333

Correlations for the discharge coefficient of rotating

orifices based on the incidence angle
A Idris and K R Pullen

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College, South Kensington Campus, London, UK

The manuscript was received on 20 May 2004 and was accepted after revision for publication on 23 February 2005.

DOI: 10.1243/095765005X31153

Abstract: The flow through rotating orifices is of interest to the designer of machines incorpor-
ating such features. The designer often requires a set of correlations which can be used to check
out preliminary designs and converge on a solution prior to attempting detailed and expansive
analysis. The correlations given in this paper are based on the incidence angle, i, of the flow into
the orifice and they allow the discharge coefficient for rotating orifices to be estimated for as
many conditions and geometries as possible. The approach adopted is to group the parameters
that affect the discharge coefficient to i ¼ 08 (Reynolds number, orifice chamfer and radius, L/d
ratio, pressure ratio, and pumping effect) and i = 08 (rotation of the disc, preswirl, cross-flow,
and the angle of inclination of the orifice). The effect of each parameter on the discharge coeffi-
cient can easily be observed when using this method. Furthermore, the method can predict the
discharge coefficient for systems that have various parameters that are combined together.
There is a good agreement between the correlations and the experimental results and the avail-
able data on rotating orifices in the open literature. The correlations also agree with various
combinations run in computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The approach adopted in this
paper, which is based on the incidence angle, can assist designers to find the combination of
geometric and flow parameters that gives the best discharge coefficient for rotating orifices.

Keywords: discharge coefficient, rotating orifices, incidence angle, correlations, computational

fluid dynamics (CFD)

1 INTRODUCTION presented by McGreehan and Schotsch [2]. However,

The flow through rotating orifices is of interest in
rotating equipments such as turbines, compressors,
centrifuges, pumps, motors, alternators, generators,
and journal bearings. Metering the right amount of
cooling air inside these types of systems is para-
mount to the overall performance of the machine.
Thus, a comprehensive understanding of discharge
coefficient is essential to meet this requirement.
The orifices covered in the standards are limited to
square-edged concentric, and there are no corre-
lations for the rotating orifices [1]. For the rotating
orifices, there are endless combinations of flow and
geometric parameters that can be established
which give multiple arrays of discharge coefficients.
Correlations for the rotating orifices have been


Corresponding author: Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Imperial College, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
with the recent observation by Idris et al. [3] that the
incidence angle is the main controlling parameter
that dictates the discharge coefficient, the corre-
lations developed by McGreehan and Schotsch [2]
can further be improved by using the recent
published data on rotating orifices and considering
factors that have not been observed in the past like
the pumping effect.
The earliest study on the rotating orifices was by
Meyfarth and Shine [4]. They represented the dis-
charge coefficient in terms of the tangential-speed
parameter S, which is the ratio of the tangential
speed of the orifice and the axial velocity of flow
into the orifice. Carlen [5] pursued Meyfarth and
Shine’s work and observed that the discharge coeffi-
cient was affected by the angle at which the fluid
passes through the orifice but did not represent the
discharge coefficient in terms of this angle, instead
using the tangentialy speed parameter by Meyfarth
and Shine [4]. McGreehan and Schotsch [2] proposed

