energy -t electrical energy) 35% 45 % 25% - -
The following are on a scale 0-5
bu ild cost per MW output 2 1 5 3 4
fuel cost pe-r kWh output 5 4 2 0 0
at mospheric pollution per kWh output 5 3 <1 0 0

1 What is the source of energy in a hydroelectric power
station?
Z The table above gives data about five different power
stations, A- E.
La C has an efficiency of 25%. What does this mean?
b Which power station has the highest efficiency?
What are the other advantages of this type of
power station?
, Which power station cost most to bui ld?
d Which power station has the highest fue l cost per
kWh output?
• pollution per kWh output?
Which power station produces most atmospheric
f Why do two of the power stations have a zero rating
for fue l costs and atmospheric pollution?

Rel at ed t opi cs : effiCiency and power 4.04; energy resources 4.07-4.08; caiculating energy in kWh 8.14
 ................................................................................
FORCES AND ENERGY

Energy resources
How energy is used in a
typical industrialized country

IIII
do mestf( 30%

Most of t he energy t hat we use comes from fuels t hat are burned in power
stations, factories, homes, and vehicles. Nearly all of this energy originally
came from t he Sun. To find out how, see the next spread. 4.08 .
The Sun is 75% hydrogen. it releases energy by a process called nuclear
fusion, in w h ich the nuclei (centres) of hyd rogen atoms are push ed together
to form helium. One day, it may be possible to harness t his process on Earth
(see spread 11.07), but until thi s can be done, we shall have to manage with
ot her resources .
ShaLe gas and fracking The e nergy resources we use on E arth can be renewable or non-renewable .
Shale gas (see below right) is For example. wood is a renewable fuel. Once used, more can be grown to
extracted from shale by a J--eplace it. Oil. on the other ha nd, is non-renewable. It took millions of years to
process called frack i ng form in the ground , a nd cannot be replaced .
(hydraulic fracturing). High·
pressure water is pumped into N on ~ renewab le energy resources
the rock, fracturing it, and Fossil fuels Coal, oil, a nd natural gas are called foss il fuels because they
opening up cracks so that the formed from the remains of plants and tiny sea creatures whic h lived millions
trapped gas can flow out of years ago. They are a very concentrated source of energy. Oil is especially
Some see shale gas as a major useful because petrol, diesel, and jet fuel can be extracted from it. It is also the
source of energy for the raw material from whic h most plastics are made.
future. Others have deep
Natural gas is t he 'cleanest' of the fossil fuels (see spread 4.06). At present. it is
concerns about the
environmental impact of
mostly taken from t he sam e un derground rock format ions that con tain oil -
extracting it the gas formed w ith t he oil a nd became trapped above it. However. over t he
next decades. more and more gas w ill be extracted from a rock called s hale
(see left).
Problems whe n fossil fuels burn. t heir waste gases pollute the atmosphere.
Where to find out more Probably th e most serious con cern is t he amount of extra carbon dioxide
For more detailed see be ing produced . This may be adding to global warming.
information on. spread. Nuclear fuels Most contain uranium. I kg of nuclear fuel stores as m uc h
hydroelectric energy 406 energy as 55 tonnes of coal. In nuclear power stations. t he energy is released
tidal energy 4.06 by fission. a process in which the nuclei of uranium atoms are spli t.
wind energy 4.06 Problems High safety standards are needed . The waste from nuclear fuel is
solar panel 5.08 very dangerous and stays radioactive for thousands of years. Nuclear power
energy and mass
nuclear fission
11.06j
11.06
stat io ns are expensive to build . and expensive to decommission (close down
and disma nde at the e nd of th eir wo rking life).
nuclear fusion 11 .07
·.. .......................................................................................... FORCES AND ENERGY

Renewable energy resources

Hydroc1ee trl c e n ergy A r iver fills a lake behin d a dam. Water Aowi ng down Power start-up
from the lake turns generators. The demand for electricity
varies throug h the day. When
Problems Expens ive to build . Few areas of the world are su itable. Flood in g
more power is needed, extra
land and building a dam cau ses environmental damage.
generators must be brought
TIdal ene rb'Y Similar to hyd roelectric energy, but a lake fills w hen the tide 'on line' quickly.
comes in and e mpties w he n it goes out. Small, gas-burning power
Problems As for hydroelectric energy. stat ions can come up to speed
Wind e n ergy Generators al'e drive n by wind turbines ('windmills'). very rapidty. Hydroelectric
power stations are also quick
Problems Large, remote, windy s ites are needed. Winds are variable. The w ind to start up. Large fuel-burning
turbin es are noisy and can spoil t he landscape. power stations take longer.
Wave energy Generators are driven by t he up-and-down motion of waves at sea. And nuclear power stations
take longest of all. With a
Problems Diffic ult t o bu ild - few devices have been successful.
'cold' reador, a nuclear power
Geothe nnal energy 'Geothermal' means heat from th e Earth. Water is station takes about two days
pumped down to hot rocks deep underground a nd rises as steam. In areas of to reach fu ll power.
volca nic acti'vity, the steam comes naturally from hot springs.
Problems Deep d rilling is d ifficult and expensive.
Sola r e n ergy (energy rad iated from t he Sun) Solar panels absorb th is e nergy
an d use it to heat water. Solar cells are made from materials that can deliver
a n electric current w hen they absorb the energy in light.
Problems Val-iable amounts of s unshine in some countries. Solar cells are
expensive. and must be large to deliver useful amounts of power. A cell area of
arou nd 10 m 2 is needed to power an electric kettle.
Biofuel s These are fuels made from plant or animal matter. They include
wood, alcohol from sugar cane, a nd methane gas fro m rotting waste.
Problems Huge areas of land are need ed to grow plan ts.

Saving energy
Bu rning fossil fuels causes pollution. But t he alternatives ha ve their own
environmental problems. That is why many people t h.ink that we s hould be
less wasteful wit h e ne rgy by using vehicles more efficiently and recycling more
.. In Brazil. many cars use alcohol as
waste materials. Also , better insulation in buildings w ould mean less need for
a fuel instead of pet rol. The alcohol is
heating in cold countries and for a ir cond it ion ing in h ot ones. made from sugar cane, which is
grown as a crop.

oTo answer these questiom, you may need information
from the illustration on the next spread, 4.08.
1 Some energy resources are non-renewable. What does
this mean? Give two examples.
2: Give two ways of generating electricity in which no fuel
is burned and the energy is renewable.
The energy in petrol originally came from the Sun .
I'
L Explain how it got into the petrol.
4 Describe two problems caused by using foss il fuels.
5 Describe two problems caused by the use of nuclear
energy.
6 What is geothermal energy? How can it be used?
7 What is solar energy? Give two ways in which it can
be used.
8 Three of the energy resources described in this spread
make use of moving water. What are they?
9 Give four practical met hods of saving energy so that we
use less of the Earth's energy resources.

Rel ated topi cs : power stations 4.05- 4.06; energy fro m the Sun 4.08 ; solar panel s-oS; nuclear reactors 11.06- 11.07
 energy
Solar panels
These absorb energy
radi(lted from th€ Sun and
use it 10 heat water.

The Sun radiates energy because of nuclear

f usion reactions deep inside It . Its output is
equ ivalent to that from 3 x Io n electric
hotpla tes. Just a tiny fraction of this reaches
These U5{' the energy
the Earth.
in sun light t o produce
smal l amounts of

Energy in plants
Plants talce in energy from sunlight faDing on their leaves. They use it
to l urn wa ter and c1Irbon dEo~ ,de from the all Into new growth. The
process is called photosynthesis. Animals eat plants to get the energy
stored in them.

Biofuels from plants

Wood IS an Important
fuel in many countne!>. Fossil fuels
When wood is bu rned, it Fossil fuels (coal, oi l, and natural gas) were formed from the remams of
re leases energy that the plants and tiny sea crea tures which lived many m illions of yea~ ago_
tree once took In from Indus.trl al soc ieties rely on foss, 1fuels for m05t of t heir energy. Many power
the Sun. In some stations burn fossil f uels.
countries, sugar cant' is
gfCMt n and fermented to
malee alcohol. Th is (an
be used as a fuelmstead
of petrol. --~~ .....
Ronm g animal and plant wasle (all g,ve off methane gas.
This IS slm,lar to niltural gas ilnd ciln be u:.ed as iI fuel.
MiI~heS, rubbish tiPS, and sew-age treatment works are all
sources of methane. Some waste ciln alw be u:.ed d Irectly
ilS fuel by burn ing it .

Batteries
:.orne baneries (e.g. cilr
baneries) have 10 be given
energy by cha rgin g t hem
with electricity. Others ilre
manufilctured f rom
chemicills whICh already store
energy. But energy IS needed
to produce the chemicil is m
the first place.
 Thetides
The gravitational pull of the Moon (and to a
1e~SE'r extent, the Sun) creates gentle bulges In
the Earth's oceans. As the Earth rotates,
different places have high and low ti des as
they pass In and out of the bulges. The motion
of the tideS carnes enl'!rgy with it. Tidal energ y
In a tidal energy scheme, an estual)' IS
dammed to form an artificial lake.
It1(Qffiing tides fill the lake; outgoing tides
empty it. The flO'vV of water In and out of
Nucle us of the atom
the lake turns generators.
Radioactive materials have atoms with
unstable nuclei (centres) which break up
and release energy. The material giVl's
off the energy slO'vVly as thermal energy.
Energy can be released more quickly by
splitting heavy mldei (fi ssion). Energy
can also be released by lomlng light
nuclei (fusion), as happens in the Sun.

Geothermal energy
O€4! P underground. the rocks are hotler than
they are on the surface. The therm al energy
comes from radioactive maten als naturally
pre>ent in the rocb. lt can make steam fo r
Weath er systems healing buildmgs or driving generators,
The>e are driven by I'!nergy radiated from
the Sun. Hl'!atl'!d air flslng above the
equator causes belt!; of Wind around the
Earth. Winds carl)' watl'!r vapour from the
ocl'!ans and bnng rai n and snow.
FORCES AND ENERGY FURTHER QUESTIONS

1 wound Up spring batteries connected to motors b Calculate the maxim um potent ial energy
rotating flywheel stretched rubber bands
acq uired by the metal ball from t he catapult.
Wr ite down the form ula t hat you use a nd sho w
a State which of t he above change shape when you r wo rki ng. Take the acceleration d ue to
t he ir stored en ergy is trans felTed . [2J gravity to be 10 m/s 2 • [3J
b * Descri be how t he e nergy from a rotating c E.-xplain w hy t he max im u m po tent ial energy
flywh eel can be transferred to moving parts o f a gained by the metal ball is less tha n t he original
child 's toy. stored e nergy of t he spring. [3]
[2] 4 a Name four renewable e nergy sources that are
2 The d iagram belo w shows a pend ul um w hic h was used to generate electricity. [4J
released from positio n A. b One a d vantage of using renewable so urces to
generate electric ity is that there are no fu el costs.
" Give another advantage and one (lisadvanlage
,
,, of using renewable energy. [2]
, c The fuel costs fo r n uclear energy are low. State
,,
,,, the main fmancial d rawbacks in the use of
,,
,,, nuclear energy to generate electIicity. [2]

A •• 5 A d rop hammer is used to d r ive a hollow steel post

B C into the ground. The hammer is placed inside the
post by a crane. The crane lifts the hammer and the n
a What form(s ) of e nergy did t he pe ndul um have d rops it so t hat it falls onto the baseplate of the post.
at
i A, ii B. iii C? [3] supporI rope from crane
b Eventually t he pendulum would sto p m o ving.
Explain what has happened to the initial e nergy
hollow steel post
of the pend ulum. [2J
3 drop hammer
(\8QO kg)

f------ t ube
distartCE' the
l-(""- - - -- meldl ball ground hammer falls

movable_,-"C1>, base plate

plunger 'Cli'+------ spnng
I'

The hammer has a mass of 1800 kg. Its velocity is

rC:::
~=r---- h",,",
A type of toy catapult consists of a m ovable plunger
w hic h h as a spring attached as s hown above. The
ha ndle was pulled down to fully compress t he spring
a nd on release t he metal ball of mass 0.1 kg (weight
1 N) was projected 0.75 m vertically.
a i What type of energy is stored in a
5 mls just before it hi ts t he post.
a Calculate th e kinet ic e nergy of the hammer just
before it hi ts t he post. [3]
b How much po tent ial e nergy has the hammer
lost as it falls? Assume that it falls fl'eely. [1]
c Calculate th e distance t he hammer h as falle n.
(Assume g = 10 N/kg) [3]
6 A crate of mass 300 kg is raised by a n electd c motor
through a he ight of 60 m in 45 s. Calculate:
a The weight of t he crane (g :;;:; 10 N/kg) [2]
b The usefu l work do ne. [2]

l
co mpressed spring? [1 ] c The useful power of the moto r. [2]
ii What happens to t hi s sto red energy w hen d The efficie ncy of the m o to r, if it takes a power
t he ha ndle of the plu nger is released ? [2] of 5000 W from its electricity supply. [2]
 FURTHER QUESTIONS FORCES AND ENERGY

7 electrical power rating! kW power rating/ W b Copy a nd complete t he sentence below to say
appliance w hat a fuel does. [2 ]
television 0.1 100 A fuel is a material w hich supplies ___ w hen
electric ket1le 2000 it
food mixer 0.6 c Explain the difference between renewable and
non-renewable fuels. [I ]
T he table above shows the power rating of three d Copy a nd complete t he following table to give
electrical appliances. examples of some fuels a nd t heir uses. The first
a Copy t he table and fill in t he blank spaces. [2] one has been done for you. [4]
b State w hic h appliance tran sfers the least
amount of energy per second. [1 ] description example ",e
c State w hich appliance converts electrical energy a gaseous fuel hydrogen rocket fuel

into h eat a nd kinetic energy. [ 1] a liquid fuel

a solid fuel
8 a Explain w hat you u nderstand by the phrase
a renewable fuel
110/1-renewable e/lergy resources. [2]
a non-renewable f uel
b Explain why most non-renewable energy
resources are burned. [1 ]
c Name a n on-renewable energy resource which 12 a Copy and complete the following sentences
is not burned. [ 1] about household electrical d evices. Use words
from the list below. Each word may be used
9 a The c hem ical energy stored in a fossil fuel
once, more th an once or not at all .
prod uces heat w he n t he fuel is b urned .
Desct"ibe how t his heat energy is then used chemical electrical heat kinetic light
to produce electricity at a power station. [2] sound
b Id entify a nd compare t he financial a nd i In an iron, electrical e nergy is transferred
enviro nment costs of generating electricity into ma inly energy.
using fossil fuels and w ind. [4] ii In a vacuum deaner, electrical energy is
10 a
transferred into mainly energy and
unwanted ___ energy.
fueU renewable must be found in
energy ,,,,,I burned to the Earth's iii In a torch , electrical energy is transferred
resource release energy crust into mainly a nd energy.
coal 00 yo> yo> iv In a hi-fi system, electrical energy is
wood Y'" transferred into mainly _ _ _ _ energy.
uranium ye, and some unwanted e nergy is also
produced . [7]
T he table above shows that coal is not a renewable b The list. below conta ins some types of potential
fuel. It releases energy w he n burned a nd is found energy.
in t he Ea11h 's crust. chemical clastic gravitational nudear
Copy and complete the table for the ot her fuels/ Copy a nd complete the table below by nam ing
energy resources named . [2] th e potential energy stored in each one. Use
b Explain how fossil fuels were produced. [1 ] words from the list. Each word may be used
ii State two reason s why we should use less once, more t ha n once o r not at all. [3 ]
fossil fuels. [2]
11 a Most of the energy available on Earth comes , a bow about to fi re an arrow
or has come, from t he Su n. Some energy water at th e top of a waterfall
resources on Earth store the Sun's e nergy a birthday cake
from millions of years ago. Name one of t hese
reso u rces. [ 1]
FORCES AND ENERGY REVISION SUMMARY

Use the list below when you revise for your IGCSE examination. You can either
photocopy it or print it from the fi le on the CD accompanying th is book.
The spread number, i n brackets. tells you where to find more inf ormation.

Core LeveL Extended LeveL

o How work done depends on force and distance
moved. (4.0 1)
o The joule, uni t of work and energy. (4.0 I)
o The di fferent forms of energy. (4.01 )
o How energy can be c hanged from one form to
a not her. (4. 02)
o The law of conselvarion of e nergy. (4.02)
o How power d epends on work do ne a nd time
taken. (4.04)
a The watt, unit o f power. (4.04)
o How t he rmal power stations (fuel-burn ing power
stations a nd nuclear p ower stations) produce
electric ity. (4.05)
o The alternatives to thermal power stations.
(4.0 6-4 .08)
o The di fference between renewable a nd non-
renewable e nergy resources. (4.07)
o Non-renewable energy resources:
- fossil fuels
- nuclear fuels
The advantages and d isad vantages of each type .
includi ng environmental impact. (4.06- 4.08)
o Renewable energy resources:
- hydroelectric energy
- t idal energy
- w ind energy
- wave energy
- geothelmal e n ergy
- solar energy (solar cells and solar panels)
The advantages and disadvantages of each type .
including e nvironmental impact . (4.06- 4.08)
o How high efficie ncy means less energy
wasted. (4.07)
As for Core Level. plus t he following:
o The equat ion linking work done, force. and distance
m oved. (4.0 1)
o Defining t he joule. (4.0 1)
o The link between wo rk done a nd e nergy
transformed. (4.02)
o How the law of conservation of energy applies in a
series of energy changes . (4.02)
o Calculating gravitational potential energy (PE) (4.03)
a Calculating kinetic energy (KE). (4.03)
o Solving problems on PE and K£. (4.03)
o Calc ulating efficiency. (4.04)
o Us ing the equation linking power, e nergy
transfo rmed (or work do ne) and time taken. (4.04)
o Defi ning t he watt. (4.04)
o How, in a series of e nergy c ha nges . energy tends to
spread out a nd become less useful. (4.05)
o How the Sun is the source of energy for most of our
energy resources on Eart h. (4.07 and 4.08)
o How energy is released by nuclear fusion in t he
Sun . (4.07. 4.08. and J 1.07)

© oup: thjs may I)e ~produced for ctass use solely for the purchaser's lnst lture
 yphoon a ircraft takes off. The

T glow comes from hot gases

in its jet engines, where the
temeperalu re can reach mo re than
l S0Q°C. At high alti tudes,jet aircraft
like th is leave 'va PO W " tra ils' across
the sky. However, the trails are not
rea ll y vapo Ul: but m illions of tiny
droplets, fo rmed when water vapow'
from th e engines condenses in the
cold atmos phere.
 ................................................................................
TH ER MA L EFFEC TS

Moving particles

.. Water can exist in th ree forms:

solid, liquid, and gas. (The gas is
called water vapour, and it is p resent
in the aiL) like al l materials, w ater is
made up of tiny particles. Which form
it takes depends on how fi rmly its
particles stick together.

SoLids, Liquids, and gases

Every material is a solid , a liquid , or a gas . Scient ists have develop ed a mo del
(d escription) called the kinetic theory to explain how solids, liquids, a nd
gases behave. According to this theory, matter is made up of tiny part icles
wh ich are constantly in motion. The particles attract each ot her stro ngly w hen
close, but t he attractions weaken if t hey move further apart.
SoUd A solid , s uc h as iron , has a fixed shape a nd volume. Its parti cles are
Solid Particles vibrate about fixed held closely together by strong forces of attraction called bonds. T hey vib rate
positions. backwards a nd forwards but cannot cha nge positions .
[j{luid A liquid , such as water, has a fixed volu me but can fl ow to fill a ny
s hape, The particles are close t ogether a nd attract each o ther: But t hey vi brate
so vigorously t hat the attractions cannot hold them in fi.... ed posit ions, a nd
00 they can move past each ot hel:
Gas A gas, such as hydrogen , has no fixe d s hape or volume a nd qu ickly fills
a ny space available. Its particles are well spaced out, a nd virtually free o f any
o attractions. They move about at high speed, coll iding w ith each ot her and th e
00 walls of t heir containel:

o
What are the partic les?
liquid Particles vibrate, but can Everything is made from about 100 simple substances called elements_ An at om is the
change positions. smallest possible amount of an element. In some materials, the 'moving particles' of the
kinetic theory are atoms. Hovvever, in most materials, they are groups of atoms called
molecules. Below, each atom is shown as a coloured sphere. This is a simplified model
(description) of an atom. Atoms have no colour or precise shape.

00
00 Iron atoms Wat er molecules Hyd ro gen mo lecules

Gas Particles move about freely.

 T H ERMA L EFFEC T S
.............................................................................................
Brownian motion: evidence for moving particles
Smoke is made up of millions of tiny bits of ash o r oil d roplets. If you look at
smoke t hrough a m icroscope, as on the right. you can see the bits of smoke
glinting in th e light. As they dr ift through the a ir. they wobble a bou t in zig-zag
paths. This effect is called Brownia n mOlion, after t he scie nt ist Ro bert Brown
w ho first noticed th e wobbling, wan deri ng m ot ion of pollen grains in watel~
in 1827.
The kinetic t heory explains Brownian motion as follows. The bits of smoke are

l
just big enough to be seen, but have so little mass tha t they are jostled about mICroscope
as t housands of particles (gas molecules) in the surrounding a ir bump into
t hem at random.

Vif!oN t hrough
microscope glass
(over

I
p
l ig-l ag paths
of smoke bits

lamp smoke glass

cell

Energy of particles
The panicles (atoms or molecules) in solids, liquids, and gases have kinetic e nergy Kinetic energy
because t hey are m oving. They also have potential energy because theil' motion Energy because of motion.
keeps them separated and opposes t he bonds trying to pull t hem together. The Potential energy
particles in gases have the m ost potential energy because they are furt hest apart. Energy stored because of a
The total kinet ic and potent ial energies of all the atoms or m olecules in a change in position or shape.
material is called its inle rna] e n er gy. The honer a material is, the faster its
particles move, and the m ore internal energy it has.
If a hot material is in contact with a cold o ne, th e hot one cools down a nd
loses internal energy, w hile the cold one heats up a nd gains in ternal energy.
The energy transfetTed is known as h eat.
The term the nna] e nergy is often used for both inte rnal e nergy and heat.

o 1 Say whether each of the following describes a solid, a

liquid, or a gas:
a Particles move about freely at high speed.
b Particles vibrate and cannot change positions.
c Fixed shape and volume.
d Particles vibrate but can change positions.
e No fixed shape or volume.
f Fixed volume but no fixed shape.
9 Virtual ly no attrac.tions between particles.
2 Smoke is made up of millions of tiny bits of ash or oi l
droplets.
a What do you see when you use a m icroscope to
study illuminated smoke floating in air?
b What is the effect called?
L c. How does the kinetic theory explain the effect?
3 If a gas is heated up, how does this affect the motion of
its particles?
L 4 What is meant by the internal energy of an object?

Rel at ed t opi cs : energy 4. 01; fUSion and vaporization 5.11; atoms and elements 11.01
 ................................................................................
T H ERMAL EFFEC T S

Temperature (1)
The Celsius scale
A tcmperatw·c sca1e is a range of numbers for measuring the level of hotness.
Sun's centre 15 000 000 O(
Everyday temperatures are normally measured on the Celsius scale (sometimes
Sun 's surface 6000 0
(
called t he 'centigrade' scale). Its unit of te mperature is t he degree Celsius CC).
The numbers on the scale were specially chosen so t hat pure ice melts at 0 "C
bulb filament 2500 0
(
a nd pure water boils at 100 °C (under standard atmospheric pressure of
bunsen flame 1500 O( 10 1325 pascals). These are its two fixed points. Temperatures below 0 °C
have negative (-) values.
boiling water 100 "(

37°(
Thermometers
human body
Temperature is measured using a thennomctcr. One s imple type is shown
warm room 20 0 ( helmv. The glass bulb contains a liquid - either mercu ry or coloured
alcohol - w hich expands whe n t he temperature rises and pu shes a 'thread' of
melting ice o O(
liquid further along t he scale.
food in freezer _ 18 °(

liquid oxygen - 180 0 (

't hread·
absolute zero -273 °(

Every t hennometer depends on some property (characteristic) of a material

T Clinical th!!rmOm!!t!!fS like the one
below measure the temperature of the
human body very accuratety. Their
range is onty a few degrees either side
of the average body temperature of
37°C. When removed from the body,
they keep their reading unt il reset.
th at varies w ith temperature. For example, the thermometer above contains
a liquid w hose volume increases w it h temperature. The two t hermometers
below use materials whose elecui cal propeli ies vary w ith temperature.
All t hemlOmeters agree at t he fixed points. However, at ot her te mperatures,
t hey may not agree exactly because t heir c hosen propel1 ies may not vary w it h
temperature in quite the same way.

d igit al m eter measu res

current .:md converts to
a tem perature reading dOC
131.2 [10
probe contains
thermistor
battery (i nSide)

~
supplies current cold junction
lor t herm istor probe containS temperature-
sensing junction

Thermistor thermometer The thermistor is a device which Thermocouple thermometer Two different metals are joined
becomes a much better electrical conductor when its temperature to form two junctions. A tempera ture difference be-tween the
rises. This means that a higher current flam from the battery. j unctions causes a tiny voltage which makes a current flow.
causing a higher reading on th e meter. The greater the temperature difference, th e greater th e current.
............................................................................................. T H ER MA L EFFEC T S

What is temperature?
In any object, t he particles (ato ms or molecules) are moving, so they have 't) (0 fJ 10) 'Q
' ,
kinetic energy. They move at varying speeds, but the h igher the temperature ,
1(0)] h {)
cO higher d
then - on average - the faster they move.
te mperatu re d '"
If a hot object is placed in contact with a cold one, as on th e right, there is a
transfer of the rmal energy from o ne to the other. As the hot object cools dow n,
0 lO 4 ¢ ,0
'

its particles lose kinetic energy. As the cold object hea ts up. it palticles gain
kinet ic energy. When haUl objects reach t he same temperature, t he transfer of
't) 0
energy
e nergy stops because the average ki netic energy per particle is th e same in both:
b" '- ,J iQ'
Objects at t he same temperature ha ve the same average kinetic ellergy per
particle. The higher the temperature, the greater the average kinetic e nergy ,0 ' ,0 Q ,0 ' b /

per particle. lower

6temp~tu reo \
'0 ' '0 '
Temperature is not the same as heat. For example. a spoonful of boiling water
9 '0 , {)' '0 )
has exactly th e same temperature (l 00 °C) as a saucepanful of boiling watel:
but you could get far less thermal energy (heat) from it. °
Absolute zero and the Kelvin scale- The Kelvin scale is a
As t he temperature falls , t he particles in a material lose kinetic energy a nd thermodynamic scale. It is
move more a nd m o re slo wly. At ~ 273 °C, they can go no slower. This is t he based on the average kinetic
lowest temperature t here is , a nd it is called abs ol ute zero. The rules of ato mic energy of particles. rather than
p hys ics do not allow particles to have zero energy, b ut at absolute zero th ey on a property of a particular
would have t he m inimum e nergy possible. substance.
In scient ific work, temperatures are often measured u sing t he Kelvin scale . The (o nstant vo lume
Its temperature unit. the kelvin (K). is the same size as the degree Cels ius, but hydrogen thermometer
the scale uses absolute zero as its zero (0 K). You convert [ro m one scale to the contains trapped hydrogen gas
other like th is: whose pressure increases with
temperature. II gives
Kelvin temperature/K = Celsius temperature/OC + 273 the closest match to the
thermodynamic scale and is used
as a standard against which
melting ic@ boiling w~ter other thermometers
Celsius scale o·C 100 ~C are calibrated (marked).
Kelvin scale 273 K 373 K

o t - 273 o 100 273 m A B

Say which of t he above is the temperature of hig her lower
a boiling water in O( bol< boiling water in K temperature temperature
c absolute zero in "( dol< absolute zero in K
e melting ice in O( f* melting ice in K. 1 Blocks A and B above are identical apart from their
2 Every thermometer depends on some property of a t emperature.
material that varies with temperature. What property a How does the motion of the particles in A compare
is used in each of the following? with that in B?
a A mercury·in·glass thermometer. b In w hat direction is thermal energy transferred?
b A thermistor thermomet er. c When does the transfer of thermal energy cease?

Related topics : kinetic energy 4.01 and 4.03; motion of particles in solids, liquids, and gases 5-01; expanSion of liquids 5.04; motion of
particles in a gas 5.05; thermistors 8.06 and 10.03
 ................................................................................
T H ER MA L EFFEC TS

Temperature (2)
Fixing a temperature scale
To c reate a temperature scale, two standard temperatures must be c hosen
against w hic h ot hers can be judged . These fi:'(ed points need to be defined so
that they can be reproduced in laboratories anywhere in the wo rld :

On the Celsius scale:

a degrees Celsius (0 0c) is defined as t he melting poin t of pure ice. This is
the lower fixed point , known as t he ice point.
100 degrees Celsius (100 0c) is defined as t he boiling point of pure watel~
ice where th e water is boili ng under standard atmospheric pressure (IO 1 325 Pa).
po,nt
o O( ---- This is the upper fixed point. known as t he steam point.

Pu tting a scale o n a n instrument, so that it gives accurate readings , is called

calibrating the instrument. The diagrams o n th e left s how how th e fixed
pure po ints can be used to calibrate an unmarked t hermometer.
m:!lti ng
ice To fi nd th e a °c p oint. the unmarked t hermometer is placed in pure , melting
ice, as in t he upper d iagram on the left. The ice needs to be pure because its
• Finding the lower fixed point
melt ing point is lowered if a ny impurities are present.
To fi nd th e l Oa °c poi nt, t he thermometer is placed in steam above boili ng
steam water, as in the lower diagram o n the left. Boiling m ust take place under
p Oint
standard atmospheric pressure because a c hange in pressure alters the boiling
100 OC
po int of t he watel: lmpu ri ties also affect t he boili ng point but, in m ost cases,
they do not affect t he temperature of the steam just abo ve the wate t:

ice
pOH'lt

·c if end 't hread '

is half w ay between
o Q( ilnd 100 QC.
tem perature is 50 O(

Once the a "C a nd 100 °c points have been flxed , t he rest of the scale is made
by d ividing th e di stance between them into 100 eq ual division s , 01" d egn~es
bOIling
wa ter
('cent igrade' m eans 'one hu ndred divis io n s'). The idea can can be extended
to prod uce a scale go ing abo ve 100 "c a nd below a "C. altho ugh fo r so me
thermometers, add itional fixed points are used (see t he to p of t he next page) .
• Finding t he upper f ixed point
Putting eq ual d ivisions o n a thermometer defmes the temperature scale fo r that
particular type of thermometer. For example , if t he end of the 'thread ' is e:xactly
half way between the ice p oints a nd the steam points. as in the diagram above,
then by definition, the temperature is exactly half way between O.,C a nd 100 "c.
So the tempera ture is 50 0c. If a scale has equal divis io ns, it is described as a
linear scale.
 T H ER MA L EFFE CT S
.............................................................................................
Additional fixed pOints
Although the ice and steam points are sufficient to create a Fixed point Temperature
scale over the range required for f!'Ieryday temperature
boiling point of liquid oxygen -183 °(
measurements. there are additional fixed points for much
freezing point of molten (liquid) zinc 420 0
(
higher and lower temperatures. You can see some examples
on the right. For simplicity. the temperatures are given to the freezing point of molten (liquid) silver 962 °(
nearest degree. In practice. greater accuracy is used. freezing point of molten (liquid) gold 1064 °(

Liquid-in-gLass thermometers
Nearly all liquids expand slightly when heated . This property is used in
liquid-in-glass thermometers. w hic h are normally filled w it h alcohol or mercury.
Sensitivity Some thermometers are more sensitive to temperature c ha nge
t han others. The 'thread' of liquid moves furt hec The diagrams on t he right
sh ow how tu be width affects the sens itivity. The narrower t he t ube . t he higher
the sens itivity of t he t hermometer.
Mercury expands less tha n alcohol (for the same volume and same
temperature rise). So a mercury t hermometer m ust have a narrower tu be t ha n
a n alcohol t hermometer to give the same sensit ivity.
lower temperat ure
Range Merc ury freezes at - 39°C; alcohol freezes at a m uch lower
temperatu re , -115 °C, However, some mercury t hermometers have an upper
limit of 500 "'C , w hich is much higher th an that of any alcohol thermometer. •
Responsiveness Some thermometers respond more q uickly to a c hange in
temperature than others. A thermometer with a larger bulb, or thicker glass
round t he bulb, is less responsive because it takes longer for t he alcohol or
mercury to reach t he temperatu re of the surroundings.
Linearity Although mercury a nd alcohol thermometers m ust agree at the
fixed points, they do not exactly agree at other temperatures. That is because
the expans ion of one liquid is not quite linear compared wit h t he other.
However, w it hi n t he 0 -100 °C range . t he disagreement is very small.

ThermocoupLe thermometer higher temperat ure

For a diagram a nd brief description, see t he previous spread, 5.02. Compared

... The narrower the tube. the further
w ith a liquid -in-glass t helTnometer, a thermocouple t hermometer is robust,
the liquid move-s up it when the
quick to respond to temperature cha nge. has a w ide range (-200 °C to
temperat ure rises.
1 100 °C), a nd can be linked to other electrical circu its or a compu ter.

o , The thermometer on the right has the ice and steam points marked on it. em
a On the Celsius scale, what is t he temperature of steam point - - 30
i the ice point ii the steam point?
Ib What is the temperature reading in 0c. if the end of the 'thread' is at · 20
L i point A ii point B iii point C? s -- .
Ice point -- 10
c Exp lain why reading C wou ld not be possible with a mercury thermometer.
A - smalle r bulb B - thicker glass round bulb C - thinner tube
(-- 0
For a liquid-in-g lass thermometer, wh ich of the above wou ld
[ a increase the sensitivity? b increase the responsiveness?

Related topics: standard atmospheric pressure 3-08

 ................................................................................
TH ERM A L EFFEC TS

Expanding solids and Liquids

Kinetic theory essentials (IJ isIf acalled

concrete or steel bar js heated , its volume will increase slightly. The effect

According to the kinetic theory, I therma1 expansion. It is usually too small to notice, but u nless space
is left. for it , it can prod uce e nough force to crack the concrete or b uckle the
solids and liquids are made up o f
steel. Most solids expand w hen heated . So do most liquids - a nd by more than
tiny, vibrating particles (atoms or
solid s. If a liquid is stored in a sealed container, a space m ust be left at t he top
molecules) which attract each
to allow for expansion.
other. The higher the temperature.
then on average, the faster the
particles vibrate. Q '0 ,,0 ' '0 ,,0' Q 9Q
tlOtlOOO 'Q tl
'0 ' "(j 0- ro , 0
- '0 ' t) 'Q
~

tl 'Q tl tl '0, tl {) tl
QO 'o ,OQ{)QO
'b Q {)O,o 'O, Q 'Q
(old

The kinetic theory explains thermal expans ion as follows. Whe n, say, a steel
bar is heated, its pa11icles speed up . Their vibrations take up more space, so
t he bar expands slightly in all directions. If the te mperatu re falls, t he reverse
happens a nd t he matel'ial contracts (gets smaller).

~'~~'~'~(""
~':i"~)=~< c=J 0.1 mm Comparing expansions
Pyrex g lass ?c=J 0.3 mm The c hart on t he left s hows how muc h 1 metre lengths of d iffere nt materials

tp~glaSS
~I~"~,"~"~m~.~I~o~y:Oi,',t,
F'~OO~'.
FSl~1 ="::~<;»<; 11
??
I I mm
1 0.9 mm
1 0.9 mm

mm
L expand w he n t heir temperature goes up by 100 "c. For greater len gths a nd
higher temperature increases, t he expansion is more.
When c hoosing materials for particular jobs , it can be important to k now how
brass L::::::1 2 mm much t hey will expand . H ere a re two examples:
f-'~'~"m"-,"-,"-m---5s:::::::::::::: 3 mm Steel rods can be used to reinforce concrete because bot h mate rials expand
i
increase in leng th of
equally. If t he expan sions were d iffere nt, t he steel m ight crack t he concrete on
a hot day.
a l mbarforalOOO(
rise in tem perature If an ordinary glass dish is p ut straight into a hot oven, the outside of the glass
expands before the ins ide a nd the strain cracks the glass. Pyrex expands m uc h
less than ord inary glass, so s hould n ot crack.

cold ~y

hot day

Allowing for expansion ... ... and contraction

Gaps are lett at t he ends of bridges to allow fo r expansion. One When overhead cables are suspended from poles or pylons, they
end 01 the bridge is oft en supported on rol lers so that are left slack, partly to allow for the contraction that would
movement can lake place. happen on a very cold day.
 T H ERMAL EFFEC T S
.............................................................................................
Using expansion
current current
from
I heat er
"
'thread'

Ln the thermo meter above, the liquid in t he b ulb expands w he n the brass
temperatu re rises. The tube is mad e narrow so that a small increase in volume mvar
of the li q uid prod uces a large movement alon g t he tube, as expla ined in t he
previous spread , 5.03. - bimetal strip

bimetal wip: wid _.hot

l ,~~
invar

/
"" ~
control knob contacts

,/ ~ ... Bimet al thermostat When the

brass brass I?xpands most temperat ure rises. the bimetal strip
bends, the contacts separate, and the
In the bime tal strip above, thin strips of two di ffere nt metals are bonded curren t to the heater is cu t off. When
together. Whe n heated , one metal expands more than th e other, which makes the the temperature fails. the bimetal
strip straightens, and the current is
bimetal strip bend. Bimetal stJips are used in some thennostats - devices for
switched on again. In this way, an
keeping a steady temperature. The thermostat shown on the !'ight is co ntrolling
approximately steady temperature is
a n electric heater. MOl'e m odern designs often use a n electronic circuit co ntaining
maintained.
a thermistor, rather tha n a bimetal strip.

Water and ice*

When hot water cools, it contracts. However, when water freezes it expmuls
as it turns into ice. The force of the expans io n can burst water pipes and split
rocks wit h rainwater trapped in t hem .
Water expands on freez ing for t he follow ing reason. In liq uid water, the
particles (water m olecules) are close together. But in ice , t he molecules link up
molecules in liquid water
in a very o pen structure that actually takes up more space than in the liqu id -
as s hown in t he diagram on t he r ight.
Ice has a lower dellsity than liqu id water - in o t her words, each kilogram has
a greater volu me. Because of its lower de nsity, ice floa ts o n water. When liq uid
water is cooled , t he m olecules stmt form ing into a n open struc tu re at 4 °c,
just before freez ing point is reached. As a result, water expands very slightly
as it is cooled from 4 °C to 0 °C. It takes up least space, a nd therefore has its molecules m ICe
max im u m dens ity, at 4 °C.

o
... 1 Explain the following: :2 Th is question is about the thermostat in the diagram at
a A metal bar expands when heated. the top of the page.
b Overhead cables are hung with plenty of slack in a Why does the power to the heater get cut off if the
them. temperature rises too much?
c It wou ld not be a good idea to reinforce concrete b To maintain a higher temperature, which way would
with aluminium rods. you move t he control knob? - to the right so that it
d A bimetal strip bends when heated. moves towards the contacts, or to the left? Explain
e*Water expands when it freezes. your answer.

Rel at ed t opi cs : denSity 1.04; kinetic theory and particles 5.01 ; thermometers 5.02; thermi stors 8.06 and 10 .03
 ................................................................................
TH ER MA L EFFE C TS
Kinetic theory essentials
According to the kinetic theory, a
gas is made up of tiny. moving
particles (usually molecules).
These move about freely at high
speed and bounce off the walls
of their container. The higher the
temperature. then o n average.
the faster they move.
t hermometer pressure
gauge
lli1pped ,II(
...............
heilting
Heating gases
Or Unl ike a solid or liquid, a gas does not necessarily expand whe n heated. That
is because its volu me depends on t he container it is in. When d eali ng wit h a
fixed mass of gas. there are always three factors to consider: pressu re, volume,
and temperature. Depending on t he circumstan ces, a c ha nge in tem perature
can produce a cha nge in pressure, or volume, or both.
This spread deals with t he effects of a change in temperature. To find out
more about the li nk between the pressure of a gas and its volu me w hen Ule
temperature doesn't cha n ge, see spread 3.09.
How pressure changes with temperature (at constant volume)
I n dle expe riment on the left . air is trapped in a flask of fixed volume. The
Wil l er temperature of the air is c hanged in stages by heating t he water - or putt ing
(or other a hotter or colder material (melting ice, for example) in t he container. At each
milteriill)
stage, t he pressure is measured on t he gauge.
The table shows some typical read ings:
temperature / O( 20 80 140 200
pressure / kPa 102 123 144 165
As the temperature of the a ir r ises. so does t he pressure. This is because th e
molecules move faster. There is a greater c ha nge in momentum w h en they hi t
...
hea ting
lower temperatu re higher tem perature
~ faster molecul es
~ molecules hit SideS with greater fo rce
lower pressure ~ higher pressure
the s ides of the flask. so a greater force:
The cylinders used for storing gas are strong enou gh to withstand a ny extra
pressure due to normal rises in temperature. It is da ngerous to throw aerosol
cans on bonfires because t hey m igh t burst. However. t hat is mainly because
more of the liquid propellant in the can turns to gas.
·.. .......................................................................................... T H ERMAL EFFEC T S

How volume changes with temperature (at constant pressure)

In the experi ment on the right, trapped gas (air) is heated at constant
pressure. This is atmosp heric pressure because only th e short length of liqu id coloured
separates the a ir from the atmosphere outside. As the temperature rises , the liquid

volume of t he gas increases - t he gas expands.

Here is an experiment to show the opposite effect. Take a n empty plastic air at
constant
bottle (of t he type used for b ottled water). Screw the top on t ightly. Put t he pressure
bottle in a freezer for a bou t 5 m inu tes, then see if you notice a ny d ifference. (atmospheric)

Comparing expansions of solids, liquids, and gases

At constant pressure. gases expand much more than Hquids which , in turn, 20 ·c
expand more than solids. For example. for th e same volume o f material a nd
t he same rise in temperature (starting at room temperature):
Water expands 7 times as m uc h as steel
heal ing
Air (at constant pressure) expands 16 t imes as m uch as water.
.. In this experiment, the pressu re
It is the stren gth of the attractions between the particles (molecules, for of the gas stays constant. As the
example) t hat makes t he di ffere nce . In a solid, the attractions are very strong. temperature increases, so does
If the temperature rises a nd t he particles move fa ster. t h is h as very little effect the volume.
on their separation because they are so tightly held together: In a liquid , the
attractions are weaker, so the expansion is greater. I n a gas , th e attractions are
extremely weak. so the expans ion is m uc h more.

... Before its flight. this baBoon is filled

with cold air using a motorized fan.
Then the gas burner raises the
temperature of the air to 100"C or
more. There is no change in pressure
(it stays at atmospheric), but a large
increase in volume.

o 1 How does the kinetic theory explain the following?
a A gas exerts a pressure on its container wa lls.
b The pressure increase with temperature (assuming
t hat the volume does not change).
2 If a gas is heated at constant pressure, what happens
to its vo lume?
J Comparing a solid with a liquid, which wou ld you
expect t o expand the most when heated? Use the
kinetic theory to explain your answer.
4 Comparing a liquid wi t h a gas, which wou ld you expect
to expand the most when heated? Use the kinetic
theory to explain your answer.

Retat ed t opi cs : momentum 2.11; gas pressure and volume 3.09; kinetic theory 5.01; temperature 5.02; expanSion of solids and liquids 5.0 4
 ................................................................................
TH ER MA L EFFEC TS

Thermal conduction

hi9h IOW(lr
temperature temperature

Good conductors All mate r ials are mad e up of t iny, moving pat1icles (atoms or m olecules). The
metals e.g. copper higher the temperature , t he faster the particles move.
aluminium
I f o ne end of a metal bar is heated as above , th e oth er end eventually becom es
iron
too hot to touch . Thermal energy (heat) is transferred from t he hot end to the
silicon
graphite
cold end as the faster particles pass on their extra motion to particles all along
the hal: The p rocess is caUed conduction .
More t helmal e ne rgy is transferred every second if:
Poor conductors • the temperature differe nce across the e nds of t he bar is increased
(insulators) • the cross-sectio nal ('e n d-on') area of t he bar is increased
glass • the length o f t he bar is reduced.
water
plastics
Thermal conductors and insulators
Some materials are much better conduc tors of t hermal e nergy tha n others.
rubber
Poor co nducto rs are called insulators.
wood
Metals a re the best t hermal cond uc tors. Non -metal solids tend to be poor
wool
co nd uc tors; so do m ost liq uids. Gases are t he worst of all. Many materials are
materials {WOOl insulators because they contain tiny pockets of trapped air. Yo u use th is idea
com' ''''g gl,,, wool (f'b~91"'J w hen you put o n lots of la yers of clot hes to keep you warm. There a re some
trapped plastic foam
m ore e:'(amples at the top o f t he next page.
air expanded polystyrene
You can sometim es tell how well so meth ing cond ucts just by touchi ng it. A
The materials above are arranged in metal door ha ndle feels cold because it quickly cond ucts t he rmal energy away
order of conducting ability starting from your hanel. whic h is warmer. A polystyrene t ile feels warm because it
with the best. insulates your ha nd a nd stops it losing t he rmal en ergy.

rods cDdted with

a thin layer of wax
when cold

"

... Comparing four good thermal conductors. Ten minutes or so after ... This experiment shows that water is a poor
the boiling w ater has been tipped into the tank. the length of melted thermal conductor. The water at the top of the
wax sho'NS which material is the best conductor. tube can be boiled w ithout the ice melting.
 T H ERMAL EFFEC T S
.............................................................................................
Using insulating materials

wall

• Fea thers give good thermal

insulat ion. especially when fluffed up
to trap more air.
".
.' , .: .
'", .

In countries where build ings need to be heated. good insulation means tower
fuel b ills. Above are some of the ways in w h ic h insulating materials are used
to reduce heat losses from a house:
Plastic foam lagging round the h ot water storage tank.
2 Glass or m ineral wool insulation in the loft.
3 w all cavity filled w it h plastic foam. beads. or m ineral wool.
4 Double-glazed w indows: two sheets of glass wit h a ir between them. electrons in I,,,,
,,~ electrons
How materials condue!
w he n a material is heated , the particles move faster. push on neighbou ring .1\
particles . and speed those up too. All materials cond uct like t his bu t. in
metals . ene rgy is also transferred by a not her, much qu icke r me thod.
I n atoms, there are tiny panicles called elec tron s. Most are firm ly attached ,
but in metals , some are 1oose' a nd free to drift between the atoms. When a
metal is heated , t hese fr ee eJectrons speed up. As t hey move ra ndomly within
the metal, th ey collide wit h atoms a n d make them vibrate faster. In this way,
thermal energy is rapidly transferred to all parts.
An electric c u rrent is a flow of electrons - so metals are good electrical
• Atoms in a metal
conductors a s well as good t hermal co nductors.

(!)
1 Explain each of the following:
a A saucepan might have a copper bottom but a
plastic handle.
b Wool and feathers are good insu lators.
c An aluminium w indow frame feels colder than a
wooden w indow frame when you touch it.
d It is much ~fer picking up hot dishes with a dry cloth
than a wet one.
Z Give three ways in which insulating materials are used
to reduce thermal energy losses from a house .
J A hot water tank loses thermal energy even when
lagged. How could the energy loss be reduced?
4 Look at the experiment shown on the opposite page,
comparing four thermal conductors.
a Which of the metals is the best conductor?
b In experiments like this, it is important to make sure
that the test is fair. Write down three features of this
experiment which make it a fa ir test.
Why are metals much better thermal conductors than
most other materials?

Retat ed t opi cs : energy 4. 01; particles of matter 5.01; temperature 5.02; electrical conductors 8.01
 ................................................................................
T H ER MA L EFFEC TS

Convection
Liquids and gases are IX>Or thermal conductors. but if they are free to circulate .

cooler
,r- -, warm
they can carry t hermal en ergy (heat) from one place to anothel· very quickly.

Convection in a liquid
water water
wlk~

[ '-'''''1,
current
n~e~ In the experiment on the left. t he bottom of t he beaker is being gen tly heated
in one place only. As the water a bove the flame becomes warmer. it expands
a nd becomes less dense. It rises upwards as cooler. denser water sinks and
\. • displaces it (pushes it out of the way). The result is a circulati ng stream,

potasSium
permanganate
f'1 called a convec tion ClUTent. Where t he water is heated , its particles (water
molecules) gain energy a nd vibrate more rapidly. As t he particles circulate,
cry~tal~ to
colour water R they transfer e nergy to other parts of the beakel:
Convection does not occur if the water is heated at t he top rather t ha n at the
bottom. The warmer. less dense water stays at t he top.

Convection in air
Convection can occur in gases as well as liquids. For example, warm air rises
w hen it is displaced by cooler. denser a ir sinki ng around it.
Heated by th e Sun, warm air rises above t he equator as it is displaced by
cooler. denser air s inking to the north and south . The result is huge convection
c urrents in t h e Earth's atmosphere. These cause w inds across all o ceans and
cont inents. Convection also causes the onshore a nd offs hore breezes whic h
sometimes blow at t he coast d uring the summer:

During the daytime. in air cools

hot sunshine. the land
heats up more quickly
than the sea. Warm air
rises above the land. as it
is displaced by cooler air
moving in from t he sea. wi nd t owards coa~t

"

At night, the reverse air cools

happens. The sea stays
warmer than the land.
which cools down quickly. warm air nses
Warmer air now rises
cool air sinks
above the sea, as it is
displaced by cooler air wmd away fro m coast
moving out from the land.

"""*'" -- .;;...
sea walmer than land
..",..
............................................................................................. T H ERMAL EFFEC T S

Using convection in the home

Ix!ated water
collects in tank hot taps
from lOp down

p, warm
air rises
'001
insulat ion air sinks

heater or
radiator

t t Room heating Warm air rising above a convector heater or

radiator carries thermal energy all around the room - though
cold Wl'Iler cooler water hoI water
supply returns from boiler unfortunately. the coolest air is always around your leet.
to bo~e r

Hot water system In the system above, hot water for the taps
comes from a la rge storage tank. The water is heated by a coil of
cold air
copper pipe: hot water from a boiler flows through this and is -i..l-lt--- smks
recirculated by a pump. In the tank, the healed water rises to the
top by convection. In this way. a supply of hot water collects from
the top down . The tank is insulat ed to reduce thermal energy
losses by conduction and convection.
Practical systems ale more compl icated than the one shown. There
is additional pipework to allow the water to expand safely when
heated. Also. there may be an extra circuit for radiators.

Refrigerator Cold air sin ks below the freezer compartment.

This sets up a circulating curren I of air which cools all the food
in the refrigerator.

o t Explain the following:

a A rad iator quickly warms all the air in a room,
3 Some hot water systems have an immersion heater - an
electrical heating element in the storage tank. In the
even though air is a poor therma l conductor. t ank below, should the heating element be placed at A
b The smoke from a bonfire rises upwards. or at B? Explain your answer.
c Anyone standing near a bon f ire fee ls a draught.
- to hot water taps
d The freezer compartment in a refrigerator is placed
at the top.
e A refr igerator does not cool the food inside it c===== A~
po:»i b le
properly if the food is too tightly packed . poSitions
:2 On a hot summer's day. coast al winds often blow in for healing
elem ent
from the sea.
co ld w ater _ c===== S..-l
a What causes these winds?
b Why do the winds change direction at night?

Related topics: denSity 1.04; expanSion of liquids 5.04; thermal conduction 5.06
 ................................................................................
T H ERMAL EFFEC T S

Thermal radiation
On Earth , we are warmed by t he Sun. Its e nergy travels to us in t h e form
of elec tromagnetic waves. These include invis ible infrared waves as well
as light. a nd they can travel through a vacuum (empty space). They h eat up
things that absorb them . so are often called Ihenna] radiation.
All objects give out some thermal rad iation. The h igher their surface

L
temperature a nd t he grea ter t heir su rface area. t he more energy t h ey radiate
per second. Thelmal radiation is a m ixture of different wave1cngths. as
s how n on t he left . Warm objects radiate infrared . Bu t if t hey become hotter.
they also em it s horter wavelengths which may include light. That is w hy a
radi ant heater or grill starts to glow 'red hot' when it heats up.

light Emitters and absorbers

(viSible)
... Thermal radiation is mainly
inf rared waves. but very hot objects
also give out light waves.
Some s urfaces are be tter at em itting (sendi ng out) thermal rad ia tion than
ot hers. For example . a black saucepan cools down more qu ickly t ha n a sim ilar
w hite one because it em its e nergy at a faster rate .
Good emitters of thermal rad iation are also good absorbers. as shown in t he
c hart below. Whi te or silvery surfaces are poor absorbers because they refl ect
most of t he thermal radiation a way. That is why, in hot . sunny countries .
houses are often painted white to keep them cool inside.

emitters beSt .... ......... ......... .... .......... ......... ......... ......... ..... . worsl

-- - - - - - - ,-------r~~

ITl(Itt • white
non-shlny
_ ____ __ .L-_ _ ~~--'

reflectors worst ....... ......... .......... ......... ......... .... ..... ................ best
~ This chart shows hO'N some surfaces
absorbers best ...................... ................... .... .... ... .. ..... ......... . WOrsl
compare as emitters. reflectors. and
absorbers of t hermal ra diation.

thermometer thermome ter

malt
white
~n
black \

metal cube
meter "'~><? containing
bOiling water radiant
heater

Comparing emitters The meta l cube is filled with boiling water Comparing absorbers The metal plates are placed at the same
which heats the surfaces to the same temperature. distance fro m a radiant heater. To fi nd out which surface absorbs
The thermal radiation detector ~ placed in turn at the same th ermal rad iation most rapidly. the rises in temperature are
dista nce from each surface and the meter readings compared. compared.
·.. .......................................................................................... T H ERMAL EFFEC T S

Greenhouse effects'
When t he Su n's t hermal rad iation reaches t he Eart h, t he atmosphere acts as
a 'heat trap'. This happens because some gases (notably water vapou r, carbon
dioxide, and metha ne) abso rb e nergy strongly at certa in wavelengt hs in the
infrare d region of t he spectrum. The heat-trapping act ion of the atmo sphere is
called t he greenhouse effect. Without it, th e Ealih's surface would be around
25 °C cooler tha n it is. The present concern is t ha t extra carbon dioxide from
burning fuels may be adding to the effect a nd causing global warming.
Greenhouses act as heal traps , which is how t he greenhouse effect got its name.
However, they work in a d ifferent way. Thelma! radi a tion from the Sun passes ... The Sun's thermal radiation passes
easily through the glass or plastic. The ground inside warms up and heats the easily into a greenhouse. But unless
air. But the hot air is t rapped. It cannot escape by ris ing and flowing away. you leave the door or a roof vent
open. t he heated air inside cannot
The solar panel escape.

network
J---(i) stopper
pipes

gap with
air rEmoved
Some houses have a so]ar pane] on t he roof like the one above. It uses the
Sun's thermal radiation to warm up water for the house. The blackened layer
absorbs t he m d ia n t energy and warms up the water flowin g throu gh th e p ipes.
glass or
stee l w alls
The vacuum flask
si lvery
A vacuum flask can keep drinks hot (or cold) for hours. It has t hese featu res
surfaces
for reducing t he rate at whic h t hermal energy flows ou t (or in):
1 An insulated stopper to reduce COl1dllCtiOll and convection.
2 A double-walled conta iner wit h a gap between t he walls. Air has been
removed fro m t he gap to red uce collductiOll and cOllvection.
3 walls w ith s ilvery s urfaces to reduce then/lal radia t iOll. ... A vacuum flask

ot white silvery matt black

Which of the above surfaces is the best at
a absorbing therma l radiation
b emitting thermal radiation
c reflecting therma l radiation?
When a warm object is heated up, the thermal
rad iation it emits changes. Give two ways in which the
t hermal radiation changes.
~ What feature does a vacuum flask have to reduce the
transfer of heat by therma l rad iation?
4 In experiments like those on the opposite page, it is
important to make sure that each test is fa ir.
a Write down three features of the Comparing
emitters experiment that make it a fair test.
b Repeat for the Comparing absorbers experiment.
5 * Why, on a sunny day, is it norma lly hotter inside a
greenhouse than it is inside a wooden shed?
6 In the solar panel above, why does the panel have
a a blackened layer at the back
b a network of water pipes?

Related topi cs: energy 4.01; global warmlng 4.06; solar energy 4.07- 4.08; t hermal energy 5.01; cooo ucilon 5.06; convectlon 5.07;
electromagnellc waves 7.10-7.11
 ................................................................................
TH ER MA L EFFEC TS
Kinetic theory essentials
According to the kinetic theory,
Or
every material is made up of tiny,
moving particles (usualty
molecules). These move at
varying speeds. But the higher the
temperature. then on average.
the faster they move.
In a liquid. attractions keep the
particles together. In a gas. the
particles have enough energy
to overcome the attractions,
stay spaced out, and move
around freely.
~ When a liquid evaporates. faster
particles escape fro m its surface to
form a gas. However. unless the gas
is removed, some of the particles will
return to the liquid .
Liquids and vapours
Evaporation
Even on a cool day, rain p uddles can vanish a nd wet clothes d ry out. The
water beco mes an invis ib le gas (called water vapour) whic h dIifts away in
the a ir. When a liquid below its boil ing point c hanges into a gas, th is is called
evaporation , It happens because some particles in t he liquid move faster t han
others. The faster ones near the s urface have enough energy to escape and
fo rm a gas.
There are several ways of maki ng a liquid evaporate more quickly:
Increase the temperature Wet clothes d ry faster o n a warm day because
more of t he part icles (water molecules) have enou gh energy to escape,
Increase the surface area Water in a p uddle dries out more quickly t ha n
water in a cup because more of its molecules a re close to the s urface.
Reduce the humidity* If air is vel)' Ilifl/lid, this mean s that it already h as a
high water vapour conten t. In hum id air, wet was hing dries slowly because
molecules in the vapour return to the liquid almost as fast as those in t he
liquid escape, In less humid ail; wet was hing dries more quickly.
l
Bl0W air across the surface Wet clothes dl)' faster on a windy day because
th e moving a ir carries escaping water molecules away before many of t hem
can return to t he liquid.
0' o '0
'0 go>
Boiling
Boiling is a vel)' rapid form of evaporation. When water boils. as in the
ph otograph on the left. vapour bubbles form deep in the l iqu id. They expand.
rise, burst. and release large amounts of vapour.
Even cold water has tiny vapour bubbles in it. but these are squash ed by the
pressure of t he atmosphere. At 100 "c, the vapour pressure in th e b ubbles
is strong enough to overcome atmospheric pressure. so the bubbles start to
expand a nd boili ng occurs. At the top of Mount Everest, w he re a tmospheric
pressure is less. water would boil at only 70 "C.
The cooling effect of evaporation
Evaporation has a cooling effect. For example, if you wet your ha nds. th e
water on them starts to evaporate. As it evaporates. it takes t hermal energy
away from your skin. So your hands feel cold .
The kinetic theory expla ins the cooling effect like this. If faster particles
escape from the liquid . slower ones are left behind. so the temperature of t he
liqui d is less than before.
·.. .......................................................................................... T H ERMAL EFFEC T S

Refrige rators use t he cooling effect of evaporation. In t he refrigerator on the

right. t he process works like th is:
1 In the p ip es in the freezer compartment, a liquid called a re frige rant
evaporates and takes thermal energy from the food a nd air.
2 The vapour is draw n away by the p ump, w hic h compresses it and tums it
into a liq u id. This releases t hermal en ergy, so t he liquid heats up.
3 The hot li quid is cooled as it passes through the p ipes at th e back. and t he
t hermal ene rgy is earned away by the air.
Overall, t hennal energy is transfe rred from t he t hings inside t he fridge to the
air outside.
Sweating also uses t he cooling effect of evaporation. You start to sweat if
your body temperature rises mo re than about 0.5 °C above normal. The sweat,
whic h is mainly water, comes out of tiny pores in your skin . As it evaporates, it
takes thermal ene rgy from your body a nd cools you dow n.
On a hum id ('close') day, sweat can not evaporate so eas ily, so it is more
d ifficu lt t.o stay cool and com fortable.
Gas and vapour
Condensation A gas is called a vapour if it
When a gas c ha nges back into a liquid, th is is called c ondc n s., tion. For can be turned back. into a
example, cold air can hold less water vapour t han warm air, so if hu m id a ir liquid by compressing it.
is s uddenly cooled , some of t he water vapour may condense. It may become
billions of t iny water drop lets in the air - we see these as clouds, m ist,
or fog. Or it may become conden sation on w indows or ot her surfaces. If
condensation freezes, t he result is frost.

Condensation can be seen ... on mi rrors ... as clouds in the sky ... and as clouds of 'steam' from a kettle
(the vapou r itself is invisible)

o 1 A puddle and a small bowl are next to each other.
There is the same amount of water in each.
a Explain why the puddle dries out more rapidly t han
the water i n the bowl.
b Give two changes that would make the puddle dry
out even more rapidly.
2 If you are wearing wet clothes, and the water
evaporates, it cools you down. How does the kinetic
theory explain the cooling effect?
J Give two practical uses of the cooling effect of
evaporation.
4· Explain why, on a humid day
a you may fee l hot and uncomfortable
b you do not feel so uncomfortable if there is a breeze
blowing.
What is the difference between evaporation and
boiling?
6 Why does condensation form on cold windows?

Rel ated topi cs : atmospheric pressure 3.o8;kinetic theory 5.01; latent heat of vaporization 5.11
 ................................................................................
TH ER MA L EFFEC TS

Specific heat capacity

Internal energy
I! a material absorbs thermal
energy. its internal energy
increases. For more about
internal energy, see spread 5.01.
If a material absorbs t hermal energy, then unless it is melting or boiling,
its temperature rises . However, some materials have a greater capacity for
absorbing thermal ene rgy than others . For example, if you heat a kilogram
each of water a nd alu m inium, the water m ust be supplied w ith nearly fi ve
times as m uc h energy as t he alumi ni um for the same rise in temperature:

Ikg
aluminium
I
~+
-
Ikg
water --
~
+ 1 "(

- c:$+ EJ --
• 4200 joules of energy are needed to raise the temperature ill. 900 joules of energy are needed to raise the temperature
of 1 kg of water by 1 0c. of 1 kg of aluminium t7y 1 0c.
Scientifically speaking, water has a specifi c heat capacity of 4200 J/(kg "C).

~;.::~ i, moo,",'" in pol"~) 0 (

Temperature is measured in O(
Aluminium has a specific heat capaci ty of only 900 J/(kg "C). Other specific
heat capacities are s hown in t he table below left.
The e ne rgy t hat m ust be transfen·ed to an object to increase its temperature
or in kelvin (K). Both scales can be calculated using this equat ion:
have the same size 'degree',
so a 1 O( change in energy transferred = mass X specific heat capacity x temperature c hange
temperature is the same as a
1 Kchange.
In symbols: energy tran sferred = mcflT
w here m is t he mass in kg, c is t he specific heat capacity in l l(kg "C), a nd flT
specific heat capacity
represents t he temperatu re change in °C (or in K).
J/ (kg 0C)
The same equatio n can also be used to calculate t he energy transferred w hen a
water 4200
hot object cools down.
alcohol 2500
ice 2100 Example If 2 kg of water cools from 70°C to 20 °C, how much t hermal
aluminium 900 energy does it lose?
concrete 800
glass 700 I n this case , t he temperature change is SO "C.
.eel 500 So: energy transferred = mch.T = 2 X 4200 x SO I
copper 400 = 420 000 J

Thermal capacity
The quantity mass X specific heat capacity is called the thennal capacity (or
h eat capacit y). For example, if t here is 2 kg of water in a kettle:
thermal capacity of the water = 2 kg X 4200 J/(kg 0c) = 8400 I/oC
This means that, for each 1 °C rise in temperature, 8400 joules of enel·gy must
be supplied to t he wate r in t he kettle. A greater mass of water would have a
higher thermal capacity.
·.. .......................................................................................... TH ERMA L EFFEC T S

Linking energy and power

energy
power = - - Energy is measured in joules (J )-
lime
Power is measured in watts 0NJ.
So: energy;;; power X time Time is measu red in seconds (s).

Measuring specific heat capacity

Water A typical experiment is shown on t he ri gh t. Here, t he beaker contains thermometer

0.5 kg of water. When the 100 watt electric heater is switched on for
po
230 seconds , the temperature of t he water rises by 10 °C. From t hese figures , a
value for t he specific heat capacity of water can be calculated:
(Omitting some of t he uni ts for simplicity)
'\ , ,
'<--"
e ne rgy tran sfen·ed to wate r = mct:.T = 0.5 X eX 10 I .,dll----- j",
e nergy supplied by heater = power X time = 100 x 23 0 = 23 000 J i'- ~ y
(V
so: 0.5 X c X 10 = 23 000
Rearranged a nd s implified , tlu s gives c = 4600 ( water
\
so t he specific heat capacity of water is 4600 l /(kg "C).
L., ~
' 0.
This method makes no allowance for any t hermal en ergy lost to the beaker or '-
insulation
lhe surrou nd ings , so the value of c is only approximate.
A1uminium (or other m e tal) The method is as above. except that a block of
water giV1?S out
alum ini um is used instead of water. The block has holes drilled in it for the thermal energy
heater and th elmometer. As before, c is calculated from t his equatio n: , , ' ,
power X t ime = mct:.T (assum ing no thermal e nergy losses)

Storing thermal energy

II I[1'I'i1'11 1
Because of its high specific heat capacity, water is a very useful substance for
storing and carrying thermal e nergy. For example, in ce ntral heating systems,
water carn es thermal e ne rgy fro m t he boiler to t he radia tors arou nd t he
house. In ca[' cooling systems, water carries unwanted thermal e nergy from
the e ngine to the rad iator.
water takes In
thermal energy
1
Night storage heaters use concrete blocks to store thermal e nergy. Althou gh bOIler
concrete has a lower specific heat capacity t han water, it is more dense, so t he
same mass takes up less space. Elect ric heating elements heat up t he blocks
overnight. us ing cheap, 'off-peak' electricity supplied t hrough a special metet:
The hot blocks release thermal energy t hrough t he day as they cool dow n. ... In mosl central healing systems,
water is used t o carry the thermal
energy.

oThe specific heat capacities of copper and water are given
in the table on the opposite page.
t Water has a very high specific heat capacity. Give two
practical u~s of this.
2 a How much thermal energy is needed to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of copper by 1 O(?
c If, in part b, the copper were replaced by water, how
much thermal energy would this gi ve out?
1 A 210 W heater is placed in 2 kg of water and switched
on for 200 seconds.
a How much energy is needed to raise the
temperature of 2 kg of water by I O(?

Lb If a 10 kg block of copper cools from 100 O( to 50

how much thermal energy does it give out?
0c, b How much energy does the heater supply?
c Assuming that no thermal energy is lost, what is the
temperature rise of the water?

Rel at ed t opi cs : denSity 1.04; ther mal energy 4.01 ar\d 5.01; in t erna l energy 5.01; tem perature 5.02; electrical power 8.11
 ................................................................................
THERMAL EFFECTS

Latent heat
Water can be a solid (ice) , a liquid . or a gas called water vapour (or steam).
temperaturel
O( These are its three phases. or states.

Late nt heat offusion

If ice from a cold freezer is p ut in a warm room , it a bsorbs thermal e nergy.
The graph on th e left s hows what happens to its temperature. While melting ,
the ice goes on absorb ing e nergy. but its temperature does not c ha nge: it stays
at a °C, t he melting po int. The e nergy absorbed is called t he latent heat of
fu si on. It is needed to separate t he particles so t hat they can fmm the liquid.
-20 solid If the liqu id c ha nges back to a s olid , t he energy is released again.
(ice)

Kinetic theory essentials 0,

I
330000 J
+
1 kg ice
--
According to the kinetic theory.
materials are made up of tiny,
I
moving particles (usualty
molecules). In solids, the particles
are held together by strong
1ce has a sp ecific ]a tent heat of fusi on of 33 0 000 J/kg . This means that
attractions. In liquids, they have 330 000 joules of energy m ust be transferred to c hange each kilogram o f ice
more energy and are less strongly i mo liqu id water at t he same temperature (0 °C). For any known mass, the
held. In gases. they have enough enel'gy tra nsfelTed can be calculated using t his equation:
energy to overcome the
attractions. stay spaced out and e nergy tra ns fe rred = mass X specific latent heat
move around freely.
I n symbols: energy transferred = /ilL

For example. if 2 kg of ice is melted (at a 0C);

, ice
energy transferred = /il L = 2 kg X 330 000 J/kg = 660 000 J

•Measuring the specific ]atcnt heat of fusion of icc In t he exper iment on

ifC ""S the left , a 100 watt heater is switched on for 300 seconds. By we ighing t he
water collected in the beaker, it is found th at 0.1 0 kg of ice has melted . From
\~ tI
electric
heater
t hese fi gures. a value for L can be calculated :

(O m itting some of the un its fo r s implicity)

y e nergy transferred when ice melts = m L = 0.\0 L
funnel
energy supplied by heate r = power X time = l Oa W X 300 s = 30 000 J
So: 0.10 L = 30 000, w hic h gives L = 300 000
1\ So t he specific latent heat of fus ion of ice is 300 000 J/kg.
beaker
6 -~
This method makes no allowance for any thermal e nergy received from the
funnel or sUIToundings , so t he value of L is o nly approx imate.
0 '-'
Li nki ng energy and power

energy
power = - - Energy is measured in joules (J).
time
Power is measured in watts 0/1/).
energy = power x t ime Time is measured in seconds (s).
 T H ERMAL EFFEC T S
.............................................................................................
Latent heat of vaporization
If you heat water in a kettle. t he temperature rises until t he water is boiling
at 100 "C, the n stops rising. If t he kettle is left switched on. the water absorbs
more a nd more t hennal energy. b ut this just turns marc and more of the boiling
water into steam, still at 100 0c. The energy absorbed is called latent heat of
vaporization. Most is needed to separate the particles so that they can fonn a
gas, but some is required to pus h back the atmosphere as the gas forms.

2300000 J
+
A A jet of steam releases latent heat
when it condenses (turns liquid). This
idea can be use-d to heat drinks
Water has a specific latent heat of vapori7.ation of 2 300 000 J/kg . This quickly.
means t hat 2 300000 joules of energy m ust be transfen'ed to c hange each
kilogram of liq uid water into steam at t he same temperature (1 00 0c).
To calculate t he energy transferred when a ny known mass of liquid c hanges
into a gas at the same temperature . you use the equation on t he opposite page.
However. L is now the specific latent heat of vaporization.
Measuring the specific latent heat of vaporization of water
In the experiment on t he right. the can contains boiling water. When the electriC
100 watt heater has been switched on for 500 secon ds . t he c han ge in t he mass
balance's readi ng shows t hat 0.020 kg of water has bo iled away. From these
boiling
fi gures . a value for L can be calculated: water
(O mitting some o f the units for s implicity)
energy ttansferred w he n water is vaporized = mL = 0.020 L
energy s upplied by heater = power X t ime = 100 W X 500 s = 50 000 J
So: 0.020 L = 50 000. whic h gives L = 2 500 000
So t he specific latent heat of vaporization of water is 2 500 000 J/kg.
This method makes no allowance for any thermal en ergy lost to t he
surroundings . so the value of L is only approximate.

oSpecific latent heat of fusion of ice = 330 000 J!kg; specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2 300 000 J!kg
1 Some crystals were melted to form a hot liquid. which 2 Energy is needed to turn water into water vapour
was then left to cool. As it cooled, the readings in the (steam). How does the kine tic t heory explain th is?
table below were taken . J How much energy is needed to change
a What was happening to the liquid between 10 and a 10 kg of ice into water at the same temperature
20 minutes after it started to cool? b 10 kg of water into water vapour at the same
b What is the melting point of the crystals in 00 temperature?
4 · A 460 watt water heat er is used to boil water.
Time! minutes o S 10 15 20 25 30
Assuming no thermal energy losses, what mass of
Tempera turef'C 90 7S 68 68 68 62 58
steam will it produce in 10 minutes?

Related t opi cs : kinet ic theory and thermal energy 5.01; melting and boiling paints 5.03; evaporation. boiling, and condensation 5.09;
electrical power 8.11
T H ERMAL EFFEC T S FURTHER QUESTIONS

1 Explain in terms of molecules : b " Calculate th e d istance moved by the end of t he

a the process of evaporation [3] mercury th read whe n t he temperatu re of t he
b w hy the pressure of the air inside a car tyre thermo meter rises
increases when t he car is driven at high speed . [2] ; from 0.0 °C to 1.0 °C
2 Which of t he follow ing describes pali icles in a ;i from 1.0 °C to 100.0 °C [3J
solid at room temperature? 5 a The table gives the melting and bo iling points
A Close together and stationary. for lead a nd oxygen.
B Close together and vibrat ing.
melting po int boiling point
C Close together and moving around at random .
in °C in °C
D Far apal1 and moving at random. [1 ]
lead 327 1744
3 In sunny countries. some houses have a solar heater oxygen - 219 - 183
on t he roof. It warms up water for t he house. The
diagmm below shows a typical arrangement. ;At 450 °C will the lead be a solid . a liquid or
a gas? ( 1]
i; At -200 °C w ill the oxygen be a soli d. liqu id
tank for ora gas? ( 1]
~ t on r.g
glas~ healed b The graph s hows how t he temperatu re of a p ure
water substance c ha nges as it is heated .

