Unit-3

Technical Aspects:
Processing and treatment
of MSW
Chemical Transformation
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MSWM

Primary collection

Secondary
collection
Waste as a fuel
WASTE AS AFUEL
▪ The primary difference between waste incineration and other
combustion systems is that the waste incineration process
treats incoming waste with great variation.
▪ Practical design limits allowable variations of waste
composition.

Range of waste parameters for viability of energy recovery

Parameters Desirable Range*

Moisture content < 45 %

Organic/Volatile matter > 40 %
Fixed Carbon < 15 %
Total Inerts < 35 %
Calorific Value (Net Calorific Value) >1500 k-cal/kg
Source: Manual of Municipal Solid Waste Management, India - 2016
▪ Basic considerations before design-

✓ Best available data on theamount

and composition of each waste type.
✓ Effect of future changes in waste
management.

▪ Waste led to incineration plant consists

Recent waste generation data shows the presence of huge quantity of packaging material
of domestic, commercial, institutional
and industrial waste (great variation).

▪ Street sweepings, and construction

and demolition wastes are not suitable
for incineration as they contain a large
fraction of incombustible matter.

Demolition waste Inert wastes from sweeping

KEY PARAMETERS IN CHARACTERIZING WASTE AS A FUEL

❑ Heating value

✓ It is heat generated per unit weight or volume of combustible material completely burned.

✓ Heating value is roughly proportional to waste that is combustible (excluding moisture and ash), and to the
carbon content of the combustible fraction.

❑ Moisture content

✓ Critical determinant in the economic feasibility of incineration processes since energy (or, heat) must be
supplied for evaporation of water and in raising the temperature of the water vapour.

✓ It is generally found to be high in wastes containing a higher proportion of food wastes.

❑ Ash content

✓ Substance left after ignition at 550oC.

WASTE CHARACTERISTICS
▪ For waste characterization as a fuel, it is required to determine:
✓ Moisture content (W) [15-35% when drying at 105°C]
✓ Ash content (A) or inorganic content [10-25% after ignition
at 550°C]
✓ Combustible solids (C) or organic solids [typically 40-65%]
▪ The above known characteristics can be used in Tanner’s
diagram to examine if the waste can be combusted without
auxiliary fuel.

Combustion process does not require auxiliary

fuel, if data are located within shaded area as-
W < 50 %
A < 60% Tanner’s diagram
C > 25%
How to read a Tanner’s diagram ?? ▪ Consider a point is given in Tanner’s diagram.

▪ How to find out the corresponding values of W, A and C

from the given point ?

❖ For finding W, draw a line starting from given point

parallel to %combustible to intersect the W side of
triangle. W = 40%
❖ Similarly, for finding A, draw a line from same starting
point parallel to %moisture to intersect the A side of
triangle. A = 25%
❖ Lastly, for finding C, draw a line parallel to % ash to
intersect C side of the triangle in Tanner’s diagram.

C = 35%
 How to plot on a Tanner’s diagram ??
Find out where the following values lie on tanner diagram-
W = 15%
A = 35%
C = 50 %

1. Begin with plotting 15 % W on the % moisture side of triangle in

Tanner’s diagram and from that point draw a line parallel to %
combustible side.

2. Next plot 35 % A on the % ash side of triangle and from that point draw
a line parallel to % moisture side to intersect the previous line.

3. Lastly, plot 50% C on the % combustible side and from that point draw a
line parallel to % ash side to intersect the pervious lines.

4. The intersection point of the above three lines will give a point
corresponding to the given values of W, A and C in the Tanner’s diagram
❑ Problem statement:
✓ A study from China and Philippines is given below.
✓ Which country will require auxiliary fuel for combusting their wastes ?

Fuel characteristics of municipal wastes

Guangzhou, China Manila, Philippines

Parameter
Mean value Mean value

Combustible (%) 22.3 37.6

Ash (%) 28.8 15.6

Moisture (% ) 48.9 46.7

Lower calorific value (kJ/kg) 3359 6800

Source: World Bank Technical Guidance Report

SOLUTION: Guangzhou
(China)
Guangzhou, China

W(48.9%) < 50 % Manila

(Philippines)
A (28.8%) < 60%

C (22.3%) ≯ 25%

Manila, Philippines

W (46.7%) < 50 %

A (15.6%) < 60%

C (37.6%) > 25%

Hence, the waste from Manila (Philippines) would not require auxiliaryfuel,
while the waste from Guangzhou (China) would.
HEATING VALUES
❑ Some variables are used for determining whether a waste can sustain the combustion process without
supplementary fuel such as:

▪ Lower heating value (Hlow) – Energy released upon complete combustion of a fuel, carbon to CO2,
hydrogen to H2O, sulfur to SO2 and water is evaporated leaving the process in its evaporated state.

▪ Higher heating value (Hhigh) – Energy released at complete oxidation and water leaves the
combustion process in its liquid state. It expresses the theoretical maximum energy release from the
fuel.

