The Economist April 8th 2023
coal, gas, hydro and nuclear plants and the grid they supply is a
Inertia and the future
Back in black
The physics of rotating masses can no longer define the grid.
In the long run, that will make it better
T ucked away behind a cash­and­carry in a Liverpool suburb is a
40­tonne cylinder of steel spinning 1,500 times a minute. Its
500 megajoules of kinetic energy are the equivalent of the chem­
ical energy stored in 100kg (220lb) of TNT. To keep the cash and
carry and other neighbours safe, the whole contraption is co­
cooned in steel­reinforced concrete; on one side of the cylinder a
rubberised steel pit waits to catch it should the numerous redun­
dant safety systems fail.
Why store what is, in grid terms, a relatively small amount of
energy (140 kilowatt­hours) in such a potentially perilous way? Be­
cause a balance of supply and demand is not the only thing needed
to keep the grid up and running. Making sure the frequency stays
stable, and thus that the rest of the show stays on the road, de­
pends on other factors—things that are provided free of charge
when you connect a big lump of fast­spinning metal to the grid,
but not when you add on renewables. The “synchronous condens­
er” at the Lister Drive Greener Grid Park provides some of the spin­
ning­metal mojo that the increasingly renewables­heavy grid
lacks. In the future, though, more thoroughgoing approaches will
be needed, approaches which obviate the need for any spinning
metal at all, and which allow both grids and the people connected
to them freedoms which they have never previously enjoyed.
The synchronisation between the spinning steam turbines of
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Technology Quarterly Electric grids 11
two­way street: the electromagnetic fields which couple them
mean that conditions on the grid reach into the workings of the
generators, and vice versa. This means properties of the spinning
metal and its connections propagate out onto the grid. One such
property is inertia; the turbines’ innate desire to keep spinning
limits the ease with which the grid’s frequency can fluctuate. An­
other is “reactive power”, a drag which the nature of alternating
current imposes on the flow of energy through the system, and
“short­circuit current”. Reactive power can be used to deal with
voltage fluctuations. Short­circuit currents reveal faults and can
be used to clear them. Because these aspects of the grid­as­it­is are
so useful to its operation, they are referred to as ancillary services.
Tenets and turnstiles
Solar panels, wind turbines and batteries are connected to grids
through carefully controlled electronics, rather than through the
brute force of electromagnetism. The DC power which solar panels
and batteries provide is turned into AC by inverters which mostly
use technology like that found in the valve rooms at the ends of
HVDC connections. The low and variable frequency AC produced
by wind turbines is processed in similar ways. As a result, batter­
ies and wind and solar farms are all referred to as “inverter­based
resources” (IRBs) in the trade.
The problem with this is that, at present, grids in which IRBs
provide more than 60% of the power energy start to become seri­
ously unstable without help, according to Ben Koproski of Amer­
ica’s National Renewable Energy Lab in Colorado. The vast major­
ity of today’s inverters are “grid­following” ones, spitting out cur­
rent with characteristics that match those that the inverters see on
the grid. This means that unlike turbines they provide no way of
pushing the grid in a preferred direction. Indeed they can worsen
conditions by amplifying existing imbalances.
One way to deal with this is through “spinning reserve”: gas­
fired stations in which the turbines are kept spinning while gener­
ating very little power. But this is very capital intensive and burns
natural gas in a peculiarly inefficient way. So grid operators are
increasingly willing to pay for alternatives. The turbines at Drax
earn money this way, as do those of Cruachan, a Scottish pumped­
hydro facility that Drax bought in 2018. So does the synchronous
condenser at Lister Drive, a facility set up by Statkraft, a Norwe­
gian utility. And so does a 100MW battery which Zenobe, a British
battery company, has plugged into the grid not that far from Lister
Drive. (The closure of Fiddler’s Ferry, a large coal­fired power
plant, led to a worrying shortfall of ancillary services in the Liver­
pool area, which has thus become a place where new approaches
are being tried out.)
This installation is special not because of its batteries, but be­
cause of its inverters; rather than being grid­following, they are
grid­forming. This means that they can be programmed to provide
the grid with energy in exactly the form and at the frequency that
the grid operators require, making up for the loss of ancillary ser­
vices. Grid­forming inverters offer a step change away from the
world of instantiated electromagnetism and into a realm of code
and electronics.
The hardware which runs grid­forming systems is, for the
most part, little different from that in grid­following systems—
but the algorithms which shape the current that flows through
them are much more sophisticated. And the approach does not
have to be limited to batteries. In time all the inverters in front of
wind farms and solar plants could all be grid­forming; in some
cases, according to Mr Koproski, the change could require nothing
more than a software update. In terms of grid stability, this would
turn IRBs from a problem into a solution. Mr Koproski sees this as
turning an old saw about renewables on its head. With the right
electronics, adding renewables and the storage which comes
along with them to the grid can make it more stable, not less.