500

400

tempera ture/ O( 300

a Why is the panel in the solar heater black? [1 ] 200

b Why is there an insulating layer behind the panel?
[1 ]
c How does t he water in t he tank get heated? [2]
d On average, each square metre of t he solar
panel above receives 1000 joules of energy
from the Su n every seco nd. Use th is figure to
calculate t he power inp ut (in kW) of t he panel if
its s urface area is 2 m'. [2]
e The solar heater in t he diagram has a n
efficie ncy of 60% (it wastes 40% of the solar
energy it receives). What area o f panel would
be needed to del iver heat at t he same rate, on
average, as a 3 kw electric immersion heatet'?
[2]
f ; What are [he advantages of using a solar
heater instead of an immersi on heater? [2]
ii What are the disadvantages? [2]
4 The scale of a mercury-in-glass thermometer is linear:
One such thermometer has a scale extending from
-1 0 °C to 11 0 0c. The length of th at scale is 240 mm.
a What is meant by t he stalemem t hat the scale is
linear? [2 ]
100
o lime
; At what temperature does the s u bstance
boil? [I J
ii Sketch t he graph a nd mark with a n X a ny
point w he re t he substance exists as both a
liquid and gas at the same time. [I ]
c ;" All substances cons ist o f particles. What
happens to the average k inetic energy of
th ese pattides as t he substance c hanges
from a liqu id to a gas? [1 ]
II Explain . in terms of particles . w hy e nergy
must be given to a liqu id if it is to c ha nge to
a gas. [2]
6 The di agram on t he next page sh ows a refrigeraTor.
In a nd around a refrigeratOl; heat is transferred
by conduction, by cOl/vection, a nd by evaporation .
Decide w hich process is mai nly respons ible for the
heat transfer in each of t he examples Li sted at th e
top of the next page.
 FURTHER QUESTIONS TH ERMAL EFFEC T S

raise the a verage tempe ratu re of all the

~ft~~~i!~~R
w ate r in t he tank by 1 "C? [2]
(vapour) refngerilil t iii* If t he heater is sw itched o n fo r 7 m inutes,
ref ngerant (liquid)
w hat is the average rise in temperature of
cooling the wate r in t he tank (ass um ing t ha t no
f ins
heat is lost)? [2 ]
, 8 The d iagmm below shows a type of heater used in
some schools.
d

!_ warm air OUI

a Heat is a bsorbed as liquid refrigerant cha nges
to vapo ur in the p ipework. [1 ]
b Cool a ir descend ing from the freezer
co mpa rtment takes aw ay heat from the food. [ 1]
c Heat is lost to the ou ts ide a ir through the fin ~ _ _-"
cooling fins at the back.
d So me heat from t he kitche n e nters t he
[ 1]
hot wdter - ===80 'ifI.!!!!!~~!lc~~_
r fan
warm waler
refrige rator through its outer panels. [ 1] Ik~;;:;;:!f;~! - cold air in
e Some hea t e n ter'S the refl'igerator every lime the
door is opened . [ 1] Hot water is pum ped from the boiler into p ipes inside
7 The d iagr am below shows a hot water storage the heater: Fins are attached to those pipes. Cold a ir is
tank. The water is heated by a n electric immersio n d rawn into the base of The heater by an electric fan.
heater at t he bottom . a Why are fi ns attached to t he p ipes ins ide the
hot wa te r heater? [2]
outlet b 600 kg of water pass th rough t he heater every
ho u r. The temperature of t he water falls by 5 "C
as it passes t hrough t he heateJ:
water- +- - Calculate t he amo unt o f heat e nergy transferred
from t he water every hou r. Th e specific heat
capacity of water is 4200 J/(kg °C). [3 ]
,_+_-, electric 9 The graph belo w s ho ws h ow the temperature o f
immersi on
cold heater some liquid in a beaker c ha nged as it was heated
water unt il it was boiling.
inlet

a How co uld heat loss fro m t he tank be reduced?

What materials would be su itable for the jo b?
8°a=EE=EE
60~~~~~--+--+--+--1

40 ~~f/
~3=3=3=3==E3
[2]
b Why is the heater placed at the botto m of the te mperaturel O(
~
tank I-ather tha n t he to p? [2]
c The heater has a powe r o utput of 3 kW. '0L-~C--12C--+3---4o--C5L---'6L--"7
j Wh at does the 'k' stand fo r in 'kW'? [ 1] ti melmlnutes
jj How m uc h e nergy (in joules) does the
a What w as the boiling point oEthe l iquid? [1 ]
hea ter del iver in one second ? [1] b Stare a nd explain what di fference. if a ny. there
III How m uc h e nergy (in joules) does the
would be in t he fi nal temperature if t he liqu id
heater deliver in 7 m inu tes? [2] was heated m ore stro ngly. [2]
d The tank holds 100 kg of wate r. The specific S tate one di ffere nce between boil ing a nd
heat ca pacity of water is 4200 J/(kg "C). evapo ration. [1 ]
j How m uc h energy (in joules) is needed to raise
the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 "0. [ 1]
ii How m uc h energy (i n joules) is needed to
T H ERMAL EFFEC T S REVISION SUMMARY
Use the list below when you revise for you r IGCS E examination . You can e ithe r
photocopy it or print it from t he file on t he CD accompanying t his boo k.
The spread number, in brackets, tells you whe re to find more information.
Core Level
o The kinetic theo ry of matter. (5.01 )
o Solids, li quids, a nd gases a nd their particles . (5.01)
o Brownia n mot io n . (5 .01)
o The link between internal e nergy a nd
temperature. (5 .0 1 a nd 5.02)
o Measuring temperatu re: the principles. (5.02)
o The li nk between temperatu re a nd the mot ion of
p allicles (e .g. m olec ules). (5.02)
o Defin ing a temp erature scale: fixed points. (5.03)
o Melting point a n d boiling point. (5 .03)
o The structu re a n d action of a liquid-in-glass
t hermo meter. (5 .02 a nd 5.03)
o The thermal expans ion o f s ol.ids a nd l iquids . its
effects. a nd its uses. (5.04)
o How t he p ressu re of a gas is caused by the motion
o f its pa rticles (molecules). (5 .05)
o Why press ure increases w ith te mperature fo r a gas
at constant volume. (5.05)
o Why volu me increases w ith tempe rature for a gas at
co nstant pressu re. (5.05)
o Good a nd poor t hermal conductors. (5 .06)
o Convect io n c urrents a nd w hy they occur. (5.07)
o The nature of thermal rndiation. (5 .08)
o How different su rfaces compare as emitters,
refl ectors. a nd absorbers oft hermaI radiation. (5.08)
o Everyd ay uses a nd effects of thermal cond uction.
co nvection. a nd radiation . (5.06-5.08)
o Evaporation: t he cause a nd cooling effect. (5 .09)
o What happens w hen a liquid boils. (5.09)
o What happens d uring condensation. (5.09)
o Storing t hermal energy (thermal capacity) . (5.1 0)
o What happens w hen a solid melts. (5.1 1)
© OUP: this may be Il:'produce(! for ctass use solely for the purchaser's inst iture
Extended LeveL
As for Core Level. plus th e follow ing:
o How th e propert ies of s olids. liqu ids . a nd gases
depend o n the motion a nd arrangement of their
particles (e.g. molecules). (5.0 1)
o Internal energy a nd moving particles
(molecules). (5.01)
o Why Brownia n motion occurs . (5.0 1)
o Thermocou ple thermometers : how they wo rk. a nd
t heir advantages. (5.02 a nd 5.03)
o The sensit ivity, ra nge, a n d linearity of a
thermometer. (5.03)
o Compari ng t he e:xpansions of solids, liq uids, a nd
gases. (5 .04 a nd 5.05)
o How gas pressu re is caused by moment um cha nges
of particles (molecules). (5.05)
o Explaini ng why. wh e n heated (at cons tant
pressu re), gases expand m uc h more tha n liqu ids.
a nd liquids m ore th a n solids. (5.05)
o Why some materials are bette r t hermal con ductors
t ha n ot hers. (5.06)
o How the amount o f the r mal rad iation em itted by a
su rface depends on its temperature and area. (5.0 8)
o The d iffere nce between evapo ra tion a nd
boiling. (5 .09)
o Factors affecting t he rate at w h ic h a liquid
evaporates. (5.09)
o Why evapora tion has a cooli ng effect. (5 .09)
o Specific heat capacity a nd its measurement. (5.1 0)
o Using t he equation e nergy transferred = meaT (5.1 0)
o Calculating t he rmal capacity. (5.1 0)
o Specifi c la tent hea t o f fus ion (of ice) a nd its
measu rement. ( 5.1l)
o Specific la tent hea t of va pori zation (of water) a nd
its measu rement. (5.1 1)
o Us ing the eq uation energy tra nsferred = I11 L (5.1 1)
o Explaini ng latent heat. (5 .11)
 hiS u'ee fmg from As ia uses

T the large, inflatable sac under

its throat lo ampH fy the sound
of its vo ice. Only the m a les can do
th is, a nd thei r call s can travel len
limes furLher than sounds from other
frogs. The sound itse lf is generated
when a ir from the sac is blown pas t
two s tretched m embranes in th e
bottom of the frog's mOllth , m a kin g
them vibrate.
 ................................................................................
WAVES AND SOUNDS

Transverse and LongitudinaL waves

If you d rop a stone into a pond , ripples spread across the surface. The t iny
waves carry energy, as you can tell from t he movements they cause at t he
water's edge. But there is no fl ow of water across the pond. The wave effect is
just the result of u p-a nd-down motions in the water.
Waves are not only fou nd on water. Sound t ravels as waves, so does light.
Waves can also travel along stretched springs like those in t he expe riments
below. These show t hat t here are two main types of waves.

Transverse waves
Drawing waves

Transverse w aves can be drawn

,
as above.
movements

) L) ) )-
wavefronts
Waves can also be dr awn using
lines called wavefronts. You can
t hink of each wavefront as the
'peak' of a transverse wave OJ
t he compression of a longitudinal
wave.
When the e nd coil o f the spring is moved sideways, it pulls the next coil
s ideways a fract ion of a second later: .. and so on along the spring. In this
way, t he sideways mot ion (an d its energy) is passed from coil to coil. and a
travelling wave effect is produced .
The to-and-fro movements of t he coils are called oscillations. when the
oscillations are up a nd down or from s ide to s ide like t hose above, t he waves
are called transverse waves. In transve rse waves. the oscillat ions are at
right-angles to th e direction of travel.
Li ghl waves are transverse waves, although it is electric a nd magnetic fields
w hi ch oscillate. rather t ha n a ny material.

Longitudi nal waves

---~» direction of wave travel

Examples of...
fONYards
transverse waves mOllemenl5
electromagnetic walles:
radio waves Moving t he e nd co il of t he spring backwards a nd forwards also produces
microwaves a travelling wave effect. However, the waves are bunc hed-up sections of
infrared rays I coils w ith stretch ed-out sections in between. These sectio ns are known as
light L compressions a nd rarefactions.
ultraviolet rays
When t he oscillations are backwards-and-forwards like those above. t he waves
X-rays
are called 1ongitudina1 waves. In longit udinal waves , t he oscillations are in
gamma rays
t he di rection of travel.
longitudinal waves
sound waves Sound waves a re longitudinal wa,'es . Whe n you speak, compressions a nd
rarefactions travel out thr ough the air.
 WAVES AND SOUNDS
.............................................................................................
Describing waves
On t he righ t. tran sverse waves are being sent alo ng a !'"Ope. Here al-e some of
the terms used to describe these and other waves:
Speed The speed of the waves is measured in metres per second (m/s).
Frequency This is the number of waves passing any po int per second . The
51 unit of fre qu e ncy is the hertz (Hz). For example. if the ha nd on the right
makes four o scillations per second. then four waves pass any point per second.
a nd t he frequency is 4 Hz. The time for one oscillation is called t he period. It
is equal to I/frequency. If the fr.·equency is 4 H z. t he peri od is 114 s (0. 25 s).
Wavc1ength This is th e d istance between a ny point on a wave and t he
'( )'
equivalent point on t he next. waveleng th
Amplitude This is the ma.x.i mum distance a poi nt moves from its rest posit ion
w he n a wave passes.

The wave equation

The speed. frequency. and wavelength of any set of waves are linked by tlus
equat ion : Frequency (in Hz) is the
number of oscillations per second.
speed = Il-equency x wavele ngth
Period (in seconds) is the time for
one oscillation.
In symbols: v= fA (A = Greek letter lambda)
frequency = - -. -
1
w here speed is in m/s. frequency in Hz, a nd wavelength in m. penod

The following example s hows w hy t he equation works:

The waves on the right are travelling across water.

Each wave is 2 m long, so the wavelength is 2 m.

~:
,,
One second lateL __ ,
3 waves have passed the flag, so the frequency is 3 Hz. ~ :,
The waves have moved 3 wavelengths (3 x 2 m) to t he ,
right $0 their speed is 6 mls.
Therefore: 6m1s = 3Hz x 2m
(speed) (frequency) (wavelengt h) one second later

o1 The waves in A below are travelling across water. e Use the wave equation to calculate the speed of the
a Are the waves transverse or longitudinal?
b What is the wavelength of the waves?
L f
waves in A.
What is the wavelength of the waves in diagram B
( What is the amplitude of the waves? below?
d If two waves pass the flag every second, what is I 9 the waves in B have the same speed as those in A,
If
the frequency ii* the period? L what is their frequency?

A 'm Hi l ttl sm !;61-'--'--'--'--'

[
Related topics: SI units 1.02; speed 2.01; speed of sound 6.04; frequency 6.05; period and frequency 10.08
 ................................................................................
WAVES AND SOUNDS

Wave effects
The properties of waves can be studied using a ripp]e tank like t he one below.
Ripples (tiny waves) are sent across the surface of water. Obstacles are put in
th eil" path to see what effects are produced.

lamp
mOlor 10
produc e
Vlbration~ ta nk
~trobosc ope
(spinning disc) to
/ water
vibrating 'free<:e· the wave
block to motion
produce :;:.
npples
i
~
w,~

shadows
on screen

Reflection

A venical s urface is put in the path of the waves. The waves are refl ected from
the surface at the same a ngle as they strike it.

Refraction

rl pple~ slow
In ~h al low water
--?» ----l>

r:=:=Jj~
piece of plastIc

A fl at piece of plast ic makes the water more shallow, which slows the waves
down . When the waves slow, they c ha nge d irection. The effect is called
refrac tion.
 WAVES AND SOUNDS
.............................................................................................
Refraction can be expla ined as follows. '"
The waves keep oscillating up and down at the same rate (freque ncy) , so when The wave equation
they slow, the wave fronts close up on each other: That follows from the wave speed = frequency x wavelength
equation on the r ight. As the frequency is unchanged , a decrease in speed must
cause a decrease in wavelength . From t he last diagram on t he opposite page.
I
distance number of
I I
distance
you can see t hat if the wavefronts close up on each othel; t heir d irection of P" oscillat ions between
second per second wavefronts
travel must c hange, unless t hey are n'avelling at right-angles to the boundary.
(m/s) (Hz) 1m)

Diffraction
<III Diffraction of WiNes passing through

I a gap. The size of the gap affects hCMI

much diffraction occurs.

j\'d9' Diffraction at an edge ~

The waves bend rou nd t he sides of an obstacle. or spread o ut as they pass Diffraction mainly occurs al each
through a gap. The effect is called diITrac tion. edge. Longer wavelengths would
produce more diffraction.
Diffract ion is only s ignifican t if the size of the gap is about the same as the
wavelength . W ider gaps produ ce less di ffract io n.

Wave evidence
Sound . light. a nd radio s ignals all undergo reflect io n. refraction, a nd
d iffract ion. This suggests t hat they travel as waves. For example:
a Light refl ects from min'ors; sound reflects fmm ha rd surraces.
b Light bends w hen it passes from air into glass or water.
c Sound bends arou nd obstacles such as walls and bu ildings. w hic h is w hy
you can hear around corners.
d Light spreads when it passes t hmugh t iny holes and slits. Thi s suggests
that light waves m u st have much shot1er wavelengt hs than sound .
e Some radio signals can bend rou nd very large obstacles s uch as hills.
This suggests t hat radio waves must have long wavelengths.

o 1 Say whether each of the effects b to e above is an

example of reflection, refraction, or diffraction.
2 On the right, waves are moving towards a harbour. '"
a What will happen to waves striking the harbour
wall at A? c
b What will happen to waves slowed by the
harbo ur
submerged sandbank at B?
c What will happen to waves passing through the
harbour entrance at C? B
'\Ubmerged
d If the harbour entrance were wider, what difference sandbilnk
would this make?

Related topl C1; : waves and the wave equa tion 6.01; reflection of sound 6.04; light waves 7.0 1; reflection of light 7.01- 7.03;
refraction of light 7. 0 4; and 7.06; radio waves 7.11
 ................................................................................
WAVES AND SOUNDS

Sound waves
compressions
When a loudspeaker cone vibrates, it moves forwards and backwards very
loudspeaker
(higher pressure) fast. This squashes and stretches t he air in fro nt. As a result, a seri es of

A compressions (,squ ashes,) a nd rarefactions (,stretches') travel out t hrough

the a ir. These are sound waves. Whe n they reach your ears, they make your
ear-drums vibrate a nd you hear a sound .
waVElength
~

The nature of sound waves

Sound waves are caused b y vibrations Any vibrating object can be a source

vibrating
,,~
V
rarefact ions
(lower pressure)
of sou nd waves. As well as loudspeaker cones, examples include vibrating
guitar strings, the vibratin g air in side a tl"Umpet, and t he vibrating prongs of
a tuning fork. Also, w he n hard objects (suc h as cymbals and steel dl"Ums) are
struck. they vibrate and produce sound waves.

Wavefront essentials
For convenience, waves are
often drawn using lines called
wav@fronts. In the case of
sound waves, you can think
of each wavefront as a
compression.

Sound waves are longitutUnaJ waves The a ir oscillates backwards and

fo rwards as the compressions and rarefact ions pass t hrough it. When a
rubber
b<Jr.d~

electri(
"'"
glass
J"
• Sound cannot travel through a
vacuum. VV'hen the air is removed from
this jar, the bell goes quiet. even though
the hammer is still striking the metal.
(The rubber bands reduce the sour.d
transmitted by the connecting wires.)
l
compression passes, the air pressure rises. When a rarefaction passes, th e
pressure falls. The distance fi.um one compression to the next is the wavelength.
Sound waves need a material to travc1 through This mate rial is called
a m edium . Without it. t here is noth ing to pass on any oscillations. Soun d
cannot travel through a vacuum (completely empty space).
Sound waves can travel through soUds, liquids, and gases Most sound
waves reaching youl" ear have travelled t1uuugh a ir. But you can also hear
w hen swimming underwater. and walls. windows. doors, and ceilings can all
transmit (pass on) sound.
Sound waves can be reflected and refracted (see t he next spread, 6.04)
Sounds waves can be diffracted You can hear someone th rough an open
w indow even if you canno t see them. That is because sound waves are
di ffi.·acted by evetyd ay objects : they spread through gaps 01" bend round
obstacles of sim ilar s ize to their wavelength (typically from a few cent imetres
to a few metres).
 WAVES AND SOUNDS
.............................................................................................
Di splaying sounds
Sound waves can be displayed graphically us ing a m icrop hone and a n
oscilloscope as on the right. When sou nd waves enter the microphone, they
make a crystal or a metal plate inside it vibrate. The vibrat ions are c hanged mICrophone
into electrical oscillations, and the oscilloscope uses th ese to make a spot
oscillate up and down on t he screen. It moves t he spot steadily s ideways at
t he same time, producing a wave shape called a waveform . The waveform is
reallya grapl] s howing how the air pressure at t he m icrophone varies w ith

l
t ime. It is not a pic ture of the sound waves th emselves: sound waves are /lot
transverse (u p-and-down).

Reducing sounds·
Hard surfaces reflect sounds a nd can cause echoes (see spread 6.04). In large
rooms and halls, t he soft mateli als in c Ul1ains, carpets, a nd padded furniture
help redu ce t he problem by absorbing t he energy in sound waves .
The bricks, wood, a nd steel used in buildings are all good transmitters of
sound waves. To stop unwanted sounds getting in o r passing from one room
to the next, panels backed w ith foam or fibrewool can be used to c ut dow n
sou nd transmission .

.. rf you live near an airport. double (or even triple) glazed .. Looking like giant mushrooms. these acoustic diffusers hang
windows are essential in situations like this. Glass is a good from the ceiling of the Albert Hall in London. Made of fibreglass,
transmitter of sound waves. but glass sheets with an air layer their job is to scatter reflected sounds so that echoes don't spoil
sandwiched between let much less sound through. the music being performed below.

o t Give an example which demonstrates each of the

fo llowing:
a Sound can travel through a gas.
b Sound can travel through a liq uid.
c Sound can travel through a so lid .
Z Explain each of the follow ing:
a Sound cannot travel though a vacuum.
b It is possible to hear round corners.
3 a Sound waves are longitudinal waves. Explain what
this means.
b If sound waves are longit udinal, why are transverse
(up-and ·down) 'waves' seen on the screen of the
oscilloscope above when someone wh istles into the
microphone?
4 What happens to sound waves jf they strike a hard
surface, such as a wall?

Retated topics: air pressure 3.08; longitudinal waves 6.01; diffraction 6.02; loudspeaker 9.05
 ................................................................................
WAVES AND SOUNDS

Speed of sound and echoes

~ Sound is much slower t han light.

50 you hear lightning after you see it.
Sound takes about 3 seconds to
travel one kilometre_ Light does it in
almost an instant. so a 3 second gap
between the flash and the cra sh
means that the lightning 5 about a
kilometre away.

Sound wave essentials

Sound waves are a series of
8 I, The speed of sound
In a ir, the speed of sound is about 330 metres per second (m/s), or 760 mph.
That is slower tha n Concorde but about four times faster tha n a racing car.
compressions ('squashes') and
The speed of sound depends on the temperature of the air
rarefactions ('stretches') that
Sound waves travel faster through hot a ir tha n th rough cold a ir,
travel through the air or other
material. The speed of sound does not depend on the pressure of the air
If atmospheric pressure c ha nges, the speed of sound waves stays t h e same.
The speed of sound is different through different materials
Speed of sound Sound waves travel faster through liquids tha n t hrough gases, and fastest of
through .. all through solids . There are some examples on the left.
air (dry) at 0 DC 330 mls
350 m/s
Measu ring t he speed of sound
air (dry) at 30 °C
The speed of sound in a ir can be measured as shown below. A sound is made
water (pure) at 0 OC 1400 m/s
by hitting a metal block o r plate with a hammer. Whe n t he control unit
concrete 5000 mls receives a pulse of sound from micro phone A, it starts the clock. When it
receives a pulse from microphon e B, it stops it,
If B is 1.00 metre further away fro m the source of sound than A. and the clock
records a t ime of 3.0 milliseconds (0.003 s):

speed of sound = d istance travelled = 1.00 m = 330 mls

time taken 0.003 s

microphone
B control d igital
unit t imer

I
I
·.. .......................................................................................... WAVES AND SOUNDS

Refraction of sound"

~. ~ -/ \' . .
_t.
, l'_ t . ; ·,

Distan t trains and traffic often sound louder (and closer) at night. The reason
is this. During the night time, w he n the ground cools quickly, air layers near
the ground become colder tha n those above. Sound waves travel more slowly
through t his colder ail: As a result. waves leaving the ground tend to bend
back towards i t. instead of spread ing upwards. A bending effect like this.
caused by a c hange in speed, is called refraction.

Echoes
Hard sUl{aces suc h as walls reflect sound waves. When you hear a n echo , <;(lund
you are hearing a reflected sound a s hort time after th e original sound. I n t he C ~m O.
diagram on t he right . t he sound has to travel to t he wall alld back again. The ~_ r.;"'CC-"'.1
time it takes is t he echo time. So: "" \ \
speed of sound = distance travelled = 2 X distance to wall
t ime taken echo time
If the speed of sound is known. a nd t he echo time is measured accurately, the
~/I») 0
~und ~
distance to th e wall can be calculated from the above equation. The principle refl ected
is used in several devices, including t he following:
I I
• Echo-sounder This measures the d epth of water under a boat. It sends I I :'1 ho ,
Heard
pulses of sound waves towards the sea-bed a n d measu res t he echo t ime.
The longe r t he time, t he deeper t he water (see spread 6.06).
• Parking sensors* Most use the echo-sounding principle to detect when a
car is getting too close to an obstacle. The d river hears warning bleeps.
• Radar* Thi s uses the echo-sounding princi ple . but w ith m icrowaves
instead of sound waves. It detects t he posit ions of a ircraft or ships by
measuring t he 'echo t imes' of microwa ve pulses refl ected from t hem.

o Assume that the speed of sound in air is 330 mls.

t a Why do you hear lightning after you see it?
4 A ship is 220 metres from a large cliff when it sounds its
foghorn.
b If lightning strikes. and you hear it 4 sec.onds after a When the echo is heard on the ship, how far has the
you see it, how far away is it? sound travelled?
2 Does sound travel faster through b What t ime delay is there before the echo is heard?
a* cold air or warm air? b a solid or a gas? c The ship changes its distance from the cliff. When
3 When sound waves change direction because their the echo time is 0.5 seconds, how far is the sh ip from
speed changes, what is th is effect ca lled? the cliff?

Related topics: refraction 6.02; sound wa~es 6.03; echo-sounding 6 .06; speed of ligh t 7.10; microwaves 7.11
 ................................................................................
WAVES AND SOUNDS

Characteristics of sound waves

Sound wave essentiaLs 8 ) Frequency and pitch

Sound waves are a series of
compressions ('squashes') and
rarefactions ('stretches') that
travel through the air or other
material.
wavelength
~
I Sound waves are caused by vibrat io ns - for example, the rapid , barnvards-
a nd-forwards oscillations of a loudspeaker co ne,
The number of oscillations per second is called th e freque n cy. It is measured
in h ertz (Hz). I f a loudspeaker cone has a freque ncy of 100 Hz. it is oscillating
100 t imes per secon d a nd giving out 100 sound waves per second.
Differe nt frequencies sou nd differe nt to t he em: You hear high freque ncies
as high notes: musicians say that they have a hlgh pit ch . You hear low
frequencies as low notes: they have a low pitch .

The human ear can detect frequen cies ranging from a bout 20 H z up to

J 20 000 Hz, although t he ability to hear high frequencies decreases w it h age.

H, H, H, H, H,

pitch frequency Octaves" Mus ical scales a re based on these. If t he p itch of a note increases
high upper limit 20000 Hz by one octave, the frequency doubles , as s hown on the keyboard above. This
of hearing keyboard is tuned to scientific pilch . Ba nds a nd orc hestras normally use
whistle 10000 Hz frequencies that d iffe r slightly from t hose shown.

high note 1000 Hz The d iagrams below show what happens if two steady notes, an octave apart ,
(soprano) are p icked up by a microp hone and d isplayed on the screen of a n o scilloscope.
low note 100 Hz As t he higher note has double the frequency of t he lower note, t he peaks occu r
(bass) twice as ofte n and are only half as far apart.
,
low drum note 20 Hz
1000 Hz = 1 kil ohertz (kH z)

.. Th e waveform on each screen is a

g ra ph showing how the air pressure
varies with time as the sound waves
)~ } ) )
ent er the microphone. The horizontal This sou/"ld has a higher pitch (and frequency) ... than th is sound
line is the time axis.
 WAVES AND SOUNDS
.............................................................................................
The wave equation
Thi s equation applies to sound waves: Why the equation works 8
If 110 waves are sent out in one
speed = frequency X wavelength second. and each wave is 3 m
long. then the waves must travel
In symbols: v = fA (A := Greek letter lambda) 330 metres in one second. In
other words, if the frequency is
For example, if t he speed of sound in a ir is 330 m/s: 110Hz and the wavelength is
sound waves of fre que ncy 11 0 Hz have a wavelengt h o f 3 m ; 3 m, the speed is 330 mls.
sou nd waves of frequency 33 0 Hz have a wavelength o f 1 m;
so t he higher t he fre quency, t he shorter t he wavelength .

Am plitude and loudness

I J» ) ) )~i5) J~ ) )) ) ~
The sounds displayed on t he oscilloscope screens above have t he same
frequency, b ut one is louder t ha n the other. The oscillat ions in the ai r are f undamental f requency ...
b igger a nd th e amplitude of t he waveform is greater.
Sound waves carry energy. Dollbling the ampl itude means that four times as
much energy is del ivered per second.

" .plus ove rtones

Qua lity'
Middle C on a gui tar does not sound quite the same as middle C on a p iano ,
a nd its waveform looks d ifferent. T he two sounds h ave a d ifferent quality
or timbre. Each sound h as a strong fundam ental frequency , giving m iddle .. gIves the final waveform
C. But other weaker fre qu encies are m ixed in as well, as shown on the right.
These are called overtones, a nd t hey differ from one i nstrumen t to another.
Wit h a synth esizer, you can select w hich freque ncies you mix together, a nd
produce the sound of a guitar. p ia no, or any other instrumen t.

o Assume that the speed of sound in air is 330 mls. A sound is picked up by a microphone and displayed as
t Here are t he frequencies of four sounds: a wave f orm on an oscilloscope. How would t he

L
A: 400 Hz B: 150 Hz c: 500 Hz D: 200 Hz waveform change if
a Which sound has the highest pitch? a the sound had a higher pitch?
b* Which two sounds are one octave apart? b the sound was louder?
L C Which sound has the longest wavelength? 4 The lower limit of hu man hearing is 20 HZ; the upper
2* Why does a piano not sound quite like a guitar, limit is 20000 Hz.
even if both play the same note? a What is the upper limit in kHz?
b What is the wavelength at the lower limit?
L c: What is the wavelength at the upper limit?

Related t opi cs : speed 2.01; waves an d t he wave equation 6.01; sound waves 6.03; speed of sound 6.04
 ................................................................................
WAVES AND SOUNDS

ULtrasound
Sound wave essentials
Sound waves are a series of
8 I) range of
human heanng
compressions ('squashes') and
rarefactions ('stretches') that upper limit for . ..
travellhrough the air or other
material. The human ear can detect sounds up to a fre quency of abou t 20 000 H z.
Sounds a bove the range of h uman hearing are called u1trasonic sounds , or
u1trasound. Here are som e o f t he uses of ultrasound:
•
wave l€ngth
•
Cleaning and breaking'
Using ultraso und, delicate machin ery can be cleaned without d ismantl ing it.
The machinery is immersed in a tank of liquid, the n the vibrations of high-
The number of waves per second power ultrasound are used to dislodge t he bits of d irt a nd grease.
is called the frequency. It is
In hospitals, concentrated beams of ultrasound can be used to break up
measured in hertz (Hz).
kidney stones and gall stones w ithout patients needing s urgery.

Echo-sounding'
Ships use echo-sounders to measu re the dept h of water beneath t hem . An
echo-sounder send s p ulses o f ultrasound downwards towards t he sea-bed ,
then measures t he Time take n for each echo (reflected sound) to return. The
longer t he time, t he d eeper t he wa tec Fo r example:
If a p ulse of ultrasound takes 0. 1 second to travel to t he sea-bed a nd return,
a nd the speed of sound in water is 1400 m/s:
distance travelled = speed X t ime = 1400 mls X 0. 1 s = 140 m
But the ultrasound has to travel dow n (md back:
So: depth of water = Y2 X 140 m = 70 m
--.- Most echo-sound ers scan t he area beneath them - they sweep t heir
ultrasound beam ba ckv"ards a nd forwards a nd from s ide to s ide. A computer
displays the d epth info rmation as a p icture on a screen.
sea-bed

~ This bat uses ultrasound to locate

insects and other objects in front of
it. It sends out a series of ultrasound
pulses and uses its spedally shaped
ears to pick up the reflections. The
p rocess is called ectlo-Iocation. It
works like echo-sounding.
 ·.. .......................................................................................... WAVES AND SOUNDS

Metal testing'
pulse pulse
The ec ho-sounding principle can be used to detect fl aws in metals. A pulse reflected
~"'
of ultrasound is sent t hrough the metal as on t he righ t. If there is a flaw (tiny
gap) in t he metal, two reflected pulses are picked up by t he detector: The pulse
,,'"
reflected from t he flaw returns first, followe d by the p ulse refl ected from the
far e nd of t he metal. The pu lses can be d isplayed usin g a n oscilloscope. The
trace on the screen is a grap h show ing how the amplitude (,stren gth,) o f the
ultrasound varies w ith time.

Scanning the womb'

The pregnant mother in t he photograph below is havi ng her womb scanned by
ultrasound. Again , the echo-sounding principle is being used. A transmitter sends
pulses of ultrasound in to the mother's body. The transm itter also acts as a detector
a nd picks up pulses refl ected from t he baby a nd different layers inside the body.
The signals are processed by a computer, w hic h puts a n image on the screen .
metal
Using ultraso u nd is m uc h safer than u sing X-rays because X-rays can cause
test
cell damage jns ide a growing baby. Also, ultrasound can d istinguish between
d iffere nt layers of soft tissue, w hich an ord inary X- ray machi ne cannot.

/
I ... An ultrasound scan of the womb.
The nurse is moving an ultrasound
transmitter/detector over the mother's
body_A computer uses the reflected
pulses to produce an image.

(!)
1 What is ultrasound?
2: Give two examples of the medical use of ultrasound. speed = distan ce travelled
3* a What is an echo-sounder used for? time taken
b How does an echo-sounder work? speed of sound in water = t 400 m/s
4 To answer this question, you w ill need the information on the right.
speed = frequency x wavelength
A boat is fitted with an echo-sounder which uses ultrasound w ith a
(m/s) (Hz) (m)
frequency of 40 kHz.
a What is the frequency of the ultrasound in Hz? 1 kiloh ertz (kH z) = 1000 Hz
b If ultrasound pulses take 0.03 seconds to travel from the boat to the
sea-bed and retu rn, how deep is the water under the boat?
c What is the wavelength of the ultrasound in water?

Rel ated topi cs : sound wa~es 6 .03; speed of sound and echoes 6 .04; frequency 6.05
WAVES AND SOUNDS FURTHER QUESTIONS

1 Kim and Sam are playing with a balJ in t he park. 3 The figure shows an oscilloscope trace for a sound
Unfortu nately t he ball fin ishes up in t he m iddle of wave produced by a loudspeaker.
a pond. out of reach.

/ /
/ "- /

Kim thinks t ha t hitting t he water with a stick will
make waves that will pus h the ball to the other side.
a Which two of these words best describe t he
waves t hat are created on the water surface?
circular longiludinal plane pressure transverse
[2]
b Kim hi ts the water surface regularly so that
waves travel out to the ball a nd beyond it.
i What happens to t he ball? [1]
Sam t hrows a stick w hich hits t he ball at P.
4 a
;i Sam is s uccessful at moving t he ball across
a Copy the figure a nd d raw the trace for a louder
sound of the same pitch. (2]
b It takes I/SOth of a second (0.02 s) for t he w hole
trace to be prod uced.
i Show that t he frequency of t he sound
produced by the loudspeaker is 100 Hz.
ii Detennine the wavelength in a il' of t he
sound produced by t he loudspeaket: (The
speed of sound in a ir is 330 mJs.) [3 ]
A sound wave travelling t hrough ait:" can be

p'W
represented as shown in the d iagram.
the pond. Ki m is not. Explain w hy. [2]
A D
c i Kim hi ts t he watel" sUiface regularly with
t he stick 20 t imes in 10 seconds. Calculate
d"pl,,,m,",
of air pa rt lcle~ _~-=
_
the frequency of t he waves. [2] c V :s~cr:e from
ii The waves travel across the pond at 0. 5 mls.
Calculate the wavelength . [4]
Which distance, A, B, C, or D , represen ts:
2 a The wave in the shallow tank of water shown in
i one wavelen gth?
the figure moves at 0.08 mls towards the left.
ii the amplitude of the wave? [2]
water WiNe
b The cone of a loudspeaker is vibrating. The
water
diagram s hows h ow the a ir part icles are spread
out in front of the cone at a certain t ime.
" ' - - tank
loudspeaker
:.: .
;:':
,.: "
...
"-,

~
'

":: ' .... . .. '.:- :"

.". .p: Q . . . ."'; '

O.6m
"
" . .'.~~. '. .' ,
':~~. ' ;~. .
.
'. !~.: ~
How long does it take for t he wave to return to the P is a compression, Q is a rarefaction.
pOSition XY, b u t moving to t he right? [3] i Describe how t he pressure in the a il'
b A man is CUlling dow n a tree w ith a n axe. H e c hanges from P to Q . [2]
hears t he ec ho of the impact of t he axe hitting II Describe t he motion of the air panicles as
the tree after 1.6 s. th e sound wave passes. [2]
i What sort of obstacle could have caused t he iii Copy the diagram of a ir particles above
echo? [1 ] a nd mark a nd label a d istance equal to one
ii The speed of sound is 330 m/s. How far is wavelength of the sound wave. [ 1]
t he tree from the obstacle? 5 a The first diagram on the next page shows a wave,
c Distinguish between the nature of the sound i Copy the diagram a nd mark the amplitude,
wave in b and t he water wave in a . [2] a nd label it A. [1]
 FURTHER QUESTIONS
ii State t he number of cycles (,wavelengths')
shown in the diagram. [ 1]
iii* This complete wave was produced in 0.15 5 .
Calculate the period (time for one wave). [1 ]
iv · Use t he equation frequency (Hz) = .1
penod (s)
to calculate the freque ncy of t he wave. [ 1]
h Sound is a longitudinal wave. Explain what
is meant by a longitudinal wave. [2]
ii If t he amplitude of a sou nd wave is increased,
wh at difference would you hear? [ 1]
6
A light polystyrene ball is shown hanging very close
to a loudspeakeJ: The loud speaker gives out a sound
of low frequency and t he ball is seen to vibrate.
a Expla in how t he sound from the loudspeaker
causes t he ball to move as described. [2]
b E"{piain w hat will bappen to the motion of t he
cone of the loudspeaker w hen:
i t he sound is mad e louder [1 )
ji the p itch of the sound is increased. [ 1]
Calculate t he freque ncy of a sound whi ch has
a wavelen gth of 0.5 m a nd travels at a speed of
340 mls in a ir: Write down the formula that you
use and show your working. [3]
7 The figure s hows a metal rod. 2.4 m long. being
struck a s harp blo w at one end using a ligh t
hammer. The time interval between the impact of
the hammer a nd t he an'ival of t he sound wave at
the other end of t he rod is measured elt':(:tro nically.
metal rod
-----
Ifl.1====-\::::;=======1.1
24 m
hammer- 1 l
WAVES AND SOUNDS
Four measurements of the time intelval are
0. 44 ms, 0. 50 ms, 0.52 ms and 0.47 ms.
a Determine the average value of the four
measurements.
b He nce calculate a value for t he speed of
sound in the rod . [4J
8 a A m icrophone is connected to an oscilloscope.
When different sounds , A, B, a nd C. are made,
these are rh e waveforms seen on the screen:
A
B (
a Comparing sounds A and B, how would they
sound d ifferent? [2 ]
b Compal'ing sounds A a nd C, how would t hey
sound di fferent? [2]
c Which sound has t he highest amplitude? [1 ]
d Which sound has t he hi ghest frequency? [1 ]
e The speed of sound is 330 m/s. If sound A has a
freque ncy of 220 H z, w hat is its wavelength ? [2 ]
f What is the frequency of sound C? [2 ]
9 Ultrasound waves are high frequ ency longitudinal
waves. X-rays are hjgh frequency transverse waves.
a Explain rhe d ifference between transverse and
longitudinal waves. [2]
b* The diagram shows an ultrasound probe used
to obtain an image of an unborn baby.
~,..~\-- mother'~ abdominal wa ll
ult rasound probe
Give two reasons w hy ultrasound and nor
X-rays are used for t his investigation . [2]
c* Describe one industrial use of ultrasonic waves.
[2 J
WAVES AND SOUNDS REVISION SUMMARY

Use the list below when you revise for your IGCSE examination. You can either
photocopy it or print it from the file on the CD accompanying this book.
The spread number. in brackets, tells you where to find more information.

Core Level Extended LeveL

Q Wave motion and wavefmnts. (6.01) As for Core Level. plus the follow ing:
Q Waves transfer energy. (6 .01) o The equation linki ng speed , fre quency, a nd
wavelength. (6 .01 and 6.05)
Q The di fference between transverse and longitudi nal
waves. wit h examples of each. (6 .01) o How wavelength and gap size affect diffract ion
th rough a gap. (6.02)
Q The meaning ofwave1ength. (6.0 1)
Q The meaning of amplitude. (6.0 1)
o How wavelength affects diffraction at a n
edge. (6 .02)
a The meaning of frequency. (6.0 1)
o What compress ions a nd rarefactions are. (6.03)
a The hertz , un it of freque ncy. (6.01)
o How the speed of sound is d ifferent in solids.
o Demonstrat ing t hese wave effects in a ripple tank: liquids, a nd gases. (6.04)
- reflection
- refraction
- diffraction. (6.02)
o How refraction is caused by a cha nge of
speed . (6,02)
o How d iffraction depends on the s ize of the gap
t hrough which t he waves are passing. (6.02)
o Sound waves are prod uced by vibrat ions. (6.03)
o Sound waves are longitudinal waves. (6.03)
o Why sound waves need a material to travel
t hrough. (6.03)
o Displaying waveforms on an oscilloscope. (6.03
and 6.05)
o Measuring t he speed of sou nd (in a ir). (6.04)
o How the reflection of sound causes echoes. (6.04)
a The freq uency l'ange of sound waves. (6,05 )
o The link between freque ncy and p itch. (6 .05)
o The link between amplitude and loudness. (6.05)
o What ultrasound is. (6 .06)

© oup: thjs may I)e ~produced for ctass use solely for the purchaser's lnstlture
 rainbow forms as the Sun shines

A on raindrops. The rai nd rops,

acti ng Like tiny pris m s, m-e
splitti ng th e w h ite sunlight in to its
d ifferen t spectral co lours and re Oecting
them back. Because the Su n is behind
the came ra and the rainbow appears to
exte nd to the sea, ra in must be faUing
between the camera and the clouds in
the backgrou nd.
 ................................................................................
RAYS AND WAVES
.... If you can see a beam of light. this
is because tiny particles of dust
smoke. or mist in the air are reflecting
some of the light into your eyes.
.~ .
Diffuse reflection Regular reflection
• This solar-powered car uses the
energy in sunlight to produce
electricity for its motor.
Light rays and waves
For you to see so meth ing, light must ente,' your eyes. The Sun, lamps,
lasers , and glowing TV screens all emit (send out) t heir own light. They are
lmninous. However, most objects are non·lmninous. You see them only
because dayligh t, or other light, bounces off them . They reneet light, and
some of it goes into your eyes.
You can see this page because it reflects light. The w hite parts reflect most
light a nd look b right. However, t he black letters absorb nearly all t he light
striking t hem. They reflect very little and look dark.
mirror black surface
glass
Absorption Trans mission
Most surfaces are uneven , or contain particles that scatter light. As a result,
they reflect light in all directions . The reflection is diffuse. However, m irrors
are smooth and shiny. Wh en they reflect ligh t. the reflection is regular.
Transparent materials like glass a nd water let light pass righ t t hrou gh them .
They transmil light.
Features of light
Ught is a form of radiation This means that li ght rad iates (spreads out)
from its source. In d iagrams, lines called rays are used to sh ow whic h way t he
light is going .
Light travels in straight" lines You can see this if you look at t he path of a
sunbeam or a laser beam.
............................................................................................. RAYS AND WAVES

Light transfers energy Energy is needed to produce light. Materials gain

energy when they absorb light. For example. solar cells use th e energy in Wave essentials
su nlight to produce electricity.
wavelength
Light travels as waves Light radiates from its source rather as ripples spread ,
" ,
'I

across the s u rface of a pond . However, in t he case of light. the 'ripples' are fj tJjl fj l

