L T P Credit

BIT18R432 BIOLOGICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT

3 0 0 3
Pre-requisite: Nil Course Category: Open Elective
Course Type: Theory

UNIT 1

1. Characteristics, type and quantity of municipal effluent.

Wastewater Quantity Estimation

The flow of sanitary sewage alone in the absence of storms in dry season
is known as dry weather flow (DWF).

Quantity= Per capita sewage contributed per day

x Population

Sanitary sewage is mostly the spent water of the community draining into
the sewer system. It has been observed that a small portion of spent
water is lost in evaporation, seepage in ground, leakage, etc. Usually 80%
of the water supply may be expected to reach the sewers.

Population Equivalent

Population equivalent is a parameter used in the conversion of

contribution of wastes from industrial establishments for accepting into
sanitary sewer systems. The strength of industrial sewage is, thus,
written as

Std. BOD5 = (Std. BOD5 of domestic sewage per person per day) x
(population equivalent)

Wastewater Characterization
Characterization of wastes is essential for an effective and economical
waste management programme. It helps in the choice of treatment
methods deciding the extent of treatment, assessing the beneficial uses of
wastes and utilizing the waste purification capacity of natural bodies of
water in a planned and controlled manner. While analysis of wastewater in
each particular case is advisable, data from the other cities may be utilized
during initial stage of planning.
Domestic sewage comprises spent water from kitchen, bathroom, lavatory,
etc. The factors which contribute to variations in characteristics of the
domestic sewage are daily per capita use of water, quality of water supply
and the type, condition and extent of sewerage system, and habits of the
people. Municipal sewage, which contains both domestic and industrial
wastewater, may differ from place to place depending upon the type of
industries and industrial establishment. The important characteristics of
sewage are discussed here.
To design a treatment process properly, characterization of wastewater is
perhaps the most critical step. Wastewater characteristics of importance in
the design of the activated sludge process can be grouped into the following
categories:

Temperature
pH
Colour and Odour
Carbonaceous substrates (organic content)
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Chlorides
Total and volatile suspended solids (TSS and VSS)
Toxic metals and compounds
Fig. 2: Collection and distribution of wastewater from several sources

Table 2.13. Main physical characteristics of

domestic sewage Parameter Description
Temperature • Slightly higher than in drinking water
• Variations according to the seasons of the years
(more stable than the air temperature)
• Influences microbial activity
• Influences solubility of gases
• Influences viscosity of the liquid
Colour • Fresh sewage: slight grey
• Septic sewage: dark grey or black
Odour • Fresh sewage: oily odour, relatively unpleasant
• Septic sewage: foul odour (unpleasant), due
to hydrogen sulphide gas and other
decomposition by-products
• Industrial wastewater: characteristic odours
Turbidity • Caused by a great variety of suspended solids
• Fresher or more concentrated sewage: generally greater
Parameter Description
TOTAL SOLIDS Organic and inorganic; suspended and dissolved; settleable
• Suspended • Part of organic and inorganic solids that are non-filterable
• Fixed • Mineral compounds, not oxidisable by
heat, inert, which are part of the
suspended solids
• Volatile • Organic compounds, oxidisable by heat, which are part of
the suspended solids
• Dissolved • Part of organic and inorganic solids that are filterable.
Normally considered having a dimension less than 10−3µm.
• Fixed • Mineral compounds of the dissolved solids.
• Volatile • Organic compounds of the dissolved solids
• Settleable • Part of organic and inorganic solids that settle in 1 hour in
an Imhoff cone. Approximate indication of the
settling in a sedimentation tank.
ORGANIC MATTER Heterogeneous mixture of various organic compounds.
Main components: proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.
Indirect determination
• BOD5 • Biochemical Oxygen Demand.
Measured at 5 days and 20 ◦C.
Associated with the biodegradable
fraction of
carbonaceous organic compounds.
Measure of the oxygen consumed after 5
days by the microorganisms in the
biochemical stabilisation of the organic
matter.
• COD • Chemical Oxygen Demand. Represents
the quantity of oxygen required to
chemically stabilise the carbonaceous
organic matter. Uses strong oxidising
agents under acidic conditions.
• Ultimate BOD • Ultimate Biochemical Oxygen Demand. Represents the
total oxygen consumed at the end of
several days, by the microorganisms in the
biochemical stabilisation of the organic
matter.
Direct determination
• TOC • Total Organic Carbon. Direct measure of
the carbonaceous organic matter.
Determined through the conversion of
organic carbon into carbon dioxide.
TOTAL NITROGEN Total nitrogen includes organic nitrogen, ammonia,
nitrite and nitrate. It is an essential nutrient for microorganisms’ growth in
biological wastewater treatment. Organic nitrogen and ammonia together are
called Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN).
• Organic nitrogen • Nitrogen in the form of proteins, aminoacids and urea.
• Ammonia • Produced in the first stage of the decomposition of organic
nitrogen.
• Nitrite • Intermediate stage in the oxidation of
ammonia. Practically absent in raw
sewage.
• Nitrate • Final product in the oxidation of
ammonia. Practically absent in raw
sewage.
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS Total phosphorus exists in organic and inorganic forms.
It is an essential nutrient in biological wastewater treatment.
• Organic phosphorus • Combined with organic matter.
• Inorganic phosphorus • Orthophosphates and polyphosphates.

Parameter Description
pH Indicator of the acidic or alkaline conditions
of the wastewater. A solution is neutral at pH
7. Biological oxidation processes normally
tend to reduce the pH.
 ALKALINITY Indicator of the buffer capacity of the medium
(resistance to variations in pH). Caused by the presence of bicarbonate,
carbonate and hydroxyl ions.
CHLORIDES Originating from drinking water and human and
industrial wastes.
OILS AND GREASE Fraction of organic matter which is soluble in
hexane. In domestic sewage, the sources are oils and fats used in food.
Source: adapted from Arceivala (1981), Qasim (1985), Metcalf & Eddy
(1991)

Table 2.15. Main organisms present in

domestic sewage

Organism Description
Bacteria • Unicellular organisms
• Present in various forms and sizes
• Main organisms responsible for the stabilisation of organic
matter
• Some bacteria are pathogenic, causing mainly intestinal
diseases
Archaea • Similar to bacteria in size and basic cell components
• Different from bacteria in their cell wall, cell
material and RNA composition
• Important in anaerobic processes
Algae • Autotrophic photosynthetic organisms, containing chlorophyll
• Important in the production of oxygen in
water bodies and in some sewage treatment
processes
• In lakes and reservoirs they can proliferate in
excess, deteriorating the water quality
Fungi • Predominantly aerobic, multicellular,
non-photosynthetic, heterotrophic
organisms
• Also of importance in the decomposition of organic matter
• Can grow under low pH conditions
Protozoa • Usually unicellular organisms without cell wall
• Majority is aerobic or facultative
• Feed themselves on bacteria, algae and other microorganisms
• Essential in biological treatment to maintain an
equilibrium between the various groups
• Some are pathogenic
Viruses • Parasitic organisms, formed by the
association of genetic material (DNA or RNA)
and a protein structure
• Pathogenic and frequently difficult to remove in
water or wastewater treatment
Helminths • Higher-order animals
• Helminth eggs present in sewage can cause illnesses
 2. TYPICAL LOADS IN WASTEWATER