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A06704 # IMechE 2005 Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part A: J. Power and Energy
334
a method of predicting the discharge coefficient
with an arbitrary combination of inlet corner
radius, orifice length, inlet velocity orientation, and
Reynolds number, and used the ratio of the tangen-
tial velocity of the orifice and the ideal axial velocity
of flow into the orifice, U/Cid, to represent the effect
of rotation. Kutz and Speer [6] produced an air
system computer program that modelled very com-
plex networks. The computer program considers all
the factors that affect the discharge coefficient. Like
Carlen [5], they also observed that the discharge
coefficient is affected by the angle at which the
flow enters the orifice, but they did not represent
the discharge coefficient in terms of this angle,
instead using the ratio of U/Cid, similar to
McGreehan and Schotsch [2]. Wittig et al. [7] used
the discharge coefficient derived from energy con-
servation, entropy, and ideal gas relations. The dis-
charge coefficient is represented in terms of the
ratio of the tangential speed and the ideal axial
velocity of the flow. Maeng et al. [8] had a rotating
axial orifice setup similar to that of Wittig et al.
[7]. They used the discharge coefficient derived
from the steady flow energy equation with the rate
of rotational work transfer from the orifice to the
fluid, i.e. shaft power (W _ shaft ¼ tv). The results
for square-edged orifices are similar to Wittig’s,
but, for radius-edged orifices, the ideal mass flow
rate is calculated to be lower than the actual mass
flow rate, which causes the discharge coefficient
value to exceed unity. To overcome this setback,
the rotational work transfer was included in the
discharge coefficient in order to take into account
the rotational momentum ½t ¼ m(r _ 2 Cu2  r1 Cu1 ) of
the rotor that is transferred to the orifice flow
when it passes through the long orifice. They
called the ratio of the tangential speed and the
ideal axial velocity of the flow as a rotation
number, Ro. Zimmermann et al. [9] proposed the
representation of discharge coefficient in the relative
frame of reference. This is because-previous studies,
which adopted the U/Cid ratio, tend to have a range
that would build-up to infinity, but, in the relative
frame of reference, this range can be constrained
between 0 and 1, and this allows different corre-
lations to be compared on the same basis. Alexiou
et al. [10] investigated discharge coefficients for
flow through holes normal to a rotating shaft. The
results of discharge coefficients were plotted against
velocity head ratio, which is defined as the ratio of
velocity head of the orifice jet to the velocity head
in the main duct. Dittmann et al. [11] investigated
the discharge behaviour of rotating orifices with
preswirl. The discharge coefficients were plotted
against the velocity ratio U/Cid in the relative
frame of reference as described by Zimmermann
et al. [9]. Hay and Lampard [12] gave an in-depth
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Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part A: J. Power and Energy
A Idris and K R Pullen
review of the parameters that affect the discharge
coefficient for the non-rotating orifices. The import-
ant parameters that affect the discharge coefficient
for stationary orifices are the L/d ratio, the pressure
ratio across the orifice, and the inlet chamfering or
radiusing of the orifice. It has been established
that long orifices with high L/d ratio leads to a
higher discharge coefficient, and similarly orifices
with high-pressure ratio gives a higher discharge
coefficient.
In previous studies, the most common way to
represent the discharge coefficient for rotating
orifices is by the velocity ratio of U/Cid. For a
straight-hole orifice without any preswirl, Cd gen-
erally decreases with U/Cid. U/Cid gives the ratio of
the tangential velocity of the disc and the axial velo-
city of the flow. However, this ratio does not express
the physical interpretation of the overall interactions
between the flow and the rotation of the disc. There
is no direct suggestion in U/Cid that can automati-
cally lead to optimization of the geometric and flow
parameters, such that the best discharge coefficient
can be achieved. The principal link between U and
Cid is the incidence angle, a term that is widely
used in turbomachinery, but does not emerge in
the discussion of orifice and discharge coefficient.
Besides taking into account the tangential speed
and the incoming axial velocity, incidence angle
goes a step further by embodying the angle of incli-
nation of the orifice and any preswirl or cross-flows
that exist at the entrance of the orifice. The highest
discharge coefficient is reached when the incidence
angle is bordering on zero. Away from this position,
the discharge coefficient starts to decay. For rotating
inclined orifices, the highest discharge coefficient
occurs when the combination of rotational speed,
angle of the orifice, and axial velocity of incoming
flow gives a zero incidence angle. A 308 inclined ori-
fice has its best discharge coefficient at a rotational
speed of 21 000 r/m in where the incidence angle is
zero, whereas a 08 orifice registers its worst discharge
coefficient at the same speed because of a higher
incidence angle. CFD simulations show that the
size of separation region depends on the incidence
angle. For a high incidence angle, a large separation
area is developed inside the orifice. Idris et al. [3]
showed that there is an interaction between the
flow work, (2cp(T2 2 T1)), and the shaft work (v2R2h)
for rotating orifices. The work from the shaft is chan-
nelled as kinetic energy into the flow causing the
mass flow rate to increase with speed. However, if
there is a high incidence angle, a greater separation
inside the rotating orifices would cause the shaft
work to be converted to heat losses. Idris et al. [3]
observed the presence of the pumping effect and
static pressure rise in rotating orifices, and how
they affect the discharge coefficient.
A06704 # IMechE 2005
 Discharge coefficient of rotating orifices 335