tiny, vibratin g. electric and magnetic forces. Li ght waves have wavelengths
of less t ha n a t housandth of a millimetre (see below). Like ot her waves, t hey
~~~
can be d iffracted. but the effect is too small to notice u nless t he gaps are very With transverse waves, like
light. the oscillations (vibrations)
narrow, for example . as in a fi ne mesh.
are at right angles to the
Some effects of light are best explained by t hinking of light as a stream of t iny direction of travel.
'energy particles'. Scie nt ists call these panicles photons.
Light can travel through empty space Electric a nd magnetic li pples do not
need a material to travel through . That is w hy light can reach us from the Sun
a nd stars.
Light is the fastest thing there is In a vacuum (in space . [or example), the
speed of ligh t is 300 000 kilometres per second. Nothi ng can travel faster t ha n
t his. The speed of light seems to be a universal speed limit.

Wavelength and colour

Waves spread out as they pass
When light e nters t he eye, the bra in senses different wavelengths as different
through a gap. The effect is
colou rs. The wavelengths range from 0.000 4 mm (violet light) to 0.000 7 mm
called diffraction. It is only
(red light), and w hi te light is made up of all the wavelengths in t his range.
significant if the size of the gap is
Most sources emit a m ixture of wa,'elengths . However, lasers emit light of a about the same as the
s ingle wavelength a nd colour. Li ght like this is called monochromatic light. wavelength _Wider gaps cause
less diffraction .

.... Light from a laser is monochromatic

(single wavelength and colour). Here,
laser light is being used to measure the
defl ection of the rotating blades on an
experimental jet engine.

o 1 Give two examples each of objects which 4 If the Moon is 384 000 km from Earth, the Sun is
a emit their own light 150000000 km from Earth, and the speed of light is
b are only visible because they reflect light from 300000 kmls, calculate the time taken for light to
another source. travel from
2 What evidence is there that light travels in straight a the Moon to the Earth b the Sun to the Earth ,
lines? How do waves of violet light differ from waves of
3 What happens to light when it strikes red light?
a white paper b black paper? What is meant by monochromatic light?

Related topics: speed 2.01; energy 4-01; colours in white light 7.04; electromagnetic waves 7.10; photons 11.10
 ................................................................................
RAYS AND WAVES

Reflection in plane mirrors (1)

The laws of reflection
nOfrnal When a ray of light strikes a m inD!; it is reflected as s hown on t he left. The
incom ing ray is t he incident ray, the outgoing ray is t he rcflected r a y. a nd
angle of angle of
inCidence reflection th e line at right-angles to t he mirror's sulface is called a nonnal The m inur
in this case is a planc mirror. This ju st means that it is a fl at milTo r. rather
than a c urved one.
incIdent ' ,>-1-J ""-..,. reflect ed
co, co, There are two laws of re fl ectio n . They apply to all types of m irror:
I The angle of incidence is eq ual to the angle of reflection.
2 The incident ray. t he refl ected ray. an d the nonnal all lie in t he same plane.
Put ano ther way. light is reflected at the same angle as it anives. a n d the two

Definition s 8 l) mys and t he normal can all be drawn on one flat piece of paper.

Angle of incidence: this is the Image in a plane mirror

angle between the incident ray
and the normal.
Angle of reflection: this is the
angle between the rellected ray
and the normal.

• The word on this vehicle is laterally
inverted so that it read s correctly
when seen in a driving mirror.
In the diagram above . ligh t rays are coming from an objec t (a lamp) in
front of a plane m irror. T housands of rays could have been drawn but. for
s implicity. only two have been s hown. After refl ect io n, some of the rays enter
the girl's eye. To the girl. t hey seem to co me from a position behind the m irro r.
so t hat is w here s he sees an image of t he lamp. Dotted lines have been drawn
to show the point w here two of the refl ected rays appear to come from. The
dotted lines are 1101 rays.
The image seen in t he mirro r looks exactly t he same as the object. apart fro m
one importa nt d iffere nce. The image is 1ate rally inverted (back to front).
Real and virtual images In a cinema. t he image on t he screen is called a real
image because rays f!"Om t he pmjector focus (meet) to fonn it. The image in
a plane mirror is not like t his. Although t he rays appear to come fmm behind
the m irror. no rays actually pass t hrough the image a nd it cannot be formed
o n a screen. An image l ike t his is called a virtual image.
 ·.. .......................................................................................... RAYS AND WAVES

Finding the position of an image in a mirror

The position of an image in a plane m irror can be found by experiment:

obje<t pm
Put a mirror upright on a pie<:e of
paper. Put a pin (the object) in front
of it. Mark the positions of the pin
and the mirror.
line up one edge of a ruler with the image
of the pin. Draw a line- along the edge to
mark its JXIsition. Then repeat with the ruler
in a different position .
x \
Take away the mirror. pin. and ruler.
Extend the two lines to find out where
they meet. This is the positi on of the
image.

The result of t he expel; ment can be c hecked like this. If a second pin is
put behind th e m irror, in the position found for the image, the pin s hould
,e<ond pin
be in line w it h t he image, as shown on the right. And it s hould stay in line behind mirror
w he n you move your head from side to s ide. Scientifically speaking, th ere I
should be no paraDa." (no relative movement) between the second pin and
the image wh e n you cha nge your viewing position. If there is relative
movement (paralla.,,), t hen the two are not in t he same position.
WL-----;----,I--
image of /
o bjed pin
Rules for image size and position
If a second pin is put in ex.actly
When a plane m irror forms an image:
the same position as the image
• The image is the same size as the object. of t he first pin. it should stay in
• The image is as far behind the m iITOr as t he object is in front. line with the image. wherever
• A line joining equivalent points on t he object a nd image passes through you view it from.
the m irror at right-angles.

¢- 11- - - -~ - - --11- -
mirror

(!)
1 a Copy the diagram on the right. Draw in the image i n its
correct position.
b From the object arrow's tip, A, draw two rays which
reflect from the mirror and go into the person's eye.
ob"" f
( The image (annat be formed on a screen. Wha t name is
B
given to this type of image? '''"n", 110
d Can the person see an image of the arrow's tail, B? If
not, why not?
2 A man stands 10 m in front of a large, plane mirror. How far
must he walk before he is 5 m away from his image?

Retated topics: reflection of waves 6.02; real and virtual images formed by lenses 7.07 - 7.08
 ................................................................................
RAYS AND WAVES

Reflection in plane mirrors (2)

Finding an image position by construction
°
1n the d iagrams below, is a point object in front of a plane (flat) m irror.
Here are two methods of finding the pos ition of t he image by geometric
construction using a protractOi~ In Method 1, you deduce t he position from
the paths of two rays, b ut Method 2 is simpler!
Methodl

/ //
• / /

From the object, 0, draw a ray whic h strikes the m ilTor at a n angle o f
incidence of 35° (or value of your own c hoosing close to this).
2 Construct a normal (a line at right-angles to the mirror's surface) at the
point where the ray strikes t he minor.
3 Draw the reflected ray from this point , so that the angle of reflection is
object equal to t he a ngle of incidence.
,,
0 ... ------ -
4 Repeat steps 1 to 3 [or a second ray w ith a n angle of incidence of 55° (or
,, value of your own c hoosing close to t his).
,
CD:, CD 5 Extend t he two reflected ray bad·wards until they intersect (meet) . The
I equal
point of intersection, 1, is the image position.
distances Method 2
/ This method is i.U ustrated on t he left. It uses t he fact that t he posit ion of t he
image behi nd t he mirror matches th at of t he object in front.
From the object, 0, draw a line whic h passes t hrough t he m inor's surface
I at right angles. Extend t his line well beyond t he min·OI:
10
14 ----- 2 Measure t he distance from the object to t he mirror.
Image 3 At an equal distance behi nd t he m irror, mark a point on the extended line.
This point, I. is t he image position .
............................................................................................. RAYS AND WAVES

Reflection problem
Example A hor izontal ray of light strikes a plane mirror whose surface is
a ngled at 55" to the ground, as s hown below left.
a What is the angle between the reflected Lay a nd t he ground?
b If the mirror is re-angled to reflect the ray vertically upwards, what is
the new a ngle between t he surface of the m irror and the ground ?

, b

Incident ray

a In the diagram above left, a n gles a, b , and c have also been labelled to
help wit h t he calculation . The incident ray is parallel to t he ground , so Reflection essentials
t he a ngle between t he reflected ray and the ground is equal to b + c.
As the incident ray is parallel to t he ground : a = 55" normal
i
But: a + b = 90~ So: b = 35"
As t he angle of reflection", angle of incidence: c :: b ~~~~e !,, ~efi~~~~n
So: c = 35" Therefore: b + c = 70" ,,,
So, the a n gle between t he reflected ray and the ground is 70", ,
inc:ldent
b The sit.ua tion is s hown above right, w here angles a, b, and c all now ray ray
have new values. As before: a + b = 90" and c = b . x is the unknown / /
mirror
a ngle between t he su!iace of t he m irror and t he ground. It is equal to a.
As t he ray is refl ected vertically: b + C = 90" So band c are b ot h 45" VVhcn light is reflected from a
But: a + b = 90" So: a = 4 5" Therefore: x = 45" mirror. the angle of incidence is
equal to the angle of reflection.
So, the a n gle between dle surface of the m irror and the ground must be
c han ged to 45".

o You will need a ruler; protractor; and sharp pencil.

1 In the diagram on the right, two rays leave a point object 0
and strike a plane mirror.
a Make an exact copy of the diagram.
b Measu re the angle of incidence of each ray.
c Draw in the two reflected rays at the correct angles.
d Find where the image is formed and label it.
e By drawing or ca lculation, work out what angle the
mirror would need to be turned through so that ray B is
reflected back the way it came.

Related topics : reflection of waves 6.02

 ................................................................................
RAYS AND WAVES

Refraction of light
The 'broken pen' illusio n on t he left occurs because light is bent by t he glass
block. The bend ing effect is called refraction.
The diagram below shows how a ray of light passes through a glass block.
The li ne at right-angles to t he side of t he block is called a nonna1 . The ray
is refracted towards the normal w hen it enters t he block. and away from the
normal w hen it leaves it. The ray emerges parallel to its original di rection
(provided the block has parallel sides).
Refraction would also occur if t he glass were replaced w ith a nother
transparent material, suc h as water or acrylic plastic. although t he a ngle of
refraction would be slightly different. The material t hat light is travelling
through is called a medium.

normal
incident
Definitions 8) "'I

Angle of incidence: t his is the

angle between the incident ray
l
and the normaL '"
glass
Angle of refraction: this is Ih: J air
angle between the refracted ray g la~s

and the normaL

I
I refracted
ray emerges I "'I
para llel to I
incident ray :angle
rof refraction

Real and apparent depth"

Because of refraction, water (or glass) looks less d eep tha n it really is . Its
apparent depth is less than its real depth . This diagram s hows w hy:

light
refracted

i water
T
real
apparent
"~h
""pI
pebble
a ppears to
be here
waves on
..L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~-~~-
~ ~-.•
thiS side of
the beam
510w down
fi rst
T pebble.

Why light is refracted

lower Scientists explain refraction as follows. Light is made up of t iny waves. These
speed travel more slowly in glass (or water) t han in air. When a light bea.m passes
from a ir into glass, as s hown on the left , one s ide of the beam is slowed before
the other. Th is makes th e beam 'bend '.
·.. .......................................................................................... RAYS AND WAVES

Refractive index medium refracti ve index

In a vacuum (empty space), t he speed of light is 300 0 00 km/s. In a ir, it is diamond 2.42
effect ively th e same. However, in glass. light slows to 200 000 kmls. glass (crown) 1.52
The refractive index of a medium is defmed like t his: acryli c plastic 1.49
(Perspe x)
. .mdex m
c'cpc'ce'idco"fo,lc;eg"hctc;,n,-:vcacc:;"c"c,,- water 1.33
re fractlve = -::
speed of light in med ium
... The above figures are based on
more accurate values of the speed of
So. in the case of glass:
light t han t hose used on the left.
refractive index = 300 000 km/s = 1.5
The refractive index of glass varies
200 000 kmls
depending on the type of glass.
Some refractive index values are given on the right. The medium w ith t he
Refractive index also varies slightly
highest refractive index has the greatest bend ing effect on light because it slows depending on the colour of the light.
the light the mosl.

Refraction by a prism Seven colours?

A prism is a triangular block of glass or plastic. The sides of a prism are not By tradition. there are seven
paralleL So, w hen light is refracted by a prism, it comes out in a di ffe rent 'rainbow' colours. The seventh.
indigo. is between blue and
d irection. It is de via ted.
violet. This idea came from the
If a nan'O\v beam of w hite light is passed through a prism, it splits into a range Ancient Greeks who thought that
of colours called a sp ectrum, as shown below. The effect is called disp ersi on . seven was a special number in
It occurs because wh ite is not a si ngle colour but a mixture of all t he colours of the Universe - which is why we
t he rainbow. The p rism refracts each colour by a d iffere nt amount. now have seven days in a week.

-41 Most people think that they can

see about six colours in the spectrum
of white light. However, the spectrum
is really a continuous change of
colour from beginning to end.
Red light is deviated (bent off-course)
least by a prism. Violet light is
deviated most. However. here the
difference has been exaggerated.

o For questions 1band 3. you will need to refer to the table at the top of the page. Assume that
glass
the speed o f light in a vacuum is 300 000 km/s.
1 a Copy the diagram on the right. Draw in and label the normal, the refracted ray, the angle
of incidence, and the angle of refraction .
L b How wou ld your diagram be d ifferent if the ray was passing into water rather than glass?
:z a When white light passes through a prism. it spreads into a spectrum of colours. What is
the spreading effect cal led?
b Which colour is deviat ed most by a prism?
( Which colour is deviated least?
L! Calculate the speed of light in water.

Relat ed t opi cs : refraction of waves 6.02; colour and wavelength 7.01; light waves 7.01; refraction calcula tions 7.06
 ................................................................................
RAYS AND WAVES

Total internal reflection

Refraction essentials
The bending of light when it
passes from one medium
(material) to another is called
refraction_ It is caused by a
change in the speed of the light.
The inside surface of water, glass, or ot her transparent material can act like a
perfect m irror, depending on t he angle at w h ic h t he ligh t strikes it.
The d iagrams below show what happens to t hree rays leaving an undenvater
lamp at di fferent angles. Angle c is called the critical angle . For a n gles of
incidence greater t han t his, there is no refracted ray. All t he light is reflected.
The effect is called total internal reflection.

refracted r<lf

ref ra cted ray no ref raction

a ir
w ater

ref lected ray

reflected ray

i" angle of Incidence (" critICal ang le angle of Incidence grea t er tha n c
The ray splits into a refracted ray and a The rays splits, but the re f racted ray only There is no refracted ray. The surlace of the
weaker reflected ray_ just leaves the surlace. water acts like a perlect mirror.

The value of the critical angle depends on the material. For example:

critical angle
water 49° acrylic plastic 42° glass (crown) 4t O diamond 24°

Reflecting prisms
In th e diagrams below. inside faces of prisms are being used as m irl"Ol"S. Total
f'.. pflsm internal reflection occurs because the a ngle of incide nce o n the face (45°) is
greater tha n the critical angle for glass or acrylic plastic.

prism ......... -'\

""
... Periscope This is an instrument
for looking over obstacles. Prisms
reflect the light, although they can be
replaced with mirrors.
... Rear reflectors (on cars and cycles) ... Binoculars The lens system in each 'ba rrel'
Th e direction of the incoming light is produces an upside·down image. Reflecting prisms
reversed by two total internal reflections. are used to t urn it the ri ght way up _
 ·.. .......................................................................................... RAYS AND WAVES

Optical fibres
Optical fi bres are very thi n , flexible rods made of special glass or transparent
plastic. Light put in at one end is total internally refl ected until it comes ou t of
the other e nd , as s hown below. Although some li ght is absorbed by the fibre, it
comes ou t almost as bright as it goes in - even if the fibre is several kilometres
long. (For more on optical fi bres, see spread 7.12.)

core

.. Single optical f ibre In the type shown above. the inner .... Bundle of optical f ibres Provided the fibres are in the same
glass core is coated with glass of a lower refractive index. positions at both ends. a picture can be seen through them.

.... Optical fibres can ca rry telephone calls. The signals are coded .... This photograph was taken through an endoscope, an
and sent along the fibre as pulses of laser light. Fewer booster instrument used by surgeons for looking inside the body.
stat ions are needed than with electrical cables. An endoscope contains a long, thin bundle of optical fibres.

(!)
1 Glass has a crit ical ang le of 41~. Explain what this means.
:z a Copy and complete the diagrams on the right to show
where each ray will go after it strikes the prism.
b If the prisms on the right were transparent triangu lar
tanks filled with water, would total internal reflection
•
still occur? If not, why not?
~ a Give two examples of the practical use of optical fibres. A

b Give two other examples of the practical use of total

internal reflection.
8

Rel at ed t opi cs : refraction 7.04; calculating the critical angle 7.06; optical fibres in communications 7.12
 ................................................................................
RAYS AND WAVES

Refraction calculations
Snell's law
Refraction essentials When light is refracted , a n increase in t he a ngle of incidence i produces a n
increase in the angle of refraction r. 1n 1620. the Dutch scie ntist Willebrord
normal
I Snell discovered th e link between t he two a ngles : their sines are always in
I proportion.
I
Incident When lighl passes from one medium into another:
coy I
,I
'"glass s in i is constant
sin r

This is known as Snell's law. It is illustrated by t hese examples :

A light riff bends as it enters a

" '''' I S~ " , : 60~
glass block. The bending eHect is I I
I
called refraction . It occurs because '"
glass
light waves slow down when they
r '" 10"
pass from air into glass or other
medium (see spread 7.04). Passing
from glass back in to air, they
/'. A
would speed up again. So. if the
coy io th' di",com we" "","ed, iJ si n 1S ~
-- = -
si n 1O"
0.26
0.17
si n 4S ~
si n 28 ~
=
0.71
-0,47
si n 60 ~
sin 3S~
=
0.B7
-
0 .57
would pass back inlo the air along
the same path as it came in. = 1.5 = 1. 5 = 1.5

Measuring refractive
index
o Refractive index
The refract ive index of a medium is defmed like this:
To find the refractive index of. say.
glass. you could direct a ray (from . .III dex
re ITactive = ~speed
' cp~,~ed'i-'0:;f-;l"ig,;lc",-,:in'c:vca~c;:u:.ucmc
~
of li ght in medium
a riff box) al a glass block. mark
the positions of the incident and
refracted rays. measure their
In a vacuum, t he speed of light is 300 000 km/s ~ a nd effectively t he same
angles. then use the equation on in air. In glass. it drops to 200 000 lan/s oSo, the refractive index of glass is
the right. A semi-circular block is 300 000 krnJs -:- 200 000 krnls, w hic h is 1.5. This is the same as t he value o f
useful for experiments like this. If s in i -:- sin r in th e d iagrams above.
the ray passes through point a Here is an alternative definition of refractive index:
below. no bending occurs al lhe
circular face. so it is easier to vary
refractive index = s~n i
and measure the angles. SIn r

Example Light (i n a ir) strikes water at a n angle of incidence of 45". If the

refractive index of wate r is 1.33. w hat is the angle of refract ion?

Apply in g the above equation: l.33 = si~ 45"

S ill r
Rearranged. this gives sin r = s in 45"/1.33. Whe n calculated. this gives
) s in r = 0.532. So t he angle of refraction r is 32".
 ............................................................................................. RAYS AND WAVES

LCalculating the critical angle

refracted
"Y

refracted
I no refraction
'"g lass

tOlal
reflected ref lected internal
"Y "Y reflect ion

, = angle of incidence c = critical ang le angle of inCIdence grea ter t han c

In t he diagrams above, rays are travelling from glass towa rds a ir at di ffere nt
a ngles. When the a ngle of incidence is greater t ha n th e crilica1 a n gle, there is
no refracted ray. All t he ligh t is reflected . There is lola1 inte rna1 reflectio n . 1
1
Knowing t he refractive index of a material , t he critical a n gle can be 1
1
calcu lated. For example; 1
190°
On the right, t he m iddle diagram above has been red rawn wit h t he ray
di rection reversed. This time, the a ngle of incidence is 90°, a nd angle c is now
the a ngle of refractioll . If the refractive index of glass is 1.5;

refractive index = si~ 90° = _I _ (as sin 90 0 = 1)

s in e S in c

rearranging: sin c = _ 1_ = 0.67

1.5 ... Compare this with the middle
diagram at the top of the page.
so c, the crit ical a ngle of glass, == 42 ~.

Note: t his figure differs slightly from th at in spread 7.03 because a s implified
value for t he refractive ind ex of glass has been used in the calcu latio n.
Fro m the above calculation , it foll ows t hat the critical a ngle c of any mediu m
can be calculated using this equation:
. 1
For a med ium of refractive index 11: Sln C == -

"

o To answer these questions, you will need a calculator (or set of tables) contain ing
sine values.
1 The refractive index of water is 1.33. Calculate the angle of refraction if light
(in air) strikes water at an ang le of incidence of a 24 ~ b 53 ~.
2 A transparent material has a refractive index of 2.0.
a Calculate the critical ang le.
b If the refractive index were less than 2.0, would the critical angle be greater
or less than before? .. When a diamond is cut, the facets
J Diamond has a refractive index of 2.42. The speed of l ight in a vacuum (or in (faces) are angled so that they
air) is 300 000 kmls. Calculate: produce to tal internal reflection.
a the speed of light in diamond b the critical angle for d iamond. Reflected light gives the diamond its
'sparkle'.

Related topics : refracIion and refracli~e index 7.04; lolal inlernal refleclion 7.05
 ................................................................................
RAYS AND WAVES

Lenses (1)
Lenses be nd light a nd form images. There are two ma in types of lens. The
convex
diagram on the left shows some examples of each.
lenses Convex Jenses These are thickest in the m iddle and t hin rou nd the edge.
Whe n rays parallel to t he p lincipal a-.: is pass t hrough a convex lens, t hey are
ben t inwards. The point F w here they converge (meet) is called the principaJ
foc us. Its distance from t he centre of the lens is t he focal Jength. A convex
concave lens is known as a converging Jens.
lenses
Rays can pass through t he lens in eit her direction. so there is a noth er principal
focus F' o n t he opposite s ide of the lens a nd the same d istance from it.

Convel( (converging) lens Concave (diverging) lens

principal focus
,
..-
"

F'
prinCipal axis

'.
'.
f ocal length focal lengt h

Concave Je nses· These are thin in t he middle and thickest round the ed ge.
How lenses bend light 8( When rays parallel to t he principal a-.: is pass t hrough a concave lens. t hey are
bent outwards. The principal focus is the point from whic h t he rays appear to

-:-~
diverge (spread out) . A concave lens is a diverging Jens.

. n. Real images formed by convex lenses

In the diagram below, rays from a very d istant object are being brought to
Lenses are made 01 glass. plastic,
a foc us by a convex lens. Rays come from all po ints on the object. However.
or other transparent material.
for simplicity, only a few rays from one point have been shown. Together. the
Each section of a lens acts like a
tiny prism, refracting (bending)
mys form a n image whic h can be p icked up on a screen . An image like this is
light as it goes in and again as il called a reaJ image. It is formed in t he CocaJ pJane.
comes out. Expensive lenses] " , In a camera, a convex len s is used as below to form a real image on a p iece of
special coatings to reduce the fLim or CCO. The image in the eye is formed in the same way.
colour-spreading of t he prisms.

object

real image

screen

IS inverted (upside-down)
·.. .......................................................................................... RAYS AND WAVES

The rays from a point on a very d istant object are effectively parallel. so t he
image passes th rough t he principal focus. H owevel~ for an object at any other Standard rays
d istance , th e image is in a d ifferent position. In ray diagrams, any two of the
You can predict w here a convex lens will form an image by drawing a ray following rays are needed to fix
the image position and size:
dia gram . There are two examples below. Eac h has t hese features:
• For simplicity, rays are drawn from just one point on t he object.
• The mys u sed are th e s tandard rays described on the r ight. These are ---- .f --_.
chosen because it is easy to work out w here they go. Only two of them are
needed to fin d where t he image is.
• For s implicity, rays are shown bending at t he li ne t hrough t he m iddle of A ray through the centre
t he lens. In reality, bendi ng takes place at eac h surface. passes straight through the
lens.
object convex lens
2
._--.f' ---

2 A ray parallel to the principal

axis passes through F after
leaving the lens.
Image:
rl:!<lI, f'
inverted, ----. --_ .
diminished
(smaller
th,m object)
3 A ray through F' leaves the lens
parallel to the prindpal axis.
object 2

f'
- - ----- - - ft-l-.",
image:
real,
iOV(>rted,
enlarged
(larger than object)

The ray d iagrams above show that as t he object is moved towards t he len s, the
image beco mes bigger a nd furt her away.
A film projector uses a convex lens to form a magnified, real image on a screen
a long way away from it, as in the lower d iagram.

o 1 a Which of the lenses on the right is <I convex lens?

b Which one is a converging lens?
c What is meant by the principal focus of the convex lens?
d What is meant by the feca/length of the convex lens?
2 a If a convex lens picks up rays from a very dist ant object where is the
image formed?
b If the object is moved towards the lens, what happens to the position
and size of the image?
3 Draw a ray diagram like one of those above, but w ith the object exactly
A B
2 X focal length away from t he lens. Draw in and describe the image.

Related t opi cs : mirrors 7.04; refract ion by a prism 7.04; camera and eye 7.09
 ................................................................................
RAYS AND WAVES

Lenses (2)
LConvex lens as a magnifying glass
,~~~
',,~ ~ ..:: ....
.. ~ .. .. .. ~

"
'I

I,
...... ...... ..
.... ..
~
....

",
,"
""
-------- ~~ ------ . ------ ------- - - - - - - - - - - ::
- ,,",,~'
Imilge: F' object F
, vinual. between
up right, F' ilrid lens
ITIiIgn ~ led

If an object is closer to a convex lens than the principal focus, the rays never
converge. Instead, t hey a p pear to come from a posit ion behind the lens. The
image is upright and magnified . It is called a virtua1 image because no rays
actually meet to form it and it cannot be p icked up o n a screen. Used like t his.
a convex lens is often called a magnifying glass .
• Thick, bulging convex. lenses have
the shortest focal lengt hs and make
Drawing accurate ray diagrams
the most powerful magnifying
Problems like the one below can be solved by doing a ray d iagram as a n
glasses.
accurate scale drawing on graph paper:
Thin convex. lenses have longer focal
lengths and are much less powerful. Example An object 2 cm high stands o n t he principal axis at a distance of
9 cm from a co nvex len s. If t he focal length of the lens is 6 em, w hat is the
image's pos ition, he ight. and type?

For accuracy. you need to c hoose a scale that makes the diagram as large as
possible. In t he drawing below, I cm on t he paper represents 2 cm of actual
distance. When the final measurements are scaled up, t hey s how th at t he
image is 18 cm from t he lens , 4 cm high . and real.

1 em rep re~nt5 2 em

------- ~ ------------
F' image:
reill,
invened.
18 em from
len~,
4 em high
............................................................................................. RAYS AND WAVES

Estimating the focal length of a convex lens·

You can find an approximate value for t he focal length of a convex lens by
form ing an image of a d istant window (or ot her distan t bright object) on a
screen. Rays from the w indow are almost parallel. so the image is close to t he
principal focus of the le ns. Therefore the distance from t he image to the lens
is approx imately t he same as the focal lengt h.

Convex lenses in a telescope·

objectiV€ eyepiece
(long focal leng th) ('>hort focal
distant obj ea leng th)

f'
,,$~~.;'O_ .,

~~:: ........"
, uu~--· -

w tual lmage real Image

formed by formed by
eyepiec e objective

The telescope above (s hown w ithout its tube) uses two convex lenses. The
objective forms a real image of a distant object - in this case the Moon - just
inside the principal foc us of t he eyepiece. The image acts as a close object to
this len s, w hic h forms a magnified virtual image of it. The eyepiece is being
used as a magnify ing glass, but it is magnify ing a n image of t he object rather
than t he object itself. The fmal image is upside down. Most binoculars - two
telescopes s ide-by-side - have prisms in them to tum t he image the right way
up (see spread 7.05).

Images formed by concave lenses·

In t he diagram below, two standard rays have been used to s how how a
concave lens forms a n image. Wherever th e object is positioned, the image is
always small, upright, a nd virtual.

cOl1cave
I,~
object
.. '
.'
.. ' ,,
_ - ---ttl---;.:;.:
.. A concave lens forms a small.
------ - ~"'- ---_c ----- _ C"- upright. virtual image.
F Image:
vll1ual.
upright.
sma ller
th an object

o
.. 1 a An obj ect 2 cm high is placed 12 cm away from a 2 Where should the object be placed if the image formed
convex lens of focal length 6 cm. By doing an by a convex tens is to be
accurate drawing on graph paper, find the position, a virtual, and larger than the object?
height. and type of image.
b The object is moved so that it is only 10 cm away
from the lens. Use another drawing to find the new
L b real. and the same size as the object?
c real, and larger than the object?
3* Describe show how you could quickly f ind an
pOSition. height. and type of image. approximate value for the focal length of a convex tens.

Relat ed t opi cs: virtual image 7.02; binoculars 7.05; focal length and ray diagrams 7.07
 ................................................................................
RAYS AND WAVES
Convex lens essentials Or The camera
f~ ~ ~jC
focal length
Re al image An image fo rmed
by rays that converge. It can be
picked up on a screen.
Focus Any point where rays
leaving a lens converge. If the
rays entering the lens are parallel
to it s axis, then they converge at
J
the princi p al focus (F on one
side of the lens, F' on the other).
Rays from a point on a very
distant object are effectively
parallel.
More Lenses in action*
For simplicity, only one
set of rays has been
shown from one point image on Image
on the object. sensor
This uses a convex lens to fonn a small , inverted , real image on a sensor (or
in older cameras , a piece of photographic ftIm) at t he back. The image senso r
is a light-sensitive m icrochip containing m illions of m icroscopic solar cells.
When t he s hutter opens, t hese capture the image as a pattem of electric
c harge w hic h can be stored as data on a memory card. This can be processed
to prod uce the final image on a screen or in print.
The human eye
Like a camera, this uses a convex lens system to form a small , inverted ,
real image at t he back. The light is mainly converged by t he cornea and the
watery liquid behind it. The lens, w hich is fl exible. is used to make focus ing
adjustments: its s hape is c ha nged by a r ing of m uscles. The image is formed
on t he retina, w h ich contains over 100 mill ion light-sensitive cells . Signals
from t hese cells are sent to the brain along t he optic nerve.
ciliary muscles
watery liquid
pupil
cornea
op tIC nerve
ii (to brain)
clear Jelly
............................................................................................. RAYS AND WAVES

The projector

LCD panel real image

lamp (or film) 00

curved
mirror

condenser proje<tion
lens lens

The projector above uses a convex lens, called the projection lens , to form a
large, inverted , real image on a screen. The object is a t iny, brightly l it, picture
on a n LCD (liqu id crystal display) panel rather like th e one on a mob ile p hone.
(In older systems, t he p icture is on a p iece of film. )
For t he projected image to be upright., the p icture on the panel must be
upsid e-down. For a large image, the panel has to be ju st outside of the
principal focus of the projection lens, a nd t he lens a long way from the screen.
To make focusing adjustments, the lens is moved backwards or forwards
slightly.
TV projection systems In a normal TV, the picture is created by making
millions of tiny 'cells', called pixe1s , light up in di ffere nt combinat ions of
sh ade and colour - all cont rolled by digital electronics (see spread 10.01 ).
I n a typical projectio n TV. each picture is firs t created on a tiny LCD panel.
then projected as above. There are usually t hree panels - one for each of the
colou rs red, green , and blue. What you see on the screen is a n overlapping
combination of t hree images in di fferent colours .
Cinema projection systems At one time, all cinemas used film projectOl"s.
Today, most use digital projection systems similar in principle to those for
TVs. Feature films are deli vered to th e cinema either on a ponable computer
hard drive or v i a t he internet.

CD
... You will need information from the previous spreads, 7.07
and 7.08. on how and where a convex lens forms an image.
1 In most cameras, the lens can be moved in and out t o
make focus ing adjustments. If the camera on the
opposite page is to take a picture of a object about a
metre in front of it will the lens need to moved closer
to the sensor or further away?
2 Compared with a camera, what difference is there in
the way the human eye makes focusing ad justments?
3 In the projector at the top of this page, if the lens is
moved slightly further from the LCD panel, where must
the screen be moved for the image on the screen to
remain in focus: closer to the projector or further away?

Related t opi cs convex lenses and ray diagrams 7.07-7.08

 ................................................................................
RAYS AND WAVES
Wave essentials ~)
Waves radiate (spread ouO from
their source. They are a form of
radiation
wavelength
i i
It _h .__ .l:\ ___ 6
_---'' -
-r---v ---V --- ---;1"
With transverse wa ves as
above. the oscillations (vibrations)
are at right-angles to the
direction of travel.
The number of waves sent out
per second is called the
frequen cy. It is measured in
hertz (Hz).
, ,
~
nucleus
... In an atom. the eledrons have
negative (- ) charge and the nucleus
has positive (+) charge.
Electromagnetic waves are emitted
whenever charged particles oscillate
or lose energy.
Wave equation
For any set of moving waves:
speed = frequency x wavelength
(m/s) (Hz) (m)
If the speed of the waves is
unchanged. an increase in
frequency means a decrease in
wavelength. and vice versa.
1000 Hz = 1 kilohertz (kHz)
1 000000 Hz ::: 1 megahertz (MHz)
Electromagnetic waves (1)
.,. Light waves belong to a w hole family of e1ectromab'l1etic waves. These have
several features in common . For example:
I•
L- They can travel t hrough a vacuum (for example, space).
They travel through a vacuum at a speed of 300 000 kilometres per second.
This is usually called t he speed of light, although it is t he speed of all
electromagnetic waves .
• They are transverse waves - the ir oscillations are at r ight-angles to the
direction of travel. It is electric a nd magnetic fiel ds t hat are oscillating, not
material .
• They transfer energy. A source loses energy w hen it radiates
electromagnetic waves. A material gains e nergy w hen it absorbs th em.
The electromagnetic spectrum
J The full range of electromagnet ic waves is called the electromagne tic
spectrum . It is s hown in the chart on t he o ppos ite page. The range of
wavelengths is huge. At one end are t he longest radio waves with wavelen gths
of several kilometres. At t he other e nd are the s hortest gamma rays w ith
wavelengths of less than o ne-billio nth o f a millimetre.
Where electromagnetic waves come from*
All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are themselves made up of a cen tral
nucleus w ith tiny particles called e1ectrons orbiting around it. The nucleus
and the electrons are electrically charged. Sometimes, electrons can escape
from t he ir atoms. For example, w he n an electric current passes t hrough a
w ire. t he cu n-ent is a fl ow of free electrons.
Electromagnetic waves are em itted (sent out) whenever c harged pmtic!es
oscillate or lose energy in some way. For example, the vibrating atoms in a
hot. glowing bulb filame nt em it infrared and light. a nd a n oscillating electric
c urrent emits radio waves. The higher the fl"Cquency of oscillation, or t he
greater the energy c ha nge. t he shorter the wavelength of the electromagnetic
waves prod uced .
o You may need information from the next spread, 7.11.
t Give three properties (features) common to all electromagnetic waves.
o( 2 Put the following in order of wavelength. starting with the longest:
ultraviolet X-rays red light violet light
3 Name a type of electromagnetic rad iation that
microwaves infrared
a is visible to the eye b is emitted by hot objects
c is diffracted by hills d can cause fluorescence
e is used for radar f can pass through dense metals.
A VHF radio station emits radio waves at a frequency of 100 MHz.
a What is the frequency in Hz?
b What is the wavelength? (speed of rad io waves = 3 x 106 m/s)
[ c What is the wavelength of radio waves from a long·wave transmitter,
broadcasting at a frequency of 200 kHz?
·.. .......................................................................................... RAYS AND WAVES

The electromagnetic spectrum

frequenty wa ve length type of examp les, uses, and effe cts
H, m electromagnetic radiation

long wave long-dist ance AM (aeho

med ium waVE> local A M rad io

short wave amate ur radiO

radio
wav es
VHF FM radi o

UHF TV brOil&: am

mICrowaves mobile phones; TV and com munic at ions

satellit es; telephone li nb; Wi -fi; rad ar;
healing effect U>ed In mlcr(lVVave ovens

ra diant heaters and gnlls

TV remote cootrollers
infrared
security alarms and lamps
'light' pu lses in optical fi bres

only type of rad iation visiblE> 10 the E>yE>

cau ses t anning, ~m cancer, and E>ye damage

ultraviolet cau ses fl uorE>scence
(makes some chem icals glOVlt)
kills bactena

X-rays used for X-ray photography

causes fl uorescence
causes cancer, but can ki ll cancer cells

gamma ra ys em itted by radloa<:tive mate ri als

uses and effects as fOf X-rays
used for steri lizing me dICal equ ipment
and food

DANGER
RADIATION

A A
103 = 1 000
10-] =~=_'_ =0.00 1
10 t 000

For m o re informa tion about the di fferent types of electromagnetic radia t ion , see t he next spread , 7. 11 .

Related topics: ther mal radiation 5.08; t ransverse waves, frE>quency and wavelE>ng th 6.0 1; radar 6 _04; light waves 7.01;
light spE>drum 7.04; gamma rays 7_11 and 11.02; atoms and e lect ric c harge 8.01
 ................................................................................
RAYS AND WAVES
I~! 1J)))))
... Radio w aves of long and medium
wavelengths diffract (bend) round
hills.
... This dish receives microwaves from
a satellite.
... Infrared and ultraviolet can be
det ected just beyond the two ends of
the visible part of the spectrum.
Electromagnetic waves (2)
Radio waves
Stars are natural em itte rs of rad io waves. However, radio waves can be
produced artificially by making a c urren t oscillate in a transmitting aerial
(antenn a). In a s imple radio system. a microphone controls t he current to t he
aerial so t hat t he ramo waves 'pulsate'. In t he radio rece iver, t he incoming
pulsations cont rol a loudspeaker so that it p roduces a copy of the ori ginal
sound . Radio waves are also used to tra ns mit TV pictures.
Long and medium waves will d iffract (bend) a round hills, s o a radio can
still receive s ign als even if a hill blocks t he direct route from t he transmitting
aerial. Long waves w ill also di ffract round t he curved surface of th e Ean h .
VKF and UHF waves h ave s horter wavelengths. VHF (very hi gh frequency) is
used for stereo rad io and UH F (ultra h igh freque ncy) for TV broadcasts. These
waves do not diffract round hills. So, for good reception, t here needs to be a
straight path between the trans mitting a nd receiving aerials.
Microwaves have the shortest wavelengths (and highest frequencies) of all
radio waves. They are used by mobile p hones , Wi-Fi, and for beaming TV a nd
telep hone signals to a nd fro m satellites and across country.
Like all electromagnetic waves, m icrowaves produce a heating effect when
absorbed. Water absorbs m icrowave s of one paliicula r frequency. This
principle is used in m icrowave ove ns, where the waves penetrate d eep
into foo d a nd heat up t he water in it. However, if t he body is expo sed to
m icrowaves, they can cau se internal heat ing of body tissues .
Infrared radiation and light
When a radiant heater or grill is switched on, you can detect t he infrared
radiat ion com ing from it by t he heating effect it prod uces in your skin. In
fact, all objects em it some infrared because of t he mot ion of their atoms or
molecules. Most radiate a wide range of wavelengths.
As a n object heats up, it radiates more a nd more infrared, a nd shorter
wavelengths . At about 700 "C, the shonest wavelengths rad iated can be
detected by the eye, so t he object glows 'red hot'. Above a bou t 1000 °C, the
w hole of the visible spectrum is cove red , so the objecT is 'wh ite hot.',
Shan-wavelength infrared is ofte n called ' infrared light'. even th ough
it is invis ible. However, strictly speaking, light is just t he part of th e
electromagnetic spectrum that is vis ible to the eye.
warm object
'!"M hot' obJ£OCt
·.. .......................................................................................... RAYS AND WAVES

Securi ty alanns and lamps can be switched on by motion sen sors that pick up
the ch anging pattern of infrared caused by an approaching person. At night.
p hotographs can be taken using infrared. In telephone networks, s ignals are
sent along optical fibres as pulses of infrared 'light'. And remote controllers for
TVs work by transm itting infrared pulses.

Ultraviolet radiation
Very hot object s, s uc h as t he Su n , em it some of t heir radiat ion beyond t he
violet end of the visible spectrum. This is ultraviolet radiation. It is sometimes
called 'ultraviolet ligh t', even though it is invisible.
The Su n's ultraviolet is harmful to living cells. If too much penetrates the skin,
it can cause skin cancer. I f you have a black or dark skin, the ultraviolet is
absorbed before it can penetrate too far. But with a fair skin , t he ultraviolet
can go deepel: Skin develops a tan to try to pl"Otect itself against ultraviolet.
Ultraviolet can also d amage t he retina in the eye and cause blindness.
As ultraviolet is hannfullo living cells , it is used in some types of sterilizing
equ ipment to kill bacteria (germs). ... Sunbeds use ultraviolet to cause
tanning in some types of skin.
Fluorescence Some materials fluoresce w hen t hey absorb ultraviolet: they
convert its energy into vis ible light a n d glow. Tn Auorescent lamps, t he in sid e
of t he tube is coated wit h a w hite powdel- w hich gives off light w hen it absorbs
ultraviolet. Th e ultraviolet is prod uced by passing a n electric current through
the gas (mercury vapour) in the tube.

X-rays
X-rays are given off w hen fast-mov in g electrons lose energy very q uickly. For
example, in a n X-ray tube. t he radiation is em itted w hen a beam of electrons
hits a metal target. Short-wavelength X-rays are extremely penetrating. A
d ense metal like lead can reduce t heir strength, but not stop them. Long-
wavelengt h X- rays are less penetrating. For example. t hey can pass t hrough
flesh but not bone. so bones will s how up on a n X-ray photograph . In
engineering, X-rays can be used to take p hotogmphs that reveal flaws ins ide
metals - for example faulty welds in pipe joints. Airpo rt security systems also
use th em to detect any weapons hidden in luggage.
All X-rays are da ngerous because t hey damage living cells deep in the body
and can cause cancer or mutations (genetic c hange). H owever, concentrated
... An X-ray photograph
beams of X-rays can be used to treat cancer by destroying abnormal cells.

Gamma rays
Gamma rays come from radioactive materials. They are prod uced whe n the
Ionizing radiations
nuclei of unstable atoms break up or lose e nergy. They tend to have s horter
Ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma
wavelengths tha n X-rays because the energy c ha nges t hat produce them are rays cause ionization - they
greaTer. However, t here is no d iffere nce between X-rays and gamma rays of t he strip electrons f rom atoms in
same wavelen gth. their path. The atoms are left
Like X-rays, gamma rays can be used in t he treatment of cancel: and for with an electric charge. and are
taking X-ray-type photographs. As t hey kill harmful bacteria, they are also then known as ions .

used for sterilizing food and medi cal equipment. Ionization is harmful be<:ause it
can kill or damage living celts. or
make them grow abnormally as
For questions, see the previous spread, 7.10.
cancers.

Related topics: infrared and thermal radiation 5.08; diffraction 6.02; light spectrum 7.04; optical fibres 7.05 and 7.12; X-ray tube 10.07;
radioactivity, gamma rays, and ionization 11.02
 ................................................................................
RAYS AND WAVES

Sending and storing*

Telephone . rad io. and TV are all forms of teleco mm u nicatio n - ways o f
transm itt ing information over lon g d istances. The information may be sou nds ,
p ictures. or compute r data. The diagram below left shows a simple telephone
system . An encoder (the microphone) turns th e inco m ing infomlation
(speech) into a form whic h can be transmitted (electrical signals). The s ignals
pass along t he transmission path (wires) to a d ecoder (the earphone). Th is
turns the signals back into useful information (speech).
Othe r teleco mmunicat ion systems use di ffere nt types o f s ignal a nd
transm ission path . The s ignals may be cha nges in voltage . cha nges in t he
intensity of a beam ofl igh t. or changes in t he strength or freque ncy of radio
waves . They may be transm itted us ing w ires . optical fibres. or radio waves.

~
5 .llQJ-,"
earphone 4 _\ ,
volt age 3 ~/.
m icro phor'le
level
2 I -L
electrical signal s
I 1.\
0 tl ~ --+
Y
Wi res in c3b le A
voltage level
0 I 4 5 2 0 I 4
S3mpled

!.I9 M ls binary code 00000 1 100101010 000001 100

informat ion
\ inf ormation

rIt-
encoder
tra nsmission pat h
decoder dig ita l
pulses
I
0 rh--[lrLn.
... li ke all telecommunications systems. a simple telephone ... How an analogue signal is converted into digital pulses. Real
system sends signals from a coder to a decoder. systems use hundreds of levels and a much faster sampling rate.

Analogue and digital transmission

The sou nd waves entering a m icropho ne make the voltage across it vary - as
show n in the graph above right. A cont inuous variation like th is is called
a n ana10gue signal The table shows how it can be co nverted into digila1
s igna1s - s ignals represen ted by numbers. The Oli ginal s ignal is sample d
electronically many times per seco nd . In effect . t he height o f the graph is
measured repea tedly, and the measu rements cha nged in to bin ary code s
(numbers us ing only O's and 1's) . These are transmitted as a series of pulses
a nd turned back into a n a nalogue signal at the receiving e nd.
Advantages of digital transmis sion Signals lose power as t hey travel
along. This is called attenuation . They a re also spoilt by noise (electrical
interference). To resto re t heir power a nd quality. digital p ulses can be 'cleaned
up' a nd amplified at differe nt stages by regenerators. Analogue s ignals can
also be amplified . but t he no ise is amplifi ed as well, so the s ignals are of lower
quality w he n t hey reach t heir destination.
 RAYS AND WAVES
.............................................................................................
Optical fibres
For long-distance t J'an sm iss ion , telephone networks often use optical fibres.
These are long, t hin strands of glass whic h can carry digital s ignals in t he
fo rm of pulses of light. At the transm itting e nd, electrical signals are e ncod ed
into light sign als by a n LED Oight-em itting d iode) or a l aser (Uode. At the
receiving end, t he li ght s ignals are d ecoded by a photodiode which tu rns
them back into electrical s ign als. Optical fibre cables are thin ner and lighter
than electric cables . They carry more s ignals a nd w ith less attenuation. They
are not affected by electrical interference. and cannot be 'tapped'.

Storing and retrieving information

When you listen to a recording, the music is being recreated electronically
from stored information. Here are some of the methods used for storing and 6. Optical fibres
retrieving (getting back) information of t his type:

Vinyl disc This is the simplest and oldest
system, though still popular with DJs! The
information is recorded as a long,
wavy,sided groove on the surface of the
disc. As the disc rotat es. a stylus travels
along the groove and vibrates because of
the wavy sides. The vibrations are turned
into electrica l signals (analogue).
Compact disc (CD) The information is
recorded digitally as a sequence of
microscopic bumps on a metal layer inside
the disc. To retrieve it, the disc is rotat ed
and laser light is ref lected from the bumps.
The reflected pulses are picked up by a
photodiode and turned into electrical
signals. DVOs work in the same way.
MP3 player The inf ormation is stored
digitally on a microchip. This is an example
of solid state storage: there are no moving
parts. instead, millions of tiny circuits are
set either on (1) or off (0). During
playback, the settings of these circuits are
retrieved in the correct sequence to
produce electrical signals.

(!)
1 The d iagram on the right shows part of a telephone mluo-
phone laser d,ode i==="
system.
a In what form do the signa ls travel along the f ibre? optical fi bre
b What does the laser d iode do?
c What does the photod iode do?
d What does the regenerator do?
photo-
diode rE'generator 1------,
e Give two advantages of sending dig ital signa ls rather
than a nalogue ones.
f Give two advantages o f using an optical f ibre link
Ig lta
rather than a cable with wires in it. '--~~ to analogue
2 Give an example o f information being stored conve rter
a in digit al form b in ana logue form.

Related topics: sound wa~es 6.03; optical fibres 7.05; magnetic storage 9.04; signals 10.01; analogue and digital 10.01; LEOs 10.01
RAYS AND WAVES FURTHER QUESTIONS

1 The diagram shows a light s ignal travelling t hrough 4 The fi gure shows a n object 0 8 o f height 2 cm in
a n optical fibre made o f glass . front of a converging lens. The p!"incipal foci of th e
p lens are labelled F a nd F . An image of D B will be
formed to t he right of t he le ns.

,
I
glass fibre
- ",t" '" -t _'

a State two ch a n ges that happen to t he light when

L it passes from air into the glass fibre at B.
b Explain w hy t he light follows the path shown
[2 ]

J ..
after hi tting t he wall of the fib re at P. [2]
2

a Copy the figu re a nd draw two rays fro m t he top of

the object B w hk h pass th rough the lens and go
to t he image. [2]
b Draw the image formed . Label t his image I
a nd meas ure its size. [ 1]
5 object
<--:::--~-ft,-

2F' F' 2F
miHo (

image
In t he d iagram a bove a n object (a small bulb) has
been placed in front of a pla ne m in'ol: The d iagram s hows a co nverging le ns fo rm ing
a Copy the d iagram. M ark in the pos it io n of t he a real image of a n illum inated object.
Sta te two t hi ngs that happen t o the image w hen the
image. [1]
object is moved towards F'. [2]
b On you r d iagl"am. draw a s ingle ray from the
object t hat reAects from the m in'or a nd goes into 6
F IS 30 mm fro m
t he eye . Include a dotted li ne to show where , to centre of le~
the eye . t he ray appears to come from. [3]
c An object is 10 cm away fro m a plane m irror. F' 0

How far is t he object from its image. [1] o IS 20 mm from

centre of lens and
d If the object is moved 1 cm closer to the m irror.
L how far is it away from its image t hen?
3 a Copy the d iagram a nd d raw the path of the ray of
[1 ]
15 mm high

The d iagram s hows a n object 0 placed in fro nt o f

yellow light as it passes t hrough and co mes out of a convex (converging) lens a nd the passage of two
t he glass prism . [2] rays [rom t he top of the object through t he lens.
a Copy and complete t he d iagram (using t he
di mens io ns given) to sh ow w here the image is
fo rmed . [2J
b Sta te two propert ies o f t he image. [21
c " Use t he info rmation from the comple ted diagram
yellow light g la~ prism
a nd the equation
.
11llear . . = I,-;-'W=i~g7
magmficatlOn h ~1=
or~,=,~
"=ag",,
b What do we call t his effect? [1 ]
height of object
c State w hy ligh t cha nges d irection w he n it enters a
L glass prism . [1 ]
to calculate the magnification produced by the lens. [2]
 FURTHER QUESTIONS RAYS AN D WAVES

7 The diagram shows t he main regions of the

elect romagnetic spectrum . The numbers show the
A frequenc ies of t he waves measured in hertz (H z).
a Name the regio ns
i A [1 ]
mirror
ii B. [1 ]
b i Write down , in words , t he eq uation
connect ing wave speed, wavelength, a nd
wave frequency. [1 ]
ii Calculate the freq uency of the radiation w ith
a wavelen gth of 0.00 I m (I 0 - 3 m), given t hat
B
all electromagnetic waves travel at a speed of
300 000 000 mls (3 X 10 8 m /s) in space. [2]
optical fibre iii State to w hic h part of t he electromagnetic
spectrum t he radiation in part ii belongs. [1 ]
In t he diagrams above, rays of light sh"ike a m i lTor
c Explain how and why m icrowaves can cause
a nd o ne end of an optical fibre. damage to or even kill living cells. [2 ]
a Copy and complete the diagrams to s how w hat
will happen to each of th e rays. [2] 11 The figure s hows a square block of glass JKLM with a

b Whic h. d iagram s hows an example of total ray of light incident o n s ide JK at an angle of inc ide nce
internal refl ection? [1 ] of 60 0 • The refractive index of the glass is 1.50.
, L
c Give t\vo pract ical uses of optical fibres. [2]
d Th e ligh t in each ray is monochromatic.
W hat does th is mean ? [ 1]
8 A ray o f light. i n air, strikes o ne side of a rectangular
glass block. The refractive index of t he glass is 1.5.
a Draw a diagram to show the directio n the ray will
take in the glass if th e angle of incidence is 0". [2]
b Draw a diagram to s how t he appro ximate L-----------~ M
direction the ray wiB take in t he glass if t he
angle of incidence is 45", and calculate t he angle a Calculate the a ngle of refraction of the ray. [2]
of refraction. [4] b Calculate the critical a ngle for a ray of light
c If the speed of light in a ir is 3 X 10 rn/s,8 in this glass. [2 ]
calculate the speed of light in t he glass, [2] c Explain w hy the ray s hown cannot emerge from
9 Lig ht and gamma rays are both examples of side K L b ut will emerge from s ide LM . [3 ]
electromagnetic radiation.
12 a 1 less than 1 the same as 1 greater than 1
a Name three other types of electromagnetic
rad iatio n . [3] Copy the sentences below a nd use one of the three
b State two di fferences between light and gamma phrases above to complete each sentence. Each phrase
rays. [2] may be used once, more than o nce at" not at all.
The speed of light is 3 x l OS m/s. Calculate The wavelength of radio waves is _ _ _ __
the frequency of yellow light of wavelength the wavelength of ultraviolet rad iation. [1 ]
6XI O-7m. [2] ii In a vacuum t he speed of u ltraviolet rad iat ion

10

'" •• w .. W 1000 10" 10" 10" 10" 10" 10" 10" 10" 10" 10" 1(1

u ltra-
" ti
is the speed of light.
The frequency of ultraviolet radiation is _ _ __
the frequency of infrared radiation.
[I ]

[1 ]
rad iO B A gamma b Name the part of the electromagnetic spectrum
wave~ violet ' ''Y'
that is used to:
i send informat ion to and from satell ites [ 1]
I
mICro· ii kill harmful bacteria in food. [ 1]
waves
RAYS AND WAVES REVISION SUMMARY

Use the list below when you revise for your IGCSE examination. You can either
photocopy it or print it from the fi le on the CD accompanying th is book.
The spread number, i n brackets. tells you where to find more inf ormation.

Core LeveL Extended LeveL

o The meanings o f a ngle of incidence and angle of As for Core Level. plus t he follow ing:
reflection. (7 .02) o The meaning of monochromatic. (7 .01)
o A law of reflection: the angles of inciden ce and o The image in a plane m irror is vinual. (7.02)
reflection are eq ual. (7 .02) o Two types of image: virtual and real. (7.02 a nd 7.07)
o The image in a pla ne m irror, its features a nd how it o Drawing accurate diagrams to find w here a plane
is formed . (7 .02 ) m irror forms an image. (7.02 a nd 7.03)
o Demonstrating t he refractio n oflight. (7 .04) o Defining refractive index in terms of speed. (7.04)
o The meaning of a n gle of refraction. (7.04) o Optical fibres and their uses. (7 .05 and 7.12)
o How a light ray passes through a parallel-s ided o The equation linking refractive index. a n gle
block of glass or plastic. (7 .04) of incidence. and angle of refraction
o Dispersion: how a prism forms a spectrum. (7.04) (Snell's law) (7.06)
o Total internal refl ection. (7 .05) o Calculating t he critical a n gle using the refractive
o The meaning of critical a ngle. (7.05) index. (7.06)
o How a convex lens focuses a beam of light. (7.07) o Drawing ray diagrams to s how how a convex lens
o The mean ings o f plincipal foc us and focal can form a virtual image. (7.08)
length. (7.07) o Us ing a convex lens as a magnifying glass. (7.08)
o Drawing ray d iagrams to show how a nd where a o The speed of electromagnetic waves (the speed of
co nvex len s fOlTIls a real image. (7.07 a nd 7.08) light). (7.0 1 and 7.1 0)
o Electromagnetic waves: the main features of the o The d iffere nce between analogue an d digital
electromagnetic spectrum . (7.10) signals. (7.12 a nd 10.0 1)
CI How all electromagnetic waves travel at the same
speed in a vacuum . (7 .10)
o The c haracteli stics and properties of
- rad io waves
- m icrowaves
- infrared rays
- ultraviolet rays
- X-rays .
- gamma rays. (7.10 and 7.11)
o Using electromagn etic waves in
- commu nications (rad io, TV, satellite. telephone)
- remote controllers
- med icine
- secur ity systems. (7.10 a nd 7. 11)
o Microwaves a nd X-rays: safety issues. (7.11)

© oup: this may be ~produced for ctass use solely for the purchaser's lnstlture
 heci tyof BOgota, Colombia,

T a t n,ight. Like other cities, it

is so bright that it can even
be seen from space. Modem industrial
societi es rely heavily on the use of
electricity - not only fo r lighting, as
shown here, but also Em" runnin g
factory machinery, information a nd
communications systems, and heating.
Typically, electri city accounts fo r
about one s ixth of an indus tria li zed
country's energy use.
 ................................................................................
ELEC TRICITY

ELectric charge (1)

Electric c harge. or 'electrici ty'. can come from batteries a nd generators.
But some materials become charged when they are rubbed. Their c harge is
sometimes called electrostatic charge or 'static electricity'. It causes sparks
and crackles when you take off a pullovel; and if you slide out of a car seat
and tou ch t he door. it may even give you a shock.

Negative a nd positive charges

Polythene and Perspex can be c harged by rubbing t hem w it h a d ry, woollen
cloth.
When two c harged polyth en e rods are brought close togeth er. as s hown below,
they repel (try to push each other apart). The same thing h appens
w ith two c harged Perspe.x rods. However, a c harged polythene rod and a
c ha rged Perspex rod attract each o th el: E.x periments like this suggest that
there are two different a nd opposite types of electri c c harge. These are called
positive (+) charge a nd negative ( ~ ) c harge:

Like charges repel; unlike c harges attract.

The closer the c harges. the greater t he force between them .
.. This person has been charged up.
Her hairs all carry the same type of
charge. $0 they repel each other.

Atom Where charges come from

Everything is made of tiny particles called atoms. Th ese have electric c harges
inside t hem. A simple model of t he atom is sh own on t he left. TheI'e is a
central nucleus made up of protons and neutrons. Orbiting t he nucleus are
much lighter electrons;
Electrons have a negative (~) c harge.
Protons have a n equal pos it ive (+) charge.
Neutrons have no c hal·ge.
Normally, atoms have equal numbers of electrons a nd protons, so the net
(overall) c harge on a material is zero. However, when two matelials are
rubbed together. electrons may be transferred from one to the ot her. One
proton material e nds up w it h more electrons than normal a nd the ot her wit h less .
• neutron So one has a net negat ive c harge, w hile the other is left w ith a net positive
c harge. Ru bbing materials together does not make electric c harge. It jusT
separates c harges that are already there.
 ELEC TR I C ITY
.............................................................................................

tran~ferred
by rubbing

fewer electrons fewer electrons

th an normal: than normal: t han normal: than normal:
ne t negative charge net positive charge net poSi tive charge net negative charge

.. When pol)'thene is rubbed with a woollen clo th. the .. When Perspex is rubbed with a woollen cloth. the wool pulls
pol)'thene pulls electrons from the wool. electron s from the Perspex.

Conductors and insulators

When some materials gain c harge. t hey lose it almost immediately. This is
Conductors 8
Good Poo'
because electrons flow through them or the surrounding material until the
metals water
balance of negative a nd positive c harge is restored . especially: human body
ContluctOl'S are materials t hat let electrons pass through them. Metals are t he silver earth
best electrical conductors. Some of t heir electrons are so loosely held to t heir copper
I atoms t hat t hey can pass freely between t hem. These free electrons also make aluminium
L metals good thermal conductors. carbon
Mos t non-metals conduct c harge poorly or not at all. although carbon is a n
exception.
Insu1alol's are materials that hardly conduct at all. Their electrons are tightly
Semiconductors 8
silicon germanium

l
le1d to atoms and are not free to move - although they can be transferred by
rubbing. Insulators are easy to c harge by rubbing because any electrons that
get transferred tend to stay w here t hey are.
Insulators
Scmiconducton;* These are 'in-between' materials. T hey are poor conductors
plastics glass
whe n cold, but m uc h better conductors w he n warm.
e.g: rubber
PVC dry air

<O""~'" ~
(<opper)
~I---
VI __

Insulator (PVC)
=---
______
polythene
Perspex

... The 'electricity' in a cable is a flow

of electrons_Most cables have copper
conducting wires with PVC plastic
around them as insulation.

(!)
1 Say whether the following attract or repel: 4 Why is it easy to charge polythene by rubbing, but not
a two negative charges copper?
c a negative charge and a positive charge 5 Name one non-metal that is a good conductor.
b two positive charges. 6 When someone pulls a plastic comb through their hair.
2 In an atom. what kind of charge is carried by the comb becomes negatively charged.
a protons b electrons c neutrons? a Which ends up with more electrons than normal, the
[3 What makes copper a bener electrical conductor than comb or the hair?
L polythene? b Why does the hair become posit ive ly charged?

Related topics: the rmal conduction 5.06; atoms 11.01

 ................................................................................
ELEC TRICITY

ELectric charge (2)

Attraction of uncharged objects
A c harged object will attract a ny unc harged object close to it. For example, the
+ + + c harged screen of a TV w ill attract dust.
+ + The d iagram on t he left s hows w hat happens if a positively c harge d rod is
anractlon brou ght near a small p iece of alum inium foil . Electrons in t he foil are pulled
towards the rod , w hic h leaves t he bottom of t he foil w it h a net pos itive c harge.
more
electrons As a result, the top of the foil is attracted to the rod , while t he bottom is
",,'
normal
foil repelled. However, the attraction is stronger because the attracting c harges are
'-"'''"' closer t ha n t he repell ing ones.

f ~'
Earthing
electrons I f enough c harge builds up on something, electrons may be pulled through
than
the a ir a nd cause sparks - w hic h ca n be dangerous. To prevent c harge
normal
repul ion building up, objects can be earthed: t hey can be connected to the ground by a
conducting material so th at th e unwanted c harge flows away.
charged object attracts an
... A
uncharged one.

iii> An aircraft and its tanker must be

earthed during refuelling, otherwise
charge might build up as the fuel
'rubs' along the pipe. One spark
could be enough to ignite the fuel
vapour.

Detecting charge 0 ) Induced charges

Charges t hat 'appear' on a n uncharged object because o f a c harged object
, , , " I'h"""
object
I nea rby are called induced charges. In t he diagram below, a metal sphere is
being c harged by ind uc tion. The sphere ends up with an opposite c harge to
metal- -C
-" "
- ,,-"-' that on the rod, w hi ch never actually touc hes the sphere.
cop

charged rod £" I

--I--~ ~i;:_-t_ leaf
go"
(n +++~
metal
plate
~" ....
~~~ ~-- electrons sphere earthed by
finger
Electrostatic charge can be th an
normal
detected using a leaf
electroscope as above. H a
charged object is placed near the 7"- _ fewe r
......:....;." electrons
cap, charges are induced in the m"'"
sphere th an
el ectrons flow
,n to replace
electroscope. Those in the gold normal missing electrons
leaf and metal plate repel. so the
leaf rises.
)
·.. .......................................................................................... ELEC TR I C ITY

Unit of charge waste gas

(cleaned)
The 5 1 unit o f c harge is t he coulomb (C). It is equal to the c harge on about
6 million m illion m illion electrons, alt hough it is not defined in this way.
One coulomb is a relatively large quantity of c harge, and it is often more
convenient to measu re charge in m icrocou1ombs:
charged ash
attracted to
r
PlateS ~
1 m icrocoulomb ( ~C) = 10- 6 C (one milliont h of a coulomb)
The c harge on a rubbed polyth e ne rod is, typ ically. o nly about 0.005 ~C.

Using electrostatic charge-

I n t he follow ing examples, t he charge comes from a n electrici ty s upply rather
waste gas
than fmm r ubbing. and ash
Electrostatic precipitators a re fitted to the c himneys of some power stations
a nd factories . They reduce pollution by removing t iny b its of ash from the
waste gases . Ins ide the c hamber of a precipitator (see r ight) , the as h is
c harged by w ires, and the n attracted to the metal plates by a n opposite c harge.
When s haken from t he plates , t he ash collects in t he tray at t he bottom .
.. An electrostatic precipitator
Photocopiers work using the principle s how n in the diagrams below. uses charge to remove bits of ash
Laser printe rs use t he same idea except t hat. at stage 2, a computer- from t he waste gases produced
controlled laser scans t he plate strip by strip to create t he requ ired image. by a factory or power station.

1 2 3 4 5

Inside the photocopier,
a light-sensit ive plate
(or drum) is given a
negative charge.
An image of the
original document is
projected onto the
plate. The bright areas
lose their charge but
the dark areas keep it.
Powdered ink (called A blank sheet of paper The paper is heated so
toner) is attracted to is pressed against the tha1 the powdered ink
the charged (da rk) plate and picks up melts and sticks to it.
areas. powdered ink. The result is a corY'! of
the original document.

o1 a Give an example of where electrostatic charge might be a hazard.

b How can the build-up of electrostatic charge be prevented?
2" How many microcoulombs are there in one coulomb?
] On the right a charged rod is held dose to a metal can. The can is on an
insulated stand.
a Copy the diagram. Draw in any induced charges on the can.
b Why is. the can attracted t o the rod even though the net (overall) charge on
the can is zero?
c If you touch the can with your finger, electrons f low through it. In which
direction is the flow?
d What type of charge is left on the can after it has been touched?

Related t opi cs: SI units 1.02; charge and currenI 8.o4; earth wires 8 _12
 ................................................................................
ELEC TRI CIT Y
Atom and charge 0)
essentials
Electric charge can be positive (+ )
I touc hing the dome of a Van
or negative (-). Like charges
repel. Unlike charges attract.
Charges come from atoms. In an
atom, the charged particles are
electrons (- ) and protons (+ ).
Normally, an atom has equal
amounts of - and + charge. so
it is uncharged. Howevt'!r, if an
atom gains or loses electrons. it is
lett with a net (overall ) negative
or posit ive charge.
Most materiat5 are made up of
groups of atoms, called moleOJles.
A charged object will cause a
redistribution of the + and -
charges in uncharged objects
nearby. Concentrations of + or -
charge which occur because of
this are called induced charges.
An electric current is a flow of
charge. When a metal conducts,
there is a flow of electrons.
I +-
• +
I
• Electric fi eld close to a negatively
charged sphere. The field around a Van
de Graaff dome is similar to this.
Electric fields
The girl on the right has g iven
herself a n electric c harge by
de Graaff gene rator. The dome
can reach over 100 000 volts,
alt hough this is reduced w hen
s he touc hes it. However, the
c urrent t hat flows into her body
(0.000 02 amperes or less) is far
too small to be dangerous.
The force of repulsion be tween
the c harges on the girl's h ead
and ha irs is strong enou gh to
make her hairs stand up. If
electric charges feel a force,
then, scientifically speaking,
they are in an el ectric field .
So there is a n electric field
around the dome a nd the girL
Electric field patterns
In diagrams, lines wit h a rrows on t hem are used to represent electric fields.
There are some examples of fi eld patterns below. In each case, t he an'ows
s how the di rection in w hic h the force on a positive (+) charge would act. As
like charges repel, t he field lines always point atvay from pos itive (+) charge
a nd towards negative (-) c harge.
+
+
•
---
•
+, •
+
-
• Electric field between two opposite.
point charges.
+- •
• Electric field between two parallel pla tes
with opposite ch arges on them.
·.. .......................................................................................... ELEC TRICITY

Curves, points, and ions

When a cond uctor is c harged up. t he c harges repel each other. so they collect
on the outside. The c harges are most concentrated near the s harpest curve.
This is w here the electric fi eld is strongest and the field lines closest toget her.

very ~trong -~ cha rge leak~

ei€ctflc field away from
lonlze~ air this point

... The electrk: field is strongest where the charges are most ... At a sharp point. the electric field may be strong enough to
concentrated and the field lines are closest together. ionize the air so that it will conduct charge away_

If a s harp spike i s p ut on t he dome of a Van de Graaff generator. a ny c harge

on the dome immediately leaks away from the point. At t he poin t. the metal
is very s harply cun'ed . Here, t he c harge is so concentrated that t he electric
fi eld is strong enough to ionize the air (see above). Ionized a ir cond ucts. so t he
dome loses it s c harge t hrough t he a ir.
Ions· are electrically c harged atoms (or groups of ato ms). Atoms become ions
if they lose (or gain) electrons. A stream of ions is a flow of charge. so it is
a nother example of a c urrent.
Most of t he molecules in a ir are uncharged . but not all. as sh own on t he right.
Flames. air move ments. a nd natural radiation from space or rocks can all
remove electrons from molecules in air so t hat ions are formed. Althou gh
these soon recombine with a ny free electrons a round. more are being formed
~~
all the t ime. W ith no ions in it, a ir is a good electrical insulator. But with ions nrtrOl]en mde<u1e
(2 atoms)
present. it has charges t hat are free to move. so t he air becomes a cond uctor.
... Air is mainly a mixture of nitrogen
In a thunderstorm. the concentrations of differe nt ions may be so great that a
and oxygen molecules. The charged
very high c urren t may flow th rough the a il~ caus ing a flas h of lightning.
ones are called ions.

o t The diagram on the right shows electric field lines round a

charged metal sphere (in air).
a Copy the diagram. Draw in the direction of the electric
fie ld on each field line.
b If a positive charge were placed at X, in which direction
would it move?
c If a negative charge were placed at X, in which d irection
would it move?
d If a sharp spike were placed on top of t he sphere, what
would happen to the charge on the sphere?

Related t opi cs: atoms and mole<:ules 5.01; ch arges and conductors 8.01; induced charges 8.02; Ionizing radiation 11.02
 ................................................................................
ELEC T R I C IT Y
Charge essentials 8)
Electric charge can be positive (+ )
or negative (- ). like charges
repel. unlike charges attract.
Charges come from atoms. In
atoms. the charged particles are
protons (+ ) and electrons (- ).
Electrons can move through
some materials. called
conductors. Copper is the most
commonly used conductor.
The unit of charge is. the
coulomb (C).
J 1
... Ammeter
To measure a current you
need to choose a meter with
a suitable range on i1s scale.
This ammeter cannot measure
currents above 1 A. Also to
measure. say. 0.1 A accurately.
it would be better to use a meter
with a lower range.
When connecting up a meter,
the red (+ ) terminal should be
on the same side of 1he circuit
as the + terminal of the battery.
Current in a Simple circuit
An electric cell (commonly called a bauc ry) can make electrons move. but
only if there is a conductor connecting its two term inals. The n. c hemical
reactions inside the cell p ush electrons from th e negative (-) terminal round
I to the positive (+) term inal.
The cell below is be ing used to light a lamp. As electrons fl ow t hrough t he
lamp . they make a fi lament (thin wire) heat up so t hat it glows . The
cond ucting path through the lamp, wires. sw itch. a nd battery is called a
circuit. Th ere must be a complete circuit for t he electrons to flow. Turning
the switch OFF breaks t h e cil'Cu it and stops the flow.
term lr1(lls
I
When switch is OFF
(open). gap stops
electron flow
The above ci rcuit can be d rawn using circ uit symbols:
Some circ uit symbo ls
~~SIngle cell
Switch
ammeter
lamp
Measuring current
A flow of c harge is called an electric current. The higher t he current, t he
greater the flow of c harge.
The SI unit of CUlTe nt is t he ampe re (A). About 6 million million million
electmns flowin g rou nd a circuit every second would give a cun"ent o f I A.
However. th e ampere is not defined in this way.
Currents of about a n ampere or so can be measured by connecting a n
a mmc t e r into the circ uit. For smalle r currents, a millia mme t e r is used. The
unit in this case is t he m iUirunpe re (rnA). 1000 rnA = 1 A
·.. .......................................................................................... ELEC TR I C ITY

Some typical current values ---+

Current in a small torch lamp 0. 2 A (200 rnA)
Current in a car hea!Uight lamp
Current in a n electric ket tle element
4A
10 A
i re ading readi ng
!
A 2A 2A A
Purting amme ters (or m illiammeters) into a circuit has almost no effect o n
the current . As far as the c ircuit is concerned , the meters act j ust like p ieces of
connecting w ire.
+--
!
The ci rcu it on the right has two ammete rs in it. Any e1ectrons leaving t he el ectron
flow
battery m ust flow through both, so both give the same reading:

The current is t he same at all points in a s imple c ircuit.

Definitions 8
Although it is convenient to th ink
Charge and current
of 1 ampere as 1 coulomb per
There is a link between charge a nd current:
.second, the c.oulomb is actually
If c harge flows at t his ra te ... t he n t he current is ... defined in terms of the ampere:
I co ulomb per second I ampere
1 coulomb is the charge that
2 co ulombs per second 2 amperes ...a nd so on. passes when a current of
The link can also be expressed as a n equatio n: 1 ampere flows for 1 second.
The ampere is one of the
charge = current x time
51 base units. It is defined in
(C) (A) (,) terms of the magnetic force
For example, if a c urrent o f 2 amperes flows fo r 3 setConds, the c harge produced by a current.

de live red is 6 coulombs.

Current direction
Some circuit d iagrams have anuwheads marked o n them. These show the
conventiona1 current direc tion: the direction from + to - muml the circuit. electron
Electrons act ually flow th e ot her way. Being negatively c harged, they are repelled flow
---+
by negative charge, so are pushed o ut of the negative term inal of the battery.
The conve ntional c urrent di rection is eq uivalent to t he d irection of transfer
convent ional
of posit ive c h arge. It was defined before t he electron was d isco vered and cu rrent
scie ntists reali zed t hat positive c harge did not flow t hro ugh wires. However, direction

it is n't 'wrong'. Mathematically, a transfer o f pos itive c harge is t he same as a

transfe r of negat ive charge in t he o pposite direction.

o 1 Convert these currents into amperes: a 500 mA b 2500 mA read in g 0.5 A

~
2 Convert t hese currents into milliamperes: a 2.0 A b 0.1 A
J a Draw the circuit on the right using circuit symbols.
On your diagram, mark in and label the conventional current direction and
the direction of electron flow.
c: The current reading on one of the ammet ers is shown. What is the reading
~:mm""~
on the other one?
d Which lamp(s) w ill go out if the switch contacts are moved apart? Give a iii ,~
IJ ~:J
reason for your answer.
What charge is delivered if
a a current of 10 A flows for 5 seconds ammeter
[ b a current of 250 mA f lows for 40 seconds?

Related topics: SI units 1.02; elect rons, charge, coulombs and conductors 8.01- 8.02
 ................................................................................
ELEC T R I C IT Y

Potential difference
cell gives elewons
potential energy

Circuit essentiaLs
A cell can make electrons flow
8 I;
round a circuit. The flow of
electrons is called a current
Electrons carry a negative ( - ) electrons
elKtrorls
t ra nsf er
charge. As like charges repel, ret um
energy to
to cell
electrons are pushed out of the lam p
negative ( - ) terminal of the cell.
Charge is measured in
coulombs (C).
J potemi al
erlergy: ertergy rad iate d

Energy and work 8) The cell above is pushing out electrons. The electrons repel each other, so,like
essentials I the coils of a compressed spring, they have potential energy. As the electrons
Energy is measured in joules (J).
slowly flow round t he circu it, they transfer energy from the cell to the lamp.
Potential energy is the energy
The e nergy is radiated by the hot fliament.
that something has because of its
state or position.
P.d. (voltage) across a cell
Work is also measured in joules (J).
A cell normally has a voltage marked on it. The higher its voltage, t he more
If something loses energy. it does
energy it gives to the electrons pushed out. The sc ientific name for voltage is
work: if it gains energy, then work
is done on it. The gain or loss of
potential difference (p.d.). P.d. can be measured by connect ing a vo1tmeter
energy is equal to the work done.
across the term inals of th e cell. The SI unit o f p .d. is the volt (\I):
lf t he p .d. across a cell is 1 volt, then 1 joule of potential energy is g iven to each

lcoulomb of c harge. In oth er words, I volt means 1 joule per cou lomb (J/C).
If the p.d . across a cell is 2 volts, then 2 joules of potent ial energy are given to
each coulomb of c harge, ...a nd so on.
A cell produces its highest p.d. when not in a circu it and not suppJyin g
c urrent. This maximum p.d. is called the electromotive force (c.m.f.) of
the cell. When a current is being supplied, t he p .d. drops because of e nergy
wastage inside the celL For example. a car battery labelled' 12 V' m ight only
deliver 9 V when being used to tum a starter motor.

Cells in series
To produce a higher p.d ., several cells can be connected in series ( in lin e)
as s hown below. The word 'battery' really means a col1ection of joi ned cells,
although it is commonly used for a single cell as well.

K J~ M -1 ~---1 ~
t
1.5V l.5V l.5V 1.5V
... Voltmeter and symbol. (For
banery made up of
information about range and several celis
connection. see note under ammeter L - - - - - -6V- - - - - - ' (symbol )

in previous spread.)
 ELEC T R I C IT Y
.............................................................................................
l!.d.s around a circuit
,--- "d o 3V -~ v
3 JOllIl?s of
potential read ing 3 V
enl?rgy g Iven to
each coulomb electron

-
fl~

1
no potential
€ne rgy 10%
no potential
€nergy loss j

2 Joull?s of 1 jOllle of
potent ial potentIal
en€rgy lost by ef'l€(gy lost by r€ading 2 V r€ading 1 V
each coulomb €il(h coulomb
~ p.d."'2V p,d. '" 1 V v

In t he circu it above, th e electrons flow through two lamps . T hey lose some of
their potential e nergy in the first lamp and the rest in the second. In total , all
the e nergy s u pplied by t he battery is rad iated by the lamps. Almost none is
Definitions
spent in the connecting wires. The electromotive force (e.m.f.)
Like t he battery, each lamp has a p.d. across it: of a cell (or other source) is the
If a lamp (or o th er component) has a p .d . o f 1 volt across it. t hen 1 joule of work done per unit of charge by
potent ial energy is spent by each colou mb of c harge passing through it. the cell in driving charge round a
complete circuit (including the
The second d iagram s hows t he same circu it w ith voltmete rs connected across
cell itself).
diffe rent sections (the voltmeters do nOt affect how th e circuit works). The
The potential difference (p.d.)
readings illustrate a principle w hich applies in any circu it:
across a componenl is the work
Moving rou nd a ci rcu it, from one battery term inal to the ot her, the s um of done per unit of charge in driving
charge t hrough the component.
the p .d .s across the co m pone nts is equal to t he p .d. across the battery.

o 1 In what unit is each of these measured?

a p.d. b e.m.f. c charge d current e energy
f2V
reading

2 In the circuit on the right. the two lamps are of different

sizes and brightnesses.
a What type of meter is meter X?
~---1
b What type of meter is meter Y? X Y
c What is the reading on meter Y?
d How much potentia l energy does each cou lomb have
as it leaves the battery?
e How much potentia l energy is lost by each coulomb
passing through lamp A?
A
f How much charge passes through A every second?
9 How much energy is radiated from A every second? Currenl is measured in amperes (A) using an ammeler. If
1 ampere flows for 1 second. the charge passing is 1 coulomb.

Related topics: SI units 1.0Z; I?nl?rgy 4.01- 4.02; electrons and charge 8.01- 8.02; chargl? and current 8.04; cell arrangl?ments 8.09
 ................................................................................
ELEC TRICITY
Circuit essentials
A battery pushes eleclrons round
0 I;
a circuil. The flow of electrons is
called a current. Current is
measured in amperes (A).
Potential diHerence (p.d.). or
voltage. is measured in volts (V).
The greater the p.d. across a
battery, the more potential
energy each eledron is given.
The greater the p.d. aross a lamp
or other component. the more
energy each electron loses as it
passes through.
high resistance
~~"'"~
long, thin. nichrome wire
long, thin, copper w ire
long, thick, copper wire
short. thic k. copper w ire
low reSistance
• The filament of this lamp is made
of very thin tungsten wire. Tungsten
has a high melting point.
Resistance (1)
To make a c urrent flow in a conductor, t here must be a potential d ifference
(voltage) across it. Copper connect ing wire is a good conductor and a current
passes through it eas ily. H owever, a s im ilar p iece of nich rome w ire is not so
good and less current flows EOI" t he same p.d . The n ic hrome wire has more
resis tance tha n t he ca p p el:
Resistance is calculated using the equat ion below. The 51 unit of res istance is
the ohm (0). (The symbol n is the Greek letter omega .)
p .d. across condu ctor (V)
res istance (n ) =
cu n-ent th rough conductor (A)
For example, if a p.d. of 6 V is needed to make a c urrent of 3 A flow in a
w ire: resistan ce = 6 V /3 A = 2 O.
With a lower resistance, a lower p .d. would be needed to give t he same c un'cnt.
E ven copper connecting w ire has so me res istance. However, it is normally so
low t hat only a very small p.d. is needed to make a cun'ent flow in it. a nd thi s
can be neglected in calculations.
Some factors affecting resistance
The resistance of a cond uctor depends on several factors:
• Length Doubling th e length of a wire doubles its res istance.
• Cross-sectiona1 area Halving the 'end on' area of a wire doubles its
resistance. So a thin wire has more resistance than a thick one .
• Material A nic hrome wire has more resistance t han a coppe r w ire of th e
same size.
• Temperature For metal conductors, resistance increases w ith
temperature. For semiconductors, it decreases w ith temperature.
Resistance and heating effect
There is a heat ing effect w he never a current flows in a res istance. This
principle is used in heating elements , a nd also in light lamps w irh filaments.
The heating effect occurs because electrons coll ide w it h atom s as they pass
t hrough a conductor. The electrons lose e nergy. The atoms ga in energy a nd
vibrate faster: Faster vibrations mean a higher temperatu re.
11e.'lling I'lemem
(nichrome wire)
---i I I r-
Symbol for healing element
Heating elements are normally made of nichrome.
 ELEC TR I C ITY
.............................................................................................
Resistance components
Resistors a re specially made to provide \·es ista nce. In s imple circu its, they
reduce the cu rre nt. In more complicated circuits , such as those in radios, TVs ,
a nd computers , they keep c urrents a nd p .d .s at t he levels needed for other
compone nts (pa rts) to work properly.
Resisto rs can have values ranging from a few ohms to several mill ion o hms.
For measuring higher resistances , t hese units a re useful: ~---11---{
battery lamp
I kilohm (kn) = 1000 n 1 megoh m (Mn) = I 000 000 n
Like all resis ta nces, resistors heat up w he n a cu n -ent fl ows in them. Howeve r,
if the current is small, the heating effect is slight.
VaJiable resistors (rheostats) are used for va rying c u rren t. The one o n
the right is controlling t he b rightness of a lamp . In h i-fi equipment , rota ry
(circular) var iable res istors are used as volu me controls.
Thennistors have a high resista nce when cold but a m uc h lower res istance
w hen hot. Th ey conta in sem iconductor materials. Some electrical
the rmo me ters use a ther m istor to detect tempe rature c ha nge. re'>lstance wi re
Light-dependent resistors ( LDRs) have a high res istance in t he dark b ut variable' resisto r
a low res istan ce in t he light. They can be used in elect ronic circu its w hic h • Moving the slide control of the
sw itch lights on a nd off a utomatically. variable resistor to t he right increases
the length of resistance wire in the
DiOdes ha ve a n extremely high resistance in one d irect ion but a low

l
resistance in the ot her. In effect , t hey allow CUITent to fl ow in one d irection
only. They are used in electronic circu its.
circuit. This reduces the current and
dims the lamp.

resistor variable resistor therm istor light-depeooent resistor diode

7 "- f-
~
Symbol ---i f- ¢ ---i
-'.7
---i f- 1>1

o t When a kettle is p lugged int o the 230 V mains, the
current in its element is lOA.
a What is the resistance of its element?
b Why does the element need to have resistance?
Z In the diagram at the top of this page, a variable
resistor is controlli ng the brightness o f a lamp. What
happens if the slide control is moved to the left? Give a
reason for your answer.
] Which of the components in the photographs above
has each of these properties?
a A high resistance in the dark but a low resistance in
the light.
b A resistance that fa lls sharply when the temperature
rises.
Ic A very low resistance in one d irection, but an
L extremely high resistance in the other.

Related topi cs : SI units 1.02; tem perature, ~ibrating atoms, and ther mometers 5.02; conductors and semiconductors 8.01 ;
current, Circuits and symbols 8.04; potential difference 8.05; diodes 10.02; LDRs and thermistors 10.03; reSistor colour code page 321
 ................................................................................
ELEC TRICITY

Resistance (2)
V, I, R equations
The resistance equation can be written us ing symbols:

Resistance equation O~ V
R o::= _
I
w here R = resistance, V = p. d . (voltage), and 1 = current
. potential difference

:J
resistance = ' - - - ; 0 " " ; ; ; ' - - (Note the d iffere nce between t he symbol V for p.d . and t he symbol V for volt.)
current
Units: The above equation can be rearranged in two ways:
resistance: ohm (0 ) V
potential difference <p-d.): volt M V = IR and 1= -
R
current: ampere (A)
These are useful if the p.d . across a known resista nce, or the current in it, is to
be calculated .

ErGlnple A 12 n res istor has a p.d. of 6 V across it. What is the c urrent in
the resistor?

In this case: V = 6 V, R = 12 n. a nd [ is to be fo und. $0:

V 6
1= - = - = O.S (om itting units for simplicity)
R 12
So the current is O.S A.

How current varies with p.d. for a metal conductor

• This triangl e gives the V. I. and R The circ uit below left can be used to investigate how the current in a
equations. To find the equation for I. cond uctor depends on t he p.d. across it. The conductor in t his case is a
cover up th e I. ...and so on. co iled-up length of ni chrome wire, kept at a steady temperatUl't': by immers ing
it in a large amount of water. T he p.d. ac ross t he nic hrome can be varied by
adjusting the variable resisto r. Typical results are shown in the table below.
The experiment is also one method of measur ing res istance.
L!he results can also be s hown in the form of a graph. as below.

battery
(or low voltage supply) p.d. curnmt p .d.
current
~---1 1.0 V
2.0 V
0.2 A
0.4 A
s .on
5.0n
~
~
c
va riabll?
amm£'lN A
3.0 V 0.6A s.on
~
u
rl?sistor 4.0 V O.B A s .on

•
S.O V 1.0 A s.o n
volt meter
resistance
stlrf'E'r
p_d .1V

watl?r to
k ~p
nichrome --&;;l\iQQjJb~1 nlchroml?
Wlrl? It inconStant
ll?mperat ure
·.. .......................................................................................... ELEC TR I C ITY

Ohm's law
In t he experiment on the opposite page, t he r-esuIts have t hese feat ures:
• A graph o f c urrent against p.d . is a straigh t line th rough t he origin .
• If the p .d. doubles , t he current doubles , .. .and so on.
• p.d . ~ c urrent always has t he same value (5 n in this case).
Mathemat ically, th ese can be summed up as follows:

The cun-em is proportional to the p .d .

Th is is know n as Ohm's law , after George Ohm, t he 19th cent ury scient ist
w ho fi rst investigated t he electrical properties of w ires.
Metal cond uctors obey O hm's law, provided their temperature does not
c ha nge. Put a nother way, a metal conductor has a con stant res istan ce,
p rovided its temperature is constant. Th is is not always the case w ith other
types of conductor.

Current-p.d. graphs
Here are two more examples of c urrent-p.d . graphs. In both , the resistance
varies depen d ing on the p .d . tn t he case of t he d iode, t he negat ive pari of t he
graph is for read ings obtained when the p. d . is r-eve rsed (i.e. w he n t he d iode is
connected into the test circuit t he opposite way rou nd ).

p,d.1V ( ) p.d.lV
reverse forward
... Tungst en fi lament As the current increases, the tempera ture ... Semiconductor d iode The current is not proportional to
rises and the resistance goes up. So the current is not proportional the p.d. And if the p.d. is reversed. the current is almost zero.
to the p.d. In effect, the diode 'blocks' current in the reverse di rection.

CD1 A resistor has a steady resistance of 8 fi.

a If the current in the resistor is 2 A, what is the p.d. across it?
b What p.d. is needed to produce a current of 4 A ?
A
c If the p.d. fa lls to 6 V. what is t he current?
The graph lines A and B on the right are for two different conductors. Which
conductor has the higher resistance?
3 Using the left·hand graph above, calcu late the resistance of the tungsten
fi lament when its temperature is a 1500 0 ( b 3000 °C.
I4 In the right-hand graph above, does the d iode have its highest resistance in the
L forward d irection or the reverse? Explain your answer.

Related topi cs : conductors and semiconductors 8.01; current 8.04; potential difference 8.05; diodes 10.01- 10.02
 ................................................................................
ELEC TRICITY

More about resistance factors

8 LThe effects of length and area
Resistance essentials
To make a current flow in a
conductor. there must be a p.d.
~ A (C=;I===:::;:;;:;~==:0
1~
(voltage) across it. The resistance same
copper ((oss~tiona l
of the conductor is calculated like area
I
' (C==~~========~====~~==n(~
t his:
resistance = ~
cu rrent
B has 2 x lell9th 0 1 A
Units: B has 2 x resistance 01 A
resistance: ohms (n)
p.d.: volts M
current: amperes (A)
The copper w ires above have the same cross-sectional area a nd temperature.
Even copper connect ing wi res
But B is twice as long as A. As a result. it has twice t he resistance o f A. Tf B
have some resistance. although
were three t imes as long as A, it would have three rimes t he resistan ce, a nd so
this is usually very sma ll. Resistors
on . Res ults like this can be summed up as follows:
and heating elements are
designed to have resistance. Provided other factors do not c hange:
The resistance of a wire depends resista nce IX le ngth (t he symbol IX means 'directly proportional to')
on its length and cross-sectional
area. It also depends on the
material and its temperature
(although for metals. the change
of resistance with temperature
' (C==~~~~~==~I====~~~1l
is small).
CO,," I
C (~____~~__~I~____~() C has 2 x cross-sectional area of B
C has i x resistance of B

The copper w ires above have t he same length and temperature. But C has
twice the cross-sectional area of B. As a result, it has hal{the resistance of B. If
C had three t imes the cross-sectional area of B , it would have O/le third of the
resistance, a nd so on . Results like t his can be su mmed up as foll ows:
Provided oth er factors do not c ha nge:

resistance a: a~a ('area' means 'cross-section al area')

The above proportionalit ies are true for oth er types of w ire , alth ough the
resistances will d iffe!: FOl- example, nichrome has m uch more resistan ce t ha n
copper of t he same length, cross-sectional area , a nd temperature.
The results can be combined as follo ws:
For a ny given cond ucting material at constant temperature:

. length
resista nce IX area
·.. .......................................................................................... ELEC TR I C ITY

Proportionality problems
When there are mathematical problems to solve, equations are much more Diameter and area
useful than pmportionalities. Fortunately, the prop0I1ionality linking resistance
(R), length (E) , a nd area (A ) can be converted into an equation like this:

R =p X -
A
I (p = Greek letter 'rh o')
CD
area A area 4A
w here p is a constant for the material at a particular temperature. p is called
the resislhil y of t he material (Table 1). Rearranging t he above equation gives: If one wire has twice the diameter
of another, as above, then it has
R XA
p = -- lour times the cross-sectional
I
area. That follovvs from the
This is usefu1 w hen comparing di fferent w ires, A and B, made from t he same equation for the area of a circle:
material. As p is t he same for each wire (at a particular temperature): A"" 'ITr2. Doubling the diameter
doubles t he radius. So, replacing r
res istance A X area,\ res istanceB X arean in the equation with 2r gives:
length,\ le ngthB new area
= 'l'I(2r)2 = 4'ITr2 = 4A.

Example Wire A has a resistance of 12 11. If w ire B is twice the length of A Similarly three times the diameter
a nd twice t he d i ametel~ w hat is its res istance? (Assu me t hat both wires all! gives nine limes the area, and so
at the same temperature.) on. So:
area ()( diameter2
As wire B has tw ice the d iameter of A, it has four t imes the c ross-sectional
area (see the box above right).
120
The resistance of wire B is to be fou nd : call it Rn. As no measurements are A' '>-- areaA
given, use letters to represent t hese as well, as in the diagram on the right. I
~,------->
I
If length,\ = x, t hen lengths = 2x
If area,\ = A, t hen arean '" 4A
Also, resistance,\ = 12 n and resistances = Rn
Substituting t he above values in t he previous equation gives:
Ty pical resistiv it y values! nm
12 X A
- -
x -
(omitting units for simplicity) Constantan 49 x 10-8
2x 44 X 10- 8
Manganin
Nichrome 100 X 10- 8
Rearranging and cancelli ng gives: RB '" 6
Tungsten 55 X 10 - 8
So, t he resistance of wire B is 6!1. Table 1

o, W ire X has a resistance of 18 n. Wire Y is made of the

same material and is at the same temperature. If Y is
What is the resistance of w ire B?
What length of wire B would you need to make a
the same length as X, but 3 t imes the d iameter, what is 20 n resistor?
its resista nce?
wire A wireS
Z Wires A and B are made of the same material and are
at the sa me temperature. The chart on the right gives length 1000 mm 2500 mm
some information about them. area 2.0 mm2 0.5 mm 2
a If you were to use part of w ire A to make an 180
resistance 250
resistor, what lengt h would you need?

Related topics: reSistance and reSistors 8.06-8.07

 ................................................................................
ELEC TRICITY

Series and paralleL circuits (1)

Circuit essentials
Potential difference (p _d.). or
0 l)
voltage, is measured in volts M.
The greater the p.d. aross a lamp
or other component. the greater
the current flowing in it. Current is
measured in amperes (A).
Lamps, resistors, and other
components have resistance to a
flow of current. Resistance is
measured in ohms (D) _

The lamps above have to get t heir power from the same supply. Th ere are two
bas ic medlOds of con necting lamps, res istors, or other components togethel:
The circuits below demonstrate t he differen ces between t hem .

Lamps in series and parallel

r-----l~---1 f - - - - - , ,----------l~--- 1 ~:::;--

battery ban e!)'

lamps in
parallel
lam ps in sene$

These lamps are connected in series. These lamps are connected in parallel.
• The lamps share the pod. (voltage) from the battery, • Each gets the full p.d. from the battery because each is
so each glows dimly_ connected directly to it. So each glows brightly.
• If one lamp is removed, the other goes out because the • If one lamp is removed, the other keeps working because
circuit is broken. it is stili part of an unbroken ci rcuit.

Circuits and switches

If two or more lamps have to be powered by one battery, as in a car light ing
system, t hey are normally connected in paralleL Each lamp gets th e full
battery p.d . Also, each can be switched on and off independently:

~
1, ,
,
--'--
... These diagrams show two
different ways of drawing the
same c ircuit for independ ently
switched lamps.
 ELEC TR I C ITY
.............................................................................................
Basic circuit rules
There are some basic rules for all series and parallel circu its. They are p.d. = current x resistance
illustrated by t he examples below. The patticular current values depend on M (A) (0)
the resistances a nd p.d .s. H owever. th e equat ion on t he righ t always applies to
every resistor.

18V

6A 30 6A
18V

30 60 9A 9A
2A 2A 2A

60
- 6V - L..-- 12V - 3A
3A

18V

When resistors or other components are in series: When resistors or other components are in paraliel:
• the current in each of the components is the same • the p.d. (voltage) across each of the component is the same

t t
the total p.d. (voltage) across all the components is the sum the total current in the main circuit is the sum of the currents
of the p.d.s across each of them. in the branches.

LCell arrangements
,---- 15 V------,

L5V

1.5 V
1.5 V 1.5 V 1. 5 V 1.5 V - 1.5 V t.5V

1.5 V

These cells are connected in series. The Here. a mistake has occurred. One of the The p.d. across parallel cells is only t he

ltotal p.d. (voltage) across them is the sum

of the individual p.d.s.
cells is the wrong way round. so it cancels
out one of the others.
same as from one cell. But together. the
cells can deliver a higher current.

o 1 When one of the lamps on a string of lights breaks, the others go out as well.
What does this tell you about the way the lamps are connected?
x
A

Z Give MO advantages of connecting lamps to a battery in parallel.

] Redraw either of the circu its on the left so that it has a sing le switch which
turns both lamps on and off together.
4 This question is about the circuit on the right:
a The readings on two of the ammeters are labelled. What are the readings on
ammeters X and Y?
If the p.d. across the battery is 6 V. what is the p.d. across each of the lamps?
Lb (Note: you can neglect the p.d. across an ammeter.)

Related topi cs: curren t and Circuits 8.0 4; potential difference (voltage) 8.05; reSista nce 8.06-8.07
 ................................................................................
ELEC TRICITY

Series and paralleL circuits (2)

Combined resistance of resistors in series
If two (or marc) resistors are connected in ser ies, they give a higher resistance
than a ny of t he resistors by itself. The effect is the same as joining several
lengths of res istance w ire to form a longer le ngth.

The-.e reSistors .. If resistors R I and R 2 are in series, their comb ined res istance R is given by t h is
equation:
--<C;;::JI---<C;;::JI--
3Q 6 !l

.. .are equivalent to thiS resistor...

There is a n example on the left. For three or more resistors , the above
90 equation can be extended by adding R 3 •. • and so on.
c---,J~'-,--,--,
resiStance'" 3!l + 6!l '" 9 !l Combined resistance of resistors in parallel
If two (or more) res istors are connected in parallel, t hey give a IOlVer
resistance tha n a ny of the resistors by itself. The effect is t he same as us ing
a t hick piece o f resistance w ire instead o f a thi n one. There is a wider
co nd ucting path than before.
The-.e reslstorL .
If two res istors R t and R z are in parallel. th eir co mb ined res istance R is given

--{ 30 J+---- by t his equat ion (there is a proof at the bottom o f t he page):

60

...are equivalent to this resistor... For three or more resistors , t he equation can be extended by adding lIR 3 ,

. .. and so on.
R X R
20 I f t he above equat ion for two resistors is realTanged , it becomes: R = I 2
R, + R z
Omin 'r"lg un its for simplicity:
In words: " d res "istance = -_re~'~i~"=a=n=c=e=,~m=u=I=t1~
com bme - p=h="e",d
1 1
resistance '" "3 + 6" resistances added
2 1
", 6" + "6 For example, if 3 .0 a nd 6 .0 resistors are in parallel:
3
", "6 comb ined res istance = 6 X6 = 2n
.,
1 6+3
Note: this method o f calculation works only fo r two resistors in parallel.
So: resistance = 2 Q

Proving the parallel resistor equation

In the circuit on the lett. R1 has the full battery p.d. of E across it. So does R2.

As current = p.d. · 1 = .£..and I = £

resistance · I R1 2 R2

Butl=l, + 12 so 1=£' + £
R, R2
If resistor R is equivalent to R, and R2 in parallel. it must take the same current I from the
" , battery:
E E + -E
Therefore: - = -
R Rt R2
I,
 ELEC TR I C ITY
.............................................................................................
Solving circuit problems
To solve problems about c ircuits , you need to know the basic circu it tu les o n
the previous sprea d . You also need to k now the link beh veen p.d . (voltage),
c urrent, a nd res istance. This is given o n the righ t.

Example 1 Calculate the p .d .s . across the 3 n resisto r a nd the 6 0 res isto r

p.d. "" current x resistance
M (A)

In symbols: Y "" IR
(0)
j
in the c ircu it on the right. ,--------1 ~ -
1
I' 18V I'
--11------.
The first stage is to calculate th e total resistance in the c irc uit, and th en use
t his info lTnation to find t he current:
to tal resistance = 3 0 + 6 0 = 9 0

so: current I = p .d. = 18V = 2 A

resistance 90
Know ing t hat t he 3 0 resisto r has a c urrent o f 2 A in it, you can calculate the 30 60
p.d . across it:
p.d . = cun·ent x resista nce = 2 A x 3 0 = 6 V
The p .d. across the 6 n resisto r can be wo rked o ut in t he same w ay. However,
it can also be deduced fro m the fact t hat the p .d.s acro ss the two resisto rs
m ust a dd up to 18 V, the p .d . across the battery. By eit her method , the p .d.
across the 6 n resistor is 12 V.

Example 2 Calculate the currents I , IJ' and 12 in the c ircuit on t he r igh t.

,--------1 ~ - -
1
I ' 18 v i'
-1 '1------.
The 3 n resistor has the full battery p.d. of 18 V across it. So:
I = p .d. = 18V = 6 A
t resistance 30
30
"
Us ing th e sam e m e thod: 12 = 3 A
The current [ is t he to tal of the c urrents in t he two bra nc hes. So:
I~ 6Q
1 = l t+ 12 = 6 A +3 A = 9 A

o 1 In circuit A on t he right:
= =4 0 >-----,

:'V 0
40
a What does the ammeter read?
L b What is the p.d. across each of the resistors?
2 In circuit B on the right:
A
a What does the ammeter read when the
switch is open (OFF)?
0
!'• V
b What is the current in each of the 40
resistors when the switch is closed (ON)?
c What does the ammeter read when the
switch is clmed?
d What is the combined resistance of the two 990 0

L
resistors when the switch is closed?
Which resistor arrangement, Cor D, on the
right has the lower resistance?
Check your answer by calculation.
c ----=-- 100
D-Cl 100

Related t opi cs: curren t and circuits 8.0 4; potential difference (voltage) 8.05; reSista nce 8.06-8.07
 ................................................................................
ELEC TRICITY

Electrical energy and power

I n the circuit on t he left, t he battery gives electrons potential energy. In the
lamp, this is changed into thermal energy (heat) and then rad iated.
L-____~POW
~ "~
. ~5~W~_____'
V Power is the rate at which energy is transformed (cha nged from one form to
battery supplies a nother). The 51 unit of power is the watt (W):
5 J of energy per SEcond

,---------l ~ - - - ~ f------, e nergy trans formed

power =
ti me taken

The barrery on the left is supplying 5 joules of energy every second, so its
power is 5 watts. The lamp is taking energy at t he same rate, so its power is
la mp receives al'ld rad iates also 5 watts.
5 J of energy per second
Appliances such as toasters, irons, and TVs have a power rating marked on
r--_-------'AL".,---_---, them, either in watts or in kilowatts:
pow-er = 5 W
1 kilowatt (kW) = 1000 watts
Some typiCal power ratmgs are s hown below. Eac h figure tells you t he power

Circuit I:!ssl:!ntials
8; the apphance will take If COl1llected to a supply oflhe con·ecl voltage. For any

In a circuit like the one

J ot her voltage, t he actual power would be d ifferent.
above. the charge is carried
by electrons Charge IS measured II
in coulombs (C).
The flow of electrons is called a
11 00W
current. Current is measured in (1. 1 WI)
amperes (A).

