Navigational Aids

By: Rafsanul Hasan Rupaz

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Global Positioning System (GPS)
(1) Describe the Principle, Use, Limitation, Coverage and Accuracy of GPS.
Principles of GPS: The Global Positioning System (GPS) works on two Principles which are stated
below:
(1) Distance between a GPS Satellite and a GPS Receiver is calculated using a fundamental formula
of Physics:
Distance = Travelling Time x Speed
Here, Travelling Time means the Time taken by GPS Signal to reach a GPS Receiver from a GPS
Satellite and Speed means the Speed of the GPS Signal which is equal to Speed of Light (300000
Km/s). GPS Receiver compares between Time of Transmission and Time of Reception of GPS
Signal to find the Travelling Time and then, multiplies it by Speed of Light to calculate Range of
the concerned GPS Satellite.
(2) Once Ranges of at least three GPS Satellites are achieved by a GPS Receiver, it fixes its own
position on Earth’s Surface by Trilateration. Trilateration is a method of positioning by three
Ranges.

At least three Satellite Ranges are required to fix a two dimensional (2D) position and four
Satellite Ranges to fix a three dimensional (3D) position.
Use of GPS: GPS is widely used by both civilian and military for positioning, time adjusting, tracking
and surveillance. In Navigation, GPS is used for finding position, time, speed and course. GPS is also
used for maritime or aeronautical Search and Rescue.
Coverage of GPS: GPS has 100% terrestrial coverage. However, accuracy degrades at higher
latitude, usually above 60o N or S latitude.
Accuracy of GPS: GPS provides two different positioning standards. One is Standard Positioning
Service (SPS) for civilian use and another one is Precise Positioning Service (PPS) for military use.
Accuracy of these services are followings:
Standard Positioning Service (SPS) - About 15 Meters
Standard Positioning Service (SPS) with DGPS - 3 ~ 5 Meters
Standard Positioning Service (SPS) with SBAS - About 3 Meters
Precise Positioning Service (PPS) - 1 ~ 2 Inches

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Limitation of GPS: Followings are some major limitations of GPS:
a) GPS is owned by a single country, so there is always a possibility of shutting it down or restricting
general people from using it.
b) Signals transmitted by GPS Satellites are affected by several interferences that leads to positional
or time errors.
c) Accuracy of GPS gets degraded in high latitude.
d) GPS Signals are vulnerable to spoofing, jamming or solar disturbances.
e) Unobstructed line of sight is required between GPS Receiver and Satellites.
(2) Describe how the position is determined by GPS Receiver?
Or, Describe why at least three Satellites are required to fix a two dimensional
position on the surface of the Earth whereas two Satellites should be enough?
How GPS Receiver fixes position: Let’s say a GPS Receiver receives signal from one GPS Satellite
and calculates its Range. Theoretically the Receiver can be anywhere on the surface of a sphere which
has the said Satellite in center and Range of the Satellite as Radius.

If we add a 2nd Satellite here, then two spheres of two Satellites will intersect each other in a circle
as marked in red. The Receiver’s position will be any point on this circle. In this case, the point on
the circle which is the closest to the Earth surface is the exact position of the Receiver. However, it
will not be applicable here as because of the Pseudo Ranges, there will be layer of error on each
sphere which will also lead to a position circle with layer of error. Picking up a point closest to the
Earth surface from this circle will not be possible. This is the reason why we need a 3rd Sphere or 3rd
Satellite for accurately fixing a 2D Position.

Once the 3rd Sphere is generated, it will intersect the position circle generated by previous two
Spheres in two different area. By applying mathematical formulas, two pinpoint position can be found
from these two intersection areas. Among these two positions, the closest one to the Earth surface
will be the Receiver’s position.
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(3) List and describe the main sources of Error in GPS.
Errors of GPS: GPS suffers from many sources of error which result in position or time inaccuracy.
These errors are described below:
Satellite Clock Error: GPS Satellites use Rubidium and Cesium Atomic Clocks. These Atomic
Clocks are highly accurate, however, they also drift over the time. Control Stations monitor drift of
these Atomic Clocks and adjust them time to time. However, tweaking an Atomic Clock frequently
will reduce its longevity and therefore, Control Stations allow Satellite Clocks to drift up to 1
millisecond and include this Error Correction in PRN Code.
Relativistic Error: GPS Satellites rotate the Earth at a speed of 3.87 Km/s. According to theory of
relativity, this makes the on board Atomic Clocks to run 7 microsecond slower each day. On the other
side, all Atomic Clocks run 45 microsecond faster each day due to weaker gravitational force in space
than that on Earth’s surface. Therefore, Relativistic Error of Atomic Clock is compensated by this.
Receiver’s Clock Error: GPS Receivers are usually equipped with Quartz Crystal Clocks which are
far less accurate than Satellites’ Atomic Clocks. This discrepancy between Satellite and Receiver
Clocks results in Range Error. This Error is compensated by using an extra Pseudo Range. That’s
why when fixing a 2D position we need 3 Satellites instead of 2. As Time is also considered as an
unknown along with X and Y Coordinates, we need at least 3 Equations or 3 Satellites to calculate
out their values.
Ephemeris or Orbital Error: Every GPS Satellite transmits its own Ephemeris or Orbital
Information which is updated every 2 hours. But Satellite can deviate from its Orbit. A little such
deviation may result in large Range Error. Therefore, Control Stations continuously compare GPS
Satellite’s real time position with last transmitted Ephemeris. If there is any deviation that is
transmitted as error in PRN Code.
Ionospheric Effect: When GPS Signal passes through the Ionosphere it suffers from refraction,
detraction and absorption which slows down the Signal. Higher Frequency L1 (1575.42 MHz) suffers
lesser than the lower Frequency L2 (1227.60 MHz). Ionospheric Effect is calculated by Control
Stations using Ionospheric Modelling and is transmitted in PRN Code.
Tropospheric Effect: When GPS Signal passes through the lowest layer of Atmosphere which is
called Troposphere, it gets refracted. This refraction causes delay in propagation. Cloud, Rain or Fog
also affect propagation of GPS Signal. GPS Receiver calculates Tropospheric Effect using Elevation
of GPS Satellite. Generally Signals coming from Satellites with high elevation are less affected by
Troposphere. Dual Frequency Receiver calculates Atmospheric Effect by comparing propagation of
both Frequencies.
Sagnac Effect: According to Sagnac Effect, light takes lesser time to travel when travelling opposite
to the direction of a Rotating Path. As the Earth itself rotates about its Axis, any GPS Receiver on
Earth will be also rotating about Earth’s Axis. This causes Sagnac Effect. Error caused by Sagnac
Effect is also transmitted in PRN Code.

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Multipath Error: Multipath Error occurs when GPS Signal gets reflected by Mountains, Trees or
Building before being received by the Receiver’s Antenna.

Multipath Error can be eliminated by Receiver if it is designed to discard the Signals with very low
elevation. Careful design of Antenna can also reduce possibility of Multipath Error.
Selective Availability (SA): Selective Availability was an intentional Error combined with C/A
Code which degraded the Civilian Positioning Accuracy of the GPS. Selective Availability (SA) was
introduced in C/A Code to prevent abuse of GPS technology, especially against United Sates.
However, Selective Availability was permanently removed in the year of 2000.
Dilution of Precision (DOP): Dilution of Precision (DOP) is a measurement of the reduction of GPS
Accuracy due to geometric position of GPS Satellites within Receiver’s Horizon. GPS Receiver
checks geometry of all available Satellites and calculates DOP. If value of DOP is large, then it warns
user by alarm or alert. As of now there are 31 GPS Satellites in orbit, a Receiver anywhere on Earth
Surface can easily have 8 to 9 Satellites at any given time. It enables the Receiver to choose suitable
Satellites to get the lowest DOP value.
(4) What do you understand by the followings?
(a) Spoofing (b) Jamming
(c) Solar Flares (d) Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS)
And what are their effects on GPS?
Spoofing: Spoofing of GPS is done by transmitting fake or replica GPS Signals. These fake Signals
are received by the GPS Receiver like original Signals transmitted by GPS Satellites. Spoofing of
GPS can be done by recording original GPS Signals somewhere and then by transmitting it in
somewhere else. Position of Vessel can be shifted from its actual position illogically under Spoofing.
When navigating in Coastal or Confined Waters, this phenomenon can lead to dangerous situation.
In June 2019, GPS Spoofing was reported in the vicinity of Port Suez, Suez Canal, Port Said and
Eastern Mediterranean Sea.
To get protection from GPS Spoofing, Anti-spoofing Software can be installed on GPS Receiver.
Dual Frequency or Dual GNSS Receivers are not vulnerable to Spoofing.
Jamming: Jamming of GPS is done by transmitting some other stronger signals at GPS Frequencies.
These stronger signals restrict the original GPS Signals transmitted by Satellites from being received
by the GPS Receiver and thus, can result in complete GPS Black Out.
Dual Frequency and Dual GNSS Receivers are usually less vulnerable to Jamming. New generation
GPS Satellites transmit L5 Signal which is more powerful and thus, has anti-jamming property.
Solar Flares: Solar Flares are sudden, short and intense release of Solar Energies which causes
electromagnetic disturbances in Space and Earth’s Ionosphere. In other word, Solar Flares are strong
emission of Radiation and Plasma from the Sun. Scientific researches show that Solar Flares reaches
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their peak once in every 11 years which is called Solar Maximum or Solar Max. As Solar Flares
cause electromagnetic disturbances in Ionosphere through which GPS Signals are used to travel, it
can slow down or completely jam the GPS Signals. However, Solar Flares are predictable and only
cause short time disturbances.
Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS): There are several different types of Satellite Based
Augmentation Systems (SBAS) are available throughout the world. However, the basic working
principle of all these systems is same.

A reference station who knows its own precise position receives GPS Signals and compares its own
position with GPS position to find the discrepancy. This discrepancy is then transmitted to one or
more geostationary Satellites with wide footprint as Correction to GPS. These geostationary Satellites
transmit this GPS Correction back to earth to be received and used by general GPS Receivers. Many
countries have built their own Satellite Based Augmentation Systems and most of those are free for
civilian users. For example, USA has Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS).
(5) What do you understand by Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) Code? Describe
briefly the two codes which are transmitted by GPS Satellites. Explain why two
Frequencies are used?
Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) Code: Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) Code is a complex digital signal
which is actually a random sequence of ‘1’ and ‘0’ or ‘on’ and ‘off’ pulses. The Code is so complex
that it almost looks like electrical noise and hence, is named Pseudo Random Noise Code.
All GPS Satellites transmit at least two PRN Codes called C/A (Coarse Acquisition) Code and P
(Precise) Code. C/A Code is modulated on L1 (1575.42 MHz) Carrier Frequency. C/A Code is used
by civilian GPS Receivers.
P Code is modulated on both L1 (1575.42 MHz) and L2 (1227.60 MHz) Carrier Frequencies. P Code
is intended to be used by military grade GPS Receivers. P Code can be encrypted and is called Y
Code once encrypted.
Signals transmitted by GPS Satellites: GPS Satellites transmit two Pseudo Random Noise (PRN)
Codes known as C/A (Coarse Acquisition) Code and P (Precise) Code. These two Codes are
discussed below:
C/A (Coarse Acquisition) Code: Every GPS Satellite transmits C/A Code on L1 (1575.42 MHz)
Frequency which is intended to be used by civilian GPS Receivers. C/A Code is repeated every
millisecond at a bitrate (also called chipping rate) of 1.023 Megabits/sec. Every GPS Satellite has its
own unique C/A Code. The legacy C/A Code is only transmitted on L1 Frequency, however, a new
C/A Code is also transmitted by modernized GPS Satellites on L2 Frequency which is known as L2C
Signal.

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P (Precise) Code: P Code is also transmitted by all GPS Satellite and traditionally transmitted on
both L1 and L2 Frequency. P Code is generated at a speed of 10 times faster than C/A Code. It has a
bitrate of 10.23 Megabits/sec. P Code is intended to be used by military grade GPS Receivers. P Code
can be encrypted and it is called Y Code once encrypted.
Why GPS uses two Frequencies: In a word, GPS uses two Frequencies to provide most accurate
positioning service to US Military. All Military grade GPS Receivers are dual Frequency Receivers.
That means they can receive both P(Y) Code transmitted on L1 and L2 Frequencies. Military GPS
Receivers receive these two signals and by comparing them eliminate maximum possible
atmospheric errors as two frequencies have different propagation speed through atmosphere.
(6) Describe the Principle, Usage, Limitation, Coverage and Accuracy of DGPS.
Principle of DGPS: Differential GPS or DGPS is a Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS)
of GPS which improves accuracy of GPS.

DGPS works on very simple principle. A Terrestrial Reference Station which knows its own Position
precisely receives GPS Signals for obtaining its GPS Position. By comparing its actual position with
position obtained from GPS, DGPS Station calculates out real time error of GPS for that area. This
error is then transmitted by DGPS Station on MF (300 KHz to 3000 KHz). If user GPS Receiver is
designed to receive and interpret DGPS Signals, it can receive and apply DGPS correction to its own
GPS Position to get a more accurate position.
Use: DGPS is used by millions of civilian GPS users for improving accuracy of GPS Position.
Coverage: DGPS doesn’t have global coverage. There are approximately 100 DGPS Stations in
operation all over the world. As DGPS works in Medium Frequency (MF), the maximum coverage
of an individual DGPS Station can be as much as 400 Nm. In Ships, on board DGPS Receiver usually
gets DGPS Signals while in Coastal Waters. In Deep Ocean, it is very unlikely to have any DGPS
Signal.
Accuracy: DGPS significantly improves accuracy of GPS Position. With DGPS Signal, accuracy of
a GPS derived position can be 3 to 5 Meters.
Limitation: Limitations of DGPS are followings:
(a) The main limitation of DGPS is its coverage. DGPS doesn’t have global coverage.
(b) DGPS Signals are not available in Deep Sea.
(c) Like GPS, DGPS Signals are also vulnerable to Spoofing and Jamming.
(d) Not all GPS Receivers are capable of receiving DGPS Signals.
(e) DGPS Signals are also affected by Meteorological Disturbances.

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Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)
(1) Discuss the Principle, Use, Limitation, Coverage and Accuracy of GLONASS?
Principles of GLONASS: Like GPS, GLONASS also works on two Principles as stated below:
(1) Distance between a GLONASS Satellite and a GLONASS Receiver is calculated using a
fundamental formula of Physics:
Distance = Travelling Time x Speed
Here, Travelling Time means the Time taken by GLONASS Signal to reach a GLONASS
Receiver from a GLONASS Satellite and Speed means the Speed of the GLONASS Signal which
is equal to Speed of Light (300000 Km/s). GLONASS Receiver compares between Time of
Transmission and Time of Reception of GLONASS Signal to find the Travelling Time and then,
multiplies it by Speed of Light to calculate Range of the concerned GLONASS Satellite.
(2) Once Ranges of at least three GLONASS Satellites are achieved by a GLONASS Receiver, it
fixes its own position on Earth’s Surface by Trilateration. Trilateration is a method of positioning
by three Ranges.