Total coliforms
(bacterial load) – 10^3 – 10^8 (per 100ml sample)

The major group of pathogenic organisms are (i) bacteria (not all bacteria)
(ii) protozo (iii) Viruses (iv) Helminths. A list of pathogenic organisms and
diseases caused by them are listed below:
b) Indicator organisms (different from pathogenic organisms)
The detection of pathogenic organisms, mainly bacteria, protozoans and
viruses, in a sample of water is difficult, because of their low
concentrations. This would demand the examination of large volumes of
the sample to detect the pathogenic organisms. The reasons are due to
the following factors:
• in a population, only a certain fraction suffers from water-borne
diseases;
• in the faeces of these inhabitants, the presence of pathogens may
not occur in high proportions;
3. Biochemical environments: aerobic, anaerobic and anoxic.

Objective of biological treatment is to remove the suspended solids & the

dissolved organic load from the WW by using microbial populations.

The microorganisms are responsible for

a. degradation of the organic matter

b. they can be classified into

i. aerobic (require oxygen for their metabolism)

ii. anaerobic (grow in absence of oxygen)

iii. facultative (can proliferate either in absence or presence of

oxygen) – Anoxic (uses Nitrates, sulphates as electron
acceptor instead of oxygen)
4. TREATMENT PLANT
5. WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT

WASTEWATER TREATMENT LEVELS:

Level Removal
Preliminary • Coarse suspended solids (larger material and sand)

Primary • Settleable suspended solids

• Particulate (suspended) BOD (associated to the organic matter
component of the settleable suspended solids)

Secondary • Particulate (suspended) BOD (associated to the particulate organic

matter present in the raw sewage, or to the non settleable particulate
organic matter, not removed in the possibly existing primary
treatment)
• Soluble BOD (associated to the organic matter in the form of
dissolved solids)
Tertiary • Nutrients
• Pathogenic organisms
• Non-biodegradable compounds
• Metals
• Inorganic dissolved solids
• Remaining suspended solids
Note: depending on the treatment process adopted, the removal of nutrients (by biological processes) and
pathogens can be considered an integral part of secondary treatment.
 6. PRELIMINARY AND PRIMARY TREATMENT

Fig: 1. 5 – Typical preliminary treatment units

The objective of preliminary treatment is only the removal of coarse solids, while primary treatment
aims at removing settleable solids and part of the organic matter. Physical pollutant removal
mechanisms are predominant in both levels. In secondary treatment the aim is the removal of organic
matter and possibly nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) by predominantly biological mechanisms.
The objective of tertiary treatment is the removal of specific pollutants (usually toxic or non-
biodegradable compounds) or the complementary removal of pollutants that were not sufficiently
removed in the secondary treatment. Tertiary treatment is rare in developing countries.

The removal efficiency of a pollutant in the treatment or in a treatment stage is given by the formula:
Co − Ce
E=
where:

E = removal efficiency (% )

Co = influent concentration of the pollutant (mg/L)

Ce = effluent concentration of the pollutant (mg/L)

Primary treatment aims at the removal of:

• settleable suspended solids

• floating solids

After passing the preliminary treatment units, sewage still contains non-coarse suspended solids,
which can be partially removed in sedimentation units. A signif- icant part of these suspended solids
is comprised of organic matter in suspension. In this way, its removal by simple processes such as
sedimentation implies a re- duction in the BOD load directed to the secondary treatment, where its
removal is more expensive.
EQUALIZATION AND NEUTRALIZAITON TANKS

Providing consistent flow and loading to a biological process is important to maintain optimal
treatment. Equalization (EQ) Basins are designed to provide consistent influent flow to downstream
processes by retaining high flow fluctuations. Due to the additional retention time, aeration and
mixing is required in equalization basins to prevent the raw wastewater from becoming septic and to
maintain solids in suspension.

Neutralization, also known as pH control, is the process of adjusting or maintaining a desired pH level
in the wastewater.

Generally, neutralization involves the introduction of chemicals to bring water to a neutral pH of 7.0:

 Acids with a pH less than 7.0 are used to lower the pH of a tank of basic liquid

 Bases or caustics with a pH higher than 7.0 are used to raise the pH of a tank of acidic liquid

A mixer is used to blend the neutralizing chemicals into the waste stream, quickly bringing the mixture
to uniformity. Two or more neutralization mix tanks are often used in series to prevent fluctuations in
effluent pH levels due to heavy surges of highly acidic or basic influent.

FILTRATION:

Filtration

The resultant water after sedimentation will not be pure, and may contain some very fine suspended
particles and bacteria in it. To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities still further, the water is
filtered through the beds of fine granular material, such as sand, etc. The process of passing the water
through the beds of such granular materials is known as Filtration.

How Filters Work: Filtration Mechanisms

There are four basic filtration mechanisms:

INTERCEPTION : Interception of particles is common for large particles. If a large enough particle
follows the streamline, that lies very close to the media surface it will hit the media grain and be
captured.
BROWNIAN DIFFUSION : Diffusion towards media granules occurs for very small particles, such as
viruses. Particles move randomly about within the fluid, due to thermal gradients. This mechanism is
only important for particles with diameters < 1 micron.

INERTIA : Attachment by inertia occurs when larger particles move fast enough to travel off their
streamlines and bump into media grains.

Filter Materials

Sand: Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media. The size of the sand is measured
and expressed by the term called effective size. The effective size, i.e. D10 may be defined as the size
of the sieve in mm through which ten percent of the sample of sand by weight will pass. The uniformity
in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is measured and expressed by the term
called uniformity coefficient. The uniformity coefficient, i.e. (D60/D10) may be defined as the ratio of
the sieve size in mm through which 60 percent of the sample of sand will pass, to the effective size of
the sand.

Gravel: The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered water to move
freely to the under drains, and allows the wash water to move uniformly upwards.

Types of Filter

Slow sand filter: They consist of fine sand, supported by gravel. They capture particles near the surface
of the bed and are usually cleaned by scraping away the top layer of sand that contains the particles.
Rapid-sand filter: They consist of larger sand grains supported by gravel and capture particles
throughout the bed. They are cleaned by backwashing water through the bed to 'lift out' the particles.
Multimedia filters: They consist of two or more layers of different granular materials, with different
densities. Usually, anthracite coal, sand, and gravel are used. The different layers combined may
provide more versatile collection than a single sand layer. Because of the differences in densities, the
layers stay neatly separated, even after backwashing.