~w
Potential difference (p.d.). or
voltage. is measured in volts M. 2400W
The greater the PD across a (2.4 kW)

battery. the more potential

energy each electron is given.
The greater the p.d. aross a lamp
or other component, the more
energy each electron loses as it
passes through.
Energy is measured in joules (J).
Electrical power eq uation
For circuits, t here is a more useful version of the power equation. If a battery,
lamp, or other component has a p.d. (voltage) across it a nd a current in it, t he
power is given by this equat ion:

power = p .d. X CUiTent

(W) (V) (A)

A I n symbols: P = VI

.-, Example I n t he circu it on the left, w hat is the power of t he battery a nd

t2 V ,
I 2A each of the lamps?
-'--
For the barrery: power = p.d. x cun·ent = 12 V X 2 A = 24 W
4V For lamp A: power = p.d. x current = 8 V X 2 A = 16 W
For lamp B: power = p.d. x current = 4 V x 2 A = 8 W
The lamps are the only items getting power from t he battery, so th eir total
power (16 W + 8 W) is th e same as t hat supplied by t he battery (24 W).
·.. .......................................................................................... ELEC T R I C IT Y

Why t he electrical power equation works

The equation power = p.d. x current is a result of how the volt, ampere, coulomb,
joule. and wa tt are related. The following example should explain why.
- 12V -
Here are two ways of describing w hat is happening on the right:

General description Scientific description

Each coulomb of charge gains 12 volts 2A
12 joules of energy from the battery
2 coulombs of charge leave the current 2 amperes
battery every second
So 12 x 2 joules of energy leave the power 24 watts
battery every second

Calculating electrical energy

If the power of a n applia nce is known , the e ne rgy tran sformed in a ny given
time can be calculated by rearranging t he first equatio n on t he opposite page The kilowatt-hour
Electricity supply companies use
like this:
the kilowan-hour (kWh) ralher
than the joule as their unit of
energy trans fanned = powe r X t ime taken
energy measurement:

For example, if a 1000 W hea t ing eleme nt is switched on for 5 seconds (s): One kilowatt hour (kWh) is the
e nel"gy tran sformed = 1000 W X 5 s = 5000 J. So the heating element gives off energy supplied when an
appliance of power 1 kW is used
5000 J of thermal energy.
for 1 hour.
As power = p .d . x c urrent, the above equation can als o be written like this:
1 kW is 1000 W. and 1 hour is
energy transfor med = p .d . x c u rrent X time taken 3500 s. So. if a 1 kW appliance is
(J) (V) (A) (,) used for 1 hour:
energy'" power x time
= loo0Wx3600 s
In symbols: E = Vlt
= 3600000 J

Example A 12 V water heater takes a CUITent of 2 A. If it is switched on for Therefore: 1 kWh = 3 600 000 j
60 seconds, how much t hermal energy does it produce?

e nergy tran sformed = p.d . x current X time = 12 V X 2 A X 60 s = 1440 J

In th is case, all the e nergy is transformed into thermal e nergy, so the heater
roduces 1440 J of thelmal energy.

o1 In 5 seconds, a hairdryer takes 10000 joules of energy from the mains supply.
What is its power a in watts b in kilowatts?
2 If an electric heater takes a current of 4 A when connected to a 230 V supply,
what is its power?
3 If a lamp has a power of 24 W when connected to a 12 V supply, what is the
current in it?
4 Calcu late the energy transformed in an 11 W lamp
a in 1 second b in 1 minute
S A lamp takes a current of 3 A from a 12 V battery.
a What is the power of the lamp?
b How much energy is transformed in 10 minutes?

Related topics : SI units 1.02; energy 4.01; power 4.04; cur re nt 8.04; p.d. 8.05
 ................................................................................
ELEC TRICITY

Living with electricity

Circuit essentials
A p_d _(potential difference) is
8 ;I
needed to make a ament flow
round a circuit. p.d. is measured in
volts M and is more mmmon: YJ
called voltage. Current is measured
in amperes (A).
When you plug a kettle into a mains socket. you are connecting it .i nto a
circuit . as s hown below. The power comes from a generator in a power
station. The supply vo ltage depend s on t he country. For house hold circu its.
some countries use a voltage in t he range 220- 240 V. others in t he range
110-130 V.
Mains cum,~nt is alternating CruTcnt (a.c.). Lt flows bacl..--ward s and forwards .
backwards and forwards ... 50 times per second. in some countries. The mains
frcquency is 50 hertz (Hz). In other countti es. t he mains freq uency is 60 Hz. A.c.
is easier to generate than one-way direct current (d.c.) like that from a battery.

Me bo><
Of r~-- pl"g
drcuit
breaker box

insulated wires
live in cable

neutral
,
-L-- -
-=- earth
- :- -- ~ ~ ---------- heating element
(symbol)
Live (or hot, or active) .."irc* This goes alternately negative and pos itive.
making the c urrent flow backwards and forwards in the circuit.
Neutral (or cold) wire * This completes t he circuit. I n many systems. it is
kept at zero voltage by th e electricity supply company.
Switch This is fitted in th e live w ire. It would work equally well in the neutral.
bu t wire in the cable would still be live w ith t he switch OFF. This would be
dangerous if. for example, the cable was accidentally cut.
Fuse This is a thi n piece of wire whic h o verheats a nd melts if the current is
too high. L ike the switch, it is placed in t he live wire, ofte n as a CaI1ridge. If
a fault develops, and the current gets too hi gh, the fuse 'blows' a nd breaks
the c irc uit before the cable can overheat a nd catch fire. Many c ircuits use a
c ircuit breaker instead o f a fuse (see spread 9 .04 a nd next page).
Earth (grounded) wire * This is a safelY w ire. It connects the metal body
of th e kettle to earth and stops it becoming live. For example. if th e live wire
co mes loose and touches the metal body, a c urren t immediately flows to earlh
a nd blows t he fuse. This m eans t hat the kettle is t he n safe to touc h .
'" This table lamp has an insulating Double insulation Some appliances - radios for example - do not ha ve an
body and does not need an earth ear1h wire. This is because the ir outer case is mad e of plastic rather than
wire. metal. The plast ic acts as a n extra layer of insulation around the w ires .
·.. .......................................................................................... ELEC TR I C ITY

For extra safety. circu its may be fitted with a type of breaker called a re sidual
CWTe nt d e vice (Re O). This co mpares the cun'ents in the live a nd neutral
w ires. If they are not t he same. then c urrent must be flow ing to earth -
perhaps through someone touc hing an exposed wire. The ReD senses the
d ifference and switches off t he c urrent before any harm can be done.

Plugs
Plugs are a safe a nd simple way of connecting appliances to t he mains. Over
a do zen differe nt types of plug are in use aroun d t he world. You can see a n .. This two-pin plug has earth
example on t he d ght. connections in g rooves at the edge.
A few countries use a t hree-pin plug with a fuse inside. T he fuse value is
typically eit her 3 A or 13 A. This tells you the c urrent n eeded to blow the fuse.
It m ust be greater t han t he normal CUITent in t he appLiance. but as close to it
as possible. so that t he fu se will blow as soon as the c u r rent gets too high.
For example:
• If a kettle takes a CUITent of lOA. then a 13 A fuse is needed.
• If a TV takes a current of 0.2 A. the n a 3 A fuse is needed. The TV would
still work with a 13 A fuse. B ut if a fault developed . its circu its might
overheat a nd catch fi re wit hout t he fuse blowing.

Electrical hazards
Mains electricity can be d angerous. Here are some o f t he hazards:
• Old . frayed w iring. Broken strand s mean t hat a wire will have a higher
resistance at one po int . When a cu rrent flows in it. t he heat in g effect
may be enough to melt the insulation and cause a fire.
• Long exten sion leads. These may overheat if used when coiled up. The
current warms the wire. but the heat has less area to escape from a tight
bundle.
• Water in sockets o r plugs. Water w ill cond uct a c urrent. so if electrical
equipmen t gets wet . there is a risk t hat someone m ight be electroc uted.
• Accidentally cutting cables. With lawnmowers and hedgetrimmers . a
plug- in ReD can be used to avo id the risk of electroc ution.

If a n accident happens. and s omeone is electrocuted . you m ust switch off

.. A plug-in ReD gives protection
at the socket a nd p ull out t he plug before giving a ny help.
against the risk of electrocution.

o 1 What is a fuse, and how does it work?

Z In a mains circu it, why shou ld the switch always be in the live w ire rather than
appliance current
the neutral?
J In mains appliances, what is the purpose of the earth wire? hairdrier 6A
4 Some countries use plugs w ith a fuse in. For each appliance on the right. decide food mixer 2A
whether its plug should be fitted with a 3 A or a 13 A fuse. iron 10 A
S Why should a 13 A fuse not be used for a TV taking a current of 0.2 A? lamp 0.1 A
6 If an accident occurs and someone is electrocuted. what two things must you do
before giving help?

Rela t ed t optcs: current an d Circuits S.04; voltage (p.d.) 8.OS; reSistance and heating effect S.06; [XlWer 8.11; how a Circ uit breake r wor ks
9.04; generators 9. 0 9; electricity supply system 9.12
ELECTR IC ITY FURTHER QUESTIONS

1 a When a balloon is rubbed in your hair. the 4 The circuit diagram shows a battery con nected
balloon becomes negatively c harged . to five lamps. The CUlTents in lamps A and B are
i Explain how the balloon becomes negatively shown.
c harged. [2]
ii State wh at you know about the s ize and sign
of the ch arge left on your ha ir. [2] A E
b The negatively charged balloon is brought up to
B 2 a mp eres
t he surface of a ceili ng. The balloon sticks to t he
ceiling. Explai n how and w hy t his happens. [3]
2 Read the ronowing passage carefully before
answel;ng the questions.
c D
Spraying crops with insecticides has become more
efficient. A portable high voltage generator gives the Write down t he cun'ent flow ing in
drops or liqu.id insect icide a small positive ella/ge. a lamp C. [1 ]
rhis makes the liquid break tip imo smaller drops and b lamp E . [1]
causes the spr(/.y 10 become finer and spread out more. 5 a How m uc h energy is transferred by a battery
The plants, IVhich (Ire (111 reasOtl(lble condllctors, are of e.m.f. 4.5 V w hen 1.0 C of c harge passes
in col1tact with the earth . As the droplets or spray get through it? [1 ]
near the plams, the planls themselves become slightly b How much power is developed in a battery of
charged and attract the droplets. e.m.f. 4.5 V w hen a CUlTent of 1.0 A is passing
a i Explain w hy the positive c harge on the through it? [1]
droplets makes the spray spread out. [1]
6 The diagram s hows a circu it whic h contains 1\vo
ii State wh at c harge appears on t he plants as t he
resistors.
droplets come near to them. [1]
Explain fully h ow the plants themselves become 40 20
fully charged . [3 ]
c·Suggest two reasons w hy it is an advantage to bot h
t he farmer a nd t he environment to use very small
charged droplets during insecticide spraying. [2]
3 battery SWitch
r-----<I'I'If---/------, 1.2 V

Calculate
a the total resistance of the two resistors in
series. (0) [I J
b the current fl owing in t he cell. (A) [1]
c the current flowing in the 4 n resistor. (A) [1]
d the reading of t he voltmetel: (V) [1 ]
l,
~ th e power produced in the 4 n resistor. (W) [1]
The circuit shows a battery connecled to a switch
7 A small electric hairdlyer has an outer case made
and three identical lamps. L 1• L z and L 3 •
of plastic. The follow ing infOimation is printed on
a Copy the d iagram a nd add:
an an'ow to show the conventional current the case:
di rect io n in t he circuit w he n the switch is
closed [1 ]
500W 230 V
jj a voltmeter V. to measure th e voltage
across Ll [1]
iii a switch . labelled S. t hat controls L) only. [1] a.c. o nly 50 H z
b State and explain w hat effect add ing another
cell to the battery would have on the lamps in
t he circu it. [2]
 FURTHER QUESTIONS ELEC TRICITY

a Explain t he meaning of t hese terms: 9 A student in vestigates how the c urrent in a lamp
i a.c. only [ 1] varies w ith t he voltage (p.d .) across it. S he uses the
ii SO H z [1 ] circuit shown below.
b *The haird ryer does not have an eatth wire. Instead.
it is double insulated. Explain what t hi s means. [2]
L c What CUlTen t docs t he hairdryer take? [2] A
d The ha ir dlycr is protected by its own fusc.
i What is t he purpose of the fuse? [1 ]
ii Given a choice of a 3 A or a 13 A fuse for t he
L ha irdlyer, w hic h would you select. and w hy? [2]
c · Lf th e ha ird ryer were used in a country where the L--{ V } - - - - '
mains voltage was only 11 0 V, w hat di fference
would t his make, a nd why? [3] a Three of the co mpone nts are labelled, A, V, a nd
8 A small generator is labelled as having a n output of B. Wr ite down w hat each one is. [3 ]
2 kW, 230 V a.c. (at constant frequency). It is used b Describe how t he student s hould carry out t he
to provide emergency light ing for a large b uildin g in experiment. [3 ]
t he event of a breakdown o f the mains supply. The From her results , the student plots t his graph:
circu it is s hown below.

generator L, L, -----------~"
output

~---'-'-->-'------- ----- ---~

2 kW/230 V iI.C.

There are 30 light fitt ings on rhe c ircuit, each w ith a

230 V, 28 W halo gen lamp.
a Calculate the max imum current whic h t he
generato r is des igned to supply. [2]
b i Calculate the power needed when all t he lamps
are t u rned on at th e same t ime.
ij Explain w hy t his generator is su itable for
supplying the power required but would not be current I A
suitable if all the lamps were exchanged fo r c What is the current w hen t he voltage across t he
100 W lamps. [4] lamp is 2.0 V? [I ]
c Write down two reasons why all the lamps are d What is the resistance of the lamp whe n t he
cormected in parallel rather than in series. In each voltage across it is 2.0 V? [2 ]
answer, you should refer to both types of circuit. [4] e What is the resistan ce oEthe lamp w he n the
Calculate the res ista nce of the fIlament o f each voltage across it is 6.0 V? [2]
28 W lamp. [4] f What happens to th e resistance of t he lamp as
c The figure below shows the c urrent o utput of t he the voltage across it is increased? [1 ]
generato r when it is s upplying all 30 of the 28 W 10 A small electric heater takes a power of 60 W from
lamps. a 12 V supply.
a What is the current in the heater? [2]
b What is t he resistance of the heater? [2]
c How much c harge (in C) passes t hrough t he
heater in 20 seconds? [2 ]
d How much energy (in J) is transformed by the
t" Calculate t he freque ncy of t he s upply from t he heater in 20 seconds? [2]
generatm:
ij Copy t he d iagram a nd sketch a nother graph
to s how t he approx imate current output of the
generator w hen 1Slamps are I"{'moved from
t he il- fitt ings . [4]
ELEC TR I C ITY REVISION SUMMARY

Use the list below when you revise f or your IGCSE examinat ion. You can eit her
phot ocopy it or print it from t he file on the CD accompanying th is book.
The spread number, in brackets, t ells yo u w here to f ind more information.

Core Level Extended LeveL

o Two Iypes o f electric c harge a nd the attractio ns a nd
l-epulsio ns between them. (S.OI)
o Electrical conductors and insulators. (8 .01 )
o Prod ucing a nd d etecting c harge. (B.Ol and 8.02)
o Cha r ging: a dding or removing electrons. (8.0 J)
o CUl"Te nt as a flow of c ha rge. (S.04)
o Current in a metal is a fl ow of electrons . (B.04 )
o T he ampere, unit of cu rrent; measur ing c urrent
w ith a n ammete r. (B.04)
o The volt. unit of p .d. a nd e.m.f.; measuring p.d .
w it h a voltmeter. (8.05)
o e.m.f. as a source o f e nergy. (8.05)
o I-I ow c ha nges in p.d . or resistance affect the
cu rre nt: t he equation li nking resista nce, p .d., and
cu rrent. (S.06 a nd 8.07)
o The o hm , uni t o f resistance. (B. 06)
o Factors affectin g t he res ista nce of a w ire. (B .06)
o Using c ircui t diagrams and symbols (excluding the
d iode). (8.04,8 .06 and page 321)
o Using switches, resistors, a nd ot her
components. (8.04 ,8.06, a nd B.09)
o How t he current is t he same a t all points round a
series c irc uit. (8.04 a nd 8.0 7)
o 1·low current is split in a parallel circu it. (B.09)
o Ad vantages of c onnecting lamps in parallel. (8 .09)
o Calculating t he combined resistance of resistors in
series. (B. 10)
o The combined resistance of two resistors in parallel
is less than that of e ither l-esiSlor by itself. (8.1 0)
o Using fuses and circuit breakers. (8. 12)
o The hazards of d amaged insulat io n, overheated
cables, a nd damp condit io ns. (S.1 2)
o T he impo nance of eal1hi ng. (8.12)
As for Core LeveL plus t he following:
D Why metals are good conductors. while most other
materials are insulators. (8.0 1)
D Ind uced c harges. (8.02)
o The coulomb, unit of c harge. (8 .02)
D What an electric fiel d is. (8.03)
o The di rection of a n electric fi eld . (8.0 3)
a Electric fi elds panerns. (8.03)
a The equatio n linking current, c harge. a nd
time. (8.04)
o Electro n flow a nd convent io nal c urrent. (8.04)
a The rule linking t he p.d .s rou nd a circu it.
(8.05 and 8.09)
a Defi ning t he volt. (8.05)
D Current-p.d . c haracted st ics (grap hs) fo ra metal
wil-e at constant temperat u re a nd a lamp filament
as it heats up . (8.07)
D The relationship between the resistance, length.
a nd cross-sect ional area of a wire. (8.08)
a The rule fo r currents in a parallel circuit. (B. 09)
D Calculating the co mbined resistance of two
resistors in parallel. (8. 10)
a The equat io n linki ng po wer, p .d. (voltage), a nd
current. (8.11)
a The equation li nking e ner·gy. p.d ., c un'ent, and
time. (8.1 1)

COUP: this may be reproduce<! for class u~ 50lely lor the purchaser's i nstitute
 ompute r mode l of the

C magn et ic field i nsid e the

doughnut-shaped cha mber
of a nuclear fusion '"eactor. Like the
Sun, fusion reacto rs release ene rgy
by smashing hydrogen atoms together
to form helium . One d ay, they m ay
provide th e energy to ru n power
stations o n Ea rth .
I n the reac tOl~ the m agnetic field is
lIsed to lrap lhe ch arged particles
fmm hydrogen at a tempera ture of
over 100 mi llion cc.
 ................................................................................
MAGNET S AND CURREN T S
North
I
Properties of magnets 8 I/
A magnet:
• Has a magnetic fiekl around it
(see the next spread).
• Has two opposite poles
(N and 5) which exert forces
on other magnets. Like poles
repel: unlike poles attract.
• Will attract magnetic materials
by inducing magnetism in
them. In some materials (e.g
steel) the magnetism is
permanent. In others
(e.g. iron) it is temporary. :J
• Will exert little or no fo rce on
a non-magnetic material.
magnet
N N
o
Iron ~t€el
Magnets
Magnetic poles
If a small bar magnet is dipped into iron fil ings . the fil ings are attracted to its
ends. as shown in the p hotograph on t he oppos ite page. The magneTic force
seems to come from two p o ints. called the p oles of the magnet.
The Earth exerts forces on the poles of a magne t. rf a bal· magn et is suspended
as on t he left. it swings round unt il it lies roughly nOJ1 h- sout h . Thi s effect is
used to name the two pol es of a magnet. These are called:
• the north-seeking pole (or N pole for short)
• the s oulh-seeking pole (or S pole for shan).
lfyo u bring the end s of two s im ilar bar magnets together, t here is a force
between the poles as shown below:
Like poles repel; unlike poles attract.
The closer the poles. the greater the force between t hem .
I"(>pulsion
..
attraction
Induced magnetism
Materials s uch as iron and steel are attracted to magnets because they
t hemselves beco me magnetized w hen t he re is a magnet neal·by. The magnet
induces magnetism in th em. as s hown below. In each case, t he ind uced
pole nearest t he magnet is t he opposite of the pole at the e nd of the magnet.
The attraction between u nlike poles hold s each p iece of metal to th e magnet.
The steel a nd t he iron beh ave d iffere ntly w he n pulled right away from the
magnet. The steel keeps some of its induced magnetism a nd becomes a
p e nnanent magnet . Howevel: the iron loses vil1ually all of its induced
magnet ism . It was only a temporary magnet .
iron loses steel permanen tly
pole s mdu<l'd in
iron ilnd steel
magnetism magnetIzed
 MAGNE T S AND CURREN T S
.............................................................................................
Making a magnet
A p iece of steel beco mes permane ntly magnetized w he n placed near a magnet,
~
but its magnetism is usually weak. It can be magnet ized more strongly by
stroking it w ith one end of a magnet. as on t he righ t. H owever, t he most ;~~y~=P
$U~I!I
effective method o f magnetizing it is to place it in a long coil of wire a nd pass
a large , direct (one-way) current in t he coil. The cun'ent has a magnetic effect
(
whic h magnetizes the steel.

Magnetic and non-magnetic materials

R IOOUCl!d poll!s

A magnetic lllaterial is one w hich w hich can be magnetized a nd is attracted ... Magnetizing a piece of steel by
stroking it with a magnet.
to magnets. All strongly magnetic materials contain iron. nickel. or cobalt.
For example. steel is mainly iron. Strongly magnetic metals like this are called
ferromagnetics . They are described as hard or soft depending on how well
they keep t he ir magnetism w hen magnet ized:
Hard magnetic materials such as steel, and alloys called Alcoma.x and Ferrous and non-ferrous
Magnadur. are difficult to magnetize but do not readily lose their magnetism. Iron and alloys (mixtures)
They are used for permanent magnets . containing iron are called
Soft mab'llctic materia1s such as iron and Mumetal are relatively easy to ferrous metals (ferrum is Latin
magnet ize. but t heir magnetism is only temporary. They are used in the cores for iron). Aluminium, copper, and
the other non-magnetic metals
of electromagnets and transfOimers because t heir magnetic effect can be
are non-ferrous.
'switched ' o n or off or reversed eas ily.
Non-magnetic materials include metals such as brass. copper. zinc. tin . a nd
alumini um. as well as non-metals.

Where magnetism comes from'

In an atom, t iny electrical particles called electrons m ove around a central
nucleus. Each electron has a magnetic effect as it spins and orbits the nucleus.
In many types of atom, t he magn etic effects of the electrons cancel, b ut in
some t hey do not, so each atom acts as a t iny magnet. In a n unmagnet ized
material, t he atom ic magnets point in random direc tions. But as the
material becomes magnetized . more a nd mo re of its atom ic magnets line up
with each at her.
Together, billions of t iny atom ic magnets act as one b ig magnet.
I If a magnet is hammered. its atom ic magnets are th rown out of line: it
~ecomes demagnetized. H eating it to a high temperatun~ has t he same effect.
... Magnetic ma terials are attracted
to magnets and can be made into
magnets.

o 1 What is meant by t he N pole o f a magnet?

A bar 1
Z Magnetic materials are sometimes described as hard or soft.
a What is the d if ference between the two types?
b Give one examp le of each t ype.
3 Name three ferromagnetic meta ls.
4 Name three non-magnetic met als.
• c bar 2

5 The diagram on the right shows three metal bars. When different ends are
brought together, it is found that A and B attract, A and C att ract, but A and D D bar 3
repel. Decide whether each of the bars is a permanent magnet or not.

Related topi cs : atoms and electrons 8.01; the Earth's magnetism 9.02; electromagnets 9.04; transformers 9.1D-g.11
 ................................................................................
M A G NE T S AND CURREN T S
Magnet essentials
A magnet has a north-seeking
(N) pole at one end and a
south-seeking (5) pole at the
other. When two magnets are
brought together:
like poles repel. unlike poles
attract.
Magnetic fields
I n the p hotograph below. iron fil ings have been sprinkled on paper over a bar
magnet. The fil ings have become tiny magnets, p ulled into pos ition by forces
from the poles of t he magnet. Scientifically speaking, there is a m agn etic fieJd
around the magnet, a nd t his exerts forces on magnetic materials in it.
Magnetic field patterns
Magnetic fiel ds can be investigated using a small compass. The 'needle' is
a tiny magnet w hi ch is free to tum on its spindle. When near a magnet . t he
needle is turned by forces between its poles a nd the poles of t he magnet.
The needle comes to rest s o that t he turn ing effect is zero.
The diagram on the left s hows how a small compass can be used to plot t he
fiel d around a bar magn et. Starti ng w ith the co mpass near one end of t he
magnet. the needle position is marked us ing two dots. Then the compass is
moved so t hat the needle lines up w ith the previous dot. .. a nd so on. Whe n t he
dots are joined up. t he result is a magnetic fieJd line. More li nes can be drawn
by starting w ith the compass in d ifferent pos it ions.
8; In the diagram above . a selection of fiel d lines has been used to s how t he
I! magnetic fiel d a round a bar magnet:
• The field li nes r un from the N pole to t he S pole of the magnet. The field
direction. shown by an arrowhead. is defined as the d irection in whic h
the force on a N pole would act. It is the direction in w hich the N end of a
compass needle would point.
• The magnetic field is strongest w here the field lines are closest t ogether.
If two magnets are placed near each other. their magnetic fields combine to
produce a s ingle fi eld. Two examples are s hown at t he top of t he next page. At
t he neutral point. the field from one magnet exactly cancels the fi eld from the
ot her. so t he magnetic force on anything at this point is zero.
 MA G N ET S A N D C U RR EN T S
.............................................................................................
... Between magnets with unlike
poles facing. the combined field Js
almost uniform (even) in strength.
However. between like poles, there is
a neutral point where the combined
field strength is zero.

Magnetic screening
The Earth 's magnetic field- Some electronic equipment is
The Eanh has a magnetic field. No one is sure of its cause, although it is easily upset by magnetic fields
thought to come from electric currents generated in t he Earth's core. The field from nearby generators. mOlars.
is rather like th at around a large. but very weak. bar magnet. transformers, or the Earth. The
Wit h no other magnets near it. a compass neecfie lines up w ith th e Earth's equipment can be screened
(shielded) by enclosing it in a
magnetic field . The N end of the neecfie points north. B ut a n N pole is always
layer of a soft magnetic material.
attracted to a n S pole. So it foll ows t hat the Earth 's magnet ic 5 pole m ust be
such as iron or nickel. This
in the north! It lies under a p oint in Canada called magnetic north .
redirects the field so that it does
Magnetic n0l1h is over 1200 km away from t he Earth's geographi c N0I1h Pole. not pass through the equipment
This is becau se the Earth's magnet ic axis is not qu ite in line with its north-
sout h axis DErotation.

m neue uth -->'~Tl"t'lt~

• The Earth behaves as if it has a large but very weak bar magnet • A compass is of no use in polar regions because the Earth's
inside it. magnetic field lines are vertical.

o t In the diagrams on the right. the same compass is bein g

oonh y
used in both cases.
a Copy diagram A. Label the Nand S ends of the
compass needle. t
b Copy diagram B. Mark in the poles of the magnet to
show which is N and which is S. Then draw an CD X
magnet
arrowhead on the field line to show its d irection.
c In diagram B. at which position, X or Y, would you
expect the magnetic field to be the stronger?
A
•
Related topi cs : magnetic pates and t he Earth's magnetic effec t 9.01
 ................................................................................
MAGNETS AND CURREN T S
Magnet essentials
Like poles repel; unlike poles
attract. Magnetic f ield lines
show the direction of the force
on a N pole.
current
(convent ional)
Current essentials 0 I,
In a circuit the current is a flow
of electrons: tiny particles which
come from atoms.
The current arrows sho'Nn on
circuit diagrams run from + Magnetic fields from coils
to -. This is the con ventional
current d irectio n. EledronS'j
being negatively charged. flow
the other wir'{.
• '"
Magnetic effect of a current
Magnetic field around a wire
If an electric c unent is passed through a w ire , as s hown below left, a weak
magnetic fiel d is produce.d. The field has t hese features:
• the magnetic field lines are circles
• the field is strongest close to t he wire
• increasing the c un'ent increases the strength of t he field.
(urrent
banery - (conventi onal)
A nile for fi eld direction The direction of the magnet ic fi eld produced by
a current is give n by the right-hand grip nile shown above right. Imagine
gripping the w ire w ith your right hand so that your t humb points in t he
convent ional c u rrent d irection. Your fi ngers then point in t he same directio n
as the field lines.
A current produces a stronger magnetic field if t he wire it flows in is wound
into a co il . The d iagrams below show the magnetic field patterns produ ced by
two c urrent-carry ing coils. One is just a s ingle turn of w ire. The ot her is a long
coil with many tums . A long co il is called a so1en oid .
I
·.. .......................................................................................... MAGNETS AND CURRENTS

The magnetic fi eld prod uced by a cu rre nt-carrying coil has t hese features:
• the field is s imilar to that from a bar magnet, and t here are magnetic poles
at the e nds of the co il
• increasing the current increases the strength of the field
• increasing the number of turns on t he coil inCI-eases the stl-ength o f the field .
A nile for po]es " To work out w hic h way round the poles are , you can use
a nother right-hand grip nile , as s hown on t he right. Imagine gri pping t he
coil with your right ha nd so that your fingers point in the coO\'entional c urrent
d irect ion . Your t humb t hen points towards the N pole of the coil.
Magnets are made - a nd demagnetized - using coils, as s hown below. [n au dio
a nd video cassette recorde n; . t iny coils are used to put magnetic pattern s on
tape. The patterns sto re sound a nd picture in formation.
Right-hand grip rule for poles

Making a magnet D@magn@tizinga magnet

Above. a steel bar has been placed in a solenoid. When a
current is passed through the solenoid. the steel becomes
magnetized and makes the magnetic field much stronger than
before. And when the current is switched off. the steel
stays magnetized. Nearly all permanent magnets are made
in this way.
Above. a magnet is slowly being pulled out of a solenoid
through which an alternating current is passing. Alternating
curren t (a.c) flo\IVS backwards, forwards. backwards.
forwards ... and so on. It produces a magnetic field whk:h
changes diredion very rapidly and throws the atoms in the
mag net out of line.

o The coil in diagram A is producing a magnetic field.

A
a Give two ways in which the strength of t he field

L could be increased.
b How could the direction of the field be reversed?
c' Copy the diagram. Show the conventional current
d irection and the Nand S poles of the coil.
2 Redraw diagram B to show wh ich way the compass
needles point when a current flows in the w ire.
(Assume that the black end of each compass needle is a
N pole, the conventional current direction is away from
you, into the paper, and that the only magnetic field is
that due to the current.)
- . wi re (eod view)

Related t opi cs : curreot in a Circuit 8.04; alternating current 8.12; magoetic poles 9.01; magnetic fieldS 9. 0 2
 ................................................................................
MAGNETS AND CURREN T S

ELectromagnets
Unlike an ordinary magnet. an eleclromagnel can be switched on a nd
battery switch
off. In a simple electromagnet. a coil. co ns isting of several h undred
II ~ turns of ins ulated copper wire. is wound round a core, usually of iron o r
MumetaL Whe n a CUITent flows in t he co il. it produces a magnetic fiel d .
This magn etizes the core. creat ing a magnetic field about a thousand times
stronger t ha n the coil by itself. Wit h a n iron or Mumetal core, th e magnet ism
is only temporary, a nd is los t as soo n as the c urrent in the coil is switched off.
Steel would not be su itable as a core because it would become permanently
JIJIIIIIIill!.J.J.J,!JJ,!f
coil core
magnetized .
The strength of the magnetic field is inc reased by:
... A simple electromagne t
II •• increasing the c urrent
increasing the number of turns in the coil.
LReve rs ing the c urrent reverses the d irection of the magneTic field.
The following all make use of electromagnets.

The magnetic relay

A magn etic relay is a sw itch operated by an electromagnet. With a relay. a
small switc h with t hin wires can be used to tu rn on the cun'ent in a much
more powerful circuit - for e....ample, one w ith a large electric motor in it;

Magnetic essentials 8; r- Iron armature

A hard magnetic material (for I 1-

~~-
example. steel) is one which,
when magnetized, does not 1 ! power su pply
for motor
readily lose its magnetism.
A soft magnetic material (for ! !
~ electric
example, iron) quickly loses its S magnet motOr
, e
magnetism when the "h
""COO,,", C
~
magnetizing field is re moved.

Input circuit outp ut CIrCUIt

relay

When the switch S in the input circu it is closed . a c urrent flows in the
electromagnet. Thi s p ulls the iron amlatu re towards it, whic h closes t he
contacts C. As a result, a c ur re nt flows in the motor.
The relay above is of t he 'normally open' type: when t he input switc h is OFF.
the outpu t circuit is also OFF. A 'normally closed' relay works t he opposite way :
w hen t he input switch is OFF, th e output circuit is ON. In practice, most relays
are made so that they can be connected either way.

... With a relay, a smail switch can be

L ~wltch IY
';l,o~~I
used to turn on a powerful starter r open}
motor.

Normally open relay (symbol) Normally closed relay (symbol)

 MAGNETS AND CURRENTS
.............................................................................................
The circuit breaker
A circu it b reaker is a n a utomatic switch w hich c uts off the current in a cin:u it reset bUF
if t his rises above a specified value. It has t he same effect as a fuse but. unlike

,
a fuse . can be reset (turned ON again) after it has tripped (tu rned OFF).
In t he type s hown on the right. the current flows in two co ntacts and also in conTM
a n electromagnet. If the current ge ts too high. the pull of t he electromagnet " 0-
becomes strong enough to release t he iron catch. so t he contacts open a nd stop
the c un·ent. Press ing the reset button closes the contacts again. iron
ciltch
JI"""1.
Magnetic storage'
TV studios use mag netic tape. in cassettes . for recordi ng p ictures and sounds. ~
The tape consists of a long. thin plastic strip, coated w ith a layer of iron ox ide
or sim ilar material. Magnet ically. iron ox ide is between so ft a nd hard . O nce
magnetized it keeps its magnetism. but is relatively easy to demagnetize. current electro-
ready for a nother recording. The d iagram below shows a simple system for magnet
recordin g sound on tape. The hard drive in a computer also stores data as a
... Circuit breaker
pattern of varying magnetism. In b oth examples . a n elect romagnet creates t he
varyin g magn etic fiel d needed for record ing. Later. a playback head can read
t he pattern to give a varying current.

current
varied by
(
,~""

nmlUli;-J electromagnet
~ r:::
In recording head

t ape magnet ized varying magnetl:>rrl

along t ape

.& Recordi ng on magnetic tape The incoming sound waves
are used to vary the cu rrent in a tiny electromagnet in the
recording head. As the tape moves past the head. a track of
varying magnetism is created along the tape.
... Computer hard d rive The recording head is at the end of
the arm. It contains a t iny electromagnet which is used 10 create
tracks of varying magnetism on a spinning disc. The disc is made
of aluminium or glass. and is coated with a layer of magnetic
material similar to that on a tape.

o 1 An electromagnet has a core.
a What is the purpose of the core?
b Why is iron a better material for the (Ore than steel?
I c Write down two ways of increasing the strength of
L the magnetic field from an electromagnet.
2 In the diagram on the opposite page, an electric motor
is controlled by a switch connected to a relay.
a What is the advantage of using a relay. rather than a
switch in the motor circuit itself?
b Why does the motor start when switch 5 is closed?
3 The diagram at the top of the page shows a circu it
breaker.
a What is the purpose of the circuit breaker?
b How do you think the performance of the circuit
L breaker would be affected if the coil of the
electromagnet had more turns?
4 * Sounds can be recorded on tape.
a Why is an electromagnet needed for this?
b Why must the coating on the tape be between soft
and hard magnetically?

Related t opi cs : recording 7.13; using Circuit breakers 8.13; magnetic materials 9.01; fields from coils 9.03; using relays 10.03
 ................................................................................
M A G NE T S AND CURREN T S
Magnet essentials
The N and 5 poles of one magnet
8 I,
exert forces on those of another:
like IXlles repel, unlike poles
attract,
j
The magnetic field around a
magnet can be represented by
field lines, These show the
direction in which t he force on
an N pole would act.
Field and force
By itself, the current in a straight
wire produces a circular magnetic
field pattern. However, when the
wire is between the poles of a
magnet, the combined field is as
above. In situations l ike this, the
field lines tend to straighten':0'J
in thiS case, the wire gets pushed
upwards.
Magnetic force on a current
I n the experimen t s hown below, a length of copper wire has been placed
in a mag netic field . Copper is non.magnetic, so it is feels no force f rom the
magnet. However. with a current passi ng through it, there is a force on the
w ire, The force arises because t.he current produces its own magne tic fi eld
w hich acts on t he poles of the magnet. In this case, t he force on th e w ire is
upwards (see b ox below left ). It would be downwards if either the magnet ic
fiel d or the current were reversed . Whic hever way t he experiment is done, the
w ire moves across t he field. It is not attracted to eit her pole.
The force is increased if:
• the cutl'em is increased
• a stronger magnet is used
• the length of wire in t he field is increased.
• Fleming's left·hand ru le
Fleming's left-hand rule
I n the above experiment, t he direction of th e force can be pred icted us ing
F1cming's left-hand ni1e, as illustrated above righ t. If you hold th e thumb
a nd first two fi ngers of your left ha nd at right angles, and point the fi ngers as
s how n. the t humb gives t he direction of the force.
I n applying t he rule, it is important to remember h ow the field and current
di rections are defined:
• The fiel d direction is from t he N pole of a magnet to t he S poJe.
• The current direction is from the positive (+) term inal of a battery round
to the negative (-). This is called the cOI1VenliOllal current directio n.
Fleming's left-hand rule only appl ies if t he current a nd field directions are
at right a ngles. If t hey are at some other angle, there is still a force , but its
di rection is more difficult to pred ict, If t he current and field are in the same
di rect ion , there is 110 force.
If a beam of c harged particles (such as electrons) passes t hrough a magnetic
field, there is a force on it, just as for a current in a wire: see 10.06 and 11.02.
 MAGNETS AND CURRENTS
.............................................................................................
The moving-coilloudspeaker*
Most loudspeakers are of t he moving-coil type s hown on the right. The
cylindrical magnet produces a strong radial ('spoke-like') magnetic field at
right angles to the wire in the coil. The coil is free to move backwards and
fOr\vards and is attached to a stiff paper or plastic cone.
The loudspeaker is connected to a n amplifier whic h gives out alternating
cun·ent. This flows backwards, forwards, backwards ... a nd so on, causing a
force on the coil which is also backwards, forwards, bad·wards .... As a result ,
the cone vibrates and gives out sound waves. The sound you hear depends on
how t he amplifier makes the c urrent alternate.

Turning effect on a coil

The coil below lies between t he poles of a magnet. The current flows in
oppos ite directions along th e two sides of t he coil. So, accord ing to Flem ing's
left-hand rule, one s ide is pushed tip and the oth er s ide is pushed dow/I. In
other words, t here is a turning effect on the coil. With more turns on the coil.
the turning effect is increased. .. Moving-coil loudspeaker

~
The meter in the p hotograph uses the above principle. Its pointer is attached
to a coil in t he field of a magnet. The higher the curren t in t he meter, t he
further the co il turns agai nst the springs holding it, and the fUl1 her the pointer
moves along the scale.

.. Moving-coil meter

o
.... 1 There is a force on the wire in the diagram on the right.
a Give two ways in which the force could be increased.
I
~ Use Fleming's left-hand rule to work out the d irection of the force.
c Give two ways in which the di rection of the force cou ld be reversed .
Z"* Explain why the cone of a loudspeaker vibrates when alternating current passes
through its coil.
3 The diagram above shows a current-carrying coil in a magnetic fi eld. What
difference would it make if
a there were more turns of wire in the (oi l
b the direction of the (urrent were reversed?

Rel ated t opi cs : sound waves 6 .03; current in a circuiI8.04; magnetic fields 9.02; field around a wire 9.03; using a loudspeaker 10.01; force
on particle beam t o.06 and 11.02
 ................................................................................
M A G NE T S A ND CURREN T S
Turning effect on a coil
When a current flows in this coil.
there is an upward force on one
side and a downward force on
the other. The direction of each
force is given by Fleming's lefj'.
hand rule. explained on the
previous spread.
The action of the
commutator
When the coil is nearly vertical.
the forces cannot turn it much
further...
...but when the coil overshoots
the vertical. the commutator
changes the direction of the
current in it. so the forces change
direction and keep the coil
turn ing.
ELectric motors
If a coil is carrying a current in a magnetic field , as on the left, t he forces on it
produce a turning effect. Many electric motors use this pri nciple.
A s imple d.c. motor
milgnet - - - - - - - - - :
(oil - - - - -
commutiltor - - - - -
(sptit ri ng)
ba ttery
The diagram above shows a s imple electric motor. It runs on direct current
(£I.e.), t he 'one-way' c urrent that flows from a battery.
The co il is made of insulated copper w ire. It is free to rotate between t he poles
of the magn et. The commutator. or split-rin g, is fixed to t he coil and rotates
w ith it. Its act ion is explained below a nd in t he diagrams on t he left. The
brushes are two contacts w hich rub against the commutator a nd keep the coil
connected to t he battery. They are us ually made of carbon.
Whe n the coil is horizontal. the forces are furthest apart a nd have th eir
maximum turning effect Oeve rage) on the coil. With no change to dle forces , t he
coil would eventually come to rest in t he velt ical position. H owevel~ as the coil
overshoots the vertical, th e commutator c hanges the d irection of the current
in it. So the forces change direct ion a nd push the coil further round until it is
again verticaL. a nd so on. In tlus way. th e coil keeps rotati ng clockwise. half
a tum at a time. If eit her t he battelY or the poles of the magnet were t he other
way rou nd, t he coil would rotate anticlod--wise.
The turning effect on t he coil can be increased by:
• increasing the c ur re nt
• using a stronger magn et
• increasing the numbe,'oft urns on the co il
•• increasing the area of the coil. (A longer coil mean s higher forces because
there is a greater length of w ire in the magnetic field: a w ider coil gives t he
fo rces more leverage.)
·.. .......................................................................................... MAGNETS AND CURRENTS

Practical motors·
The s imple motor on t he opposite page p roduces a low turning effect a nd is curved pol e
,
jerky in action, especially at low speeds. Practical motors give a m uc h better
perfo rma nce for these reaso ns:
• Several coils a re used. each set at a different a ngle a nd each w it h its own
pair of co m mutator segments (pieces), as s hown on t he right. The result is
a greatel·turn ing effect a nd smoother run ning.
• The coils contain hundreds of turns o f w ire a nd are wound on a core called
an a nna ture . w hich contains iron. The armature becomes magnetized a nd
inc reases the strength of t he magn etic fi eld .
• The pole p ieces are cUived to create a rad ial ('spoke-like') magnetic fiel d.
This keeps th e tu rning effect at a maxim u m for mo st of the coil's rota t io n. arm ature

In some motors , the fi eld is provid ed by a n electromagnet rather t ha n a • Practical motors have curved pole
pieces. and several co ils wound on an
pe rmanent magnet. O ne advantage is that the moto r can be r u n from a n
iron arma ture.
alternating c urrent (a.c.) supply. As the c urrent flows backwards a nd forw ards
in the co il, t he fi eld from t he e1ecu'omagnet c ha nges d irection to match it, so
the t urning effect is always t he same way a nd the motor rotateS normally. The
mains motors in d rills a nd food m ixers wo rk like th is.

... In this electric drill. the motor is in

the centre. Note the commutator
segments at the right hand end. and
the electromagnet.

o t Which part(s) of an electric motor

a connect the power supply to the split· ring and coil

] [
b changes the cu rrent direction every ha lf·turn?
Z On the right, there is an end view of the coil in a simple electric motor.
a Redraw the diagram to show t he position of the coil when the turning effect
on it is ; maximum ;i zero.
b Give three ways in which the maximum turn ing effect on the coil could be
increased. ® '" current into paper
L c Use Fleming's left·hand ru le to work out which way the coil w ill turn. o = current out of pap€r
:l What is the advant age of using an electromagnet in an electric mot or, rather
than a permanent magnet?

Rel ated t opi cs : curren t 8.04; a.c. and d.c. 8 .12; magnetic fields 9-02; electromagnet s 9 .04; Fleming's left-hand rule and turning effecl 9 .o5
 ................................................................................
MAG NE T S AND C URR ENTS
Circuit essentials
For a current to flow in a circuit,
the circuit must be complete.
with no breaks in it. Also. there
must a source of e.m.f. (voltage)
to provide the energy. A battery
is one such source. Others
:J
include a wire moving through a
magnetic field. as explained on
the right.
E.m.f. stands for electromotive
force. It is measured in volts.
Magnet essentiaLs
The Nand S poles of one magnet
exert forces on those of another:
like poles repel. unlike poles
attract.
The magnetic field around a
magnet can be represented by
field lines. These show the
direction in which the force on
an N pole would act.
ELectromagnetic induction
A currenl produces a magnetic field. However, t he reverse is also possible: a
magnetic field can be used to produce a current.
Induced e.m.f. and current in a moving wire
insulated
wire
greater induced~-+---\
zero) current
When a wire is moved across a magnetic fi eld. as s hown above left . a small
0; e.m.f. (voltage) is generated in t he wire. The effect is called c1ectromagnctic
I induction. Scie ntifically speaking, a n e.m.f. is induced in t he wire. If the
w ire for'ms part of a complete circu it. the e.m.f. makes a c unent flow. This
can be detected by a meter called a ga1vanometer. w hic h is sensit ive to very
small currents. The one s hown in the diagram is a centre-zero type. Its poi nter
moves to t he left or right of the zero, dependin g on the c un'en t di l·ect ion.
The induced e.m .f. (and c urrent) can be inc reased by:
• moving t he w ire faster
• using a stronger magn et
• increasing the length of w ire in the magnetic field - for example , by looping
the w ire t h rough th e field several times, as s hown above right.
The above results are sum med up by Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. In s implified form. t his can be stated as foll ows:
The e.m.f. induced in a conductor is proportional to t he !'ate at w hich
0 I) magnet ic fi eld lines a re c ut by the cond uctor.
In applying t hi s law. remember t hat fi eld lines are u sed to represent the
strength of a magnetic field as well as its direction. The closer together t he
lines, t he stronger the field .
Eit her of the follow ing will reverse the d irectio n of t he induced e.m.f. and
c urrent:
• movin g t he w ire in t he opposite direction
• turning the magnet round so t hat t he field d irection is reversed .
If t he w ire is not moving, or is moving parallel to the fiel d l ines, th ere is no
induced e.m.f. or current.
·.. .......................................................................................... MAGNETS AND CURRENTS

Induced e .m.f. and current in a coil

IndUCed cu rren t ,,-~--« ,,:--:;}...-+.J

induced current in opp05it e d irect ion

If a bar magn et is p ushed into a coil. as s how n above left, an e.mJ. is indu ced
in the coil. In this case, it is t he magnetic fiel d that is moving rather t han the
wi re, but the result is the same: fi eld lines are being cut. As t he coil is part of a
complete circu it, the induced e.m.f. makes a c urre nt flow.
The induced e.m.f. (and c u rrent) can be increased by:
• moving t he magnet faste r
• u sing a st ron ger magn et
• increasing the number of t urns on the coil (as this increases t he len gth of
wire cutting t hrough the magnetic fi eld).
Experiments w ith t he magn et and coil also give the following results.
• If the magnet is p ulled out of the coil . as shown above r ight. t he di rection
of the induced e.m.f. (and current) is reven;ed .
• If t he S pole of t he magnet. rather t han t he N pole. is p us hed into t he coil.
t his also reverses the c un"ent d irection.
• If t he magnet is held still. no field lines are cut. so t here is no induced
... The pick-ups under the strings of
e.m.f. or current.
this guitar are tiny coils with magnets
The playback heads in a ud io and video cassette record ers contain t iny coils. inside them. The steel strings become
A t iny. varying e.mJ. is induced in the coil as t he magn etized tape passes over magnetized. When they vibrate.
it a nd field l.ines are cut by the coil. In this way. t he magnetized patterns on current is induced in the coils.
the tape are changed into electrical signals whic h can be used to recreate the boosted by an amplifier. and used to
original sound or p icture. produce sound.

o t The wire on the right forms part of a circuit. When the wire is moved
downwards, a current is induced in it. What would be the effect of
a moving the w ire upwards through the magnetic field
b holding the wire still in the magnetic fie ld
c moving the w ire parallel to the magnetic field lines?
2 In the experiment at the top of the page, what would be the effect of
1 a moving the magnet faster
b turn ing the magnet round. so that the 5 pole is pushed into the coil
L c having more turns on the coil?

Related topics: recording sigrlals 7.13; current 8.04; e.mJ. 8.05; magnetic fields 9.02; direction of induced current (Lenz 's law) 9.08
 ................................................................................
M A G NE T S AND CURREN T S

More about induced currents

Llnduced current direction: Lenz's Law

Magnetic essentials
Like magneUc poles repel, unlike
8(
<01 coil
ones at1ract Magnetic field lines repels attracts
;~~~~O~p::.N pole of a magnet mag;.; \ ~Y\,\,'\ 5
In diagrams, the conventional -.. r JJJ)J
current direction is used. This
runs from the + of the supply to
the - .
Induced induced current -\
current In opposite direction

If a magnet is moved in or o ut of a coil. a current is induced in the co il. The

.,
: ~
direct ion of t his current can be pred icted using Lenz's law:

An ind uced current always flows in a direct ion such that it opposes the
c hange which produced it.

A current-carrying coil produces
a magnet ic field. The right-ha nd
grip rul@ above tells you which
end is the N pole. tt is the end
your thumb points al when your
fingers point the same way as
t he current.
Above, for example , the induced current t urns the coil int o a weak
electromagnet w hose N pole opposes t he app roaching N po le of t he magnet.
When t he magnet is pulled alit orthe coil. t he indu ced current alters di rection
and the poles of t he coil are reversed. This t ime, the coil attracts th e magnet as
it is pulled away. So, once again, the c ha nge is opposed.
Lenz's law is an example of the law of conservation of energy. Energy is spent
w hen a current flows round a circu it, so energy m ust be spent to induce the
c urrent in the fi rst place. In the example above, you have to spend energy to
move t he magnet against t he oppos in g force.

Induced current direction: Fleming's right-hand rule

If a stra ight w ire (in a complete circu it) is moving at righ t angles to a
magnetic field , the d irecti on of the ind uced current can be found u sing
FJeming's right-hand ru]e, as s hown below:

.heM b
o tlon

rrem
" ft
hand ForSt finger
leld
right
If a current-carrying wire is in a h"od
magnetic field as above. the
direction of the force is given by
Fleming's left-hand rule.
If a conductor is moving through
a magnet ic field. or in a changing
field, an e.m.f. (voltage) is
induced in it.
... Fleming's rig ht-hand rule
·.. .......................................................................................... MAGNETS AND CURRENTS

On the oppos ite page, there is information about Fleming's right-hand a nd

left-hand rules. The two rules apply to d ifferent s ituations :
• when a current causes mOlioll, the left-hand r ule applies
• when mmiOll causes a ClIrrent , the right- hand rule applies . motIon

Flem ing's right-han d rule follows from the left-ha nd r ule a nd Lenz's law. The
d iagram on t he right illustrates t his. Here, t he upward motion induces a
current in t he wire. The induced c un'ent is in t he magnetic field , so t here is
a force on it w hose d irection is given by the lejI-hand rule. The force m u st be f orce on
downwards to oppose t he motion, so you can use tllis fact a nd the left- ha nd indUCM cu rrent
opposes motIon
rule to work out whic h way t he current must fl ow. However, the right- hand
rule gives t he same result - wit hout you having to reason out all t he steps !

_......
Eddy currents'
spinning magn l'tic field sto ps
alum inium diSC d isc sp inning

magnet

lE the alum inium disc above is set spinning, it may be many seconds before
Frictional force fin ally brings it to rest. However, if it spinning between t he poles
of a magnet, it stops almost immediately. This is because the disc is a good
conductor a nd cunents are induced in it as it moves through the magnetic field .
These are called eddy CUlTents. They produce a magnetic fiel d which , by Lenz's
law, opposes the motion of the disc. Eddy cun'Cnts occur w herever p ieces of metal
are in a c hanging magnetic fiel d - for example, in t he core of a transformer:
Metal detecto rs lely on eddy currents. lYpically, a pulse of CUiTent t hrough a
flat coil produces a c hanging magnetic field. This induces eddy currents in a ny ... A metal detector creates eddy
metal object underneath. The eddy c urrents give o ff th eir ow n changing fiel d currents in metal objects and then
w hich induces a second pulse in the co il . This is detected electronically. detects the magnetic fi elds produced.

o1 Look at the diagrams on the opposite page, illustrating Fleming's righ t -hand
ru le. If the directions of the magnetic field and the motion were both reversed,
how would this affect the direction of the induced current?
Z On the right, a magnet is being moved towards a coil.
a As current is induced in the coil, what type of pole is formed at the left end
of the coil? Give a reason for your answer.
b' In which direction does the (conventiona l) current flow in the meter,
AS or BA?
A
t 8
galvanometer
1* Aluminium is non-magnetic. Yet a freely spinning alumin ium disc quickly stops (centre zero)
moving if a magnet is brought dose to it. Explain why.

Rel at ed t opi cs : law of conservation of energy 4.02; right-hand grip rule 9 .03; Fleming's left-hand rule 9.05; induced current 9.07
 ................................................................................
MAGNETS AND CURREN T S
Electromagnetic
induction
If a conductor is moved through
a magnetic field so that it cuts
field lines, an e.m.f. (voltage) is
induced in it. In a complete
circuit. the induced e.m.f. makes
a current flow.
Alternating current
Alternating current (a.c.) flows
alternately backwards and
forwards. Mains current is a.c.
With a.c. circuits. giving voltage
and current values is complicated
by the fad that these vary all the
time, as the graph on this page
shows. To overcome the problem,
a type of average called a root
mean square (RMS) value is
used. For example. Europe's
mains voltage, 230 V, is an RMS
value. It is equivalen t to the
steady voltage which would
deliver energy at the same rate.
,., ""'"''-~
sli p rmgs ":::::::::~~5i;.JI---=~ carbon
... Simple a.c. generator, connected to a lamp
Generators
Most o f our electricity comes from huge generators in power stations. There
8; are smaller generators in cars a nd on some b icycles . These generators , or
I dynamos, all use electromagnetic ind uction. When turned. t hey induce an
e.m.f. (voltage) whic h can make a c u rrent flow. Most generators give out
alternating c urrcnt (a .c.). A.c. generators are also called a1ternators.
A simple a.c. generator
The diagram below s hows a simple a.c. generatOl: It is provid ing th e CUITent
for a small lamp. The coil is made of ins ulated copper w ire and is rotated by
turni ng the shaft. The slip rings are fixed to the coil and rotate wit h it. The
8; brushes are two contacts which rub against th e slip rings a nd keep t he coil
connected to t he outside part of t he circu it. They are usually made of carbon .
I When the coil is rotated , it cuts magnetic fi eld lines, so an e.m.f. is generated.
This makes a current flow. As the coil rotates, each side travels upwards,
dow nwards, upwards, downwards ... and so on, th rough the magnetic fi eld.
So t he current flows bac1c.vards, forwards ... and so on . In ot her word s, it is a.c.
The graph s hows how t he CUlTent varies through one cycle (rotation). It is a
maximum w he n the coil is horizontal a nd c utting field lines at t he fas test rate.
[t is zero whe n the coil is vertical and cutting no fi eld lines.
The following all increase the maximum e.m.f. (and the current):
• increasing the number of turns on the co il
• increasing the area of the coil
• using a stronger magnet
• rotating t he coil faster.
Faster rotation also increases the frequency of the a.c. Mains generato rs m ust
keep a steady freque ncy - for example, 50 Hz (cycles per second) in t he UK.
maximum fOl'Ward
current
100
SO
~
E O ~------+-----~r-------------~--~
•a 1 rotation
-SO
-100
1
maxImum reverse
brushe~
I " "" , ~
I III
~------------v
coi l poSItion
~ ,I
... Graph showing the generator's a.c. output
·.. .......................................................................................... MA G N ET S AND C U RR EN TS

... Alternator from a car

.. One of the alternators (a.(,

generators) in a large power station.
It is turned by a turbine, blown round
by the force of high-pressure steam .
It generates an e.m.f. of over 20 000
volts. although consumers get their
suppty at a much lower voltage
than this.

unlike the simple generator on t he opposite page, most a.c. generators have
a fixed set of coils alTanged around a rotating electromagn et. The various
coils are mad e from many hund reds of turns of w ire. To create t he strongest
possible magnetic fi eld . t hey are wound on specially s haped cores conta ining
Moving-coil microphone
Like generators. some
8
iron. Slip rings a nd brushes are still used . but only to carry current to the
microphones use the principle of
spinning electromagnet. As t he other coils are fixed. th e cu rrent delivered by electromagnetic induction .
the generator does not have to fl ow throu gh slid ing contacts. (Slid ing contacts
In a moving-coil microphone,
can overheat if the cun-en t is very high.)
incoming sound wowes strike a
Direct curre nt (d .c.) is 'one-way' cutrent l ike t hat from a battery. D.c. thin metal plate called a
generators a re s im ilar in construction to d.c. motors, w ith a fixed magnet, diaphragm and make it vibrate.
rotating coil. bll.lshes . and a commu tator to reverse the connections to th e The vibrating diaphragm moves a
outs ide circu it every half-turn. Whe n t he coil is rotated, alternating c urrent is tiny coil backwards and forwards
generated. H owever, the action of the co mmutator means that the c urrent in in a magnetic field . As a result. a
the outside circu it always flows the same way - in oth er words, it is d .c. small alternating current is
induced in the coil. When
Cars need d .c. for recharging the battery and running othe r circu its. To amplified (made larger), the
produce c urren t. the engine Turns a generator. However, a n alternator is used . current can be used to drive a
rather than a d .c. generator, because it can deliver more c urrent. A device loudspeaker.
called a Tcctific .- ch anges its a .c. output to d .c.

o t The diagram on the right shows the end view of the coil in a simple generator.
The coil is being rotated. It is connected through brushes and slip rings to an
outside circuit.
a What type of current is generated in the coi l, a.c. or d.c.? Explain why it is
this type of current being generated.
b Give three ways in which the current cou ld be increased.
c The cu rrent varies as the coi l rotates. What is the posit ion of the coil when
the current is a maximum? Why isthe current a maximum in this position?
d What is the position of the coil when the current is zero? Why is the current
zero in this position?
2" Give three differences between the simple a.c. generator on the opposite page
and most practical a.c. generators.

Related t opi cs : e.mJ. 8 .05; mains a.c. 8.12; electromagnets 9-0 4; d.c. motors 9.06; electromagnetic induction 9.07; rectifiers 10.02
 ................................................................................
MAGNETS AND CURREN T S

Coils and transformers (1)

A moving magnet ic field can ind uce a n e.m.f. (voltage) in a cond uctor. as on
the left. A changing magnetic field can have the same effect.

Mutual induction
Electromagnetic
induction electromagnet coi l

iron
COfe \(
v

galvanomet€(

--
0---:\
II ~ { r',
(centre zero)

If a magnet is pushed in or out of

a coil. the coil cuts through
magnetic field lines. so an e.m.f.
(voltage) is induced in it. This is
an example of electromagnetic
induction. It the coil is in a
complete circuit. the induced
voltage makes a current flow.
banery galvanomet er
(cen tre ~ero)
As t he electromagnet above is switched on, an e.m.f. is induced in t he other
co il. but only for a fraCTion of a second. The effect is equivalent to p ushing a
magnet towards the coil very fast. Wi t h a steady current in t he electromagnet,
no e.m.f. is induced because the magnetic fiel d is not c hanging. As t he
electromagnet is switched off. an e.m.f. is ind uced in the opposite direction.
The effect is equivalent to pulling a magnet away from t he coil very fast.
The induced e.m.f. at switch-on or switch-off is increased if:
• the core of t he electromagnet goes right throug h t he second coil
• the number of turns on the second coil is increased.
Whe n coils are magnetically linked . as above, so that a cha nging c u rrent in
one causes a n induced e.m .f. in t he other, this is called mutua1 induction .

... Using mutual induction. 40 000 volts (or more) for spark plugs ... In an induction hob. each 'plate' con tains a coil that gives off a
is produced f rom a 12 volt supply. The high voltage is induced in a st rong. alternating magneti c field. This generates a high current in
coil by switching an electromagnet on and off electronically. the metal base of the saucepan, which heats up as a result.
 MA G N ET S AND C U RR E NTS
.............................................................................................
A simpLe transformer

pnmary (input) secondary (output)

coil: 500 turns COi l: 1000 turns

.. Symbol for a transformer

a.L Input V a.L outpu t

voltage voltage

D.c. and a.c.

core: Iron or Mumetal Direct current (d.c.) flows one
way only.
Alternatin g current (a.c.) flows
A.c. voltages can be increased or d ecreased us ing a transformer. A simple alternately backwards and
transformer is s hown in t he diagram above. It works by mutual induction. forwards.
When alternating CUITent flows in the primary (input) coil. it sets up an

