Welcome Back

I, Prof. J. A. O. Oyekunle [Room 117, Dept. of Chemistry, OAU, Ile-Ife, Nigeria], welcome you back from a year-long out of classroom learning.
Remember we started STOICHIOMETRY as a topic, but we had barely started before the lock down comenced on 27 th March, 2020. Meanwhile,
I like to remind you that so far , we were able to (1) define stoichiometry, (2) explain what is meant by “chemical equations”, (3) interpret
equations and balance their various forms, and (4) rigorously tackled the Mole Concept. Effectively this week, we are starting with Limiting
Reagents. However, what had been previously taught are equally available in the next slides.
Topic (Stoichiometry) Description
Stoichiometry is one of the broad topics in CHM 101 (Introductory Chemistry I). It is meant to develop in students the basic ability to efficiently
carry out “Chemical Arithmetic” upon which sound and logical conclusions of chemical reactions involving mass, volumes, moles and related
interpretations are based.
Expected Learning Outcomes
Students should develop a sense of competent ability to solve basic stoichiometric calculations in Chemistry and stop nursing any form of fear that
has hitherto crippled their ingenuity at handling basic calculations in Chemistry.
Specific Objectives for Stoichiometry
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
(1) define STOICHIOMETRY as a chemical concept;
(2) interpret chemical equations at the molecular, molar and mass levels;
(3) balance chemical equations correctly;
(4) apply the mole concept to solve problems;
(5) determine which reagent is the limiting one in a chemical reaction;
(6) evaluate the percentage yield of the products of a chemical reaction;
(7) state the various types of volumetric analysis and handle calculations involving them;
(8) apply dilution principle in preparation of standard solutions;
(9) carry out calculations involving Empirical and Molecular Formulae; and
(10) balance redox equations and solve problems on the basis of the balanced redox equations
Text Books: ….
 STOICHIOMETRY (Pronounced: “stoy-key-om'e-tree”)
- Prof. J. A. O. Oyekunle [Room 117, Dept. of Chemistry, OAU, Ile-Ife, Nigeria]

Definition: Stoichiometry is the quantitative determination of the reactants and products in a chemical reaction based on a
balanced chemical equation.

Chemical Equations.
A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in terms of chemical formulae. It is a shorthand
method of representing a chemical reaction e. g. A + B → C + D
That is, one mole of A reacts with one mole of B to give (or produce) one mole of C and one mole of D. For example, in the
Haber process for producing ammonia (NH3), nitrogen reacts with hydrogen, at high temperature and pressure as follows:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

Interpretations of Chemical Equations: A chemical equation may be interpreted in terms of number of the molecules or
ions or formula units or moles, depending on the needs. For example, the equation above can variously be interpreted as
follows:
(1) Molecular interpretation: 1 molecule of N2 reacts with 3 molecules of H2 to give 2 molecules of NH3.
(2) Molar interpretation: 1 mole of N2 reacts with 3 moles of H2 to give 2 moles of NH3.
(3) Mass Interpretation: 28 g of N2 reacts with 6 g H2 to give 34 g NH3.

NOTE: In many cases, it is useful to indicate the states or phases of the substances in an equation e. g. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) →
2NaCl(s).

Exercise
Ethylene (C2H4) burns in oxygen to give CO2 and H2O. Write the balanced equation for the reaction, giving molecular, molar
and mass interpretations below the equation.
 Balancing Chemical Equations
A balanced chemical equation is one in which the number of atoms of each element are equal on both sides of the arrow. That
is, a balanced chemical equation obeys the Law of Conservation of Mass (Matter).
Balancing a chemical equation can be done by: (a) Inspection Method and (b) Algebraic (Simultaneous Equation)
Method.

(a) Inspection Method. This method is used for simple chemical equations that can be balanced by mere logical
observations.
Rules to Follow
(i) Determine those substances that are reactants and those that are products.
(ii) Write out the correct formulae for the participating species.
(iii) Select coefficients that will make the numbers of atoms of each element equal on both sides of the equation.
(iv) Finally, check your work by counting the number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation to ensure their
conservation.