1. SLOW SAND FILTRATION

PRESSURE / RAPID SAND FILTERS

2. MEMBRANE FILTRATION

Membrane separation is a technology which selectively separates (fractionates) materials via

pores and/or minute gaps in the molecular arrangement of a continuous structure. Membrane
separations are classified by pore size and by the separation driving force. These classifications
are: Microfiltration (MF), Ultrafiltration (UF), Ion-Exchange (IE), and Reverse Osmosis (RO).

A membrane is a physical barrier (no necessarily solid) that gives, or at least helps, the
separation of the components in a mixture.
Advantages
 Low temperature operation. Almost all processes proceed at room temperature, thus they
can deal with compounds that are not resistant at high temperatures.
 Recovery. Both the concentrate and the permeate could be recovered to use.
 Water reuse. When applied to recover water, they avoid the transport of large water
volumes and permit the reduction of the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) loading in sewage
plants.
 Compact operation. Which permits to save space .
 Easy scale-up. Because usually they are designed in modules, which can be easily connected.
 Automatic operation. The most of the membrane plants are managed by expert systems.
 Tailored systems. In many cases, the membranes and systems can be specifically designed
according the problem

Disadvantages
 High cost. Membranes (and associated systems) are costly, but for low selective separations.
 Lack of selectivity. In many cases, the separation factors are still insufficient.
 Low fluxes. The permeat flowrate available are still too low for some applications.
 Sensitive to chemical attack. Many materials can be damaged by acids, oxidants or organic
solvents.
 Lack of mechanical resistance. Many materials do not withstand abrasion, vibrations, high
temperatures or pressures.
7. Adsorption
Adsorption is the process in which matter is extracted from one phase and concentrated at
the surface of a second phase. (Interface accumulation). This is a surface phenomenon as
opposed to absorption where matter changes solution phase, e.g. gas transfer. This is
demonstrated in the following schematic

8. REVERSE OSMOSIS:
Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a separation technique that is suitable for a wide range of
applications, especially when salt and/or dissolved solids need to be removed from a solution.
Accordingly, RO can be used for seawater and brackish water desalination, to produce both
water for industrial application, and drinking water. It can also be applied for the production
of ultrapure water (e.g. semiconductor, pharmaceutical industries) and boiler feed water. In
addition, RO membrane systems are used for wastewater and water reuse treatments.

Advantages
1. The ability to remove many dissolved substances efficiently, yet produce a good tasting
finished water, is one advantage of reverse osmosis.
2. Another advantage is that RO does not add any other chemical to your water. It merely
separates the dissolved substances from the incoming water.

Disadvantages
Reverse osmosis has several disadvantages that make it impractical for treating all of the
water entering your home.
1. The primary disadvantage is the amount of water wasted by the process.
2. Expensive process with slow output
3. Limited to pre-filtered water, must be combined with another water treatment device
4. Does not disinfect water to make it pure and clear
5. For each gallon of water produced, between 2-20 gallons of water are lost as waste.
 6. Reverse osmosis units can be expensive. Cost of a unit along with installation may run from
several hundred to one thousand dollars or more.
7. The RO membranes are subject to decay and require periodic replacement. As they decay,
the quality of the treated water becomes poorer.
8. Hard water can shorten the life span of the RO membrane. A water softener might be
necessary to keep the membrane working at its best.
9. Reverse osmosis units should not be used to treat water that contains harmful
microorganisms.
10. Small holes in a worn membrane can allow microorganisms to pass through with the treated
water

9. PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL TREATMENT

9.1 coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulation and flocculation occurs in successive steps, allowing particle collision and growth of floc.
This is then followed by sedimentation. If coagulation is incomplete, flocculation step will be
unsuccessful, and if flocculation is incomplete, sedimentation will be unsuccessful.

Coagulant chemicals with charges opposite those of the suspended solids are added to the water to
neutralize the negative charges on non-settlable solids (such as clay and color-producing organic
substances). Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are capable of sticking
together. These slightly larger particles are called microflocs, and are not visible to the naked eye.
Water surrounding the newly formed microflocs should be clear. If not, coagulation and some of the
particles charge have not been neutralized. More coagulant chemicals may need to be added. A high-
energy, rapid-mix to properly disperse coagulant and promote particle collisions is needed to achieve
good coagulation. Over-mixing does not affect coagulation, but insufficient mixing will leave this step
incomplete. Contact time in the rapid-mix chamber is typically 1 to 3 minutes

Flocculation, a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle size from submicroscopic microfloc to visible
suspended particles. Microfloc particles collide, causing them to bond to produce larger, visible flocs
called pinflocs. Floc size continues to build with additional collisions and interaction with added
inorganic polymers (coagulant) or organic polymers. Macroflocs are formed and high molecular weight
polymers, called coagulant aids, may be added to help bridge, bind, and strengthen the floc, add
weight, and increase settling rate. Once floc has reached it optimum size and strength, water is ready
for sedimentation. Design contact times for flocculation range from 15 or 20 minutes to an hour or
more, and flocculation requires careful attention to the mixing velocity and amount of mix energy.

Advantages

Simplicity and cost-effectiveness

Separates many kind of particles from water

Enhances filtration process

Uses abundant and low cost chemicals

Disadvantages

Input of chemicals required

Qualified personnel required for design (e.g. construction of chambers and dosage of chemicals) and
system maintenance

Transfer of toxic compounds into solid phase and formation of sludge that has to be treated
subsequently

Relatively time consuming process

PRECIPITATION:
Precipitation is the creation of a solid from a solution. When the reaction occurs in a liquid
solution, the solid formed is called the 'precipitate'. The chemical that causes the solid to
form is called the 'precipitant.
Advantages:

Precipitation is a proven, relatively simple and effective technique. Precipitation

can be used to obtain good results with a number of substances that are difficult
to remove with other techniques. Another advantage of this technique is that very
specific components can be removed, while not removing other substances; thus
there is a high degree of selectivity. In some cases, waste materials from other
processes can act as reagents; examples of this include iron-based silt or
hydroxide (fluid or as silt).

Disadvantages:

Due to the 1 to 1 ratio, a large quantity of reagent is generally needed, which is

often very expensive (like, for example, in the case of barium sulphate). Another
disadvantage is the large quantity of silt that is produced. Few problems are
encountered if the silt can be precipitated as a useful by-product; if, for example,
the silt contains heavy metals, it will be regarded as dangerous waste and will be
accompanied by high processing costs.

FLOTATION

Dissolved air flotation (DAF) is a water treatment process that clarifies

wastewaters (or other waters) by the removal of suspended matter such as oil or
solids. The removal is achieved by dissolving air in the water or wastewater under
pressure and then releasing the air at atmospheric pressure in a flotation tank
basin. The released air forms tiny bubbles which adhere to the suspended matter
causing the suspended matter to float to the surface of the water where it may
then be removed by a skimming device.

Disinfection

The filtered water may normally contain some harmful disease producing
bacteria in it. These bacteria must be killed in order to make the water safe for
drinking. The process of killing these bacteria is known as Disinfection or
Sterilization.