l
alternating magnetic field in t he core and , therefore, in the secondary
(ou tput) coiL This c hanging field ind uces an al te rnatin g voltage in t he output
coil. P rovided all the fiel d lines pass through b oth coils, and the coils waste no
energy because of h eating effects, the following equ at ion applies:
P.d. e.m.f. and voltage
P.d. (potential difference) is the
scientific name for voltage. The
p.d. produced within a battery or
output voltage t urns on output coil
~~~~~~--~~~ other source is called the e.m.f.
input voltage turns o n input coil (electromotive fo rce).
For convenience. engineers often
In symbols: use the word voltage rather than
p.d . or e.m.( especially when
dealing with a.c.
For t he transformer above, H//ll = 1000/500 = 2. The transformer has a ttrrnS
ratio of 2. The same ratio links t he voltages: V/V I = 24112 = 2. Put in words, Voltages in a.c. circuits are
t he output coil has twice the number of turns of t he input co il, so the output commonly ca lled a.c. voltages,
although. stri ctly speaking. an
voltage is twice the input vollage.
'alternating current voltage'
A transformer does not give you something for nothing. If it increases voltage, doesn't make much sense!
it reduces c u rrent. This is explained in the next spread .

o t In the experiment on the right, what happens when

Iron core
a the switch is d osed (turned ON)
b the switch is left in the closed (mol) position
c the switch is then opened (turned OFF)?
2 In the experiment on the right. wha t would be the effect of
a extending the iron core so that it goes through both coils
)
b replacing the battery and switch by an a.c. supply?
3 A transformer has a turns ratio of 114 (quarter) . Its input coil is connected galvanomet er
(cen tre zero)
to a 12 volt a.c. supply. Assuming there are no energy or field line losses:
a What is the output vo ltage?
b What turns ratio would be required for an output voltage of 36 volts?

Relat ed top i cs: p.d. and e.m.f. 8.05; magnetic field lines 9.02; electromagnets 9.04; electromagnetic induction 9.07; d.c. and a.c. 9.09
 ................................................................................
M A G NE T S AND CURREN T S

CoUs and transformers (2)

Step-up and step-down transformers
Depend ing on its turns ratio, a tranSfOiTner can increase or decrease an
a .c. voltage.
Step-up transfonners have more turns on the ou tput coil than on the inp ut
co il. so t heir output voltage is more t han t he input vohage. The transformer
in the d iagram below is a step-up transformel: Large step-up transformers
are used in power stations to increase the voltage to t he levels need ed for
overhead power li nes. Th e next spread explains why.
Slep-down Iransfonners have fewer turns on the output coil tha n on t he
inp u t coil. s o t he output voltage is less t ha n the input voltage. In battery
c hargers, computers, a nd o ther electronic eq uipment , they red uce the voltage
of th e a .c. mains to the m uc h lower levels need ed for other circuits.
Bot h types of transformer work on a .c., but not on d.c. Unless t he re is a
cllm1gillg current in the input coil , no voltage is induced in the ou tput coil.
Connect ing a transfo rmer to a d.c. supply can damage it. A high current flows
in the inp ut coil. whic h can make it overheat.

• A transformer connected to local

power lines
Power through a transformer
If no energy is wasted in a transformer, the power (energy per second)
del ivered by the output coil will be the same as t he power supplied to the
Power essentials 8; input coil. So:
Energy is measured in joules (J). I
Power is measured in watts 0NJ. inpu t voltage X input c urrent = output voltage X outp ut c u rrcnt
An appliance with a power
output of 1000 W delivers In symbols:
energy at the rate of 1000 joules
per second.
As voltage X current is t he same on both sides of a transformer, it foll ows t hat
a transformer whic h increases t he voltage w ill redllce the c urren t in the same
In circuits, power can be
proport ion, and vice versa. The figures in t he d iagram below illustrate t his.
calculated using this equation:
power = voltage x current
(watts) (volts) (amperes)
~ 01) (A)

iI.C. Input a.c. output

voltdge voltdgE

current: 2 A current: 1 A

power inpu t power output

= V, I, core: iron Of Mumet lll = V1 1~
= 12Vx2A =24VX1A
= 24 W =24W
·.. .......................................................................................... MAGNE T S AND CURREN T S

Practical transformers'
The d iagram on the r ight shows two ways of arran ging the coils a nd core in a
practical transformet: Both methods are des igned to trap the magnetic fiel d in
the core so th at all the fi eld lines from one coil pass th ro ugh the other.
All transformers waste some e nergy because of heating effects in the core and
coils. H ere are two of the causes:
• The coils are not perfect electrical conductors and heat up because of t heir
iron or Mumetal
resistance. To keep the resistance low, t hick copper w ire is u sed where
possible.
• The core is itself a conductor, so the cha nging magnetic field induces
currents in it. These circulating cddy currents have a heating effect.
To red uce t hem, t he core is lam inated (layered): it is made from t hin,
insulated s heets of i!"On or Mumetal, rather tha n a solid block.
Large, well-d esigned transformers can h a\'e efficiencies as high as 990,4,. outpu t coil wound
over input (011
I n other words . their useful power output is 99% of th eir power input.
.. Practical transformers

Solving problems
Example Ass uming th at t he trans fOim e r on t he li ght has an effici e ncy of
100%, calculate a the supply voltage b t he current in t he input coil.
V2 112
a This is solved using t he transformer equation:
v, ",
where VI is t he supply voltage to be calculated.

10 V
Substitut ing values: - 7"-'-,----- - -100
s upply voltage 2000
a.e. supp ~ lamp:
p ~'
RearTanged , t his gives: supply voltage = 200 V
40W

b This is solved using the {Xlwer equation:

w here V2 [2 is already known to be 40 W.

Substitut ing values: 200 V X input CUITent = 40 W

Rearranged , t his gives: input current = 0 .2 A

o
~ t How does a step·up transformer differ from a step·down transformer?
Z Explain each of the following:
a a transformer will not work on d.c.
-
230 Va.c. mams
current: 0. 1 A

b' the core of a transformer needs to be laminated

~ if a transformer increases voltage, it reduces current.
3 In the circuit on the right, a transformer connected to the 230 V a.c. mains
is providing power for a low·voltage heater. Using the information in the
- 4600 t urns
200 t urns
~ ~

diagram, and assuming that the efficiency is 100%. calculate

a the voltage across the heater
the power supplied by the mains

U c the power delivered to the heater

d the current in the heater.
heater

Related t opi cs : resistance 8.06; power calculations 8.11; eddy curren t s 9.08; d.c. and a.c. 9.09; power t ransmission 9.12
 ................................................................................
M A G NE T S A ND CURREN T S

Power across the country

400000 V
132000V

power station transformer transformer substation

(step-up) (step-down)
generat ion transmissio n

light
>cneols farms
mdustry

nov 11 000V
132000V
homes

transformer subst:ltlon If ansformer substation transformer substation

(step-down) (step-down ) (step-down)
... A typical mains supply system.
Actual voltages may differ, depending d istributio n
on the country.

Power for t he a.c. mains is generated in power stations. transmitted (sent)

Power essentiaLs through long-d istance cables . a nd th en distribllted to consumers.
An appliance with a power lYPically, a large power station m ight conta in fou r generators, eac h prod ucing
output of 1000 watts 0N) a cu rrent of 20 000 amperes at a vo ltage o f 33 000 volts. The current from
delivers energy at th e rate of
each generator is fed to a huge step-up transforme r w h ic h transfers power
1000 joules per second.
to overhead cables at a greatly increased voltage (275 000 VOl' 400 000 V in
In circuits the UK). The reason for d oing t his is explained on t he next page. The cables
power = voltage
X curr~
", feed power to a natio nwid e s upply network called a grid. Us ing th e grid .
(watts) (volts) (amperes) power stations in areas w here the d ema nd is low can be used to supply areas
0NI 011 (AI w here the demand is high. Also power station s can be sited away from heavily
populated areas.

Transformer essentials
Transformers are used to increase
8 I, Power from the grid is disttibuted by a seties o f s ubsta tion s. These contain
step-down transfo rmers w h ich reduce the voltage in stages to the level needed
by consumers. Depending on the counhy, this might be between 110 V a nd
or decrease a.c. voltages. If a 230 V for home consu mers, although ind ustry normally uses a higher voltage.
transformer is 100% efficient, its
power output and in put are
Transmission issues
equal. So if it increases voltage. it
A.c. or d .c.? Alternating cun-ent (a.c.) is used for t he mains. On a large
reduces current in the same
proportion so thai 'volt age x
scale, i t can be generated more efficiently t han 'one-way' d irect c urrent (d.c.).
current' stays the same. However. t he main adva n tage of a .c. is that voltages can be stepped up o r
down using transformers. Transformers w ill not wo rk w it h d .c.
 MAGNETS AND CURRENTS
.............................................................................................
Calculating power loss
When current flows in a cable,
pQ\Ner inPut cab le reStStalKe
the resistance causes a drop in
= 2oo0W =20
vol tage along the cable and a
loss of power.
current " 10 A (be<aUS€ 2000 W = 200 V x lO A) power loss

poWEr lo~
2 2
"current x reStSl<lnce" 10 x 2 ,,200 W
."",. = voltage drop x current
But voltage drop
= current X resistance
So: power loss
= current x resistance
x current
power Input
\ cab le resiStance
= current 2 x resistance
" 2oo0W ,,2fl

current" 1 A (b ecause 2000 W" 2000 V x 1 A)

<III These calculations show the power losses
poWEr lo~ "curtent 2 x feslSl<lnce" ,2 x 2 ~2w
in a cable when the same amount of power
is sent at two different voltages (for
simplicity. some units have been omitted).

High or Jow vohage? Transm ission cables are good conductors, but they
still have significant res istance - especially whe n t hey are hund reds of
kilometres long. This means t hat e nergy is wasted because of the heating
effect o f the current. The calculations above demonstrate why less p ower is
lost from a cable if power is transm itted t hrough it at high voltage. By using a
transformer to increase the voltage. t he current is redu ced, so t hinner, lighter,
a nd c heaper cables can be used.
Overhead or underground? · There are two ways of running high-voltage
transmission cables across coun try. They can be suspended overhead from tall
towers called pylons , o r they can be put underground.
I n countries where power has to be transmined very long distances , overhead
cables are mo re common because they are c heaper. They are eas ier to insulate
because, over most of t heir length , the air acts as a n in sulatOl: Also, costly
digging o perations are avoided . However, pylons and overhead cables spoil
the e nvironment. They are often not allowed in densely populated areas or in
areas of outstanding natural beauty. So underground cables (called land lines) • Pylons and overhead cables are not
are used instead. usually permitted in areas like this.

o 1 In a mains supply system, how are voltage changes
made?
2 Explain each of the following.
a A.c. rather than d.c. is used for transmitting mains
power.
b The voltage is stepped up before power from a
generator is fed to overhead transmission cables.
~o Give an example of where underground transmission
cables might be used instead of overhead ones, despite
the extra cost .
4 The second paragraph on the opposite page describes
the output of the four generators in a typical, large
power station. Calculate the power station's tota l
power output in MW. (1 MW = 1 000000 W)
5 ° The diagram at the top of this page compares power
losses from a cable at two different voltages. calculate
the power loss if the same power is sent at 20 000 V.
6 ° 4 kW of power is fed to a transmission cable of
resistance 5 n. Calculate the power loss in the cable if
t he power is transmitted at a 200 V b 200000 V.

Related topics: power stations 4.05- 4.06; resistance 8.06-8.01; mains electriCity 8.12-8.13; generators 9.09; transformers 9.1o-g.11
M AGNE T S AND CURREN T S FURTHER QUESTIONS

1 An electromagnet is made by winding w ire around 4 The diagram s hows a long wire placed between the
an iron core. poles of a magne t. Whe n current J flows in the w ire,
a force acts on the wire causing it to move.

w ire coil

currem I

The d iagram shows a n electromagnet connected to

a circuit.
a State two ways of makjng t he strength of the
L electromagnet weaker.
b Explain w hy t he core is made of iron instead
[2]
a Use Flem ing's left-h and rule to find th e d irect ion
of steel. [1 ] of the force on the w ire. Copy the diagram a nd
2 A. B. C a nd D at"e small blocks o f di fferent show t he d irection o f t he force on your copy with
materials. The table below shows what happen s a n arrow labelled F. [1 ]
when two of th e blocks are placed near one a not hel: b State what happens to the force on the wire w he n
the size of the c urrent in the w ire is
A rrangemen t of blocks Effect
increased . [1 ]
0 lID anraction
ii a weaker magnet is used . [1 ]
lID [] attraction ii i the direction of t he current is reversed. [1 ]
0 [] no effect c' Name o ne practical device which uses t his effect. [1 ]
lID @] no effect 5 The di agram below s hows a permanent magnet bei ng
moved towards a coil whose ends are connected to
a magnet a magnetic material a non"magnetic material a sensitive ammeter. As the magnet approaches. the
Use one of t he p h rases in the above boxes to describe ammeter neecUe gives a small deflection to the lef1.
t he magnetic property of each block. E ach p hrase r-----~ A r_----,
may be used once, more th an once or not at all.
a Block A is _ _ _ _ __
b Block B is _ _ _ _ __
c Block C is _ _ _ _ _ __
d Block Dis _ _ _ _ __ [4] COil
3 The figure below shows a Cil"Cu ir, whic h includes a n
a State what you would expect t he ammeter to
electli cal relay. used to switch on a motor M.
show if. in tur n.
spnngy contacts
i the magnet was pulled away from t he coil

TL----4@_ / -<\~~!~P~ i~'

Je 5
loOn iron
Ul W I It-~h''OO
l ii the magnet was reversed so that t he S pole was
moved towards the coil
iii the magnet was now pulled away from t he
co il, a t a much higher speed. [4]
COil S ---1 b' Give the name of the process whic h is illustrated
by t hese experiments. [11
Explain . in detail. how clo sing sw itch S causes the 6 a The c hem ical energy stored in a fossil fuel
motor M to start. [4] prod uces heat energy w he n t he fuel is burned .
Descdbe how t his heat energy is then used to
prod uce electrical e nergy at a power station. [2]
 FURTHER QUESTIONS MAGNETS AND C U RRENTS

b I'ower stations use tran sformers to increase t he How m uc h electrical charge will pass t hrough this
voltage to very high values before transmitting it ammeter in one minute? Lnclude in your answer the
to all parts of the cou ntry. E xplain why electricity equation you are going to use. Show clearly how
[
is transmitted at very hi gh voltages. [ 1] you get to your final answer and give the unit. [3]
c A power station produces electricity at 25 000 V b i Apart from heat, what will be produced by
whic h is increased by a transformer to 400 000 V. the coil of w ire w hen the electd city passes
The transfOlmer has 2000 turns on its pri mary t hrough it? [I ]
coil. Use the formula ii What effect will this have on t he two iron bars?
What causes the effect? DI'aw one or more
voltage aC.-OS$ p,-imary ooil voltage across $eC(lnciary coil
number of turn s on primary coil number of turns on secondary coil diagrams if this will help you to explain. [4]
To answer p(ll1 a, YOll willlleed in{omwtiol'l {rom
to calculate the number of turns on its secondary Chapter 8
coiL [2]
9 a When a coU rotates in a magnetic fi eld . an
7 The d iagram shows a simple transfOlillcr. alternating voltage is produced . Explain how the
voltage is produced. [2 ]

230 V '" output

pnmary COIl (1Cloo turns) secondary COil (50 turns)

@ ® ©
The transformer is a step-down transformer: b The d iagrams A B and C s how t hree posit ions of
a What is a step-down transformer? [ 1] a coil as it rotates clockwise in a magnetic field
b How can yo u tell from the diagram t hat t his is a prod uced by two poles.
step.down transformer? [1 ] The graph below s hows how t he voltage produced
c Calculate the o utput vollage of t his transformet: [3] c ha nges as the coil rotates.
d Explain w hy transformers are used w he n power
needs to be transmitted over long d istances. [3] vojtage
c W hat is the COre of a transformer usually made
of? [2]
8 The d iagram shows the main pailS of one type of
0r-~~--~------~~
ti me
ammetel: There are two ShOll iron bars ins ide a coil
of insulated wire. One bar is fixed and cannot move
a nd t he other is on t he e nd of a p ivoted pointel: The
diagl-am s hows the ammeter in use and measuring a
current of 1.5 amperes (A).
When the coil is in the position shown by diagram
, - @ - -termmal
A. the output voltage is zero and is marked as 1 on
movmg Iron bar the voltage-time graph. State w hich point on t he
fixed iron bar voltage- t ime graph corresponds to the coil position
Plvot - - r
<oil of wi re
SPring
shown by
pOinter i diagram B. [1 ]
ii diagram C. [1 ]
c State one way of increasing the size of the
voltage produced by this coil rotating in a
magnetic field . [1 ]
MAGNE T S AND CURREN T S REVISION SUMMARY

Use the list below when you revise for your IGCSE examination. You can either
photocopy it or print it from the fi le on the CD accompanying th is book.
The spread number, i n brackets. tells you where to find more inf ormation.

Core LeveL Extended LeveL

o The two types of magnetic pole and the attract ions
and repulsio ns between them. (9 .0 l)
o The propel1ies of magnets. (9.0 1)
o Induced magnetism . (9.0l)
o Methods of making a magnet. (9.0 1 a nd 9.03)
o Magnetic a nd non-magnet ic materials. (9 .0 1)
o Hard and soft magnetic materials; the di fferent
magnet ic properties of steel a nd iron . (9.01 )
o Plo tt ing the field arou nd a magnet. (9 .02)
o The fi eld around a bar magnet, and the d irectio n of
t he field lines. (9.02)
o The magnetic fields arou nd a c urrent-carrying
straight w ire a nd a solenoid (long coil). (9.03)
o Electromagnets a nd their uses. (9.04)
As for Core Level . plus the follow ing:
o Demagnetizing a magnet. (9.0 1 a nd 9.0 3)
o The link between magnetic forces and magnetic
fields. (9.02 )
o The variation in magnetic fiel d strength
around a cUITent-carrying straight wire a nd a
solenoid. (9.03)
o How the magnetic field from a stra igh t w ire or
solenoid is affected if the c urrent is increased or its
d irection c ha n ged. (9.03)
o Flem ing's left-hand rule. (9.05)
o How a simple d.c. moto r works. and the action of
the commutator. (9 .06)
o The direction of a n ind uced e.m .£. (9 .08)

o Howa magnetic relay works; how it is used in

o How a s imple a.c. generator works. (9.09)

switching circuits. (9 .04 and 10.01 )
o The force on a current-carrying cond uctor in a
magnet ic fi eld ; t he effects of reversing t he current
and field di rect ions. (9.05)
o How the output voltage of an a.c. generator varies
wit h time. and is related to t he position of the
coil. (9 .09)
o How a transformer works. (9.10)

o The tu rning effect on a c u rrent-canying coil in a o The equation linking a transformer's input a nd
magnet ic fi eld a nd t he facton; affecting it. (9.05) output powers. (9.11)

o E lectromagnetic induction: how an e.m.f. is o Why energy losses in tr ansmiss ion cables are lower
induced in a w ire or coil if it is in a c ha nging when the voltage is higher. (9.12)
magnetic fi eld . (9.07)
o The factot'S affecting t he size of a n induced
e.m.f. (9.07)
o The di fference between a.c. and d.c. (8 .1 2 and 9 .09)
o The construction a transformer. (9.10)
o The eq uation linkin g a transfonner's input a nd
output voltages. (9 .10)
o How transformers are used in the transmission of
ma ins power across count ry. (9 .12)
o Why power is transmitted at high voltage. (9.12)

© oup: thjs may I)e ~produced for ctass use solely for the pu rchaser's lnst lture
 g ra il1 weevil emerging h'om

A a grain of wheat. Thi s picture,

which is 50 times actual size,
was produced by a scanning electron
microscope. The instrument uses a
na r ro w beam o f elec trons, rather
than light, a nd the image is constructed
by a comp u te r. Unlike a li g ht
microscope, an electr on mi c L"Oscope
gives a three-dime ns iona l image .
However, the colo ur s are False, a nd
ad ded b y the co mputer.
 ................................................................................
ELEC T RONS AND ELEC T RON I CS
Essential ideas
Before working through this
section. you need to understand
the basic principles of circuits.
covered in spreads 8.04-8.10.
m icro-
phone
amplifier
power
... Integrated circuit (IC) package with
connecting pins. Components like
this are used in many electronic
circuits.
For more about analogue and
digital signals and their uses.
8 fL' ,_,
see spread 7.12.
Electronic essentials
Circuits with microchips a nd other semiconductor devices are called
electronic circuits.They jnclude the circuits in TV sets. computers. CD
players, and amplifiers. Most handle very low curren ts. although t hey can
control much more powerful circu its.
An electronic system
The sou nd amplificat ion system below is electronic. When you speak into t he
m icrophone. t he sound waves cause tiny changes in the current in it. These
c hanges are called signal s. They are amplified (magnified) by the amplifier
so that the loudspeaker gives out a louder version of t he original sound . rhe
extra power needed comes from t he power supply.
Flow diagram
mput output
--+ sensor ---+ pfOC~50r
f-+ dev.ce +
t
power
The main feat ures of an electronic system like this are shown in the fl ow
djagram above right. An input sensor (the microphone) sen ds sign als to a
processor (the amplifier) which uses t hem to control th e flow of power to
an output device (the loudspeaker). There are some more examples of input
sensors and output devices on the opposite page.
Analogue and digital signals
1n the system above, the cun'ent varies continuously, just like rhe incom ing
sound waves. Cont inuous variat ions like th is are called analogue s ignals. But
many systems use s ignals of a different type. For example, in the clock below,
electronic circuits create the nu mber display by switchi ng strips on or off so
that th ey light up in di fferent combinations. Here. th e s ignals represent only
two states - on and off. They are dib--ital signals.
- 'J.,_, C·· ------
- --
 ELEC T RONS AND ELEC T RON I CS
.............................................................................................
Components
Here are so me of t he components (paI1s) used in electronic circuits:
Resis t ors keep currents and voltages at t he levels needed for ot her
compone nts to work properly.
symbol
Capaci tors* store small amounts of electric c harge. They are used in
smoothing circuits a nd t ime-delay circuits, in t he tuning circuits in radios and ... Light-emitting diode (LED)
TVs, a nd fo r pass ing on s ignals from one circuit to a n other.
Diodes let current flow in one d irection only. Most are made fro m specially
treated CI),StalS of silicon , a semicond uctOl:
Light.e mi tting di od es (LEDs) glow when a small current passes t hrough
them . They are used as ind icator (on/off) lights and in some alphanumeric
(letter and nu mber) d isplays like t hose on digital clock s.
Tra n sis to rs · are used for amplifying s ignals a nd for switching. Most are
made from specially treated crystals of silicon .
In tegrated circuit s (Ies) *, or 'microchips', contain many complete circuits,
w ith resistors, t ransistors, other co mponents, and connections all forme d on a ... Transistors
tiny c hjp of s ilicon only a few m illimetres square.
Rel ays are electromagnetic switches. Wi th a relay, a h igh-power circu it can be
switched on (or off) by a t iny c urrent from a n electronic circu it.

Input sensors e)(amples Output dev ices e)(amples

pressure switch (switch operat ed by pressing it) LED (light·emitting diode) relay

reed switch (switch operated by a magnet) lamp electric heater

variable resistor buzzer electric bell

thermistor (temperature-dependent resistor) loudspeaker electric motor

LDR (Iigh t-dependent resistor)

microphone

These are all transducers - devices that convert electrical signals in to some other form . or vice versa .

o, resistor relay diode transducer [ED ) When a door bell is rung, what is being used as
Which of the above components a the input sensor b the output device?
a uses the small current from one circuit to switch a 4 Electronic systems handle either analogue signals or
more powerful circuit d igit al ones. Which type is used by each of these?
b converts signals into a different form a A simple sound amplification system, where you
lets current pass in one direction on ly speak into a microphone and a louder version of
emits light when a small current f lows in it? your voice comes out of a speaker.
Z Give three examples of transducers. b A system which automatically opens a shop door
when someone approaches.

Rel ated t opi cs : analogue and digital 1.12; resistors 8.06; resistor colour code page 321; diodes 8.01 and 10.02; relay 9.04, 10.02 and 10.03;
tranSistors t o.03
 ................................................................................
EL EC T RONS AND ELEC T RON I CS

More on components

~
DiOdes
Diodes allow c un'cnt to flow in them in one direction only. The circu its below
= =1£0:-== = show what happens when a d iode is connected into a circu it one way round
and t hen the other:
... Diode

forward bias reverse bias

diode
3V + IN400 1 +
lamp
banery
(two R20
(2.5 V
dry cells) 0_2 A)

current (conventional) no current

... When th e diode is forward biased. it has an extremely low ... W hen the diode is reverse biased. it has an extremely high
resistance. so a current flows in it and the lamp lights up. In this resistance and the lamp does not light. In effect, the diode
case. the arrowhead in the symbol points the same way as the blocks the current.
conventional (plus-to-minus) current direction .

Diodes can be used to c ha nge a.c. to d.c. This process is called rectification.
Circuit essentials
Ac. (alternating cu rrent) flows
0 I) The diod es that do it are k nown as rectifiers. A s imple rectifier circuit is
shown below. The d iode lets the forward pans of t he alternating c u rrent
alternately backwards and th rough , but blocks the backward pal1s. So t he current in t he resistor flows
forwards. D.c. (direct curren t)
one way only. It has become a rather jerl-y form of d.c.
floW'; OM way only.
An oscilloscope can be used to show how the circuit changes t he a.c. input.

j
When resistors are in series. each
has the same current in it. The
resistor with the highest
resistance has the greatest p od.
(voltage) across It.
The bottom half of the output waveform is miss ing. The c u rrent is flow ing in
surges, w ith sh0l1 periods of no c urrent between .
Smoothing· The pulsi ng cun'ent from a rectifier can be smoothed by
connecting a capacitor across the output. The capacitor collects c harge during
the surges and releases it w hen the CUtTent fmm t he rectifier faDs. This makes
the output more like the steady d.c. from a battery.

diode
IN4001

r--...l
V I

input output

.I:\:AP. /
conneai 005 to 6 V a,e.
ItO
OUlpill
C&illosco "- input

\'"
(I ,e.
resistor varying doc.
...................................................... . ... . . . . . . .. ..... ...... . " "
ELEC T RONS AND ELEC T RON I CS
" " " " """ "" " "" "

Potential divider
A potential divider is an arrangement that delivers o nly a proportion of t he P.d. and voltage
voltage from a battery (or other source). Circuil A shows the principle: Potential difference (p_d.) is the
scientific name for voltage. II is
measured in volts M. However.
for convenience. engineers
1--1-,, 10 kQ --1-,, 10 kQ
dealing with electronic circuits
tend to use the term voltage
6V ,I 6vI, rather than p.d.
....l-
10 kn ,t ....l- , 0 -1 0 ot v
,-
I I
kg

A In this potential divider. the lower B If one of the resistors is replaced by a

resistor has half the total resistance of the variable resistor, the output voltage can be
two resistors. so its share of the battery's varied. Here, it can range from 0 to 3 If.
voltage is also a half. depending on the selling on the va riable
resistor.

Circu it B could be used as a volume control in a radio.

Some electronic circu its are design ed to switch o n w h en a voltage reaches a
set value. If t he variable resistor in circu it B were replaced by an LOR (light-
depende nt resistor), th e n th e circu it controll ing a lamp could be switched o n
w he n it got d ark. Sim ilarly, a fire alarm could be switched on by a potential
divider containing a thennistor (temperature-depende nt res istor).

Reed switch
A reed switch is operated by a magnetic fiel d . In the example on the right, t he
contacts close if a magnet is brought near. t hen open again if it is m oved away.
Burglar alarm circuits often co ntain reed switches. Th e magnets are attached
to the moving parts of windows a nd doors. ... A reed switch . When the magnet is
With a coil round it, a reed sw itch becomes a reed relay. The cu rrent in o ne moved near. the reeds become
circu it (thro ugh the coil) switches on an oth er c ircu it (through the contacts). magnetized and attract each other.

What does a diode do?

What is the purpose of a rectifier?
Look at circuits X and Y on the right. In which one
a does the lamp light up
b does the diode have a very high resistance?
4 If, in circuit A above, the lower resistor were replaced
with one of 5 kD, how wou ld this affect the output
voltage of the potential divider?
5" How would you close the contacts in a reed switch?

Related topics: curren t direc tion 8.04; reSist anc e 8.06; re lay 9.04 8 nd 10.03; 8.C. and d.c. 9.09; t emperature-sensitive switches 10.04
 ................................................................................
ELECTRONS AND ELEC T RON I CS

Essential ideas
Before reading this spread.
you need to understand how
a potential divider work s
(see 10.02).
ELectronic switching
When you press a light switch . you close two contacts. This completes a circu it
a nd b ring on the lights . The diagrams below show another way of switching
on a small lamp (or an LE D). using a trans istor. Normally. a transistor blocks
c urrent: it is like a n open switch. But if a small voltage is applied across two of
its terminals (B a nd E) as s hown. it cond ucts and the lamp lights up.

I •

C
l ~at'lsistorl
-:
T
.
,' 6V ~
lamp

1, T
' 6V
trarY..lsto~1
B B
--'-- --'--
E - E -
l .5V -: =--

Transistor switched OFF Transistor switched ON

Here are two examples of t his idea in action . Each uses a potent ial divider (see
previous spread) to put a proportion of the battery voltage across term inals B
and E. If t he proportion is large enough . the trans istor will switch on.

Practical switching circuits
contain extra components. and
often use an Ie (integrated
circuit) rat her than a single
transistor.
A light-sensitive switch
The circuit below contains a light-dependent resistor (LDR), a special type
of resistor who se resistan ce falls w hen light shines on it. When the LDR is p ut
in the dark, the lamp ligh ts up . The princip le is used in lamps whic h come on
automatically at n ight:

10 ~Q

T
IkQ ,
' 6V
--'--
E
light
dependent -/ proportion
of batte ry
reSistor voltage

Transistor switched ON
 ELEC T RONS AND EL ECTRON I CS
.............................................................................................
The LOR is part of a potent ial divider. In daylight. t he LOR has a low resistance .
a nd a low share of t he battery voltage - too low to switc h the transistor on. In
darkness . the resistance of the LDR rises considerably, and so does its share of
the battery voltage. Now, the voltage across the LDR is high enough to switch The extra resistOl' next to terminal
t he transistor on. so the lamp lights up. B is to prevent too large a current
flowing in or out of the transistor.

A temperature-sensitive switch The diode protects the transistor

The circuit below contains a thcnnistor. a special type of resistor w hose from currents generated (by
electromagnetic induction) when
resistance falls cons iderably w hen its temperature rises. When the thermistor
the relay coil is S'vVitched on or off.
is heated , t he bell rings . The principle is used in automatic fire alarms .

I
2S rGo)O ~l""Y
thermistor
\ diode

-T
IkQ , C

ansi~to!1
I 6V
I
--'--
E
eleanc
10kn bell

The t hermistor is part o f a potential divider. At room temperature. the

thermistor has a high res istan ce and th e major share of t he batte ry voltage.
As a result. th e voltage across t he lower res istor is not enough to switch t he
transistor on. Whe n the t hermistor is heated . its resistance falls. a nd the lower
resistor gets a much larger share of t he battery voltage. So t he transistor is
sw itched on and the bell starts to ring.
Tn t his circuit. t he trans istor does not switch on t he bell d il-ectly. Instead it
switches on a relay. a nd t hat switches on the bell. As t he current in the bell
circuit does n ot ha ve to flow t hrough t he transistor. a more powerful bell can
be used - or even a mains-operated bell in a co mpletely separate c ircui t. (A
relay co uld also h ave been used in t he light-sens itive switch circuit.) ... Relay

(!)
1 Give one practical use of
a a light-sensitive switch circuit
b a temperature-sensitive switch circuit.
2: Why is a relay often used w ith an electronic switch?
3 In the light-sensitive switch circuit on the opposite
page, what wou ld be the effect of interchanging
the LDR and the 10 kn resistor so that the LDR is
at the bottom?
4 In the temperature·sensit ive switch circuit above:
a What wou ld be the effect of replacing the 10 kn
resistor w ith one of lower value?
b What change(s) wou ld you make to the circuit so
that you (Qu id vary the temperatu re level at which
the bell sounds?

Related topi cs : resistors 8.06; relay 9 .04 and 10.02; electromagnetic induction 9.07; diodes 10.02; potential divider 10.02
 ................................................................................
ELEC T RONS AND E L EC T RON I CS
... You are using logie gates when you
press the buttons on a DVD player.
... A logic Ie package. Twelve of the
'pins' make connections to the gates
on the chip _The other two are for the
power supply.
Digital gates 8 ) ,-
logie gates operate in only two
states. OFF (0) and ON (1). So they
are digital devices (see 10.01).
Logic gates (1)
~
Video recorders. security lamps. alarm systems. and was hing mach ines are
just some of t he things controlled by electronic sw itches called logic gates.
The d iagram below s hows a simple form of gate - although this o ne is not
electronic. It is j ust two ordinal), switches, A a nd B. in a box:
T Truth table
A B Q
inputs output
~
switch switch A B Q
lamp
"" o o o
o o
o o
:II
battery
There has to be a n unbroken circuit for the lamp to ligh t up. So. if A a nd B are
both ON (closed), t he lamp is ON . But if either A or B is OFF (open). t he lamp is
OFF. The truth tab1e gives t he results of all the possible switch settings. It uses
two 10gic numbers: 0 for OFF a nd I for ON.
In pract ice. logic gates work elect ronicaliy, using t iny trans istors as switches.
They are manu factu red as integrated circuits (ICs), w ith each c hip hold ing
several gates. The chip also need s a d .c. power supply. Typically, this is a
5 volt supply, w ith one term inal marked +5 V a nd t he other 0 V.
AND, OR, and NOT gates
There are differe nt types of logic gate. Three of t hem are shown in symbol
form on the opposite page. To help you remember w hich is whic h . t he words
AND, OR, and NOT have been written insid e the symbols. However, these
words are not really part of t he symbols. For s impl icity. the input and output
co nnections are s hown as s ingle wires rather tha n co mplete circui ts . Also ,
connections to t he power supply h ave been o mitted .
• Each input is made either high (for example, +5 V) or low (0 V). As a result.
the output is either hig h or low, depending o n the input state(s).
• In t he truth tables, the output and input states are represented by the logic
nu mbers 1 (h igh) and 0 (low).
Gates can be combined so that the output of o ne becomes t he input of
a not her. The d iagram below s hows one example:
A_
'\ c ~
AN D .)-~ V~ Q
 ELEC T RONS AND EL EC T RON I CS
.............................................................................................
AND gate This has two inputs and one output. inputs output

For the output to be HIGH, A B Q

mp",A j AND }- oo~m
both inputs must be HIGH.
In other words...
0 0 0
0 1 0
Input B
Output Q is HIGH, if inputs A A ND Bare I-fGH. 1 0 0
1 1 1

OR gate This has two inputs and one output. inputs output

) - o",pm For the output to be HGH, A B Q

j
input A at least one of the inputs must be HIGH. 0 0 0
OR Q
In other words...
Input B 0 1 1
Output Q is HIGH if input A OR B (or both) 1 0 1
is HIGH.
1 1 1

NOT gate (also called an inverter)

This has one input and one output.

y
input output
The output is HIGH if Q
A
output the input is low. and vice versa.
input A - 0 0 1
In other words...
1 0
Output Q is HIGH if input A is NOT HIGH.

Using a gate
The d iagram o n th e righ t sh ows o n e use for a logic •
IL
RECORD
gate. T he recorder will only start recordi ng if t he button
'reco rd ' and 'play' buttons are pressed togeth er.
recordln9
For most practical applications, combinations of AN D ) - ClrCUI!!.

gates are need ed (see th e next spread ). Often, each

input sensor forms part of a poten t ial d ivid er, as in a
transistor switch , a nd the small o u tput current switch es
~

PLAY
button
W recorder
on lamps, motors, and other d evices via a relay.

o 1 look at the simple two-switches-in·a-box gate on the

c=Ht~ 1
opposite page. Decide what type of gate it is.
Z The upper diagram on the right shows another two·
switches·in-a·box gate. Write a truth table for this gate Q~
and decide what type of gate it is.
3 The lower diagram shows a combination of gates.

~
a Wri t e a truth table for this combi nation, showing all A ~

the possible states of A, B, C, and Q. OR C 0

b What must the states of inputs A and B be for the B- , /"
output to be high?

Rel ated t opi cs : vo(tage (p.d.) 8.05; lamps and switches 8 .09: relay 9 .04 and 10.02; potential divider 10.02; tranSistor switches 10.03-10.04
 ................................................................................
EL EC T RONS AND ELEC T RON I CS

Logic gates (2)

Using a combination of gates

light A
sensor f--'"'-i NOTX >--,
c u - -,
AND lamp

body heat '-.2'____--'

sensor I

The d iagram above shows how sensors and logic gates can be used to control
a secur ity lamp. The senso rs a nd gates have been connected so that , if it is
dark a nd so meone approaches, the lamp comes on a utomatically. T he last gate
cannot provid e enough power for t he lamp . so it switches on a relay instead.
This switches on a separate circuit w ith t he Jamp in it.
To c heck that the combination behaves as inten ded , you can w l"i te a truth
table for it (see qu estion 1) . In this case , the light sensor's ou tpu t is low (0) in
the dark; the body heat sensor's output is high ( I) if so meo ne approaches; th e
fin al output Q must be high for the lamp to come on.

NAND and NOR gates

Two more gates are shown below. These are especially u seful becau se all
t he ot her gates can be made by connecting or comb ining NAND gates (or
alternatively NO R gates) in d ifferent ways.

logic 0 = l OW (OFF) logic 1 = I-tGH (ON)

NAN D gate This has two inputs and one output.

inputs output
It is equivalent to an AND gate with A B Q

) - O"~"'
mp~A j its output inverted by a NOT gate.
a a 1
NAND In other words ...
a 1 1
input B Ou tput Q is HIGH if inputs A AND B are NOT
1 a 1
both HIGH.
1 1 a

NOR gate

:>-
This has two inputs and one output. inp uts output
It is equivalent to an OR gate with A B Q

"P~A j NOR oo'P~

Q
its output inverted by a NOT gate.
In other words._
a
a
a
1
1
a
input B
Output Q is HIGH if neither input A NOR input 1 a a
B is HIGH.
1 1 a
 ELEC T RONS AND ELEC T RON I CS
.............................................................................................
A NAND

c
NAND o
o
B A

B NAND OR )--0
B
B
Every type of logic gate can be formed by connecting NAND
(or NOR) gates in different combinations (see also question 2).
The combination of three NAND gates above left is equivalent
to an OR gate.

The d iagram above shows how t hee NAND gates can be connected to produce
a n OR gate. I f you want to c heck it for yourself. try following these steps;
1 Copy the unfinished table (above tigh t).
2 Look at th e upper gate in the d iagram . Its two inpu ts are connected . so both
must always have the same value (twin colu mn s A). Use the truth table for
the NAND gate on the oppos ite page to help you co mplete column C.
3 Repeat step 2 above for t he lower gate . and compleTe columns B a nd D.
4 Look a t colum ns C a nd D. Use the trut h table for t he NAN D gate again to
help you complete colu m n Q . Do your completed colu m ns C. D. a nd Q .
match the truth table for a n OR gate (as in spread 1O.0S)?

Gates, more gates, and computers

To process data and images a co mputer must first convert them into b inary
form - long strings of O's a nd 1'soTo hold tlus data , a typical microprocessor
m ight contain more t ha n 100 m illion m icroscopic logjc gates. all formed
w ith other co mponents on a ti ny c hip of s ilicon. The gates are fOlmed from
d iffere nt combinat io ns of NAND or NOR ga tes . And t hose gates are themselves ... A microprocessor like this contains
formed by linki ng microscop ic transistors in different combinations. over 100 million logic gates.

o1 Look at the security lamp system on the opposite page.

a Write a truth t able for the system, showi ng all the
possible states of A, B, C. and Q.
b From your table, work out the state of Q when it is dark
A~Q
A
and someone is approaching the sensors.
2 NAND gates can be used to make other types of gate.
There are t wo examples on the right.
a Write a truth table for each arrangement, showing all A---'- - ' C c
the possible states of A, (B. C). and Q. NAND p:-----f NAND ):>--- 0
b Decide what type of gate each is equivalent to. c
ii

Rel at ed t opi cs : binary numbers 7.12 sensors 10.01; use of relay 9.0 4, 10.0 2, and 10.03
 ................................................................................
ELEC T RONS AND ELEC T RON I CS

ELectron beams
Cive n enough energy, electrons can escape [Tom a conductor and move
Charge and current
essentials
o( through a vacuum (empty space) or t hrough a gas at low pressure.

In a circuIt, the current IS a flow Thermionic emission*

of tiny. charged partides called
electrons, which come from
atoms.
Electrons have a negative (-)
charge. If a material loses
If a tu ngsten ftlament is heated to about 2000 QC. some of t he electrons in the
w hite hot metal gain enough energy to escape from its surface. Th e effect is
called the rmionic e mis sio n and it occurs in other metals and metal oxides as
weU. The d iagram below shows an experiment to demonstrate t he effect.

(+ ) ,h"ge . :J
electrons, it is left with a positive

Like charges repel, unlike charges

attract.
I n dle vacuum t ube below, there are two electrodes, called the anode (+) a nd
the cathode (- ). The caulOde in t his case is a tungsten filament. NOlmally,
electrons ca nnot cross the gap to the a node, so t he me ter reads zero. Ho wever,
w hen t he filament is switch ed on , a cun'ent starts to flow as electrons (-)
escape from t he hot surface a nd are a ttracted across to the anode (+) . (With
air in the tube, rather than a vacuum, the electrons would coll ide wit h gas
molecules. Also, the w hite hot filament would bum up.)

'00",
c athod~1 anode
fi lam~nt

-~'
\ ..- . .- . .- -
K
- i~;~:~;~
~ electron
flow i ........ glass
tube
-~
.- . .- .- .- ..
-
+ L +J :::w.
thermionic
e l~tfons
~ m ission:
escape
from hot COMuct()(
.."
filament vilcuum

The vacuum tube shown on the

L-________ ~,, ;400V O~
. ----------
right is called a thermi o nic diode.
Electrons can pass from the hot
= supply

cathode to the anode, but not t he

other way, so the tube acts as a
'one-way valve' for current.
... Compact fluorescent lamp (CFL)
Low energy lamps*
With these changes, the tube in t he above experiment behaves like a lamp:
• Purri ng a small amount of gas (mercury vapour) in the tube.
• Increasing t he voltage. This makes the electrons move faster. W hen t hey
collide w ith mercury atoms, ultraviolet radia ti on is emitted . (Also, more
electrons are freed , so the filament doesn 't then need to be heated.)
• Coating the ins ide of t he tube with s ui table p hosphors. Although ultraviolet
is invisible, it makes th e phosphors fluo resce (see spread 7.11): they give
off vis ible light - the tube glows w hite.
The features above are used in fl uorescent tubes and in compac t fl uor escent
lamps (CFLs ) - commonly known as low e nergy lamps. A typical CFL is
s how n on t he left . The tube has a spiral s ha pe to keep it compact. In t he
base of the lamp, there are electronic circuits to start and maintain the flow
of electrons , produ ce t he requi red voltage, a nd provide 'ballast' - rather like
resistance - to restrict the c urrent in t he gas .
 ELEC T RONS AND ELECTRON I CS
.............................................................................................
X-ray tube' - d.c. ~upply +
Whe n very fast electrons are suddenly stopped , most of t heir kin etic e nergy 10 kV or more
is c ha nged into thermal e nergy (heat). H owever, X-rays are also prod uced . tu ng~ten

This principl e is used in t he X-ray tu be s hown on t he r igh t , w here X-rays l arget

are emitted from a tu ngste n target w hen electrons strike it. (Tungsten is
used because of its high melting point.) Th e higher t he accelerating voltage
between cath ode a nd anode , the shorter t he wa velength of the X-rays and t he
e ectrons
more penetrat ing t hey are.

Deflection tu be
fi lament

electron gun me tal

X -ra~
,

_.+c,~l"
cathodel anode .. X~ray tube
filament electron
beam

Q-10OO V
d.c. supply

" " " vacuum

fl uorescent
screen

3000 V +
d.c. supp ly

The properties of a beam of electrons can be invest igated us ing t he deflection

tube a bove. The elec tron gun produ ces a fialTO W beam of electrons. The
screen is coated w ith a fluorescent material w hich glo ws w hen electrons
strike it. It s hows t he path of the beam.
Elec tric d e fle ction · Above and below the beam, there are two metal plates.
When a voltage is applied across t hese, the beam is defl ected (bent) towards
t he posit ive ( +) plate.
Magnetic d e fl e ction The beam can also be deflected by a magnetic field ,
produced by pass ing a current in a pair of coils as on t he right. The d irection
current -<:arr"ylng
of 1he force i.s give n by Fleming's left- ha nd rule (remembering that the COI[S

convent ional current direct ion is opposite to t hat of th e electron fl ow). If t he .. MagnetiC defl ection
fi eld d irection is reversed , t he force d irect ion is also reversed.

o
... 1 Look at the experiment wit h the defl ection tube above: vacuum
a Why is. the s.creen coated with a fluorescent material?
b What type of charge do electrons have, - or + ?
c· Why is. the beam of electrons deflected upwards.?
2 The diagram on the right shows a beam of electrons about to pass between
the po les of a magnet.
a What is the conventiona l current direction in th is case?
b Use Fleming's left·hand rule (see spread 9.05) to work out which way the 1electrons
electron beam w ill be deflected .

Related topics: ultraviolet, tluorescence, X-rays 7.11; charge and electrons 8.01; volt age 8.05; magnetic fields and Flemin g's left-hand rule 9 .05
ELECTRONS AND ELECTRONICS FURTHER QUESTIONS

1 A
0
•
0
C
0
0
0
E
0
0 1 1 0 0
thermIstor , 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0
T
HO , I 6V
I
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
-'- 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 I
10 kO
; Use a trut h table to identify the logic gates. [21
ii State a n input. A, Bar D whic h could be
connected to a sensor in o rder to detect a
In the circu it above, the processor (a transistor) is burglar. [ 1]
switched on when the voltage between terminals E and iii Name a suitable device which could be used as
B is more than 0.6 V This means that a cun'ent can an input processO!: [I]
then flow between E and C, so the lamp will light up.
4 A truck is fitted w it h a security device. To start t he
a The circuit includes a thermistor. If there is an truck, two keys are needed. The fi rst key operates a
increase in temperature, what effect does this have 'hidden' switch , the second key operates the ign ition
on the thermistor? [1]
switch .
b The therm istor and the 10 k11 resistor form rf t he 'hidden' switch a nd the ign ition switch are
a potent ial dividet: What is the purpose of a both on, the engine will start. Turning t he igni tion
potential divider? [1 ] switch w ithout operati ng the 'hidden' switch will not
If there is an increase in temperature, how allow the engine to start a nd will activate an alarm .
does t his affect t he voltage between E a nd B,
LOGIC BLOCK
and what happens as a result? [3 ]
INPUTS OU TPUTS
d How could the circuit be improved so that it can
control a more powerful lamp (or buzzer, or bell)?[2J
----./
hidden
switc h
• A al arm
e What practical use could be made of t he
----./ starter
system described above? [ 1] C motor
IgnItion
SWItch
2
therm,~tor AND gil tl? pro'!5SUrl? pad m,crophone relay 5w,tch
loudspeaker "ght-em1u>ng diode light-dependent resistor OR gate A. B and C are the three gates needed for the design
Select (rom the above list: of the logic block.
a an input device which detects c hanges in light [l J a Ide nt ify gate
A [I ]
b an output device w hic h produces a sou nd [l J
a processin g d evice which only gives an output ii B (1 ]
w hen both inputs are high. [1 ] iii C [1]
b Copy the d iagram and show how t he inputs a nd
3 a All electronic systems have input sensors, processors logic gales are connected together: [2J
a nd an output device. Explain the function of c The logic gates used in t he logic block are called
input sensors [1]
digital devices. Explain w hat t his means. (lJ
ii processors . [1 ]
b The block diagram below shows a n electronic 5 The d iagram below s hows part of an electronic
system t hat can be used as a burglar alarm. circui t.
r-----,

~: X h y
, I alarm

input --- 6 V
d.C.
x
~,
VI
A, B a nd D are t h e inputs. The processor contains
logic gates X and Y. The alarm is the output device.
y
l
output
Th e truth table for the circu it is shown at the top of
the next column . 1
 FURTHER QUESTIONS ELEC T RONS ANO ELEC T RONiCS

a What is component Z called? W hat does it do? [2] 9

b Give two ways in w hic h the output of t he
circu it is di ffere n t from th e input. [2]
'"P"" ---jL_~'-------- mpm' ~
c What difference would it make if resistor
~ . J ou tP llt
~
Y were to have a lower value? [ 1] x y

6 The devices below are all used in electronic circuits. Diagrams X and Y above show the symbols for
two logic gates.
a Whic h symbol represents an AND gate? [1 ]
b Wit h an AND gate, if one input is 1 (hig h) and
capaci tor LE D
t he other is 0 (low) , w hat is the output state? [1 ]
c What would be the effect of connecting a NOT
gate to the output of the AND gate? [1 ]
d What type of gate is represented by t he oth er
LOR relay symbol? [1 ]
e With th is gate, if one input is 1 (high) and the
W hich of the above is best described by each of t he other is 0 (low) , w hat is t he output state? [1 ]
follow ing statements?
[ 1] 10
a *Glows when a small cun'ent flows in it.
b Links two circ ui ts so that a small current in one can
switch on or off a larger current in the other. [1 ]
c Has a lowel' resistance w hen it is heated . [ 1]
d Has a lower resistance w hen light shines on it. [ 1]
l! Lets cun'ent pass in one di rection only. [ 1] poles of
elect ro magnet
7 The diagram shows a circuit for a temperature sen sOl: after swit ch on

.-----------_<,5 V
tl;erm l~tor
s
1------~ OUtpul tl? rm mal

R
L ___________ o V
The temperature of t he t hermistor rises.
a What happens to the resistance of the
t herm istor? [ 1]
L!> What happens to the voltage across resistor R? (1)
8 A s imple burglar alarm has two sensors:
• A heat source, w hich gives a hig h output w hen
someone is nearby.
• A li gh t sensor, w hich gives a high output w hen
light shines on it.
A thermistor is u sed in the heat sensor.
a What happens to the thermistor to cause a cha nge
in the sensor Output?
b Suggest a suitable component for the light
sensor.
A deflection tube is placed between the poles of an
electromagnet. A beam of electron s travels through
the t ube in t he direction s hown in the diagram.
a Whic h of the follow ing statements most
accurately describes w hat happens to t he beam
when the electromagnet is switched on? [1 ]
i\ It is deflected (bent) towal·ds one of t he poles .
BI t is de fl ected upwards or downward s.
b The d irection of defl ect ion can be fo und
us ing Fleming's left- ha nd rule. To use it,
you need to know t he convent ional cu rrent
direction. How is that related to t he direction
of electron flow? [I ]
[1] c Use Fleming's left-hand rule to work out the
d irection in which the beam is deflected . [ 1]
[ 1]
ELEC T RONS ANO ELEC T RON I CS REVISION SUMMARY

Use the list below when you revise for you r IGCSE examination. You can e ither
photocopy it or print it from t he file on the CD accompanying t his book.
The spread number, in brackets, tells you where to find more information.

Core LeveL Extended LeveL

o Examples a nd u ses of transd ucers . (1 0.01 )
o The action o f a potent ial divider. (1 0.02)
o The action o f a t herm istOl: (8.06 a nd 10.01)
a The actio n o f a light-dependent resistor (LDR).
(8.06 a nd 10.01 )
o The action o fa relay. (9 .04 a nd 10.0 1)
As for Core Level. plus the follow ing:
o The di ffere nce between a nalogue a nd digital
signals. (7. 12 a nd 10.0 1)
o The action of a diode. (1 0.02)
o Us ing a d iode as a rectifier fo r c hanging a.c. to
d .c. (1 0.02 )
o Us ing circuit d iagrams a nd symbols . including th e
d iode. (1 0.02- 10.03 and page 32 1)
o Us ing a n LOR in a light-sens it ive switch. ( 10.03)
o Us ing a therm isto r in a temperature-sen sit ive
sw itch . (l 0.03)
o Us ing a relay in a n electronic switchin g
c ircu it. (l 0.03)
o Logic gates a nd t he ir symbols. (1 0.04 a nd 10.05)
o AND, OR. a nd NOT gates a nd the ir trut h tables.
(1 0.04)
o NAND and NOR gates a nd t he ir truth tables.
(1 0.05)
o Us ing combinations of logic gates. (1 0.04 a nd
10.05)
o How a beam of electrons is deflected by a magnetic
fiel d. (1 0 .06)

© oup: this may be ~produced for ctass use solely for the purchaser's lnst lture
 he aurora borealis ('northern

T ligh ts') in the nig h t sky over

Alaska, USA. The s him meri ng
curtain of light is produced when atomic
particles streaming fro m the Su n stIike
atoms a nd molecuJes high in the Earth's
a tmosphe re. The Earth's magnetic field
concent rates the i nco mi ng a to mic
particles a bove t he north a nd sou th
pola r regions, so that is where aurorae
are normally seen,
 ................................................................................
AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVI T Y

Inside atoms
Charge essentials
There are two types of electric
charge: positive (+ ) and negative
(- ). Like charges repel; unlike
charges attract.
A simple model of the atom
Everything is made of atoms. Atoms are far 100 small to be seen w it h a ny
ordi nary microscope - th ere are more tha n a billion billion of them on t he
suJface of th is full stop. However, by s hooting t iny atomic panicles t hrough
atoms, scientists have been able to develop mode1s (d escli ptions) of their
structure. in advanced work, scientists use a mat hematical model of the atom .
However, t he simple mod el below is often used to expla in the bas ic ideas.

- - - - -......-, - - - electron

~__--l_-JI______---}''''M
0 pro,on

~ A simple model of the atom. In _ neut ron

reality. the nucleus is far too small
to be shown to its correct scale. If
the at om were the size of a concert
hall. its nucleus would be smaller
than a pill!

An atom is made up of smaller particles:

• There is a central nucleus made up of protons a nd neutrons. Around this,
electrons orbit at high speed. The numbers of particles depends on the
type of atom.
• »rotons have a pos itive ( + ) charge. Electrons have a n equal negative (- )
c harge. Normally, a n atom has the same nu mber of electrons as protons, so
its total c harge is zero.
• Protons and neutrons are called nuclcons. Each is abo ut 1800 t imes more
massive than a n electron , so virtually all of an atom's mass is in its nucleus.
• Electrons are held in orbit by t he force of attraction between opposite
element c:hemical atomic: charges. Protons a nd neutrons are bound tightly together in th e nucleus by
symbol number
a d ifferent kind of force. called the strong nuclear forcc .
(proton
number)
hydrogen H 1 Elements and atomic number
helium He 2 All materials are made fro m about 100 basic substances called cJements. An
lithium U 3 atom is the smallest 'piece' of an element you can have. Each element h as a
beryllium Be 4 di fferent number of pl"Otons in its atoms: it has a different atomic ntunbcr
(sometimes called the proton ntunber). There are some examples on the left.
boron B 5
The atom ic number also tells you the number of electl"Ons in the atom.
carbon C 6
nitrogen N 7
Isotopes and mass number
oxygen 0 8
The aloms of anyone element are not all exactly alike. Some may have more
radiu m R, 88
neutrons t han oth ers. These differe nt versions of the element are called
thorium Th 90
isotopes. They have iden tical c hem ical properties, although t heir atoms have
uraniu m U 92 di fferent masses . Most elements are a m ixture of two or more isoto pes. You
plutonium Pu 94 can see some examples in t he c hart on the opposite page.
·.. .......................................................................................... AT OMS AND RADIOAC T IVITY

T he total nu mber of protons a nd neu tron s in t he nucleus is called t he m ass mass number (nucleon number)

\
numbe r (or nuc1eon number ) . isotopes have the same atomic number but
different mass numbers. For example , t he metal lithium (atom ic number 3) is
a mixture of two isotopes wit h mass n umbers 6 a nd 7. Li thium-7 is t he more
j"' - symbol for element

common: over 93% of lithium atoms are of t his type. On the light, you can atomic number (proton number)
see how to represent an atom oflit hiu m-7 using a symbol a nd numbers. Each
d ifferen t type of atom, lith ium-7 for example, is called a nuclide.

e" electron (-)

element isotopes p" proton (+)
n " neutron

1,
" >99% < 1%

hydrogen

8 ®
hydrogen-,

2,
"
00

<1%
8 i
hydrogen-2

2,
"
10

>99%

helium
2,
20
....._ _/ helium-4

7% 93%
3,

lithium

3,
30
hthlum..g-

Electron shells"
Electrons orbit t he nucleus at certain fixe d levels o nly, called sh ell s. There is a
The periodic table is a chart
of all the elements. Elements in
8:
lim it to how many electrons each sh ell can hold - for example, no more tha n 2
the same group have similar
in the first shell a nd 8 in the second. It is an atom's ou termost electrons wh ic h
electron arrangements and
form the c hemical bonds w it h o ther atoms, so elemen ts w ith s imilar electron similar chemical properties.
arrangemen ts h ave similar chemical properties.

0'For questions 4 and 5, you will need data from the
table of elements on t he opposite page.
1 An atoms contains electrons, protons, and neutrons.
Which of these particles
a are outside t he nucleus b are uncharged
c have a negative charge d are nucleons
e are much lighter than the others?
:z An aluminium atom has an atomic number of 13 and a
mass number of 27. How many
a protons b electrons c neut rons does it have?
3 Chlorine is a mixture of two isotopes, with mass
numbers 35 and 37. Wha t is the difference between t he
two types of atom?
4 In symbol form, nitrogen-14 can be written ';N
How can each of the fo llowing b e wri tten?
a carbon-12 b oxygen-16 c radium-226
5 Atom X has 6 electrons and a mass number of 12.
Atom Y has 6 electrons and a mass number of 14.
Atom Z has 7 neutrons and a mass number of 14.
Identify the elements X, Y, and Z.

Related topi cs : electric charge 8.01- 8.02; experimental evidence f(}r nucleus 1 1.09
 ................................................................................
AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVI T Y
Isotope essentials
Different versions of the same
element are called isotopes. Their
atoms have different numbers of
neutrons in the nucleus_
For example, lithium is a mixture
of two isotopes: lilhi um-6 (with 3
protons and 3 neutrons in th j
nucleus) and lithium-7 (with 3
protons and 4 neutrons).
.-
electron
0 r
0
at om
pos itive
ion
... If an atom loses (or gains) an
electron. it becomes an ion
Discovering radioactivity
Henri Becquerel discovered
radioactivity. by accident. in 1896.
When he lett some uranium salts
next to a wrapped photographk:
plate. he found that the plate had
become 'fogged', and realized
that some invisible. penetrating
radiation must be coming from
the uranium.
Nuclear radiation (1)
Some materials contain atoms wit h unstable nuclei. [n t ime. each unstable
8) nucleus dis integrates (breaks up). As it does so, it shoots out a t iny particle
I and . in some cases. a bu rst of wave energy as welL The particles a nd waves
'radiate' from the nucleus, so th ey are somtimes called nuc1ear radiation.
Materials which em it nuclear radiation are known as radioactive materials .
The dis integratio n of a n ucleus is called radioactive decay.
Some of t he materials in n uclear power stations are highly radioac tive.
But nuclear radia tion comes from natural sources as well. Although it is
convenient to talk about ' radioact ive materials'. it is really pal1-icular isotopes
of an element t hat are rad ioact ive. Here are some examples:
isotopes
stable nuclei unstable nuclei. fou nd in
radioactive
carbon-12 carbon- 14 air. plants. animals
carbon-13
potassium-39 potassium-40 rocks, plants. sea water
uranium-234 rocks
uranium-235
uranium-238
Ionizing radiation
lons are c harged atoms (or groups of atoms). Atoms become ions w hen they
lose (or ga in) electrons. Nuclear radiation can remove electron s from ato ms
in its path. so it has an ionizing effect. Other forms of ion izing rad iation
include ultraviolet and X-rays.
If a gas becomes ionized , it w ill conduct a n electric c un-ent. In living thi ngs .
ionization can damage or d estroy cells (see the next spread ).
Alpha, beta, and gamma radiation
There are three main types of nuclear rad iation: a1pha particles, beta
particles , and gamma rays _Gamma rays are the most penetrat ing and alpha
particles the least . as s hown below :
invisible
8 I) nuclear
radiation
alpha
beta
) paper
 AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVITY
.............................................................................................
type of radiation alpha particles (a) beta particles (13) gamma rays (-y)

_ _ _ __ _ 0 -

each particle is
each particle is an electron
2 proton s + 2 neutrons
(created when the nucleus
(it is identical to a nucleus electromag netic waves
decays)
of helium-4) similar to X-rays
relative charge +2 -, o
compared with
charge on proton
mass high, compared with beta s low
speed up to O. 1 x speed of light up to O.g x speed of light speed of light
ionizing effect st rong weak very weak
penetrating effect not very penetrating: penetrat ing, but stopped by a very penetrating: never
stopped by a thick sheet of few millimetres of aluminium or completely stopped, though
paper. or by skin. or by a other metal lead and thick concrete will
few centimetres of air reduce intensity
deflected by magnetic and deflected by magnetic and not deflected by magnetic
electric fields electric fields or electric fields

Alpha particles are more ion izing t han beta part icles. They have a greater
c harge, so exert more force o n electrons. And they a re slower, so spend
m ore time close to any electrons they pass . Gamma rays are least ioni zing
becau se t hey are u ncharged.
Alpha a nd beta particles an~ d eflected by a magnet ic field (see t he d iagram
on t he right). An alpha beam is a flow of posit ively (+ ) c harged particles,
so it is equ ivalent to a n electric c urre nt. It is de fl ected in a di rection
given by Fleming's left- ha nd rule (see spread 9 .05). Beta particles are
m uc h lighte r and have a negative (-) c harge, so they are defl ected more,
a n d in t he op p os ite d irection. Being unc harged , t he gamma rays are not
defl ected .
Alpha a nd beta particles are also affected by an electric field - in other
• How alpha. beta, and gamma rays
words, there is a force on t hem if they pass between oppositely c harged
are affected by a magnetic field
plates .

0'1 Name a rad ioactive isot ope which occ urs naturally in f can penet rate a t hick sheet of lead
living t hi ngs. g is stopped by sk in or thick paper
2 alpha beta gamma h has the same properties as X-rays
Wh ich of these t hree t ypes of rad iation L.!.
is not deflected by an electric or magnetic f ield?
a is a for m of electromagnetic radiation ] What is the d if f erence between the at o ms of an
b carri es positive charge isotope that is rad ioactive and t he atoms of an isotope
c is mad e up of electrons t hat is not?
d travels at the speed of light 4 How is an ionized material d iffe rent f ro m one that is
e is the most ionizing not ionized?

Related topi cs : electromagnetic waves 7.11- 7.12; X-rays 7.12 and 10.08; Fleming's lefl-hand rule 9.05; isotopes 11.01
 ................................................................................
AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVITY
radon gilS f rom ground
ground and b Uildings
medical (including X-rays)
food and drink
Wsm lC rays from space
nu clear test filiiout
nu clear power stations
nuclear wasl e
0<""
... Where background radiation
comes f rom (average proportions)
... Th is nuclear laboratory worker is
about to use a GM tube and
ratemeter to check for any traces of
radioactive dust on her cloth ing
Nuclear radiation (2)
Radiation dangers
Nuclear radiation can damage or d estroy living cells . a nd stop organs in the
body working properly. It can also upset the c hem ical instructions in cells so
that these grow abnormally a nd cause cancel: The greater t he inten sity of t he
radi ation. a nd t he longer t he e.xposure time. the greater t he risk.
Radioactive gas a nd dust are especially da ngerous because they ca n be taken
into the body with air. food . or drink. Once absorbed. they are di ffic ult to
remove. a nd their radi ation can cause damage in cells deep in the body. Alpha
radi ation is t he most harm fu l because it is t he most highly ionizing.
Nonnally, t here is m uch less risk from rad ioactive sources oUfside t he body.
Sources in n uclear powet' stations a nd laboratories are well shielded , a nd the
intensity of the radiation decreases as you move away from the source. Beta
a nd gamma rays are potentially th e most harmful because t hey can penetrate
to internal organs. Alpha particles are stopped by t he skin.
Background radiation
There is a small amount o( radiation around us all the time because of
radioact ive materials in t he environment. This is called background
radiation. It mainly comes from natural sources s uc h as soil. rocks, air.
building materials, food and dr ink - and even space.
In some areas, over a half of t he background radiation comes from rad ioactive
radon gas (radon-222) see p ing ou t of rocks - especially some types of gran ite.
In high risk areas. houses may need extra underfloo r vent ilation to stop t he
gas collect ing or. ideally, a sealed floor to stop it entering in t he first place .
Geiger-MUller (GM) tube
This can be used to detect alpha . beta , a nd gamma radiation. Its st ruct ure is
s hown below. The 'window' at the end is thin enough for alpha particles to
pass t hrough. If a n alpha pm1kle enters t he tube, it ionizes t he gas inside.
This sets off a high-voltage spark across the gas a nd a pulse of cu rrent in t he
circuit. A beta particle or burst of gamma rad iation has the same effect.
Geiger-Mulier tub e
, A ,
radiation - -
II
r +
r-:.--:
+
-
+
+
-
+
\\ I
1 621 450 v
thm mlCii ratemeter DC
'w indow' m supp
metill centr al 9" scaler
,"be ~" (mai nly
MgonJ
I
·.. .......................................................................................... AT OMS AND RAD IO AC TI V IT Y

The GM tube can be connected to the following:

• A rateme ter This gives a read ing in cou nts per second . Fa]' example, if 50 0: Safety in the Laboratory
Experiments with weak radioactive
alpha particles were detected by t he GM tube every second, the ratemeter
would read 50 cou nts per second . sources are sometimes carr~d out
in school and college laboratories.
• A scaler This counts t he total number of part icles (or bursts of gamma
Such sources are normally sealed
radiation) d etected by t he tube.
so that no radioactive fragments
• An amplifier and loudspeaker The loudspeaker makes a 'click' w he n
or dust can escape. For safety, a
each particle or burst of gamma rad iation is detected.
source should be
When the radiation from a radioactive sou rce is measured, the read ing always • stored in a lead container, in a
includes any background rad iation present. So a n average reading for the locked cabinet
background rad iation alone must also be foun d and su btracted from the total. • picked up w ith tongs. not by
hand
Cloud chamber • kept well away from the
This is useful for studying alpha particles because it makes their tracks visible. body, and not pointed at
other people
The c hambel' has cold alco hol vapour in t he air inside it. The alpha particles
• lett out of its container for as
make t he vapour condense, s o you see a trail of t iny droplets w here each
short a time as possible.
particle passes th rough. At one time, cloud c hambers were w idely used in
nuclear research , but they have s ince been replaced by other devices .

air w ith alcohol

vapou r In it plastic lid

pad soa ked

Inalcohol

~,'
-~=~j9<---+- alpha
source

... Tracks of alpha particles in a cloud chamber. The colours are false
tracks cooling unit and have been added to the picture. The green and yellow lines are
... Cloud chamber the alpha tracks. The red line is the track of a nitrogen nucleus that
has been hit by an alpha particle.

0' , What, on average, is the biggest single source of

radioactive lead GM lube
background radiation? '>Duree block
I
Z Radon gas seeps out of rocks underground. Why is it
important to stop radon collecting in houses?
3 Which is the mo~t dangerous type of radiation
JJ D ralemeter
a from radioactive sources outside the body
b from radioactive materials absorbed by the body?
4 In the experiment on the right: count rate (average).. counts per second
a What is the count rate due to background radiation? .. .with the source in place 28
b What is the count rate due to the source alone? ...with t he source and block in place 18
I
c If the source emits one t ype of radiation only, ...with t he source and block removed 2
L what type is it? Give a reason for your answer.

Related t opi cs : properties of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation 11.02

 ................................................................................
AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVI T Y

Radioactive decay (1)

The symbol
Nucleus example
mass number (nucleon number):
Alpha particle
(helium nucleus)
Beta particle
(eledron)
.-
system total number of nucleons
used for (protons + neutrons) in t he nucleus
mass negligible compared
representing
atoms can
also be
\
~ He - -
chemical symbol
4 nucleons

\
with a proton or a neutron

\
used for ~a 0' ~He
for element - ~~ m- _~e
nuclei and
other
particles
/
atomic number (proton number):
/
relative charge + 2 /
relative charge equal but
opposite to that on a proton
also the relative charge on the nucleus
compa red with +1 for a proton

If an isoto pe is radioactive, it has an unstable arrangement of ne utrons and

protons in its nuclei. The em ission of a n alpha or beta particle makes the
nucleus more stable, but alters the numbers of protons a nd neutrons in it.
So it becomes t he nucleu s of a di fferent element. The odginal nucleus is
called the parent nucleus. The nucleus formed is the daughter nucleus. The
daughter nucleus and any em itted particles are th e decay products.

Nuclear essentiaLs
Atoms of anyone element all
Alpha decay
Radiu m-226 (ato m ic number 88) decays by alpha emission. The loss of t he
alpha particle leaves the nucleu s with 2 protons and 2 neu trons less than
before. So t he mass number drops to 222 and the atom ic number to 86 .
Radon has a n atom ic number of 86 , so radon is the new element formed:

-
have the same number of
protons in their nucleus.
decay )
Elements exist in different
versions, called isotopes. For 2P
example, lithium is a mixture of 2,
two isotopes: lithium-6 (with rad lum-226 nudeus radon-222 nucleus hellum-4 nucleus
3 protons and 3 neu trons in the (paren t nucleus) (dilugh ter nudeus) (alpha particle)
nucleus) and lithium-7 (with
3 protons and 4 neutrons).
p = protOfl ® decay product~

n = neutron .
Anyone particular type of atom,
for example lithium-7, is called a
nuclide. However the word The decay process can be written as a nuclear equation:
'isotope' is commonty used t~~Ra --:; lJiRn + ~a
instead of nuclide.
Dur ing alpha decay:
Radioadive isotopes have
• the to p numbers balan ce on both si des of the equation (226 = 222 + 4), so
unstable nuclei. In time each
the mass number is conselved (unc hanged)
nucleus decays (breaks up) by
emitting an alpha or beta particle • the bottom nu mbers balance on both sides of the equation (88 = 86 + 2),
and. in some cases. a burst of so charge is conserved
gamma radiation as well. • a new element is formed, wit h an atom ic number 2 less t han before. The
) mass number is 4 less t han befOl·e.
·.. .......................................................................................... AT OMS AND RADIOAC T IVITY

Beta decay
lodine-I3I (atomic number 53) decays by beta em ission. When this happens . Alternative names
a neutron ch a nges into a proton. an electron . and a n u nc harged . almost atomic proton
number = number
massless relative of the electron called an antineutrino. The electron and
mass nucleon
a nt ineutri no leave the nucleus at high speed. As a proton has replaced a =
number number
neutron in t he nucleus. th e atomic n umber rises to 54. Th is means t hat a
nucleus of xenon-I3} has been formed:

alltineutrino

dec ay
•

iodine-13 1 Il ucle us
)

xe1lOIl-13 1 Ilucleus
--.. ele<uo ll
-

(bela partICle)

decay products