At least three Satellite Ranges are required to fix a two dimensional (2D) position and four
Satellite Ranges to fix a three dimensional (3D) position.
Use of GLONASS: Like GPS, GLONASS is widely used by both civilian and military for
positioning, time adjusting, tracking and surveillance. In Navigation, GLONASS is used for finding
position, time, speed and course. Combined use of GLONASS and GPS can remarkably improve
accuracy of position and time.
Coverage of GLONASS: GLONASS has 100% terrestrial coverage. Accuracy of GLONASS at
higher latitude is better than GPS due to inherent design of its orbits.
Accuracy of GLONASS: Accuracy of GLONASS is almost similar to GPS. Like GPS, GLONASS
provides two different positioning standards. One is Standard Positioning Service (SPS) for civilian
use and another one is Precise Positioning Service (PPS) for military use. Accuracy of these services
are followings:
Standard Positioning Service (SPS) - About 10 Meters
Standard Positioning Service (SPS) with DGLONASS - About 5 Meters
Standard Positioning Service (SPS) with SBAS GLONASS - About 3 Meters
Precise Positioning Service (PPS) - 1 ~ 2 Inches
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Limitation of GLONASS: Followings are some major limitations of GLONASS:
a) GLONASS is owned by a single country, so there is always a possibility of shutting it down or
restricting general people from using it.
b) Like other GNSS, signals transmitted by GLONASS Satellites are affected by several interferences
that leads to positional or time errors.
c) GLONASS Signals are vulnerable to spoofing, jamming or solar disturbances.
d) Unobstructed line of sight is required between GLONASS Receiver and Satellites.
(2) Describe the limitations of GLONASS.
Limitations of GLONASS: Limitations of GLONASS are stated below in sequence:
Ownership: GLONASS is owned by a single country, Russia, so there is always a possibility of
shutting it down or restricting general people from using it.
Vulnerability of Signal: GLONASS Signals are vulnerable to spoofing, jamming or solar
disturbances.
Line of Sight: Unobstructed line of sight is required between GLONASS Receiver and Satellites.
Quantity of Satellites: GLONASS has 24 Satellites in orbits which are in continuous operation.
GLONASS is yet to have additional Satellites as back-up.
Other Errors: Like other GNSS, GLONASS also suffers from many errors. These errors are
followings:
Satellite Clock Error: GLONASS Satellites use Rubidium and Cesium Atomic Clocks. These
Atomic Clocks are highly accurate, however, they also drift over the time. Control Stations monitor
drift of these Atomic Clocks and adjust them time to time. However, tweaking an Atomic Clock
frequently will reduce its longevity and therefore, Control Stations allow Satellite Clocks to drift up
to some degree and transmit this as an Error.
Relativistic Error: GLONASS Satellites rotate the Earth at a high speed. According to theory of
relativity, this makes the on board Atomic Clocks to run slower each day. On the other side, all
Atomic Clocks run 45 microsecond faster each day due to weaker gravitational force in space than
that on Earth’s surface. Therefore, Relativistic Error of Atomic Clock is compensated by this.
Receiver’s Clock Error: GLONASS Receivers are usually equipped with Quartz Crystal Clocks
which are far less accurate than Satellites’ Atomic Clocks. This discrepancy between Satellite and
Receiver Clocks results in Range Error. This Error is compensated by using an extra Pseudo Range.
That’s why when fixing a 2D position we need 3 Satellites instead of 2. As Time is also considered
as an unknown along with X and Y Coordinates, we need at least 3 Equations or 3 Satellites to
calculate out their values.
Ephemeris or Orbital Error: GLONASS Satellites can deviate from their Orbits. A little such
deviation may result in large Range Error. Control Stations continuously monitor Satellites
Ephemeris. If there is any deviation that is transmitted as error in Satellite Signal.
Ionospheric Effect: When GLONASS Signal passes through the Ionosphere it suffers from
refraction, detraction and absorption which slows down the Signal. High Frequency Signal suffers
lesser than the Low Frequency Signal. Ionospheric Effect is calculated by Control Stations using
Ionospheric Modelling and is transmitted in Satellite Signal.
Tropospheric Effect: When GLONASS Signal passes through the lowest layer of Atmosphere
called Troposphere, it gets refracted. This refraction causes delay in propagation. Cloud, Rain or Fog
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also affect propagation of GLONASS Signal. GLONASS Receiver calculates Tropospheric Effect
using Elevation of GLONASS Satellite. Generally Signals coming from Satellites with high elevation
are less affected by Troposphere. Dual Frequency Receiver calculates Atmospheric Effect by
comparing propagation of both Frequencies.
Sagnac Effect: According to Sagnac Effect, light takes lesser time to travel when travelling opposite
to the direction of a Rotating Path. As the Earth itself rotates about its Axis, any GLONASS Receiver
on Earth will be also rotating about Earth’s Axis. This causes Sagnac Effect. Error caused by Sagnac
Effect is also transmitted in Satellite Signal.

Multipath Error: Multipath Error occurs when GLONASS Signal reflected by Mountains, Trees or
Building before being received by the Receiver’s Antenna.

Multipath Error can be eliminated by Receiver if it is designed to discard the Signals with very low
elevation. Careful design of Antenna can also reduce possibility of Multipath Error.

Galileo
(1) Discuss the Principle, Use, Limitation, Coverage and Accuracy of Galileo?
Principles of Galileo: Like GPS, Galileo also works on two Principles as followings:
(1) Distance between a Galileo Satellite and a Galileo Receiver is calculated using a fundamental
formula of Physics:
Distance = Travelling Time x Speed
Here, Travelling Time means the Time taken by Galileo Signal to reach a Galileo Receiver from
a Galileo Satellite and Speed means the Speed of the Galileo Signal which is equal to Speed of
Light (300000 Km/s). Galileo Receiver compares between Time of Transmission and Time of
Reception of Galileo Signal to find the Travelling Time and then, multiplies it by Speed of Light
to calculate Range of the concerned Galileo Satellite.
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(2) Once Ranges of at least three Galileo Satellites are achieved by a Galileo Receiver, it fixes its
own position on Earth’s Surface by Trilateration. Trilateration is a method of positioning by three
Ranges.

At least three Satellite Ranges are required to fix a two dimensional (2D) position and four
Satellite Ranges to fix a three dimensional (3D) position.
Use of Galileo: Being a comparatively newer technology than GPS, Galileo is not in use as widely
as GPS. However, Galileo is becoming popular fast because of being more accurate than other
contemporary GNSS. Galileo is being used for positioning, time adjusting, tracking and surveillance.
Galileo is also used for a worldwide Search & Rescue Operation called MEOSAR. In many science
projects, Galileo is being used instead of GPS or GLONASS.
Coverage of Galileo: Like GPS or GLONASS, Galileo has 100% terrestrial coverage. Accuracy of
Galileo anywhere on Earth is better than GPS or GLONASS.
Accuracy of Galileo: Galileo is more accurate than both GPS and GLONASS regardless of
Receiver’s location on Earth Surface. Accuracy of two different positioning services provided by
Galileo are mentioned below:
Standard Positioning Service (SPS) - Less than 1 Meter
Encrypted Positioning Service (EPS) - About 1.6 Centimeter
Limitation of Galileo: Followings are some major limitations of Galileo:
a) Galileo System still doesn’t have full set of constellation in its Orbits.
b) Like other GNSS, signals transmitted by Galileo Satellites are affected by several interferences
that leads to positional or time errors.
c) Unobstructed line of sight is required between Galileo Receiver and Galileo Satellites.
(2) Explain the concept of Galileo System? What are the advantages of Galileo
System over GPS?
Concept of Galileo: Galileo works on two concepts as described below:
(1) Distance between a Galileo Satellite and a Galileo Receiver is calculated using a fundamental
formula of Physics:
Distance = Travelling Time x Speed
Here, Travelling Time means the Time taken by Galileo Signal to reach a Galileo Receiver from
a Galileo Satellite and Speed means the Speed of the Galileo Signal which is equal to Speed of
Light (300000 Km/s). Galileo Receiver compares between Time of Transmission and Time of
Reception of Galileo Signal to find the Travelling Time and then, multiplies it by Speed of Light
to calculate Range of the concerned Galileo Satellite.
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(2) Once Ranges of at least three Galileo Satellites are achieved by a Galileo Receiver, it fixes its
own position on Earth’s Surface by Trilateration. Trilateration is a method of positioning by three
Ranges.

At least three Satellite Ranges are required to fix a two dimensional (2D) position and four
Satellite Ranges to fix a three dimensional (3D) position.
Advantages of Galileo over GPS: Advantages of Galileo Radio-navigation System over GPS are
pointed out below:
Accuracy: Galileo is more accurate than GPS.
Quantity of Satellites: More number of Satellites available for a given Receiver than GPS because
of Galileo’s higher orbital altitude.
Spoofing: Galileo Signal has anti-spoofing property.
Jamming: Galileo Signal has anti-jamming property due to powerful transmission.
Satellite Clocks: Galileo Satellites have more reliable and advanced atomic clocks on board.
Multipath Error: Galileo Signals are less prone to multipath errors because of high orbital altitude.
Ownership: Unlike GPS, Galileo System is owned and operated by several nations making it
politically stable.
(3) What are the differences between Galileo System and GPS?
Differences between Galileo System and GPS: Differences between Galileo System and GPS are
explained below:
Ownership: GPS is owned by US Government while Galileo is owned by European Union. Hence,
inherently Galileo is politically more stable than GPS.
Operational Satellites: Currently GPS has 31 Operational Satellites in Orbits while Galileo has 22.
Number of Orbits: GPS has 6 Orbits while Galileo has 3.
Altitude of Orbits: Altitude of GPS Orbits are 20,200 Km while that of Galileo is 23,222 Km.
Orbital Inclination: GPS Orbits are inclined with Equator by an angle of 55 o while Galileo Orbits
are inclined by 56o.
Signal: Traditionally GPS transmits on 2 Frequencies while Galileo transmits on 3 Frequencies.
Accuracy: Galileo is more accurate than GPS.
Quantity of Satellites: More number of Satellites available for a given Receiver than GPS because
of Galileo’s higher orbital altitude.

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Spoofing: Galileo Signal has anti-spoofing property.
Jamming: Galileo Signal has anti-jamming property due to powerful transmission.
Satellite Clocks: Galileo Satellites have more reliable and advanced atomic clocks on board.
Multipath Error: Galileo Signals are less prone to multipath errors because of high orbital altitude.

Long Range Navigation System (Loran-C) / e-Loran

(1) Describe the Operating Principle of Loran-C.
Operating Principle of Loran-C: Loran-C is a Hyperbolic Radio Navigation System for fixing
position which uses difference in distances between observer and three or more fixed points. In the
below picture, consider A & B as two Loran-C Radio Stations and P as an Observer. If both A & B
Stations transmit two different Radio Signals at the same time, P will first receive Signal transmitted
by B and then that of A as P is closer to Station B than Station A. By comparing reception times of
both signals, P will calculate out Time Difference between two Signals. Then,
Difference in Distances = Time Difference x Speed of Light

Using this Distance Difference we can create a Position Hyperbola, somewhere on which the
observer is located. If another Position Hyperbola can be obtained by receiving Signals from another
one or two Radio Stations, two Position Hyperbolas will intersect each other. The point of
intersection will be the position of the Receiver or Observer.
However, in Loran-C, Position Hyperbola is not created by distances, rather it is created using Time
Difference (TD). Expressing distances in time, simplifies fixing position in Loran-C.
(2) Explain and demonstrate how position fixing is achieved using Loran-C.
How position is fixed in Loran-C: The Loran-C System is consisted of groups of Radio Stations
called Loran Chains. A Loran Chain is consisted of one Master Station and two or more Secondary
Stations. Transmission of a Loran Chain starts with transmission of the Master Station. Secondary
Stations first receive the Radio Pulses transmitted by the Master Stations, waits for some predefined
time and then transmit their Radio Pulses. Predefined waiting time is different for different Secondary
Stations and set in such a way so that the all Stations transmit in a successive manner. Once the
transmission of last Secondary Station in a Group is completed, Master Station again transmits its
Radio Pulses. Time interval between two successive transmissions of the Master Station is called
Group Repetition Interval or GRI which is defined in microseconds (1 second = 1000 milliseconds
= 1000000 microseconds). Actually, Loran Chains are identified by their unique GRI. For

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differentiating between a Master and Secondary Stations, Master Station transmits 9 pulses in
sequence while Secondary Stations transmit 8 pulses.

Let’s say, A is a Master Station and B is a Secondary Station. Distance between A & B is 360 Km;
that means Time Difference (TD) between A & B will be 1200 microseconds. If station B transmits
just after receiving Signal of A, then TD at B will be 1200 microseconds. If a Loran-C Receiver
moves towards A from B, TD will keep increasing. Hence, TD at Station A will be 2400
microseconds. In the above figure, we can see Hyperbolas which are drawn for every 100
microsecond increase of the TD. If a Loran-C Receiver finds TD between A & B 1500 microseconds
than we can say that the Receiver will be at any point on 1500 microseconds Hyperbola.
Now if the Receiver finds another TD of A and another station of Loran Chain C. Then the Hyperbola
for TD between A & C will intersect the Hyperbola between A & B. The point of intersection will
be the position of the Loran-C Receiver.

(3) List and explain errors of Loran-C.

Errors of Loran-C: Major Errors of Loran-C Systems are listed below:
(a) Error due to Propagation of Radio Pulses: Loran-C Radio Pulses are intended to be propagated
as Ground Wave, as it gives most accurate positioning. However, at Night, the Sky Wave also
bounces back to Earth Surface by Ionosphere. If Loran-C Receiver receives these Sky Wave, there
will be large error in obtained position.

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(b) Error due to Meteorological Events: Loran-C depends on Radio Pulse Signal which propagates
through Atmosphere. These Radio Signals are affected by Cloud, Fog, Rain and other meteorological
events. Such effects may lead to positional error.
(c) Error due to Geomagnetic Storm: We know that Radio Waves are actually electromagnetic
waves. Therefore, any electromagnetic disturbance in Earth’s Atmosphere can affect Loran-C Radio
Signals and this may lead to positional error.
(d) Error due to Terrestrial Structures: As Loran-C depends on surface propagation of Radio
Signals, it suffers from various obstructions or structures like Mountains, Towers & Buildings which
are available on Earth’s surface. These can get the propagation of Radio Pulses delayed and hence,
can cause positional error.
(e) Accuracy of Loran-C: Absolute accuracy of Loran-C is 0.10 to 0.25 Nm which is potentially
dangerous for Navigation. However, repeatable accuracy is 18 to 91 Meters.
(f) Coverage: Loran-C doesn’t have worldwide coverage. Best Loran-C services are only available
in US, Europe and Pacific Rim. However, there is no or inadequate Loran-C services available in
Asia, Africa and South America. Also a Loran-C station has an individual range of maximum 1200
Miles.
(g) Positioning Method: Only 2D position fixing is possible by Loran-C. 3D positioning or Altitude
information is not possible by using Loran-C.
(h) Vulnerability to Spoofing & Jamming: Being a Navigation System based on Radio Signals,
Loran-C is vulnerable to Spoofing or Jamming which can deteriorate its accuracy or even can cause
complete black out of the service.
(4) Describe Components, Principle, Coverage and various usage of e-Loran.
Principle of e-Loran: e-Loran is a Hyperbolic Radio Navigation System for fixing position which
uses difference in distances between observer and three or more fixed points. In the below picture,
consider A & B as two e-Loran Radio Stations and P as an Observer. If both A & B Stations transmit
two different Radio Signals at the same time, P will first receive Signal transmitted by B and then
that of A as P is closer to Station B than Station A. By comparing reception times of both signals, P
will calculate out Time Difference between two Signals. Then,
Difference in Distances = Time Difference x Speed of Light

Using this Distance Difference we can create a Position Hyperbola, somewhere on which the
observer is located. If another Position Hyperbola can be obtained by receiving Signals from another
one or two Radio Stations, two Position Hyperbolas will intersect each other. The point of
intersection will be the position of the Receiver or Observer.
Page 22 of 66
However, in e-Loran, Position Hyperbola is not created by distances, rather it is created using Time
Difference (TD). Expressing distances in time, simplifies using e-Loran for fixing position.
Components: The e-Loran System has almost similar components as traditional Loran-C.