❑ The difference between Hlow and Hhigh is the heat of condensation of the water vapor content in the flue gas
originating from moisture in the waste and moisture generated by the oxidation of hydrogen bound within
the chemical structures of the waste.
❑ Hhigh can be expressedas

Hhigh = Hlow + (W + H × 8.937) × 24.45kJ/kg

W = moisture content (% weight)

H = weight (%) of hydrogen

❑Hlo is calculated from the elemental composition (C,H,O,N,S, Cl) and expressed using an empirical
w
formula suggested by Schwanecke (1976) as -

Hlow (kJ/kg) = 348 C% + 939 H% + 105 S% + 63 N% - 108 O% - 24.5 H2O%

C, H, S, N, O and H2O = % weight of Carbon, Hydrogen, Sulphur, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and water in the
waste.
Cont..

The term ‘calorific value’is often used instead of ‘heating value’.

✓ ‘Net’or ‘inferior’may be used for lower heating value.

✓ ‘Gross’, ‘superior’or ‘upper’may be used for higher heating value.

In India,

✓ Gross calorific value (GCV) represents higher heatingvalue.

✓ Net calorific value (NCV) represents lower heatingvalue.

NUMERICAL: CALCULATION OF HEATING VALUES
❑ Problem statement: Consider 1kg of waste with the following chemical composition given as :
✓ C= 30%
✓ H= 4.3%
✓ S= 0.2%
✓ N= 1%
✓ O= 24%
✓ Cl = 0.5%
✓ H2O = 20%
✓ Ash = 20%
Estimate lower and higher heating values.
SOLUTION
Lower heating value is calculated as:

Hlow (kJ/kg) = 348 C% + 939 H% + 105 S% + 63 N% - 108 O% - 24.5 H2O%

i,e, Hlow (kJ/kg) = 348 × 30 + 939 × 4.3 + 105 × 0.2 + 63 × 1 – 108 × 24 - 24.5 × 20
= 11480 kJ/kg
=11.48 MJ/kg

Higher heating value is calculated as:

Hhigh = Hlow + (W + H × 8.937) × 24.45 kJ/kg
i,e, Hhigh = Hlow + (20 + 4.3 × 8.936) × 24.45

= 11480 + 1428
=12908 kJ/kg
=12.9 MJ/kg
 REFUSE DERIVED FUEL (RDF)
❖ It is defined as fuel derived from combustible waste
Most Preferred At Source Reduction & Reuse
fraction of solid waste like plastic, wood, pulp or organic
waste, other than chlorinated materials, in the form of
Recycling
pellets or fluff produced by drying, shredding, dehydrating
and compacting of solid waste (SWM Rules, 2016 ).
Composting
❖ Composition of RDF has higher concentrations of
combustible materials than those in the parent mixed Waste to
MSW. Energy

❖ Quantity of RDF produced per ton of MSW varies Landfills

Least Preferred
depending on the type of collection, pre-processing, and
composition of waste source. Refuse Derived Fuel in Integrated Solid Waste
Management Hierarchy
❖ Quality of RDF depends on the characteristics of incoming
waste feed. Segregation into combustibles and non- Source: Municipal Solid Waste Management Manual, 2016

combustibles is a pre-requisite.
 Utilization of Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)
Net Calorific Value of Refuse Derived Fuel vs Coal

Item Net Calorific Value (kcal)

Indian coal 2500-5000
Mixed plastic 6000
Segregated municipal solid waste (plastic, cloth, jute, paper, multilayered
2000-2500
polythene, multilayered packaging, thermocol, melamine, coconut shells)
Source: Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management, 2016

▪ Industries requiring high calorific fuel, such as iron and steel (9000 kcal), using waste as a fuel becomes impractical.
▪ However, for industries, such as cement, require low calorific value fuel (3000 kcal).
▪ Fuel having a calorific value of around 3000 kcal can generate enough thermal energy required in the processes in
these plants reducing the use of non-renewable fossil fuels like coal. So, using wastes as fuel in such industries, could
be economically beneficial.
Ghazipur landfill, Delhi, India- Case study (1)
▪ Of the 2000 TPD of waste received at the
landfill, the facility initially started to process
1300 TPD to generate 433 TPD of RDF which
was utilized for generation of 12 MW power.

▪ The public private partnership (PPP) operator

is Infrastructure Leasing and Financial
Services (IL&FS).

▪ It provides a scientific solution to address

some of the environmental, health and safety Ghazipur landfill, Delhi
hazards posed by the 29-hectare dumping
ground containing 12 million tons of
accumulated garbage.
▪ The plant is India’s first WtE plant
compliant with Euro norms for
emission along with the highest standards
of pollution control measures.

▪ The plant has a seven-stage pre-

processing section converting waste to
RDF of high calorific value.

▪ To implement the highest levels of

transparency, a Continuous Emission
Monitoring System (CEMS) enables
online viewing of key emission
parameters on real time basis.
▪ The project aims for generation of
employment, alternative livelihoods and
functional literacy creating societal
benefits.

▪ The project also helps in saving 260

acres of scarce urban land valued at
over Rs 2000 crores.

Source: https://www.ilfsindia.com/our-
work/environment/waste-to-energy-
plant-ghazipur/
Hyderabad, India- Case study (2)
▪ It is an 11-MW power plant utilizing
1100 TPD of MSW.

▪ It is being installed in the Nalgonda

district of Telangana by RDF Power
Projects Ltd.

▪ The plant will produces refuse

derived fuel (RDF) for in-house
incineration and power generation.