Disinfection Kinetics
When a single unit of microorganisms is exposed to a single unit of disinfectant,
the reduction in microorganisms follows a first-order reaction.
dN/dt=-kN N=N0e-kt
This equation is known as Chick’s Law:-
N = number of microorganism (N0 is initial number)
k = disinfection constant
t = contact time
Methods of Disinfection
1. Boiling:
2. Treatment with Excess Lime:
3. Treament with Ozone:
4. Chlorination:
ADVANCED OXIDATION METHODS:

Advanced oxidation processes (abbreviation: AOPs), in a broad sense, are a set

of chemical treatment procedures designed to remove organic (and sometimes
inorganic) materials in water and wastewater by oxidation through reactions with
hydroxyl radicals (·OH). In real-world applications of wastewater treatment,
however, this term usually refers more specifically to a subset of such chemical
processes that employ ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and/or UV light.

AOPs hold several advantages that are unparalleled in the field of water
treatment:

They can effectively eliminate organic compounds in aqueous phase, rather than
collecting or transferring pollutants into another phase.

Due to the remarkable reactivity of ·OH, it virtually reacts with almost every
aqueous pollutant without discriminating. AOPs are therefore applicable in many,
if not all, scenarios where many organic contaminants must be removed at the
same time.

Some heavy metals can also be removed in forms of precipitated M(OH)x.

In some AOPs designs, disinfection can also be achieved, which makes these
AOPs an integrated solution to some water quality problems.

Since the complete reduction product of ·OH is H2O, AOPs theoretically do not
introduce any new hazardous substances into the water.
 UNIT 2
PRINCIPLES OF BIOPROCESS TREATMENT
The main objective of secondary treatment is the removal of organic matter. Or-
ganic matter is present in the following forms:

• dissolved organic matter (soluble or filtered BOD) that is not

removed by merely physical operations, such as the
sedimentation that occurs in primary treatment;

• organic matter in suspension (suspended or particulate BOD),

which is largely removed in the occasionally existing primary
treatment, but whose solids with slower settleability (finer solids)
remain in the liquid mass.

The secondary treatment processes are conceived in such a way as to accel- erate
the decomposition mechanisms that naturally occur in the receiving bod- ies.
Thus, the decomposition of the degradable organic pollutants is achieved under
controlled conditions, and at smaller time intervals than in the natural systems.

The essence of secondary treatment of domestic sewage is the inclusion of a

biological stage. While preliminary and primary treatments have predominantly
physical mechanisms, the removal of the organic matter in the secondary stage is
carried out through biochemical reactions, undertaken by microorganisms.

Secondary treatment generally includes preliminary treatment units, but may or

may not include primary treatment units. There exists a large variety of
secondary treatment processes, and the most common ones are:

• Stabilisation ponds

• Land disposal systems

• Anaerobic reactors

• Activated sludge systems

• Aerobic biofilm reactors

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH:

 1. Nutritional Requirements: On the basis of chemical form of carbon
required, microorganisms are classified as

a. Autotrophic: organisms that use CO2 or HCO3- as their sole source of carbon.

b. Heterotrophic: organisms that use carbon from organic compounds.

2. Energy Requirements: On the basis of energy source required,

microorganisms are classified as

Phototrophs: organisms that use light as their energy source.

Chemotrophs: organisms that employ oxidation-reduction reactions to provide

energy. They are further classified on the basis of chemical compounds oxidized
(i.e., electron donor)

1.Chemoorganotrophs: Organisms that use complex organic molecules as their

electron donor.

2.Chemoautotrophs: Organisms that use simple inorganic molecules such as

hydrogen sulfide or ammonia as their electron donor.

3. Temperature Range: On the basis of temperature range within which they

can proliferate, microorganisms are classified as

Psychrophilic: organisms whose growth is optimum within 15 to 30°C.

Mesophilic: organisms whose growth is optimum within 30 to 45°C.

Thermophilic: organisms whose growth is optimum within 45 to 70°C.

4. Oxygen Requirements: On the basis of oxygen requirement

microorganisms are classified as

Aerobes: organisms that use molecular oxygen as electron acceptor.

Anaerobes: organisms that use some molecule other than molecular oxygen as
electron acceptor.

Facultative organisms : organisms that can use either molecular oxygen or some
other chemical compound as electron acceptor.

Growth Pattern of Micro organisms

When a small number of viable bacterial cells are placed in a close vessel
containing excessive food supply in a suitable environment, conditions are
established in which unrestricted growth takes place. However, growth of an
organism do not go on indefinitely, and after a characteristic size is reached, the
cell divides due to hereditary and internal limitations. The growth rate may follow
a pattern similar to as shown in figure:
The curve shown may be divided into six well defined phases:

1. Lag Phase:adaptation to new environment, long generation time and null

growth rate.

2. Accelaration phase: decreasing generation time and increasing growth

rate.

3. Exponential phase: minimal and constant generation time, maximal and

constant specific growth rate and maximum rate of substrate conversion.

4. Declining growth phase: increasing generation time and decreasing

specific growth rate due to gradual decrease in substrate concentration
and increased accumulation of toxic metabolites.

5. Stationary phase: exaustion of nutrients, high concentration of toxic

metabolites, and cells in a state of suspended animation.

6. Endogenous phase: endogenous metabolism, high death rate and cell

lysis.

Biomass Growth Rate

The most widely used expression for the growth rate of micro organisms is given
by Monod:

Total rate of microbial growth,dx = mmXS

dt Ks+ S

where,

mm= maximum specific growth rate

X = micro organism concentration

S = substrate concentration

Ks= substrate concentration at one half the maximum growth rate

Similarly, rate of substrate utilization,

dS = k X S
dt Ks+ S

where,

k = maximum specific substrate utilization rate

Microbial Growth Kinetics

During the lag phase dX/dt and dS/dt are essentially zero. However as exponential growth
phase begins it is possible to measure dX/dt and dS/dt values which are very useful for
defining important microbial kinetic parameters. Using corresponding observations of
dS/dt and dX/dt obtained just after the onset of exponential growth phase we can compute
the yield coefficient YXS and the specific growth rate µ as:

Y = dX/ds = mass of new cells / mass of substrate consumed (no unit)

Specific growth rate (u) = mass of cells produced / original mass of cells * time (unit
1/time)

ATTACHED AND SUSPENDED GROWTH

• If the micro-organisms are suspended in the WW during biological operation

– suspended growth processes

• Recycling of settled biomass is required.

• While the micro-organisms that are attached to a surface over

which they grow

– attached growth processes

• The biomass attached to media (ex. rock, plastic, wood)

• Recycling of settled biomass is not required.