The decay process can be written as a nuclear equation:

I ~~ I ~ I ~ Xe + .~~ + gv (v = antineutrino) Beta and beta-t
OUI-ing t his ty pe of beta decay: There is a tess common form
of beta decay, in which the
• the to p n u mbers balance o n both s ides o f t he equation (131 131 + 0 + 0).
emined beta particle is a
so the mass number is conserved
positron. Th is is the antiparticle
• t he bottom numbers balance o n both sides of t he e q uation of the electron, with the same
(53 = 54 - J + 0). so c harge is conserved mass, but opposite charge (+ 1).
• a new elem ent is formed , with a n atom ic n umber 1 more t ha n before. The During this type of decay, i:l
mass number is uncha nged. proton changes into a neutron. a
positron. and a neutrino. The
Gamma emission element formed has an atomic
With some isotopes. the emissio n of an alpha or beta particle from a nucleus number one less than be/ore.
leaves t he protons and neutrons in an 'e.'I(cited' arrangement. As t he protons To distinguish the two types of
a nd neutrons rearrange to become more stable. t hey lose energy. This is beta decay, they are sometimes
emitted as a burst of gamma radiation. called beta- decay (electron
emitted) and beta· decay
• Gamma emission by itse lf causes no cha n ge in mass number o r atom ic
(positron emitted).
numbel:

0'
... 1 The fo llow ing equation represents the rad ioactive :z When radioactive sod ium-24 decays. magnesium-24 is
decay of thorium-232. A, Z, and X are un known.
l formed. The fo llowing equation represents the decay
process. but the equation is incomplete:

~~ Na --t ;~ M g + ___
a What type of rad iation is being emitted?
b What .He t he values of A and Z? Assuming that only one charged particle is emitted:
c Use the tab le on page 244 to decide what new a What is the mass number of this particle?
element is for med by the decay process. b What is the relative charge of this particle?
d Rewrite the above equation, replacing A. Z. and X c What type of particle is it?
w ith the numbers and symbols you have found.
e What are t he decay products?

Related t opi cs: nuclei and isotopes 11.01; alpha, beta, and gamma radiation 11.02; more on beta de<:ay 11.10
 ................................................................................
AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVI T Y

Radioactive decay (2)

Radioactive decay happen s spontaneously (all by itself) a nd at random. There
is no way of pred icting w he n a particular nucleus w ill disintegrate, or in
w hich d irection a particle will be emitted . Also , the process is unaffected by
pressure. temperature, or chemical change. However, some types of nucleus
are more unstable t ha n others a nd decay at a faster rate.

Rate of decay and half-life

Iodi ne-131 is a radioactive isotope of iodine. The c han below illustrates the
decay of a sample of iodine-I31. On average, I nucleu s dis integrates every
second for every J 000 000 nuclei present.

• 1 million undeca)ll'd nucl€i: lodin€- 131 o 1 million daughtE'r nuclei:

'---------~,~----------"~----------,~----------"~----------~,----------~,
half-lif€ half-lif€ half-llf€

To begin w ith , there are 40 mill ion u ndecayed nuclei. 8 days latel: half of t hese
have dis integrated. With t he number of undecayed nuclei now halved , the
number of d istintegrations over the next 8 days is also halved. It h alves again
over t he next 8 d ays ... and so on. Iodine-131 has a h alf-m e of 8 days.

radioactiv@ half-lif@ The half-life of a rad ioactive iso tope is the time taken for half the nuclei
isotopE!
present in a ny given sample to decay.
boron-12 0_02 seconds
radon"220 52 seconds The half-lives of some oth er rad ioactive isotopes are given on the l eft. It m ight
iodine-128 2S minutes seem strange that there sh ould be any short-lived isotopes still remaining.
radon-222 3.8 days However, some are rad ioactive da ughters of long-lived parents . w h ile ot hers
strontium-90 28 years are produced art ifi cially in nuclear reactors.
radium-226 1602 years
carbon-1 4 5730 years Activity and half-life
plu tonium-239 24400 years In a rad ioactive sample, t he average number of d isintegrations per second is
uranium-23S 7.1 x 108 years called t he activity. The S] unit of activity is the becquel"el (Bq). An activity of.
uranium-238 4.5 x 109 years say. 100 Bq means that 100 nuclei are disintegrating per second.
The graph at t he top of t he next page s hows how. on average . t he activity of a
sample of iodine-131 varies w ith t ime. As t he activity is always proportional
to th e number of undecayed nuclei, it too ha lves every 8 days. So 'h alf-life' has
a nother meaning as well:

The half-li fe of a rad ioactive isotope is the t ime taken for t he activity of
a ny given sa mple to fall to half its original value.
·.. ..........................................................................................
AT OMS AND RAD IO AC TI VIT Y

<III Radioacti ve decay of iodine-131. lodine-131

has a ha lf- life of 8 days. From any point on the
curve. it always takes 8 (days) along the time axis
for the activity to halve.

,
I
------------r------------
, :
5 ------------t --: --------c- -' -'-'l----____J
o +-------~------_+------~~--~
o 8 16 Z4 time! day~
L - - - ,___--A----y--~~ ti me
half-life half-life half-life
... Radioactive decay is a random process.
So, in practice. the curve is a 'best fit ' of
To obtain a graph like the one above. a GM tube is used to detect the points which vary irregularly like this_
panicles em itted by the sample. The number o f cou nts per second
recorded by t he ratemeter is adjusted to allow for background rad iation
(see page 249). The adjusted figure is prop0J1ional to the activity - t hough
not equal to it, because not all of t he em itted particles are detected.

StabiLity ofthe nucleus'

In a nucleus. some prop0l1ions o f neu trons to protons are mo re stable
12 0 stability line
than others. If t he nu mber of neutrons is planed against t he nu mber of
protons for all the differe nt is otopes of all the elements. t he general fo nn ~ 100
of th e graph is as shown on the right. It has these features: g
•
•
Stable iso topes lie along the stability line.
Isotopes above the stabili ty line have too many n eu trons to be stable.
-]j~
o

They decay by beta- (electron) emissio n because t h is reduces t he §

o
number o f neutrons. Isotopes
• Isotopes below t he stabili ty line have too few neutmns to be s table.
They d ecay by beta+ (pos itron) emission because t hi s increases t he
number of neutrons.
• The heaviest iso topes (proton numbers > 83) decay by alpha
em ission.

0 1
To answer questions 1 and 2, you w ill need information from
the table of half -lives on the opposite page.
1 If samples of strontium-90 and radium -226 both had the
same activity today, which would have the lower activity in
10 years' t ime?
2: If the activity of a sample of iodine-128 is 800 Bq, what
would you expect the activity to be after
a 25 minutes b 50 minutes c 100 minutes?
3 The graph on the right shows how the activity of a small
rad ioactive sample varied with time.
a Why are the points not on a smooth curve?
li mel hours
b Estimat e the half-life of the sample.

Rel at ed t opi cs : nuclei and isot opes 11.01; GM tube 11.03

 ................................................................................
AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVITY

Nuclear essentials
Atoms of anyone element all
have the same number of
protons in the nucleus. If this
number is altered in some way.
an atom of a completely different
element is formed.
Elements exist in different
versions. called isotopes.. with
different numbers of neutrons in
the nucleus. Radioactive isotopes
have unstable nuclei. In time,
these decay (break up) by
emitting one or more particles
and, in some cases, gamma
radiation as well.
-.-J
~ A chain reaction. A neutron causes
a uranium·235 nucleus to split.
p roducing more neutrons. w hich
cause more nuclei to split .. and
so on.
Nuclear energy
When alpha or beta particles are em itted by a rad ioactive isotope, t hey collide
w ith surrounding atoms and make them move faster. In other words, t he
temperature r ises as nuclear e nergy (potential energy stored in the nucleus) is
transformed into thermal energy (h eat).
In radioactive decay, the energy released per atom is around a m ill ion times
greater tha n that from a c hem ical c ha nge s uch as burning. Howevel; the rate
of decay is usually very slow. Muc h fas ter decay can happen if nu clei ar e
made more unstable by bombard in g them with neu trons. Whe never a particle
penetrates a nd c ha nges a nucleus, this is called a nuclear reaction.
. Fission
Natural uraniu m is a dense radioact ive metal consisting mainly of two
isotopes: uranium-23 8 (over 99%) a nd uran ium-235 (less t ha n 1%). The
diagram below s hows w hat can happen if a neutron strikes a nd pene trates
a n ucleus of uranium-235. The nucleus becomes highly u nstable and splits
into two lighter nuclei, s hoot ing out two or three neutrons as it do es so. The
spli tting process is called fIssion , and t he fragme nts are throw n apart as
energy is released. I f t he e m itted neutrons go on to spl it other nuclei ... and so
on, the result is a c hain reaction, a nd a h uge and ra p id release of energy.

r
stray
neutron

Nuclear safety
Nuclear power stations have
safety procedures to

• sh ield people from di rect For a c hain reaction to be mainta ined, the uranium-235 h as to be above a
nuclear radiation celta in critical mass, oth erwise too many neutrons escape. In t he first atomic
• keep people's time of bombs , a n uncontrolled c hain reaction was started by bringing two lumps of
exposure to radi ation as short pure uranium-235 togeth er so t hat t he critical mass was exceeded. In p resent-
as possible
day n uclear weapons, plutonium-239 is used for fiss ion.
• prevent radioactive materials
from getting into the body.
Fission in a nuclear reactor
Concrete. steel. and lead
In a nuclear reac tor in a nuclear power sta t ion, a controlled chain reaction
shielding reduce rad iation, and
takes place a nd t hermal e nergy (heat) is released a t a steady rate. Th e e nergy
radioactive mat erials are kept in
is used to make Sleam fm- the turbines , as in a conventional power stat ion. In
sealed containers to prevent gas,
dust. or liquid escaping.
many reactors , t he nucleal' fuel is uranium dioxide. the natural ura n iu m being
enric hed with extra uranium-23 5. The fuel is in sealed cans (or tubes).
·.. .......................................................................................... AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVITY

Maintaining the reaction* To maintain t he chain reaction in a reactOl; t he

ne utrons have to be slowed down, otherwise many o f them get absorbed by
the uranium-238. To slow t hem, a material called a moderator is needed .
Gra ph ite is u sed in so me reactors , water in ot hers . The rate o f the reaction
is contl"Olled by raising or lowering control rods. These contain boron or
cadmium, materials w hich absorb neutrons.

Nuclear waste·
Afte r a fuel can has been in a reactor for three of fou r years, it must be
removed a nd replaced. The amount of u ranium-235 in it has falle n and the
fiss ion prod ucts are building up. Many of these products are themselves
radioactive. a nd far too da ngerous to be released into t he environment. They
include the following isotopes, none of whic h occur naturally.
• Stront ium-90 and iodine- 131, w hich a re easily absorbed by t he body.
Strontium becomes concentrated in th e bones; iodine in the t hyroid gland .
• Plutonium-239, w hich is produced whe n uranium-2 38 is bombarded by
neutrons. I t is itself a nuclear fuel and is used in nuclear weapons. It is also
highly toxic. Breathed in as dust, the smallest amount can kill.
Spent fuel cans are taken to a reprocessing plant whel·e unused fuel a nd ... A pressurized water reactor (PWR).
plu tonium a re removed . The remaining waste, now a liquid , is sealed off a nd For safety. the reactor is housed inside
stored with t hick s hielding around it. Some of t he isotopes have long a sealed containment bu ilding made
half-lives, so safe storage will be needed for t housands of years. The problem of steel and concrete.
of finding acceptable s ites for long-term storage has still nor been solved .

Energy and mass·

According to Alben Einstein (1905). e nergy itself has mass . I f a n object gain s
e nergy. its mass increases; if it loses ene rgy, its mass decreases. The mass
c hange I1l (kg) is linked to t he energy change E Goules) by this equation:

E = me 2 (where c is the speed o f ligh t, 3 X 10 8 m/s)

The value of c 2 is so high t hat energy gained or lost by everyday objects has
a negligible effect on t heir mass. However. in nuclear reaction s. the e nergy
c ha nges per atom are m uch larger, a nd produce detectable mass c ha nges.
For example, when t he fi ssion prod ucts of uranium-2 35 are slowed down in a
... The steei llasks on this train
nuclear reactor. t heir total mass is fo und to be red uced by about 0 1%. contain waste from a nuclear reador

0' 1 The high temperatures deep underground are caused mass/kg

by the decay of rad ioactive isotopes in the rocks. Why neutron 1.674 x 10- 27
does radioactive decay cause a rise in temperature? uranium·235 nucleus 390.250 X 10- 27
What is meant by a fiss ion b a chain reaction? barium·1 41 nucleus 233.964 X 10- 27
Give one example of krypton·92 nucleus 152.628 X 10- 27
a a controlled chain reaction
[ ' b an uncontrolled chain reaction. The reaction can be represented by this equation:
4 *a Where does plutonium·239 come from?
b Why is plutonium-239 so dangerous?
5 In a typical fission process. uranium·235 absorbs a
neutron, creating a nu cleus which splits to form
[ ~U + ~n ~ 5;Ba + ~r + 3 ~n
Copy the equation, replacing A, B, C. D, and Z with
the correct numbers.
b*From the data in the above table, how could you tell
barium· 141, krypton·92. and three neutrons. that energy is released by the reaction?

Related t opi cs: energy 4.01; power stations 4.05-4.06; radiation dangers 11.02-11.03; radioactive decay 11.04- 11.05; half-life 11.05
 ................................................................................
AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVI T Y
Nuclear essentials
The nucleus of an atom is made
up of protons and (in most cases)
neutrons.
Each element has a different
number of protons in the nucleus
of its atom. The light est element.
hydrogen has just one.
Elements exist in different
versions. called isotopes. These
have different numbers of
neutrons in th e nucleus.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the most plentiful
element in the Universe. The
Sun is 75% hydrogen. There is
also lots of hydrogen on Earth.
though most has combined with
oxygen to form water (HzO).
• This magnetic containment vessel.
called a tokamak, is being used to
investigate fusion
Fusion future
[n the nucleus of an atom , the protons and neutrons are held tightly together
8 ;l by a force called , simply, a strong nudear force . Howevel: in some nuclei. t hey
are more tightly held than in others. To get release energy, t he trick is to make
the protons and neutmos regroup into m ore t ightly held aJTangements t han
before. Protons a nd neutrons in 'm iddleweight' nucle i tend to be the most tightly
held , so splitting very heavy nuclei releases energy: that happens in nuclear
fiss ion. However: energy can also be released by fus ing (joining) vely light nuclei
together to make heavier ones. This is called nuclear fusion . It is the process
that powers the stars. One day, it may drive power stations on Earth .
hydrogen·2 hydfOgen·3
8) fu~on
I
+ energy
nelliron helium-4
~
h e diagram above shows the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei to form helium.
Fusion is difficult to achieve because t he nuclei are charged. and repel each other:
To beatthe repulsion and join up, they m ust travel very fast - which means that
the gas must be m uch hotter than a ny temperatures nOlmally achieved on Eanh.
Building a fusion reactor"
Scient ists and e ngi neers are trying to design fus ion reactors for use as a n e nergy
source on Earth. But t here are huge problems to overcome. Hydrogen must
be heated to at least 40 million degrees Celsius, and kept hor and compressed ,
ot herwise fusion stops. No ordinary container can hold a superhot gas like this,
so scient ists are developin g reactors that trap the nuclei in a magnetic fi eld.
Fus ion reactors will have huge advantages over today's fiss ion reactors.
They will produce more e nergy per kilogram of fuel. Their hyd rogen fuel
can be extracted from sea water. Their main waste pmdu ct. helium, is not
radioact ive. And they have built- in safety: if the system fails , fus ion stops.
Fusion in a star
The Sun is a star. Like most ot her stars, it gets its energy from t he fus ion of
hydrogen into helium. Deep in its core , the heat output a nd huge gravitat ional
pull keep the hydrogen hot and compressed e nough to maintai n fu sion. It has
enough hydrogen left to keep it sh ining for anot her 6 bill ion years.
 AT OMS AND RADIOAC T IVITY
.............................................................................................
Fusion in the Sun's core
Energy is released as hydrogen is converted into helium.

••
hydrogen nuclei
helium nucleus
• Olhe, p.n,dl1o

Four hydrogen nuclei fuse together for each helium nucleus

formed. This is a multi-stage process which also involves the
creation of two neutrons from two protons.

In t he Sun, fus ion happens at 'only' 15 million

degrees Celsius. But the Sun uses differe nt fusion
reactions from t hose bei ng tried on Earth . If t he Sun
were scaled down to the size of a nuclear reactor, its
power outpu t would be too low to be usefuL
Fonnation* Scien tists think that the Sun formed
about 4500 million years ago in a huge cloud of gas
(mainly hydrogen) and d ust called a nebu1a. There,
gravity slowly p ulled t he material into blobs. In t he
centre, one blob grew b igger t han all t he rest. Around
it, smaller blobs would become planets a nd moons .
As more a nd more material was pulled into the
central blob, grav itational potent ial energy was
changed into thermal e nergy, so t he blob became
hotter a nd hortet: Eventually, its core became so hot
a nd compressed that fus ion started a nd it 1it up' to
become a star - t he Sun. Oth er stars formed - and are ... The Great Nebula in the constellation of Orion. Stars form in
being formed - in the same way. huge clouds of gas and dust like this. The gas is mainly hydrogen.

0' Splitting very heavy nuclei to form lighter ones.
Joining vel}' light nuclei to form heavier ones.
a Which of the above statements describes what
[ happens during nuclear fusion?
b What process does the other statement describe?
Z* What advantages w ill power stations with fusion
reactors have over today's nuclear power stations?
3* Why have fusion reactors have been so difficult to
develop?
4 Nuclear react ions are taking place in t he Sun's core.
a*What substance does the Sun use as its nuclear fuel?
!b What is the name of the process that supplies the
L Sun w ith its energy?
c* What substance is made by this process?
5* A nebula is a huge cloud of gas and dust in space.
a Why does material in a nebula collect in blobs?
b Why, if a blob is large enough, will it eventually start
to sh ine as a star?

Retated topics: gravity 2.09; power stations 4.05; energy resources 4.07-4.08; atoms 11.01; nuclear energy 11.06
 ................................................................................
AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVI T Y

Using radioactivity
Rad ioactive isotopes are called ra dioisotope s (or raruonuclides ). Some are
Nuclear essentials produced artificially in a nuclear reactor w he n nucle i absorb neutrons or
Elements exist in different gamma rad iation. For example, all natural cobalt is cobalt-59, w hich is stable.
versions, called isotopes. For If cobalt-59 absorbs a neutron, it becomes cobalt-60 . whic h is rad ioactive.
example. lit hium is a mixture of
H ere are some of t he practical uses of radioisotopes.
two isotopes: lithium-6 (with
3 protons and 3 neu trons in the
Tracers
nucleus of its atoms) and
lithium-? (with 3 protons and
Radioisotopes can be detected in very small (and safe) quantities. so they can
4 neutrons).
be used as tra ce rs - t heir movements can be tracked. Examples include:
• Checking the function of body organs. For example. to c heck thyroid
Radioactive isotopes have
funct ion , a patient drinks a liquid conta ining iodine-123, a gamma emitter.
unstable nuclei. In time each
nucleus decays (breaks up) by
Over th e next 24 hours, a detector measures t he activity of t he tracer to fi nd
emitting an alpha or beta particle out how qui ckly it becomes concen trated in the t hyroid gland .
and, in some gases, a burst of • Tracking a plant's uptake of fertilizer from roots to leaves by add ing a
gamma radiation as well. In a t racer to the soil watel:
radioactive sample. the number • Detecting leaks in underground pipes by adding a tracer to the fluid in the
of nuclei decaying per second is p ipe.
called the activity.
For tests like t hose above, artificial rad ioisotopes wit h short half-lives are used
Gamma rays are very so that t here is no detectable radiation after a few days.
penetrating. beta pa rticles less
so, and alpha particles least of
all. All three types of radiation
damage or destroy living cells if
absorbed .

... A gamma camera in use. The

patient has been inject ed with a
liquid containing weakly radkJactive
technetium. The camera above her
will pick up the gamma rays from the
tracer and form an X-ray-type pictu re
of her kidneys.

In a hospital, a gamma camera like the one in t he photograph above may be

used to detect t he gamma rays com ing from a rad ioactive tracer in a patie nt's
body. The camera forms an image s im ilar that prod uced by X-rays.

Testing for cracks

Gamma rays have the sa me p roperties as shOIi-wavelengt h X-rays . so they can
be used to photograph metals to reveal cracks. A cobalt-60 gamma sou rce is
compact a nd does not need electrical power like an X-ray tube.
·.. .......................................................................................... AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVITY

~
Thickness monitoring
In some product ion processes a st.eady t hickness of material has to be
maintained. The diagram below s hows on e way o f doing this.

rollers

.. The moving band of tyre cord has

a beta source on one side and a
detector on the other. If the cord
from the rollers becomes too thin,
more beta radiation reaches the
detector. This sends signals to the
control unit. which adjusts the gap
between the rollers.

Carbon dating
There is carbon in the atmosphere (in carbon d ioxide) a nd in the bod ies o f
a ni mals and plants. A small proportion is rad ioactive carbon-14 (half-life 5730
years). Although carbon-1 4 decays, t he amount in the atmosphere c ha nges
very little because more is cont inually being formed as nitrogen in t he upper
atmosphere is bombarded by cosmic rad iation from space. While plants a nd
a nimals are living, fee ding, and breat hing, they absorb and give out carbon ,
so the proportion of carbon-14 in their bodies stays co nstant. But when they
d ie. no more carbon is taken in a nd t he proportion of carbon-1 4 is gradually
reduced by rad ioactive d ecay. By measuring t he activity of a sample, the
age of the remains can be estimated. This is called carbon dating. It can be
used to fin d the age of organic materials suc h as wood a nd cloth. H owever,
it assu mes t hat the prop0l1ion of carbon- 14 in the atmosphere was t he same
hundreds or t housands of years ago as it is today.
.. Using carbon dating, scientists
Dating rocks have discovered that these remains of
When rocks are formed , some radioisotopes become t rapped in them. For a mammoth are 15 000 years old.
example, potass ium-40 is trapped when mol ten material cools to form igneous
rock. As the potassium-40 decays, more a nd more of its stable decay prod uct,
argon-40, is created. Provided none of t his argon gas h as escaped , the age of
the rock (whi ch may be hu nd reds of millions of years) can be est imated from
t he proport io ns of potassium-40 to argon-40. Igneous rock can also be dated
by t he proport ion of uranium to lead isotopes -lead being the final, stable
product of a series of d ecays that starts w it h Uraniu m.

0' 1 a What are radioisotopes? 4 a Give two uses of radioactive tracers.

b How are arti ficial radioisotopes produced?
c Give two medical uses of radioisotopes.
Z Give two uses of gamma radiation.
3 In the thickness monitoring system shown above:
a Why is a beta source used, rather than an alpha or
gamma source?
b What is t he effect on the detector if the thickness of
the tyre cord increases?
b Why is it important to use radioactive tracers with
short half-lives?
5 Carbon·14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon.
a What happens to the proportion of carbon-14 in the
body of a plant or animal while it is alive?
b Why does the proportion of carbon· 14 in the
remains of dead plants and animals give clues about
their age?

Rel ated t opi cs : alpha, beta, and gamma radiation 11.02-11.03; radioactive decay 11.0 4- 11.05; half-life 11.05
 ................................................................................
AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVITY

Atoms and particles (1)

_ ~,' ~ '""
Atoms are made up of even smaller particles. From experimental evide nce
collected over t he past hundred years, scientists have been able to develop and
+
improve their models (descriptions) of atoms a nd th e pa11icles in t hem.

+
Thomson's 'plum pudding' model
+ The electron was the first atomic pm1icle to be di scovered. It was iden tified
by J. J. Thomson in 1897. The electron has a negat ive (-) electti c c harge, so
+ an atom with electrons in it must also conta in positive (+ ) c harge to make
it electrically neutraL Thomson suggested t hat a n ato m might be a sphere of
.4 Th omson's 'plum pudding' model posit ive c harge with electrons dotted about inside it rather like raisins in a
of the atom pudding. This became knows as t he 'plu m pudding' model.

Rutherford 's nuclear model

beam of movable Rutherford 's explanation

alpha part id es detector

Most alpha
partIC les are
und eflected
atom

~
A few alpha
vacuum particles are
deflected
slightly

/ ' urldellected A lew alpha

la~
partICles
slight bounce
defleclloo de flection off nucleu~

The above experiment was calTied out in 1911 by Geiger and Marsden under
the supervision of Ernest Rutherford. It produced results w hic h could not be
nucleus explained by the plum p udding model. Thi n gold foil was bombarded with

/,
alpha particles, whic h are positively c harged . Most passed straight t hrough
t he gold atoms, but a few were repelled so stron gly that t hey bounced back
or were deflected t hrough large a ngles. Rutherford concluded that t he atom
++ must be largely empty space, w ith its positive charge and most of i ts mass
+ ++
+ concentrated in a tiny nudeus at the centre. In his mod el, the m uc h lighter
electrons orbited the nucleus rather like the planets around the Sun.

Discovering particles in the nucleus'

electro ns
.4 Rutherford's model of the atom:
electrons orbit a central nucleus. (If
the nucleus were correctly drawn to
scale, it would be too small to see.)
Rutherford's model sa id noth ing about w hat was ins ide t he nucleus. However,
in 1919, Rut herford bombarded n itl"Ogen gas w ith fast alpha particles a nd
fou nd t hat posit ively c ha rged particles were being knocked out. Th ese wen!
protons. In 1932, James Chadwick discovered timt the nucleus also contained
uncharged panicles with a s im ilar mass to protons. He called these neutrons.
 ............................................................................................. AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVITY

The problem of spectral lines'

Light comes from atoms. Th e spectrum of w hite light is a continuous range of Light essentials
colour from red (the longest wavelen gth) to violet (t he shortest). However, not light is one type of
all spectra are like this. For example, if there is a n electric discharge through electromagnetic radiation
hyd rogen . t he glowing gas emits part ic ular wavelength s oniy, so the spectrum (electromagnetic waves). The
is made up of lines , as shown below. As it stood, Rutherford 's model could not colour seen depends on the
wavelength of the light.
explain why spectra like this occun·ed . To solve this problem, the model had to
be modifi ed .
.... Part 01 the line spectrum 01
hydrogen. Each line represents light
of a particular wavelength .

shorter... .. ........... wavelength ........................ . ......... Ionger

The Rutherford-Bohr model'

In 1913, Neils Bohr modified Rut herford 's model by applying t he quantum
theory devis ed by Max Pla nck in 1900. According to t his t heory, energy
cannot be divided into ever smaller amounts. It is only em itted (or absorbed)
in t iny 'packets', each called a quantum . Bohr reasoned t hat electrons in
higher orbits have more e nergy t ha n t hose in lower ones. So, if only qua ntum
e nergy c ha nges are possible, only certain electron orbits a re allowed. This
mod ified model is known as t he Ruthe rford-Bohr model
Us ing the model. Boh r was able to expla.in why atoms em it ligh t of particular
wavelengths only (see the next spread). He even predi cted the positions of
the lines in th e spectrum of hyd rogen. However. his calculat ions d id n ot work
for substances w ith a more complicated elect ron structure. To deal w ith
this problem, scie ntists have developed a wave mechani cs model in w hich • The Rutherford-Bohr model
allowed orbits are replaced by allowed e nergy levels . H owever. this is an of the atom (with nuclear particles
included). In this model, only certain
e nt irely math ematical approach. and t he Rut herford-Bohr mod el is still used
electron orbits are allowed.
as a way of representing atoms in pictures.

011' What is the d ifference between Rutherford's model of the atom and Thomson's
L 'plum pudding' model? gold fOil
2- What is the d ifference between the Rutherford -Bohr model of the atom and
Rutherford's model?
3 On the right, a beam of alpha particles is being directed at a thin piece of gold alpha
foi l. How does the Rutherford model of the atom explain why particles
a most of the alpha particles go straight through the foil
b some alpha particles are deflected at large angles?
4 Why do the results of the experiment on the right suggest that the nucleus has a
positive charge?

Related t opi cs : light waves 7.01 and 7.10; spectrum 7.04; electric charge 8.01-8.02; particles in the atom 11.01
 ................................................................................
AT OMS AND RADIOACTIVI T Y

Atoms and particles (2)*

If (In ele<tron g,IInS energy ___
How an atom gives off light
Bohr's explanation of how a n a tom gives off light was like t his.
If an electron gains energy in so me way - [or example , because its a tom
collides w ith a no ther one - it may jump to a higher e nergy level. B ut th e atom
does not stay in t his excited siale for long. Soon, the electron loses energy by
dropping back to a lower level. According to t he quantum t heory, t he e nergy
is rad iated as a p ulse of light called a photon. The greater the energy cha nge,
the shorter the wavele ngth of the light.
As a li ne spectiUffi contai ns particu lar wavelen gth s only, it provides evid ence
that only certain e nergy c ha nges are occu rring w ithi n t he atom - a nd
therefore th at only certain energy levels are allowed .
When the electro n drops
back to a lower leveL
_
.. . (I photon
is e mitted
Fundamental particles
f\NVWVIMJI,. A rundamenta1 partic1e is one w hich is l1 0t made up of ot her particles.
An atom is not fundamen tal because it is made up of electrons , protons ,
a nd neut rons. But are t hese fundamental? 10 answer t hi s a nd ot he r questions,
scientists carry out e.xperiments with particle acce1eratoN;. They s hoot
beams of high-e nergy particles (suc h as p rotons) at nuclei, or at ot her beams ,
a nd detect the particles emerging from t he collis ions. In coll ider experiments,
new particles are crea ted as e nergy is converted into mass. However, most of
these particles do not exist in the atoms of ordinary matter.
.... How an atom gives off light

... One of the giant detectors

surrounding part of the large Hadron
Collider at CERN near Geneva.
Hadrons are a fa mily of part icles
which includes protons and neutrons _
In the collidec beams of protons are
accelerated by eledromagnets round
a circular path 27 km long . then
made to collide head~ on .

The Higgs particle o~

A major success at C ERN, in
2012. was lhe discovery of lhe
Higgs particle. Long predicted
by the standard model. this
fundamental particle is required
to explain why most particles
have mass _
The present theory of particles is called the s ta ndard m odel. Accord ing
to this model. electrons are fundamental panicles. H owever, neutrons a nd
protons are made up of other particles called quarks , as shown in the c hart
on the next page. In ord inary matter, there are two types of quark, called the
up quark and the d own quark for convenience. Each proton or neutt'on is
made up of th ree quarks. The quarks have fractional c harges compared w ith
the c harge on a n electro n.
 AT OMS AND RADIOAC T IVITY
.............................................................................................
fundamental particles proton neutron
of ordinary matter
Thl~ I~made up of Th l~ j~
made up of
electron • -1 2 up quarks. and 1 down quark 2 down quarks and 1 up quark
I
relative
charge

" .1 "
up quark (u) 3

down quark (d)

IOtal relallv~ charge: + 1 total relative charge: 0

Individual quarks have never been detected. The ex istence of quarks has only
been deduced from the patterns seen in the properties of ot her particles - for
example, how high-energy particles are scattered.

Quark changes in beta decay Decay essentials

In the most common form of beta decay, a ne utron decays to form a proton, The break-up of an unstable
a n electron (the beta particle), and an a nt ineutrino: nucleus is called radioactive
ne utron proton + electron + a nt ineutri no decay. During beta decay, a beta
particle is shot out. In most
If this is rewritten to show t he quarks:
cases. this particle is an eledron
up quark up quark (-). However. more rarely. it a
down quark ~ up quark + electron + a nt ineutrino positron (+). an antiparticle with
the same mass as an electron,
down quark dow n quark
but opposite charge.
Fro m th e abo ve, you can see t hat this type o f beta decay occun; w hen a down
quark c ha nges into an up quark, as follows:
down quark ~ up quark + electron + anti neut rino
(-"3) (- 1) (0)
The relative c harges underneat h t he equ ation s how t hat there is no c ha nge in
total c harge. In other words, c harge is conselved.
In t he less common form of beta decay, a proton decays to form a neutron , a
positron (the beta particle), and a neutrino. Tllis happen s when an up quark in
t he proton c h anges into a down quark.

1 When an electron drops back to a lower energy in an
atom, it loses energy.
a What happens to this energy?
b If the difference between the two energy levels was
greater, how would this affect the wavelength of
the light emitted?
c Why do atoms emit certain wavelengths only?
2 What is meant by a fundamental particle?
1 Which of the following are thought to be fundamental
particles?
electrons protons neutrons quarks
4 Quarks have a fractional charge. Explain why, if a
neutron is made up of three quarks, it is uncharged.
5 In one form of beta decay, an up quark changes into a
down quark. Explain why, in th is case, the beta particle
emitted must be a positron and not an electron.

Related topics: light waves 7.01 and 7.10; charge on electron 10.07; particles in the atom 11.01; beta decay lU)4- 11.0S
AT O M S AND RAD I OAC TI V IT Y FURTHER QUESTIONS

1 Ielectrons Inudei Iprotons Iwaves c A solut ion of t he isotope is

watered o nto the soil around
a Copy and complete the foll owing sentences the pla nt. Each day for the next
using words from the above list. Each word may week. a leaf is removed from the
be used o nce. more tha n once or not at all. plan a nd tested for radioact ivity.
i Radioact ive substances have atoms with i State three safety
uns table [1] precaut ions w hich s hould be adopted when
;; Beta particles are [1] doing experi ments with phospho rus-32. [3]
"' Gamma rays are [1 ] ;; Describe Iwo meth ods which could be used to
b Name another type of radioactive pan icle not measure the activity of a leaf. [2]
mentioned in part a . [1 ]
5 Phyl is in hospital . She is injected wit h t he
2 The symbol ~~ CI represents one atom of chlorine. l'adio isotope \echnet ium-99m.
a State the names a nd nu mbers o f t he diffe rent Thi s isotope is absorbed by the thyro id gland in her
types of parti cle found in one of th ese chlorine th roat. A rad iation detect or placed ou tside hel' body
ato ms. [3] and above her t hroat detects the rad iation.
b State where t hese pat1 icles are to be found in Tech net iu m-99m has a half- li fe o f 6 hours. It em its
the atom. [2]
gamma radia ti on.
3 proton number 26 Ii! Why is an em itter of alpha radiation unsuitable? [1]
mass number 59 b; How long will it take for the act ivity o f the
radiation emitted be ta and gamma
technet ium-99m to fall to a quaner of its Oiiginal
value? [2]
The table above s hows informat ion about a ii After 24 hours. how will the activity o f the
radio isotope of iron called iron-59. technetium-99m compare wit h its origin al
a Calculate: value? [2]
i the number of neutrons in the nucleus; [ I] c Even tually th e level o f radiat ion fro m t he
;; the total number of charged particles in a technet ium-99m will fall to less than the level of
s ingle alOm of iron-59. [ 1] the background radi ation. State two naturally
b Iron-59 and iro n-56 are both isotopes of iron. OCCUlTing sources of background radi ation. (21
What are iso topes? [1]
6 This quest ion is about an accident at t h e Chemobyl
c hu n-59 em its two types of rad iation. Briefly
nuclear power stat ion in which rad ioactive gas and
expla in how the gamma radiation could be
dust wen! released into the a tmosphere.
separated from the beta radiation emitted. [1]
The radioactive isotopes in the Chernobyl fallou t
4 Phosphorus-32 is a rad ioactive iso tope. It ca n be which caused most concern were iodine-I31 a nd
used to prove that p la nt s absorb phosphOlus from caesium-i37. Both are bera and gamma em itters .
the soil around t hem. lodi ne-13 ! , in ra infall . found its way into m ilk but
a, The s table iSOTOpe of phosphorus has a mass caesium-I 37 . with a half-life of 30 years . may cause
number of 31. State the structu ral di fference more long term problems.
between atoms ofphosphorus-3 1 and a From which part of the atom do t he beta a nd
phosphOlu s-32. [2] gamma rays co me? [i ]
Ii· Expla in w hy bot h isotopes o f phosphorus b E," pla in what the number 131 tells you about the
have identical chem ical propet"ties. [1] iod ine alOm. [2]
b l>hosphol1..ls-32 is a beta-emitter with a ha1f-lire c Afte r the Chel'11obyl accident , a m ilk sample
of 14 days. conta ining iooine-13! was fou nd to have an
i What is a beta pa t1 icle? [ 1] acti vity of 1600 units per litre. The activity of t he
The proton number of phosphorus-32 atom

[
sample was measu red every 7 days a nd t he results
is 15. State the new values of the p roton are shown in the table below
number a nd mass nu mber o f t he atom just
l ime/days 0 7 14 21 28 35
after it has em itted a beta pal1 icle. [2]
activity/units 1600 875 470 260 140 77
iii Expla in wha t is mea nt by t he telm per litre
half-life. [1]
Draw a gl'aph of activity against t ime . u sing
the grid on the next page as a gu ide. [2]
 FURTHER QUESTIONS AT O MS AND RA D IOA CTI VITY

ii Estimate the half-life of iod ine-13J a nd i i Explain the da nger of breathing radon gas
s how on the graph how you an"ived at yo ur into the lungs. [4J
a n swer: [2] Extract 2 is a diagram s howing how radon decays

''''
''''
"00
."

'00
'00

'"tlmel days
d Give a reason w hy caesium-137 could cau se
!ongel'-term problems t ha n iodine-13!. [2]
7 a i Explain why some substances are rad ioactive
a nd some are not. [2]
ii State the cause of background radiation. [ ll
iii Expla in what you understand by the mean ing
1\vo of th e nuclei s how n in the d iagram are
of the half-life of a radioactive element. [2]
isotopes of polonium.
b Technetium-99m is a rad ioactive material w it h a
b Explain t he meaning of t he word i sot o p e. [1 ]
half-life of 6 hours. It is used to study blood flow
c In the diagram, radon is shown as l~ Rn. In a
around the body. A sample of technetium-99m
neutral rado n atom, what is th e number of
has an activity o f 96 counts per minute whe n
protons ii electrons III neutrons? [3 ]
injected into a pat ient's blood stream. Estimate
9 A rad ioactive isotope of gold has the symbol' ~A u .
its act ivity after 12 hours [ 1]
If this isotope is injected into the bloodstream of
ii how long it will take for the radioactivity from
a patient, it can be used by doctors as a tracer to
the injection to become undetectable. [1]
monitor t he way the patient's heart works . The
c Technetium-99m is a gamma (y) em itter
isotope em its gamma radiat ion th at is detected
and does not produce alpha (a) or beta (13)
outside t he patient's body.
rad iat ions. Explain why it is safe to inject
a Why would a n isotope t hat emits alpha
technetiu m-99m into the body. [2]
radiation be u nsuitable as a tracer to mon itor
d Rad ioactive salt (sod ium chloride) is also used
the working of the heart? [1 J
in med icine. The radioactive sod iu m (Na) in the
b Give one non-med ical use fOl' a rad ioactive
salt decays, accord ing to t he equation s hown
trace): [I J
below, to form magnesiu m (Mg).
10 Isotopes of the radioactive element uranium occur
;~ Na • ~1 Mg + X + "'I radiation
naturally in small proportions in some rocks. The
j Name t he pal1icle X. [ 1]
table gives informatio n about on e uranium isotope.
ii Use t he information given in t he equation
above to fmd t he nucleon (mass) number 238
I total number of ch arged pan icles in each proton (atomic) number 92
sodiu m atom [ 1] radiation emitted alpha particle
II number of ne utro ns in the nucleus of a
sodium 24 atom. [ 1] a How many neutrons are t here in an atom of this
uraniu m isotope? [1 ]
8 This question is about information in a leaflet.
b From w hich part of the uranium atom does t he
a Extract I ' Radon is a naturally occurring
alpha particle come? [1 ]
rad ioactive gas. It comes from uran ium w hic h
occurs in rocks and soils.'
Expla in t he meani ng of the word mdioactivc.
ATO MS AND RADIOAC TI VITY REVISION SUMMARY

Use the list below when you revise for your IGCS E examination. You can either
photocopy it or print it from the f ile on the CD accompanying th is book.
The spread number, i n brackets, tells you w here to find more inform ation.

Core Level Extended Level

o The particles in an atom a nd the charges on
t hem. (l1.0 1)
o The meanings o f ato m ic number (proton n umber)
and mass number (nucleon number). (J 1.0 1)
o W hat isotopes are. (11.0 1)
o What a nuclide is. (I1.01)
o Representing n u clides in symbol form .
As for Core Level. plus t he follow ing;
o How alpha and beta particles are deflected by
electric a nd magnetic fields. (11.02)
o Ident ifying w hich types of radiation are coming
from a source. (J 1.02 a nd 11.03)
o Wr it ing symbol eq uations to represent t he changes
that happen during radioactive decay. (11.04)

o For example: ~ Li (I 1.0 1) o Allowi ng for background radiat ion when dealing
with data about radioactive decay. (11.03 and
o W hat rad ioactive matedals are. (11.0 2)
11.05)
o What rad ioact ive decay means. (I 1.02)
o The meanings of nuclear fiss ion and nuclear
o Alpha and beta particles, the ir properties a nd fusion. (11.06 a nd 11.07)
detection. (11.0 2)
o Practical applicatio n of alpha. beta, and gamma
o Gamma rays, th e ir properties and detection. emissions. (11.08)
( 11.02)
o How the scattering of alpha particles by metal fo il
o The ionizing a nd pe netrating effects of alpha , beta, provides evidence for a nucleus in an atom . (11.09)
and gamma radiation. (I 1.02)
o The dangers of n uclear radiation. ( 11.03)
o What background radi ation is. (J 1.03)
o Detect ing radiat io n using, for example
- a Ge iger-M uller tu be.
- a clo ud chamber (for alpha padicles). (11 .03)
o Ha ndli ng and stori ng radioactive materials
safely. (11 .03 and 11,06)
o How the emiss ion of a n alpha or beta particle
ch anges an atom into one of a d ifferent element.
(11.04)
o The random nature of rad ioactive decay. (11.05)
o How t he rate of radioact ive decay c hanges w ith
ti me. (11.05)
o The meani ng of half-life. (11.05)
o Working out a h alf-life from a radioactive decay
curve o r other d ata . (11 .05)

© OUP: this may be ~produced for ctass use solely for the purchaser's lnstlture
 hiS a ncient stone ci rcle a t

T Stonehenge in Wiltshire,
England. was built b efo re
1500 BCE. Its builders left no written
records to explain hs purpose. It may
have been a centre for ce remon ies
associated with death or healing, but
the a li gn men ts of the stones a lso
suggest that it cou ld have been lIsed
to observe the movements of the Sun
and the Moon a nd [or identifying
the seasons.
 ................................................................................
HI S T ORY OF KEY IDEAS
• It is sa id that Galileo investigated
the lavvs of motion by dropping
cannon balls from the top o f Pisa's
famous tower. There is no evidence to
support this story. However, Galileo
was born in Pisa. Italy (in 1564). and
studied and lectured there.
~ A modern replica of Stephenson's
Locomotion. The original. built in
1825. was used on the world's first
public steam railway. The
development of steam engines li ke
this led to advances in scientists'
understanding of the relationship
between work, energy, and heat.
Force, motion, and energy*
Forces and motion
On Earth , unless there is a force to overcome friction, moving thi ngs
eventually come to rest. Over 2300 years ago. this led Aristotle and o ther Greek
ph ilosop hers to believe th at a force was always needed for motiolL T he more
speed somet hing ha d , t he more force it needed. But in the heavens, the Sun,
Moon , and stars obeyed d ifferent rules . They moved in circles for ever a nd ever.
These ideas were generally accepted until t he early 1600s, when Galileo Galilei
started to come up w ith new ideas about motion. From his observations, Galileo
deduced that, without friction. slid ing objects would keep their speed. Also . all
fall ing objects, light or hea vy, would gain speed at t he same steady rate.
Our present-day ideas about forces a nd motion mainly come from Isaac Newton,
w ho put forward his t hree laws of m otion in 1687. Our definition of force is
based on his second law: force = mass x acceleration. Newton also realized that
'heavenly bodies' did not obey d ifferent rules from evetything else. The motion
of the Moon around the Earth was controlled by the same force - gravity - that
made objects fall downwards on Eruth. Newton is supposed to have had this idea
while watching a n apple fall from a tree. although his mathematical treatment of
gravity was much more co mplicated than this s imple experience suggests.
1n 1905, Albert Einstein put forward his sp ecial theory of r ela ti vity. From
t his, we now know t hat, near the speed of light, Ne\vton's second law is no
longe r valid. Howevel: a t t he speeds we normally measu re on Eart h , t he law is
qu ite accurate e nough.
Energy and heat
The mode m , scientific meaning of e nergy arose in the early 1800s whe n
scient ists and e ngineers were develop ing ways of measuring the performance
of steam engines. Steam engines used forces to move th ings. They d id wor k.
To do th is, t hey had to spend e n ergy. So it made sense to measure e nergy a nd
work in t he same units (we now use the joule).
·.. ..........................................................................................
HISTORY OF KEY IDEAS

With t he idea of energy established , people soon realized that e nergy could
ex ist in diffe rent forms - electrical, potential, kinetic, a nd so on. However, t he
law of conservation of energy was not developed until 1847.
Today, we link heat w ith e nergy. However, scientists once t1lOught that heat
was an invis ible, weightless fluid called 'caloric' w hic h flowed out of hot t hi ngs
a nd was squeezed from solids w hen t hey were rubbed . In the J 790s, Count
Ru mford did some experiments wh ich s uggested th at t he caloric t heory was
wrong. While boring cannon barrels, he found t hat he could get an e ndless
supply of heat by keeping the borer turning. If heat was a flu id, then the
.. Boring out cannon barrels made
supply shoul d run out. Instead, t he amount of heat seemed to be directly
them hot. Count Rumford discovered
l inked with the amount of work being done. The link between work and that the amount of heat produced
heat was firmly established in 1849 by James Joule. H e fo und t hat it always was related to the amount of work
took 4. 2 joules of work to prod uce 1 calorie of heat (an old unit, equivalent done during the boring process_
to the heat req uired to increase t he temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 0c).
However, Joule's work did n ot explain what heat was.
We now know that materials are made up of palticles (atoms or molecules)
w hic h are in a state of random motion, and t hat heat is associated with that
motion. In a solid or liquid , the particles vibrate. In a gas they move about
freely at high speed . The h igher the temperature, the faster the particles move.
The random motion of the particles is called thenna1 activity, and t he energy
w hich a n object has because of it is called internal energy (the sum of t he
kinetic and potential energies of all t he particles).

9 9 fa. Q fa. Q ,0 ' Q ,0' ~O

~

(5 ~ ~Q

"
higher 0' thermal Q Q 10. lower
energy
,0- -
temperat ure temperatu re
Q fa 0 ) 0 (heat)
'0 , Q
j

(5 (5 Q 10 (5
~

,0 ' 0 9
>
-° ,0 ' '0.
If a hot object is put in contact with a colder one, as above, energy is
transferred from one to the other because of the temperature differe nce. This
energy is called heat. So internal energy is the total amou nt of energy due
to thermal activity, w hile heat represents an amount o f energy transferred.
However, for s implicity, both can be called thenna1 energy.

<III In engines, releasing thermal

energy by burn ing fuel is one stage in
the process of producing motion.
 ................................................................................
HI S T ORY OF KEY IDEAS
.. One of Newton's experiments.
Newton passed while sunlight into a
glass prism. and produced a
sped rum. When he recombined the
colours with a second prism. he
obtained white light again. He
concluded that the colours must be
from the white light and not
produced by the glass.
.... Marie Curie in her laboratory
Rays, waves, and particles*
Light and radiation
Over 2300 years ago. the Ancient Greeks knew th at ligh t travelled i n straight
lines. The Roma ns used wate r-filled glass spheres to magni fy things. But
it was not until t he 1200s t hat glass lenses were first made, for spectacles.
The telescope was invented in the early 1600s. In t he same century. Snell
discovered th e law of refraction. Huyghens suggested that ligh t was a fo rm
of wave mot io n, a nd Newton demonstrated tha t w hi te ligh t was a mixture of
colours. Newton also tried to expla in the nature of Light. He thought that light
was made up of millions of tiny 'corpuscles' (paI1 icles).
In the early 1800s, Thomas Young investigated the interference a nd diffractio n
of light a nd successfully used t he wave theory to explain these effects. From his
results, he was also able to calculate a value for the wavelength of light. Young's
work see med to put an end to Nev..ton's 'corpuscles', but these were to appear
later in a nother form. Some materials give off electrons w hen t hey absorb light.
This is called t he photoelec tric clTecl. In 1905, Einstein was able to explain it
by assuming that ligh t consisted of particle-like b ursts of wave energy. called
photo ns. Light, it seemed. could behave like waves and particles.
James Clerk Maxwell was the first to put forward t he idea t hat ligh t was a type
of elec tromagnetic radiation. He did t his in 1864. From his t heoretical work
o n electric and magnetic field s. he pred icted t he ex istence of electromagnetic
waves, calculated what t heir speed should be, a nd found t hat it matched
the speed of light. His equ ations also predicted the existence of rad io waves ,
although 'real' rad io waves were not detected until t he 1880s. X-rays were
discovered by Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895, b ut their elect romagnetic nature was
not established until 19 12.
in 1896. Henri Becquerel detected a penetrati ng radiat ion com ing from
ura nium salts. He had d iscovered radio ac tivity. Later, Marie Curie showed
that th e rad iation came from w ith in t he atom a nd was not due to reactions
w ith other materials. In 1899. Ernest Rut herford investigated radioactivity
and ident ified two types of rad iation, whic h he called alpha a nd beta. The
follow ing year. he discovered gamma rays. Today. we know t hat waves . such as
gamma radiation, can beh ave l ike particles. a nd that part icles can also behave
like waves. Sc ientists call t his wave-partic1c duaJjty.
 H I S T ORY OF KEY IDEAS
.............................................................................................
Atoms and electrons
The word 'atom' comes from the Greek alomos , meaning indivisible. The first
mode rn use o f the word was by John Dalton, w ho put forward his atom ic
theory in 1803. in order to explain the rules governing the p ropo rtions in
whic h different elements combined c hemically. Dalton suggested that all
matter consisted of t iny particles called atoms. Each element had its own type
of atom. a nd atoms of t he same element were identical. Atoms could not be
created or d estroyed. nor could t hey be broken into smaller b its .
But what were atoms made of? The fi rst clues came in t he 1890s. when scie ntists ... Ernest Rutherford (right) and his
were studying the conduct ion of electricity t h rough gases. They found that ato ms assistan t Hans Geiger, in 1912. They
could give out invisible. negatively charged rays. J. J. Thomson investigated the are standing next to the apparatus
rays and deduced t hat t hey were particles much lighter th an atoms. Tins was in which they used for detecting alpha
1897. Thomson had discovered the electron. particles.

If an atom contained electrons. it must also contain p ositive c harge to make it

electrically neutral. Bu t w here was this c harge? In 1911. a team led by Ernest
Rutherford directed alpha particles at t hi n gold foil. They found th at most
passed straig ht t hrough but a few were deflected at hu ge a ngles. To explain
t his. Rut helford s uggested that each atom must be largely empty space. w ith
its posit ive ch arge and most o f its mass concentrated in a tiny nuc1eus.

~ The Rutherford-Bohr model of

the atom (with nuclear particles
included). The picture is not to
scale. With an atom of the si;:e
(£) proton shown. the nucleus would be far
too small to see.
• neutron
elKlrons
in fixed
orbi t

In Rutherford's model (picture) of t he atom. electrons orbited t he nucleus

l ike planets a round the Sun. Unfortun ately. the model had a serious flaw:
accord ing to classical theory. an orbiting electron ough t to rad iate e nergy
con1J nuou sly and spiral into the nucleus. so its orbit could not be stable. In
191 3. Neils Bohr used the quantum th eory to solve this problem. Accordi ng
to Bohr. electrons were in fixed orb its and could not radiate co ntinuously.
They could only lose energy by jumping to a lower orbit and em itting a
quantum ('packet') of electromagnetic e nergy - in oth er words. a p hoton.
Using this model . Bohr was able to predi ct th e positions of t he lines in th e
hydmgen spectru m . However. his calculations did not work for elements w ith
a more complicated electron structu re. To deal w ith th is problem . scientists
later developed a mathematical. wave· mechanics m odel of the atom.
The Rut herfo rd-Bohr model of the atom said nothing about what was ins id e ... Richard Feynmann giving a lecture
the nucleus. However. in 1919, Rut herford used alpha particles to knock at the California Institute of
positively c h arged palticles out of t he nucleus. These were protons. In 1932. Technology. Advances made by
James Chadw ick d iscovel'Cd t hat t he nucleus also contained neutrons. In Professor Feynmann in quantum
recent years . experiments with part icle accelerators have su ggested that electrodynamics won him the 1965
protons a nd neutrons are made from particles called quarks. Nobel Pri ze lor Physics.
 ................................................................................
HI S T ORY OF KEY IDEAS

Magnetism and electricity*

Year dates
It is becoming more common to
o(
give dates in the form 300 eCl;
and 1600 CE(or just 1600) rather
than 300 ac and 1600 AD_ The
letters CEstand for 'common era'
and 8CE for 'before common era'.
Magnetism
Around 2600 years ago, the Ancient Greeks knew that a certain type of iron a re.
now know n as magnetite or lodestone . could attract small p ieces of i ron. They
found t he are in a p lace called Magnesia, w hich is how magnetism got its name.
The Chinese had also come across the mysterious are and, by 200 BCE , knew that
a piece oflodestone, iffl'tt to turn. would always point in the same direction.
By around 800 CE, the Chinese had discovered how to make magnetic needles
by stroking small p ieces or iron with lodestone. The first compasses probably
consisted of a magnetized needle supported by a straw floating in a bowl of
water. However, t hey were not really suitable for use on ships. Compasses w ith
pivoted needles did not appear until the 1200s.

~ No signs of a mount ain at the

North Pole. At one time, sailors
thought that a huge magnetic
mountain here might be the source
of the Earth's magnetism.

At this t ime, no one really understood why a compass needle points nonh .
Some sailors believed that there was a huge mountain oflodestone at the North
Pole, w hose force was so strong t hat it would pull t he iron nails out of a ship's
hull. The n, in 1600, William Gilbert published t he results of his experi ments
w it h magnets, He introduced the term magnetic pole and suggested t hat the
Earth itself m ight behave like a bar magnet, But w hat caused magnetism? The
answer to t hat would come from an understanding of electricity,

,·
·
Electricity
The Ancient Greeks also knew of t he strange pmperties of a solidified resin
called amber. Whe n rubbed, it attracted dust a nd other small t hings. The

•
I,

..
"

Amber
_..-;;
' "
"-
Greek word for amber is elektrol1 , from w hich the word electricity comes.
Our modern knowledge o f electricity really began in the 1600s, wh en
experimenters started to i nvest igate amber and other rubbed materials
mOl'e closely. They found t hat it was poss ible to produce repulsion as well
as attraction, and t hat t here were two different kinds of electric charge. In
175 2, Benjamin Franklin carried out a famous - and extremely da n gerous-
experiment in w hi ch he flew a k ite in a thunderstorm and got sparks to jump
from a key attached to th e l ine. The sparks were just like those produ ced by
rubbing amber, Here was evidence t hat lightn ing and electricity were t he
same t hing.
·.. ..........................................................................................
H I S T ORY OF KEY IDEAS

At this time, electrical experiments were with 'static electricity' - c harges

on insulators that could be transfen-ed in sudden jumps. However, in 1800,
Alessandro Volta discovered t hat two metals w ith salt water between them
could cause a continuous flow of c harge - in other words, an electric cw-rent.
He had made t he first battery. Within 50 years, t he electric motor, generator, a nd
lamp had all been invented. However, no one had any evidence to explain what
electricity really was until J. J. Thomson's discovery ofthe e1ectron in 1897.
From t his, we now know t hat the CUITent in a circuit is. a flow o f electrons.

ELectromagnetism ...
Until the early 1800s, electricity and magnetism were regarded as two differe nt
phenomena. Then in 1820. in Denmark. Ha ns Oersted demonstrated that a
compass neecUe could be deflected by an electric curren t. The following year,
Mic hael Faraday sua::eeded in us ing t he force from a magnet on the current in
a wire to pro duce rotation . He had made a very simple form o f e1ectric motor.
Later, in the 1830s, he discovered e1ectromagnetic induction, the effect in
w hich a voltage is generated in a conductor by moving or varying a magnetic
fi eld around j t. Today's generators a nd transfOimers make use of t his idea .
fn the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell linked electricity a nd magnetism
mathematically. Later, following the discovery of the electron, the cause
of magnetism became clear. As an electron orbits in a n atom , it produces a .. Faraday's first transformer, made
magnetic fiel d, rather as the current in a coil produces a field. In most materials, in 1831
the various fie lds are in random directions and cancel each other out, but in a
magnetized material, some of t he fields line up a nd r-ein force each other:

... An aurora. another example of the

link between magnetism and
electricity. Charged particles (mainly
electrons) streaming out from the Sun
are directed towards polar regions by
the Earth's magnetic field. When the
particles hit atoms or molecules in the
upper atmosphere. light is emitted .

... and beyond

Electric a nd magnetic forces are so closely related t hat t hey are classed as
e1ectromagnetic forces. The forces t hat hold atoms t ogether are of this
type. But three other kinds of force also operate in th e natural world. Gra\'ity
is t he most fam iliar. The others a re t he weak nuc1ear force , responsible
for radioactivity, and t he strong nuc1car force w hich binds t he particles
in the nucleu s of a n atom. Today, physicist s are develo p ing models to link
these forces, but gravity remains a problem, and the s.earch is still on for a
satisfactory unified-fiel d theory tha t combines all the known forces of nature.
 ................................................................................
HI S T ORY OF KEY IDEAS
.... Ga lileo using a telescope he
designed and built himself.
The Earth and beyond*
The centre of the Universe?
The a ncie nt view o f the Earth was that it was flat. H owever, by a bout 600 BCE ,
Greek mariners had obsetved how t he positions of t he stars altered as they
sailed nOl1h or south, a nd realized that the Earth's sUlface m ust be curved.
Around 350 BCE, Aristotle believed t hat t he Earth was a stationary sphere at the
centre of the Universe. The Sun, Moon, planets , a nd stars lay on transparent ,
crystal spheres w hich rotated about th e Earth , so they moved in perfect circles.
The idea that t he 'heavenly bod ies' must move in perfect circles aro und the
Ealth was to cause difficult ies for many centuries. When viewed from Earth ,
t he planets do not move across the sky at a steady rate, and someti mes appear
to move backwards and fOl"\vards. Arou nd 150 CE , Ptolemy came up w ith a n
elaborate explanation for this. The planets d id move in perfect circles , but
sometimes t hey followed small circles superimposed on a larger one.
Ptolem y's explanat ion Coper n icus' s ex pl anation
Jupiter
(moves more
movlf'lg / '....~'" ~owly
point
,'"
Earth)
,,,'•"
Jup'ter moves If'I a circle arou nd a po,nt, As the Earth moves around the Sun, our
which itself moves in a circle around the viewpoint chan ge s. It is this t hat cau<..e-s
Earth. rh,s is the motion we observe Jupit er's apparent motion.
It was not until the 1500s t hat t he views of Aristotle a nd Ptolemy were
seriously questioned . Th e person responsible was Nicolaus Copernicus, w ho
decided to take a fres h look at t he problem of t he obselved motion of t he
planets. Ln 1543, he publis hed his th eory that the Sun must be at t he centre of
the Universe, w ith the Earth a nd plan ets moving around it. Over th e following
years, this idea was stron gly opposed by the Ch urch , w hic h insisted that
the Earth m ust be central . Later. GaWeo supported Copern ic us's ideas, but
was forced to renounce t hem or risk torture a nd execution. In 161 0, he had
obse rved tiny moons moving around Jupiter - evide nce that t he Earth was not
ce ntral to all objects in th e heavens.
During t he late 1500s, obse rvations made by Tycho Brahe greatly increased
t he amount of aCCUl'ate d ata on the posit io ns of t he p lanets. During t he
16005, the evidence for t he Copernican model became overwhelm ing. Kepler
established the laws of planetary orbits, Ne\vt.on p ublished his theory of
gravitat ion , and pu t Kepler's laws on a firm mathematical basis .
·.. ..........................................................................................
H I S T ORY OF KEY IDEAS

.... When William Herschel built this

reflecting telescope in 1789. it was
the largest in the world. It could be
raised or lowered by pulleys, and
there were rolle-rs under the platform
so that it could be turned.
Caroline Herschel, William's sister,
was also an e)(pert astronomer. She
discovered comets and nebulae, and
made a huge catalogue of her
brother's observations.

Dark matter and dark

energy
Less than 5% of the Universe
seems to be made up of ordinary
matter as we know it The rest is
dark matter and dark energy.
Neither can be detected directly.
but their e)(istence has been
suggested in order to e)(plain
gravitational effects seen in
gala)(ies. and how the Universe is
e)(panding. Ob$eNations and
mathematical analysis suggests
that the rate of e)(pansion is
increasing and that dark energy
is the most likely cause.

Sun, stars, and galaxies

By the late 16005, it was clear th at t he stars were s imilar to th e Su n,
but m uc h furt her away. In t he late 1700s, Willi am Herschel used a large
telescope to study how t he stars were distribu ted. He conclu ded t hat t he Sun
was near the centre of a huge, len s-shaped system of sta rs, w hich he called
the Ga1axy.
By t he early 1800s. astronomers were making increasingly accurate est imates
of t he distances to t he stars. These were based on t he follow ing principle.
DUli ng t he course of a year, as the Earth moves round t he Sun, our viewpoint
in space c ha n ges, so nearby stars appear to move aga inst t he background of
very distant stars. This apparent movement is called parallax. By measuring
it, the distance to nearby stars can be calculated us ing trigonometry. .. The Hubble Space Telescope is in
In 1918, Harlow Sh apley mapped t he relative distances of star clusters a nd orbit around the Earth. It transmits
found t hat t h e Su n was not at the centre of our Galaxy after all. And in pictures back to the ground which
enable astronomers to see distant
the 1920s, Edw in H ubble discovered that our Galaxy was not alone. There
stars and gala)(ies without the
were millio ns o f other galaxies in th e Universe. Hubble also made a nother
distorting effects of the Earth's
s ign ificant discovery about galax ies. From th e altered wavelengths of their
at mosphere. A larger replacement is
light , he concluded t hat t hey must be ru shing away from each other. This
due to be launched in 2018.
discovery led to t he development of rhe Big Bang theory - rhe idea t hat,
billions o f years ago , t he w hole of space and everythi ng in it started to expand
from a single , atom-sized concentration of matter a nd energy.
 ................................................................................
HI S T ORY OF KEY IDEAS

Key deveLopments in physics

c. 400 BCE Democritus suggests th at there might be a limit to 1852 Kelvin states the law of conservation of energy.
the divisibility of matter. (Atomos is the Greek word 1864 Maxwell predicts the existence of radio waves and
for indivisible.) other electromagnetic waves.
c. 350 BCE Aristotle suggests that the Earth is at the centre of 1877 Cailletetliquefies oxygen.
the Universe. with the Sun. Moon. and planets on
crystal spheres around it. 1879 Swan and Edison make the first electric hght bulbs.

c. 240 BCE Eratosthenes estimates the diameter of the Earth by 1888 Hertz demonstrates the existence of radio waves.
comparing shadow angles in d ifferent places. 1894 Marconi transmits the fi rst radio signals.
1895 Rontgen d iscovers X-rays.
"
c. 60 Hero makes a small turbine driven by jets of steam. 1896 Becquerel d iscovers radioactivity.
c. 150 Ptolemy suggests that the Earth is at the centre of 1897 Thomson discovers the electron.
the Universe. and that the Sun. Moon. and planets 1898 M. Curie discovers radium and polonium.
are moving in perfect circles.
1899 Ruth erford identifies alpha and beta rays.
c. 1000 Magnetic compass used in China.
1900 Planck proposes the q uantum theory.
1543 Copernicus suggests that the Sun is at the centre of
the Universe. wit h the Earth and planets moving 1905 Einstein uses th e q uantum theory to explain th e
around it photoelectric effect. and publishes his special
theory o f relativity.
1600 Gilbert suggests t hat the Earth acts like a giant bar
magnet. 1911 Rutherford proposes a nuclear model of the atom.

1604 Galileo shows that all fa lling objects should have 1913 Bohr uses the q uantum th eory to modify
the same. steady acceleration. Ruth erford's model of th e ato m.

1621 Snell sta tes his law of refracHon. 1916 Einstein publishes his general theory o f rela tivity.

1644 Torrkelli makes th e first mercury barometer. 19 19 Rutherlord splits the atom and d iscovers the proton.

1654 Guericke demonstrates atmospheric pressure. 1924 De Broglie su ggests that particles can behave as
waves.
1662 Boyle states his law for gases.
1925 Schr5dinger w ave -mechanics model of th e atom.
1678 Huygens puts forwa rd his wave theory of light.
1927 Lemaitre suggests th e possibility of th e Big Bang .
1679 Hooke states his law for elastic materials.
1928 Geiger and MOiler invent their radiat ion detector.
1687 Newton publishes his th eory of gravity and laws of
motion. 1929 Hubble d iscovers that th e Universe is expand ing .

1714 Fahrenheit makes the first mercury thermometer. 1932 Chadwick discovers t he neutron .

1752 Franklin performs a hazardous experiment with a Cockroft and Walton produce the first nuclear
kite to show that lightning is electricity. change using a particle accelerator.

c. 1790 Herschel discovers the shape of our galaxy. 1938 Hahn discovers nuclear fi ssion.

1800 Volta makes th e fi rst battery. 1942 Fermi builds the first nuclear reactor.

1803 Dalton suggests that matter is made up of atoms. 1947 Bardeen, Brattain , and Shockley make the first
tra nsistor.
Young demonstrates th e wave nature of light.
1957 First artificial satellite. Spu tnik I. pu t in10 o rbit.
182 1 Faraday makes a simple form of electric motor.
1958 St Clair Kil by makes the fi rst integrated c ircuit.
1825 Am~re works out a law for the force between
current-carrying conductors. 1960 Maiman builds the fi rst laser.

1827 Ohm states his law for metal conductors. 1963 Firs t geostationary communications sa1ellite.

1832 Faraday demonstrates electromagnetic induction. 1969 Firs t manned landing on the Moon.

1832 Sturgeon makes the first moving-coil meter. 197 1 Intel Corporati on makes t he first microprocessor.

1840 First use of the words 'physicist' and 'scientist'. 1977 First experimental evidence of quarks.

1849 Fizeau measures the speed of light. 1990 Hubble Space Telescope launched.

Joule establishes the link between heat and work. 2012 Higgs particle d iscovered.

Source: the 8iogf<Jplll(<J1 Encyclope(j,(J of SCientists, published by the Institute of Ph}'5lC5 C = Clrcij (about)
 he worker inside the cage is qui te

T safe, despite the 2 .5 miJiion volt

s parks 6'0111 t he huge Va n de
GI-aaff gene rato l', The e lectric d ischa l'ges
strike the metal ba rs, ra liler than pass
between them , so the cage has a sh.ielding
effect. In fact, if sa fety procedures we re
igno red, som e of the expe l-i me n ts done
in a schoolla bora tOlY would be much
mo re da ngerous tha n th is o ne.
 ................................................................................
PRACT I CAL PHYS I CS

Working safely
When canyi ng out p hysics experiments, you need to be able to do the
follow ing:
• B anetie equipment and materials safely.
• Follow instructions carefully.
• Change how you carry ou t each step of an experiment, depending on w hat
happened the ti me before.
Here are some reminder·s about how to work safely with different types of
equ ipment:

Bunsens and tripods

• If a b unsen burner is alight. b ut not in use, always leave it on th e yellow
flame setting so t hat t he flame can be seen.
• Make sure that hunsens and tripods have a heatproof mat underneath.
• Give a hot tripod plenty of time to cool down before attempting to move it,
• Don't attempt to move a tripod when t here is a beaker resting on it.

... A yellow bunsen flame is easier to

Glass thermometers
see than a blue one. • Don't p ut glass thermometers w here they can roll off t he benc h .
• Keep glass thermometers away from bunsen flames.
• Support t hermometers safely: see Safe s upport below.
• Mercury, used in some t hermometers, is toxic, If a thermometer breaks and
mercury runs out, don't ha ndle i t.

Glass tubing
• Never attempt to pus h glass tub ing (or glass thermometers) t hmug h a hole
in a bung. The laboratory technician has a special tool for do ing t his.
• Always handle hot glass t ubing w ith tongs. Rest it on a heatproof ma t;
don't put it straight on the benc h.
• Hot glass tubing can stay hot for a long time. Give it plenty of t ime to cool
down before you attempt to p ick it up.

Safe support
• Whe n clamping a test-tube, don't overtighten t he clamp. And make sure
that t he clamp has soft pads to touch against the glass. This also applies
when clamping a glass t hermometel:
• In experimen ts where you have to s uspend a load, make sure t hat the
... In experiments like t his, make sure supporting clampstand is stable enough to take t he heaviest load you will
that the apparatus is stable enough be using. You may need to weigh it down for this, as shown in th e diagram
to support the heavies1 load_ on the left.
·.................................................................................... ...... . PRA CT I CAL P H YS I CS

Electricity
• Befon~ maki ng any changes to t he wiri ng in your c ircu its. always switch off
the power or disconnect the battery.

• Remember: low voltage circu its may not give you a shock. b ut t hey can
cause burns if t he cu n"f:nt is too high and a wire overheats.

• Never make a direct connectio n across t he term inals of a battery. Don't pu t

wires or tools whel"'e they m ight connect across t he terminals.

• If a ma ins ap pliance is faulty, switch off t he power and pull o ut the plug.