Source: 1. Manual of Municipal Solid Waste Management, India – 2016

2. https://nredcap.in/ListofProjectDevelopers.aspx
Incineration/combustion
WHAT IS INCINERATION ???
▪ Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves combustion of waste at very high temperatures in the
presence of oxygen and results in the production of ash, flue gas, and heat.

▪ Incineration is a feasible technology for combustion of unprocessed or minimum processed refuse and for the
segregated fraction of high calorific value waste.

▪ The potential for energy generation depends on the composition, density, moisture content, and presence of inert
in the waste (about 65% – 80% of the energy content of the organic matter can be recovered as heat energy, which
can be utilized either for direct thermal applications or for producing power via steam turbine generators) .

▪ Incineration of MSW helps to reduce landfill volumes.

▪ Incineration is feasible when there are no better options of processing of waste, shortage of land for landfilling.
(e.g., Japan, having land shortage).

▪ On the downside, incineration is expensive and ash remaining after the process completion can be harmful for
the environment if not treated properly.
 INCINERATION PROCESS
▪ In a furnace, the combustible components
react with oxygen of the combustion air,
releasing a significant amount of hot
combustion gas.

▪ The moisture content of the waste is

evaporated in the initial stage of the
incineration process and incombustible
parts of the waste form solid residues
(bottom ash, fly ash).
▪ Through incineration, the solid constituents
of the waste undergo a range of processes
as a result of exposure to heat and contact A cross-section of a typical waste incineration plant with a
moving grate furnace and horizontal steam boiler generating
with the combustion air. energy in the form of both power and heat
 Cont..
▪ The combustion gases pass from the furnace to the afterburning chamber.

▪ As per European Union (EU), a minimum temperature of 850°C for municipal waste and 1100 °C for certain
types of hazardous waste have been set for the complete burnout of combustion gases in the afterburning chamber.

▪ As per EU, the above temperature should be maintained for a minimum time of 2s as measured from the last
injection of combustion air.

▪ EU has strict legislation as to no feeding into the incinerator before attainment of required temperature and if at
all there is any interruption such as drop in the temperature, then feeding should be stopped right away.

▪ In India, as per CPHEEO manual, 2016, minimum gas phase combustion temperature of 850°C for MSW and a
minimum residence time of the flue gases, above this temperature, of 2s after the last incineration air supply
should be followed.
 WASTE INCINERATION: BRIEF HISTORY
▪ First incinerators developed in the UK in 19th
century.
▪ Waste incinerator plants treat waste of great variation in
composition.
▪ Moving grate technology was developed in 1920s and
1930s and developed as a combination of a grate with
rotary kiln in few years thereafter.
▪ Electrostatic precipitators removed most of the dust in
1970s and 1980s.

▪ In 1989, the European Union (EU) directives enforced

legislations on waste incineration which led to the
Waste incinerator in 19th century
present rule of 2s residence time of the flue gases at a
minimum of 850°C.
COMBUSTION TECHNOLOGY
▪ Combustion system is commonly referred to as the heart of an
incineration plant.
▪ The combustion system can be classified as:
✓ Mass burning of non-homogeneous waste
✓ Burning of homogeneous waste of limited particle size

Moving grate incineration plant A fluidized bed incineration plant, Japan

(for non-homogeneous waste ) (for homogeneous waste )
 PRETREATMENT
▪ Depending on the quality of waste and the incineration system, some pretreatment techniques may be necessary
which involve sorting and homogenization of the waste before incineration.

▪ For mass burning incinerators, pretreatments are:

✓ Removal or shredding of bulky or heavy items

✓ Mixing of low and high heating value waste

▪ For homogeneous waste, pretreatments are:

✓ Shredding for homogenization of waste

✓ Screening for narrowing the particle range to the fluidized bed

✓ Removal of metallic iron with magnets.

Types of incinerators
MOVING GRATE INCINERATOR

▪ The conventional mass burn incinerator based on a moving grate consists of a layered burning of the waste on
the grate that transports the waste through the furnace.
▪ An overhead crane feeds the waste into the hopper, where it is transported via the chute to the grate in the furnace.
▪ On the grate the waste is dried and then burned at high temperature while air is supplied.
Cont..

▪ The ash including noncombustible waste fractions, leaves the grate via the ash chute as slag/bottom ash.
▪ The bottom ash or slag drops from the end of the grate into the water trap of the slag pusher.
▪ The slag is cooled by the contact with water, and a large piston pushes the slag to the conveying system.
Cont..

▪ Fine particles and materials with a low melting point may drop through the narrow gaps between the
elements of the grate which constitute a minor part of the solid residue, 1-5% of the ash.

▪ The flue gas from the furnace consists of minor parts of ash and fly ash.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MOVING GRATE INCINERATOR

ADVANTAGES

➢ Can accommodate large variations in waste composition and in heating values.

➢ Can be built in very large units (upto 50 t/h).

DISADVANTAGES

➢ Plant installation cost is very high.

➢ Maintenance cost is also relatively high.