(1) Radio Stations: e-Loran Radio Stations are more advanced than Traditional Loran-C Stations.
Transmission power of e-Loran Stations is much higher than Loran-C Stations. Also e-Loran
Stations have taller Radio Towers than Loran-C Stations had. In e-Loran System, there is no
Loran Chain, rather all Stations are independent, have all-in-view coverage and transmit their
identity within the signal. All e-Loran Stations are synchronized with UTC times. e-Loran uses
16 Radio Channels to transmit additional data like Station ID, Correction, Time, DGPS correction
etc.
(2) Correction Stations: In e-Loran system, there are also Correction Stations which calculate real
time correction and send back to e-Loran Station. As a result, e-Loran Stations also transmit real
time differential correction along its regular signal. Therefore, e-Loran is considered as a back-
up to GNSS.
(3) e-Loran Receiver: e-Loran Receiver is also more advanced than traditional Loran-C Receiver.
It receives e-Loran Signals from all e-Loran Stations within range and calculates position. e-
Loran Receiver can differentiate between Ground Wave and Sky Wave.
Coverage: Like Loran-C, e-Loran doesn’t have worldwide coverage. Currently, e-Loran is only
available in US, Europe and Trans-Atlantic Navigation. Moreover, each e-Loran Station has a
maximum range up to 800 Miles.
Usage: The e-Loran System can be used for 2D position fixing, time keeping, tracking, surveillance
or search and rescue etc. Additional information like DGPS or DGLONASS also can be transmitted
by e-Loran. Also, e-Loran can be used as a back-up to Satellite based Radio Navigation Systems like
GPS, GLONASS or Galileo.
(5) Describe the operating Principle of e-Loran. What are the main differences
between e-Loran and Loran-C?
Principle of e-Loran: e-Loran is a Hyperbolic Radio Navigation System for fixing position which
uses difference in distances between observer and three or more fixed points. In the below picture,
consider A & B as two e-Loran Radio Stations and P as an Observer. If both A & B Stations transmit
two different Radio Signals at the same time, P will first receive Signal transmitted by B and then
that of A as P is closer to Station B than Station A. By comparing reception times of both signals, P
will calculate out Time Difference between two Signals. Then,

Page 23 of 66
 Difference in Distances = Time Difference x Speed of Light

Using this Distance Difference we can create a Position Hyperbola, somewhere on which the
observer is located. If another Position Hyperbola can be obtained by receiving Signals from another
one or two Radio Stations, two Position Hyperbolas will intersect each other. The point of
intersection will be the position of the Receiver or Observer.
However, in e-Loran, Position Hyperbola is not created by distances, rather it is created using Time
Difference (TD). Expressing distances in time, simplifies using e-Loran for fixing position.
Differences between e-Loran and Loran-C: Main differences between e-Loran and Loran-C are
tabulated below:
Loran-C e-Loran
e-Loran doesn’t have Chain or Group System,
Loran-C has Loran Chain which is consisted of
rather all e-Loran Stations are independent and
a Master and two or more Secondary Stations.
have all round coverage.
Transmission power is weak. Transmission power is comparatively higher.
e-Loran Radio Signals are designed in such a
Loran-C receiver cannot distinguish between
way that e-Loran Receiver can distinguish
Ground Wave and Sky Wave. If receiver
between Ground Wave and Sky Wave. It
receives Sky Wave, it causes positional error.
enables it to receive only Ground Wave.
Loran-C has an absolute accuracy of 0.10 to
e-Loran has an accuracy of ± 8 Meters.
0.25 Nm.
Loran-C used only one channel. e-Loran uses 16 channels.
e-Loran can transmit additional information
No other additional data can be transmitted by
such as Station ID, Error Correction, DGPS
Loran-C System.
Correction etc.
Loran-C doesn’t transmit real time differential e-Loran transmits real time differential
correction with its main Radio Signal. correction with its main Radio Signal.
Loran-C Signals are vulnerable to Spoofing and e-Loran Signals are designed in a way that
Jamming. makes it resistant to Spoofing and Jamming.
Cannot be considered as a Back-up to GNSS. Considered as a Back-up to GNSS.

Page 24 of 66
Gyro Compass
(1) Explain the meaning of the term Free Gyroscope, Gyroscopic Inertia and
Gyroscopic Precession.
Free Gyroscope: A Gyroscope is a rotating Wheel (called Rotor) which rotates about an axis that
passes through center of the Wheel. A Free Gyroscope is a Gyroscope which is mounted within a
gimbal frame in such a way that it achieves 360o freedom of rotation. A Free Gyroscope can rotate
about three axes which are the Horizontal Axis, Vertical Axis and its own Spin Axis.

Properties of a Free Gyroscope: A Free Gyroscope has two unique properties called-
1. Gyroscopic Inertia or Rigidity in Space and
2. Gyroscopic Precession
Gyroscopic Inertia or Rigidity in Space: The Spin Axis of a Free Gyroscope always points a fixed
point in space irrespective to movements of its Gimbal Frame. Gyroscopic Inertia is an example of
conservation of Angular Momentum according to Newton’s Second Law of Motion.

Gyroscopic Precession: If a Force or Torque is applied on the Axel of a Free Gyroscope, the Axel
doesn’t move in direction of the applied Force or Torque, rather it moves at a right angle to the
direction of the Force or Torque. This phenomenon is called Gyroscopic Precession.

Precession

Force

Page 25 of 66
(2) Describe the apparent movement of a Free Gyroscope on the Earth’s Surface
given its position and initial altitude.
Apparent Movement of a Free Gyroscope: Because of Gyroscopic Inertia or Rigidity in Space,
Spin Axis of a Free Gyroscope always points to a fixed imaginary Star in Space. However, due to
rotation of Earth the Star appears to rise, set and go below Horizon. As Spin Axis of Free Gyroscope
consistently points to that Star, it also appears to follow the Star from rise to set and even below
Horizon. N

W O E
W Horizon E
Q

S S

Fig-1 Fig-2
Let’s assume that a Free Gyroscope is at 10oN Latitude and pointing a rising Star which has a
declination of 70o N. After rising, the Star will go east for some time and then will continue to go
west as seen in Fig-1. During this time, altitude of the Star increase until it passes the observer’s
Meridian. Once it passes the observer’s Meridian, altitude will decrease gradually. After setting, the
Star will go below Horizon and will continue its transit to rise again.
Throughout the transit of the Star, the North Spin Axis of Free Gyroscope will keep on pointing the
Star. If we draw the motion of the North Spin Axis of Free Gyroscope vertically on a plain paper, it
will produce a circular path as shown in Fig-2.
(3) How a Free Gyroscope is made ‘North Seeking’ by using Gravity Control?
Making a Free Gyroscope ‘North Seeking’: To make a Free Gyroscope ‘North Seeking’, different
Manufacturers use different methods. However, there are only three basic methods are available for
the purpose as following:
1. Top Heavy Gravity Control
2. Bottom Heavy Gravity Control and
3. Liquid or Mercury Ballastic Control
Top Heavy Gravity Control: In this method, a small mass is fitted on the top of the Gyroscope as
shown in the picture below.

When the Gyroscope is in horizontal position, that is, when it has no tilt, the weight of the corrector
will act in line with the weight of the Rotor. Hence, no force will be created by the corrector. Once
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North end of Spin Axis tilts upwards, weight of the corrector create a downward force on the South
end of the Spin Axis. Due to this force, South end of the Spin Axis precesses towards east, hence,
North end of the Spin Axis precesses towards west. This control precession counteracts the easterly
drift and moves the Spin Axis towards the Meridian. Top Heavy Control is usually used on the
Gyroscopes which rotate clockwise when seen from the north.
Bottom Heavy Gravity Control: The Gyrocompass Maker Anschutz uses this method in their
Gyrocompasses. In this method, a small mass is fitted at the bottom of the Gyroscope as shown in
the picture below.

When the Gyroscope is in horizontal position, that is, when it has no tilt, the weight of the corrector
will act in line with the weight of the wheel. Hence, no force will be created by the corrector. Once
North end of Spin Axis tilts upwards, weight of the corrector create a downward force on the North
end of the Spin Axis. Due to this force, North end of the Spin Axis precesses towards west. This
precession reduces easterly Drift and moves the Spin Axis towards the Meridian. Bottom Heavy
Control is usually used on the Gyroscopes which rotate counterclockwise when seen from the north.
Liquid or Mercury Ballastic Control: The Gyrocompass Maker Sperry uses this method in their
Gyrocompasses. In this method, two small tanks are fitted on two ends of the Spin Axis. These tanks
are connected by a pipeline at their bottoms and partially filled with Mercury or some other suitable
liquids. This arrangement actually acts as a Top Heavy Gravity Control.

When the Gyroscope is in horizontal position, that is, when it has no tilt, both of the tanks have equal
amount of liquid, hence no force will be created. Once North end of Spin Axis tilts upwards, liquid
runs from North Tank to South Tank through pipeline which creates a downward force on the South
end of the Spin Axis. Due to this force, South end of the Spin Axis precesses towards east, hence,
North end of the Spin Axis precesses towards west. This precession reduces easterly Drift and moves
the Spin Axis towards the Meridian. Liquid Ballastic Control is usually used on the Gyroscopes
which rotate clockwise when seen from the north.
(4) Describe the use of damping in azimuth and damping in tilt to cause settling
of the Axis and thus produce a Gyro Compass.
Making a Gyroscope North Settling: To make a ‘North Seeking’ or ‘Controlled’ Gyroscope ‘North
Settling’, Gyrocompass Makers uses two methods. These are:
1. Damping in Tilt
2. Damping in Azimuth
Page 27 of 66
Damping in Tilt: Gyrocompass Manufacturer Sperry uses Damping in Tilt method to make their
compasses north settling. In Damping in Tilt, corrector applied to resist tilt of controlled Gyroscope
so that easterly or westerly precession generated by tilt also gets resisted. Damping in Tilt helps North
end of the Spin Axis to move when it moves towards the horizon and resists when it moves away
from the horizon.

In Sperry Compasses, a weight of 17g is attached on top of the Rotor Case in such a way so that it
stays offset from the Vertical Axis of the compass.

When the Rotor Case is tilted upward, the Damping Weight creates a tipping force as it is offset from
the Vertical Axis of the Compass. This tipping force has vertical and horizontal components as shown
in the figure above. Vertical component of Damping Force creates westerly horizontal precession
which is added with the control precession. Horizontal component of Damping Force create
downward vertical precession which resist tilting of the Gyroscope.

Damping in Azimuth: Gyrocompass Manufacturer Anschutz uses Damping in Azimuth method to

make their compasses north settling. In Damping in Azimuth, corrector applied to resist drift of
controlled Gyroscope when it drifts away from the Meridian and helps when it drifts towards the
Meridian.

Page 28 of 66
Anschutz Compasses are Bottom Heavy Gravity controlled compasses. Damping in Azimuth are
done in these compasses by attaching a Liquid Ballastic Control too.

When Gyro Axel tilts upwards, Pendulous Weight creates westerly Control Precession which moves
the North end of Axel towards Meridian. At the same time, liquid shifts from North Tank to South
Tank which creates downward force at South end of Axel. This downward force generates easterly
Precession which dampens westerly Control Precession. For this damping precession, eventually
gyro settles on Meridian as shown in the below figure.

(5) Describe settling or damping error and explain why this error changes with
change of latitude?
Or, Explain why a Gyrocompass which is damped in tilt settles with its spin axis
at an angle to the Meridian, except while at Equator?
Damping or Settling or Latitude Error: Gyrocompasses which are damped in tilt like Sperry
Gyrocompasses suffer from Damping or Settling or Latitude Error.

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When a controlled Gyro tries to follow its undamped ellipse, the damping precession reduces the tilt.
This reduced tilt generates weaker control precession than undamped gyro. So, Gyro cannot go as far
west of the Meridian as undamped gyro and thus first spiral becomes smaller than undamped ellipse.
When gyro comes to the Horizon, the damping precession becomes zero. When gyro goes below the
Horizon, damping precession changes its direction and tries to get the gyro back to Horizon by
reducing downward tilt. After completing a second spiral, the Gyro gets settled in a point where there
is enough tilt to produce enough control precession to cancel out apparent drift. To produce this tilt
the Gyro needs to drift a small angle east of the Meridian in Northern Hemisphere and west of the
Meridian in Southern Hemisphere. This is because, if gyro stays exactly on Meridian or in N-S
direction there will be no tilt as when Azimuth is zero tilt will be also zero.

As rate of drift increases with the latitude, control precession hence tilt also needs to be increased
with the latitude. To produce a larger tilt, a larger azimuth is required and thus, Gyro settles more
away from the Meridian. Damping Error or Latitude Error for small angel can be calculated by
following formula:
sin (Damping Error) = tan (Latitude)
Damping Error gets large in higher latitude. For example, Damping Error is about 1.5 o at 45o N or S
latitude and more than 5 o at 75o N or S latitude.
At Equator, rate of drift is zero. If a Gyro is kept in N-S direction at Equator, there will be no drift or
no tilt and thus, there will be no control or damping precession. Therefore, at Equator, Damping or
Latitude or Settling Error is zero.
How Damping Error is compensated: Different Makers use different methods for compensating
Damping Error which are stated below:
Mechanical Correction: Some Makers provide a mechanical correction method for Damping Error.
User needs to input present latitude in the control panel and the Phantom Ring will turn itself to
compensate Damping Error.

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Torque Motor: Torque Motors are also used for compensating Damping Error. Once user inputs
present latitude in the control panel, a Torque Motor applies a Vertical Force on the Rotor which
causes Horizontal Precession to correct the Damping Error.
Digital Correction: In Digital Gyrocompasses, Damping Error correction is not directly applied on
the Rotor, rather a Micro Computer calculates Damping Error correction and applies it to the raw
Gyro outputs. Most of the Digital Gyrocompasses have GPS feed by which it gets present latitude
automatically.
(6) Describe the effect of Rolling on a Liquid Ballastic Compass for various Ship’s
Headings. Explain why movement of the liquid causes error on the cardinal
heading?
Or, Explain how Gyro Compass is prevented from any tendency to turn when
swinging pendulously as a result of rolling or pitching? Explain how errors
caused by acceleration of the compass during rolling and pitching can be
reduced?
Rolling Error: The Gyro Compass is made to point towards North by Pendulous Control, Liquid
Ballastic Control and Damping Control. Movements of these control due to any external force will
precess the Gyro in unwanted direction. During rolling, if a ship steaming due North or due South,
there will be no shift of Pendulous Controls or flow of Liquid Ballast between Tanks and thus, there
will be no unwanted precession.

But if a ship steaming due east or west during rolling, maximum shift of Pendulous Control or
maximum flow of Liquid Ballast will occur. However, rolls to port and starboard are equal, producing
equivalent easterly and westerly precessions. The resulting mean-error is therefore zero, as illustrated
in Figure below. However, this phenomenon will produce an unstable Gyro during rolling.

If the ship is on an intercardinal course the force exerted by the mercury (or pendulum) must be
resolved into north/south and east/west components (see Figure below). The result of the combined
forces is that precession of the compass occurs under the influence of an effective anticlockwise
torque.

Compensation of Rolling Error: Damping the pendulum system can dramatically reduce rolling
error. In a top-heavy gyrocompass, this is achieved by restricting the flow of mercury between the
Page 31 of 66
two pots. The damping delay introduced needs to be shorter than the damping period of the compass
and much greater than the period of roll of the vessel. Both of these conditions are easily achieved.
Electrically-controlled compasses are roll-damped by the use of a viscous fluid damping the gravity
pendulum. Such a fluid is identified by a manufacturer’s code and a viscosity number. For example,
in the code number 200/20, 200 refers to the manufacturer and 20 the viscosity. A higher second
number indicates a more viscous silicon fluid. One viscous fluid should never be substituted for
another bearing a different code number. Additionally since roll error is caused by lateral
acceleration, mounting the gyrocompass low in the vessel and as close as possible to the center of
roll will reduce this error still further.
(7) Explain with the help of Diagram how Course and Speed Errors are
produced? What are the remedial actions Manufacturers take to counteract these
Errors?
LCS (Latitude, Course & Speed) Error or Speed Error: This is the error caused by ship’s speed
and earth’s speed. Gyro Compass always aligns at a right angle to the resultant vector of Ship’s Speed
and Earth’s Speed. As speed of Earth surface decreases with the latitude, this error also changes with
the latitude.
Earth’s surface speed = 900’ x cos (latitude)
If ship is steaming towards East or West, the direction of the resultant vector of Ship’s Speed and
Earth’s Surface Speed will always be east. So, there will be no deviation between True North and
Gyro North as shown in below figure.