 12 Technology Quarterly Electric grids The Economist April 8th 2023

Grids with ancillary services provided by the inverters in front more frightening. Blackouts that turn off the lights and air condi­
of renewable sources should in the end, be easier and cheaper to tioning today could cripple heating and transport, too, in a few de­
run than those of days gone by. Easier, because the operator of a cades’ time. That said, the possibility of an attack on a single weak
grid supplied with electricity entirely through grid­forming in­ point causing a cascading failure across the grid should be re­
verters would not need to put quite so much effort into keeping duced by robust electronics. Making grids bigger has benefits, too,
grid frequency and voltage stable across the system as a whole. if their further­off parts can be robustly defended. Getting the Uk­
With all connections capable of easy adjustment, the consequenc­ rainian grid synchronised to CESA soon after Russia’s invasion
es of wandering frequency could be headed off. To use the fixed­ helped the country a lot.
gear­bike analogy, the algorithms in the grid­forming inverters These potential benefits are all secondary to the fact that the
would simply look at the pedals of the transmission system spin­ world’s grids have to change if the world is to decarbonise at the
ning beneath their feet and gently, with a computer’s perfect tim­ rate climate policies demand. That change will necessarily be
ing, start pedalling again in whatever way suited them. complex and costly, whatever the technology, with investment
measured in tens of trillions of dollars. But it is worth noting that,
What limits to growth? done properly, this huge and necessary shift will not simply allow
Making things easier has implications for the speed at which grids the world to continue as it did when burning fossil fuels. By mak­
can be expanded. Leaving aside bureaucracy, speculation and per­ ing energy easier to move around than ever before and allowing
mitting, adding lots of new supply to today’s grids remains an of­ the most cost­efficient generation to capture more of the market,
ten painstaking procedure. If new resources all come with grid­ it will over time make that power cheaper. Robust grids to which
forming electronics, things should become a good bit more plug­ cheap generation can be added easily will be able to provide an en­
and­play; the new additions will be able to match themselves ergy abundance today’s fuels never could.
more closely to what the grid needs at that location, rather than re­ One of the biggest advantages is that a significant amount of
quiring the grid to adapt itself to them. the antagonism between advocates of ever more muscular grids
The fact that they already offer similar capabilities is one of the and more decentralised systems may wither away. Grid­forming
factors behind the spread of HVDC links. The grid­forming poten­ inverters allow microgrids and macrogrids to be joined together
tial of the connection halls on SSE’s Caithness­Moray link have led far more easily. They also help consumers attached to grids to
the company to consider equipping them for the ultimate act of build out their own generating and storage systems in a way that
grid formation: a “black start”. Re­starting a the grid can draw on. As long as some stan­
grid that has collapsed is a tricky business. dards are adhered to, what happens behind
The generators attached to steam turbines the inverter can stay behind the inverter. But
need to be spun up by auxiliary diesel power power can get in and out.
to manage it; grid­following inverters are no
Grids have long been A virtuous circle in which the growth of the
good at all when there is no grid to follow. targets in times of war: grid makes it easier for electricity resources to
Grid­forming services make things much eas­ Ukraine’s has been grow further would not be unprecedented.
ier—especially when connected to wind tur­ pummelled by Russian There was a similar positive feedback loop in
bines generating large amounts of power, like the old energy system, too. Better engines and
those in Caithness.
missiles and shells generators made fossil­fuel extraction, distri­
Such added attraction will increase the ap­ bution and consumption cheaper, which
peal of HVDC, and as demand increases the made it possible to feed ever more engines
technology will become cheaper. That will and generators. But that growth faced two sets
further drive demand in turn. It will also make of limits. One set was imposed by economic
ever more ambitious interconnections conceivable. and political constraints on fuel supply, the other by the degree to
It is possible to get ahead of the curve on this. Sun Cable, a com­ which the environment could absorb the unavoidable waste. Inge­
pany which had plans for a 4,200km cable that would feed Singa­ nuity, investment and statecraft could be used to move the first
pore with power from Australian renewables, recently went bust. limits back; short­sightedness, vested interests and the sheer
XLinks, a startup, is promoting a scheme which would bring Brit­ scope of the problem contrived to have the second set of limits ig­
ain a constant 3.6GW of power from renewable sources and battery nored. But neither set of constraints was abolished. And neither
backup in Morocco; its cost is put at £18bn ($22bn), with 3,800km applies in the same way to an electricity dominated system fed by
of proposed cable a big part of the total. If XLinks prospers, more renewables and nuclear power, supported by adequate storage,
such projects will surely follow. and connected by a flexible, stable, electronically enabled grid.
That said, such gigalinks bring with them concerns beyond the Nothing can get better for ever. The fossil­fuel­free energy sys­
cost of finance. Even before the bombing of the Nordstream 2 tem that new grids will enable will surely face constraints of its
pipeline in the Baltic, the idea of getting a significant fraction of own. But they will not take the form of a limit on its fuels, and they
your power from a single vendor through that long an umbilicus will not be found in the damage done when the Earth’s basic cycles
raised questions about political risk which are beyond the power are wilfully disrupted. The upfront costs of building out the grid
of technology to address. Direct connections can bring with them are vast. The challenge of meeting the fossil­free electricity­sup­
dependency and vulnerability. ply goals required if the climate is to be stabilised are insanely
Grids have long been targets in times of war: Ukraine’s has been daunting. But once the shift gets well under way, and costs start to
pummelled by Russian missiles and shells. They are also attrac­ tumble, there is no telling where things will stop. n
tive targets for cyber­attacks. The need for grid balance means that
attacking a relatively small component can produce devastating acknowledgments A list of acknowledgments and sources is included in the online
results as the effects ripple through the system. The more firmly a version of this Technology Quarterly
grid is tied to outsiders whose security is beyond your control, the
more worried you might have cause to be. licensing our content For information on reusing the articles featured in this Technology
Quarterly, or for copyright queries, contact The Economist Syndication and Licensing Team:
An electronically formed grid, with more need for computa­ Tel: +44 (0)20 7576 8000; email: rights@economist.com
tion and communication, might make such vulnerabilities worse.
And as electricity becomes the primary source of energy for more more technology quarterlies Previous TQs can be found at
Economist.com/technology-quarterly
and more applications, attacks on the grid could become even

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