ROTARY KILN INCINERATOR

▪ The mass burn incinerator based on a rotary kiln consists of a layered burning of the waste in a rotating cylinder.
▪ The material is transported through the furnace by the rotations of the inclined cylinder.
▪ The rotary kiln is usually refractory lined but can also be equipped with water walls.
▪ The diameter of the cylinder may be 1-5 m and the length 8-20 m.
 Cont..
▪ The capacity should be within the range of 2.4 t/day to
480 t/day [0.1 t/h to 20 t/h].
▪ The kiln rotates with a speed of typically 3-5
rotation/h.

▪ The excess air ratio is well above that of the moving

grate incinerator and the fluidized bed.

Rotary kiln incinerators in

Henan province, China
 Cont..
▪ The energy efficiency is does not exceed 80%.
▪ As the retention time of the flue gases usually is
too short for complete reaction to take place in the
rotary kiln itself, the cylinder is followed by an
after burning chamber, which may be
incorporated in the first part of the boiler.

▪ The rotary kiln may also be used in a

combination with a moving grate where the
moving grate forms the ignition part and the
rotary kiln forms the burning out section.

A rotary kiln incinerator in India

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES
➢ Mostly similar to moving grate incinerator.
➢ Energy efficiency is lower than moving grate incinerator.

DISADVANTAGES
➢ Plant installation and maintenance cost is also relatively higher than that of moving grate incinerator.
➢ Rotary kiln may be rarely used for new MSW incineration plants with high heating value wastes.
FLUIDIZED BED INCINERATOR

▪ This incinerators works on the principle where solid particles mixed with the fuel are fluidized by air.
▪ By fluidization, the fuel and solids are suspended in an upward air stream, thereby behaving like a fluid.
▪ The reactor usually consists of a vertical refractory lined steel vessel containing a bed of granular material
such as silica sand, limestone, or a ceramic material.
 Cont..
▪ The fluidization of the bed is ensured by air injection through a
large number of nozzles in the bottom of the incinerator causing a
vigorous agitation of the bed material, in which the incineration of
waste takes place in close contact with the bed material and
combustion air allowing relatively low excess air level and high
thermal efficiency (upto 90%).

Fuidized bed incinerator (Hankin), USA Fluidized bed incineration plant in Japan
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES

➢ Reduction of dangerous substances in the fluidized bed reactor

➢ Flexibility regarding low quality fuels, costs, etc.

➢ NOx generation may be low due to relatively low and well controlled combustion temperatures

➢ The burnout of flue gas and particles is usually good due to long residence time of the flue gas in the free board
above the fluid bed.

➢ Capital and maintenance costs are relatively low.

DISADVANTAGES

➢ Demanding pretreatments are required for smooth functioning

➢ Primarily useful for homogeneous waste types which included liquid wastes too.
MOVING GRATES INCINERATION PLANT: DESIGN AND LAYOUT
The grate has two principal purposes:

➢ Transportation, mixing and leveling of

the ‘fuel’/waste.

➢ Supply and distribution of primary

combustion air to the layer of waste.

Various grate designs are available,

characterized by their respective principles
of fuel transportation as shown in the
upcoming figure.

Grate designs
GRATES: IMPORTANT PARAMETERS
Grate length:

➢ Maximum of 65–70% of the grate length is applied as a drying and combustion zone when operating in the design
point at nominal load.

➢ Remaining length should be available to ensure final combustion and complete burnout of the slag and the ash.

Grate air supply:

➢ The high variations in load and heating values require a very flexible primary air supply system in respect to both the
amounts supplied and the supply spots.

➢ The primary combustion air should be supplied to the waste layer through small slots in the front side of the grate bars
or through 1–2mm slots between the grate bars.

➢ Air supply area should as a maximum be 1.5–2.0% of the total grate area to ensure satisfactory air distribution.

➢ The rate of air supply through the slots: 10–15 m/s.

Furnace
➢ Designed is such a way that a long retention and reaction time of the flue gases at high temperatures is ensured.

➢ The furnace temperature is usually in the interval 1000–1200 ◦C.

➢ Flue gas velocity in furnace is maintained at a level lower than 3.5–4.0 m/s.

➢ The furnace section depend on the flue gas flow direction (co-flow/counter-flow/mid-flow)

Flue gas flow in the furnace

Flue gas recirculation:

❑ After the dust filter, part of the flue gas (20–30%) may be extracted and returned to the furnace.

❑ Flue gas recirculation has operational as well as economic and environmental advantages such as-

➢ Recirculation of flue gas may lead to a higher thermal efficiency through a reduction of the excess air and hence
the oxygen content. An increase of the efficiency of 1–3% may be achieved.

➢ Reduction of NOx formation (20–40% with 20–30% of the flue gas recirculation).

➢ Reduction of the amount of flue gas entering the flue gas cleaning system.
Energy recovery system

➢ Energy released from the incineration, leaves the furnace with the flue gas at a temperature of approximately 1000–
1200 ◦C.

➢ The hot flue gases are cooled using boilers before passed on to flue gas cleaning system

➢ In the boilers, the energy released from incineration is recovered as hot water or steam, depending on the type of
boilers.

➢ The steam thus generated could be used to generate power

HEAT STEAM POWER

Flue Gas Characteristics and Treatment
 COMBUSTION PRODUCTS
❑ In the high temperature and oxygen surplus present in Mineral
the combustion chamber, all input species are materials
converted into the most chemically stable products
under oxidizing conditions.