Vessel moving on a northerly course (Exactly on zero degrees heading). Here we have maximum
error. The gyro error is westerly.

Vessel moving on southerly course (Exactly on 180 degrees heading). Here we have maximum
easterly error.

Now calculate the magnitude of error at any course.

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Compensation of LCS errors: LCS Errors are compensated by following methods:
Leave uncompensated (like Anschutz): Find the error either by tables provided by manufacturer
and apply it to the bearing or determine by its formula.
Torque Motor (like Sperry): A torque motor is employed to provide sufficient precession to
counteract v cosθ and hence eliminates the error. This motor is the same motor used to eliminate
damping error.
(8) Explain the behavior of a liquid ballastic during a change of speed or an
alteration of course.
Error due to alteration of Course and/or Speed: If course and speed errors are not eliminated
(Anschutz gyro), then if the vessel changes its course or speed, or both, the gyro axle moves to a new
direction. Suppose the vessel has increased the speed in a northerly course. Initial speed is V 1 and
increased speed is V2-

Change in error due to speed variation = e2 – e1

The gyro axle does not move directly to its new position. But it traces out a small damped spiral
before it finally settles, meaning that during alterations (and just after) the gyro is unsteady and not
accurate.

Page 33 of 66
Ballastic Deflection Error: When a vessel alters her course and / or speed, the gyro will be subjected
to horizontal acceleration. These accelerations act on the gravity control element producing top or
bottom heavy effect which causes the gyro to precess.
Suppose the vessel has accelerated (increased speed) in a northerly course. This will cause the
increase of westerly error due to speed increase. But at the same time due to ballistic deflection the
gyro becomes south heavy producing a force on spin axis which will make the gyro precessing further
west. Fortunately this is the same direction as change of course and speed error. If the magnitude of
ballistic deflection is made equal to the change of course and speed error, then the gyro is pushed
instantly into its new position and it does not make spiral. The gyro is not wonder and is nearly steady
during alterations of course and speed.
This is achieved by making the undamped period 84.5 minutes in Anschutz.
In Sperry gyro compasses where the speed error is compensated, then the ballistic deflection causes
the gyro to wonder during alterations. This is minimized by making the undamped period about 120
minutes.
(9) Explain the Operating Principle of Gyro Repeater System.
Gyro Compass Repeater: Repeater of a Gyro Compass is just a Compass Card which itself is not a
Compass but gets heading input from the Gyro Compass and aligns itself accordingly to display
Ship’s Heading.

An Inductive Motor is used to convert the rotation of the Phantom Ring or Compass Card to electric
signal. The rotor of this Inductive Motor is geared with the Phantom Ring or Compass Card. A 0.33 o
Rotation of Compass Card makes the Rotor to rotate 30o. This rotation of Rotor aligns to new set of
coils as shown in below figure and generates electric pulse.

These electric pulses are fed into the switching amplifiers and then transmitted to Stepper Motor after
amplification.
Page 34 of 66
Stepper Motor has a Rotor surrounded by six coils which are 60 o apart from each other. Rotor of
Stepper Motor is geared to the Repeater Compass Card at 180:1 Ratio. When electric pulse is
powered into the Stepper Motor, Rotor turns 60o for each pulse which turns Repeater Compass Card
0.33o.

This is the basic working principle of Gyro Compass Repeater System.

(10) Explain operating principles of Fiber Optic Gyro Compass and Ring Laser
Gyro Compass. What are their Advantages over Mechanical or Ballastic Gyro
Compass?
Fiber Optic Gyro Compass: A Fiber Optic Gyro Compass works on the principle of Sagnac Effect.
According to Sagnac Effect, when a light is made to follow a path which is in circular motion then if
the light travels in same direction to the rotation of the path it will take more time than usual and if
the light travels in opposite direction to the rotation of the path it will take less time than usual. In a
Fiber Optic Gyro Compass, this Sagnac Effect is used to detect alteration of the ship’s heading.

In a Fiber Optic Gyro, there is a coil of Fiber Optic Cable which is used to pass laser beam through
it. This Fiber Optic Cable coil can be up to 5 kilometers in length. A laser beam is generated and then
divided into two beams. These two laser beams are made to enter into the Fiber Optic Cable Coil
through its both ends. There is also a detector to detect the laser beams when they come out of the
Coil. As two lager beams travel same distance in opposite directions they will take equal time to get
out of the Coil. However, if the ship alter her course and thus, the Fiber Optic Cable Coil also starts
rotating, the laser beam which travels in opposite direction to direction of ship’s alteration will take
shorter time than the other laser. By comparing the time taken by both laser beams, magnitude and
direction of the alteration is calculated.
Ring Laser Gyro Compass: A Ring Laser Gyro Compass also works on the principle of Sagnac
Effect. According to Sagnac Effect, when a light is made to follow a path which is in circular motion
then if the light travels in same direction to the rotation of the path it will take more time than usual

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and if the light travels in opposite direction to the rotation of the path it will take less time than usual.
In a Ring Laser Gyro Compass, this Sagnac Effect is used to detect alteration of the ship’s heading.

Two counter propagating Laser Beams are made to follow two guided paths which are equal in length
and end at a common detecting sensor. These arrangement makes it look like a close circuit. If the
circuit is not in any rotation, the both lasers will fall on the detector at the same time. But if the circuit
is rotating, the laser beam which follows the direction of rotation will fall on the detector after a while
than the other laser. By comparing their detection time, the magnitude and direction of rotation is
calculated.
Ring Laser Gyro Compass is prone to an Error called ‘Lock in Error’. If rotation of the circuit is
slow, two laser beams don’t result in any difference in detection times. That’s why, Ring Laser Gyro
Compass is always kept in a steady rotation to overcome this limitation.
Advantages of Fiber Optic or Ring Laser Gyro Compasses: The Fiber Optic or Ring Laser Gyro
Compasses have some useful Advantages over traditional Mechanical or Ballastic Compass as
described below:
Light Weight: Fiber Optic or Ring Laser Gyro Compasses are inherently light weight and smaller
in size than traditional Gyro Compasses.
More Accurate: Fiber Optic or Ring Laser Gyro Compasses are more accurate than the traditional
Gyro Compasses as they have less sources of errors and aren’t affected by Earth’s rotation or ship’s
position.
No Moving Parts: Fiber Optic or Ring Laser Compasses have no moving parts at all which makes
them more reliable than traditional Gyro Compasses.
Cheap: Fiber Optic or Ring Laser Compasses are cheaper than traditional Gyro Compasses.
Output to other Equipments: Giving Gyro Inputs to other Navigational Equipments is easier from
Fiber Optic or Ring Laser Gyro Compasses than traditional Gyro Compasses.
No Error: Fiber Optic or Ring Laser Gyro Compasses have almost no errors.
Easy to install: Being lightweight and small in size, Fiber Optic or Ring Laser Gyro Compasses are
easy to install on board ship.
Low Maintenance: Fiber Optic or Ring Laser Gyro Compasses require no to very little maintenance
during its life time.
High Lifetime: Fiber Optic or Ring Laser Gyro Compasses usually have higher lifetime than other
traditional Gyro Compasses.

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(11) What are the properties of a Free Gyroscope? Describe the effects of Gyro
failure during Singapore Strait.
Properties of a Free Gyroscope: A Free Gyroscope has two unique properties called-
1. Gyroscopic Inertia or Rigidity in Space and
2. Gyroscopic Precession
Gyroscopic Inertia or Rigidity in Space: The Spin Axis of a Free Gyroscope always points a fixed
point in space irrespective to the movements of its Gimbal Frame. Gyroscopic Inertia is an example
of conservation of Angular Momentum according to Newton’s Second Law of Motion.

Gyroscopic Precession: If a Force or Torque is applied on the Axel of a Free Gyroscope, the Axel
doesn’t move in direction of the applied Force or Torque, rather it moves at a right angle to the
direction of the Force or Torque.

Precession

Force

Effects of Gyro Failure in Singapore Strait: If Gyro Compass fails while navigating through the
Singapore Strait following effects will be experienced:
(a) Failure of Auto Pilot: If the Ship is on Auto Pilot, then it will also fail as soon as the Gyro
Compass fails. Therefore, immediately switch to back-up Gyro Compass if available, otherwise
engage Helmsman and use Magnetic Compass Repeater for steering.
(b) Radar, ARPA and ECDIS: As Radar, ARPA and ECDIS get Heading Input from the Gyro
Compass, they will start alerting. Put Radar and ARPA on Head-on Mode. If ECDIS has Head-
on option put it on Head-on Mode, but if ECDIS doesn’t have Head-on option then input manual
Heading to the ECDIS to keep it working. Manual Heading Input can be also given to Radar.
(c) AIS: AIS will also give alarm as soon as Gyro fails. If AIS has option for inputting Heading
manually, then input it manually.
(d) GMDSS Equipments: GMDSS Equipments which get Gyro Heading input will start to give
alarm. Manual Heading should be input into these Equipment.
(e) Effect on other Traffic: There are usually numerous traffic in Singapore Strait and failure of
Gyro will have effect on VTIS and other Traffic in vicinity as they may see misguiding AIS
information. Therefore, as soon as Gyro fails, VTIS should be informed first and then with their
permission a Safety or Security Message can be broadcasted on VHF. Also vessel should obtain
permission from VTIS for an emergency anchorage and proceed to that anchorage for anchoring.

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Magnetic Compass
(1) Describe the parts of a Magnetic Compass and their functions.
Parts of a Magnetic Compass: In below picture, we can see a Magnetic Compass with its important
parts marked.

(1) Compass Binnacle: Compass Binnacle is the housing of the Magnetic compass which is usually
made of nonmagnetic materials and holds the compass bowl and all the correctors of the Magnetic
Compass.
(2) Compass Card and Bowl: A lightweight Compass Card is attached to a Compass Needle to
indicate ship’s heading. Compass Card is mounted inside of a liquid filled Compass Bowl such a
way so that it can rotate easily and frictionless.
(3) Soft Iron Spheres: There will be two Soft Iron Spheres on the both side of the Compass Binnacle
which can be moved away or close to the Compass Card. These Soft Iron Spheres are intended
to correct quadrantal errors of the Magnetic Compass.
(4) Flinders Bars: The Flinders Bars are soft iron correctors vertically placed forward or aft part of
the Binnacle depending on the extension of the superstructure area abaft of or forward of the
Binnacle. The length of the bar may be changed during adjustment of the compass.
(5) Healing Error Correctors: Healing Error Correctors are Bar Magnets which are placed in a
Bucket and put through the center of the Binnacle. Healing Error of the Magnetic Compass is
corrected by adjusting height of HE Correctors from the Binnacle Base.
(6) Fore & Aft Correctors: Fore & Aft Correctors are also Bar Magnets which are placed in fore &
aft direction in the Binnacle to minimize effect of fore & aft component of Ship’s Magnetism.
(7) Athwartship Correctors: These are also Bar Magnets put athwartship in the Binnacle to
minimize effect of athwartship component of Ship’s Magnetism.
(8) Illumination: Light for illumination, its on-off switch and dimmer will be fitted in the Binnacle.
(9) Transmitting Heading Sensor: If the Magnetic Compass is a Transmitting Magnetic Compass
then Heading Sensor will be also fitted on top of the Compass Bowl.

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(2) Explain with diagrams the effect of Permanent and Induced Magnetism with
the change of Latitude.
Or, What is Co-efficient of Deviation? Explain which Co-efficient changes with
latitude and which Co-efficient remain unchanged?
Co-efficient of Deviation: Deviation of a Magnetic Compass on board ship is the sum of all
deviations caused by various components of ship’s permanent and induced magnetisms. These
individual components are called Co-efficient of Deviation. There are total five Co-efficient of
Deviations: A, B, C, D and E. Formula relating Deviation with its all Co-efficient is following:
Deviation = A + B sinθ + C cosθ + D 2sinθ + E 2cosθ [θ = Compass Heading]
Effect of Permanent Magnetism: Being constructed of iron, every ship possesses a Permanent
Magnetic Field which affects the on board Magnetic Compass. Total effect of Ship’s Permanent
Magnetism can be divided into Vertical, Fore & Aft (B) and Athwartship (C) Components as shown
in the picture below.

Deviation by Vertical Component: If Ship is upright, Vertical Component has a tilting effect on
the Compass. When Ship rolls, it creates an oscillating deflection of the Compass Card.
Deviation by Fore & Aft Component (B): Fore & Aft Component may attract the Compass Card
towards forward, if it has its South (Blue) Pole forward of the Compass and may attract towards aft,
if it has its South Pole (Blue) aft of the Compass. Effect of Fore & Aft Component is zero on North
or South Heading and maximum on East or West Heading. Effect of this component on Compass
Card creates a Sine Curve.

Deviation by Athwartship Component (C): Athwartship Component may attract the Compass Card
towards Port side, if it has its South (Blue) Pole left of the Compass and may attract towards Starboard
side, if it has its South Pole right of the Compass. Effect of Athwartship Component is maximum on
North or South Heading and zero on East or West Heading. Effect of this component on Compass
Card creates a Cosine Curve.
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Example of Sine and Cosine Curves created by B and C Component of Ship’s Permanent Magnetism
is illustrated below:

Effect of Ship’s Permanent Magnetism only changes with Ship’s heading, but doesn’t change with
latitude.
Effect of Induced Magnetism: As Ship stays within the Earth’s Magnetic Field, it gets induced by
Earth’s Magnetic Field and creates an Induced Magnetic Field along with its Permanent Magnetic
Field. Induced Magnetism of Ship varies with strength of Earth’s Magnetic Field, mass and alignment
of all metals on board. Effect of Ship’s Induced Magnetism on an on board Magnetic Compass can
be divided in three types, Deviation by total Vertical Induced Magnetism, Deviation by Symmetrical
Induced Horizontal Magnetism and Deviation by Asymmetrical Induced Horizontal Magnetism.
Deviation by Vertical Induced Magnetism (B): All vertical soft irons on ship will be induced by
Vertical Component of Earth’s Magnetism and will result in a resultant or total Vertical Induced
Magnetism. This Vertical Magnet will be either forward or aft of the Magnetic Compass as ship’s
length is greater than her breadth and the Magnetic Compass is always placed on the fore & aft center
line. The effect of this Induced Vertical Magnetism is similar to effect of fore & aft component of
Ship’s Permanent Magnetism while also denoted by similar letter B and hence, both will be added
together. Effect of this Vertical Magnetism also creates a Sine Curve.