BIODEGRADABILITY ASSESSMENT:

The organic matter present in sewage is a characteristic of substantial importance, being

the cause of one of the main water pollution problems: consumption of dissolved oxygen
by the microorganisms in their metabolic processes of using and stabilising the organic
matter. The organic substances present in sewage consist mainly of

• Protein compounds (40%)

• Carbohydrates (25 to 50%)

• Oils and grease (10%)

• Urea, surfactants, phenols, pesticides and others (lower quantity)

The carbonaceous organic matter (based on organic carbon) present in the influent sewage
to a WWTP can be divided into the following main fractions:
In practical terms it is not usually necessary to classify organic matter in terms of
proteins, fats, carbohydrates, etc. Besides, there is a great difficulty in
determining in the laboratory the various components of organic matter in
wastewater, in view of the multiple forms and compounds in which it can be
present. As a re- sult, direct or indirect methods can be adopted for the
quantification of organic matter:

• Indirect methods: measurement of oxygen consumption

• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

• Ultimate Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BODu)

• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

• Direct methods: measurement of organic carbon

• Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

or raw domestic sewage, the ratio BOD/COD varies between 7.5 and 9.5. For industrial
wastewater, however, this ratio can vary widely. Depending on the value of the ratio,
conclusions can be drawn about the biodegradability of the wastewater and the
treatment process to be employed

Highly biodegradable if BOD/COD >7

Intermediate BOD/COD ratio (3-7) – Both physic-chemical and biodegradation combined

Low ratio (BOD/COD < 3) – only physic chemical treatment

SELECTION OF PROCESS REACTORS

 UNIT 3:
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES
3.1 Aerobic biological oxidation

Activated Sludge Process

The most common suspended growth process used for municipal

wastewater treatment is the activated sludge process as shown in figure:
Activated sludge plant involves:

1. wastewater aeration in the presence of a microbial suspension,

2. solid-liquid separation following aeration,

3. discharge of clarified effluent,

4. wasting of excess biomass, and

5. return of remaining biomass to the aeration tank.

In activated sludge process wastewater containing organic matter is aerated in an

aeration basin in which micro-organisms metabolize the suspended and soluble
organic matter. Part of organic matter is synthesized into new cells and part is
oxidized to CO2 and water to derive energy. In activated sludge systems the new
cells formed in the reaction are removed from the liquid stream in the form of a
flocculent sludge in settling tanks. A part of this settled biomass, described as
activated sludge is returned to the aeration tank and the remaining forms waste
or excess sludge.

Activated Sludge Process Variables

The main variables of activated sludge process are the mixing regime, loading
rate, and the flow scheme.

Mixing Regime
In complete mixing, the contents of aeration tank are well stirred and uniform
throughout. Thus, at steady state, the effluent from the aeration tank has the
same composition as the aeration tank contents.

The type of mixing regime is very important as it affects (1) oxygen transfer
requirements in the aeration tank, (2) susceptibility of biomass to shock loads,
(3) local environmental conditions in the aeration tank, and (4) the kinetics
governing the treatment process.

3.3 factors affecting oxygen transfer

Delivering oxygen to cells
In cell culture, oxygen is a key substrate for growth, production, and maintenance
activities. Cells obtain their oxygen in free and noncompound forms, called
dissolved oxygen (DO). One of the most important functions of bioreactors is
providing dissolved oxygen to cells continuously through a process called
aeration.
Aeration in the bioreactor typically occurs when:

1. Oxygen diffuses through overlay to the cell culture medium interface.

2. Oxygen from the spargers dissolves in the cell culture through convection
with the help of agitation.

Agitation disperses the oxygen bubbles and promotes mass transfer of the gas
bubbles through the gas-liquid (cell culture medium) interface. The rate of oxygen
transfer (OTR) from gas to liquid interface is a function of physicochemical
properties of the cell culture medium, the geometrical parameters of the
bioreactor, and presence of cells.

Diagram of a gas bubble in liquid, showing how the bubble is released, solubilized, and transferred to
a cell.
Oxygen utilization rate (OUR) is often cell line‑dependent. Due to its low solubility in liquid
phase and increasing metabolic consumption by the cells with time, oxygen is supplied
continuously to the cell culture. Oxygen supply is carefully controlled for optimal cell
growth by manipulating bioreactor parameters.

During batch cell culture, OUR (or OTR) is initially low during the lag phase, where cells
are self‑synthesizing and there is little gain of cell density. As cell density increases during
the exponential phase, OUR increases until OTR becomes a limiting rate, as determined
by the mass transfer of oxygen into the bulk liquid.

Here are four key variables that can affect kLa values:

1. Gas bubble size

2. Mixing
3. Air Flow Rate
4. Properties of the medium (viscosity, temp, pH, other chemicals etc.,)

3.4 Introduction to attached growth systems

What can this process do?
1. Remove Nutrient
2. Remove dissolved organic solids
3. Remove suspended organic solids
4. Remove suspended solids
BIOTOWER / TRICKLING FILTER

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS;
• Influent wastewater characteristics
• Degree of treatment anticipated (BOD & TSS removal).
 • Temperature range of applied wastewater
• Pretreatment processes
• Type of filter media
• Recirculation rate
• Hydraulic and organic loadings applied to the filter
• Underdrainage and ventilation systems

The ideal filter packing is material that

• has a high surface area per unit of volume
• is low in cost
• has a high durability
• has a high enough porosity so that clogging is minimized
• provides good air circulation

ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTRACTORS

Rotating biological contactors (RBC), also called rotating biological filters, are
fixed-bed reactors consisting of stacks of rotating disks mounted on a horizontal
shaft. They are partially submerged and rotated as wastewater flows through.
They are used in conventional wastewater treatment plants as secondary
treatment after primary sedimentation of domestic grey- or blackwater, or any
other biodegradable effluent. The microbial community is alternately exposed to
the atmosphere and the wastewater, allowing both aeration and assimilation of
dissolved organic pollutants and nutrients for their degradation
Advantages
High contact time and high effluent quality (both BOD and nutrients)
High process stability, resistant to shock hydraulic or organic loading
Short contact periods are required because of the large active surface
Low space requirement
Well drainable excess sludge collected in clarifier
Process is relatively silent compared to dosing pumps for aeration
No risk of channelling
Low sludge production

Disadvantages
Continuous electricity supply required (but uses less energy than trickling filters or activated
sludge processes for comparable degradation rates)
Contact media not available at local market
High investment as well as operation and maintenance costs
Must be protected against sunlight, wind and rain (especially against freezing in cold
climates)
Odour problems may occur
Requires permanent skilled technical labour for operation and maintenance
 The following variants of stabilisation ponds are described briefly in this
section:
• Facultative ponds
• Facultative aerated lagoons
• Complete-mix aerated lagoon – sedimentation pond systems
• Maturation ponds

Bacteria  respiration:

• oxygen consumption
• carbon dioxide production
Algae  photosynthesis:

• oxygen production
• carbon dioxide consumption

Stabilisation ponds are units specially designed and built with the purpose of
treating sewage. However, the construction is simple and is principally based on
earth movement for digging, filling and embankment preparation.

When facultative ponds receive raw sewage, they are also called primary ponds
(a secondary pond would be the one which would receive its influent from a
previous treatment unit, such as anaerobic ponds – see item b in this section).