❑ The products either enter gas phase or remain as solid Carbon,

residues in fuel bed. hydrogen, Combustion
sulfur and Halogens
products
nitrogen
Mineral materials as well as lithophilic heavy metals
include-
✓ Iron, manganese, titanium, nickel and their
compounds leave the combustion chamber as Volatile
bottom ash at the back end of the grate. heavy
metals
✓ Traces of products of incomplete combustion
(PIC) are also found in the bottom ash.
Carbon, hydrogen, sulfur and nitrogen

✓ Stable oxidation product of all carbon Mineral

materials
compounds is CO2 (gas phase).

✓ Hydrogen is always oxidized to H2O (gas

phase).
Carbon,
✓ Sulfur forms both the gaseous SO2 and solid hydrogen, Combustion Halogens
sulfur and products
sulfates (which remain in the bottom ash). nitrogen

✓ Nitrogen is partly oxidized to NO, with small

amounts of other oxides such as NO2 and N2O.

✓ Depending on the operation mode, more or less Volatile

heavy
particulate matter (PM) leaves the furnace as metals
dust (fly ash) in the flue gas.
❑ The incomplete combustion of carbon leads to the formation of CO,
TOC, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and soot particles. Mineral
materials
❑ These soot particles are known to be a source of toxic low-volatility
halogenated organic micropollutants, especially PCDD/F.

Halogens are transformed into the respective halides.

Carbon,
hydrogen, Combustion
✓ Chlorine: the major product is gaseous HCl. sulfur and Halogens
products
nitrogen
• 10–15% of the chloride stays as metal
chloride in the solid residues.

✓ Bromine: almost equal amount of HBr and metal

Volatile
bromide are formed. heavy
metals
✓ Fluorine: approximately 70–80% is found as
fluorides in the solids.
Volatile heavy metals
✓ Mainly evaporated as chlorides in the furnace.
Mineral
materials
✓ More than 80% of the content of mercury and
cadmium in the waste leaves the combustion
chamber in the flue gas.

✓ 30–50% of the zinc, arsenic, antimony and lead Carbon,

hydrogen, Combustion
is evaporated in the combustion chamber and sulfur and Halogens
products
nitrogen
transferred to the raw gas.

✓ At the typical boiler outlet temperature of 180 –

200ºC, all volatile heavy metal species, except
Volatile
mercury and its compounds, are bound to
heavy
particulate matter and are removed along with the metals

dust in boiler and filter ashes.

FLUE GAS
▪ About 80% of the waste is transferred into the flue gas during the waste incineration process.

▪ Most problematic components in the flue gas are dust/particles, acidic gases (HCl, HF, SO2), NOx, heavy
metals and organic pollutants (e.g., dioxins, furans, PCDD/F)

▪ Flue gas must be extensively cleaned before being released to the atmosphere through the stack of the plant.

Conc Mass flow EU standard American standard Indian standard

Pollutants
(mg/m3) (kg/t) (mg/m3) (mg/m3) (mg/m3)
Dust 1000-5000 20 10 54 50
HCl 500-2000 6.5 10 72 50
SO2 150-400 2 50 41 200
NO2 250-450 3 200 569 400
CO <10-30 0.1 50 140 100
Hg & its compounds 0.1-0.5 0.002 0.05 0.36 0.05
PCDD/F 0.5-5 ng/m3 < 5 μg/t 0.01 ng/m3 0.31 ng/m3 0.1 ng/m3
 FLUE GAS CLEANING SYSTEM

▪ Flue gas cleaning system is required

to reduce the concentration of
specific pollutants to concentrations
well below the respective air
emission limit.

▪ Four specific types of pollutants

cleaned are-

✓ Dust
✓ Acid Gas
✓ PCDD/F
✓ NOx
 INDUCED DRAUGHT (ID) FAN

▪ Key component in the flue gas treatment plant.

▪ Ensures the transport of flue gases from the furnace through all the
process steps of the flue gas treatment plant to the stack.

▪ Located in the back end of the process train, the ID fan also ensures
that no polluted flue gas escapes from the process equipment by
providing a reduced pressure therein.

▪ Flue gas transport is quite demanding in terms of power

consumption, and the ID fan is the largest single power consumer in
the entire waste incineration plant. Induced draught (ID) fan
DUST REMOVAL
➢ Cyclone

✓ A cyclone uses inertial impaction for fly ash

separation.

✓ The gas enters a cylindrical chamber tangentially at

high velocity, thus forced into a cylindrical path.

✓ The centrifugal force acting on the particles causes

them to collide with the walls, where they impinge
and settle down into the discharge hopper.

✓ The clear gas is extracted through a central tube.

✓ Removal efficiency: 50 – 90%

✓ Operating temperature: upto 850ºC

Schematic diagram of a cyclone
Industrial cyclone dust removal in India
➢ Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP)
✓ An electrical field is established between grounded
metal plates and central wires which are negatively
charged to 30–100 kV by rectified AC power.

✓ The flue gases pass the aisles between the plates at

low velocity (0.5–1.5 m/s).

✓ The fly ash particles are ionized by corona discharge

and start to move (migrate) along the lines of the
electric field until they impinge upon the plates.