Effect of Induced Vertical Magnetism will change with ship’s heading and ship’s location. Direction
of the deviation due to Induced Vertical Magnetism will change with the ship’s heading. As
magnitude of Vertical Component of Earth’s Magnetism is zero at Equator, increases with latitude
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and becomes maximum at Magnetic Poles, deviation due to Induced Vertical Magnetism will be also
zero at Equator, will increase with the latitude and will be maximum at Magnetic Poles.
Apart from these, Induced Vertical Magnetism will also change its polarity with the change of Earth’s
Hemisphere. In Northern Hemisphere, lower pole of Induced Vertical Magnetism will be North Pole
and in Southern Hemisphere, lower pole will be South Pole.
Deviation by Symmetrical Induced Horizontal Magnetism (D): Patterns of symmetrical soft irons
on board may be any of the following:

Effects on the Compass Needle by these soft irons when induced by Horizontal Component of Earth’s
Magnetism will be as following:

Effect of this Symmetrical Induced Magnetism will changes with ship’s heading as seen in the above
illustration. As magnitude of Horizontal Component of Earth’s Magnetism is maximum at Equator,
decreases towards poles and becomes zero at Magnetic Poles, deviation due to Symmetrical Induced
Magnetism will be also maximum at Equator, will decrease towards poles and will be zero at
Magnetic Poles.
Deviation by Asymmetrical Induced Horizontal Magnetism (E): Patterns of asymmetrical soft
irons on board may be any of the following:

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Effects on the Compass Needle by these soft irons when induced by Horizontal Component of Earth’s
Magnetism will be as following:

Effect of this Asymmetrical Induced Magnetism will changes with ship’s heading as seen in the
above illustration. As magnitude of Horizontal Component of Earth’s Magnetism is maximum at
Equator, decreases towards poles and becomes zero at Magnetic Poles, deviation due to
Asymmetrical Induced Magnetism will be also maximum at Equator, will decrease towards poles
and will be zero at Magnetic Poles.
(3) Explain probable causes to develop Apparent Co-efficient A.
Causes of Apparent Co-efficient A: Apparent Co-efficient A of Deviation is small in magnitude
and can be caused by various factors. This Apparent Co-efficient remains unchanged for all Ship’s
headings and usually kept uncorrected. Followings are some reasons to develop Apparent Co-
efficient A:
(a) Alignment of Compass Needle: If Magnetic Axis of the Compass Needle doesn’t align with fore
& aft line of the Compass Card, it will contribute to develop Apparent Co-efficient A.
(b) Alignment of Lubber Line: If Lubber Line of the Magnetic Compass is not aligned to the fore
& aft center line of the Ship, it also can develop Apparent Co-efficient A.
(c) Alignment of the Compass: If the Magnetic Compass itself is not on the fore & aft center line
of the Ship, it will cause Apparent Co-efficient A.
(d) Calculation Error: Human errors in calculation of bearing of a distant object or sun for
adjustment of the compass will also lead to Apparent Co-efficient A.
(e) Prismatic Error: Prismatic Error when taking bearing of a distant object for adjustment of the
Compass can also result in development of Apparent Co-efficient A.
(f) Other Errors: During adjustment of compass, other errors like taking wrong bearing of reference
object, taking wrong time for sun’s azimuth etc. may also cause Apparent Co-efficient A.
(4) Explain operating principle of Transmitting Magnetic Compass (TMC).
Operating Principle of TMC: A Transmitting Magnetic Compass (TMC) is a Magnetic Compass
System which can output Compass Heading of the Ship to Digital Display, Compass Repeater or
other Navigational Equipments. A TMC is consisted of following components:
1. A Magnetic Compass
2. A Fluxgate Sensor
3. A Signal Processor
How these components are connected to make a TMC is shown in the following illustration:
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The most important component of TMC is the Fluxgate Sensor. This circular shaped Sensor is usually
attached on top of a Magnetic Compass Bowl to sense angular deviation of the Compass Needle from
the Lubber Line and transfer it as electrical signal to Signal Processor.

The heart of the Fluxgate Sensor is a ferromagnetic core surrounded by two coils of wire in a
configuration resembling a transformer. An AC supply is passed through one coil, called the primary
or excitation coil which then produces an alternating magnetic field. This alternating magnetic field
induces other coil, called the secondary or sensing coil. The intensity and phase of the AC in the
secondary or sensing coil are constantly measured. When the Compass Needle moves, phase and
intensity of magnetic field of sensing coil also changes accordingly. This change is sent to Signal
Processor Unit for analyzing. The Signal Processor then analyze the extent and phase of this change
to determine the angular deviation of Compass Needle from the Lubber Line. Thus, it determines
Ship’s Compass Heading and feed this to Digital Display, Compass Repeater or other Navigational
Equipments.
(5) Who is the person responsible for correction of Magnetic Compass? Explain
the correction procedure of Magnetic Compass.
Person responsible for adjustment of Magnetic Compass: Initial Adjustment of the Magnetic
Compass must always be done by a certified and experienced Compass Adjuster. Apart from this,
adjustments during docking, after any major repairing of the Compass or after any major structural
alteration of ship must be done by a Compass Adjuster. However, an annual or emergency adjustment
can be performed on board ship only by the Master.
Procedure of adjusting a Magnetic Compass: Adjustment or correction of a Magnetic Compass is
done to make it to indicate Magnetic North always. This is achieved by applying different Correctors
to counteract effects of different permanent and induced Magnetic Forces acting upon the Magnetic
Compass. Adjustment of a Magnetic Compass is usually done by following procedure:
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Step-1 (Flinders Bar): Flinders Bars are used to compensate effect of Vertical Induced Magnetism.
Normally Flinders Bars are attached to the Compass Binnacle on the same side on which the total
Vertical Induced Magnetism is located. As this is very rare for the total Vertical Induced Magnetism
to be located on port or starboard side of the Magnetic Compass, most of the Compass Binnacle
doesn’t have Flinders Bar’s Socket on its port or starboard. Flinders Bar’s Socket are usually attached
on fore and/or aft side of the Compass Binnacle as total Vertical Induced Magnetism is almost always
located forward or aft of the Compass. To determine the length of the Flinders Bars, we have to
carefully study the masts, stacks and other vertical structures on ship. Otherwise, we will put same
length of Flinders Bars which have been used for other sister ships. If compass has been adjusted
previously, put the Flinders Bar as before.
Step-2 (Soft Iron Spheres): Now we will place the Soft Iron Spheres. Soft Iron Spheres compensate
effect of Symmetrical Induced Horizontal Magnetism. If the compass was adjusted before, place the
Spheres as before. Otherwise, place them at middle points of Bracket Arms.
Step-3 (Heeling Error Correctors): The Heeling Error Correctors compensate Vertical
Components of both Permanent and Induced Magnetism. To determine amount and direction of
Heeling Error Correctors, strength and direction of total Vertical Magnetic Force need to be
measured. This can be done by using a Dip Needle or a Vertical Force Instrument (VFI).
Step-4 (Fore & Aft Correctors): Fore & Aft Correctors compensate effect of Fore & Aft
Component of Permanent Magnetism. Slowly bring the ship on Compass Heading 090 o and observe
the deviation. If deviation is easterly, place necessary Fore & Aft Correctors with Red Pole facing
forward. If deviation is westerly, place necessary Fore & Aft Correctors with Blue Pole facing
forward. Adjustment of deviation on 090o will automatically adjust deviation on 270o.
Step-5 (Athwartship Correctors): Athwartship Correctors compensate effect of Athwartship
Component of Permanent Magnetism. Bring the Ship on Compass Heading 180 o and observe the
deviation. If deviation is westerly, place necessary Athwartship Correctors with Red Pole facing
Starboard Side. If deviation is easterly, place necessary Athwartship Correctors with South Pole
facing Starboard Side. Adjustment of deviation on 180 o will automatically adjust deviation on 000o.
Step-6 (Soft Iron Spheres): Bring the Ship on compass heading 225o and observe the deviation.
Rearrange the position of the Soft Iron Spheres to minimize if there is any deviation. Adjusting
deviation on 225o will automatically adjust deviation on 045o, 135o & 315o.
This is the completion of adjustment of the Magnetic Compass. Now bring the ship on the desired
course as per voyage plan.
(6) State the sequence of placing the correctors and the reason for the same. State
the precautions need to be taken during swinging a compass.
Sequence of placing the Compass Correctors: A Magnetic Compass has different Correctors to
counteract effects of different permanent and induced Magnetic Forces acting upon it. While
adjusting a Magnetic Compass, Correctors are recommended to place in the following sequence:
Step-1 (Flinders Bar): Flinders Bars are used to compensate effect of Vertical Induced Magnetism.
Normally Flinders Bars are attached to the Compass Binnacle on the same side on which the total
Vertical Induced Magnetism is located. As this is very rare for the total Vertical Induced Magnetism
to be located on port or starboard side of the Magnetic Compass, most of the Compass Binnacle
doesn’t have Flinders Bar’s Socket on its port or starboard. Flinders Bar’s Socket are usually attached
on fore and/or aft side of the Compass Binnacle as total Vertical Induced Magnetism is almost always
located forward or aft of the Compass. To determine the length of the Flinders Bars, we have to
carefully study the masts, stacks and other vertical structures on ship. Otherwise, we will put same

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length of Flinders Bars which have been used for other sister ships. If compass has been adjusted
previously, put the Flinders Bar as before.
Reason behind this Sequence: Flinders Bars are made of soft irons, therefore it is possible for
Flinders Bars to be induced by other Correctors which are magnets. This is why, it is recommended
to place the Flinders Bars before placing any other Correctors.
Step-2 (Soft Iron Spheres): Now we will place the Soft Iron Spheres. Soft Iron Spheres compensate
effect of Symmetrical Induced Horizontal Magnetism. If the compass was adjusted before, place the
Spheres as before. Otherwise, place them at middle points of Bracket Arms.
Reason behind this Sequence: It is also possible for Soft Iron Spheres to be induced by other
Correctors. This is why, it is recommended to place the Soft Iron Spheres just after the Flinders Bars
and before placing any other Correctors.
Step-3 (Heeling Error Correctors): The Heeling Error Correctors compensate Vertical
Components of both Permanent and Induced Magnetism. To determine amount and direction of
Heeling Error Correctors, strength and direction of total Vertical Magnetic Force need to be
measured. This can be done by using a Dip Needle or a Vertical Force Instrument (VFI).
Reason behind this Sequence: Heeling Error of a Magnetic Compass is independent of other Errors,
but adjustment of Heeling Error Correctors requires other Correctors to be adjusted. That is why, it
is a good idea to adjust the Heeling Error before doing other adjustments.
Step-4 (Fore & Aft Correctors): Fore & Aft Correctors compensate effect of Fore & Aft
Component of Permanent Magnetism. Slowly bring the ship on Compass Heading 090o and observe
the deviation. If deviation is easterly, place necessary Fore & Aft Correctors with Red Pole facing
forward. If deviation is westerly, place necessary Fore & Aft Correctors with Blue Pole facing
forward. Adjustment of deviation on 090o will automatically adjust deviation on 270o.
Reason behind this Sequence: Adjustment of Fore & Aft Correctors are done before adjustment of
Athwartship Correctors because if the deviation by Fore & Aft Component is large it will also affect
deviation by Athwartship Component.
Step-5 (Athwartship Correctors): Athwartship Correctors compensate effect of Athwartship
Component of Permanent Magnetism. Bring the Ship on Compass Heading 180o and observe the
deviation. If deviation is westerly, place necessary Athwartship Correctors with Red Pole facing
Starboard Side. If deviation is easterly, place necessary Athwartship Correctors with South Pole
facing Starboard Side. Adjustment of deviation on 180o will automatically adjust deviation on 000o.
Reason behind this Sequence: Adjustment of Fore & Aft or Athwartship Correctors will affect
deviations on Quadrantal Headings. That is why, adjustment of these Correctors must be done before
final adjustment of Soft Iron Spheres.
Step-6 (Soft Iron Spheres): Bring the Ship on compass heading 225o and observe the deviation.
Rearrange the position of the Soft Iron Spheres to minimize if there is any deviation. Adjusting
deviation on 225o will automatically adjust deviation on 045o, 135o & 315o.
Reason behind this Sequence: Soft Iron Spheres can be induced by other Magnetic Correctors.
Therefore, it is recommended to do their final adjustment after adjusting all other Correctors.
(7) What are the performance standards of a Magnetic Compass?
Performance Standards of Magnetic Compass: A Magnetic Compass must be complied with IMO
Performance Standards as described in Resolution A.382(X). These Performance Standards are
described below in brief:

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Compass Card
(a) The compass card should be graduated in 360 single degrees. A numerical indication should be
provided every ten degrees, starting from North (000°) clockwise to 360°. The cardinal points
should be indicated by the capital letters N, E, S and W. The North point may instead be indicated
by a suitable emblem.
(b) The directional error of the card, composed of inaccuracies in graduation, eccentricity of the card
on its pivot and inaccuracy of orientation of the card on the magnetic system should not exceed
0.5° on any heading.
(c) The card of the steering compass should clearly be readable both in daylight and artificial light
at a distance of 1.4 m. The use of a magnifying glass is permitted.
Materials
(a) The magnets used in the directional system and the corrector magnets for correcting the
permanent magnetic fields of the ship should have a high coercivity of at least 11.2 kA/m.
(b) Material used for correcting induced fields should have a low remanence and coercivity.
(c) All other materials used in the magnetic compass and in the binnacle should be non-magnetic, so
far as reasonable and practicable and such that the deviation of the card caused by these materials
should not exceed (9/H)°, where H is the horizontal component of the magnetic flux density in
μT (micro Tesia) at the place of the compass.
Performance
The magnetic compass equipment should operate satisfactorily and remain usable under the
operational and environmental conditions likely to be experienced on board ships in which it is
installed.
Constructional Error
(a) With the compass rotating at a uniform speed of 1.5° per second and temperature of the compass
of 20°C ± 3°C the deflection of the card should not exceed (36/H)°, if the diameter of the card is
less than 200 mm. If the diameter of the compass card is 200 mm or more, the deflection of the
card should not exceed (54/H)°; H being defined as in sub-paragraph 3.3.
(b) The error due to friction should not exceed (3/H)° at a temperature of 20°C ± 3°C; H being defined
as in sub-paragraph 3.3.
(c) With a horizontal component of the magnetic field of 18 μT the half period of the card should be
at least 12 seconds, after an initial deflection of 40°. The time taken to return finally to within
±1° of the magnetic meridian should not exceed 60 seconds after an initial deflection of 90°.
Aperiodic compasses shall comply with the latter requirements only.
Correcting Devices
(a) The binnacle should be provided with devices for correcting semicircular and quadrantal
deviation due to:
- The horizontal components of the ship's permanent magnetism;
- Heeling error;
- The horizontal component of the induced horizontal magnetism;
- The horizontal component of the induced vertical magnetism.
(b) The correcting devices provided in sub-paragraph 6.1 should ensure that no serious changes of
deviation occur under the influence of the conditions described in paragraph 4 and particularly
considerable alteration of magnetic latitude. Sextantal and deviations of higher order should be
negligible.

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Construction
(a) Primary and emergency illumination should be installed so that the card may be read at all times.
Facilities for dimming should be provided.
(b) With the exception of the illumination, no electrical power supply should be necessary for
operating the magnetic compass.
(c) In the case where an electrical reproduction of the indication of the standard compass is regarded
as a steering compass, the transmitting system should be provided with both primary and
emergency electrical power supply.
(d) Equipment should be constructed and installed in such a way that it is easily accessible for
correcting and maintenance purposes.
(e) The compass, binnacle and azimuth reading device should be marked to the satisfaction of the
Administration.
(f) The standard compass should be suspended in gimbals so that its verge ring remains horizontal
when the binnacle is tilted up to 40° in any direction, and so that the compass cannot be dislodged
under any condition of sea or weather. Steering compasses suspended in gimbals should meet the
same requirements. If they are not suspended in gimbals they should have a freedom of the card
of at least 30° in all directions.
(g) Material used for the manufacture of magnetic compasses should be of sufficient strength and be
to the satisfaction of the Administration.
Positioning
(a) The magnetic compass equipment should be installed if practicable and reasonable on the ship's
centerline. The main lubber mark should indicate the ship's heading with an accuracy of ± 0.5°.
(b) The standard compass should be installed so that from its position the view is as uninterrupted as
possible, for the purpose of taking horizontal and celestial bearings. The steering compass should
be clearly readable by the helmsman at the main steering position.
(c) The magnetic compasses should be installed as far as possible from magnetic material. The
minimum distances of the standard compass from any magnetic material which is part of the
ship's structure should be to the satisfaction of the Administration.
(d) The distance of the magnetic compass from electrical or magnetic equipment should be at least
equal to the safe distance specified for the equipment and be to the satisfaction of the
Administration.
(8) What is Magnetic Degaussing? How Magnetic Degaussing is achieved?
Magnetic Degaussing: Magnetic Degaussing is a technique of eliminating or reducing a Magnetic
Field. Degaussing of a Ship means eliminating or reducing Magnetic Signature of that Ship. A Ship
which is degaussed will act as nonmagnetic substance in Earth’s Magnetic Field and thus, will not
make any disturbances in Earth’s Magnetic Field.