2 AXIAL ORIFICE ASSEMBLY
Figure 1 illustrates the angular axial orifice assembly.
The axial disc contains six holes with a pitch radius
circle of 26.25 mm. Each orifice insert is secured
inside the hole by a radial grub screw. The orifice
insert is sufficiently large to accommodate a 10 mm
orifice with an angle of inclination of 308. A total of
six insert arrays were devised to study axial orifices
inclined at 08, 158, and 308 with passage diameters

Fig. 1 Axial orifice assembly and the engineering drawings for the disc and inserts

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336 A Idris and K R Pullen

of 5 and 10 mm. Additional radial drillings have been

included for accommodation of balancing masses. A
full description of the experimental apparatus and
instrumentation is given by Idris et al. [3].

3 DATA ANALYSIS

The characteristics of the flow through a set of rotat-

ing orifices for particular conditions are quantified
in terms of a discharge coefficient, which is the
ratio of the actual flow divided by the flow for the
ideal case

_ actual
m Fig. 2 The velocity triangle at the inlet
Cd ¼ (1)
_ ideal
m
regard to how the direction of the inlet flow affects
The actual flow can be measured experimentally, the discharge coefficient. Second, high rotational
whereas the ideal flow is calculated according to speeds or low value of Cid will give large values of
equations derived by analysis based on stated U/Cid, and the ratio will increase towards infinity as
assumptions. If the discharge coefficient is known Cid tends to zero.
for a particular geometry, shaft speed and flow The ratio of U/Cid can be represented in the vel-
boundary conditions such as fluid properties, ocity triangle at the inlet as shown in Fig. 2. The
pressure, and the mass flow through the orifices sign convention to be employed for velocities and
can be calculated. angles is that angles and components of velocity in
The discharge coefficient with rotational work the direction of rotation are positive and angles and
transfer is written as velocities opposed to it are negative [13]. From the
aforementioned, velocity triangle the angle of inci-
Cd ¼ dence is defined as
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
m_ actual ( T1,s =p1,s A)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi i ¼ b1 ¼ b o (5)
2g=(g  1)R½(1=P)2=g (1 þ Trot =T1,s )  (1=P)(gþ1)=g 
(2) If the relative inlet velocity angle b1 is equal to the
orifice angle of orientation, the flow approaches the
The rotational temperature Trot is defined as orifice directly along the axis of the hole. Under
many operating conditions, however, the angle will
R2h v2 be either greater or lesser than the orifice angle,
Trot ¼ (3) and hence the orifice will be subject to an angle of
2cp
incidence (or angle of attack).
The ratio of U/Cid gives the relative inlet velocity
The discharge coefficient is usually represented
angle b1
in terms of the ratio of the tangential velocity of the
orifices, U, to the ideal axial velocity of the flow, Cid  
1 U
b1 ¼ tan (6)
_ ideal
m Cid
U ¼ vRh , Cid ¼ (4)
r2 A
Thus, the angle of incidence is
where Rh is the pitch circle radius, v the angular velo-  
U
city of the disc, and A the orifice area. Normally, for i ¼ tan1  bo (7)
system with no preswirl, the discharge coefficient Cid
decreases with increasing ratio of U/Cid. Although
the dimensionless value of U/Cid has been com-
monly used to represent the effect of rotation 4 CFD MODELLING
on the discharge coefficient of rotating orifices,
there are several limitations associated with it. The CFD modelling was carried out using a commer-
First, the ratio of U/Cid does not describe the physical cial CFD code [14]. The cylindrical coordinate
interpretation of the flow in the rotating orifice with system was used to set up the geometry of the