✓ At certain times the deposited particles are removed

from the plates by rapping (mechanical vibration of
the plates) and collected in the discharge hopper.
Electrostatic precipitator
✓ Removal efficiency: 95 to >99.5%

✓ Operating temperature: upto 400ºC

Some inside pictures of electrostatic
precipitators
➢ Fabric Filters
✓ The raw gas passes through fabric bags, which are supported by metal cages.
✓ The gas flow is commonly from the outside to the inside.
✓ The dust stays on the outside of the bags and is periodically removed by an air pulse opposite to the filtration direction.
✓ Removal efficiency: 99 to >99.5%
✓ Operating temperature: upto 250ºC

Fabric filter
A fabric filter plant in
Australia
➢ Venturi Scrubbers
✓ The flue gas is accelerated to high velocity by passing
a funnel with a reduced cross-sectional area (the
venturi), where also water is injected and atomized.

✓ The water aerosols, caught by the flue gas, pick up a

large fraction of the ash particles.

✓ The water droplets are subsequently removed in the

cyclonic separator.

✓ If HCl is present, it dissolves in water aerosols and

reduces its pH creating corrosive conditions and needs
treatment prior to discharge or reuse.

✓ Removal efficiency: 90 - 99%

Schematic diagram of a venturi scrubber
A venturi scrubber in
Woodland, Texas, USA
 ACI
❑ Acid gases can be removed by a number of technologies that can be categorized

D
as wet or dry system.

➢ Wet system
GAS
✓ Wet scrubbing is normally applied after the fly ash has been removed,
typically in an ESP.

✓ Principle- absorption of gaseous components into a liquid.

✓ Their efficiency depends on the available surface area of the liquid, which
controls the mass transfer from the gas into the liquid phase.

✓ It has a two-stage installation with an initial acidic scrubber to remove HCl,

HF and Hg, followed by a slightly acidic or neutral ‘alkaline’ scrubber to
remove SO2.

✓ Wet scrubbers are often operated with discharge of liquid effluents (100–300
L/t waste) and require neutralization to neutral pH and an efficient removal
of any heavy metal or other toxic contaminants. An acid gas scrubber system in Pune, India
A packed bed wet scrubber in the US
➢ Dry system

✓ Ca(OH)2 and NaHCO3 are injected into the flue gas for neutralization of the acidic gas components.

✓ In the dry process the agent is injected as a dry powder, maybe together with water, while in the semidry
system the agent is injected as a slurry that dries in the flue gas.

DIOXINS AND FURANS (PCDD/F)

✓ Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofuranes (PCDD/Fs) are already present in MSW, but they are
almost totally destroyed in the combustion chamber.

✓ In the boiler, at temperatures down to 200ºC, a new formation takes place.

✓ Gaseous PCDD/F can be adsorbed on activated carbon in a bed filter or in a carbon injection system in
combination with a bag house filter.

✓ Such systems are often found as polishing stages at the rear end of the standard flue gas cleaning system and
are called ‘police filters’.
 NITROGEN
✓ NOx is the common term for nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen
Nox Removal
OXIDES
dioxide (NO2).

✓ In waste incineration, typically more than 95% of the total NOx in the
(NO )flue gas
x is present as NO.
Selective non-
catalytic reduction Selective catalytic
(SNCR) reduction (SCR)
✓ If the combustion temperature drops below 850ºC, an increasing
fraction of the NOx is present as N2O.

✓ N2O has an extremely high greenhouse gas potential of 310

compared to 1 for CO2. Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
• Reduction by NH3 is achieved at much
Selective Noncatalytic Reduction (SNCR)
lower temperatures at the surface of a
• SNCR uses the injection of ammonia (NH3) or NH2- containing compounds suitable catalyst.
(NH2CONH2) into the secondary combustion chamber of the furnace for the
• The most common catalysts are based on
reduction of NOx to N2.
4NO + 2CO(NH2)2 + O2 ⇒ 4N2 + 2CO2 + 4H2O V2O5 stabilized in TiO2 and zeolite
• Minor quantities of N2O are also formed. materials.
4NO + 4NH3 + O2 ⇒ 4N2 + 6H2O
 STACK
❑ A stack (also known as flue-gas stack, smoke stack, chimney
stack) is a type of chimney, a vertical pipe, channel or similar
structure through which combustion product gases (flue gases)
are exhausted to the atmosphere.

As per Municipal Solid Waste Management Manual, 2016 (India)-

Minimum stack height should be 30 meters above the ground and

should be attached with necessary monitoring facilities as per
requirement of monitoring of ‘general parameters’ as notified under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and in accordance with the CPCB
Guidelines of Emission Regulation Part-III.
Solid Residue Generation,
Characterization And Treatment
TYPES OF RESIDUES Boiler ash

▪ Bottom Ash (Slag) Flue gas

+
▪ Grate siftings Fly ash
Feed
▪ Boiler Ash

▪ Economizer ash

▪ Fly ash Grate

siftings
▪ Acid gas cleaning residues

Bottom ash
Bottom Ash (Slag)
✓ Formed and transported through the combustion chamber on the
moving grate and sometimes through a rotary kiln to the quencher.

✓ When the bottom ash leaves the grate or the rotary kiln, it must be
cooled.