Example 1
Write a balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of methane in oxygen.
Solution:
Step I: Represent the information using the formulae of reactants and products:
CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Step II: By inspection, insert the appropriate coefficients:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Note: (1) The use of subscripts to effect the balancing of atoms is NOT allowed. For example,
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl (CORRECT)
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s)+Na2Cl2 (WRONG)
(2) It is always helpful to start the balancing process with an element that appears only once the reactant one on right
sides of the equation.
Example 2
Balance the following equation: C2H6O + O2 → CO2 + H2O.

Solution: To balance the equation,

Balancing of H atoms gives:
C2H6O + O2 → CO2 + 3H2O
Balancing of C atoms gives:
C2H6O + O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O
Balancing of O atoms gives:
C2H6O + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O
Exercise
1. Write a balanced chemical equation for complete combustion of ethane in oxygen.
2. Balance the following equations:
(a) Fe2O3(s) + C(s) → Fe(s) + CO2(g)
(b) HNO3(aq) + H2S(g) → NO(g) + S(s) + H2O(l)
(c) ZnS(s) + O2(g) → ZnO(s) + SO2(g)

(b) Algebraic (Simultaneous Equation) Method.

This method is used for more complex equations that cannot be readily balanced using inspection method

Procedure:
(i) Put coefficients a, b, c, …, in front of each chemical formulae, starting from reactants to products.
(ii) Form mathematical relationships for each element in the chemical equation such that the LHS = RHS.
(iii) Assume the first letter to be unity and then determine the values of other letters.

Example
Balance the following chemical equations:
1. C3H5(NO3)3(s) → N2(g)+ CO2(g)+ H2O(l)
2. K4Fe(CN)6 + H2SO4 + H2O → K2SO4 + (HN4)2SO4 + CO + FeSO4
Solution:
1. aC3H5(NO3)3 → bN2 + cO2 + dCO2 + eH2O
Thus for:
C: 3a = d --------- (i)
H: 5a = 2e ---------- (ii)
N: 3a = 2b ---------- (iii)
O: 9a = 2c + 2d + e ---------- (iv)
Let a = 1
From equation (i), d=3
From equation (ii), e = 5/2
From equation (iii), b = 3/2
From equation (iv), 9 = 2c + 2(3) +
i.e. 9 = 2c + 6 +
i.e. 2c = 9 – 6 - 2½ = ½
:- c = ¼
Hence, the balanced equation is:
C3H5(NO3)3(s) 3/2N2(q) + ¼O2(g) + 3CO2(g) + 5/2H2O(l)
i.e. 4C3H5(NO3)3(s) 6N2(g) + O2(g) + 12CO2(g) + 10H2O
 (2) aK4Fe (CN)6 + bH2SO4 + cH2O → dK2SO4 + e(NH4)2SO4 + fCO + gFeSO4
Thus for:
K: 4a = 2d ----(i)
H: 2b + 2c = 8e ---- (v)
Fe: a = g ----(ii)
S: b = d + e + g ----(vi)
C: 6a = f ----(iii)
O: 4b + c = 4d + 4e + f + 4g ----(vii)
N: 6a = 2e ----(iv)
Let a = 1 so that
From equation (i), d = 2
From equation (ii), g = a = 1
From equation. (iii), f = 6
From equation. (iv), e = 3
From equation (vi), b = 2 + 3 + 1 = 6
From equation (v), 2(6) + 2c = 8(3)
i.e. 12 + 2c = 24
i.e. 2c = 12
:- c = 6
Now, a = 1, b = 6, c = 6, d = 2, e = 3, f = 6, g = 1
Hence, the balanced equation is:
K4Fe(CN)6 + 6H2SO4 + 6H2O → 2K2SO4 + 3(NH4)2SO4 + 6CO + FeSO4
Note: Since all unknown are solved without using equation(vii), you nat wish to use equation (vii) to check.
Exercise
Balance the following equations:
(1) H3PO3 → H3PO4 + PH3
(2) Ca3(PO4)2 + H3PO4 → Ca(H2PO4)2
(3) Fe2(SO4)3 + NH3 + H2O → Fe(OH)3 + (NH4)2 SO4
(4) AS2S3+O2 → AS2O3 + SO2
(5) N2 + H2O → H2O2 + N2H4
 Molecular and Ionic Equations
For a reaction involving ions, depending on the kind of information we want to convey, we can represent such a reaction by a
molecular equation, a complete ionic equation, or a net ionic equation.
For example, one way to prepare CaCO3 is to react Ca(OH)2 with Na2CO3.