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Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part A: J. Power and Energy A06704 # IMechE 2005
 Discharge coefficient of rotating orifices
Fig. 3 Variable parameters used in the axial orifice
model
computational region. The inlet region consists of a
cylindrical housing followed by the orifice and the
outlet cylindrical housing. Denser grids are built
around the vicinity of the orifice because of the
high velocity gradients being developed there,
(Fig. 3). Geometric models can be built using the
graphical user interface facility or by programming
STAR-CD commands in script files. As multiple
arrays of flow and geometric parameters are investi-
gated in this study, the programming option is
chosen. Besides producing unlimited models, pro-
gramming can also handle difficult geometries.
Figure 3 shows the variable parameters used in
building the axial orifice model. The following geo-
metric parameters can be varied so that different
geometry models can be achieved: orifice inclination
angle, number of orifices, disc diameter, orifice
length and diameter, inlet and outlet housing
lengths, chamfer angle and depth, inlet corner
radius, and disc pitch radius circle. The grids are
automatically adjusted to the required value using
the global and local flags when the aforementioned
parameters are changed. An example of CFD model
with an angle of inclination is given in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 (a) The local coordinate system establishes the angle of inclination and (b) an orifice CFD
model with an angle of inclination
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A06704 # IMechE 2005
337
Pressure boundary conditions are specified at the
inlet (Fig. 5(a)) and outlet (Fig. 5(b)) of the model.
Owing to the repeating flow conditions, cyclic
boundaries are assigned to the sides of the sector
(Fig. 5(c)). This minimizes the total number of cells
and reduces the computing time. The last boundary
condition is for rotating walls (Fig. 5(d)).
The steady state solution technique with SIMPLE
solution procedure is used along with the third-
order differencing scheme known as MARS (MARS
is recommended by STAR-CD for turbomachinery
application). The RNG form of the k 2 1 turbulence
model is adopted for its improved resolution of sep-
aration and swirl. Turbulence intensity is specified at
the inlet as 10 per cent, which is a typical value for
engineering approximation [15].
In order to account for the contribution of the
rotating frame of reference to the energy and
momentum equations, all the fluid cells are given a
positive spin equal to the rotational speed of the
rotor. The stationary housing walls are given a nega-
tive spin of the same magnitude, thus in a static
frame of reference, the housing walls remained
static and the rotor walls are rotating with the cells.
The influence of the inlet chamfer and corner
radius on the discharge coefficient of rotating orifice
is also investigated. Chamfer is defined by the cham-
fer angle, bw , and the ratio of w/d, whereas corner
radius is represented by the ratio of r/d (Fig. 6). The
CFD models for chamfered and corner radiused ori-
fices are given in Fig. 7.
In building the CFD model, in order to obtain a
grid-independent solution, the grid was refined
until the solution no longer varied with additional
grid refinement. Numerical results were then com-
pared with experimental data to check that the solu-
tion was within 8 per cent difference. The grid was
refined by changing a variable called mgrid in the
script. This variable automatically changed the grid
density of the model, with a more refined grid
Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part A: J. Power and Energy
338
Fig. 5 Boundaries applied to the geometric model
focussed on the orifice, and a coarser grid for areas
away from the orifice. An example of a CFD model
with 08 of inclination, chamfer angle of bw ¼ 308,
and w/d ¼ 0.2 at 21 000 r/m in is given here. A fixed
mass flow is used at the inlet boundary. From conti-
nuity equation, the specified inlet density (1.2 kg/m3)
and normal component of the inlet velocity (6.77 m/s)
will give the inlet mass flux (38.8 g/s). The actual
value of the density at the boundary is part of the
solution and is evaluated at each iteration. This is
Fig. 6 Definition for chamfer (w/d ) and corner
radius (r/d )
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Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part A: J. Power and Energy
A Idris and K R Pullen
done by extrapolating the pressure from the solution
domain interior and calculating the density from the
equation-of-state relationship. The boundary at the
outlet was pressure-specified with a value of
95 400 Pa. These conditions were taken from one of
the experimental runs. The CFD simulation calcu-
lated the pressure at the inlet. The pressure drop
across the differential pressure transducer locations
from the CFD model was 6 100 Pa when compared
with the experimentally measured value of 5 880 Pa.
This gave a discharge coefficient 0.60 from the
CFD model of, 3.5 per cent lower than the exp-
erimentally measured value of 0.62. Further com-
parison between CFD and experimental is given by
Idris et al. [3].
5 CORRELATIONS FOR ROTATING ORIFICES
The incidence angle is the main controlling para-
meter that dictates the discharge coefficient. The
proposed method developed in this paper has uti-
lized this parameter in order to calculate and predict
discharge coefficients for various flow and geometric
parameters. The parameters that affect the discharge
A06704 # IMechE 2005
 Discharge coefficient of rotating orifices 339