Amongst the stabilisation ponds systems, the process of facultative ponds is the
simplest, relying only on natural phenomenon. The influent enters continuously in
one end of the pond and leaves in the opposite end. During this time, which is of
the order of many days, a series of events contribute to the purification of the
sewage.

Part of the organic matter in suspension (particulate BOD) tends to settle, con-
stituting the bottom sludge. This sludge undergoes a decomposition process by
anaerobic microorganisms and is converted into carbon dioxide, methane and
other compounds. The inert fraction (non-biodegradable) stays in this bottom
layer.

The dissolved organic matter (soluble BOD), together with the small-dimension
organic matter in suspension (fine particulate BOD), does not settle and stays
dispersed in the liquid mass. Its decomposition is through facultative bacteria that
have the capacity to survive, either in the presence or in the absence of free
oxygen (but presence of nitrate), hence the designation of facultative, which also
defines the name of the pond. These bacteria use the organic matter as energy
source, which is released through respiration. The presence of oxygen is necessary
in aerobic respiration, and it is supplied to the medium by the photosynthesis
carried out by the algae. There is an equilibrium between consumption and the
production of oxygen and carbon dioxide A light energy source, in this case
represented by the sun, is necessary for photosynthesis to occur. For this reason,
locations with high solar radiation and low cloudiness are favourable for the
implementation of facultative ponds.

Photosynthesis is higher near the water surface, as it depends on solar energy.

Typical pond depths are between 1.5 and 2.0 m. When deep regions in the pond
are reached, the light penetration is low, what causes the predominance of oxygen
consumption (respiration) over its production (photosynthesis), with the possible
absence of dissolved oxygen at a certain depth. Besides, photosynthesis only
occurs during the day, and during the night the absence of oxygen can prevail.
Owing to these facts, it is essential that the main bacteria responsible for the
stabilisation of the organic matter are facultative, so that they can survive and
proliferate, either in the presence or in the absence of oxygen (but only under
anoxic, and not strict anaerobic conditions).

Maturation ponds

Maturation ponds aim at polishing the effluent from any stabilisation pond system
previously described or, in broader terms, from any sewage treatment system.
The main objective of maturation ponds is the removal of pathogenic organisms
and not an additional BOD removal. Maturation ponds are an economic alternative
for the disinfection of the effluent, in comparison to more conventional methods,
such as chlorination.

The ideal environment for pathogenic microorganisms is the human intestinal

tract. Outside it, whether in the sewerage system, in the sewage treatment or in
the receiving body, the pathogenic organisms tend to die. Various factors
contribute to this, such as temperature, solar radiation, pH, food shortage,
predator organisms, competition, toxic compounds, etc. The maturation pond is
designed in such a way as to optimise some of these mechanisms. Many of these
mechanisms become more effective with lower pond depths, which justifies the
fact that maturation ponds are shallower than the other types of ponds.

Constructed wetlands
Constructed wetlands are treatment systems that use natural processes involving
wetland vegetation, soils, and their associated microbial assemblages to improve
water quality.
A constructed wetland uses natural geochemical and biological processes in a wetland ecosystem to
treat metals, explosives, and other contaminants in groundwater. Usually, the constructed wetland
has three primary components: an impermeable layer (generally clay), a gravel layer that provides a
substrate (i.e., an area that provides nutrients and support) for the root zone, and an above-surface
vegetation zone. The impermeable layer prevents infiltration of wastes down into lower aquifers. The
gravel layer and root zone is where water flows and bioremediation and denitrification take place. The
above ground vegetative layer contains the plant material. Both aerobic and anaerobic systems (i.e.,
systems with and without oxygen) exist within the wetland, and these can be divided into separate
cells. Groundwater is either pumped or allowed to naturally flow through the wetland. The anaerobic
cell uses plants in concert with natural microbes to degrade the contaminant. The aerobic cell further
improves water quality through continued exposure to the plants and the movement of water
between cell compartments. Straw, manure or compost is used, with little or no soil, in wetlands
constructed primarily for the removal of metals. For wetlands constructed to treat explosives-
contaminated water, certain plant species are used to support degradation. The process of using
plants to break down contaminants is also referred to as phytoremediation.

The process filters some materials and degrades others. The technology incorporates the principal
components of wetland ecosystems that promote degradation and control of contaminants by plants:
degradation by microbial activity and increased sorption, filtering, and precipitation. The technology
can be adapted to treatment needs by selecting a design, such as surface or subsurface-flow, single or
multiple cells, and parallel or series flow. Constructed wetlands are sometimes built as part of a
treatment train that may include processes in series such as settling ponds, oil/water separators, and
physical/chemical treatment methods.

Removal mechanisms can act uniquely, sequentially, or simultaneously on each contaminant group or
species. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in contaminated groundwater are primarily removed
through the physical mechanism of diffusion-volatilization. However, mechanisms such
as adsorption to suspended matter, photochemical oxidation, and biological degradation may also
play a role. Major physical removal mechanisms in wetlands include settling, sedimentation,
and volatilization. Gravitational settling is responsible for most of the removal of suspended solids.

Limitations and Concerns

The long-term effectiveness of constructed wetlands to contain or treat some
contaminants is not well known. Wetland aging may contribute to a decrease in
contaminant removal rates over time.

Constructed wetlands, like other biological methods, are limited by the ability of
the biota to withstand exposure to their environment. Natural systems must
establish themselves in order for this method to be successful. Weather events,
wildlife, and contaminant concentrations may be problematic in establishing the
systems. For example at one demonstration, a hailstorm decimated one of the few
plants able to reestablish itself; a tadpole infestation severely defoliated the plants
within two months of planting; and there was difficulty encountered in
reestablishing plant growth because photo-degradation of explosives in the
contaminated groundwater colored the water a dark red, which in turn inhibited
photosynthesis.
High contaminant concentrations with low permissible effluent concentrations
require long retention times, hence large wetland areas.

In cases where metals are the key contaminant, constructed wetlands do not
destroy the metals; they restrict their mobility through sorption.

During operation of the constructed wetland, wildlife may be adversely affected

by the presence of metals that have accumulated in plants.

After the pumping of contaminated water ceases, the artificial wetland ecosystem
changes. This could severely affect the plant and animal life that comes to depend
on the wetland, and it may leave a waste byproduct contaminated with metals
and other contaminants. This residue or sludge may have to be disposed or
capped.

The outlet of the monitored wetland should be carefully monitored. Underlying

aquifers must also be monitored to assure that the impermeable base has not
leaked.

When developing a constructed wetland, exotic and invasive species should not
be used, and a plan should be prepared to remove these species if they appear.
 UNIT 4:
Biological Nutrient Removal

Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR) is a process used for nitrogen and phosphorus
removal from wastewater before it is discharged into surface or ground water. The
rising concentration of harmful nutrient compounds – specifically nitrogen and
phosphorus – in municipal wastewater treatment plant discharge causes cultural
eutrophication (nutrient enrichment due to human activities) in surface waters.
Summer algal blooms are a familiar example of this eutrophication, and can
present problems for ecosystems and people alike: low dissolved oxygen, fish kills,
murky water, and depletion of desirable flora and fauna.