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Degaussing a Ship: Degaussing a Ship is done by eliminating all Components of Permanent and
Induced Magnetism of Ship. Coils of electric wires are attached around the Ship and are energized
by electric power. Once energized, these coils generates their own magnetic fields which neutralizes
local magnetic fields of Ship. A Degaussing System is usually consisted of following Coils:
Main (M) Coil: The Main Coil is horizontal and completely encircles the Ship, usually at or near the
waterline. Its function is to oppose the vertical component of the Ship’s permanent and induced fields
combined.
Forecastle (F) and Quarterdeck (Q) Coils: The F and Q coils are placed horizontal just below the
forward and after quarters, respectively, of the weather deck. These coils oppose the fore & aft
Components of Permanent and Induced Magnetism.
Longitudinal (L) Coil: Better control of the fore & aft components, but at greater installation
expense, is provided by placing a series of vertical, athwartship coils along the length of the ship.
Athwartship (A) Coil: The A coil is in a vertical fore & aft plane, thus producing a horizontal
athwartship field which neutralizes the athwartship component of the vessel’s field.
Effect of Degaussing on Magnetic Compass: The degaussing of ships for protection against
magnetic mines creates additional effects upon magnetic compasses, which are somewhat different
from the permanent and induced magnetic effects. The magnetic fields created by the degaussing
coils would render the vessel’s magnetic compasses useless unless compensated. This is
accomplished by subjecting the compass to compensating fields along three mutually perpendicular
axes. These fields are provided by small compensating coils adjacent to the compass.

Automatic Identification System (AIS)

(1) Briefly describe the working principle of AIS.
Or, Describe the working principle of AIS. How the AIS uses a SOTDMA to share
a single VHF Frequency?
How AIS Works: Automatic Identification System or AIS works by transmitting own ship
information and receiving other ships information on VHF Channels. VHF Channel 87B (161.975
MHz) and VHF Channel 88B (162.025 MHz) are dedicated for AIS. AIS uses Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) for sharing a Single Frequency by many transmitters. In TDMA, every
minute is divided into 2250 slots where each slot is 26.6 milliseconds in length. Each AIS transmits
its own information in a single slot and also receives other ships information transmitted in other
slots to create a map of the slots in its memory.

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Self Organizing TDMA or SOTDMA is a technology used by all Class-A AIS and some of Class-B
AIS. In SOTDMA, AIS keeps tracking all the TDMA slots by saving it in memory. That is why it
always knows which slots are occupied by other ships and which slots are free. It selects a slot from
free slots for its own transmission. Before transmitting own information, it pre-announces the slot
number it is going to use. SOTDMA transmission gets priority in AIS.
There is also another method of utilizing TDMA for transmitting information named Carrier Sense
TDMA or CSTDMA. CSTDMA is exclusively used by Class-B AIS. In CSTDMA, before
transmitting, an AIS scans all TDMA slots to find a free slot. Once a free slot is found, the
transmission is made.
(2) Explain two types of AIS.
Types of AIS: There are two types of AIS available for shipborne use as follows:
1) Class – A
2) Class – B
Class-A AIS: Class-A AIS is intended to be used by SOLAS Vessel of 300 GRT or more and
engaged in international Voyages. Class-A AIS works on SOTDMA. When a Class-A AIS transmits
its signal, it also announces the number of slot it will be using for next transmission. Thus,
transmission of Class-A is prioritized in AIS. Class-A AIS transmits Dynamic Information at an
interval of 2 to 10 seconds while underway depending on the speed of the vessel and at an interval
of 3 minutes while at anchor. Static and Voyage related information is transmitted every 6 minutes
or on request. Transmission power of Class-A AIS is 12.5 Watts which is stronger than that of Class-
B AIS. Class-A AIS is required to have a DSC Receiver, external or internal GPS, course and Rate
of Turn inputs. Class-A AIS is capable of transmitting and receiving Short Safety Messages.
Class-B AIS: Class-B AIS is intended to be used by non-SOLAS Vessels. Class-B AIS are of two
types, one works on SOTDMA like Class-B AIS and another one works on CSTDMA. Transmission
power of Class-B SOTDMA AIS is 5 Watts and that of Class-B CSTDMA AIS is 2 Watts. Class-B
AIS transmits Dynamic Information at an interval of 30 seconds to 3 minutes and transmits Static or
Voyage related information at an interval of 6 minutes. Though external or internal GPS input is
mandatory for Class-B AIS, DSC receiver, course, Rate of Turn inputs are optional. Short Safety
Message service is also optional for Class-B AIS.
(3) What are the advantages and disadvantages of AIS?
Advantages of AIS: Advantages of AIS are described below:
(a) Real time identification is made possible by AIS.
(b) AIS information can be fed to other Navigational Equipments like Radar, ECDIS etc. to get
targets real-time identification on those displays.
(c) AIS Signal is less affected by Rain, Clouds or Sea than Radar Pulses.
(d) By using AIS, it is possible to detect targets obscured by bends, mountains or building where
Radar will not be that helpful.
(e) Navigation through Fishing Traffic is made easier by AIS.
(f) AIS is fully automated service and doesn’t require any human intervention.
(g) Clarifies action of other ship by providing ROT information.
(h) Operation of VTS and other traffic services is made easier by AIS.
(i) Combined use of AIS and Radar reduces possibility of missing small vessels.
Disadvantages of AIS: Despite of its many advantages, AIS also suffers from the following
limitations or disadvantages:
(a) Working range of AIS is similar to that of VHF which is approximately 20 to 25 Nm.
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(b) Reliability of information received by AIS aren’t foolproof as information transmitted by other
ships cannot be verified.
(c) Position of other ship obtained by AIS may not be compatible to WGS-84.
(d) Not all ships are fitted with AIS. Therefore, navigation solely depending on AIS may lead to
collision. AIS should always be used with other detecting Equipments like Radar.
(e) In areas of heavy traffic, AIS targets on Radar or ECDIS Display will lead to unnecessary clutters
which can be discomfortable for Navigators.
(4) State the various methods of displaying AIS information. State the function of
AIS. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of AIS. State the use of AIS at sea
and in port mentioning precautions necessary when AIS is used as an aid for
collision avoidance.
Methods of displaying AIS Information: A dedicated Display is only mandatory for Class-A AIS.
However, the information received by AIS can be fed to any displaying Device. Such device can
display AIS information in any of following methods:
Minimum Display: Minimum Display should provide at least 3 information of target in a single line
which are Name, Bearing and Range. It can be scrolled vertically to see all available AIS targets
starting from closest one. Once scrolled horizontally, one will be able to see other information of a
target. Minimum Display also shows alarm and alerts.
Graphical Display: On a Graphical Display, AIS Targets can be displayed graphically around the
own ship like Radar Display. On a Graphical Display, all ships with an AIS will be displayed as
Sleeping Targets. Once user hover cursor on a Target, it shows minimum information and called
Activated Target. If a Target is selected by user, it is called Selected Target and AIS starts to track
this Target like ARPA. Apart from this, Dangerous Targets and Lost Targets are also highlighted on
Graphical Display.
Function of AIS: Followings are the function or application of AIS:
Collision Avoidance: AIS was developed by the IMO technical committees as a technology to avoid
collisions among large vessels at sea that are not within range of shore-based systems. The technology
identifies every vessel individually, along with its specific position and movements, enabling a virtual
picture to be created in real time. The AIS standards include a variety of automatic calculations based
on these position reports such as Closest Point of Approach (CPA) and collision alarms.
Vessel Traffic Services: AIS is widely used by VTS for real-time identification and monitoring of
traffic. This enables them to provide better services and to manage vessels transiting through heavy
traffic areas more efficiently.
Monitoring of Fishing Fleet: AIS is widely used by national authorities to track and monitor the
activities of their national fishing fleets. AIS enables authorities to monitor fishing vessel activities
reliably and cost effectively along their coast line.
Maritime Security: AIS enables authorities to identify specific vessels and their activity within or
near a nation's Exclusive Economic Zone. When AIS data is fused with existing radar systems,
authorities are able to differentiate between vessels more easily. AIS data can be automatically
processed to create normalized activity patterns for individual vessels, which when breached, create
an alert, thus highlighting potential threats for more efficient use of security assets. AIS improves
maritime domain awareness and allows for heightened security and control.
Aids to Navigation: The AIS aids to navigation (AtoN) product standard was developed with the
ability to broadcast the positions and names of objects other than vessels, such as navigational aid and
markers. AtoNs enable authorities to remotely monitor the status of a buoy, such as the status of the

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lantern, as well as transmit live data from sensors (such as weather and sea state) located on the buoy
back to vessels fitted with AIS transceivers or local authorities. An AtoN will broadcast its position
and Identity along with all the other information. The AtoN standard also permits the transmit of
'Virtual AtoN' positions whereby a single device may transmit messages with a 'false' position such
that an AtoN marker appears on electronic charts, although a physical AtoN may not be present at
that location.
Search and Rescue: For coordinating on-scene resources of a marine search and rescue (SAR)
operation, it is imperative to have data on the position and navigation status of other ships in the
vicinity. In such cases, AIS can provide additional information and enhance awareness of available
resources, even if the AIS range is limited to VHF radio range. The AIS standard also envisioned the
possible use on SAR aircraft, and included a message (AIS Message 9) for aircraft to report their
position. AIS-SART was added to Global Maritime Distress Safety System regulations effective
January 1, 2010. AIS-SARTs have been available on the market since at least 2009. Recent
regulations have mandated the installation of AIS systems on all Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)
vessels and vessels over 300 tons.
Accident Investigation: AIS information received by VTS is important for accident investigation
since it provides accurate historical data on time, identity, GPS-based position, compass heading,
course over ground, speed (by log/SOG), and rates of turn, rather than the less accurate information
provided by radar. A more complete picture of the events could be obtained by Voyage Data
Recorder (VDR) data if available and maintained on board for details of the movement of the ship,
voice communication and radar pictures during the accidents. However, VDR data are not maintained
due to the limited twelve hours storage by IMO requirement.
Advantages of AIS: Advantages of AIS are described below:
(j) Real time identification is made possible by AIS.
(k) AIS information can be fed to other Navigational Equipments like Radar, ECDIS etc. to get
targets real-time identification on those displays.
(l) AIS Signal is less affected by Rain, Clouds or Sea than Radar Pulses.
(m) By using AIS, it is possible to detect targets obscured by bends, mountains or building where
Radar will be not that helpful.
(n) Navigation through Fishing Traffic is made easier by AIS.
(o) AIS is fully automated service and doesn’t require any human intervention.
(p) Clarifies action of other ship by providing ROT information.
(q) Operation of VTS and other traffic services is made easier by AIS.
(r) Combined use of AIS and Radar reduces possibility of missing small vessels.
Disadvantages of AIS: Despite of its many advantages, AIS also suffers from the following
limitations or disadvantages:
(f) Working range of AIS is similar to that of VHF which is approximately 20 to 25 Nm.
(g) Reliability of information received by AIS aren’t foolproof as information transmitted by
other ships cannot be verified.
(h) Position of other ship obtained by AIS may not be compatible to WGS-84.
(i) Not all ships are fitted with AIS. Therefore, navigation solely depends on AIS may lead to
collision. AIS should always be used with other detecting Equipments like Radar.
(j) In areas of heavy traffic, AIS targets on Radar or ECDIS Display will lead to unnecessary
clutters which can be discomfortable for Navigators.
Precautions when using AIS: AIS contributes significantly to the safety of navigation. All the
information that is transmitted and received enhances the effectiveness of navigation and can greatly
improve the situational awareness and the decision making process. As an assistant to the OOW, the
tracking and monitoring of targets by the AIS as well as determining information on the CPA and
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TCPA adds great value to the safety of navigation overall. However, the user should not solely rely
on the information from the AIS for collision avoidance. AIS is only an additional source of
information for the OOW and only supports in the process of navigating the vessel. AIS can never
replace the human expertise on bridge.
(5) What is AIS? What are the potential benefits of AIS? What do you understand
by Static Information, Dynamic Information and Short Safety Messaging?
Automatic Identification System (AIS): The Automatic Identification System (AIS) is an
automatic tracking system which enables Ships and shore stations to identify and track other ships in
VHF rage.
Benefits of AIS: Some of the potential benefits of AIS are described below:
Collision Avoidance: AIS was developed by the IMO technical committees as a technology to avoid
collisions among large vessels at sea that are not within range of shore-based systems. The technology
identifies every vessel individually, along with its specific position and movements, enabling a virtual
picture to be created in real time. The AIS standards include a variety of automatic calculations based
on these position reports such as Closest Point of Approach (CPA) and collision alarms.
Vessel Traffic Services: AIS is widely used by VTS for real-time identification and monitoring of
traffic. This enables them to provide better services and to manage vessels transiting through heavy
traffic areas more efficiently.
Monitoring of Fishing Fleet: AIS is widely used by national authorities to track and monitor the
activities of their national fishing fleets. AIS enables authorities to monitor fishing vessel activities
reliably and cost effectively along their coast line.
Maritime Security: AIS enables authorities to identify specific vessels and their activity within or
near a nation's Exclusive Economic Zone. When AIS data is fused with existing radar systems,
authorities are able to differentiate between vessels more easily. AIS data can be automatically
processed to create normalized activity patterns for individual vessels, which when breached, create
an alert, thus highlighting potential threats for more efficient use of security assets. AIS improves
maritime domain awareness and allows for heightened security and control.
Aids to Navigation: The AIS aids to navigation (AtoN) product standard was developed with the
ability to broadcast the positions and names of objects other than vessels, such as navigational aid and
markers. AtoNs enable authorities to remotely monitor the status of a buoy, such as the status of the
lantern, as well as transmit live data from sensors (such as weather and sea state) located on the buoy
back to vessels fitted with AIS transceivers or local authorities. An AtoN will broadcast its position
and Identity along with all the other information. The AtoN standard also permits the transmit of
'Virtual AtoN' positions whereby a single device may transmit messages with a 'false' position such
that an AtoN marker appears on electronic charts, although a physical AtoN may not be present at
that location.
Search and Rescue: For coordinating on-scene resources of a marine search and rescue (SAR)
operation, it is imperative to have data on the position and navigation status of other ships in the
vicinity. In such cases, AIS can provide additional information and enhance awareness of available
resources, even if the AIS range is limited to VHF radio range. The AIS standard also envisioned the
possible use on SAR aircraft, and included a message (AIS Message 9) for aircraft to report their
position. AIS-SART was added to Global Maritime Distress Safety System regulations effective
January 1, 2010. AIS-SARTs have been available on the market since at least 2009. Recent
regulations have mandated the installation of AIS systems on all Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)
vessels and vessels over 300 tons.