Fig. 7 CFD models for chamfered and corner radiused orifices

coefficient when the incidence angle is maintained at 5.1 Reynolds number effects
i ¼ 08 are Reynolds number, orifice chamfer and
The effect of Reynolds number on discharge coeffi-
radius, L/d ratio, pressure ratio, and the pumping
cient has been determined by Miller [16]
effect, labelled as Group A as shown in Fig. 8. The
parameters that affect the discharge coefficient for
372
i = 08 are the rotation of the disc, preswirl, cross- Cd ¼ 0:5885 þ (8)
flow, and the angle of inclination of the orifice, Red
labelled as Group B. The pumping effect is included
in the Group A (i ¼ 08) because the incidence angle Equation (8) is valid for Red . 10 000.
for rotating inclined orifices approaches zero when
the relative inlet velocity aligns with the orifice incli-
nation. Group A and Group B parameters are not 5.2 Corner radius effects
completely independent, as Group A parameters An orifice with inlet corner radiusing will have a
are prerequisite to defining Group B (except for the higher discharge coefficient as a result of reduced
pumping effect, which is the result of rotation and flow separation at the inlet. The influence of orifice
inclination in Group B). corner radius on the discharge coefficient has been
For i ¼ 08, McGreehan and Schotsch [2] have given studied by Benedict [17] for r/d , 0.0035. In addition,
correlations that consider the Reynolds number, data presented by Cusick [18] for quadrant-edged
corner radius, and long orifice effects, and they are orifices cover a range of 0.1 , r/d , 0.36. An ASME
briefly described here. nozzle Cd is the limiting condition at r/d ¼ 0.82;