Because conventional biological processes designed to meet secondary treatment

effluent standards typically do not remove total nitrogen (TN) and total
phosphorus (TP) to the extent needed to protect receiving waters, wastewater
treatment facilities are increasingly being required to implement processes that
reduce effluent nutrient concentrations to safe levels. This can be a challenge for
wastewater treatment plants because it usually involves major process
modifications to a plant, such as making a portion of the aeration basin anaerobic
and/or anoxic, which reduces the aerobic volume and limits nitrification capacity.

Nitrogen is present in many forms in wastewater. Excess nitrate discharged from

a wastewater plant can be harmful to both humans and the environment. Nitrate
entering drinking water wells can have serious health effects while excess nitrate
in water bodies can lead to eutrophication (nutrient enrichment due to human
activity) which can create an unfavorable environment for aquatic ecosystems.
Biological nutrient removal (BNR) is a process commonly used to remove nitrate
from wastewater.

Nitrification-Denitrification Systems

A certain amount of nitrogen removal (20-30%) occurs in conventional activated

sludge systems. Nitrogen removal ranging from 70 to 90 % can be obtained by
use of nitrification-denitrification method in plants based on activated sludge and
other suspended growth systems. Biological denitrification requires prior
nitrification of all ammonia and organic nitrogen in the incoming waste.

Nitrification

There are two groups of chemoautotrophic bacteria that can be associated with
the process of nitrification. One group (Nitrosomonas) derives its energy through
the oxidation of ammonium to nitrite, whereas the other group (Nitrobacter)
obtains energy through the oxidation of nitrite to nitrate. Both the groups,
collectively called Nitrifiers, obtain carbon required, from inorganic carbon forms.
Nitrification of ammonia to nitrate is a two step process:
 Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter
NH3 NH4 NO2 NO3

Stoichiometrically, 4.6 kg of oxygen is required for nitrifying 1 kg of nitrogen.

Under steady state conditions, experimental evidence has shown nitrite
accumulation to be insignificant. This suggests that the rate-limiting step for the
conversion of ammonium to nitrate is the oxidation of ammonium to nitrite by the
genus Nitrosomonas.

qc = 1
m

where m is the growth rate of nitrosomonas at the worst operating temperature.

Sludge age (or mean cell residence time), qc in a treatment plant must be
sufficiently high if nitrification is desired.

Combined and Separate Systems of Biological Oxidation & Nitrification

Following figure shows flow sheets for combined and separate systems for
biological oxidation and nitrification.

Combined system is favoured method of operation as it is less sensitive to load

variations - owing to larger sized aeration tank - generally produces a smaller
volume of surplus sludge owing to higher values of qc adopted, and better
sludge settleability.

Care should be taken to ensure that the oxygenation capacity of aeration tank is
sufficient to meet oxygen uptake due to carbonaceous demand and nitrification.
Recycling of sludge must be rapid enough to prevent denitrification (and rising
sludge) owing to anoxic conditions in the settling tank.
In separate system, the first tank can be smaller in size since a higher F/M ratio
can be used, but this makes the system somewhat more sensitive to load
variations and also tends to produce more sludge for disposal. An additional
settling tank is also necessary between the two aeration tanks to keep the two
sludges separate. A principal advantage of this system is its higher efficiency of
nitrification and its better performance when toxic substances are feared to be in
the inflow.

Biological Denitrification

When a treatment plant discharges into receivingstream with lowavailable

nitrogen concentration and with a flow much larger than the effluent, the presence
of nitrate in the effluent generally does not adversely affect stream quality.
However,if the nitrate concentration in the stream is significant, it may be
desirable to control the nitrogen contentof the effluent, as highly nitrified effluents
can stillaccelarate algal blooms. Even more critical is the case where treatment
plant effluent is dischargeddirectly into relatively still bodies of water such as lakes
or reservoirs. Another argument for the controlof nitrogen in the aquatic
environment is theoccurence of infantile methemoglobinemia,which results from
high concentration of nitrates indrinking water.

The four basic processes that are used are: (1) ammonia stripping,

(2) selective ion exchange, (3) break point chlorination, and

(4) biological nitrification/denitrification.

Biological nitrification/denitrification is a two step process. The first step is

nitrification, which is conversion of ammonia to nitrate through the action of
nitrifying bacteria. The second step is nitrate conversion (denitrification), which is
carried out by facultative heterotrophic bacteria under anoxic conditions.

Microbiological Aspects of Denitrification

Nitrate conversion takes place through both assimilatory and dissimilatory cellular
functions. In assimilatory denitrification, nitrate is reduced to ammonia, which
then serves as a nitrogen source for cell synthesis. Thus, nitrogen is removed from
the liquid stream by incorporating it into cytoplasmic material.

In dissimilatory denitrification, nitrate serves as the electron acceptor in energy

metabolism and is converted to various gaseous end products but principally
molecular nitrogen, N2, which is then stripped from the liquid stream.

Because the microbial yield under anoxic conditions is considerably lower than
under aerobic conditions, a relatively small fraction of the nitrogen is removed
through assimilation. Dissimilatory denitrification is, therfore, the primary means
by which nitrogen removal is achieved.

A carbon source is also essential as electron donor for denitrification to take place.
This source may be in the form of carbon internally available in sewage or
artificially added (eg. as methanol). Since most community wastewaters have a
higher ratio of BOD:N, the internally available carbon becomes attractive and
economical for denitrification.

Denitrification releases nitrogen which escapes as an inert gas to the atmosphere

while oxygen released stays dissolved in the liquid and thus reduces the oxygen
input needed into the system. Each molecule of nitrogen needs 4 molecules of
oxygen during nitrification but releases back 2.5 molecules in denitrification. Thus,
theoretically, 62.5% of the oxygen used is released back in denitrification.
Phosphorus Removal

Phosphorus precipitation is ususally achieved by addition of chemicals like calcium

hydroxide, ferrous or ferric chloride, or alum, either in the primary or the final
settling tank.

Alum is more expensive and generates more hydroxide, which creates extra
sludge, that is difficult to dewater. Use of lime results in an increase of
approximately 50% in surplus sludge, but the sludge is reported to have good
dewatering properties. When using iron salts, a molar ratio of 1.0:1.4 of iron to
phosphorus is reported to give 91-96% removal of total phosphorus using ferrous
chloride dosed directly beneath the aerator.

Chemical addition prior to biological treatment is feasible if a primary settling tank

exists as in the case of the conventional activated sludge process. The dose
requirement then increases, but chemical precipitation also improves organic
removal, thus reducing BOD load on the biological treatment. For extended
aeration plants there is no primary settling; chemical addition has to be done in
the final settling tank.

Enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) is a sewage treatment

configuration applied to activated sludge systems for the removal of phosphate.