Molecular Equation: Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3(s) + 2NaOH(aq)

A molecular equation is a chemical equation in which the reactants and proudts are written as if they were molecular
substances even though they may actually exist in solution as ions. The molecular equation is useful because it is explicit
about what the reactants are and what products you obtain. However, it does not give the ionic theory interpretation of the
reaction.
Complete Ionic Equations: Equations of this anture explains what is happenning at the level of ions. For example, for the
reaction: Ca(OH)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → CaCO3(s) + 2NaOH(aq), we cab re-write the equation inform of complete ionic equation
so that each substance is represented by its predominant form in the reaction mixture as follows:
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CaCO3(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Thus, a complete ionic equation is a chemical equation in which strong electrolytes are written as separate ions in the
solution and other reactants and products are represented by their formulae with the states/phases of allt he species indicated
in parenthesis.
Net Ionic Equation: In the complete ionic equation:
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CaCO3(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq),
some ions (OH- and Na+) appear on both sides of the equation, meaning that nothing happens to these ions as reaction occurs.
They are called spectator ions i.e. ions in an ionic equation that do not take part in the reaction. Such ions are cancelled from
both sides to obtain the net ionic equation such as Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CaCO3(s) from Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2Na+(aq)
+ 2OH-(aq).
Exercise
Write complete ionic and net ionic equations for each of the following reactions:
1. When aqueous HNO3 is added to the solid form of Mg(OH)2
2. When Pb(NO3)2 reacts with Na2SO4 in aqueous forms
3. When perchloric acid reacts with calcium hydroxide
4. HC2H3O2(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaH3O2(aq) + H2O(l)
5. AgNO3(aq) + NaBr(aq) →
6. NaOH(aq) + NH4Br(aq) →
The Mole Concept

A mole (symbol = mol) is the quantity of a substance that contains as many elementary particles (atoms, molecules, ions,
electrons, protons, etc) as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of C-12.

The number of atoms in a 12-g sample of 12C is 6.02 x 1023. This value is called Avogadro’s number, NA. For example, a
mole of Na2CO3 weighs 106 g and contains 6.02 x 1023 Na2CO3 units. But each formula unit of Na2CO3 contains two Na+
ions and one ion. Therefore, a mole of Na2CO3 also contains 2 x 6.02 x 1023 Na+ ions and 1 x 6.02 x 1023 ions.

When using the mole, it is important to specify the form (atoms, molecules, ions, etc) of the substance being referred to in
order to avoid misunderstanding. For ex., a mole of oxygen atoms weighing 16 g contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms; a mole of
oxygen molecules (32 g) contains 6.02 x 1023 O2 molecules i.e 2 x 6.02 x 1023 O atoms. Similarly, one mole of any gas at
s.t.p. occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3. Thus, if the volume of any gas is 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p, there are 6.02 x 1023 particles
(molecules) of that gas in the given volume. Also, one mole of electrons corresponds to one Faraday (96500C).

Calculating the Actual Mass of an Atom or a Molecule

Example
What is the mass (in g) of (a) one chlorine atom; (b) a molecule of hydrogen chloride? [H = 1.0; Cl = 35.5]

Solution
(a) The molar mass of Cl = 35.5 g/mol.
But there are 6.02 x 1023 atoms in 1 mole
i.e. 6.02 x1023 atoms of Cl = 35.5 g
:- 1 atom of Cl = (35.5 x 1/ 6.02 x1023 ) g = 5.90x10-23 g

(b) The molar mass of HCl = 36.5 g

i.e. 6.02 x 1023 HCl molecules weigh 36.5 g
:- 1 molecule of HCl = (36.5 x 1/ 6.02 x1023 ) g = 6.06x10-23 g

Exercise
Determine the mass of 1 molecule of ethanol [H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0]
 Convesion Factor Technique (Dimensional Analaysis) in Mole Concept Calculations
Conversion factor method is very useful when questions such as: how much does a given number of moles of a substance
weigh?; how many moles of a given formula unit does a given mass of a substance contain?
Consider ethanol (C2H5OH) with molar mass 46.1 g/mol, for example. Since 1 mol C2H5OH = 46.1 g C2H5OH, the factor
converting g C2H5OH to mol C2H5OH is 1 mol C2H5OH/46.1 g C2H5OH.
Also, to convert moles of ethanol to grams of ethanol, we simply invert the conversion factor thus: 46.1 g C2H5OH/1 mol
C2H5OH.