✓ Most commonly, the bottom ash drops from the grate or the kiln
directly into a quenching tank with water.

Boiler Ash
✓ Consists of materials that is removed from the flue gas at the cooler
surface of the boiler and other heat transfer equipment.

✓ The material that condenses on the surfaces acts as an insulator,

reducing heat transfer rates and must be removed at regular intervals
to maintain process efficiency.
Grate Siftings

✓ Pass through the opening in the

grate, either due to size or because
it melts, and is trapped in the under
fire air plenums located below the
grate is referred to as grate Combustion grates through
which the siftings pass
siftings.

Economizer Ash

✓ Finer particles collected from the flue

gas in the economizers (or economizer
hoppers) installed in some boiler
systems to optimize the recovery of
heat from the flue gas before the gas is Economizer hoppers
collecting ash
subjected to a more thorough treatment.
FlyAsh
✓ Relatively fine ash particles, entrained in
the flue gas from the boiler and recovered
in electrostatic precipitators or fabric
filters.

Acid Gas Cleaning Residues

✓ Solid residues and/or wastewater generated during
the treatment to remove acid gases from the flue gas.
 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS/UNIT OPERATIONS FOR TREATMENT OFALL TYPES OF MSW
INCINERATION RESIDUES
Treatment principle
Separation
Stabilization/solidification
Thermal treatment
Examples of process types and unit operations
Washing and extraction, possibly with pH adjustment
Chemical precipitation
Crystallization/evaporation
Ion exchange
Density and particle size separation (sedimentation, centrifugation, filtration)
Distillation
Electrolysis
Magnetic separation
Eddy current separation
Addition of hydraulic binders
Addition of pore-filling materials (e.g. bitumen)
Chemical stabilization
Thermal destruction of trace organics
Sintering (mineral respeciation)
Fusion (melting without additives)
Vitrification (melting with additives)
SOME ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF BOTTOM ASH
❑ Road construction

✓ Bottom ash substitutes sand or fine aggregates in road construction either as partial or full replacement due to
its similar properties to natural sand.

✓ Bottom ash can be used as sub-base, road-base materials and as bituminous mixes for binder layer.

✓ Bottom ash provides adequate bearing capacity for lower strength application such as sub-base materials and
embankment fills.

❑ Aggregate Replacement in concrete

✓ Bottom ash can be used as either fine or coarse aggregate replacement.

✓ The replacement will cause some changes on the properties of concrete such as the workability, compressive
strength and durability.
Source: M H Abdullah et al 2019 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci.
Eng. 527 012006
 SOME UTILIZATIONS OF FLY ASH
SOME USES OF FLYASH
❑ Soil stabilization
▪ Building material
✓ It is the physical and chemical alteration of soils to
▪ Clay bricks
enhance physical properties.
▪ Cellular concrete
✓ Usage of fly ash for soil stabilization increases the shear
▪ Hollow bricks strength, controls the shrink –swell properties of soil
and improve load bearing capacity.
▪ Emulsion paints

▪ Partial replacement of cement or ❑ Waste treatment

manufacturing of cement ✓ Fly ash can be used in combination with other alkaline
materials to transform sewage sludge into organic
fertilizer or biofuel due to its alkalinity and water
absorption capacity.
Pyrolysis and Gasification
 PYROLYSIS
▪ Pyrolysis is thermal degradation (300-800°C) of organic
material in the absence of oxidizing agents such as oxygen,
steam and CO2

▪ Pyrolysis, unlike incineration, is an endothermic reaction

and heat must be applied to waste to distil volatile
components.
▪ Composition and energy contents of the pyrolysis products
are highly dependent of the waste input and may vary
significantly:
✓ Gas (H2, CH4, CO and CO2): 20–50% by weight of the
input.
✓ Liquid (tar, oil, water, organic acids, phenols, PAHs and
alcohols): 30–50% by weight.
A biomass pyrolyser in Mumbai, India
✓ Solid (char like material): 20–50% by weight.
 GASIFICATION
▪ Gasification is thermal and chemical conversion
(800-1500°C) of carbon based material into a
mainly gaseous output by partial oxidation with a
gasification agent typically air, steam or oxygen.

▪ Products of gasification are in general:

✓ Gas (similar to pyrolysis gas but higher CO2):

30–60% by weight of the input.

✓ Liquid (tar and oil): 10–20% by weight of the

input.

✓ Solid (ashes): 30–50% by weight of the input.

A small scale gasifier producing biochar
Source: Colantoni, Andrea & Longo, Leonardo & Evic, Nikola & Gallucci, Francesco & Delfanti,
Lavinia. (2015). Use of Hazelnut‟s Pruning to Produce Biochar by Gasifier Small Scale
Plant.. International Journal of Renewable Energy Research. 5. 6.
Gasification of MSW is accomplished in two chambers
▪ Primary chamber
✓ Operated below the stoichiometric air requirement.
✓ Waste is semi-pyrolyzed, releasing moisture and volatile
components.