The common element in EBPR implementations is the presence of an anaerobic

tank (nitrate and oxygen are absent) prior to the aeration tank. Under these
conditions a group of heterotrophic bacteria, called polyphosphate-accumulating
organisms (PAO) are selectively enriched in the bacterial community within the
activated sludge. These bacteria accumulate large quantities of polyphosphate
within their cells and the removal of phosphorus is said to be enhanced.

Generally speaking, all bacteria contain a fraction (1-2%) of phosphorus in their

biomass due to its presence in cellular components, such as membrane
phospholipids and DNA. Therefore, as bacteria in a wastewater treatment plant
consume nutrients in the wastewater, they grow and phosphorus is incorporated
into the bacterial biomass. When PAOs grow they not only consume phosphorus
for cellular components but also accumulate large quantities of polyphosphate
within their cells. Thus, the phosphorus fraction of phosphorus accumulating
biomass is 5-7%. This biomass is then separated from the treated water at end of
the process and the phosphorus is thus removed. Thus if PAOs are selectively
enriched by the EBPR configuration, considerably more phosphorus is removed,
compared to the relatively poor phosphorus removal in conventional activated
sludge systems.
 Unit 5
Anaerobic and Sludge
Treatment Processes

Anaerobic process description

Anaerobic Treatment

The anaerobic waste treatment process is an effective

method for the treatment of many organic wastes. The
treatment has a number of advantages over aerobic
treatment process, namely,

 the energy input of the system is low as no energy is

requred for oxygenation,
 lower production of excess sludge( biological
synthesis) per unit mass of substrate utilized,
 lower nutrient requirement due to lower biological
synthesis, and
 degradation leads to production of biogas which is a
valuable source of energy.
Fundamental Microbiology

The anaerobic treatment of organic wastes resulting in the

production of carbon dioxide and methane, involves two distinct
stages. In the first stage, complex waste components, including
fats, proteins, and polysaccharides are first hydrolyzed by a
heterogeneous group of facultative and anaerobic bacteria. These
bacteria then subject the products of hydrolysis to
fermentations, b-oxidations, and other metabolic processes
leading to the formation of simple organic compounds, mainly
short-chain (volatile) acids and alcohols. The first stage is
commonly referred to as "acid fermentation". However in the
second stage the end products of the first stage are converted to
gases (mainly methane and carbon dioxide) by several different
species of strictly anaerobic bacteria. This stage is generally
referred to as "methane fermentation".
The primary acids produced during acid fermentation are
propionic and acetic acid. It is reported that only one group of
methane bacteria is necessary for methane fermentation of acetic
acid, whereas propionic acid, which is fermented through acetic
acid requires two different groups of methane bacteria. The
bacteria responsible for acid fermentation are relatively tolerant
to changes in pH and temperature and have a much higher rate
of growth than the bacteria responsible for methane fermentation.
As a result, methane fermentation is generally assumed to be the
rate limiting step in anaerobic wastewater treatment.

Anaerobic Reactor

Various types of anaerobic units that have been developed are as

follows:

 Upflow anaerobic filters packed with either pebbles,

stones, PVC sheets, etc. as media to support submerged
biological growths (fixed film). The units are reported to
work well but a likely problem is accumulation of solids in
the interstices.
 Downflow anaerobic filters packed with similar media as
above but not to be confused with usual trickling filters
which are aerobic. In the anaerobic units, the inlet and
outlet are so placed that the media and fixed film stay
submerged.
Comparison with Aerobic Process
PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS

SLUDGE MANAGEMENT METHODS

Sludge consists of organic and inorganic solids present in the raw
sewage and removed in the primary settling tanks plus organic
solids produced during secondary treatment of sewage and
removed in the secondary settling tanks. The characteristics and
the quantity of sludge produced depend on the character of the
raw sewage and the treatment process employed. The main
stages in sludge management, with their respective objectives
are:
• Thickening: removal of water (volume reduction)
• Stabilisation: removal of organic matter – volatile solids (mass reduction)
• Conditioning: preparation for dewatering (principally mechanical)
• Dewatering: removal of water (volume reduction)
• Disinfection: removal of pathogenic organisms
• Final disposal: final destination of the by-products

The incorporation of each of these stages in the sludge-

processing flowsheet depends on the characteristics of the
sludge produced or, in other words, on the treatment system
used for the liquid phase, as well as on the subsequent sludge-
treatment stage and on the final disposal.

Thickening is a physical process of concentrating the sludge,

with the aim of reducing its water content and, as a result, its
volume, facilitating the subsequent sludge treatment stages.

Stabilisation aims at attenuating the inconveniences associated

with the gen- eration of bad odours during processing and
disposing of the sludge. This is ac- complished through the
removal of the biodegradable organic matter of the sludge, what
also brings about a reduction in the solids mass in the sludge.

Conditioning is a sludge preparation process, based on the

addition of chemical products (coagulants, polyelectrolytes) to
increase its dewatering capability and to improve the capture of
solids in the sludge dewatering systems.

The next stage is the dewatering of the sludge, which can be done
through natural or mechanical methods. The objective of this
phase is to remove water and reduce the volume even further,
producing a sludge with a mechanical behaviour close to solids.
The dewatering of the sludge has an important impact in its
transport and final disposal costs, besides influencing its
subsequent handling, since the mechanical behaviour varies
with the water content level.

The disinfection of the sludge is necessary if its destination is for

agricultural recycling, since the anaerobic or aerobic digestion
processes usually employed do not reduce the pathogens content
to acceptable levels. Disinfection is not necessary if the sludge is
to be incinerated or disposed of in landfills.
SLUDGE DRYING BEDS
Drying beds are one of the oldest techniques and very much
used for solids- liquid separation in sludge. The construction
costs are generally low in comparison with mechanical
dewatering options, especially for small-sized communities. The
process generally has a rectangular tank with masonry or
concrete walls and a concrete bottom. On the inside of the tank
are the following devices to drain the water present in the sludge
• support layer (bricks and coarse sand), on top of which the
sludge is placed
• draining medium (fine to coarse sand followed by fine to
coarse gravel)
• drainage system (open or perforated pipes)
Part of the liquid evaporates and part percolates through the
sand and support layer. The dewatered sludge stays in the layer
above the sand.
Drying beds are suggested for small and medium sized
communities with the STWs treating a population equivalent of
up to around 20,000 inhabitants.
ADVANTAGES
• Low level of attention required
• Operator with a low qualification level required
• Low or non existent electrical energy consumption
• Low or non existent consumption of
chemical products
• Low sensitivity to variations of the sludge characteristics
• Cake with high solids level
 Operational simplicity
 Low Cost

DISADVANTAGES

 Large area required

 Previous stabilisation of the sludge required
• Significant climate influence on the operational performance of the process

• Slow removal of the sludge cake

• Requires a high quantity of labour to remove the dry cake

• High risk of odour release and proliferation of flies

• Contamination risk of the groundwater, in case the bottom and the drainage
system of the beds are not well executed