NOTE: When converting from one unit to the other, the unit you are converting to is on the top, while the unit you are
converting from is on the bottom of the conversion factor.

Example I:
1. How many moles of C2H5OH is 10.0 g of C2H5OH

Solution:
10 g C2H5OH → moles C2H5OH
Since 46.1 g C2H5OH ≡ 1 mole C2H5OH,
We have: 10 g C2H5OH x 1 mol C2H5OH/46.1 g C2H5OH = 0.217 mol C2H5OH

2. How many grams of zinc iodide is 0.0654 mol zinc? [Zn = 65.41; I = 126.90]

Solution:
Molar mass of ZnI2 = 319.21 g/mol
:- 0.0654 mol ZnI2 x 319.21 g ZnI2/1 mol ZnI2 = 20.88 g ZnI2

Exercise
1. What is the mass of hydrogen peroxide in 0.909 M of hydrogen peroxide?
2. Calculate the mass in grams of 38 mol (NH4)2S.
3. How many moles of lead(II) chromate, PbCrO4, can we have in 45.6 g of it given that the
molar mass of PbCrO4 is 323 g/mol?
Example II
How many molecules are there in a 3.46-g sample of HCl? [HCl = 36.5]

Solution:
First convert g HCl to moles and then convert the moles HCl to number of molecules:
3.46 g HCl x 1 mol HCl/36.5 g HCl x 6.02 x 1023 HCl molecules/1 mol HCl = 5.71 x 1022 HCl molecules

Exercise
Calculate the number of:
1. atoms in 8.21 g Li
2. atoms in 32.0 g Br2
3. molecules in 45 g NH3
4. atoms in 45 g of NH3
5. SO42- ions in 14.3 g Cr2(SO4)3
6. moles present in 4.0 x 1010 atoms of Be
7. moles present in 8.50 x 1015 Cl atoms
8. sulphur atoms present in 2.00 moles of S2O.
9. total moles of atoms present in 2.00 moles of H2SO4
[H = 1.01; Li = 6.94; N = 14.01; O = 16.00; S = 32.06; Cr = 52.00; Br = 79.90]
 Limiting Reagents (Limiting Reactants)
In a given chemical reaction such as titration, chemicals are mixed together in stoichiometric quantities i.e. in exactly the
correct amounts so that all reactants “run out” or are used up at the same time. However, reactants are often added to a
reaction vessel in amounts different from the molar proportions given by the chemical equation. In such cases, only one of
the reactants may be completely consumed at the end of the reaction while some amounts of the other reactants will remain
unreacted.
The limiting reagent (limiting reactant) is the reactant that is entirely consumed when a reaction goes to completion. The
reactant that is not completely consumed is often referred to as an excess reactant.
The moles of product are always determined by the starting moles of the limiting reactant. Thus, in any stoichiometric
calculation, it is essential to determine which reactant is the limiting one in order to correctly calculate the amounts of
products that will be formed.
Example
Nitrogen gas can be prepared by passing gaseous ammonia over solid copper(II) oxide at high temperatures. The other
products of the reaction are solid copper and water vapour. If 18.1 g NH3 is reacted with 90.4 g of CuO, which is the limiting
reagent? How many grams of N2 will be formed? [NH3 = 17; CuO = 79.5]
Solution:
2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s) → N2(g) + 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(g)
Now,
nNH 3
= 18.1/17.0 = 1.06 and nCuO = 90.4/79.5 = 1.14
From the balanced equation, 3 moles CuO ≡ 2 moles NH3.
Hence, 1.06 mol NH3 x 3 mol CuO/2 mol NH3 = 1.59 mol CuO
Since only 1.14 mol CuO is present, CuO is in short supply and it is the limiting reagent. So, we use the amount (1.14 mol)
of CuO to calculate the amount of N2 formed:
1.14 mol CuO x 1 mol N2 /3 mol CuO = 0.380 mol N2 = 28.0 x 0.380 g N2 = 10.6 g N2
NOTE:
We can verify which reagent is the limiting reagent by comparing the mole ratio required with the mole ratio available. For
example, in the calculation above:
mole CuO/ mol NH3(required) = 3/2 = 1.50 and mole CuO/ mol NH3(available) = 1.14/1.06 = 1.08.
Since the available (actual) ratio is too small (1.08 < 1.50), CuO is the limiting reagent.
Exercise

1. If 0.30 mol Zn is added to HCl acid containing 0.52 mol HCl, how many moles of H2 are produced? Which of the

reactants is in excess and by how much?