✓ Heat is provided by the controlled combustion of fixed carbon

within the waste.
▪ Secondary chamber
✓ Operated under excess air conditions.
✓ Syngas that is driven off contains a high calorific value and can
act as a feedstock.
✓ Combustion air is then added to the syngas, making it highly
combustible and prone to self-ignition.
✓ Equipped with burner to maintain operating temperature at all
times.
TYPES OF REACTORS

i. Counter-current

ii. Co-current

iii. Fluidized bed

iv. Rotary kiln reactors

Schematic overview of major waste pyrolysis and gasification reactor types

COUNTER-CURRENT GASIFICATION

▪ Fixed bed reactors.

▪ Gasification agent flows in a counter-current manner.

▪ Cylinder shaped reactors mounted vertically and waste is fed from top of
the reactor and the solid outputs collected from the bottom.

▪ The gasification agent is supplied from the bottom and the off-gases are
collected at the top, the gases thereby flowing in an updraft manner.

▪ Advantages: Simple construction and a high thermal efficiency (since

upwards flow of gases through the reactor also heats the waste).
▪ Disadvantages: High tar production, potential carryover of dust with
the gas, slagging, and difficulties with controlling temperature zones
within the reactor.
CO-CURRENT GASIFICATION

▪ Similar to counter-current gasifiers.

▪ The gasification agent is introduced in the upper part of the bed.

▪ The gasification agent and the waste flow co-currently towards the
bottom of the gasifier.

▪ Advantages

✓ Increased breakdown of tars as the gasification agent passes through the

hot char in the high-temperature oxidation zone before leaving the gasifier.

✓ Low requirement for gas cleaning.

▪ Disadvantage
✓ Prone to clogging due to reactor geometry which makes them difficult to
scale-up.
 FLUIDIZED BED GASIFICATION

▪ The solids are in motion but retained within the reactor.

▪ A heat-conducting bed material is used to transfer heat to the waste.

▪ Advantages
✓ Better mixing and heat transfer resulting in more uniform bed
conditions and improved overall conversion efficiencies.

✓ It can be scaled up.

▪ Disadvantage

✓ Scale up studies should be conducted.

 ROTARY KILN GASIFICATION

▪ Slowly rotating and slightly inclined cylinders are used.

▪ The waste slowly moves down the cylinder.

▪ The gasification agent is introduced at the bottom end of the

cylinder.

▪ Waste retention time is longer than in the case of fluidized bed

gasifiers, but shorter than in the counter-current or co-current
gasifiers.
INTEGRATED PYROLYSIS AND GASIFICATION

Two-stage thermoselect process of pyrolysis and gasification

BENEFITS OF PYROLYSIS AND GASIFICATION WITH RESPECT TO INCINERATION
▪ The possibility and flexibility to recover chemical energy in the waste as hydrogen and/or other chemical feedstocks
rather than converting this energy into hot flue gases.

▪ Potentially better overall energy efficiency.

▪ Less trouble with corrosion.

▪ Less need for flue gas cleaning: smaller volumes of flue gas with a better quality.

▪ Potentially better options for CO2 capture.

▪ Potentially lower emissions of dioxins.

▪ Improved qualities of solid residues, particular for high-temperature processes.

▪ Gasification units operating with a low fuel load, potentially facilitating small plants producing less than 1 MW.

▪ Potentially lower costs.

MAIN DRAWBACKS OF THE CURRENT TECHNOLOGY FOR PYROLYSIS AND GASIFICATION
▪ Relatively homogeneous fuels are needed.
▪ Slagging, tar production and contaminants in the produced gas are common.
▪ Existing technologies only demonstrated in small scale and/or only applicable to specific fuel types.
▪ Overall energy conversion efficiencies of existing installations have been unable to compete with modern waste
incinerators.

PROCESS PARAMETERS
▪ A long range of parameters may influence the pyrolysis and gasification processes-
✓ Reactor design
✓ Waste composition
✓ Waste pretreatment
✓ Process temperatures
✓ Heating
✓ Residence times
✓ Pressure
TECHNOLOGY
▪ Long range of pyrolysis and gasification technologies exists.

▪ From a waste point of view two main aspects differentiate the technologies:

✓ Energy recovery: focus on generating a syngas suitable for utilization in a gas motor, gas turbine to produce
electricity or combustion in a boiler to generate heat.

✓ Material recovery: focus on producing a stable solid residue for use in construction works or using the syngas
as chemical feedstock.

▪ Material recovery often occurs on the expense of energy recovery.

CATEGORIES OF REACTOR
▪ One-stage process

✓ Either pyrolysis or gasification.

✓ Typically used on more homogeneous feedstocks

▪ Two- stage process

✓ Used for complicated feedstocks such as mixed municipal solid waste.

✓ The pyrolysis processes typically take place in the first reactor while the gasification processes occur in the
second reactor after introduction of a gasification agent.

✓ The pyrolysis/gasification process may also be combined with combustion, either in a separate combustion
chamber or integrated in the last part of a second stage.
CHALLENGES OF UTILIZING PYROLYSIS AND GASIFICATION IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT

▪ High calorific value waste, which may otherwise be processed in more

sustainable processes, is required as feedstock.

▪ Organics can be converted into compost in a much more cost-effective and

environmentally safe against using them for these processes.

▪ Requires specific feedstock quality, which has a direct impact on the efficiency
and commercial viability of the product.

▪ Pre-treatment of waste is a must.

▪ Specific size and consistency of solid waste should be achieved before MSW can
be used as feed.