Don't cha nge the fuse. Ask t he laboratory technician to deal wit h t he fa ult.

• Electrical fires: see Fire below.

In many mod ern laboratories, the mains circuits are protected by Re Ds
(res idual cu rn:nt devices), so t he risk of s hocks is reduced. Bu t .. .

• If someone has been electrocuted. and is still touch ing t he fa ulry applia nce.
... Emergency! But the firs t job is to
don't touch the person. Switch o ff th e power and p ull out t he plug. switch off th e power and pull out
the plug.
Eye protection
• Always wear eye protection (e.g. safety go ggles) wh en:
- stretching metal wil"f:S or p lastic cord s
- breaking or grinding solids (e.g. roc.k samples)
- heat ing liqu ids
- dealing w ith acids. alkalis. or a ny other liqu id chemicals t hat might splash .

Light
• Don't look directly into a laser beam or other source of bright light. Do n't
stand whe re laser light m ight be reflected into your eyes. flammable
I'qwd
• If you need to study t he Su n's image, p roject it o nto a card . Never look
t hmugh a telescope or b inoculars pointing straight at the Sun - even if
t here is a filter in front.

Radioactive sources
• The radioactive SOurces used i.n school laboratories should always be sealed.

• Radioactive sou rces should be kept \vell away from the body, and never
placed wh ere they are pointing at people.

Fire
• Do n't heat flammable liquids (e .g. methylated spirits) ovel' a b unsen. If
heating is requ ired , a water bath s hould be used - w ith hot watel' heated
well away from t he experiment.

• Don't Lh row water o n bu rning liquids (e.g. methylated spirits). Smother t he

fi l"f: wit h a fire blan ket or use a carbon diox ide extingu ishel'.
... The only safe w~ to heat a
• Don't th row water o n electli cal fires. Switch off the s upply and use a
flammable liquid is to use a water bath
carbo n di ox ide extinguis hel:
 PRAC TI CAL PHYS I CS
.................................................................................
Planning and preparing
This spread should help you pla n a n e;l(perimental proced ure. The ha ndwritten
notes s how part of o ne student's commentary on he r procedure.

Presenting the problem

Start by describ ing t he problem you are going to investigate, and t he main
features of the method you will use to tackle it.

I am going to investigate how the re5istance of

nichrome wire depends on its Length. ,------{ V
I know that resistance can be caLcuLated w'lth this
equation:
voltage ('In V)
resistance Cin 0 ,) '" --'-,---,..,- nichrome wire
current Cin A) A
So to find the resistance of 0. Length of n"lchrome wire, , ,
r need to put the wirl" in a c"lrcU'lt, then measure the :< Length ~
voLtage across 'I t and the current in it. I w'ILL do this
for different Lengths of nichwme,

!
Making a prediction
I think I can pred'i ct how the resistance wHL vary You may have an idea of w hat you expect to
w'l th Ll"ngth. If thl" Length of W"l fl" is doubLed, thl" current I,a Ppen;n
, yo ur e nq U IIY.
" TI, b"' PI'ed I"c'"on
Li
"' called
b
({tow of electrons) has to be pushed bl"twel"n tW'lce your hypothesis. You should write it d own . It may
as many atoms, So I wouLd f1(pect the res 'lstance to not be right! It isjust a n idea. The aim of your
doubLe as weLl.
t
'-_______________________-', procedure is to test it.

In my fl"Per'II'lIfI'lt, three of the key 1f(l.r"labLes are:

kn9!h of nichwme w'lre - to be measured w'lth a ruler
marked in mm
voLtage - to be rrteasured Wit h a vo LtMeter
current - to be measured with an ammeter
I shaLL start with SOcm of thin nichwl"lV! wire, put a
voLtage of 6 V across 'It, and !"I1easure the curren t in it. From
thl" \I(ILtmeter and ammeter rrodings, I can caLculate the
resistance.
I wm tokl" morl" sets of readings, shortening the w'lre by
Scm each t'lme untit it 'IS onLy 10 em Long,
for convenience, I w'ILL probabLy keep the \/OLtage
Dealing with variables
Quant ities like len gth. current, a nd voltage are
called vmiah1es. They can ella I1ge from one
situation to a nother:
Key variab1cs These are t he variables that
ca n affect what happens in a n experiment. You
m ust decide what t hey are. For example. in the
nichrome w ire experiment. length is on e o f the
key variables because c ha nging t he le n gth of 'w ire
c hanges the res istance.
You m ust also decide how to measure t he variables.
a nd over what range. FOI' example, in planning t he
nichrome wire experiment, you would h ave to:
ft:.eed at 6 V

!
• decide what the highest voltage and current values
thrOJghout the e-.cperiment.
should be (safety m ust be considered here)
• deci de what lengths of w ire to usc.
............................................................................................. PRAC T I CAL P H YS I CS

Con trolling variables Some variables don 't have

to be measured . b ut t hey do need to be contmlled. There are two more variables I need to controL:
For example. in the nichmme wire experiment. you
temperature - I know from reRrence books tha.t
might want to keep the wire at a steady te mperature.
the res'lstance of nichrome changes with temperature.
in case t he temperature affects the res istance.
So I w'llL use a Large beaker of
Some vati ables can be difficult to control. In your coLd water to keep the temperature of the nichrome
experiment. you may want to use the same thickness st eady.
of nic hrome w ire each time. but this depends on
diameter (thickness) of nichrome wire - this c~td affect
how accurately the w ire was manufactured. You
the resistance. To make sure that I have the same
must take factors Like t his into account w he n
diaMeter aU the t"u'l'.t, I will Lise leI1gths of wire take~
decid ing how reliable your results are.
from the same reeL , and check oo.ch piece with a gauge
A fair test Whe n doing an exper iment. you should beWre using ·It.
c ha nge just o ne variable at a time a nd find out h ow
it affects one other. If lots of variables c ha nge at
once. it w ill n ot be a fa ir test. For example, if you
want to fi nd out how t he le ngth of a w ire affects its
resista nce. it wouldn't be fa ir to compare a long,
thick w ire wit h s hort . thin one.

Final preparations
Decide w hat equipment you need. h ow you will
arrange it, and how you will use it.
To h elp your planning. you may need to carry out
d.c . suppLy
a trial run oEthe experiment. Before you do t his.
+
make sure th at all your proced ures are safe.
Prepare tables for your readings before you stmi
your experiments. Look at the next spread on
get tin g the evi den ce before doing this .

Equ'lpment needed:
voltmeter CO-6V}, ammeter (o-3A), SOcm of
0.28 i'lli'll diameter n'lchrome wire, ...
n'lchrome --t''":.~!)I'1i)

-- - - - ----- co"lL
we""
nichrome: I,
length voltage current resistance I I am not sure how b'lg the rna:,(lmum current w'ILL be,
---
om V A 0
I
so I w'ILL do a tr"laL run of the fl(perlmfl"'lt fi rst. I
50 I w'!ll start with an ammeter that can measure sareral
I amperes, rut may be able to change to a more sensitive
4-5
, meter for the rna 'In fl(per"lment.
4-0
35 I Saret~,
I must make sure that the power suppl y '15 switched
30
25
I
I
off before I remOlie the n'lchrome wire to change
'Its Length.

I 20
I
 .................................................................................
PRAC TI CAL PHYS I CS

Measuring and recording

This spread should help you take and record measurements correctly.

Units
When you write down a measurement. remember to include the unit. For
lIoltage example:
voltage = 2.3 V
V lfyou just write down '2 .3 '. you may not be able to remember whether this
was s upposed to be a voltage of 2.3 V or 2.3 mV.
:1..3 When writing measurements in a table, you don't need to put the un it after
each nu mbeJ: But be sure to include t he unit in t he head ing at t he top of each
column. You can see an example on the left.

.... When recording readings in a table Uncertai nties

(see Spread 13.02), reme mber to
include a unit in the heading at the
top of each column.
No measurement is exact. There is always some uncertainty about it. For
example, you may only be able to read a voltmeter to t he nearest 0.1 V.
Say that you measure a voltage of 2.3 V and a current of 1.2 A. To work
out t he res istance in o hms (0), you divide the voltage by the cun"en t on a
calculator a nd get...
1.9166667
This s hould be recorded as 1.9 O. Uncel1ai nt ies in your voltage and current
readings mean t hat you cannot ju stify including a ny more figures. In t his case,
you are giving t he result to two significant figures .

Take enough readings

.... You can only read this voltmeter to
the nearest 0. 1 V.
For a graph, you s hould have at least fi ve sets of readings.
Not all experiments give you readings for a graph. Sometimes, you have io
measure quantities that don't change - t he diameter of a w ire for example. In
cases like this, you should repeat the measurement at least three times and
find an average. Repeating a measurement helps you spot mistakes. It also
gives you some idea of t he uncertainty. Look at t his example.
The diameter of a w ire was measured fo ur t imes:
1.41 mm 1.34 mm 1.19mm J.30 mm
You can work out t he average like this:
(I.41 + 1.3 4 + 1.19 + 1.30)
average = 1.31 mm
4

The original fo ur numbers ranged from less t ha n 1.2 to more t ha n 1.4. So, t he
last fi gure. 1. in th e average o f 1.31. is completely uncertain. Therefore. you
s hould write down t he average diameter as 1.3 mm.
·.. ..........................................................................................
PRAC TIC AL P H YS I CS

Reading scales
On many instruments, you have to judge t he posit ion of a pointer or level
on a scale a nd work out the measurement from that. H ere are some ways of
making s ure t hat you take the correct read ing:
A Using a glass thermometer to measure th e temperature of a liqu id: keep
t he liquid well stirred. give the thermometer time to reach the temperature,
and keep the lamp in the liquid w hile you take th e reading.
H Using a ru1er: be su re t hat the scale is righ t alongside t he point you are
trying to measure. (Errors due to an incon'ect line of sight are called
parallax errors.) III
C Measuring a Uquid level on a scale; look at t he level of the liquid's fl at
surface. not its c urved meniscus.
D Reading a meier: look at t he pointer and scale 'square o n'.
(The pointer may have a fl at end like that shown here, so t hat you can look
at it edge on .) A

30- ---1

----~ ~20~-----~
, c

Can you read the instruments below correctly? The a n swers are on page 331.

N
3 o
2 2
10 40
4

~~
cf~z~~~~
6

4
 ................................................................................
PRACT I C AL PH YS I CS

Dealing with data

.- .... -------
I have used mlj voLtage and current read'ln9s t o
---.-.~. This p age should help you to analyse your da ta and
d raw conclus ions from it. The ha ndwr itten notes show
caLcuLate the res 'lstance of each Len9th of n'lchrome pal1 of one stude nt's commentary on he r en quiry.
wire. Now I shaLL use these vaLue; t o plot a 9faph of
resistance a9ainst Len9th. Drawing a graph
Len9th is the 'Independent var"labLe (the one I chose to A graph can help yo u see t rends in your d ata.
change), so 'I t goes aLon9 t he bottom o.l(IS. Resis t ance Ch o osing a '(es Decide which variable to pu t along the
goes up the side. bottom a.x is. Us ually, it is t he one you chose to vary by
set amounts ~ t he le ngth of nic hrome wire, for example.
20 ~
Th is is t he independent varia ble. The resista nce would
be the d e pendent varia ble beca use its value d epend s
15 on the le ngth you c hose. It goes up the s ide axis.
C • Choosing scales Chec k yo ur h ighest readi ngs , t he n
~ +
> c hoose th e largest scales you ca n for your axes.
~ 10
,
• • Labelling axes Alo ng each a.x is, w rite in w ha t is being
measu red a nd the units being used.
5
Drawing the bes t line Beca u se of unce rtainties, t he
• • points on a graph will be u neve n . So d on't j o in up t he
0 10 20 30 40 50 p oints! Instead , d raw t he stra ight li ne or smooth cUlVe
length/em t ha t goes closest to most of t hem . This is called a line
of best fi t. Before you dra w it:
The po"lnts 01') my 9raph are 0. Little sc.attered, but
• Decide whether t he line should go through the origin.
I th'lnk t hat the line of best fit 'IS a straight l'ine,
• Decide w hether a ny read ings s hould be rejected.
The line ou9ht t o go throu9h t he o(lg·ln . If the wire has Some may be so far out tha t they are probably due
UfO Ler:9th , there is no metaL t o res'lst the current, so to mistakes rather than uncertainties . S ee if you
the resist ance should also be uro , can find out why they occur red.
I have rejected one p<f lnt on mlj graptl. I n my table, From the way po ints scatter about a line of best fi t.
the current fead'ins fur that po'lnt seems fo r too Low. you can see how reliab le your read ings a re . But for
I probo.bLlj I'Ifl5rrod the ammeter , t h is, you n eed plenty of points.

Trend s and conclusions

As the graph is a 5t ra 'lght L"lne t hrough t he orig'ln , t he
resistance of t he rj'lchrome wire is in d'ifect proport'ion
to 'I t s lfflgth. Th'ls agrees with mlj orig'lnaL hljPothes'ls
t hat doubling the Length of wire ought to make 'It tw'lce
~a_'_d_'ff_;_W_l_t_t_'_P'_'_h_'le
_c_t'_'_"'_t_h_"_
"9_h_._______-'t case , res is ta nce a nd length a re in direct proportion .
From the s hape of your gra ph , you can draw
conclusions a bout t he data .
The s im plest form of gra p h is a straight line through
t he origin . A graph o f res ista nce against le n gth of w ire
m ight be like this. If so , it means that if th e le ngth
doubles, the resistance doubles ... a nd so on. in t his
If you t hink that your graph s upp0l1s your original
prediction, the n say so and explain you r reasons.
 ..................................................................................... PRAC T I CAL PHYS I CS

Evaluating and improving

This page should help you decide how reliable your conclusions are, and how
your proced ure could be improved or extended .

Reliability
The pO'It'lts 01'1 the graph are uneven. But as In reaching your concl usions, remembe r that there are
they t.ig-t.og at random, I am fuirl!;! sure that , uncertaint ies in your measurements, and variables that
without uncertainties, the!;! would l'le on a you may not have allowed for. So your results can never
straight Line. prove you r original prediction. You must decide how far
There are several reasons wh!;! the points ma!;! have t hey support it.
been so sea ttered., If you think that your results are unreliable in a ny way,
see if you can explain w hy.
You may have some results whi ch do not agree w ilh
To get a more reliable graph, I need to t he ot hers a nd look like mistakes. These are called
find a more accurate method of measur 'lng anomaJ ous results. Try to explain w hat caused t hem.
res'istance ...
Suggesting improvements
Having completed you r procedure, suggest ways of
improving it so t hat your conclusions are more reliable.
To e-r;tend my enqu'lr!:l, I cooLd "find oot how the
resistance of the nichrome wire depends 011 Looking further
the d'iarneter. Suggest some further work which migh t prod uce extra
evidence or take your procedure furt heJ:

Wr iting y our report

The student's commentary was designed to help you understand the different stages of
an procedu re. It includes far more detail than you would normally put in a report. When
p roducing your own report these are the things you should include:

Planning
• A description of what the procedUre is about.
Analysing and concluding 3
• Graphs and charts.
• A predidion of what you think w ill happen. and why. • Calculations based on your data.
• A list of key variables. and a description of how you will • A conclUSion, including details o f :
measure or control each one. - whal you found out
• A list of the equipment needed. - whether your findings matched your prediction.
• Diagrams showing how the equipment will be set up.
• A description of what you plan to do.
Evaluating
• Comments about:
Getting evidence _ how reliable you think your results were
• A description of what you did, including commen ts _ any anomalous results, and their po ssible causes
about any difficulties and how you overcame them. _ how your procedure could be improved
• Tabies sholNing all measurements. including units. _ further worK that could be done.
 ................................................................................
PRAC TI CAL PHYS I CS

Some experimentaL investigations

Here are some s uggestio n s for practical work. Some are full investigations.
Others are shorter exercises to help you develop your experimental skills.

Measuring newspaper
plan and carry out experiments to measure:
a the thickness of one sheet of newspaper b t he mass of o ne sheet of
newspaper c the d ens ity of t he paper used .
Start by thinking about the (allowing:
Ifa s in gle sheet is too t hi n to measure accurately, how can you improve the
accuracy?

Wet or dry?
The makers of a well-known brand of soft tissue paper claim that their tissues
are just as strong wet as d ry. Are they right? Plan a nd carry out an enqui ry to
test t he ir claim.
Slart by thil1king aboul the (allowing:
What is meant by the 'strength' of a tissue? Do you need use a w hole t issue?
When co mparing tissues. how can you make sure t hat your test is fair?

Fine or coarse?
Coarse glasspaper ('sandpaper') rubs through a wooden surface more q u ickly
than fine glass paper. But does it prod uce more friction? plan a nd carry out
experiments to fin d out.
Start by thillkillg about th e (ollowil1g:
How can you measure the frict ional force when glasspaper is rubbed on
wood ? H ow can you keep the glasspaper pressed agai nst the wood ? Will t he
force used to press the glasspaper against t he wood affect t he result? How can
you make sure t hat your tes t is fa ir?

Pendulum
The time of one complete swing of a pendulu m is called its period .
The period of swing mig/If be affected by t hese factors: t he mass of the bob.
the ampl itud e (size) of th e swing. t he length of t he pendulum.
Pla n and carry out a n enquiry to find out w hich factors affect the period.
Start by thinking abow th e (allowing:
The period of your pendulum will probably be a couple of seconds at most.
How are you going to find the time of one swing accurately ? How are you
going to measure t he size of the swing?

,, Note: make sure th at t he top of the pendulu m string is firmly held so that
t here is no movement at that point.
,I Fw1her work:
---" Find out how the period of o ne pendulum compares with anot her of four
"'"i:::=========" times the length . Is there a simple co nnection between the length a nd the
one comp lete ~wj ng period ? Does t he connection work for o ther lengths as well?
................................ ..................................................... ......
PRAC TI CAL PHYS I CS

Stretching rubber
A company wa nts to market a c heap spring balance fo r weighing letters. Their
designer suggests t hat, to save money. t hey could use a rubber band instead
of a spring. Their tec hn ician says tha t t his would be unsatisfaclOlY because
rubber bands ch ange le ngth and 'springiness' once they have been stloctched.
Who is correct? pla n and carry out a n enqu iry to fi nd oul.

Find the mass

I~la n and cany out an experiment to fi nd t he mass of a lump of Plasticine
( 01" some other solid). You are not allowed to use a balance w ith a mass scale
already marked on it. And you are not allowed to use slotted masses of less
t ha n 50 g.
Further work:
Take t he pl"Oblem a stage further. Plan and carry out exper iments to measu re a
much smaller mass - s uc h as the mass of a pen or pen cil.
This l ime. you can use a selection of standard masses down to 5 g.
Starl by thinkillg about ti,e fOl/OlVillg:
Your original design will probably not be sens itive e nough to measure a small
mass. Can it be modified in some way to make it more sens itive?

Bouncing ball
Some table tennis balls have more 'bounce' than ot hel'S . Plan a nd cany out a n
e nquiry to comp3loc the bounce of two table tennis balls.
Sian by thinking about the follolVing:
What is meant by 'bounce'? What do you need to measure? Whe n comparing =
t he balls. how can you make sure t hat your test is fair?

Parachute design
The d iagram o n the right shows a s imple model parachute. Plan and cany out
a n enqu iry to find our if there is a li nk between t he design of t he parach ute
a nd the speed al w hic h it falls.
Sta rl by tltillkil1g abou l the {allowing:
Shape a nd a rea are two possible features of the design . Will you invest igate
bot h? How wi.ll you make s ure that your tests are fa ir? How will you wo rk OUl
the speed of fall?

Double-glazing
In cooler countries. people fi t double-glazing in their 110uses because two
layel'S of glass, w ith a ir between. are s upposed to lose thermal e nergy (heat)
more slowly t ha n a s ingle layer. But does double-glazi.ng cut down t hermal
e nergy loss? Plan and carry out a n enquiry to fi nd out.
SIan by thinking about the following:
How are you going to set up a double layer of glass w ith air betwecn? What
will you use as a source of t hermal e nergy? How will you tell w hcther the fl ow
of thermal en ergy is red uced w he n t he extra layer of glass is added ? Will your
test be fa ir? __ glass

glass

'"
 ................................................................................
PRAC TI CAL P H YS I CS

Salt on ice
During wim el: salt is often sprayed o n t he roads t.o melt t he ice. Pure ice has a
melt ing point of 0 0c. Add ing salt to ice affects th e melt in g point.
plan and carry out experiments to find o ut how the melting point of ice
c hanges w hen salt is m ixed in. Find out if there is a connection between th e
melt ing point a nd t he concentratio n of salt in t he ice. (The concentratio n can
be measured in grams of salt per cm) of ice.)
Start by [hil/king about the (allowing:
How w ill you make sure that the salt a nd ice are properly m ixed ? H ow are yo u
going to measure the melting po int?

The speed of sound

l~~~
" ~.~
I n the diagram on the left, someone is holding a vibrating tuning fork abO\·e
a measur ing cylinder: Sound waves travel down the cylinder and back. a nd
make t he a ir inside vibrate. If the length of the air column is exactly a q uarter

r
leng1h
of ai r
column
of the wavelength of t he sou nd . t he a ir vibrations are strongest and the ail'
gives out its loudest note . The effect is called resonance.
The speed of sou nd is linked to its freq uency and wavele ngth by this equation:
speed (m/s) = fr eq uency (H z) X wavelength (m)
Using t he information above, plan a nd carry out a n enqu iry to fi nd the speed
of sound in a ir.
Start by thinking about the (allowing:
As a measuri ng cylinder has a fi.' \ed length. h ow will yo u vary t he length of t he
a ir column ins ide?

Apparent depth
The person in t he diagram on t he left is looking at a p in on the bottom of a
beaker of water. Light from t he p in is refracted (bent) w hen it leaves t he watel:
As a result. the water looks less deep t ha n it really is a nd th e p in appears
closer to the surface than it really is.
Plan and carry out a n experiment to find the apparent depth of some water in
a beaker.
Start by t!'inking about the (allowing:
If you look at a p in in some water. it is a n image of t he pin wh ic h you are
seeing. How can you locate the posit io n of t his image? Could you use a s imilar
method to that used to find th e posit io n of a n image in a m irror?

Two pairs or one?

People claim that two pai rs of socks are warmer than o ne. But does an extra
pair cut down the loss of th ermal e nergy (heat)? Plan a nd carry out an enquiry
to find o ut. (You do not h ave to use warm feet as you r source of th ermal
e nergyO
Start by dlil1king abow the (oIlOtving:
How are yo u going to tell th at one object is losing heat more rapidly than
a nother? How will you make sure that your test is fa ir?
............................................................................................. PRAC T I CAL P H YS I CS

Image size and distance

image on
"",m
~
w(\vex len~

0
ray box

-
Place a brigh t object well away from a convex lens as in the diagram. a n d you
,,c----:--,,, tissue
ca n get a clear image on a screen. If you move the object closer. the s ize a nd
, V paper
t he posit ion of t he image bot h c ha nge, a nd you need t o move t he screen to get ,,• / V
.,
a clear image again. <---.-----~ <ard with
t--squa re
Is t here a connection between t he size of t he image a n d its di stance fmm the
hole in it
lens? Plan and carry out a n enquiry to fmd out.

Current- voltage investigations

Plan a n d carry out e:xperimen ts to find out how t h e c u rrent in each of th e
follow ing de pends on the voltage across it:
1) nic hrome wire, kept at constant temperature
2) t he filament of a lamp
3) a sem icond uctor diode.
Sta/1 by thinkil1g about the following:
How will you vary t he voltage across each component and measure the
current in it? What checks m ust yo u do to make su re t hat t he current in each
component is safe, and does not cause damage?

Making a resistor
Resistors are used for keeping voltages a nd currents at correct levels in
electroni c circuits.
Using nichrome w ire, make a resistor wit h a resistance of 5 fl.
Stal1 by thinking about the following:
How does th e length of wire affect its resistance? How is res istance
calculated? What circu it will you use LO test the nichrome? From your
measuremen ts, how can you work out how much wire you need?

Thermistor investigation
Thermistors have a resistance that varies cons iderably w ith temperature. They
can be used as temperature sensors. Plan a nd carry out a n experiment to find
out how the resistance of a t hermistor varies between 0 °C and 100 °C.
Stari by t Milking abollt tile following:
How will you c hange and control the temperature of t he t helmistor? How
will you measure the resistance of the therm istor? H ow w ill you make sure
that you r circu it doesn't heat up the t herm istor?
PRACT I CAL PHYS I CS

Taking a practical test

This spread should help you if you have to take a practical test in p hysics.
The test is t he same at both Core and Extended LeveL You will not need any
knowledge of physics beyond Core Level. There are two typical questions on
t he oppos ite page.
I nstead of doing a practical test, you may have to s it an alternative-to-practical
examination paper. Your teacher will be able to tell you w hic h form of
assessment applies to you. There are some sample alternative-to-practical
questions in Section 15 (I GCSE practice quest ions).

Apparatus used in the test

'-n your test, you could be asked to carry out experiments involving
the following;
• Measuring p hysical quantities such as length, volume, or force .
• Cooling a nd heating (for example, Quest ion 1 on the next page).
• Springs a nd balances (for example, Question 2 on the next page).
• Timing motion or oscillations.
• Electric circu its.
• Optics equipment such as m irrors, pl; sms, and lenses.

Preparing for the test

Before taking a practical test, there are certain things you need to be
fam iliar w ith. These are listed in I~ra c tjcal preparation o n page 292.
Most also apply if you are taking t he alternative-to-practical papel:
Go throu gh the list and ch eck t hem one by one.

During the test

Make sure that you can do the following:
• Take plenty of readings .
• Whe n you record your I'ead ings, remember to inclu de the correct
units. If you al'e putting your read ings in a table, t h e col umn
headings should also include the correct units.
• Record readings o r results wit h a suitable degree of accuracy.
• Identify any a nomalou s results.
• Justify your conclusions by referring to your data.
• Identify any possible causes of uncertainty.
For more information about a ny of t he above, see page 292.
 PRAC TI CAL PHYS I CS

1 111 /his experiment YOII are to investigate the effect of
irlSlllation orl the rare of cooling of hot water.
Record your observations in tables like t hose at
the bottom of the page. Carry ou t the foll owing
instructions. referring to t he diagram below.
2 111 this experiment, YOli will investigate the sfretching
of a spring.
Carry out the follow ing instruct ions. refeni ng to
the diagram. The spring may have been set up for
you. Do not cha nge its position .
clamp - - -

u "';"-1
IO$ulatioo

You are provided with two beakers labelled A

a nd B. Beaker B is insulated. Do not remove this
7)7J777/77J7J
insulation . You also have a supply of hot watel: bench
a Pour h ot water into beaker A untH it is
approximately two thi rds full . a i Measure the vel1ical di stan ce de in mm
b Measure the temperature 0 of the hot water. between t he bottom of the spring a nd the
Record this temperature in t he table for time surface of t he benc h.
1 = 0 s. jj Copy the d iagram (there is no need to s how

c Start t he stopwatch and then record the
temperature of the water at 30 s intervals for a
total o f 4 minutes.
d Complete the column headings in the table.
e Use t he data in the table to plot a graph of e
(y.ax is) against I (x-axis). Draw the best fi t
c urve.
r Repeat steps (a) - (d ) using beaker B.
g Use t he data obtained from p311 (I) to plot
anoth er curve on t he same graph axes that you
used Eor part (e ).
h The experiment you have just done was designed
to investigate t he effect of insulation on t he I"3Te
of cooling. Suggest two improvements that could
be made to t he design of t he experiment.
all the details of the spring). Mark clearly the
d istance you have measured . Then copy the
table below.
jii Ha ng a 1.0 N load on the spri ng. Record th e
value of the load L in the table. Measure, a nd
record in t he table. t he distance d between
t he bottom of the spring a nd the surface of
the bench.
h i Calculate the extension e of the spring using
t he equation e = (do - d). Record t he value
of e in t he table.
v Repeat steps iii and iv using loads of 2.0 N.
3.0 N, 4.0 Nand 5.0 N. Record all t he
readings and results in the table. [4]
LI N dlmm elmm

Beaker A Beaker B
II II
0
8/
0 "
30 30
60 60
90 90
b On graph paper, plot a graph of elmm (y-axis)
120 120
aga inst UN (x-axis) . [4]
150 150
180 180 c Determine the gradient G of the graph. Show
clearly on the graph how you obtained the
210 210
necessary infonnation. [2 ]
240 240
Cambridge rGeSE Phys ics 0625/51
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625
Paper 5 Q3 November 200 5 Paper 5 01 November 201 2
PRAC TI CAL P H YSICS

Use the list below to help yo u prepa re for you r practical t en. You can eithe r
photocopy it or print it from t he file on t he CD accompanying t his boo k.
The page number, in brackets, tell5 you where to find more info rmation.

Core and Extend ed Level

Check to make s ure tha t you know how to do each of the follow ing.
Most of these also apply if you are taking a n alternative-to-pract ical
exam ination paper.
o Identify key varjables. (page 280)
o Explain w hy certain variables should be controlled. (page 28 1)
o Measure lengths to the nearest half m illimetre using a r ule. (page 283)
o Measure angles to the nearest half d egree using a protractor. (page 296)
o Measure time u s ing a stopwatch or stopclock. (page 15)
o Measure mass using a balance. (pages 12 a nd 20)
o If meas ul-ing rhe mass of a liquid , allow for the mass of its
co ntainer. (page 18)
o Measure the volume of a liquid using a measuring cyli ndel: (page 18)
o Measure a force, s uc h as weight. us ing a spring balance. (page 36)
o When using meters or ot her instruments with scales o n t hem , be able
take readi ngs t ha t lie between t he d ivisions on t he scale. (page 283)
o Calculate s imple areas a nd volumes: for example , the area of a rectangle
o r triangle, or t he volume of a rectangular block. (pages 18 and 296)
o Allow fo r zero errors w hen making measure ments. (page 15)
o Record readings. or do calculations, w ith a suitable level of
accuracy - a nd n ot incl ude too many s ignifica nt figu res . (page 282)
o Includ e the cm rect units with your readings. (page 282)
o Find the a verage value of several s imilar readings . (page s 282 a nd 295)
o Draw a line of best fi t on a graph. (page 284)
o Find the grad ie nt of a graph. (page 28)
o Read off new values from a graph line. (page 295)
o Understand d irect a nd inverse proport ion. (page 295)
o Draw circuit diagrams us ing symbols. (pages 178 and 32 1)

© oup: thjs may I)e ~produced for ctass use solely for the pu rchaser's lnst lture
 summary of the mathematical

A concep ts and skills required

fo," rGCSE examinatio ns.
................................................................................
M A TH EMA TI CS FOR P H YSICS

The essential mathematics

For IC CSE exam inations, you will need so me basic skills in mathematics. The
follow ing are typical of w hat is required.

Adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing

You should be fam iliar w ith t he symbols +, - , x , a nd -'- and t he processes
they represent. This may sound obvious, bu t it includes understanding t he
link be tween division and fractions, as described ne.'!(t.

Using fractions and decimals

A half can of cou rse be w ri n e n as ~ (sometimes printed as 'h o r 112).
However, you sho uld also understand t hat it means 1 -:- 2
Improper fract ions are th ose with a b igger nu mber on the top t ha n the
bottom:
for example , ~~ , w hich means 48 ~ 12.
You should be able to wd te fract ions using decimals. So, one half is 0.5.
Decimals may have several num bers after the point. However, you s hould
understand that 0.489, fo r example , is smaller tha n 0.5.

Using percentages
You should understand t hat percentages are fract ions of one hund red . So , for
example , one half is 15000 ' w hi ch is 50%. Th e perce nt symbol % really means
'd ivided by 100'.

Using ratios
Ratios are a not her way o f expressing fractions. If some apples are being
s hared between two peo ple in t he ratio 2 : 3, there are 5 'parts' to divide up ,
so one person gets ~ o f t he total. a nd the ot he r get s ~ o f the total
I f there were 10 apples to sh are:
one person would get ~ X la, which is 4 apples;

the ot her person would ge t ~, x to, w hich is 6 apples.

Working out reciprocals

1 is called t he reciprocal of the nu mber. For example:
number
The reciprocal of 2 i S~, or 0. 5.

The reciprocal of l O is 1~. or 0.1

You may h ave to work o ut reciprocals when preparing readi ngs fo r a graph.
Ma ny calculators have a special key for doing t his.
·............................................................................................
MA TH EMATICS FOR P H YS I CS

Drawing and interpreting graphs and charts

Graphs are a way of present ing sets of scie ntific data so t hat tn~ nds or laws
can more easily be seen. For more information on how to prepare a graph a nd
d raw a line of best fit. see spread 13.04.
You should be able to read off new values from a graph line. Finding "alues
between existing points is called interpolation. Extendi ng a graph line to
estimate new values beyond t he measured points is called extrapolation.
Data can also be presented in charts. A table is one form of c hait. A pie chart
is another: it shows the different proportions or percentages making up the
... Proport ions of home and away
w hole. From the example on t he right. you s hould be able to ded uce that 25%
supporters attending a footbal l
of the people at a football match supported the away team.
match

Understanding direct and inverse proportions

Look at the sets of values for X and Yin t he table on t he right. If X doubles,
)' doubles: if X triples, Y t riples. Also. dividi ng V by X always gives the same
number (4). and a graph of Yagainst X is a straight line through t he origin.
These all indicate that X a nd)' are in direct proportion. This can be expressed
in the form Y a X, where rx is the symbol for 'directly proportional to'.
Now look at t he sets of values for X a nd Z on t he right. In this case, if X
doubles , Z halves , and so o n. And multiplyillg Z by X always gives t he same
number (12). H ere. Z and X are in inverse proportion.
The table also includes a colum n for t he reciprocals of X. Note that Z a nd Vx
are in direct proport ion. So, a n other way of expressing t he inverse proport ion
between Z and X is t.o write: Z a Yx
Understanding indices
You s hould know that 23 means 2 X 2 X 2. and t hat 10 4 means
lOX 10 X 10 X 10. The tiny numbers J a nd 4 are called indices.
For more advanced work. it is usefu l to know about n egative ind ices.
For example. 10- 4 mea ns 1~4

Understanding numbers in standard notation

In standard notation (also called stand ard form, or sc ientific notation),
numbers are expressed using powers of 10. For example, 1500 is written as
1.5 X 10 3 . Using standa rd notation, you can indicate how accurately a value is
known. This is explained in Spread 1.01.

Using a calculator
You need to able to use a calculator correctly. For example, to work out a
value for ~. you would key in t his: 6 x 7 -:- 11 -:- 3 =
11 X 3
As a result , the calculator d isplay will show th is: 1.2727273

Working out an average

If you have, say, five s imilar readings a nd need to fi nd the average, you add up
the fi ve readi ngs a nd divide t he to tal by 5. (See also Spread 13.03.)
 ................................................................................
M AT H EMA TI CS FOR P H YSICS

If a calculator display reads 1.2 727273 . you m ust be a ble to interpret this
correctly. If the odginal numbers came from expeIi mental da ta. you could not
justify giving the res ult so accurately. 1.27. or 1. 3 if you round it up. would be
more appropriate.
You should also be able to interpret high n umbers on a calculator. For
example . 2.S X 109 w ill probably be d isplayed as 2.5 E 09. or just 2.S 09

Making approximations and estimations

You should be able to c heck w hether a result is reasonable by doi ng a rough
estimate wit hout a calculato r. For example. if you divide 12 by 2.95 . you
should realise that th e answer will be ju st ove r 4. So . if the calculator d isplays
40.67 . you have made a m istake in keying in t he numbers.

Understanding units
Most meas urements ha ve units as well as nu mbers: for example. a speed of
10 m/s. When giving a res ult . you m ust always include t he unit. For more
about u nits. see spread 1.0 1.

rectangle Understanding number accuracy

You should understand t he s ignificance of w hole n umbers. You may cou nt
12 students in a room as a n exact number. but if a length measu rement is
given as 12 mm . this only indicates t hat t he value lies somewhere between
11.5 mm and 12.5 mm.

pa rallf:O logram
Manipulating equations
lf you are give n a n equation like this: Z = ~

you should be able to rearrange it to give Y = Z x X. a nd X = ~

Understanding the terms for shapes, lines, and angles

As well as t he circle. sphere . tria ngle. square. and c ube. you need to know the
tenns shown in the first tiu-ee diagrams on t he left.

h Using the links between length, area, and volume

area ", ~Xh X b
You should be able to calculate the area of a rectangle. the area of a right-angled
b
triangle (see left) . and the volume of a rectangular block (see spread 1.0 5).

N
Using mathematical instruments
The basic instruments are a ruler for measu ring length . a protracto r for
measuring a ngles in degrees (0). compasses for drawing circles. and a set
square for use in d rawing right a ngles.

Knowing the points ofthe compass

The directions north . sout h . east. a nd west are called the points of t h e compass .
5
To make sure you know w hic h is w hic h. look at the diagram o n the left.
 selection of questions from

A IGCSE examination papers

and o ther sources.
IGCSE PRACTICE QUESTIONS MUL TICHOICE QUESTIONS (CORE)

1 The d iagram below s hows the mass of a measudng 5 The diagram shows the two forces acting on a small
cyli ndet' before some liquid is poured into il and object.
t hen after, 3N

<m' <m'
200 200 ·
·
·
·
100 100 ·
· f--- IIQu,d

5N

Whic h of t he followi ng is t he resultant force on the

ma!.S:90g mil!>~= t90g
object?
A 8 N downwards
What is t he de n s ity of the liqu id? B 8 N upwards
A- I00g/'
- em' B -I00g/
- em, C 2 N downwards
160 130 D 2 N upwards
C -190
- 9em'/' D -I00g/
- em ,
160 130 6 A manometer. containing watet~ is used to measure
2 A motorcycle accelerates from rest. The graph the pressure of a gas supply in a school laboratory.
shows how its speed c hanges w ith time. Its reading is II cm of watet:

"',,"
m;;-
go<
--"-'-'~. :======;--
30 -------r----- $Upply

o ~--~------------------
o 10

What distance does the motorcycle travel before it

reaches a steady speed?
A 3m B 30m Why is it better to use water in the manometer.
C 150m D 300m rat her tha n mercury?
3 Whic h type of power station does /lot use steam A With mercury. a nalTower tube would be needed.
from boiling water to turn the generators? B With mercUl)'. a wider tube would be needed.
A coal-fired C With mercury. II would be too large .
B hydroelectric D Wi th merCUl)', II would be too small.
C geot hermal 7 When a vehicle is travelling along, the temperature
D nuclear of its tyres increases. This causes the air pressure
4 A large electric motor is used to lift a load off a lony. in t he tyres to lise. Why is this?
Which of t he follow ing values would be enough for A The molecules in the air increase in numbel:
you to calculate t he power of the motor? B The molecules in the a ir move at a higher speed.
A The current used and t he work done. C Molecules in t he a ir expand w ith the r ise in
B The force used a nd the distance moved . temperature.
C The mass lifted and the d istance moved. D There is more force betwee n rhe molecules in
D The work done and the t ime taken. t he a it:
 MULTICHOICE QUESTIONS (CORE) IGCSE PRACTICE QUESTIONS

8 A vacuum Aask has double walls of glass or steel 12 w h ich component, used in electronic c ircuits , has a
w ith a vacuum between them. Which kinds of heat resistance w hich falls w hen the temperature t ·ises?
transfer are reduced by t he vacuum? A transformer
A convection a nd radiation B relay
B conductio n and convectio n C t henn istor
C conduction and radiation D res istor
D conduction , convection, and rad iatio n 13 The voltage and c un"ent ratings of four electli c
9 An alarm is too q u iet. so a technicia n adjusts it heaters are shown in the table below. Which of
to prod uce a louder note of the same p itch. What th e h eaters has t he highest resista nce?
effect does this have on the amplitude and o n the
voltag@ I V cu rre nt I A
frequency of the sound?
A 110 4.0
amplitude frequency B 110 8.0
A larger same C 230 4.0
B same larger 0 230 8.0
C larger larger
0 same same
'4 In the c ircui t below, th e 12 V lamp glows w hen
switch S is open.
10 Waves in a ripple tank spread out w hen they pass 1.12 V
th rough a gap like this: f--j

I '' ~
R

""
l~mp

,
I
5

If switch S is then closed , w hat h appens to tI 'e

bright ness of t he lamp?
T his effect is called A It stays the same. B It goes off.
A diffraction C refraction C It beco mes di mmer. 0 It becomes brightec.
B reflect jon o rad iat io n. 15 A transformer has 200 turns o n its pti maty c o il and
400 tums on its second ary coil. An AC vol tage of
11 long • • - . - •• - • • • • •• wavelength •• -.- • •• - •• short
50 V is applied to t he p ri mary coil .

~C
_,.
radio
infra red E p X-rays Q
waves -

primary COil
T he c hart above shows the main types of radi ation 200 turns 400 turns
in t he electromagnetic spectrum. Two haven't been
What is the voltage across the secondaty coil ?
named. Which type does P represent?
A 25 V B 50V C 100 V 0 200 V
A microwaves
B sound waves 16 A sample con tains 800 mg of a radioactive
C gamma rays material, w hk h emits ct-particles. The mater·lal has
o ultraviolet a half·li fe of 6 days . Wh at mass o f material i s still
radioactive after 18 d ays?
A O mg B 100 mg C 200 mg o 400 mg
I GCSE PRAC TI CE QUES TI ONS MUL TICHOICE QUESTIONS (EXTENDED)

1 A m o torcycle accelerates from rest. The graph 5 w hich of t hese units is the same as t he watt (W)?
sh ows how iTS speed c hanges w ith time. A I B J/m 2 e l ls D I1s1
6 The ta ble s hows the pe rformance of four electric
,peed
moto rs of slightly different designs.
m.-
·/1,.-1----- input power ' W
o utput power I W
A

200
160
B
300
210
c
200
150
o
100
SO

o ~--~------------------ Which m o tor has the highest efficie ncy?

o 10 ti me/~ A m otor A
B m otor B
What is the acceleration of the motorcycle over the
fi rst 10 seconds? C m oto!" C
D m otor 0
A 3o mls
8 3o m/s! 7 Air is trapped in a cylinder at a pressure of 1200 kPa.
C1 .5 m/s 2 A p iston is pulled o ut slowly so that the a ir expand s
0 3 .0 m/s2 to three times its volume .
2 What force is need ed to give a car o f mass 1000 kg
;;..
a n acceleration of 2 m/s 2
A 500 N
B 2000 N
C 2000 kg
I II air

piston
7
0 50 N
Assum ing that t here is no c ha nge in temperature,
3 A spring o beys Hoo ke's law when st retched . The
w hat wo uld you expect the pressure of t he air to be?
table gives so me informat io n about th e length of
A 3600 kPa
t he spring when d iffe rent loads are applied.
B 600 kPa
C 400 kPa
oad ' N a 2 4 6
f- D 200 kPa
lengt h ' em so 62 74 86
8 Co pper is a m uch better t hermal co nducto r t ha n
What is the extens ion of the spring w he n the glass . Wh ic h of the follow ing is the only accurate
load is 5 N? explanatio n for this?
A 85 cm A In glass , t here are free electrons between the
B 73 cm ato ms that block the u'ausfer of enet"gy.
C 30 cm B In co pper, t here are free electrons between t he
D 35 cm atoms t hat can transfer energy quickly through
the material.
4 For w hich of the follow ing e nergy r esources djd the
C In COppel~ t he atoms vibmte m ore q u ickly t han
e nergy not or ig inally come from the Su n?
t hey do in glass.
A nuclear
D In co pper, t he a toms are closer together th a n
B tidal
they are in glass.
C oil
D hydroelectric
 MULTICHOICE QUESTIONS (EXTENDED) IGCSE PRACT I CE QUESTIONS

9 A lou dspeaker em its sou nd waves of freque ncy 13 Three resistan ces are an'anged in t his combination:
640 Hz. T hey travel t hrough cold air at a speed of
320 mls. What is the ir wavelength ? 60
A 20m 60
B 2.0 m 60
C 0.5 m
D 0.05 m What is the combined resistance?
10 An object is being viewed th rough a convex lens A 18 n B 90 C 60 1) 20
w hic h is being used as a magnifying glass. 14 Here is a combination of two logk gates . One input
is set at I the other aT 0:

--~lc--------F~'--f----i
! ~ o
ANO NOT >O--Q
i I object
principal
fo'lli which of t he follow ing accurately represents t he
Whic h of t he following accurately describes the states of P and Q?
A P is O. Q is 1
image?
B Pis I.Q is 1
A The image is virtual a nd just in front of t he eye.
B The image is real a nd at the principal focus. C Pis O. Q is a
e The image is real a nd at position X. DPis l. QisO
D The image is Viliua} a nd al position X. 15 A transformer has 200 turns on its primary coil and
11 Two wires. X a nd Y are made of t he same metal 400 turns on its secondary coil. An AC voltage of
a nd are at t he same temperature. Y is twice as long 50 V is applied to t he pri mary coil.
as X a nd has twice the cross-sectional area.

A[a)======~x~======~
y 200 tums 400 tu rns
2A O )
21 If t he current in t he primary coil is 2.0 A and he
transformer has a n effici ency of 10OCio. w hat is the
Whic h of the follow ing is correct?
current in the secondary coil?
A X and Y have the same resistance.
S X has half t he resistance of Y. A 0 .5 A B 1.0 A C 4.0 A D 10 A

C X has do uble t he res istance of Y. 16 An unstable nucleus has 137 neutrons and 88
D X has four t imes the res istance of Y. protons. It decays by emitting a i3-particle. How
ma ny neutrons a nd protons does t he nucleus have
12 Which component. used in electronic circuits. allows
after emitting th e l3-particle?
c urrent to flow tlU"ough in one di rection only?
A transfOimer
neutrons protons
B res istor
A 136 88
C theml istor
D diode B 136 89
c 137 87
o 137 89
 I GCSE PRAC TI CE QUES TI ONS IGCSE THEORY QUESTIONS

Questions from IGCSE theory papers 2 a State what is meant by the terms
L Unes at the s ide indicate extended level. i weigh t, [1 ]
Assume g = 10 m/sl ii de ns ity. [1 ]
b A stude nt is given a spri ng balance t hat has a
1 Drops o f wate r fro m a cracked gutter fall pas t the
scale in newtons. The studen t is told t hat t he
w indow of an IGCSE Physics student's roo m . as
acceleration of free-fall is 10 m/sl.
sho wn in t he di agram.
i Describe how the stude nt could find the
mass of a n irregular sol id object. [2]
ii Describe how th e stude nt co uld go o n to
find the dens ity of t he object. [2]
c The diagram below shows t hree forces acting
on a n object of mass 0. 5 kg. All th ree fo rces act
th rough the ce ntre of mass of t he object.
centre of mass
•
cracked
gutter
~.~9~.0~N~__________~~;f
~
3.=0=N~.~~.~ 4.0 N
Calculate
i the magnitude and d irect ion o f the resultan t
force o n the object , [2J
ii t he magni tude o f t he acceleratio n of t he object.
•
The student uses a digital sto pwatch to find t he t ime
L Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625
[2J

between o ne d rop a nd t he next. To do tills he Paper 3 Q l November 200 5

- sets the sto pwatch to zero. then , 3 The diagram belo w shows the speed- t ime graph of
- starts the stopwatch as a d rop comes into view at part of a sh0l1 jo um ey made by a cyclist.
the top of the win dow, then, 2S
- stops the stopwatch 40 d rops latel: '\Peed P_ _ _ _ _ _...."Q
-j"- :.
(iilS20
The appearance of the stopwatch after 40 drops is
shown below. 15

10

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
t imels

a Whic h pat1 of t he graph shows when the cyclist

is travell ing at constant speed ? [1 ]
a State the reading o n the sto pwatch (i n s). [1 ]
b State w hat is happeni ng dur ing t he rest of t he
b Calculate t he t ime interval between one drop
jo urney s hown in t he graph . [1 ]
and the next. [2J
c i Calculate t he dista nce travelled d uIing t he
c E:xplain w hy it is better to time 40 intervals
fi r st 50 s.
th an to t ime just I intelv al. [l J ii Calculate the distance travelled between 50 s
d Using t he firsT diagram . eSTimate t he t ime
a nd 100 s.
for a d rop to fall from t he top of t he upper
iii Calculate t he to tal distance travelled.
w indow to th e grou nd. [3J
iv Calculate the average speed duIing the 100 s . [8]
e The fu'St diagram shows that the d rops get
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625
furth er apart as t hey get closer to the
Paper 2 Q 3 J une 2004
gro und . E."plain w hy this happens. [ 1]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/22
Paper 2 Q 1 November 20 10
 IGCSE THEORY QUESTIONS IGCSE PRAC TI CE QUESTIONS

4 A wheel is rotating at approximately 2 revolut ions 7 A solid plastic sphere falls toward s the Earth.
per seco n d. Describe how you would use a The diagram bclow s hows t he speed- time graph of
stopwatch to measure as accurately as possible the the fall up to the point where the sphere hits the
time for one revolution of t he wheel. Make sure Earth's s u rface.
you include all t he relevant information. [5]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 062 5
Pape r 2 02 November Z00 3
5 Some fat purch ased from a s hop is s upplied as the
block shown below.

10 ( m

•• ~ ~ • ~ e ~ ~ • 1~ •••
tlme/s

a Describe in detail t he mot ion o f the sphere

show n by the graph. [3 ]
b Draw a circle to represent the sphel-e. and add
an'ows to show t he directions of t he forces
acting on the sphere w he n it is at t he position
show n by point S on the graph . Label you r
Use the information in t he di agram to calculate arrows w it h the names of t he forces. [2 ]
a the vol ume of the block (i n em 3) , [2] c Explain w hy t he sphere is moving w ith consta nt
h t he density of t he fat. G ive you r a nswer to 2 speed at S. [2]
significant fi gu res. [5] d Use the graph to calculate the approximate
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 062 5 distance that t he sphere falls
j between R a nd T, [2 ]
Paper 2 0 10 November 2005
6 This question is about trucks from a small tra in in
l!! between P a nd O. [2]
Adapt.ed from Cambridge IGCS E Physics 0625
a park:
Paper 3 0 1 June 200 5
3 m/s
8 The diagram below s hows apparatus for
investigat ing moments of forces.
D'1'----r--, 01'--'1,0 [
• • • • sprmg h~"o"""ly balanced
balance metre
mass ~"
240 kg 360 kg

One u·uck. mass 240 kg, is given a push a nd

released at a speed of 3 mis. H collides with a b igger. 6.0 N hoc,'o<". ' pivot
......eight
stationary truck of mass 360 kg and links with ii.
Calculate t he following, assuming that t here is no The uniform metre rule s hown in the diagram
friction to oppose t he motion of t he tlucks. above is in equ ilibrium .
a The m omentum of the smaller truck before a Wdte down two cond it ions for t he metre rule to
the collis ion. [2] be in equilibrium. [2 ]
b The total momentum of t he trucks after they b Show t hat t he value of t he reading on t he spring
ha ve co mbined . [ 1] balance is 8.0 N. [2 ]
c The total mass of t he trucks a fte r they have c The weight o fi he u nifotnl metre rule is 1.5 N.
combined. [1] Calculate the force exerted by the p ivot on t he
d The speed of the trucks after they have metre rule a nd give its direction. [2 ]
combined. [2] Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625
Paper 3 0 2 November 200 5
I GCSE PRAC TI CE Q U ES TI ONS IGCSE THEORY QUESTIONS

9 A b ucket is full of o iL The rotal mass of t he b ucket 11 The diagram below s hows a d iver 50 m below the
of o il is 5.4 kg a nd t he gravitational fiel d strength su rface of the water.
is 10 N/kg. -,lr------I/~-- water surface
a Calculate the total weight of the bucket of oil. [1 ]
b The b ucket of o il is hung from a spring of
II
unstretched length 20 cm. The lim it o f !
50 1
II

propo rtionality of the spring is no t exceed ed

and its length increases to 35 cm.
i State w hat is mean t by t he limit of
proportionality.
ii The o il is po ured into a rneasUling tank.
The empty b ucket stretches the spring to
a length of 25 cm. Calculate
I t he force t hat stretches t he spring to
a length o f 25 em.
2 the mass o f the o il in the measu li ng
tank.
iii The vo lume of the oil in the measuring tank
is 0.0045 m J . Calculate t he density o f the o il. [2]
c Explain. in terms of the ir m olecules . why the
d e nsity of the oil is greater t han that of a ir.
Cambrid ge IGCSE Ph ysics 0625/33
Paper 3 02 November 2012
10 The d iagram shows an aeroplane o f mass 3.4 X 10 5 kg
accelemting u ni fonnly from rest alo ng a lunway.
!i
[1 ]
[3]
a The d ensity of water is 1000 kglm3 and the
[2J
acceleration o f free fall is 10 m/s 2 • Calculate the
pressure t hat t he wate r exerts o n the di ver. [3]
b The wind ow in t he diver's helmet is J50 mm wide
[1 ] and 70 mm from top to bottom. Calculate th e
force that the water exerts on tllis window. [3]
Cambri d ge IGCSE Phys ics 0 625
Paper 3 0 2 November 2003
1 2 The di agram below shows a s imple pend ulum that
swings backwards and fo rward s between P and Q.

.f1••••••.•..f1......... {J......... tJ ..••

••• •••
support

•• •••
••• • stri ng
After 26 s it reaches a speed o f 65 m/s. ••• ••
••
a Calculate •• ••
L i the acceleration o f the aeropla ne
ii t he resultan t force on t he aeropla ne.
[2 ]
[2J ••
0P
•
••• ••
••
•
b Just afte r taking off, t he aeroplane continues
to accelerate as it gains he igh t. R ~ pendulum bob
i State two forms o f e nergy t hat increase a The time taken for the pendulum to swing
d uring t hi s t ime. [2J from P to 0 is approx imately 0.5 s. Describe
ii State one form of energy t hat d ecreases how you wo uld determ ine t hi s t ime as
d uring this t ime. [1 J accu rately as poss ible. [2J
iii State wh y the total energy of the aeroplane b i State t he two vel1icaJ forces acting on the
decreases duri ng this ti me. [1 J pend ulum bob w hen it is at position R. [1]
c Whe n t he aeroplane ['Caches its maxi mum ii T he pend ulum bob moves along t he arc o f a
he ig ht, it starts to follow a curved path at a c in;le. State t he direction of t he resu ltan t of
constant speed. t he two fo rces in i. [1 ]
S tate the di rect ion o f the resu ltant fo rce on c The mass of t he bob is 0.2 kg. During the swing it
t he aero plane. m oves so that P is 0.05 m hig her t han R. Calculate
[1 J t he increase in potential energy o f the pend ulu m
Camb r id ge IGCSE Physics 0625/33 bob between R and P [g = 10 N/kg]. [2]
Paper 3 0 3 November 20 12 Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625
Paper 3 Q2 J une 2005
 IGCSE THEORY QUESTIONS
13 The diagram below s hows the arm of a crane when
it is lift ing a heavy box.
1220 N
950 N
be.
a By the use of a scale diagram (nol calculation)
of the forces acting at P, find the weig h t of the
box.
b Another box of weig ht 1500 N is raised velticaily
by 3.0 m.
i Calculate the work done on the box.
II The crane takes 2.5 s to raise this box 3.0 m.
Calculate the power output of the crane. [4]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625
Papcr 3 Q3 June 2003
14 A rock climber climbs up a rock face, as show n in
the diagram below.
a To climb t he ruck face, t he climber must do
wo rk. Whic h one of the following forces m ust
the climber work against as he climbs? [1]
air resistance; friction 011 the rock;
his weight; tension in the safety rope
b What o t her qua ntity, as well as t he for'ce t icked
in a must be known in order to find thc work
done by the climber?
IGCSE PRACTICE QUESTIONS
c One cl imber weighs 1000 N and a nother weighs
800 N. They both take the same time to cl imb
the cliff.
j Which one has done t he most wo rk?
;; Whi ch one has the greater power ratin g? [2 ]
d Whe n t he first cl imber reaches the top, he has
more gravitat ional potent ial energy than he ha d
at t he bottom.
j What form o f energy, stOl-ed in his body,
was used to give him this extra gravitational
potential e nergy?
ii Where did he get t his energy from?
iii Ot her tha n increasing gravitational potential
energy on t he way up. how else was energy
in his body used ? S tate onc way. [3 ]
Cambridge IGCSE Phys ics 0625
Paper 2 Q 12 June 200 3
[5] 15 A man is delivering a cupboard to a house.
~tep
a The man rulls the c upboard a t a stead y speed
from the lorry to the house. The fd cbon force
in the w heels is 40 N. State the force w ith w hi ch
the man has to push. [1 ]
b The c upboard weighs 720 N. State the smallest
force needed to lift the cupboard. [1 ]
c The step is 0.20 m high . Calculate t he work
requi red to lift th e cupboard onto t he step. [4]
d The man has to ask his assistant to help him Lift
the cupboard onto the step. Together, they lift it
onto the step in 1.2 s . The men work equally hard.
Calculate the power developed by each man. [4]
Cambridge IGCSE Phys ics 0625
Paper 2 Q4 Nove mber 200 5
[ 1]
I GCSE PRAC TI CE QUES TI ONS IGCSE THEORY QUESTIONS

16 a The illustrations s how a beaker in w hic h coffee 18 The diagram below s hows a way of indicating
is served at a n airport k iosk. the pos it ions a nd d irect ion o f movement of some
section th rough molecules in a gas at one instan t.
beaker

layer of corruga ted

cardboard st uck to
a layer of smooth
cardboard , w ith air
trapped betw~n them
"'- cylinder """" piston
The beaker itself is made of two layers of
a j Describe the movement of t he molecules. [1 ]
cardboard. It has a thin plastic lid .
ii Explain how t he molecules exert a p ressure
State two sources of heat loss t hat a re
on the container walls. [1 ]
reduced by t he lid . [2]
h Whe n the gas in t he cylinder is heated. it p us hes
ii State two reas ons w hy t he layer o f
the p iston furt her out o f the cylindet:
corru gated cardboard sto ps the fi ngers
State w hat happens to
of t he person hold ing the beaker from
i t he average spacing of t he m olecules, [I ]
beco m in g u nco mfortably hot. [2]
ii t he average speed of the molecules . [1 ]
h Sta te t he mea ni ng of the term t hermal
c The gas shown in the d iagram above is c ha nged
capacity. [2]
into a liqu id a nd t hen into a soli d by cooling.
If Another a irport kiosk serves coffee in
Compal'C the gaseo us a nd solid states in tenns of
pottery m ugs. The m ugs all have t he same
t he movement of t he molec ules. [I ]
inte rnal di mens ions but some have a high
II t he average separation of the molecules. [1 ]
thermal capacity a nd some ha ve a low
Cambridge IGCSE P hys ics 0625
thermal capacity. Whe n hot d rinks are
Pape t· 3 OS November 2005
poUl'Cd into t he m ugs. t he temperature
of t he d rink always dro ps because of t he 19 The di agram below shows a thermocouple set up
t hermal e nergy a bsorbed by t he m ug. to meas ure t he temperature at a point o n a solar
State which m ug. high thermal ca paci ty panel.
or low t hermal capaci ty, causes the least / . . Sun's rays

~
fall in temperature of t he hot drink, a nd surface
e.'\p\ain why. [2] of solar z
panel
Camb ridge IGCSE Physics 06 25/21 x
cold junction
Paper 2 Q6 J une 20 10
y
17 a Equal volumes of n itrogen. water and copper at
20 °C are heated to 50 °C.
Whic h one of the three w ill have a m uc h a X is a coppet- w ire.
greater expans ion t ha n t he other two? i Suggest a material for Y
ii Expla in yo ur answer in terms of t he way ii Name the compone nt Z. [2]
the molecules are arranged in the t hree b Explain how a t hermocouple is used to measu re
substances. [3] temperatu re. [3]
h The diagram below s hows a thermo meter w it h a c Experimen t s hows that the temperature of t he
ra nge of -to "c to so °C. s urface d epends upon the type of surface used.
Xl Describe t he nature o f t he surface t h at will
cause the temperature to rise most. [1]
-1 0 ·c so ·c Cambridge IGCS E P hys ics 0625
Explai n what is meant by Paper 3 as June 2003
j the sensitivity of a t hermomete r.
jj the lillearity of a t hermometet·. [2]
Adapted from Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625
Paper 2 OS November 2003
 IGCSE THEORY QUESTIONS IGCS E P RAC TI C E Q UE STIONS

20 T he diagram below s hows apparatus t hat a student 22 The d iagram below s hows the path of a sou nd wave
uses to make a n estimate of the specific heat from a source X .
capaci ty of iron.
x

thermomet er
electrica l hea ter
wall
o
o Y,
o
- - j - -- lroo blo(~
o a S tate why a person standing at point Y hears a n
echo. [1 ]
b The freq uency of t he sound wave leaving X is
400 Hz. State t he freq uency of t he sound wave
reachingY. [I ]
a The power of t he heate r is kno wn. State the The speed of t he so und wave leaving X is
four read ings t he stude nt m ust take to fi nd t he 330 m /s. Calculate t he wavelen gth of t hese
specifi c heat capacity of iron. [3] so u nd waves. [2 ]
b Write down an equat ion, in words o r in symbols, d Sound waves are longitud inal waves. S tate w hat
t hat could be used to work o ut t he specific hear is meam by the term longitudinal. [1 1
capacity of iron from t he readings in a. Cambridge IGCS E Phys ics 0625
c i Exp lain w hy the value obta ined with th is Pape r 3 Q 6 Nove mber 2005
apparatus is higher than tJ1e actual value. [1 ]
23 The d iagram below sho ws w hi te light inc iclent at
ii State one a dd it ion to t he apparatus that
P on a glass prism . Only the refracted red ray PO is
would help to improve the accuracy of the
shown in the prism .
value o bta ined . [ 1]
Cambr idge IGCSE Physics 062 5
Paper 3 04 June 2005
2 1 a State t wo d ifferences between evaporation of
water and bo iling o f water. [2]
b The specific latent hea t o f vapori zatio n of water
is 2260 kJ/kg. Explain w hy t his encrgy is needed
to boil water a nd w hy t he temperature of the
water d oes not c ha nge dur ing the boiling. [3]
c A iabor atOlY detelm ination of t he specific latent a Co py the diagram a nd d raw rays to co mplete
hea t o fvapori.zatio n of wa ter uses a 120 W heater" the pat h of the red ray a n d the whole path of
to keep water boiling at its boiling poin t. Wa ter is the violet ray up to the p oint where t hey hit the
rumed in to steam at the rate of 0.050 gls. screen. La bel the violet ray. [3 ]
Calculate t he value of t he specific latent heat of
vapoli zation o btained from t his experiment.
S how your working. [3]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625
Paper 3 04 June 2006
I GCSE PRACTICE QUES TI ONS IGCSE THEORY QUESTIONS

b The a ngle of incide nce of t he w hite light is 26 The speed of sound in a ir is 332 m/s. A man stands

l increased to 40 0 • The refractive index of the

glass for the red light is 1.52. Calculate the angle
of refract ion at P for the red ligh t.
c State t he approximate speed of
i the w hi te light incident at P,
[3]

[1 ]
249 m from a large flat wall. as shown in the
diagram below, a nd claps his hands once.

ii the red light after it leaves the prism at O. [1 ]

Cambridge IGCSE Physics 06 25
Paper 3 0 6 J une 2006 woman m"
24 Tn a t hunderstorm, both light a nd sound waves are
generated at t he same t ime.
a How fast does t he ligh t travel towa rds an
L.I 'll
r
.'1 'II . 1

L o bserver?
b E,..'>plain why t he sou nd waves always reach the
[1]
249m 249 m

a Calculate t he intelval (in s) between t he time

obselver after rhe light waves. [1] when the man claps his ha nds and the time
c The speed of s ound waves in a ir may be when he hears t he echo from th e walL [3]
determ ined by experiment us ing a source t hat b A woman is standing 249 m fun her away from
generates ligh t waves and sound waves at the t he wall t han t he man. S he hears t he clap twice,
same t ime. once di rectly and once after reilection from
i Draw a labelled diagram of t he an'angement the wail. How lo ng after t he man claps does
of s ui tabl e apparatus for the experiment. s he hear these two sounds? Choose your two
II State the read ings you would take. answers from t he following:
iii E:-..::piain h ow you would calculate the speed 0.75 s
of sound in a ir from your readings. [4] 1.50 s
Cambl"idge IGCSE Physics 0625 2.25 s
Paper 3 0 7 J une 2003 3.00 s [2J
Cambridge IGCSE Phys ics 0625
25 a The speed of light in air is known to be
Paper 2 Q9 1 une 2005
3.0 X 108 m/s.
Outl ine h ow you would use a refraction 27 H ere are five regions of the electromagn etic
experiment to deduce t he speed oflight in spectrum.
glass. You may d raw a di agram if it helps m icrowaves
to clarify your answer. [4J infrared
b A tsu nami is a giant water wave. It may be vis ible
caused by an earthquake below the ocean. ultraviolet
Waves from a certain tsunam i have a wavelength X- rays
of 1.9 X 105 m a nd a speedof2 40 mls. a Remote contmllers for television sets send a
i Calculate the frequency of the tsunami beam of electmmagnetic radiation to t he
waves. [2J television. Which region of the electromagnetic
ii The s hock wave from the earthquake spectrum is used? (1]
travels at 2.5 X 103 m/s. The centre of the b Modem warfare often uses heat-seeki ng
earthquake is 6.0 X 105 m from the coast m issiles. Which region of tile electromagnetic
of a cou n try. spectrum is used? [1 ]
Calculate how m uch waming of the arrival c Inju red legs may be c hecked for possible
of the tsunami at the coast is given by the fractures us ing electromagnetic radi a tion.
earth tremor felt at the coast. [Calculate Which region of the electromagnetic
the time in s.] [4] spectrum is used? [1 ]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/31 Adapted from Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 /21
Paper 3 0 7 J une 20 I I Paper 2 0 7 lu ne 2012
 IGCSE THEORY QUESTIONS IGCS E PRACT I CE QUESTIONS

28 a The d iagram below shows two rays of light from 29 The diagram below s hows the parts of t he
a point 0 on an object. These rays are inciden t elect romagnetic spectrum.
on a plane mirror.

r · rays and X·ray~ ultra- ; Infra- radio

voi let b ,ed wave'S
,
I

a Name one type of radiation t hat has

o i a higher freq uency than ultraviolet. [1 ]
ii a longer wavelength t han visible light. [I ]
i Copy the diagram and continue t he paths
b Some "I-rays emitted from a radioactive sou rce
of the two ,oays after t hey reach the min"ot:
have a speed in a ir of 3.0 x 10 8 m/s a nd a
H ence locate t he image of the object O. Label wavelength of 1.0 x 10 - 12 m. Calculate t he
the image r. [2]
frequency of t he "I-rays. [2]
ii Describe the nature of t he image L [2]
c State t he approx imate speed of infrared waves
b The d iagram below is drawn to scale. It shows in a ir. [1 ]
a n object PO and a convex lens.
Cambridge IGCSE Phys ics 0625
j Copy the diagram on graph paper and draw
Paper 3 Q7 J une 2005
two rays from the top ofthe object P t hat pass
tiu'ough t he lens. Use these rays to locate the
top of t he image. Label this point T. [3)
;i On your diagram. draw an eye symbol to
show the position from which the image T
s hould be viewed. [1]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625
Paper 3 07 November 200 5

_ pos.it ion of
convex lens
p

F principal

principal focus Q principal focus ~"

I GCSE PRACTICE Q U ES TI ONS IGCSE THEORY QUESTIONS
30 a The d.iagram below s hows a circuit containing a
lamp and a variable res istor.
The circuit does not work. The lamp does not light
a nd altering the setting on the variable resistor
makes no difference. Re -draw the diagram, show ing
a circuit in whic h the variable resistor may be used
to c hange the brightness of t he lamp. [2]
b The diagram below s hows two resistors and an
ammeter connected in series to a 6 V DC s upply.
The resistance of t he ammeter is so small t hat it
can be ignored.
80
Q
p Paper 3 Q8 June 2006
•6V A
- R
s
40
i Calculate the combined res istance (in fl) of
the 8 fl and 4 fl res istors in series .
ii [ Calcula te rhe CUlTent supplied by t he 6 V
DC supply.
II State t he value of t he c urrent..
..in section PO of t he circu it
.. recorded by t he ammeter
..in section SR of t he circuit.
iii Copy t he d iagram above, and s how a
voltmeter connected to measure the potential
difference across the 4 fl resistor.
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625
Paper 2 0 I I June 2003
31 An electd cal c ircu it is s hown below.
sliding
contact
The resistance of th e lamp is 4. 0 0 w hen it is at its
normal brightness.
a The lamp is rated at 6.0 V, 9.0 W. Calculate t he
current in the lamp w he n it is at its n ormal
bright ness . (2]
b The sliding contact C is moved to A. The lamp
lights at its normal brightness. Calculate
i t he total circu it resistance, [1J
ii t he potent ial d ifference across th e 4. 0 0
res istor R. [1 ]
c The sliding contact C is moved from A to B.
i Desc r ibe any change t hat occurs in the
bd ght ness of t he lamp. ( I]
ii Explai n your answer to i . [2 ]
d The 1 m w ire between A and B h as a resista nce
of 2.0 0. Calculate t he resistance between A and
Bwhen
i t he 1 m lengt h is replaced by a 2 m length of
the same w ire, [ 1]
ii t he 1 m length is replaced by aim length of
a w ire of t he same material but of only half
the cross-sectional area. [1]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625
32 The diagram below s hows a hig h-voltage supply
connected across two metal plates .
•high-voltage
supply
[2]
metal plates
W hen the s upply is switched on, a n electric fi eld is
present between t he plates.
[5] a Explain w hat is meant by an electric field . [2]
b Copy the d iagram a bove. Draw t he electric
field lines between t he plates and indicate the ir
[1] d ilection by arrows. (2]
c The metal plates are now joined by a hig h-resistance
wire. A charge of 0.060 C passes along th e wire in
30 s. Calculate the reading on the ammetel: [2)
d The potential di ffere nce of the supply is re-set
to 1500 V a nd t he ammeter reading c hanges to
0.0080 A. Calculate the e nergy s uppl ied in 10 s.
Show your working. (3J
Camb" idge IGCSE Physics 0625
Paper 3 08 November 2005
 IGCSE THEORY QUESTIONS IGCSE PRAC TI CE QUESTIONS

33 The diagrams show two views of a vertical w ire 34 a The transformer in t he d iagram below is used to
carrying a cunent up through a horizontal card. convert 240 V a.c. to 6 V a.c.
Po ints f) a nd Q are mar ked on the card.

vertica l

:;t:::::==~J \
w ire
.0 B .>'Ir -<> 0
p. secondary
pnmary coil
COi l
(4 80 tu rns)

Using the information above, calculate the

VleN f rom above the card
nu mber of tu rns on the secondary coil [2 ]
a Copy t he d iagram a bove right. On you r co py Describe how the tran sformel- wOl'ks. [3 ]
i d raw a complete magnetic field line (l ine o f State one way in w hich energy is lost
force) through P and indicate its d irection from t he transfmmer, and from w hich
w it h an arrow, part it is lost. [ 1]
a
ii d raw an arrow t hrough to indicate t he b The diagram below s hows a d evice labelled
d irection in w hich a compass placed at Q 'IGCS E Transfmwer'.
would point. [3]
b State t he effect on the d irection in wh ic h
compass Q points of
i increas ing the CUiTenl in the wire,
ii reversing th e d irect ion of the c urrent in the
wire. [2]
c The d iagram below shows t he view from above
of a not her vertical w ire can)'ing a current up
throug h a horizon tal eard. A em grid is marked
on the card. Po im W is 1 cm vertically above the
top surface of the card.
230 V a.c. -+12 V d.c.

T
\l€rucal

~
Wife Cilfrylr'lg
CUffent
R S ~
S tudy the label on the case of the IGCSE
W
Transfo rmer.
What is the output of t he device? [ 1]
ii From the information o n t h e case, deduce
what other electrical compone nt m ust be
State t he magnetic field strength at S, T a nd W included within t he case of the IGCSE
in terms of t he magnetic fi eld strength at R. Use Transforme r, aparT from a transformer. [ 1]
one of the alternatives, weake r . same s tre n gth or c A transformer supplying electrical e nergy to
stron ger for eac h answer. [3] a factol), c hanges t he II 000 V a.c. supply
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 to 440 V a.c. for use in the factory. The
Paper 3 Q10 June 2003 current in the secondary coil is 200 A.
Calculate t he c urrent in t he pl'imalY coil,
assuming no losses from the tr ansformer. [2]
Cambridge rGCSE P hys ics 0625/31
Paper 3 08 June 20 10
I GCSE PRACTICE QUESTIONS IGCSE THEORY QUESTIONS

35 In t he laboratoI), demonstration s hown in the 37 a State the electrical quantity t hat has the same
diagram, a copper rod rolls at a steady speed down value for each of two resistors connected to
the sloping parallel copper rails. The rails are in a battery
the region of a strong magnetic field that acts j when they are in series,
velt ically downwards. ii w hen t hey are in parallel. [2]
b The diagram below shows a circuit w ith a
very senSltl1/€
centre-zero
1.2 k!l res istor and a therm istor in series .
There is no curr·ent in t he voltmeter.
dlrectl
~, 001 connecting wires

m
agnetK c=~r===~~"
UI

field
copper rod
1.1 kQ
T
parallel copper rails o
sloping downwards In direction of arrow 9.0V I
o
o
~

a Explain w hy the voltmeter shows a deflection. [2]

b State, with reasons, the effect on the voltmeter
deflection of t he followi ng c hanges:
i increasing t he strength of t he magnetic field,
Calculate the voltmeter reading when th e
ii slightly increasing the slope of the copper rails,
resistance of the thermistor is 3.6 kfl. [3]
iii changi ng the di rection of the magnetic
c The diagram below shows a fire-alarm circuit.
field so it is parallel to the copper rails
The circuit is designe d to close switch Sand
and d irected down the slope. [4]
r ing bell B if there is a fire.
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/32
Paper 3 all November 20 11

-T- (ela coil

a Draw the symbol for a NOR gate. Label the
o
inputs and the output. [2] 9.0V .
o
o
b State wherhel· t he output of a NOR gate w ill be - "-