2. Acetic acid, CH3COOH, can be produced by bubbling oxygen gas into acetaldehyde, CH3CHO, in the presence of

manganese(II) acetate (catalyst) under pressure at 60oC. If 20.0 g CH3CHO and 10.0 g O2 were put into a reaction vessel, (a)

how many grams of acetic acid will be produced? (b) how many grams of the excess reactant remain after the reaction is

complete? [O2 = 32; CH3CHO = 44; CH3COOH = 60].

3. Free Fe is obtained from haematite, Fe2O3, by reacting the ore with CO in a Blast furnace. How many grams of Fe can be

produced from 1.00 kg Fe2O3? [Fe = 55.8; Fe2O3 = 160]

 Volumetric Analysis
This is a method of analysis based on accurately measuring usually the liquid volumes and concentrations of the reactant
species. It is usually accomplished via titration. Titrant is the liquid added from the burette, while titrand is the liquid
contained in the conical flask to which an indicator is added.
For volumetric analysis to be successful, the reaction involved:
1. Must go to completion;
2. Should have a stoichiometric relationship;
3. Should be fast enough; and
4. Should have a readily observable and sharply defined end point.
The detection of the end point may be facilitated by the addition of indicators

Types of Volumetric Analysis

1. Acid-Base Titration: This involves most of the neutralization reactions e.g.
NaOH(aq) + HC l(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
2. Redox Titration: This involves the standardization process of either oxidizing or reducing
agents in solution e.g.
(i) 2Ce4+(aq) + C2O42-(aq) → 2 Ce3+ + 2CO2(g)
(ii) Fe2+(aq) + MnO4-(aq) → Fe3+(aq) + Mn2+(aq)
3. Precipitation Titration: This is used to accurately determine the amount of precipitates formed during a precipitation
reaction e.g.
i)Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
i)(ii) Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s)

Complexometric Titration. In this procedure, ions are titrated to form a soluble slightly dissociated ion or compound e.g.
(i) AgNO3(aq) + 2CN- → [Ag(CN)2]-
(ii) Hg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → HgCl 2
(iii) Mg2+ + H2EDTA +H2O MgEDTA + 2H3O+
 Solution Stoichiometry
Many chemical reactions involve mixing two solutions together. To perform stoichiometric calculations in such cases, we
must know two things:
(1) The nature of the reaction, which depends on the exact forms the chemicals take when dissolved.
(2) The amounts of chemicals present in the solutions; that is, the composition of each solution, implying that the solution(s)
must be standard. A standard solution is a solution of precisely known concentration.
The concentration of a solution can be described in many different ways, namely: Molarity (molar concentration), Mass
concentration, Normality, %v/v, %w/v, ppb, ppm, etc. Molar concentration (Molarity) and mass concentration are the most
commonly used expressions of concentration.
❑Molar concentration (Molarity), M = No. of moles (mol)/Volume (dm3 or L)
Hence, unit of molar concentration is M or mol/ dm3 or mol/L
❑Mass concentration = molar mass (g/mol) x molar concentration (mol/ dm3) .
Hence, unit of mass concentration is g/ dm3 or g/L
A solution that is 1.0 molar (written as 1.0 M) contains 1.0 mole of solute per dm3 (or litre) of solution.