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Accident Investigation: AIS information received by VTS is important for accident investigation
since it provides accurate historical data on time, identity, GPS-based position, compass heading,
course over ground, speed (by log/SOG), and rates of turn, rather than the less accurate information
provided by radar. A more complete picture of the events could be obtained by Voyage Data
Recorder (VDR) data if available and maintained on board for details of the movement of the ship,
voice communication and radar pictures during the accidents. However, VDR data are not maintained
due to the limited twelve hours storage by IMO requirement.
AIS Information: Information transmitted by AIS can be divided in three types as described below:
Static Information: Static Information is transmitted every 6 minutes or on request. Followings are
the Static Information transmitted by AIS:
(a) Ship’s Name (b) MMSI Number (c) Call Sign
(d) IMO Number (e) Length and Breadth (f) Type of Ship
Voyage Related Information: Voyage Related Information is transmitted every 6 minutes or on
request. Followings are the Voyage Related transmitted by AIS:
(a) Ship’s Draught (b) Type of Cargo (c) Destination and ETA
Dynamic Information: Dynamic Information is transmitted at an intervals of 2 seconds to 3 minutes
depending on type of ship, speed, navigational status and type of AIS Unit in use. Followings are the
Dynamic Information transmitted by AIS:
(a) Ship’s Position, Time and Accuracy (b) Course Over Ground
Apart from above, AIS also transmits and receives Short Safety Messages which is described below:
Short Safety Message: Short Safety Messages are fixed or free format text messages which can be
directed to a single AIS Receiver or all AIS Receivers in an area. Content of Short Safety Messages
should be relevant to Safety of Navigation and should be kept as short as possible. The system allows
up to 158 characters, however, the shorter the message is the better chance of finding a free slot in
TDMA.

Integrated Navigation System (INS) and Integrated

Bridge System (IBS)
(1) Briefly explain the three categories of INS as defined by IMO.
Integrated Navigation System (INS): Integrated Navigation System (INS) is a combination of
Navigational Equipments and Sensors which provides at least two facilities, Route Monitoring and
Collision Avoidance as stated in the IMO Resolution MSC.252(83). An INS can be divided into three
Modules as following:
1. Navigational Module
2. Collision Avoidance Module
3. Steering Module
Navigational Module: This Module will do Route Planning, Position Fixing and ARPA Plotting.
Following tasks will be performed by this module:
- Specifying the ships route and sailing mode.

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- Dead reckoning by imports from Gyro and Log.
- Position and Speed determination by Signals received form GPS, GLONASS or Galileo etc.
- Position and Speed determination by Terrestrial Radio Navigation Services.
- Automatically selecting radio navigation services by analyzing their accuracy.
- Recording and reproducing cartographic information on display.
- Position and Speed determination by fixed Radar Markers.
- Logging of important data.
- Storing navigational data for a given time frame.
- Producing navigational alarms and alerts.
- Automatically correcting navigational charts.
Collision Avoidance Module: This Module works to find out the best possible action to be taken in
case if risk of collision exists on the basis of collision regulations, availability of Sea Room, trail
maneuver and desired CPA or TCPA.
Steering Module: This Module is dedicated to steer the ship and will perform the following tasks:
- Steering a ship on a given course.
- Automatic alteration of course in accordance with the planned route.
- Alteration for collision avoidance.
(2) What is IBS? Draw the block diagram of IBS. State the advantages and
disadvantages of the IBS.
Integrated Bridge System (IBS): Integrated Bridge System (IBS) is a system which combines
Navigational Equipments, Sensors and Systems with other shipboard systems in a centralized
workstation generally in Navigation Bridge to improve safety and efficiency of management of the
ship and to reduce workload.
Integrated Bridge System (IBS) is a kind of navigation management system which links other systems
to provide all the details pertaining to ship’s navigation at one place. It is to note that not all types of
ships have the same type of IBS. The system would vary according to the design of the ship’s bridge,
various types of equipment used by the ship and general layout of the equipment of the bridge.
The IBS system should support two or more of the following aspects:
1. Execution of Passage
2. Communications
3. Machinery Control
4. Cargo Operations
5. Safety and Security
IBS is not mandatory on ships. Its installation and design criteria is laid out by classification societies.
Factors determining the layout includes bridge design, type of equipment fitted and their positioning
on the Bridge. IBS can be clubbed under four major parts:
1. Technical System
2. Human Operator
3. MMI (Man Machine Interface)
4. Operational Guidelines
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The IBS usually consists of:
a) Autopilot
b) Dual Radar/ARPA
c) Gyro Compass
d) Position fixing systems
e) Dual ECDIS setup (Master + Backup)
f) Conning Display
g) Power distribution system
h) Steering gear
i) GMDSS

Advantages of IBS: Advantages of IBS are stated below:

a) IBS ensures safe and efficient management of the ship.
b) Close monitoring of all shipboard operations is possible from one place and with minimum effort.
c) Many operations can be maintained and monitored from a centralized location.
d) One man is enough to monitor and perform multiple tasks.
e) IBS can significantly reduce workload and fatigue.
f) IBS ensures ease and comfort of shipboard operations.
g) Safety of Navigation is improved by IBS.
h) Better communications is ensured by IBS.
i) Better machinery control is also ensured by IBS.
Disadvantages of IBS: Disadvantages of IBS are stated below:
a) Malfunctioning of one or more system may degrade the overall performance of the IBS.
b) Over reliance on IBS may lead to accidents.
c) Power failure of IBS will cause unexpected situation.
d) Unforeseen or unexplainable errors may occur.
e) IBS can reduce job scope for human.
f) High installation cost.
(3) What is IBS? Describe limitations of the IBS.
Integrated Bridge System (IBS): Integrated Bridge System (IBS) is a system which combines
Navigational Equipments, Sensors and Systems with other shipboard systems in a centralized
workstation generally in Navigation Bridge to improve safety and efficiency of management of the
ship and to reduce workload.

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Integrated Bridge System (IBS) is a kind of navigation management system which links other systems
to provide all the details pertaining to ship’s navigation at one place. It is to note that not all types of
ships have the same type of IBS. The system would vary according to the design of the ship’s bridge,
various types of equipment used by the ship and general layout of the equipment of the bridge.
The IBS system should support two or more of the following aspects:
1. Execution of Passage
2. Communications
3. Machinery Control
4. Cargo Operations
5. Safety and Security
IBS is not mandatory on ships. Its installation and design criteria is laid out by classification societies.
Factors determining the layout includes bridge design, type of equipment fitted and their positioning
on the bridge. IBS can be clubbed under four major parts:
1. Technical System
2. Human Operator
3. MMI (Man Machine Interface)
4. Operational Guidelines
The IBS usually consists of:
a) Autopilot
b) Dual Radar/ARPA
c) Gyro Compass
d) Position fixing systems
e) Dual ECDIS setup (Master + Backup)
f) Conning Display
g) Power distribution system
h) Steering gear
i) GMDSS

Limitations of IBS: Limitations of IBS are stated below:

a) Malfunctioning of one or more system may degrade the overall performance of the IBS.
b) Over reliance on IBS may lead to accidents.
c) Power failure of IBS will cause unexpected situation.
d) Unforeseen or unexplainable errors may occur.
e) IBS can reduce job scope for human.
f) High installation cost.
(4) Explain how the IBS can be beneficial for the Navigators.

How IBS can be beneficial for Navigators: Benefits of IBS are stated below:
a) IBS ensures safe and efficient management of the ship.
b) Close monitoring of all shipboard operations is possible from one place and with minimum effort.
c) Many operations can be maintained and monitored from a centralized location.
d) One man is enough to monitor and perform multiple tasks.
e) IBS can significantly reduce workload and fatigue.
f) IBS ensures ease and comfort of shipboard operations.
g) Safety of Navigation is improved by IBS.
h) Better communications is ensured by IBS.
i) Better machinery control is also ensured by IBS.

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Others
(1) Describe operational requirements of BNWAS.
Operational Requirements of BNWAS: The Operational Requirements of Bridge Navigational
Watch Alarm System (BNWAS) are described below:
Modes of Operation: BNWAS should have three modes of operation, Automatic, Manual-on and
Manual-off Modes.
Alarms and Indications: Alarms and Indications are followings:
a) Dormant Period: When BNWAS is put in operation, Dormant Period must be set from 3 minutes
to 12 minutes. Dormant Period is the passive period of the BNWAS during which the BNWAS
will not sound any alarm or shows any indication.
b) First Stage Alarm: Once Dormant Period is completed, BNWAS will gives a Visual Indication.
If not reset, after 15 seconds of Visual Indication, an audible alarm will start along with Visual
Indication.
c) Second Stage Alarm: If Audible Alarm of First Sates Alarm is not reset in 15 seconds, a Second
Stage Alarm will sound in Master and/or back-up Officers’ Cabins along with First Stage Alarm.
d) Third Stage Alarm: If Second Stage Alarm is not reset within 90 seconds, Third Stage Alarm will
activate in locations where other crew members who can take over the Navigational Watch are
likely to present.
e) Except for Passenger Ships, the Second Stage Alarm can be combined to all locations. If this is
done, the Third Stage Alarm may be omitted.
Reset Function: Reset Functions are followings:
a) Reset Functions can only be provided in the position of Bridge from where physical Navigational
Watch is being kept.
b) Reset Functions should be of one step reset type.
c) Constant application of reset button should not extend Dormant Period from what specified
earlier.
Additional Requirements: Additional Requirements are listed below:
a) An ‘Emergency Call’ feature must be fitted to immediately skip Second and Third Stage Alarms
when the OOW needs immediate assistance.
b) Accuracy of BNWAS will be within 5% or 5 seconds, whichever is lesser.
c) Operation Mode and length of the Dormant Period shall be only controlled by the Master.
d) Should be powered from Main Power Supply. Malfunction Indicators and all Emergency Calling
components shall be powered from Emergency Battery also.
(2) Explain the purposes of BNWAS and how these are met? List and explain the
operational sequence of indications and alarms of BNWAS.
Purposes of BNWAS: The purpose of a Bridge Navigational Watch Alarm System (BNWAS) is to
monitor bridge activity and detect operator disability which could lead to marine accidents. The
system monitors the awareness of the Officer of the Watch (OOW) and automatically alerts the
Master or another qualified OOW if for any reason the OOW becomes incapable of performing his
duties. This purpose is achieved by a series of indications and alarms to alert first the OOW and, if
he is not responding, then to alert the Master or another qualified OOW. Additionally, the BNWAS
may provide the OOW with a means of calling for immediate assistance, if required. The BNWAS
should be operational whenever the ship’s heading or track control system is engaged unless inhibited
by the Master.
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Alarms and Indications: Alarms and Indications are followings:
a) Dormant Period: When BNWAS is put in operation, Dormant Period must be set from 3 minutes
to 12 minutes. Dormant Period is the passive period of the BNWAS during which the BNWAS
will not sound any alarm or shows any indication.
b) First Stage Alarm: Once Dormant Period is completed, BNWAS will gives a Visual Indication.
If not reset, after 15 seconds of Visual Indication, an audible alarm will start along with Visual
Indication.
c) Second Stage Alarm: If Audible Alarm of First Sates Alarm is not reset in 15 seconds, a Second
Stage Alarm will sound in Master and/or back-up Officers’ Cabins along with First Stage Alarm.
d) Third Stage Alarm: If Second Stage Alarm is not reset within 90 seconds, Third Stage Alarm will
activate in locations where other crew members who can take over the Navigational Watch are
likely to present.
e) Except for Passenger Ships, the Second Stage Alarm can be combined to all locations. If this is
done, the Third Stage Alarm may be omitted.
(3) Briefly describe the concept of VDR. What are the data can be achieved from
the VDR? What are the differences between VDR and SVDR?
Concept of VDR: A VDR or Voyage Data Recorder is an instrument installed on a ship to
continuously record vital information related to the operation of the ship. It contains a voice recording
system for a period of at least last 12 hours (for VDRs installed post-July 2014, the period of the
integrated details recorded is 48 hours as per the MSC Resolution 333.90). This recording is
recovered and made use of for investigation in events of accidents in a compressed and digitized
format.
The VDR can be consisted of following units:
Data Collection or Acquisition Unit (DCU): Fitted on the bridge that pulls in data from all the
integrated sources. The DCU contains the Data Processor Unit, interface modules and backup
batteries. It collects data from sensors as required by the IMO and IEC standards. The Batteries
supply power to the DCU to collect data for at least 2 Hrs in case of a main ship’s power failure.
Data Recording Unit (DRU): Data Recording Unit (DRU) records data which are collected by Data
Collection Unit (DCU). A Flash Memory in the DRU stores the data coming from the DCU. The data
can be retrieved by using playback software for investigation after an incident.
The Flash Memory: The DRU stores the data coming from the DCU. For storing these data, a Flash
Memory of suitable capacity is used.
Protecting Capsule Unit (PCU): This is actually a Data Recording Unit (DRU), located up on the
Monkey Island and preserve data on a Flash Memory. This Capsule Unit is fitted with a Beacon so
that it can be located using suitable locating technology if the Ship sinks following an accident.
Date recorded by the VDR or Data can be achieved from the VDR: The following Data will be
collected by VDR or can be pulled out from the VDR:
a) Date and time (SVDR)
b) Ship’s position (SVDR)
c) Speed and heading (SVDR)
d) Bridge audio (SVDR)
e) Communication audio (radio) (SVDR)
f) Radar data (SVDR)
g) ECDIS data (SVDR)
h) Echo sounder
i) Main alarms
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j) Rudder order and response
k) Hull opening (doors) status
l) Watertight and fire door status
m) Speed and acceleration
n) Hull stresses
o) Wind speed and direction

Difference between VDR and SVDR: Cargo Ship which are built before 1st July 2002 may be fitted
with a SVDR instead of a VDR. The SVDR is nothing but a simplified VDR that records information
that is only absolutely necessary and does not record information as extensive as the VDR. Naturally,
it is more cost effective and more in usage on board merchant ships. The concept of SVDR can be
best understood by comparing the data mentioned above with that of the VDR. Mandatory
information to be recorded in an SVDR are marked next to the category above. The last two interfaces
of Radar and ECDIS may be recorded only if there are standard interfaces available.
(4) What are the VDR, SVDR and VDR Capsule? Would you recommend
connecting ECDIS as an input to VDR? What are the some advantages and
disadvantages of doing so?
VDR Capsule: This beacon can be seen in the capsule on the monkey island and is fitted as a homing
device to locate the capsule after an accident. It is attached to a bracket on the capsule. Triggered by
immersion in water, they give out pulses in the ultrasonic that can be detected by airborne or
shipborne units. The importance of the VDR cannot be stressed enough. While it is always in every
seafarer’s best endeavor that an accident does not occur at all, it is imperative to know the importance
of a VDR in such a situation. It is important to understand that the VDR/SVDR is not just a way to
record data for use later on during accident investigation but it gives the trainers as well as the trainees
to understand real life situations at sea and the ways they could be combatted to further prevent any
future mishaps, enabling better practical approach towards ship operations at sea.
Connecting ECDIS to VDR: As per IMO Resolution MSC.333(90), from 1st July 2014, all VDR
must be provided with ECDIS inputs, if the vessel is equipped with ECDIS.
Advantages of connecting ECDIS to VDR: Advantages of connecting an ECDIS to VDR are
following:
a) Real Time Vessel’s Movements can be recorded.
b) The Safety Parameters in ECDIS can be recorded.
c) The Navigational Warnings and Alarms produced by ECDIS can be recorded.
d) Movements of surrounding Vessels may be recorded.
Disadvantages of connecting ECDIS to VDR: Disadvantages of connecting an ECDIS to VDR are
following:
a) More input to VDR.
b) More Memory required as ECDIS inputs are VGA.
c) More maintenance will be required.
d) More alarms may be produced by VDR.
(5) Describe the concept of LRIT. What are the criteria for a member state to
obtain LRIT data of a Ship?
Concept of LRIT: Long Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) is a tracking system for merchant
ships which was established by IMO on 19th May 2006 by an amendment to SOLAS Chapter-V
Regulation-19.1. The purpose of LRIT is to eliminate any safety or security threat to contracting
states by ships. Eventually LRIT also became useful for SAR and preventing environmental
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pollution. According to SOLAS Chapter-V Regulation-19-1, followings ships must be equipped with
LRIT Shipboard Transmitting Equipment:
- All Passenger Ships including High Speed Craft
- Cargo Ships including High Speed Craft of 300 gross tonnages or above and
- Mobile Offshore Drilling Units
According to SOLAS, every Shipboard LRIT Transmitting Equipments must transmit following data
at least 4 times a day:
- Identity of the Ship
- Position of the Ship (Latitude & Longitude)
- Time and Date of the Position provided