hig h (ON) or low (O FF) w hen
i one input is hig h and one input is low
ii both inputs are hig h. [1]
c The diagram below shows a d igital circuit made Expla in the operation of the circuit. [3]
fl"Om t hree NOT gates and one NAN D gate. Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 /31
Paper 3 Q10 November 2012
HIGH
38 The most abundant stable isotope of stluntium
is stl"Ontium-88. Its nucleon number is 88 a nd its
lOW proton number is 38. In nuclide no tation it
is written ; Sr
i Copy the d iagram and write HIGH or LOW
a Write down
in each of t he boxes. [2]
j t he values of x and y for stront ium-88
ii State the effect on the output of changing
ii t he nu mber of n eutrons in a nucleus of
both of t he inputs. [1]
stmntium-88
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625
iii t he number of electrons in a neutral atom of
Paper 3 Q9 November 2005
strontium-88. [3]
b Strontium-90 is a l'3dioactive isotope produced
by nuclear reactions. State how the structure of
this isotope differs from that of strontium-88. [2]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/32
Paper 3 012 NO\ICmber 2011
 IGCSE THEORY QUESTIONS IGCSE PRACT I CE QUESTIONS

39 a The gt<aph below is the decay curve for a 41 Emissions from a radioactive source pass t hro ugh
radioactive iso tope that em its only (3-particles. a hole in a lead screen a nd into a magnetic field. as
400 shown in the diagram.
count ( ill€
counts/min
300

200
U'
radioactive
o;ource b
, , , ,
II.
, x " A magne1i( field
, , ,- - into paper
, , .B
'''d,,~,,1l :
100

o
,
o 10 20 30 40 , , , .(
ti me/min
~~----~3~'=
m------~~
Use t he graph to find the val ue of t he half-life of t he
isotope. [nd icate, on t he gmph , how you arrived a t Radiat ion detectors are placed at A, Band C.
your valu e. [2 ] They give the follow ing readings:
b A stud ent determ ines the percentage of A B C
(3-palticles absorbed by a t hick aluminium s heet.
32 counts/min 543 count s/min 396 counts/min
He uses a source th at is em itting only f3-particles -'
a nd th at has a long half-life. The radioactive source is then completely removed.
l Draw a labelled diagram of the apparatus and t he readings become;
required, set up to make the determination. [2]
A B C
ii List t he readings t hat the stude nt needs to
33 counts/min 30 counts/min 31 counts/min
take. [3] -'
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 a Explain w hy there are still counts being
Paper 3 010 June 2005 reco rded at A. B and C. even w he n t he
40 a A radioactive isoto pe emits only a-particles. radioactive sou rce has been removed. a nd
i Draw a labelled diagram of t he apparatus give t he reason for t hem be ing slightly
you would use to prove that no l3-pat1icles or different. [2 ]
,,(-radiation are emitted from the isotope. b From the data given, deduce the type of
ii Describe the test you would cany out. em ission being detected. if any,
iii Explain how your \'esults would show t hat at A. [2]
only a-particles are em itted. [6] at B. [3 ]
b The d iagram below shows a stream of a nd at C, [3 ]
a-particles about to e nter the space between t he whe n the radiation source is present. State
poles of a very strong magnet. the reasons for your a nswers.
Ca mbridge IGCSE Phys ics 0625/3 1
Paper 3 Q10 November 20 10

Cl-partlcle

Describe the path of t he o:-palticles in t he space

between t.he magnetic poles. [3 ]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625
Paper 3 0 11 J une 2003
I GCSE PRACTICE QUES TI ONS IGCSE ALTERNATIVE-TO-PRACTICAL QUESTIONS

If you do nottake a practical examinat io n , you will sit an alternative-to-practical paper instead. Here are some
typical questions. For some of t hem, you will require graph paper.
1 The IGCSE class is investigating springs . 2 A student is invest igating the oscillation of a metre
A stud ent measures the length 10 of a spring a nd rule that has one e nd resting on the laboratory
then uses a stan d and clamp to suspend t he spring benc h. T he other e nd is held above the level of t he
vet1ically. He hangs a weig h t HI on the spring bench by a spdng attached at the 90.0 cm mark. The
and measures th e new length 1. H e calculates t he arrangement is shown in the diagram below.
extension e of th e spring. He repeats the procedure
using a range of weights.
The table below shows some readings obtained by
t he stud ent. The unstretched length 10 o f t he spJ·ing
is 16 mm .

WIN
0 16 0
0.10 17
0.20 19
The pedod of oscillation is c hanged by moving
0.30 21 a 200 g mass to di fferent positions along the
0.40 23 rule. The student records the t ime I taken for 10
0.50 27 oscillation s of the end o f t he rule for each position
0.60 33 of t he mass. He measures t he distance fl"Om t he
e nd of the rule to the mark under the centre of the
a Copy the table. Complete t he column mass. The readings are show n in the table below.
headings in t h e table. [1 ]
diem
b Complete the third column in the table by
calculat ing t h e extension e of the spri ng. [1 ]
20.0 '"
3.4
TA;

40.0 4.4
e State whether t he results su ppOJ1 the
suggestion th at t he extension is directly 50.0 4.9
proportional to the load. Justify your 60.0 5.3
answer by reference to the results. [2] 70.0 6.0
d Draw a diagl-am of the apparatus including 80.0 63
the spring, clamp, a weight hanging on the
spl"ing and a ruler positioned to measure a Copy the table. Calculate the period T for each
th e length of th e spring. [2] set of readings and enter the values in your
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/62 table. [2)
Paper 6 Q5 November 20 11 b Plot a graph o f dlcm (x-axis) aga inst TIs
(y-ax ',). [5]
c Us ing the graph, d eterm ine the period T w hen
the distance d is 55.0 cm. [2]
d The student s uggests that T s hould be
propoltional to d. State with a reason w hethe r
your results support t his suggestion. (2]
Cambridge lGCSE Physics 062 5
Paper 6 02 June 2004
IGCSE ALTERNATIVE-TO-PRACTICAL QUESTIONS IGCS E PRACT I CE Q UE STIONS

3 A student investigates the resistance of w ire in c Calculate the resistance R of the sections of w ire
di fferent circuit arrangements. The circuit shown AB , AC, a nd AD using the equ ation
in the d iagram below is used. V
R ~ -
power I
source Reco rd these values of R, to a suitable number of
0
"- significant fig ures, in the table. [2 ]
d Complete the column head ing fo r the R column
A
of the table. [1 ]
e Use YOUi' results to predict t he res istance of
~
A D
1 a 1.50 m length of t he same wi re. Show your
w ~ ~ w w w ~
working. [2 ]
" '"
"- "- Cambridge IGCSE Phys ics 0625
/ m~le
Paper 6 Q3 June 2005
-0 crocodile
clip
4 The diagram below shows t he circ uit t hat a student
uses to find t he resistance of a combinat ion of
The student measures t he current I in the wire. She
three lamps.
th en measures the PO V across AB, AC, and AD.
pO'lNer
The studen t's readings are shown in the table below.
_ _-<isourceo-_ _~
section
of wire Cl em /fA VIV R
r
o 'I
AB 0375 0.95
AC 03 75 1.50
AD 03 75 1.95

a Copy t he table. The n, us ing the diagram,

record in your table th e length I of each section
of w ire. [ 1] The voltmeter and the ammeter have not been
b Copy t he d iagrams below and show t he drawn in.
pOSit ions of the pointers of the ammeter reading a Copy the diagram and complete it by drawing
0.375 A. a nd the voltmeter reading 1.50 V. [2] in the voltmeter and t he ammeter, us in g
conventional symbols. [2 ]
b The student obtains these readin gs.
0.2 0.3
current 1= 0.54 A
0.1 A 0.• potential d ifference V = 1.8 V
Calculate the resistance R using the
•
0.5
equation R = f [2]
c The three lamps are now connected in parallel
with one a nother. Draw a c ircu it d iagram of
the three lamps connected to t he power supply.
Include in your c ircu it diagram
v a n ammeter to record t he total current
1 4
t hrough t he lamps,
o II a variable res istor to vary t he brightness of
• all t hree lamp,
iii a voltmeter to record t he potent ial d ifference
across the lamps. [3 ]
Cambridge IGCSE Phys ics 0625
Paper 6 Q3 June 2004
I GCSE PRAC TI CE Q U ES TI ONS IGCSE ALTERNATIVE-TO-PRACTICAL QUESTIONS

5 The IGCSE class is canying out a n expe riment to d eterm ine the speed of
sou nd in a il: T he d iagram indicates the metho d used . Th e experimen t is
conducted o u ts ide t he school b u ildin g.

student - A student - B

stopwatch~

,,
,,,
,:.,-------------------------------------- d
(not to scale)

S tud en t A strikes a d rum o nce as loud ly as
possible. Studen t B stands so me d ista nce away
from stud en t A a nd starts a sto pwatch w he n she
sees the dr u m being hit. S he stops the stopwatch
w he n s he hears t he sou nd . S he records t he ti me
interval ( in t he table (belo w). The experimen t is
repeated several t imes. S he calculates t he speed o f
sou nd v and e nters t he values in the table.
t/, v I (m/s)
0.87 344.83
0.92 326.09
0.84 357.1 4
0.83 361 .45
0.86 338.84
a Suggest a su itable d istance d for stud ents
to use w he n carrying out th is experi men t.
b Suggest a suitable instrument fo r measu r ing
th e d ista nce d.
c Calculate t he average val uev av for the speed
o f so u nd from t he res ults in t he table. S how
yo ur wo rking .
d The stud ent has record ed the values for the
speed o f sou nd v to five significan t figures.
State w he ther this is a suita ble n u mber of
s ignifican t fi g u res for th e speed o f sound
in a ir in thi s experiment. Give a reason for
yo ur answer.
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/61
Paper 6 Q5 November 2011
6 a T he IGCSE class cani es out an expe!i ment to
in vestigate the rate of co oling from 100 °C of a
range of hot liquids . Copy o u t any of the follow ing
variables that are likely to have a s ignificant effect
on the temperature readings. (You may copy o ne.
two, o r all t hree of the suggested variables.)
type and s ize o f container
volume of liq u id
temperatu re of t he su n"Oundings [2J
b In a n experiment to fi nd t he res istan ce of a
w ire, the students reco rd the c u rren t in the
w ire and the po tential d ifference across it. They
t hen calculate t he res istance. Copy out any o f
t he fo llow ing variables t hat a re likely to have a
sign ifica nt effect o n t he cu rrent a ndior potent ial
d iffere nce readings . (You may copy one , two , o r
[1 ] all t h ree o f t he suggested variables.)
atmospheric pressure
[1 ] temperatu re of t he wire
le ngth o f wire [2J
c In a n experiment, a short pend ulum oscillates
[2] rapid ly. A stud en t is asked to fi nd the period of
oscillation T o f t he pend ulum using a stopwatch.
The student sets the pend ulu m swingi ng a nd
records the time for o ne oscillation . A tech nique
for improvi ng t he accuracy o f the value o btained
fo r t he period T should be used in this e."I(pe!i men t.
[1] S tate, b!i efly, what this tech nique is and any
calculation invo lved to obtain tJle value o f T. [2 ]
Cambridge IGCSE Phys ics 062 5
Paper 6 05 No vember 200 5
................................................................................
REFERENC E

Useful equations
In most cases , t he eq uations belo w are given in Pressure and force
both w Ol-d a nd symbol fo rm " fo rce
pressure = area
g = 10 Nlkg (Earth 's gravitat ional fiel d st rengt h)
F
= 10 mls" (acceleratio n of fre e fall) p =-
A

Density, mass, and volume

Pressure in a liquid
de nsity = mass
volu me p ress u re = d ens ity X g X d epth
on p = pgll
p =-
V

Speed Temperature
Kelvin te mperatu re = temperature in °C + 273
average speed = dis~ance moved
time taken
Compressing gases
Acceleration Fo r a fixe d mass of gas at consta n t temperat u re:
" c ha nge in velocity pressu re l X vo lu me , = pressure 2 X vol u me 2
average acceleratio n = c---c'"-_~"-'=
t ime taken

a
v-u
~--
t (Boyle's law)

Force, mass, and acceleration Work

d istance moved
fo r"ce = mass X acceleratio n wo rk d o ne = fo rce X"In d "u"ec t iOn
" f fo rce
0
F = Ina
IV = Fd

Momentum
m o mentu m = mass X velocity
Gravitational potential energy
gravitational potential energy = mass X g X he igh t
PE = I1lgh
Weight
weigh t = mass X g
W = mg Kinetic energy
kj netic energy = V2 X mass X velo cit y 2
KE = V2mv 2
Moment of a force
m o ment o f force perpend ic u lar
= force X
aboul a point dista nce fro m po int

Stretched spring
lo a d = spli ng constant X extension
F ~ kx
............................................................................................. REFERENCE

Energy and temperature change Charge and current

ene rgy specific heat temperature c harge = current X time
= mass X X
transfen"ed capacity cha nge
Q = lt
E = m e AT

Resistance, PO (voltage), and current

Energy and state change res istance = ~-
e nergy tran sferred = mass X specific latent heat cun"ent

E = mL R = -V
I

Power Resistors in series ....

power = wor k done = e nergy transformed total res istance R = RI + R z
t ime taken time taken

Efficiency ... and in parallel

effic ie ncy = useful work done .l =~ +~
total energy input R Rl Rz

useful energy output

total energy input Electrical power
useful power output power = PD X current
total power input p = VI

Waves
speed = freq uency X wavelength
Electrical energy
energy tl"ansformed = power X t ime
v= rA = P D X current X time
E = Vlt

Refraction of light
c . In
rell"actlve . d ex = -"
~ ~n~e~o~f~a=n~g~l~e=o~f=in
~c~i~d~e=n~c~
e Transformers
sine of angle of refraction outpu t voltage output turns
~

s in i
11 = - - input voltage input tums
sin r ,
V n,

Total internal reflection

sine of crit ical a ngle = 1
refractive inde.:\(
For 100% efficient transformer:
. I power input = power outpu t
s m e=n
VIII = Viz
REFERENCE UNITS AND ELEMENTS

51 units and prefixes Elements

For si mplic ity. many o f t h e rarer eleme nts h ave been
quantity unit symbol
om i tte d f ro m t he table below.
mass kilogram kg
atomic number chemical
length metre m
time second , (proton number)
1
element
hydrogen
symbol
H
area square metre m' 2 helium He
volume cubic metre m' 3 lithium Li
fo rce newton N 4 beryllium 8,
5 boron 8
weight newton N
6 carbon C
pressure pascal Po
7 nitrogen N
energy joule 8 o:<Y,.gen 0
work joule J 9 fluori ne F
power waH W 10 0000 N
frequency hertz H, 11 sodium No
12 magnesium Mg
PD. EMF (voltage) volt V
13 aluminium AI
curren t ampere A 14 silicon 5i
resistance ohm n 15 phosphorus P
charge coulomb C 16 sulfur 5
capacitance farad F 17 chlorine CI
temperature Kelvin K
18 argon Ar
degree Celsius 'c 19 potassium K
20 cakium Co
prefix meaning 22 titanium Ti
25 manganese Mo
G (9i9a) 1 000000000 (109)
26 iron F,
M (mega) 1000000 (10'1 27 cobat\ Co
k (kilo) 1000 (10 3) 28 nickel Ni
( 10- 1)
29 copper Co
d (deci)
iO 30 zinc Zo
c (centi) ( 10- 2 ) 35 bromine 8r
100
m (milli) 1 (10- 3) 38 strontium 5r
1000
47 silver Ag
1
/). (micro) (10- 6)
1000000 48 cadmium Cd
n (nano)
1
(10- 9 ) SO tin 50
1000000000
53 iod ine
p (pico) 1 (10- 12 )
1000000000000 55 caesium C,
74 tungsten W
Exam ples 78 platinum PI
1 p"F (micro f arad) = F 10- 6 79 gold Ao
1 ms (millisecond) = 10- 3 s SO mercury Hg
1 km (kilo metre) = 103 m 82 lead Pb
1 M W (megawatt ) = 106 W 86 radon Ro
88 radium Ro
Note: 'micro' means 'millionth'; 'milli' means 'thousandth'. 90 thorium Th
92 uranium U
• G, 1/, n. and p are not re quired fo r Camb ridge I GCSE examinat ions. 94 plutonium Po
 ......................................................................................... REFERENCE

Electrical symbols and codes

Electrical symbols

+ W i res crO%If19 lamp ammeter voltmeter

-~/_-
--11----11-- ----<>
. -
0-- ----<> '" 0 - -

switch cell banery (several cel ls) DC P""" ~pply AC

--1=1--- E3 ~IC
heater transformer

T
-®- -G- I I .\
earth motor generator re lay ( l il and switch bell

Resistor codes
The resistance of a res istor in oh ms (0) is normally marked on it us ing one of
these codes;

The resistor is marked with coloured rings. Each colour The resistance is printed on the resistor:
stands for a number:

black o You 'read' the first three rings

like this:
brown 1
"d 2 fi rst second num ber of R27 means 0.27 fl
orange 3
figu re figpre l"""ooughts 2R7 means 2 .7 a
yellow 4 - I. I 3KD means 3000n
5K6 means 5600n
green 5
blue 6 red Vi~et ~af1ge 47K means 47 kn
2 7 000
violet 7 So: reo;istanc:e ,,27 000 n 2M2 mea ns 2.2 Mn So: resistanc:e " 8.2 kn
grey 8 ,,2 7kn
white 9

The fou rth ring gives the toleranCE!. This tells you by how The ex.tra letter at th e end gives the tolerance:
much the resistance may differ from the marked value: F :!:: 1% G ± 2% J ± 5% K ± 1O% M :!:20%
gold ± 5% silver :!: 10% no colour :!:20%
 ·.............................................................................. .
Answers
The example answt'!rs, marks awarded and/or
comments ,hal appear in th is book were written by t he
author(s). In examination, th e way marks would be
awarde d to answers like t hese may be different.
1.0 I (page II)
1 1000g 2 1000mm 3 l()6~s 4 6m z 5 2km,
0. 2 km, 20 km 6 5 s, 50 s 7 1.5 X 10) m, 1.5 X 10 6 m,
1.5 X to - L m, 1.5 X 1O- 2m
1.02 (page 13)
1 m 2 kg 3 s 4 gram , milligram. tonne,
micrometre . millisecond 5 a 1.564 m b 1.750 kg
c 26 000 kg (2.6 X 10 4 t) d 6.2 X 10 - 5 s (0.000 062 s)
e 36.5 kg r 6.16 X 1O- LOm 6 a 5 X 10 - ) kg
b 5000 mg 7 mass: t, kg. g. mg, ~g; length : km, m,
mm, ~m. nm; lime: s. ms, ~s, ns
1.03 (page 15)
1 a 2.3 s b Ti me more sw in gs 2 Measure total
thickness of aJl336 pages, d ivide by 336 3 a 0.03 mm
b 6.31 mm
1.04 (page 17)
1 lOOcm1 2 101 cm) 3 100m! 4 a 200 1 b 2 X 105 cm)
c 2 X 105 ml 5 a 2.7g1cm1 b 54 g c 1O cm)
6 Steel (sta inless) 7 39 kg 84 m 3 9 22.8 X 10) kg
1.05 (page 19)
1 Crowns: A silver. B gold , C mixture 2 a 80 g,
100 cm 3• 0.8 glc01 3 b 120 g, 48cm l ,2.5g1cm3
1.06 (page 20)
1 a Yes b No 2 a 2600 kg b 2200 kg c 400 kg
Further questions (pages 22- 23)
1 measuremenl: mass, t ime: unit: metre, second ;
symbol: m. kg
2 a 1000 b lOOD c I 000 000 d 4 000 000 e 500 000
3 a 0.3 m b 0.5 kg c 1.5 km d 0.25 s e SOD ms
[ 750m g 2500 g h 800 mm
4 24 c m 3 , 4 cm, I O cm, 0.5cm
5 a 2500 m b 2 m c 3000 kg d 2 Htres
6 B and D
7 a kg b m, km c m1, cm3 , ml d ms. s
c glcml, kglm 3
8 D
9 B
10 1.25 kglm 3
11 a 0. 1 m1, 0.05 m l b 800 kg c 800 kglm3
d 1000 kglml
12 a expo polystyrene. wood, petrol. ice: all less dense
t ha n water b expo polystyre ne. wood : both less d ense
t ha n petrol
13 A only is true
14 a No; too many s ignificant figures
b Time more swings c 0.93 s
2.01 (page 27)
1 20 m /s; actual speed varies 2 velocity also includes
d irection of travel 3 a 64 m b 20 s 4 Runner
6.7 mis, Grand PI·i.X car 100 mis, passenger jet 250 mis,
Space S huttle 10 000 rnls 5 Inc reases by 2 m/s evel)'
seco nd, velocity decreases by 2 m/s every second
6 2.5 m/s 2 7 4 m/sz 8 a 12 m/s b 44 m/s 9 17 m/s
2 .02 (page 29)
1 a Not moving b A and B c B and C d 4 m /s
e 60m [ 3m/s 2 a 30 m/s b 3m/s 2 c 6m1s z
d 150m e 525m r 25s g 21 m/s
2.03 (page 31)
2 a 0.1 s b 200 mm/s c 800 mmls d 600 mmls z
3 a 10 mm b 100 mm/s c so mm d 500 mm/s
e 400 mmls r 1000 mm/s 2
2.04 (page 33)
1 a IOm/s b 20 m/s c SO mis 2 a 30 rnls
b 40 m/s c 70 01/s 3a 10 mls b O mls c 30mls
4 a Downwards band c B d , e, and f 10 mls z g C
2.05 (page 35)
1 a CD b AB c DE d AB e BC, DE f D E
2 See below: wiJllevei off at a m uc h lower speed tha n
for a stone
t imE'
2.06 (page 37)
1 newton 2 a and b They balance (are equal)
3 a Te Lmi nal velocity b Air resistance: u pward force
o n parachute equal to weig ht c Equal d Less
2.07 (page 39)
1 a res. force = mass X acceleration b 10 N, 20 N
2 a 1000 N b 1.25 mls 2 c Acceleration zero (steady
velocity)
2.08 (p age 41)
1 a BI-akes, tyres on road b Air res istance, engine
parts 2 Lower fuel consumpt io n 3 a Top. so tha t
fee t grip board h Bottom, for faster movement over
water 4 a Static: no heating effect b Dynam ic:
ht'!at ing effect
·............................................................................................. ANSWERS

2.09 (page 43) 10 a See below b i 1.3 3 mis'

1 a SO N. 100 N b 10 rnJs 2 (bot h) C 10 N/kg ii (t X 20 X IS)+ (5 XIS) = 225 m
2 a 1000N b 100 kg c 100 kg d 37N c 3.7m/s 2
25
2.10 (page 45)
1 a 500 N b Upward force of 500 N 2 Motion ve kxlly
caused by equal but oppos ite (i.e. bachvard) force o n -;;;r,-
gu n 3 Gro u nd is part of Earth w h ic h has a huge mass ,
so cha nge in motion far too small to d etect 5 ---------------~

2.11 (page 47) o 15

1 moment um = mass x velocity lime/s

2 resultant force = change in momentum/time 11 a and b 30 kg mls to left c 10 kg d 3 mJs to left

3 a 48 kg mls to right b 72 kg mis to right 12 a Centripetal force b Ball travels in stra ight line
c 24 kg mls to r ight d 8 kg mls to right e 8 N at tangen t to ci rcle c Gravity
f +2 m ls g 0.67 m /s 2 h force = mass X acceleration 3.01 (page 59)
i 8 N 4 a and b 7500 N 1 Magni tu de of force. perpendiculat:' distan ce from
2 . 12 (page 49) point 2 For pli nciple see p58, forces m ust balance
1 a and b 0 c 12 kg mis to right d 20 kg mis to left 3 a 16 N m b 12 Nm c No; clockwise d IN
e 4 mls to right 2 a 80 kg m/s to right b 20 kg m/s e Dow nwards 4 a 21 N b 10 N. 8 N. a nd 3 N forces ;
to left c and d 60 kg mis to right e 3 mis to right 84 N m c 21 Nforce;84N m d Yes
2.13 (page 51) 3.02 (page 61)
1 Vector (e.g. force) has magni tude and d irection ,
centre of
scalar (e.g. mass) has only magni tude 2 a 17 N
~ " --f",,!
b 7 N c 13 N at 23° to 12 N force 3 a Horizontal
com ponent 87 N. vertical com ponent 50 N b 350 N
c Force reduced (to 250 N)
2.14 (page 53) -----'f---- 4N

1 Path is at a tangent to ci rcle 2 Friction between 1 a See above left b Shorter legs. w ider a part
tyres and road 3 Cent ripetal force a less b less 2 a See above right b iN 3 See below:
c more 4 a gravity b electric force 5 a Gravity
(weight) is only force on satell ite. towards ce nire of Slab:;j.., unsta~ neut~
Eart h; accelera t ion is in same di rect ion b Less speed
c Less force 3.03 (page 63)
Further questions (pages 54- 55) 1 a See below b 720N m c ISO N d 600N
1 a speed = distance1time b 100 m e 420 N [ ze ro g 0.5 m
2 a i 8 m ii 2.0 s b 4 .0 m ls c j Increasing d istance x
y
betwee n posi tions ii Weight h as a component dow n
slope, force causes acceleration
3 a i More force causes more acceleration
ii force = mass X acceleration iii 2.0 kg 480N 120N
4 a 25 s b 1080 N c Resisting force (air resista nce)
increases wit h speed . so resultant force less
5 a 2000 N h i 1200 N 3.04 (page 65)
ii force = mass x accelerat ion l One t hat retur ns to original s hape w hen force (load)
iii 1.5 m/s 2 c Total d rag force will increase with removed 2 Point beyond whic h mateli al won't retu rn
speed until resultan t force is again zero to original s hape w hen force removed 3 No. no t a
6 a 5 N b i Both forces in same di rection straight line 4 a 40 mm b extension/mm: O. 9 . 18 . 27,
ii Forces in o pposite directions 36.48. 70 d Elastic lim it is at extens ion of 36 mm
7 a 5 km b i 10 mls ii 8 min 20 s c 2 m/s 2 e Up to 36 mm exte nsion (e nd of straight section)
8 a 4 s b Friction c On lyres. from road d 3000 N f 3. 9 N g 2.8 N
9 b 20 mis c 4 s; reduction in speed d i Weight
3.05 (page 67)
(gravity) ii Air res ista nce ill Weight: a ir res istance;
1 a SO Pa b 100 Pa 2 a 200 N b 400 N 3 Large
equal e Straight a nd level fi No c hange ii Greater
area of co ntact with soil reduces pressure on soil
loss of speed
 ANSWERS
.............................................................................................
4 a 300 N b i and ii See below c 7500 Pa, 500 Pa
I 4.04 (page 89)
ma;umum p l"fiSUll!
3.06 (page 69)
1 a Less b Same c Same d Less 2 a 24 m J
b 19200 kg c 192 000 N d 16 000 Pa 3 20 000 I)a
3.07 (p.age 71)
1 a and b 200 Pa c 100 N d Output fo rce more
t han inp ut fo rce 2 a and b Increased output force
3.08 (page 73)
1 Increases w ith d epth , acts in all direction
2 Pressure in straw reduced so gl'~ater outs ide a ir
pressure pushes liqu id up 3 He ig ht of colum n
reduced 4 a lOa mm of mercury b 860 m m of
mercury c 113000Pa 5.<1 96000 Pa b 0 .96atm
c 960 mb 6 a 9810 Pa b 10.3 m
3.09 (page 75)
1 More molecules in each cm 3 , so mo re collis ions
every second o n each cm~ of inside surface of balloon
2 a 12 m 3 b 15 m 1 3 a Pressure x volume is
consta nt b Straigh t line (th rough oli gin)
3.10 (page 77)
1 a 20 000 Pa b 100 000 Pa c a - same, b - halved
2 100 cm 3
FUI·thcr questions (pages 78-79)
1 .1 Moment due to F produces [al'ger force at s horter
d istance from pivot b Larger force, fu rther from p ivo t
2aOAN m b l.6N
3 a 100 kPa. 200 kPa. 300 kPa. 400 kPa b 2 m 3
4 a Downward force (weig ht) t hrough M. upwan:l
force through A b i 30 N m ii 0.38 m
5 b i 10.0 em li 14.0 em iii 2.5 N
6 a lOa 000 Pa, pressure = force/area
b Not su ffi c ie nt to exceed elastic lim it of w indow
7 a HI acts downwards from C b Force spread over
greater area, so less pressure on heel c 200 N
8 a the same as; more t ha n ; less t han c 2.5 N /em 2
9 a i 0. 5 m 2 ii 2.0 m 2 b SO 000 N/m 2
10 a 12m 3 b 12 000 kg c 120000N d 20000 Pa
4.01 (page 83)
1 60J 2 0.5 m 3 a 10000 J b 35000 000J
c sao 000 J d 2001 4 18 5 a kinetic. gravitational
potential. c hem ical b chem ical
4.02 (page 85)
1 a 50 1 b 50 J c Changed to thermal e nergy (heat)
2 For law see p 84 3 Ene rgy can't be made. Because
of losses, generator can't deliver enough e nergy for
m OIOl:
4.03 (page 87)
1 a 2401 b 360 1 2 a 75 J b 300 1 3 20 mJs
4 aandb 25 1 candd Sm
1 a 30% b Wasted as t hennal e nergy (heat)
2 500W 3 a 3000W b 3000 J c 600001
d 75 % 4 a 6000 1 b 300 1 c 300 W 5 a 6000 N
b 4000 W 6 50 000 W
4.05 (page 9 1)
1 Coal. oil. natu ral gas , umniu m 2 a Turning
turb ines b Conde nse steam (tu m it back to liquid)
3 a Turbines b Thermal e nergy (heat) c X : 2000 MW.
Y: 500 MW e X is 36% , Y is 27%
4.06 (page 93)
1 G ravita t io nal pote ntial e nergy of water behind
a dam 2 a Useful energy output (as electliciry) is
25% of e nergy in fuel b Be E d A eAr No fuel
req uil'Cd o r burned
4.07 (page 95)
1 Can't be replaced; oil, nat ural gas 2 a Wind .
hyd roele ctric 3 See p96: Sun's e ne l-gy stored in
a nc ient plants dur ing growth (an imals get e nergy
by eating plants) .... ancient l'Cmains buried and
c ha nged into crude oil over m illions of years ...... petrol
extracted from oil 4 Carbon dioxide em issions,
o t her pollu tants 5 Storage of nuclear waste. power
sta tions expens ive to decomm iss ion 6 Energy
from hot rocks (o r wate r) underground ; heating.
heat source fo r po wer s tatio ns 7 Energy radiated
from Sun; solar panels (fOl· hot water), solar ceJls
8 Hyd roelectric. tidal, wave 9 Bettel' insulat ion .
more efficient transpol1.. mak ing goods last lo nger.
being less wasteful wit h electricity etc.
Further questions (pages 98-99)
1 a Wound up spling, stt'Ctched lu bber bands
b Via geaI'\vheels so that toy ga ins kinetic energy
2 a i PE li PE + KE iii PE + KE b Changed into
t hennal energy (heat)
3 a i Elastic potent ial e nergy (slI-ain ener gy)
ii Changed to K£ + gravitat ional PE b 0.751
4 a Wind . hydroelectric, t idal. solar b No pollut ing
gases from sources in pan a; output can be valiable
(e.g. Wind)
5 a 225000 J b 22 5 000 1 c 1.25 m
6 a 3000 N b 180 000 J c 4000 W d 0.8 (80%)
7 .l kettle 2 kW; food m ixer 600 W b television
c food m ixer
·............................................................................................
8 a Resources t hat can't be replaced b S implest way
of releasing e n ergy, as heat (e.g as in a power station)
c Uranj um
9 a Heati ng water .... steam .... motion in turbi nes .....
tuming generator ..... electric ity b Compared with
fossil fuels, w ind power more expensive, m uc h lower
output, variable, but less polluting.
10 a wood - yes, no; uranium - no, no b ii Not
renewable, u se may be caus ing global w3!m ing
11 a Oil (01' coal or natural gas) b enel"gy, bumed
c Non-renewable fuels ca n't be replaced/regrown
d (From top, example, use) petrol. cars; wood ,
buming for h eat; wood, bum ing for heat; petrol. cars
12 a i heat (th ermal) ii kinetic, heat ill ligh t, heat
iv sound , heat b elastic; gravitational; c hemical
5 .01 (page 103)
1 a , c and g gas band c solid d and r liq uid
2 a Random motion of smoke particles b Brownian
motion c Smoke particles light enough to be moved
by collisions w it h individual molecules in gas 3 Move
faster on average 4 Total kinetic energies of all atoms
or molecules in a material
5.02 (page 105)
1 a lOO oe b 373K c -273 °C d OK e o oe r 273K
2 a Volume increase wit h temperature b Cha nge
of cond ucting abili ty (resistan ce) with temperature
3 a Slower on average in A b B to A
c When temperatures are the same
5.03 (page 107)
1 a j O°C ti !OO°C b j 75 "C ii 25 °C
iii - 50 °C c Below temperature at w hich mercu ry
freezes 2 a e b A
5.04 (page 109)
1 a Particles (atoms) vibrate faster and push each
other furt hec apart b To allow for cont raction if
temperature falls c Al u mi nium expands more th an
concrete a nd would crack it d Metal o n one side
expands more t ha n d ifferent metal on other side
e More ope n an'angement of molecules in ice takes up
more space t han in water 2 a Bimetal strip bends, so
contacts separate bRight
5.05 (page 111)
1 a Particles (e.g. molecules) cause fo rce w hen t hey
co llide w it h walls (because of momentu m c ha nge)
b Part icles move faster; so force of coll is io ns greater
2 Increases 3 Liquid; weaker attraction s to hold
particles together 4 Gas; very weak attractions so
panicles not held to gether
5.06 (page 113)
1 a Bottom needs to let heat (thermal energy)
th rough , handle needs to reduce heat flow into
ha nd b T hey trap a il" c Alum inium cond ucts heat
ANSWERS
away more rapidly t han wood d Water is a much
better thermal cond uctor than the air trapped in
cloth 2 Loft insulatio n , m ineral wool in cavity walls ,
insulat io n around hot wate r storage tank 3 Thicker
lagging, keeping water at a lower average temperatu re
4 a Copper b Length, diameter, temperature
d ifference same for all t he metals 5 Free electron s
present to m o ve t hrough metal and carry en ergy
5.07 (page 115)
1 a 'Radiator' cau ses con vection curren t b Hot a ir
r ises by convection, canying smoke w ith it c Cooler
a ir flows in to replace hot a ir r is ing from bonfire
d cooled a ir sinks, sett ing up a con vect io n cu rre nt in
'fridge c Air can't circulate by con vectio n
2 a and b For explanations, see diagrams on plI O
3 B; hot water rises, so collects from top d own
5.08 (page 1 17)
1 a and b matt black c silvery 2 More energy
radiated per second , shor1er wavelengths 3 For
feat u res, see diagram on page 117 4 a Temperature,
detector distance a nd area same for all t he su rfaces
b Plate area , distance, and radiation source same
for bo t h su rfaces 5 Sun's thermal rad iation passes
th roug h glass and heats grou nd and a ir inside. Hot
a ir is trapped 6 a To absorb Sun's t hermal radiation
b To carry walmed water away, into house
5.09 (page 119)
1 a Much more of t he water is close to the su rface
where it can evaporate b Increase in temperature,
wind across sUlface (or increased sUlface area,
reduced hum idity) 2 Evaporating water takes thermal
e nergy (heat) from skin 3 Refrigerator, sweating
4 a Evaporation from skin red uced, so less cooling
b breeze speeds up evaporation 6 Humid air co oled
by glass, so water vapour tu rns liquid
5.10 (page 121)
1 Water used to carry thermal energy (heat) in cen tral
heating system; also in car cooling systems 2 a 400 J
b 200 000 J c 2 100 000 J 3 a 8400J b 420001
c S oC
5.11 (page 123)
1 a Tu rning solid 1 b 68 °C 2 Energy need ed to
separate particles (molecules) so t hat t hey form a
liq u id 3 a 3300000 J b 23000000 J 4 0.12 kg
Further questions (pages 124-125)
1 a Faster molecules escape from Li quid su rface to
form gas b Motion ove r grou nd compresses air and
warms it up. Molecules mm'e faster, so force larger
when t hey bounce off ins ide of tyres.
2 B
3 a To absorb Sun's t hermal rad iation b To prevent
loss of t hermal energy (heat) w hich s hould be
..............................................................................................
ANSWERS

absorbed by water c Pump circ ulates warmed water
through coil in tank d 2 kW e 5 m 1
4 a Expansion of mercury t hread along scale is
in proportio n to rise in temperature b i 2 mm
ii 200 mm
5 a i liquid ii liquid b i 440 "C 6 a evaporation
b , c, and e convect ion d conduction
7 a Insulatio n ; mineral wool b Hot water rises
by convection, so c ollects fmm the top dow n
c i kilo (x 1000) ii 3000 J ill 1 260 000 J d i 4200 J
ii 420 000 J iii 3 °C
8 a Larger s urface area gives increased heat transfer
rate b 12.6M J (12600 000J)
9 a 80°C b None c Boiling rapid (or expanding
vapour bubbles in l iquid)
6.01 (page 129)
1 a Transverse b 2 m c 0. 5 m d i 2 Hz ii 0. 5 s
e 4 mls f 4 m g 1 H z
6.02 (page 13 1)
1 b refraction c, d , a nd e diffraction 2 a Reflect
b Refract (bend) c Di ffract (spread out) d Less
d iffract ion (less spread ing)
6.03 (page 133)
1 a Sounds can be heard acmss a mom b Sounds
can be heard unde rwater in a swimming pool
c Sounds can be h eard thmugh walls 2 a No
med ium to carry vibrat ions b Sound waves d iffract
3 a Oscillations (vibrat io ns) bacJ..."Wards and forwards
b Oscillo scope di splay is a graph 4 Reflected (some
e nergy also transm itted t hrough wall)
6.04 (page 135)
1 a Sound is muc h slower t ha n light b 1320 m
2 a Wal-m a ir b gas 4 a 440 m b 1.33 s c 82.5 m
6 .05 (page 137 )
1 a C b A a nd De B 3 a Peaks closer together
b Peaks higher (greater amplitude) 4 a 20 kHz
b 16.5 m c 0.0 165 m
6.06 (page 135)
1 Sounds of freq ue ncy undetectable by h uman
ear 2 Sca nning th e womb, breaking up gall stones
3 a Measuring depth of water b Depth calculated
from time for refl ected s ound pulse t o return
4 a 40 000 H z b 21 m c 0.035 m
Fw1.her questions (pages 140-141)
1 a c ircular. transverse b i Oscillates up and do wn
ii Tra nsverse waves produce only up and down
motion c i 2 H z ii 0.25 m
2 a 15 s b i w all H 264 m c Sound waves are
longitudinal a nd much faster
3 a Waves s hould have same spacing but hig he r peaks
b i If two waves take 0. 02 s, one wave takes 0 .1 s , so
100 waves per second ii 3.3 m
4 a i A ii B b i Fmm greater than average to less
t ha n average ti Repeatedly backward s and fOlwards
iii One wavelength is distance from centre of o ne
cluster of particles to centre of next.
5 a i Amplit ude is distance from peak to centre line
ii 3 iii 0.05 s iv 20 Hz b i Oscillat ions (vibrations)
backwards and forwards ti Louder
6 a Compressions in sound waves pus h ball forward ,
t hen it swings back b i Greate r amplitude (greater
forwards-and-backwards motion) ii More vibrations
per second c 680 H z
7 a 0.48 ms b 5000 mls
8 a B louder than A b C higher p itch tha n A c B
d C c 1.5 m f 440 Hz
9 a Transverse: vibrations up a nd down (or s ide to
s ide); longitud inal: vibrations backwards a nd forwards
b Safer, can d istinguis h between tissue layers
c Cleaning (o r metal testi ng)
7.01 (page 145)
1 a Sun . ligh t bulb b Moon. walls in a room 2 Point
light source causes s harp s ha dows 3 a Re flected
b Absorbed 4 a 1.28 s b 500 s 5 Shorter
wavelength 6 S ingle wavelength (and colour)
7.02 (page 147)
,,
,
Image I
t
1 a and b See above c Virtual d No; no rays from
B striking mirTor will reflect into eye 2 7.5 m
7.03 (page 149)
1 a, h, c and d See above c 63.5°
.............................................................................................
7.04 (page 151)
uxident ray gla~s
angle of incidence
normar---- angle of refractloo
air re fracted ray
1 a See abo ve b Refraction (bending) wo uld be
less in wa tel- (larger a ngle of refractio n co mpared
w ith glass) 2 a Dispersio n b Violet c Red
3 226 000 km/s
7.05 (page 153)
1 For light trave lling from glass to wards boundary
w ith ai r, rays at a ngle of incide nce greater tha n 4 1" are
co mpletely reflected w ith no re fraction at all
2 a See belo w b No; a ngle of inc ide nce less than
crit ical a ngle
A 3 a See above tight b Re fraction c Li ght waves
3 a Can)'ing telephone s ignals . endoscope for looking
inside bod y b In periscope, binoculars (o r rear
reflecto rs)
7.06 (page 155)
1 a 17.8" b 36.9" 2 a 30" b greater
3 a 124 000 km/s b 24.4 0
7.07 (page 157)
1 a A b A c Point w here parallel rays converge anel"
passing through lens d Distan ce from p r inc ipal focus
to ce ntre of lens 2 a At principal focus b Furt her
from lens , la rger 3 Image is real, inverted , same size
as o bject , a nd 2 x focal length away fro m lens
7.08 (page 159)
1 a 12 cm fro m le ns . height 2 cm, real a nd inve rted
b 15 cm from lens, he ight 3 cm, real a nd invelted
2 a Closer t ha n principal foc us b At tw ice focal
lengt h c Closer t ha n in part b, but no close r than
p r inc ipal focus 3 In a roo m. foc us image of a distant
w indow on a scree n and measure distance fro m lens
to screen
7.09 (page 161)
1 F urther away 2 Eye lens is made thicker or t hinner,
rather t ha n m o ved backwards or fo rward s 3 Closer
ANSWERS
7. 10 (page 162)
1 Transverse waves; can travel t hro ug h vacuum ;
have same speed in vacuum 2 m ic rowaves,
infrared. red lig ht , violet lig ht , ultraviolet.
X-rays 3 a Light b Infrared c Radio waves
d Ultraviolet c Microwaves f X-rays o r gamma rays
4 a 100 000000 Hz b 3m c 1500 m
7. 12 (page 167)
1 a Pulses of light (o r infrared) b Changes electrical
s ignals into lig ht p ulses c Cha nges lig ht pulses into
electrical signals d 'Cleans up' a nd amplifies s ig nals
c Easier to maintain power a nd q ual ity ; ideal fo r
o ptical fibres a nd computers f Carry more s ignals;
less attenu atio n (energy loss) 2 a CD b Vinyl d isc
Further questions (pages 168-169)
1 a Speed , direct ion b Totally intern ally reflected
2 a and b See below left c 20 cm d 18 cm
image
slo w do w n
4 a and b Diagram should be similar to that at
bo tto m of pISS; size (height) of im a ge is 3 cm
5 Larger, further from lens
6 a Diagram s ho uld be s im iJar to t h at at top of pi 58
b Tw o of virtual, magnified. upright c 3
7 a A Ray reflected at same a ngle as it stli kes: see
also top left diagram o n page 148 B Ray passes
thro ugh fibre as in top left d iagram on page 153
b B c Carrying telepho ne s ignals, endoscope for
loo king ins ide bod y d Single wavelength
8 a Ray travels stra ig ht t hrough glass w it h no c ha nge
in direct io n b Diagram s im ilar to th at at to p left on
page 154; 28 0 c 2 X 10 8 m/s
9 a Any t hree from radio waves, m icrowaves,
infrared . ultraviolet , X-rays b Two o f frequency,
wave length, penetrating power c 5 X 10 14
10 a iX-rays ii infrared
b i wave speed = wave freq uency X wavelength
ii 3 x 10 11 H z iii m icrow ave s
11 a 35° b 42 0 c Strikes KL at more t ha n crit ical
a ngle b ut , after reflection , strikes LM at less tha n
c ti tical a ngle
12 a i greate r t ha n ii the same as iii greater tha n
b i Microwaves ii Ultraviolet o r gamma
..............................................................................................
ANSWERS

8.01 (page 173) 8.08 (page 187)

1 a repel b attract c repel 2 a Posit ive (+ ) 1 2 n 2 a 720 mm b 250 0: c 200 mm
b Negative (-) c No c harge 3 F ree electrons 8.09 (page 189)
4 Polythene an insulator so c harges don't move. 1 In series 2 All bulbs get t he full battery voltage;
copper a conductor so charges flow away easily if one breaks. ot hers keep working 3 See below
5 Carbon 6 a Comb b Fewer electrons t han normal 4 a X: 2 A. Y: 2 A b 6 V
so less negative c harge present tha n positive
8.02 (page 175)
1 a Refuelling a ircraft b Earthi ng a ircraft and
--,-
,
tanker 2 1 000 000 (l 06) 3 a S ee below: ,,
--'--

8.10 (page 191)

1 a 1.5 A b 6 V (both) 2 a 3 A b 3 A (both) c 6 A
d 2 Q 3 D (9 .9 Q)
/
/
8.11 (page 193)
/ 1 a 2000 W b 2 kW 2 920 W 3 2 A 4 a 11 J
b 66 J 5 a 36 W b 21 600 W (21.6 k W)
b Charges being attracted (+ ) are closer to rod tha n 8.12 (page 195)
t hose being repelled (-) c Away from can th roug h 1 Thin w ire which pro tects circui t from too high a
finger d Pos it ive (+) current ; wire overheats. melts. and breaks ci rcuit if
8.03 (page 177) current too hi gh 2 So t hat wire in cable can't still be
1 a Arrows point away from sph ere b Away from live when switch is o ff 3 Safety: if there is a fault,
sphere c Toward s sphere d Become less (because of current flo wing t o earth blows fuse (or trips c ircu it
flow t hrough poi n t) breaker) so t hat circuit is o ff 4 3 A fuses fo r lamp
a nd fo od mixer. 13 A fuses fo r hairdryer and iron
8.04 (page 179)
5 If t here is a fault . circuits migh t overheat without
1 a O.S A b 2.S A 2 a 2000 rnA b 100 rnA
fuse blowing 6 Sw itch off at socket; p ull out plug
3 a and b See belo w c 0.5 A d A a nd B; incomplete
ci rcu it 4 a SOC blO C Further questions (pages 196-198)
1 a i Electrons pulled from ha ir to balloon jj Negative;
electron I ,--{ A equal but opposite to charge on balloon b [nduces
flO\N ~ positive c harge on ceiling (i.e. dectrons pushed away.
leaving su rface o f ceiling w ith posit ive c harge) which is
attracted to negat ive charge on balloon.
2 a i Like c harges repel ii Negative b Electrons (-)
flow in to pla n t from earth (see also s imilar s ituatio n
convent ional current in diagrams at bottom ofpl74) c Less insecticide
requi red: m o re even cove rage
3 a See bdow b Br ig h ter. mo re cun'e nt
8.05 (page 181)
1 a and b volt c coulo mb d ampere e joule
2 a Ammeter b Voltmetel' c 8 V d 12 J e 4 J
f2Cg 8 J
8.06 (page 183)
1 a 23 n b Would not heat u p without resistance
2 Bu lb gets brighter; less resistance in c ircuit. so m o re
curren t 3 a LDR b t hermistor c diode 4a lA b 3A
8.07 (page 185) 5 a 4. 5 J b 4. 5 W
1 a 16 V b 32 V c 0. 75 A 2 B 3 a 2 0. b 40. 6 a 6 0 bandc O.2A d O. 8 V e O.16W
4 Reverse; from t h e graph . the c u rre nt is close to zero 7 a i Only for use w ith alternat ing current
so the value of VII will be very high ii Frequency: cu rrent flows backwards a nd forwards

·........................................................................................... .
so times per second b Two layers of insulation
c 3.26 A d i Breaks c k c u it if c urrent is too hjgh for
safety ii 3 A; nearest fuse value above actual c urrent.
othe rw ise faulty appliance m ight over heat without
blowi ng fuse cLower vohage causes lower c urrent,
so much lower power output (less heat per second)
8 a 8.7 A b i 840 W ii 2000 W greater t ha n 840 W
requi red but less than 3000 W needed if bulbs c ha nged
c AU bulbs get t he full generalOr voltage (shared if
in series); if one b ulbs breaks, ot hers keep working
(all stop working if in se!'ies) d 18900: e i SO Hz
il Graph has peaks of only half th e amplitude (he ight)
but same spacing
9 a A is ammete!~ V is voltmeter. B is variable resistor
b Use B to increase voltage in steps; measul-e current
each t ime c 0.4 Ad S n. e 7.5 0: r Incr eases
10 a 5 A b 2.4 n. c 100 C d 1200 J
9.01 (page 201)
1 North-seeking pole 2 a Unlike hard magn etic
materials. soft ones easily lose magnetism b Steel
(ha rd); iron (soft) 3 Iron. nickel. cobalt
4 Alu m iniu m, COppel: zinc 5 Bars I and 3 are
pelmane nt magnets. bar 2 is not
9.02 (page 203)
1 a N is a t top (black) e nd b N pole at righ t- hand
e nd of magnet; field di rection is from N to S (right to
left) c X
9 .03 (page 205)
1 a Higher c un'e nt ; m ore turns on coil b Reverse
cun-ent d irection c Arrowhead points away from +
e nd of batter),; N pole is at left e nd of coil 2 Needles
form part of a circle with black ends point ing dodo'wise
9.04 (page 209)
1 a To increase strength of magnet ic fi eld b Field
doesn't rema in w he n current in coil switc hed
off c incl-easing c urrent, inc reasing turns on co il
2 a With a relay. small current through switch
can tu m much larger current on/off b Relay core
magnet ized . so armature closes contacts to switc h on
motor 3 a To switch off c un'ent if t his is too high
b Tr ips (cu ts of0 at lower CUl"l-ent 4 a To magnetize
particles in a val)'ing pattern along tape b Magnetism
must t-emain but demagnetizing not be too diffic ult
9.05 (page 209)
1 a Hi gher c urrent, stronger magnet b Upwards
c Reven;e c u n-ent direction or turn magnet round
2 As c un-ent alte rnates (changes di rection). force
c han ges d irection. caus ing vibrations 3 a Stronger
tuming effect (higher forces) b Turning effect in
oppos ite direction
9.06 (page 211)
1 a ami b Spli t r ing (commutator) 2 a i Coil
hori zontal ii Coil vel1 ical b Stronger magnet . higher
ANSWERS
c un-e nt , more tu rns on coil c Anticlochvise 3 Motor
ca n be used wit h AC
9 .07 (page 213)
1 a Curre nt direction reversed band c a c urrent
2 a and c GI-eater EMF b Current direction reversed
9.08 (page 215)
1 Uncha nged 2 a S pole b AB 3 Eddy c urrents
induced in disc c reate magnetic field w hich opposes
motion
9.09 (page 21 7)
1 a AC; each side of coil l-everses its directio n
of mot ion through magnetic fiel d every half t urn
b increase turns on coil. mtate faste r. use stronger
magnet c Ho r izontal; fastest motion thm ugh field
lines d Verti cal field lines not being c u t 2 fIXed
coil w ith mtating electromagnet. more t ums on coil.
specially-shaped COl-e
9.10 (page 219)
1 a Galva nometer needle fli cks b ... stays at zero
c ... flicks opposite way 2 a Needle deflection m uc h
more b AC induced in coil (so average deflect ion of
needle is zero) 3 a 3 V b 3
9.11 (page 221)
1 Most tu ms o n output coil so increases voltage
2 a Magnetic field not c hanging b To reduces
eddy cun-ents w hich waste power by heating core
c Because o utpu t power [voltage X CUiTe nt] can't
be mo!-e than input power 3 a 10 V band c 23 W
d 2.3 A
9.12 (page 223)
1 Using transformers 2 a Tran sformers only work
w ith AC b To reduce cu n-ent so that less power is lost
from heat ing effect in cables 3 In densely-populated
or scenic al-eas 4 2640 MW 5 0.02 W 6 a 2 kW
b 0.002 W
Furtl1cr questions (pages 224-225)
1 a Any two of: [-educe turns on coil. reduce c urre nt.
remove core b So t hat no magnet ism remains after
switc h off
2 a and c a magnetic matel; al b a magnet d a non-
magnetic material
3 Current in coil creates magnetic field. Soft iron
pieces attracted together w hic h closes contacts and
switches o n c urrent through motor.
4 a F is to t he right, at right-angles to w ire
b i Stronger ii Weaker ii Opposite di rection
5 a ii and jj Needle deflects [Q right iii Larger
de fl ect ion to left
6 a Heat tums water into steam which pushes turb ines
round to turn generators b To reduce current so that
less power is lost from heating effect in cables c 32 000
..............................................................................................
ANSWERS

7 a One t hat red uces voltage b Fewe r turns 10.06 (page 239)
on output coil c 11S V d To reduce c u n'en t in 1 a Glows w here electrons strike it s o shows path of
transm ission lines e iron or Mumetal beam b Negative ( -) c Repelled by negative plate,
8 a 90 C b i Magnet ic field ii Become magnetized , attracted to positive 2 a Opposite to electron flow
so will repel b Upwards
9 a Each s ide of coil alternately moves u p a nd down Further questions (pages 240-241)
t hrough magnetic fi eld so d irection o f ind uced c urrent 1 a Resistance falls b To pass on proportion of
keeps c ha nging b i 2 ii 4 c Stronger magnet (or battery voltage c Rises; processor switched on
faster rotat ion) d Replace bulb with relay whic h can sw itch separate
10.01 (page 229) circuit on/o ff c Fire alarm
1 a relay b transducer c d iode (or LED) d LED 2 a Light-dependent resistor b Loudspeaker
2 Any t hree from c hart of input sensors a nd output c AND gate
devices on p229 3 a Bell p ush b Bell 4 a a nalogue :3 a i Convert o utside c hanges into electri cal c ha nges
b digital ti Uses s ignals from sensor to control output device
10.02 (page 231) b i X is O R gate, Y is AND gate ii D iii Motion
1 Allows c urrent t hrough in one direction only sensor, or reed switch linked to door or w indow
2 Cha nges AC to DC 3 a Y b X 4 Reduced to 2 V 4 a i AND gate ii NOT gate iii AN D gate b See
5 BI-ing a magnet close below c Ha ndle states that are HIGH. (ON or 1) or LOW,
(OFF or 0)
10.03 (page 233)
1 a Light that comes on automat ically in the dark
b Fire alarm 2 Can be used to switch a much higher
current on/off 3 Bulb comes on w hen it is light, goes off
-8 l AND alarm I
when it is dark 4 a Higher temperature needed to make
bell ling b Replace 10 kD: resistor with valiable one
~
AND motOf I
10.04 (page 235)
1 AND gate 2 OR gate: see below left 3 a See below 5 a Diode; lets c urrent flow t hrough in one d irectio n
right b Both LOW (0) only b Lower voltage; DC a nd not AC c Output
voltage would decrease
A B Q A B C Q
6 a LED b Relay c Therm isto r d LDR c Diode
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 7 a Falls b Rises
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 8 a Resistance falls b LDR
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 9 a X b 0 (low) c Invel1.s (reverses) output: 0
becomes 1, a nd 1 becomes 0 d OR gate c 1 (high)
1 1 1 1 1 1 0
10 a B b Opposite to electron flow c Upwards
10.05 (page 237) 11.01 (page 245)
1 a See below b HIGH (1) 1 a, e and e electrons b ne utrons d pro tons a nd
neutrons 2 a and b 13 c 14 3 Differen t nu mbers
A B C Q
of ne utrons 4 a '! C b ':0 c z~ Ra 5 X a nd Yare
0 0 1 0 carbon, Z is n itroge n
0 1 1 1 11.02 (page 247)
1 0 0 0 1 carbon- 14 2 a, d , r, h, and i gamma
1 1 0 0 h , e , and g alpha c beta 3 Atoms of radioactive
isotope have unstable nu clei which decay a nd em it
2 a and b see below
radiat io n 4 Atoms are c harged because electrons
i NOT gate (below left) ii AND gate (below !'Ight)
have been lost (or ga ine d)
both mput> the same
~
11.03 (page 249)
A A Q A B C Q 1 Radon gas from ground 2 Health r isk if radioactive
gas is absorbed by bod y :3 a Gamma b Alpha
0 0 1 0 0 1 0
4 a 2 counts per second b 26 cou nts per second
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 c Gamma
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
·............................................................................................
t 1.04 (page 251)
1 a Alpha b A = 228, Z = 88 c Raelium
d n~Th -t u~ X + ;a
e rad ium-228, alpha 2 a 0 h -1 c Beta particle
(electron)
11.05 (page 253)
1 Strontium-90 2 a 400 Bq b 200 Bq c 50 Bq
3 a Radioactive decay is a random process h 1.5
hours
11.06 (page 255)
1 Em itted particles transfer energy to sUlTOunding
atoms w hen they coll ide with t hem 2 a Splitting
of heavy nucleus into two ligh ter nuclei h Em itted
particles (neutrons) triggering furt her fiss ion ... a nd
so on 3 a Energy release in a nuclear reacto r
b Explos ion o f nuclear weapon 4 a Formed in
reactor when U-238 is bombarded by neutrons
b Toxic. a nd dust can get into lun gs
5 a ~ U + ~ n - t '~ Ba + ~ Kr + 3~ n
b Total mass of products is slightly less t ha n total
mass of U-235 nucleus a nd neutron. Loss of mass
represenTs loss o f energy.
11.07 (page 257)
1 a Joining etc b Nuclear fiss ion 2 F uel plentiful.
more energy per kg of fuel. less radioactive
waste. failu re is safe 3 Diffic ult to maintain high
te mperatu res and pressures needed for fus ion
4 a Hydrogen h Fus ion c Helium 5 a Gravity
b Temperatu re a nd pressu re in core hi gh enough for
fus ion to start
11.08 (page 259)
1 a Radioact ive isotopes b In nuclear reactor, when
stable isotopes absorb neutrons OJ' gamma radiat ion
c Tracers. imaging 2 X-ray-type metal testing. medical
imaging 3 a Alphas stopped, gammas pass straight
t hrough, but betas partly absorbed depending on
thickness b Reading goes down 4 a Any two from
bul1eted points on page 258 b Safer; little radiat ion
emitted after testing has finis hed 5 a Unc ha nged
b After death, no more carbon-14 absorbed , so
proportion decreases w it h t ime due to radioactive decay
11,09 (page 261)
1 In Thomson's model, positive and negative c harges
spread th roughout atom 2 Rutherford-Boh r model
has quantum e nergy levels for electrons 3 a Nucleus
extremely small b Repelled by hi ghly concentrated
c harge 4 Alphas are posit ive and are repelled by like
c harges
11.10 (page 263)
1 a Radiated as photon b S horter wavelength
2 Particle not made up of other particles 3 electrons,
quarks
ANSWERS
4 Sum of fract ional c harges = + 1- ±-± 0
=
5 Ch arge emitted = + 1-(-±} = +1
Further questions (pages 264-265)
1 a i nucl ei H electrons iii waves b Alph a
part icles
2 a 17 electrons , 17 protons, 18 neutrons b protons
and neutrons in nucleus, electrons around it
3 a i 33 ii 52 b Atoms of same element (same
atomic number/electrons) but w ith diffe rent mass
number (o r di fferent numbers of neutrons) c Use fact
that lead will stop a lp ha and beta particles bur not
gamma rays
4 a i Nucleus o f p hosphorus-32 has extra neutron
ii Same electron arrangement b i EleCtron ii 16,32
iii Time taken for half radioactive atoms to decay
(or activity to halve) c i gloves/tongs, keep dista nce ,
sealed storage ii G-M lube, p hotographic film
5 a Too easily absorbed by tissue b i 12 hours
ii 116 X original value
6 a Nucleus b Total of prot ons a nd neutrons in
nucleus c ii 8 days d Much longer half-life
7 a i Atoms wit h unstable nuclei present
ii Naturally-occurring radioactive materials in soil,
rocks iii Time taken for half radioactive atoms to
decay (or activity to halve ) h i 24 cou nts/m inute
ii 40 houl's approx c Gamma not very ionizing
d j beta ii 122 11 13
8 a i Unstable a toms present. em in ing radiation
H Em its radiation very close to cells a nd can damage/
c hange them b Atoms of same element (same ato m ic
number/electrons) but w it h di ffe rent mass number (o r
differe nt nu mbers of neutrons) c i and il 86 ill 136
9 a Too easily absorbed by t issue b Tracking plant's
uptake of fertilizer. o r d etecting leaks in und erground
pipes
10 a 146 b Nucleus
13.03 (page 283)
1 47 °C 2 36 co u nts/seco nd 3 5,4 N 4 86 kPa
sO. 79mV
Mu1tichoice questions (Core) (pages 298-299)
1A 2 C 3B 4D S C 6D 7B 8B gA lOA 110
12 C 13 C 140 1S C 16 B
Mu1tichoice questions (Extended) (pages 300-301)
1D 2B 3 C 4A S C 6 A 7 C 88 g c 100 11A
120 13B 14A lSB 16B
IGCSE theory questions (pages 302-313)
1 a 13.6 s b 0 .34 s c Greater accuracy
d 5 X 0.3 4 s = 1.7 s e Drop is accelerating (gaining
speed) so travels furt her each 0.34 s.
2 a i Force of gravity on o bject ii mass/volume
b i Weigh object. in N; divide res ult by 10 m/s 2 to give
mass in kg ij Find volume by displacement o f liquid :
..............................................................................................
ANSWERS
d ivide mass by volu me to fi nd density c i 2.0 N to left
ii 4.0 mls 2
3 a PO b Cyclist decelerates (unifo rmly) unt il
stationary c i 1000 m ii 500 m iii 1500 m iv 15 mls
4 Measure t ime for 20 revolutions (for example);
divide result by 20
5 a 260 g b 0. 96 g/cm 3
6 aandb 720kgm/s c 600 kg d 1.2m/s
7 a Speed increases to a terminal value , while
acceleration decreases to zero b Weight downwards,
equal a ir res istance upwards c Resultant force zero ,
so acceleration zero d i 4BOO m ii 150 m
8 a Moments about any point (e.g. p ivot) equal,
resultant force in any direction zero b Taking moments
about pivot, 6.0 X 40 = B.O X 30 c 0.5 N dovffiwards
9 a 54 N b i Point up to whic h extension
proport io nal to load ii 1 18 N 2 3.6 kg iii BOO kg/m 3
c Molecules much closer toget her, so much more
mass in each m 3
10 a i 2.5 m/s 2 ii 8.5 X 105 N b i Kinet ic, potential
(gravitational) ii Chemical (in fuel) iii Energy lost as
heat (thermal e nergy) c Towards centre of circle
11 a 500000 Pa b 5250 N
12 a Measure (for example) 50 swings , d ivide total
time by 50 b i weight, tension in string ii Upward s ,
towards centre of arc c 0.1 J
13 a J784 N b i 4500J ij J800 W
14 a i his weight b d istance moved c i and ii 1000 N
cl imber d i Chem ical energy Ii food (by respiration)
iii producing t hermal energy (heat)
15 a 40 N b 720 N c 144 J d 60 W
16 a i Conduction, convection ij Separates
fingers from beaker, a ir good insulato r
b i mass X specific heat capacity ii Low t hermal
capacity, absorbs lower proportion of e nergy from
d rink (or has lower temperature d rop for each joule
absorbed)
17 a i Nitrogen (assum ing pressure is constan t)
ii In gas, molecules free to move and not bound
together b i Distance m o ved along scale per degree
c hange in temperatur e ii How close t hermometer is
to having the same scale distance [or every degree
18 a i Fast, in random directions ii Exett force
(due to moment um c hange) when t hey bou nce off
walls b i Decreases ij Increases c i Molecules in
solid vibrate ii Separation less in solid
19 a i iron ii milliammeter (or m illivoltmeter)
b Greater t.he temp erature d ifference between
junct io ns, greater the voltage (and c urrent) prod uced ,
so higher t he meter J"t'ad ing c matt black
20 a mass o[block. in itial and final temperatures,
t ime heater is sw itched on b Pt = IIIctlT c i Extra
energy supplied to make up for heat losses
ii Insulation round block
2 1 a Evaporation happens o n surface, boiling
happens throughout; t here are bubbles during boil ing
as expanding vapour pushes back atmosph ere
b En ergy needed to separate molecu les against forces
of attractio n ; KE/speed of molecules doesn't increase
whil e t his happens c Use Pt = /ilL, w here P = 120,
1 = 1, In = 0.050 X 10- 3. This gives L = 2.4 X 10 6 J/kg
22 a Sound fmm X reaches Y first, t hen refl ection
from wall arrives after b 400 Hz c 0.825 m
d Oscillatio ns backwards and fonvards
23 a See below b 25 0 c i and ij 3 X 10 8 mls
VIolet
24 a 3 X 108 mls b Sound much slower (330 m/s)
c i Diagram to s how source oEl ight and sound (e.g.
starting p istol. firewo rk) several h und red metres
away, G PS device or similar for measuring distance,
observerllistener w ith stopwatch ii Distance to
obsen'et~ time for sound to reach t hem jjj Assuming
ti me for ligh t is zero, calculate d istance/time for sound
25 a Pass ray into glass block, measure angles of
incidence and refract io n. Use
sin i speed of light in air ( = re f ractlve
. In. d ex )
-- = - -
si.n r speed of light in glass
b i 1.26 X 10 - 3 H z ii 2260 s (38 m in)
26 a LSO s b 0.75 s, 2.25 s
27 a and b Infrared eX-rays
28 a i See below ij Virtual
I@..,. ..
"......-,.::.............
~
b i and ii For s imilar ray diagram , see p158 (top)
29 a j X-rays (o r ")'-rays) il infrared (OJ· rad io waves)
b 3.0 X 10 20 H z c 3 x 108 m /s
30 a See below left b i 12 n ii I and II 0.5 A
iii See below r ight
·............................................................................................
40
31 a 1.5 A b i 80. ii 6 V c i Lamp less bright
jj More resistance in circuit. so less c urrent
d iandii 40.
33 a and b Diagram and description as on page 182
c i 9 Q ii 60C iii 0. 75 W
32 a Region in whic h electric c harge feels a fo rce
b Field lines as on page 176 (bottom r ight) c 0.002 A
d E = VI I = 120 J
33 a i and jj See below
? 2 a Third colum n (from top): 0.3 4 , 0.44, 0.49 , 0.53,
b i No cha n ge ii Points in opposite direction c S is
stronge l; T a nd W a re same strength
34 a j 12 tu rns ii Cu rre nt in primary coil causes
c ha n ging m a gne tic field in core whic h generates
c ha nging voltage in seconda ry co il iii H eating caused
by eddy (induced) curre nts in co re b i 12 V d.c.
ii Diode c 8 A
35 a EMF (voltage) ind uced in rod as it cu ts magnetic
fi eld lines b i and ii Higher read ing iii Reads ze ro
36 a See page 236 b i and ii low c i Seq uence
from top to bottom then left to r ight: LOW. H IGH .
HI GH. LOW ii No effect
37 a j Current ii PD (voltage) b 6.75 V c If
temperatu re rises, resistance of therm istor falls . so
c urrent r ises , caus ing relay coil to close switch, so bell
w ill ring.
38 a i x is 88 , y is 38 ii 50 iii 38 b Same number
of protons (3 8) in nu cleus , two m ore neutrons (52)
39 a 8 m inutes (tim e taken for count rate to halve
from 400 to 200) b i Arrangement sim ilar to that
on page 249 (04) b ut w it h alum inium s heet, not
lead ii Co unts rates w ith shee t present, w ith s heet
removed , a nd d ue to background rad iation alo ne
ANSWERS
40 a i Arra n gement sim ilar to that on p249 (04) b ut
w ith thick card, not lead ii De tect radiation with card
present, t he n without iii a-particles stopped by card ,
s o o nly background radiat io n detected wh en card
present b Beam fo llows circular path (i nto paper) at
r ight-angles to field
41 a Background radiatio n , caused by random decays
b Alphas at A (Fleming's left- ha nd rule predicts
upward d eflection if flow of charge is pos itive) ; gamma
at B (not defl ected by magnetic field. so uncharged);
betas at C (Oppos ite defl ectio n to alphas, so flow of
nega t ive c harge)
Alternative-to practical ques tions (pages 314-316)
1 a Column headin gs: tlmm , elmm b Thi rd column
(from to p): (0), 1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 17 c No, because val ue
o f load/extension is not constant d D iagram to
incl ude rule positioned as close to spring as p ossible,
o r set~squ are to indicate accu rate pos ition of spring
ends on scale
0. 60, 0.63 c 0.5 1 s d No; points suggest a straight
line but this does not pass through o r igin
3 a Second colum n (from top): 50, 75, 100 b S ee below
c Resistance values: 2.5, 4.0, 5.2 d R IO. e 7.8 0.
4 a Ammeter is in righ t gap , voltme ter in bottom gap
b 3.3 0. c i, H, and iii See belo w
r-~ A r---r--.---'--,
power
source
5 a 300 m b CPS dev ice (or s urveyor's tape used
in sta ges) c Add ing five values of v a nd dividing by
5 gives 345.67 m /s d Too many. Individual val ues of
v vary fro m average by ± 20. Two signi.ficant fi gures
m o re appropriate
6 a All th ree b temperature, length c Measure t ime
fo r 50 osc illations (for example); divide result by 50 to
fin d T
 ·...............................................................................
Index
If a )Jage number is given in bold. you should look th is u p fi rst.
absolute zem 105 chal1S. drawing and interp reting 295 electric CUlTent 5ee cun ent
AC 219 circuit breakers 194. 195. 207 electric fields 176- 177
changing to DC 230 circuit symbols 178, 321 electric motors 210-211
generators 2 I 6--2 I 7 circuits 178- 181.188- 191 electrical ener gy sec energy
mains SUPI)ly 194 eleco'onic 230-233 equat ion for 193
vo ltage 180.194.216.219.289 mains 194-195 electrical power see power
acceleration 27-35.38-39 circular motion 52-53 equat ion fO!' 192
of ft'ee fa ll . g 32-33 cloud chambel' 249 electricity, early ideas 272- 273
unifor m and non-uniform 34-35 coil . magnetic fie ld arou nd 204--205 electromagnetic induct ion 212-221
activi ty 252- 253 colour 145 . IS ! electromagnetic waves 116.
action and r eaction 44--45 commutator 210 162- 165
addition 294 compass 202 speed of 162
alpha decay 250 points of a compass 296 electromagnetism, early ideas 273
alpha particles 246- 247 components of a vector 51 electromagnets 206- 207
alter na t ing cun 'em s,;,; AC compressions (waves) 128 electromotive fol-ce (e,mJ ) 180. 181, 219
alt er na tor s 216-217 concave lenses 156 . 159 electmn shells 245
ammet er 178 condensa ti on 119 electmnics 228- 237
ampe re, unit ofcun em 178- 179 conduct ion (electrical ) 173 electrons
amplitude 129.137 conduct iOI'J. (th erJ'nal) 112- 113 in atoms 172, 244-245
ana logue signals 160. 228 conduct ors (elect rical) 173 beams of 238--239
AND gale 234-235 conduct ors (t her mal) 112- 113 in circuits 178
an tij)al1icles 251 conservation of energy 84 discovery of 260, 271
app mxima t ions. making 296 consen 'ation of momentum 48--49 in electrical conductor s 173
Archimedes 19 convect ion 114-115 in the rmal conductors 113
at m05p hetic I)ressure 72- 73 conventional CWTent directi on 179 transferred by rubbing 172-173
at omic number 244 . 320 converging lens 156 electr05cope 174
at oms 102.172.244--245 convex lenses 156--161 electrostat ic charge 172
early ideas 271 coulomb . unit of chaJ:ge 175 electrrn;tat ic force 53
models of 244,260-261 critical angle 152. ISS electr05 ta t ic preci pita tor 175
aver ages. working our 295-296 CU ITe nt . elecn-ic 178--179,289 elements 250.324
dil'ection 179 e,m.f 180 ,181. 219
balance, beam 20 magnetic effect 204- 207 energy 82-97
balance. spring 36 magnetic force on 208-211 chemical 83
balance, state of 58-59 consen'ation law 84
baromet er 73 dark mallei' and enel-gy 275 early ideas 268- 269
battery 178. 180 DC 194.219 elast ic (strain) 83
beam balance 20 decay, radioact ive 246, 250---253.263 eleen'ical 83. 193
becquerel. uni l of act ivity 252 decelerat ion 27 geothelmal 95. 97
b eta decay 251 . 263 deflection tube (electroIls) 239 hydl'Oelectr ic 93. 94, 97
beta p;u1icles 246- 247 demagne tizing magnets 20 1.205 intemal 103, 120 ,269
Big Bang theory 275 density 16-19.21 kinetic 83,86- 87.103
bimetal SO'ip 109 ch anges in water 109 and mass 255
binary code 106.237 and noating 21 non-renewable resour ces 94
biofuels 95 ,90 measuring 18- 19 nuclea r 83. 90.97, 254- 257
Botu'. Niels 261. 271. 276 and pressur e 69 poten tia l 83. 86-87
b oi ling 118 dep th, r eal and apparent 150 renewable resources 94--95
boilingpoim 106--107 diffraction I'esow'ces 94-97
Boyle's law 74- 75 in ripple ta nk 131 solar 95,96
bulbs. fila ment 182. 185 of radio waves 164 spreading 91
b ul bs, low-energy 238 d igital signals 100. 228 from Sun 94.95, 96-97
Brownian mot iOIl 103 diodes 183,185.229 thelmal sec thermal energy
a5 rect ifiers 23{l t idal 93, 95.97
camera 160 direc t cu rren t see DC n-ansfor mati on 84- 85
calcula tors, using 295 displacement can 18 types of 83
capacitors 229.230 dispel-sion 151 wind 92- 93. 95.97
carbon dating 259 diver ging lens 156 equat ions, list of 318- 319
cells (elect ric) 178 double insulation 194 equilibrium 59.61
in series and in paI<l llel 180, 189 evapor ation 118- 119
Celsius scale 104- 107 earthing 174, 194 ex pansion (th er mal)
centre of gr avity 60 ec hoes 133 , 135 of gases 111
centre o f mass 60--61 echo'sounding 135. 138 of ice and wa ter 109
centrij)etal (and centr ifugal) fOl'ce 52- 53 eddy currents 215 .221 of solids and liquids 108-109.111
chain r eact ion 254-255 Einstein. A1 be11 255.268,270.276 e11 tension of spring 64
char ge 172-175 efficiency 88 eye, human 160
ea rly ideas 272- 273 of power stat ions 91
char ge essentials 178 elastic limit 64-05 fair test 281
on electrons and pro tolls 172,244 elastic ma terials 64---65 Faraday's Jaw
induced 174 elecu ic cell5 see cells of electromagnet ic induction 212. 273
link with current 179 electric charge sec chal-ge fibres, opt ical 153.167
unit of 175 electri c ciJ'cuit s see circuit s fission. nucleal' 90.94. 254- 255
·............................................................................................ INDEX

fixed points (temper ature) 106--107 induced c hal-ge 174 melting point 106,122
Fleming's le ft-h and rule 208 induced magnetism 200 metre, uni t of length 13
Fleming's r igh t -hand lUle 214-215 induced voltage and CWTent 212-221 micrometer 14
float ing and density 21 d iJ'ect ionof cU1Tem 214-215 microwaves 135, 164
fluor escence 165, 239 inel1ia 38 min ors 146--149
foca l lengt h 156, 159 infrar ed 116.163-165 molecules 102
force 36-49,58-67 insulators (electrical) 173 moments 58-59,62- 63
and accdel'a t ion 38- 39 insulators (thennal) 112- 113 principle of 58
centripet al 52- 53 integl-ated Cil-cuits 229.234 momentum 46-49
gravitat ional 42 illlernal energy 103, 269 conservat ion of 48- 49
and momentum 46 ionization 177,246- 247 monoc hromatic lig ht 145
and motion 268 ions in air J 77 motion 26--35,52-53
and pressure 66--67 isotopes 244-245 circular 52-53
and work 82 early ideas 268
turning effect of 58 jet engine 45 gra phs 28- 29, 33- 35
fossil fuels 94, 96 Joule, James 269.276 Newton's firs t law of 36
[('acking 94 joule, unit of wOl-k and e nergy 82 Newton's second law of 38.46
n-equency 129 Newton's th il-d law of 45
of AC mains 194 Kelvin scale 105
motors. eleco'ic 210-2 J 1
of sound waves 136--138 kil ogram. unit of mass 12 mutual induct ion 218- 221
fdclion 40-41 kilowatt 88, 192
fuels 92,94- 96 kil owatt hour (kWh ) 193 NAN D ga te 236--237
nuclear 94. 254- 255 kinetic energy 83 neu trons 172, 244
fundamenta l part icles 262 calculating 86 in fission 254-255
fuses 194 kinetic theor)' 75, 102 stmctm e of 262- 263
fusion. latent h eat of 122 newton. uni t o f fo rce 20.36, 39
laser. light from 145 Nev.1on. Isaac 268,270,274,276
fusion, nuclero' 94,96, 256-257 laser diooe 167 laws of motion sel: motion
g (accelerat ion of fr ee fall) 32-33,43 laTenT hea t 122-123 NO R gat e 236--237
g (Earth 's gravi ta tional LDRs 183,232 NOT ga te 234-235
field strength) 42-43 LEDs 167, 229 nuclear
galaxies 275 length 13- 14 energy 83,90,97 ,254-257
galvanometer 2 12 lenses 156---161 fission 90. 94. 254-255
Galileo 268,274,276 Le nz's law 214- 215 fuel 94, 254- 255
gamma mys ligh t 144- 164 fusion 94 , 96, 256- 257
in electromagnetic spectrum 163, 165 from an a tom 262 power sta tion 90
propen ies and effects 246- 247, 251 ear ly ideas 270 radia t ion 246--249
uses 258 in electmmagn etic spectmm 163 reactors 254- 255, 256
gases speed of 145 , J54, 162 waste 255
expansion of III waves 145 nucleon num ber 245
heating IIO-lll light-dependent resistors 183,232 nucleons 244
panicles in J 02 ligh t-emin ing diooes 167, 229 nucleus 172, 244
pressure 74-75, 110-11 1 limit of prop0l1ionality 64 changes during decay 250-251
pressure-volume law 74-75 li nearity (thennometer) 107 evidence for 260. 271
ga tes, logic 234-237 liquids nuclide 245, 250
Geiger-Muller t ube 248-249 ex pansion of 108-109
genera tOl-S 216- 217 pal1icles in 102 octaves 136
geother m al ener gy 95. 97 preSSUI-e in 68-71 ohm, unit of resistance 182
global warming 92 logic gat es 234- 237 Ohm's law 185
gr adient of a gTaph 28 longitudinal waves ! 28 optical fibres 153. 167
gravit at ional field strengt h 42- 43 loudness 137 OR gate 234- 235
gravit ational force 42 , 53 loudspeaker 209 orbits 53 ,274
gr avity 42-43 oscilloscope
centJ-e of 60 magnet ic effect of a current 204-207 displaying sounds on 133.136-137
magnet ic field 102-205
greenhouse effeCl 117 Eal1h's 203
gr id (eleCll'icity) 222-223 paullel circuits 188-191
magnet ic mater ials 201 par allelogram m le for vectors 50
half-life 252- 253 magnet ic poles 200- 203,205 pal1icle accelera tors 262
heat see thermal ener gy magnet ic screen ing 203 pan icles
heat capacity 120 magnet ic storage 207 in at oms 244- 245.262-263
hertz (Hz) 129, 136 magnet ism. early ideas 272 fundamen ta l 262-163
Higgs part icle 262,276 magne ts 200-203 in solids. liquids. gases 102- 103
Hooke's law 65 ma king and demagneti zing 201, 205 pascal. un it of preSSlll-e 66
Hu bble, Edwi n 175.276 magnifying glass 158 PD 180,219
hydr au lic mach ines 70-71 mains electricity 194-195 circuit r ules 181, 189
hydroelet:tric power 93 ,94,97 SUIJIJly system 222- 223 effect 011 cun ent 184-185
hydrogen manometer 73 pendul um. period: of 15
atom 53, 245 mass 12 penetration (radiat ion) 247
in the Sun 256--257 and acceleration 38-39 peliod
hydrometer 19 centre of 60-61 of orbit 53
and density 16-17 ofoscitla t ion 15.129
res 229,234 and energy 255 pel'iSCOjJe 152
ideal gas 75 measuring by comparing 20 photocop ier 175
image fonnation and weig ht 42-43 photons 145, 262 ,270-271
by plane minors 146- 149 mass number 245 pitch 136
by lenses 156--161 medium (light) J 50 plugs. elecu ic 194- 195
images, real and vil1ual 146.156, 158 medium (sound) 132 poles, magne tic 200- 203,205,272
impulse 46 melting 122 poll ution 91
..............................................................................................
INDEX

potent ial difference sec PD r ight-hand gr ip ru1 es 204.205 thennistors 104. 183 .233 . 289
potent ial divide r 231. 232- 233 r iPllle tan k 130- 131 thermocouille thermometer 104. 107
potential energy 83 r ocket engine 45 thermomet ers 104 . 106-107
calcu lat ing 86--87 Ru therford. Ernest 260 . 271. 276 liquid-in-glass 107
power 88 . 192 t hermosta t 109
elect rical 192- 193 safety Thomson. l.J. 260,271,276
su pply system 222-223 electr ical 195 t icker-tape exper iments 30- 31
p ower loss in a cab le 223 in the labor atol), 249, 278- 279 t idal power 93 .95.97
power ra ting of appliances 192 nuclear 249.254 time 13
power stations 90-93 sampling 166 measuring smal l intelv als 15
pressur e 66-67 satellites. orbit s of 53 tot a l internal reflection 152- 153.155
at mOSI)heric 72- 73 scalal-S 50 .87 tr acel-S (radioactive) 258
of gas 74- 75,110-111 scientific notation J 1 t ransducers 229
in liquids 68-71 second. un it of time 13 transformers 219- 221
measuring 73 semiconductors 173 step ·up and step-down 220
p ressure-volume law for gases 74-75 sensitivity (thermomete r ) 107 tr ansis tors 229.232-233
plincipal focus 156 sensors 228-229 transvel-sE waves 128
p lisms 151.152 series circuits 188- 191 tmlh tables 234- 237
pmjectors 161 significant figur es 282
propot1i on . dir ect and inver se 295 S1 units 12-13 u ltrasonic sounds 138
p rot on numbe r 244.260.271 t able of 320 u lrrasound 138- 139
pmtons 172, 244 signals. analogue and dig ital 166-167. 228 uJtraviolet 163. 165
structure of 262- 263 slip r ings 216 uncertain ties (ill measw'ements) 282
pum ped sto rage 93 smoothing (in r ectifier) 230 units 10-13.282
Snell's law 154 SI 12- 13.320
quality (sound) 137 sola r Uni ver se 274-275
quantum theory 261. 262. 271 cells 95, 96
qua rks 262-263.271. 276 e nergy 95, 96 vacuum 73
panel 95. 96. 117 vacuum flask 117
radar 135 solenoid 204 vapor izat ion. la tent heat of 123
r adia ti on solids vapour. wa ter 118-119
background 248-249.253 pan icles in 102 variables 280-281
dangers 248 expansion of 108--109 vectors 26. 50--51
elec tromagnetic 162- 165 sound velocity 26
nucleal- 246--249 ch aracter isti cs of 136- 137 terminal 37
ther mal (heat) 116--117 speed of 134.288 velocity- time gJ:aphs 29
radio waves 163-164 waves 132-139 vern ier calipers 14
r adioactive da ting 259 s pecific heat ca paci ty 120-J 21 vil1 ua l image 146
radioactive decay 246. 250--253.263 specific latent heat in lenses 158. 159
radioactive waste 255 of fusion 122 in plane mi lTor 146
r adioactivity 246--255.258-259 ofvaporizatiOll 123 vo lt, unit of PD and EM F 180
uses of 258- 259 spectral li nes 261 voltage 180.216.2 19 .231,289
radioisotopes (radionuclides) 258 spectrum sec also I'D and EMF
raJ'efactions (waves) 128 electromag net ic 162-165 mains 194.222
r at ios 294 light 151 vo h meter 180
ReD (r esidual cun-ent device) 195 speed 26 volume 16--1 8
r eact ors. nuclea r 254- 255, 256 of ligh t 145. 154.162
r eal image 156 wa ll~l'
of sound 134
r eci pmcals 294 speed-time graphs 29.34- 35 density of 16, 17
recording 167.207 spring bala nce 36 freezing and boili ng points of 106
rectifier 217. 230 spring constant 65 specific heat capacity of 120
r eed switch and re lay 231 Sl)r ing, sll"etc hing 64- 65 sp ecific latent heats of 122- 123
r eflectio n sta bility of balanced objects 61 wa ter power 92- 93. 95,97
laws of 146 s ta bility of nucleus 253 water va pour 118-119
by plane mllTOl-S 146- 149 s train energy 83 wa tt. uni t of power 88.192
in prisms 152 Sun wave energy 95.97
in r iJlllle tank 130 energy from 96-97 wave equa tion 129. 137
of sound 135 . 138-139 fusion in 94.96. 25&-257 wavelength 129
total intenIal 152- 153,155 sweating 119 of electromagnet ic waves 163
r efraction switches 188.194 o rJ igh t 145
of lighl 150- 151.154-155 electromagnetic (relay) 206- 207 of sound 137
in r ipple tank 130 electronic 232- 237 waves
of sound 135 light -sensi tive 232 electromagnetic 162- 165
refractive index 154-155 t empe ratur e-sensitive 233 light 145
l-eh-igerat or 115 .119 symbols. ci rcuit 178. 321 longitudinal 128
r elay radio 163. 164
magnet ic 206 telescope 159 in r ipple tank 130-131
reed 231 lempemture 104- 107.269 sound 132- 139
r esist an ce 182- 191 terminal velocity 37 transverse 128
faC1 0rs affecting (for wi re) 182. therm al ca pacity 120 weig ht 20. 42-43
186-1 87 Ihen n al ener gy 83.103 wind power 92- 93.95.97
r esistivity 187 early ideas 269 work 82. 85
r esistors 183.289 and heat cap acity 120-121
in selies and parallel 189-191 and latent heat 122- 123 X-ray tube 239
va liable 183 storing 121 X-r ays 163. 165
resu ltant 38.50 ther m al radia t ion 116-117 zero error 15
r etardation 27 thermionic emission 238
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