Example
Calculate the molarity of a solution prepared by bubbling 2.56 g HCl gas into enough water to make 26.8 mL of solution.
Solution:
Molarity = moles of solute/litres of solution = (1.56 g/36.5 g) HCl ÷ (26.8/1000) L = 1.59 M HCl

Exercise
1. Calculate the molar concentration of 9.25 g H2SO4 acid in 750 cm3 solution [H = 1.0; O = 16.0; S = 32.0]
2. What is the molar concentration of a solution containing 1.06 g of anhydrous Na2CO3 in 250 cm3 solution? [C = 12, O =
16, Na =23]
3. Calculate (a) the number of moles of Cl- ions and (b) the number of Cl- ions in 1.75 L of 1.0 x10-3 M AlCl
Stoichiometry of Dilution Process: Preparation of Standard Solutions from Stock Solution
Routinely used solutions are often available in concentrated forms called stock solutions. In a process called dilution, water is
added to achieve the desired molarity for a particular solution.
In a typical dilution process, since only water is added to an amount of stock solution to achieve a solution of desired
concentration, and no loss of solute, then:
Moles of solute before dilution = Moles of solution after dilution
i.e. (MV)1 = (MV)2
or M1V1 = M2V2
where M1 = molar concentration of solution before dilution
V1 = Vol of concentration solution required to achieve desired dilution
M2 = Molar concentration of solution after dilution
V2 = Volume of the diluted solution
Example I
How would you prepare 200 cm3 of 6M HCl acid from the concentration stock HCl acid having on its label: 37% HCl and s.g
of 1.18? [H = 1, Cl = 35.5]
Solution
In terms of density, s.g. of 1.18 = 1.18 g cm-3
=> 1 cm3 of the acid contains 1.18 g HCl
Since it is 37% pure HCl, then 1 cm3 HCl = 37/100 x 1.18 g HCl = 0.44 g HCl
But molar mass of HCl = 36.5 g/mol.
i.e. 1 cm3 HCl = 0.44 g/36.5 g = 0.012 mol HCl
Therefore, 1000 cm3 (1 dm3) HCl = 0.012 x 1000/1 = 12.0 mol dm-3 HCl = 12.0 M HCl.
Alternatively, the formula below can be used:
Ms = (Assay x s.g. x 10)/Molar mass
where Ms = molar concentration of the stock acid
Assay = % composition of the acid
s.g. = density
:- Ms = (37 x 1.18 x 10)/36.5 = 12 M HCl (as before)
By dilution principle: M1V1 = M2V2 (Note: M1= Ms)
:- 12.0 x V1 = 6 x 200 cm3 which yields V1 = 100 cm3
Thus, 100 cm3 is made up to 200 cm3 in a volumetric flask using distilled water. The usual practice is to add acid to water.

Example II
What is the molar concentration of a solution prepared by adding 50.0 mL of 0.25 M NaOH to 25.0 mL of 0.10 M NaOH?

Solution:
From: M = n/V
We have n = MV
Let n1 = (MV)1, n2 = (MV)2 and nT = n1 + n2
Then, nT = (MV)1 + (MV)2
where nT is total moles
i.e. nT = (0.25 x 50/1000) + (0.10 x 25/1000)
i.e. nT = 0.0125 + 0.0025 = 0.015 mol = n
But total volume, VT = (50 + 25)mL = 75 mL = 0.075 L = V
:- From M = n/V, we have M = 0.015 mol/0.075 L = 0.20 M
Exercise
1. How would you prepare 750 cm3 of 0.5 M H3PO4 from the commercial reagent that is 85% H3PO4 and has a specific
gravity of 1.69?
2. What vol. of 11.7 M H2SO4 would you dilute in a 250 cm3 volumetric flask to make a 0.20 M solution?
3. What is the strength of a solution prepared by mixing a 0.250 dm3of 0.35 M NaOH with 0.150 dm3 of 0.45 M NaOH?
4. What volume of the stock solution is required to prepare 500 mL of 1.0 M C2H4O2 (acetic acid) from a 17.5 M stock
solution of the acid?
5. What volume of water will be required to make 250 mL of 0.20 M H2SO4 from the stock acid having a concentration of
11.7 M?

Example III
How would you prepare 500 cm3 of 2.0 M solution of Na2CO3 solution from its anhydrous salt? [C = 12, O = 16, Na = 23]

Solution:
Molar mass of Na2CO3 = 106 g
=> 2 M contains 2 x 106 g in 1000 cm3
:- 500 cm3 = 2 x 106 x 500/1000 = 106 g
This amount (106 g Na2CO3) is weighed and dissolved in about 200 cm3 distilled water, poured into a 500 cm3 volumetric
flask and made up to 500 cm3 mark using distilled water.
Exercise
How much solid K2Cr2O7 must be weighed out to make 1.00 L of an aqueous 0.200 M K2Cr2O7 solution? [K2Cr2O7 = 294.2]