A Communication Service Provider (CSP) which is normally Iridium or Inmarsat Satellite

Communication Company provides the means of communication by which LRIT reports from ship
reach to an Application Service Provider (ASP). Application Service Provider (ASP) receives LRIT
Reports from ship via Communication Service Providers, adds up some additional information and
forwards to the Data Center (DC) nominated by the Ship’s Flag States. These Data Center (DC) can
be national, regional or international. These Data Centers (DCs) are interconnected to each other and
follow IMO Data Distribution Plan (DDP) for exchanging or providing LRIT Data.
Criteria for accessing LRIT Data: According to SOLAS Chapter-V Regualtion-19.1, following
member states can access LRIT information of a concerned Ship:
a) Flag State of a Ship, irrespective to her location
b) Port State, if a Ship intends to call a port or ports of that state
c) Coastal State, if a Ship transiting at a distance not more than 1000 Nm of its coast
d) SAR Authorities of any Contracting State
e) Any contracting State for the purpose of Safety, Security or Environmental Protection
(6) What is ROTI? State the SOLAS Requirements of ROTI.
Rate of Turn Indicator (ROTI): The Rate of Turn Indicator (ROTI) is a specialized Gyroscope
which is used to indicate the rate of turn of a vessel in degree per minute while the vessel is turning.
Gyroscope used for ROTI has only 2-degree of freedom and it is done by restricting one of its three
rotational axes. When a ship turns, the ROTI Gyroscope gets horizontal acceleration which causes
precession. This precession is proportional to the Rate of the Turn.
IMO has specified some standards for ROTI as followings:

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Display: The Display of a ROTI must have zero on the top and must go to port when Ship is turning
to port & vice versa.
Scale: The graduation of the Rate of Turn Scale will be linear and must at least be up to 30o on either
side with an interval of 1o. Numerical indication should be provided at every 10 o and graduation
marks for 5o and 10o must be longer than the other marks.
Accuracy: The accuracy of ROTI must be 0.5o and must maintain this accuracy up to 30 knots of
Ship’s speed.
Start-up Time: The ROTI must be fully operation within 4 minutes of switching on.
Testing: Means for testing of ROTI must be provided.
Output to AIS: If the vessel is equipped with ROTI and AIS both, the ROTI must be connected to
AIS to transmit Rate of Turn along with other AIS Data.
SOLAS Requirements for ROTI: According to SOLAS Chapter-V Regulation-19.2.9, all ships of
50,000 gross tonnage or more must be equipped with a Rate of Turn Indicator (ROTI).
(7) Describe the use of ECDIS? What are the differences between Raster Chart
and Vector Chart?
Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS): ECDIS is a computer based chart
display and navigation system which when complies with IMO Requirements can be used as an
alternative to paper navigation charts.
Uses of an ECDIS are described below:
(a) All Chart information necessary for safe and efficient navigation is available at the click of a
Mouse.
(b) Simple, reliable and fast updating of the ENC.
(c) Reduces the navigational workload as compared to use of a paper charts.
(d) It enables the mariners to execute in a convenient and timely manner important tasks like, Route
Planning, Route monitoring, Positioning, Real time position plotting, Route & Waypoints
management etc.
(e) Real time monitoring of vessel's position.
(f) Radar/ARPA can be superimposed for enhanced command action (Anti-collision).
(g) Anti-grounding Tool.
(h) Weather and forecast data can be superimposed.
(i) Ice data can be superimposed.
(j) Easy and electronic Log keeping.
(k) Voyage playback for later investigation or review.
(l) Real time updating of navigation chart
Difference between Raster and Vector Charts: Differences between Raster and Vector Charts are
explained below:
Raster Chart: Marine Raster Charts are geo-referenced, digital images of the Official Hydrographic
Office and select private navigational charts. True color copies of the official paper chart of the
hydrographic services, marine raster charts are the most reliable, allowing you to display on screen
the official paper charts that you were accustomed to using.
Main advantages:
- Similar appearance to marine paper charts.
- Reliability of true color copy of official hydrographic offices paper charts.

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Main drawbacks:
- Raster charts appear “grainy” when over zoomed.
- The depth units cannot be changed.
- There is no possibility to "hide" information on the map.
Vector Chart: Marine Vector Charts utilize a vector database to build the chart display. This data is
stored in layers and records every nautical chart feature such as coastlines, buoys, lights, etc. These
features and their attributes such as position, color, size, shape, and others are stored in a database
allowing them to be selectively displayed and interrogated. In many areas of the globe where there’s
no hydrographic service, vector maps are often the only reference.
Main advantages:
- Good display at any scale.
- Detailed information on specific objects of the map (eg. buoys).
- Ability to configure charts and filter data.
Main drawbacks:
- Very different display from paper charts.
- Vector charts become very inaccurate when over zoomed.
(8) State the principle of Doppler Log? What are the errors of Doppler Log? How
to put a Doppler Log in use?
Doppler Log: Doppler log is an instrument, used in ships, to measure ship’s relative speed with
water (in which it is travelling) by the use of Doppler effects on transmitted/reflected sound waves.
Doppler log is based on the principle of Doppler shift in frequency measurement i.e. apparent change
in frequency received when the distance between source and observer is changing due to the motion
of either source or observer or both. In Doppler log an observer is moving with a source of sound
towards a reflecting plane, then the received frequency. By measuring the received frequency and
knowing the value of transmitted frequency and velocity of sound in seawater, the speed of the vessel
can be determined.

A transducer is fitted on the ship’s keel which transmits a beam of the acoustic wave at an angle
usually 60° to the keel in the forward direction. The beam is bounced off the seabed or layer of the
water and received back at the transducer. The difference in frequency between the transmitted and
received signals is measured and is proportional to the speed of the ship.
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Speed over ground & Speed over water: Generally, Doppler log can receive echoes from seabed
only up to depths of 200 meters or so. However, beyond these depths, a weaker echo is available
from a layer between 10 to 30 meters below the keel. The speed of the vessel can be determined as
earlier but in this case, it will be with respect to this layer and not with respect to ground. This is
called “speed over water” similar to that obtained from other types of logs mentioned earlier. In this
case, the effect of current has to be allowed for to get the speed made good but the reflections from
a layer deep down eliminate the effect of disturbances caused by the vessel itself and the effect of
surface currents caused by wind and wave motion. When the signal of echo sounder is bounced off
the seabed, the speed indicated will be in relation to the fixed seabed and will, therefore, be speed
over the ground.
Athwartship Speed: The unique feature of some of the Doppler log is to provide athwartship speed
over ground, which was never possible by any other logs. To measure the athwartship speed,
additional transducers are employed. These are called dual axis speed logs.
Errors of the Doppler Log: Followings are the errors of Doppler Log:
1. Error in transducer orientation: The transducers should make a perfect angle of 60° with
respect to the keel or else the speed indicated will be inaccurate.
2. Errors in oscillator frequency: The frequency generated by the oscillator must be accurate and
constant, any deviation in the frequency will result in the speed indicated being in error.
3. Error in propagation velocity of the acoustic wave: The velocity of the acoustic wave at the
temperature of 16°c and salinity of 3.4% is 1505m/sec, but generally it is taken as 1500m/sec for
calculation. This velocity changes with temperature, salinity or pressure.
4. Errors due to ship’s motion: during the interval between transmission and reception, the ship
may marginally roll or pitch and thereby the angle of transmission and reception can change and
for a two degree difference between the angle of transmission and reception, the net effect will
be an error of 0.10% of the indicated speed which is marginal and can be neglected.
5. Errors due to the effect of rolling and pitching: The effect of pitching will cause an error in
the forward speed, but it has no effect on the athwartship speed. Similarly, rolling will cause an
error in athwartship, but not in forward speed.
6. Errors due to inaccuracy in the measurement of comparison frequency: The difference in
the frequencies received by the forward and aft transducers must be measured accurately as any
error in this will be directly reflected in the speed of the vessel.
7. Error due to side lobe: When the side lobe reception dominates over the main beam reception,
there will be an error in the speed indicated. This error is more pronounced on a sloppy bottom,
where the side lobe will be reflected at a more favorable angle and will have path length less than
the main beam.

How to put a Doppler Log in use: A Doppler Log should be put in use in following manner:
1. Make sure that the Transducer is clear of paint, packaging materials or any other obstructions
which may block acoustic pulses.
2. Calibration of the Doppler Log must be done right after installation according to Manufacturer’s
Manual or Instructions.
3. Calibration by Shore Expert must be completed prior putting in operation.

(9) Describe the working principle of Auto Pilot with the help of Block Diagram.
Working Principle of Auto Pilot: An Auto Pilot is a mechanical, electrical or hydraulic system
which can maintain a vessel on a set course without the need for human intervention. Using a direct
or indirect connection with a vessel's steering mechanism, the autopilot relieves the crew from the
task of manually steering the ship.

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Autopilot have evolved from simple course holding systems to adaptive computer systems that offer
reduced fuel costs and increased transit times. These new systems learn the characteristics of the
vessel’s handling and minimize rudder movement reducing drag on the vessel. Increased speed and
lower fuel consumption makes autopilot more user friendly.

An output from a gyro or magnetic repeating compass is coupled to a differential amplifier along
with a signal derived from a manual course-setting control. If no difference exists between the two
signals, no output will be produced by the amplifier and no movement of the rudder occurs. When a
difference is detected between the two sources of data, an output error signal, proportional in
magnitude to the size of the difference, is applied to the heading error amplifier. Output of this
amplifier is coupled to the rudder actuator circuit, which causes the rudder to move in the direction
determined by the sign of the output voltage. The error signal between compass and selected course
inputs produces an output voltage from the differential amplifier that is proportional to the off-course
error. This type of control, therefore, is termed ‘proportional’ control. As it has been shown, the use
of proportional control only, causes the vessel to oscillate either side of its intended course due to
inertia’ producing overshooting.
Proportional Control or P-Control: The effect on steering when only proportional control is
applied causes the rudder to move by an amount proportional to the off-course error from the course
to steer and the ship will oscillate on either side of the required course-line.
Derivative Control or D-Control: The rudder is shifted by an amount proportional to the rate of
change of ship’s deviation from the course. The ship will make good a course which is parallel to the
required course and will continue to do so until the autopilot is again caused to operate by external
force acting on the ship.
Integral Control or I-Control: There are certain errors due to design parameters of the vessel which
have to be corrected. Data signals are produced by continuously sensing heading error over a period
of time and applying an appropriate degree of permanent helm is used for this purpose. The
permanent helm acts as mid-ship.

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PID Control: The output of the three controls are combined and the net resultant drives the rudder.
This type of autopilot is also called as PID Auto Pilot. A Proportional-integral-Derivative Controller
(PID controller) is a control loop feedback mechanism (controller) commonly used in industrial
control systems. A PID controller continuously calculates an error value as the difference between a
desired set point and a measured process variable. The controller attempts to minimize the error over
time by adjustment of a control variable, such as the position of a control valve, a damper, or the
power supply.
- ‘P’ accounts for present values of the error. For example, if the error is large and positive, the
control output will also be large and positive.
- ‘I’ accounts for past values of the error. For example, if the current output is not sufficiently
strong, error will accumulate over time, and the controller will respond by applying a stronger
action.
- ‘D’ accounts for possible future values of the error, based on its current rate of change.
With a Proportional, Integral and Derivative steering control system, the oscillation is _minimized
by modifying the error signal produced as the difference between the selected heading and the
compass heading. Figure shows that a three-input summing-amplifier is used, called a dynamics
amplifier, to produce a resultant output signal equal to the sum of one or more of the input signals.
The demanded rudder error signal is inspected by both the differentiator and the integrator. The
differentiator determines the rate of change of heading as the vessel returns to the selected course.
This sensed rate of change, as a voltage, is compared with a fixed electrical time constant and, if
necessary, a counter rudder signal is produced. The magnitude of this signal slows the rate of change
of course and thus damps the off-course oscillation.
Obviously the time constant of the differentiation circuit is critical if oscillations are to be fully
damped. Time constant parameters depend upon the design characteristics of the vessel and are
normally calculated and set when the vessel undergoes initial trials. In addition, a ‘counter rudder’
control is fitted in order that the magnitude of the counter rudder signal may be varied to suit
prevailing conditions

(10) Write short note on followings:

a) e-Navigation b) SSAS
c) BNWAS d) VDR
e-Navigation: e-Navigation is a strategy developed by the International Maritime
Organization (IMO), a UN specialized agency, to l shipping through better organization of data on
ships and on shore, and better data exchange and communication between ships and the ship and
shore. The concept was launched when maritime authorities from seven nations requested the IMO’s
Maritime Safety Committee to add the development of an e-navigation strategy to the work programs
of the IMO's NAV and COMSAR sub-committees. Working groups in three sub-committees (NAV,
COMSAR and STW) and an intersessional correspondence group, led by Norway, has subsequently
developed a Strategy Implementation Plan (SIP). Member states of IMO and a number of
Intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations have contributed to the work, including
the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), Comité International Radio-Maritime (CIRM),
the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities (IALA), the International Chamber of
Shipping (ICS), the Baltic and International Maritime Council (BIMCO) and the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).

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At MSC 85, the Committee, taking into account inputs from the industry and other relevant
organizations (e.g., IALA and IHO), approved the Strategy for the development and implementation
of e-navigation and developed the following definition of e-navigation:
e-navigation is the harmonized collection, integration, exchange, presentation and analysis of marine
information on board and ashore by electronic means to enhance berth to berth navigation and related
services for safety and security at sea and protection of the marine environment.
Ship Security Alert System (SSAS): The Ship Security Alert System (SSAS), under the ISPS Code,
is a system onboard designed to raise the alarm ashore in case of a security threat or security incident,
so that help from security forces can be deployed to the scene.
Technically, the SSAS consists of a GPS receiver linked to a transmitter, a power supply, software
and activation buttons.
When used, the activation button basically notifies the flag State of the ship without alerting ships or
coastal states in the vicinity or giving any indication onboard.
What makes the SSAS unique is the fact that it constitutes a silent ship security alarm system
that does not issue any audio-visual signal on the ship or to nearby vessels, not even to security forces
nearby.
In contrast, upon activated, the alert is sent directly to the ship owner or an SSAS management
company. It is then directed to the ship’s flag state. Some flag administrations even require having
direct notification upon activation.
As soon as the flag state is informed, it is obliged to immediately notify the state(s) and the
international security centers in the vicinity of the ship’s location.
Then, local state authorities or already deployed antipiracy/antiterrorist forces will be able to provide
appropriate military or law-enforcement forces to deal with the menace.
Upon activated, the Ship Security Alert System sends the following details to the administration:
- Name and IMO number of the ship
- The Call Sign of the ship
- The ship’s position through Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
- Date and time of the alert
- Maritime Mobile Service Identity.
Although there are specialized security companies for SSAS monitoring, most shipping organizations
for financial reasons prefer to assign a person within the company for this job, known as the Company
Security Officer (CSO). This means that a CSO lies with a great deal of responsibility on his
shoulders, and the ship crew must feel lucky if he/she is not in the shower or deep asleep.
In addition, it is known that the SSAS will not work in case of failure of main power or fault in the
emergency backup power.
And as in any other task onboard, crew familiarization with the button location and the procedures
to be followed is vital for cases of real emergency and should not be taken for granted.

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