Fig. 8 Parameters that affect Cd are grouped for i ¼ 08 and i = 08

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340 A Idris and K R Pullen
that is, beyond this r/d ratio, no further benefit for
inlet radiusing is achieved. The earlier referenced
corner radiusing data are plotted in Fig. 9 assuming
a basic Cd ¼ 0.60, and have been curved fit to an
exponential equation. A basic Cd ¼ 0.60 means that
when there is no corner radiusing, Cd is 0.60. The
equation to predict the discharge coefficient when
both the Reynolds number and the corner radius
effects are present is written as
Cd:Re:r ¼ 1  f þ f  Cd:Re (9)
The weighing factor, f, gives the contribution by
each effect to the discharge coefficient. f is obtained
by rearranging equation (9)
1  Cd:Re:r
f ¼ (10)
1  Cd:Re
Cd:Re is taken as 0.60 because f must be developed on
the basis of basic Cd.
The plot for f is shown in Fig. 9, and its equation is
f ¼ 0:008 þ 0:992e5:5(r=d)3:5(r=d)
2
(11)
From equation (11), when r/d ¼ 0.2, f ¼ 0.295.
From equation (9), the discharge coefficient for
radiused orifice of r/d ¼ 2 will be Cd:Re:r ¼
(1 2 0.295) þ (0.295  0.6) ¼ 0.882. The contribution
from the radius effect is (1 2 0.295), whereas the
contribution from the Reynolds number effect is
(0.295  0.6). The final Cd:Re:r value is obtained by
adding these two effects together to give 0.882.
Fig. 9 Effect of orifice r/d on Cd
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Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part A: J. Power and Energy
If r/d ¼ 0.5 and f ¼ 0.034, Cd:Re:r ¼ (1 2 0.034) þ
(0.034  0.6) ¼ 0.986. As this is a large radius, only
a small weightage of f is produced, thus only a
small value is deducted from Cd:r which means that
the final Cd:Re:r value is dominated by the discharge
coefficient for the radius rather than the effect by
the Reynolds number.
5.3 Long orifice effects
A long orifice has a higher discharge coefficient than
a thin orifice due to the controlled expansion and
recovery of excess dynamic pressure downstream
of the vena contracta. Long orifice data have been
presented by Lichtarowitz et al. [19], and are plotted
in Fig. 10 for a basic Cd:Re:r ¼ 0.60. It means that the
effect of Re, radius, and minimum value of L/d gives
an initial value of Cd ¼ 0.60 for the graph.
The discharge coefficient with long orifice effect is
written as
Cd:Re:r:L ¼ 1  g þ g  Cd:Re:r (12)
Applying the same approach as radius effect, the g
factor is
j k 
1:606(L=d)2 L
g ¼ 1 þ 1:3e 0:435 þ 0:021 (13)
d
When r/d and L/d effects occur together, the total
length of the orifice is shortened by the presence of
A06704 # IMechE 2005
 Discharge coefficient of rotating orifices 341

Fig. 10 Effect of orifice L/d on Cd

the radius. When r/d is substituted in equation (13) Chamfering improves the discharge coefficient
because it minimizes the separation at the inlet of
j k r
gr=d ¼ 1 þ 1:3e1:606(r=d) 0:435 þ 0:021
2
(14) the orifice. The highest discharge coefficient is
d recorded at chamfer angle of 308. Figure 11 shows
how the discharge coefficient varies with the chamfer
It means that this g factor will reduce the effect of angle and w/d ratio. For the sharp-edged orifice, the
corner radius from the earlier calculation. Cd:Re:r from w/d ratio is 0 and thus the discharge coefficient is
earlier calculation becomes at the base value of 0.60. Similarly, for a chamfer
angle of 908, the w/d ratio is 0 as the orifice is now
(Cd:Re:r )0 ¼ 1  gr=d þ gr=d :Cd:Re:r (15) identical to a sharp-edged hole but with the length
shortened by w.
The final L/d effect is then obtained by calculating g Figure 11 shows that when w/d ¼ 0, which refers
using to sharp-edged orifices, Cd,w1 ¼ 0.6. For w/d 5 0.20,
 0 the discharge coefficient is Cd,w2 ¼ (26:16 þ bw )=
L L r (43:63 þ 0:0184b2w ). In order to get a general equation
¼  (16)
d d d for Cd,w (shown by dotted lines in Fig. 11), an interp-
j 02
k  0 
L olation is carried out between Cd,w1 and Cd,w2
gL=d0 ¼ 1 þ 1:3e1:606(L=d) 0:435 þ 0:021
d
(17) w=d
0
(Cd:Re,r,L ) ¼ 1  gL=d0 þ gL=d0  (Cd:Re,r )0
(18) Cd,w ¼ (Cd,w2  Cd,w1 ) þ Cd,w1 (19)
0:20

The term (w=d)=0:20 in equation (19) will cause the

5.4 Chamfering effects
The data used for chamfered orifices were from refer-
ence [20]. They conducted experiments for chamfer
angle of 08, 258, 308, and 458. The parameters that
affect the discharge coefficient for chamfered orifices
are the w/d ratio and the chamfer angle, bw.
discharge coefficient to be larger than Cd,w2 when
w/d . 0.20. The term needs to be modified such
that the discharge coefficient will remain the same
for w/d . 0.20. This can be done by replacing the
term with an exponential function, 1 2 e25.3w/d, as
shown in Fig. 12.

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342 A Idris and K R Pullen

Fig. 11 Curve-fitted graph for Hay and Spencer [20] for chamfered orifices (w/d ¼ 0.08). The
straight line (Cd,1 ¼ 0.6) refers to sharp-edged orifices (w/d ¼ 0)

The discharge coefficient with the chamfer effect The weighing factor fw is obtained from
can be written as
  Cd:Re:w ¼ 1  fw þ fw  Cd:Re (21)
Cd:Re:w ¼ 1  e25:3w=d
 
26:16 þ bw 1  Cd:Re:w
  0:6 þ 0:6 (20) fw ¼ (22)
43:63 þ 0:0184b2w 1  Cd:Re

Fig. 12 The exponential function that allows the discharge coefficient to remain the same for
w/d . 0.20

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Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part A: J. Power and Energy A06704 # IMechE 2005
 Discharge coefficient of rotating orifices 343

Substituting equation (20) into equation (22) will give where


(1  e25:3w=d )½((26:16 þ bw )=(43:63 C1,P ¼ 0:8454 þ 0:3797e0:9083P (26)
1
þ0:0184b2w ))  0:6 þ 0:6 0:4619P2:367P0:5
fw ¼ C2,P ¼ 6:6687e (27)
0:4
(23)
Deckker and Chang [21] investigated the effects
of the pressure ratio and the Reynolds number on
the discharge coefficient, and concluded that for
5.5 Pressure ratio effects Red . 1  104, the Reynolds number does not affect
the discharge coefficient, as shown in Fig. 14. This is
Previous studies have shown that discharge coeffi- consistent with the findings made by Lichtarowicz
cient increases with increased pressure ratio across et al. [19], Chu et al. [23], and Alexiou et al. [10].
the orifices and reaching a plateau at the high-
pressure ratio. The effects of pressure ratio on
discharge coefficient have been investigated by
Deckker and Chang [21], Perry [22], and Hay and 5.6 Pumping effects
Spencer [20]. Figure 13 shows the discharge For straight orifices, an incidence angle of zero can
coefficients of their studies, which are plotted against be achieved by having a stationary disc. However,
the pressure ratio and curve fitted to an exponential for inclined orifices to achieve a zero incidence
equation. angle, the disc must rotate for the relative inlet vel-
The curve that shows pressure ratio effect is rep- ocity to align with the angle of inclination. Owing
resented by to the rotation, there will be a pumping effect that
causes a higher mass flow rate to pass through the
Cd:Re,r,L,P ¼ 1  h þ h  Cd:Re,r,L (24) orifices. Owing to this pumping effect, the discharge
coefficient for inclined orifices at zero incidence
The h factor equation is angle is higher than that for straight orifices.
  The proposed method takes this pumping effect
Cd:Re,r,L  0:6 into consideration in order to predict the discharge
h¼ (C1,P  C2,P ) þ C2,P (25)
0:263 coefficient for rotating orifices. Figure 15 shows

Fig. 13 Effect of pressure ratio on Cd

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344 A Idris and K R Pullen

Fig. 14 Results from Deckker and Chang [21] show that the Reynolds number does not affect the
discharge coefficient for Red . 1  104. They defined the pressure ratio as p/po ¼ p2/p1,
which is the opposite of the definition of the pressure ratio (P ¼ p1/p2) in the present
study. The graph shows that the discharge coefficient increases with P

how the discharge coefficient varies with the inci- where

dence angle at arious angles of inclination.
The pumping effect is represented by C1,pp ¼ 0:04717bo  0:5  103 b2o (29)

Cd:Re,r,L,P,pp ¼ Cd:Re,r,L,P þ C1,pp C2,pp (28) C2,pp ¼ 1:0 þ 2:88Cd:Re,r,L,P  1:877Cd:Re,r,L,P

2
(30)

Fig. 15 Discharge coefficient versus incidence angle for rotating orifices at various angle of
inclinations [3]

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Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part A: J. Power and Energy A06704 # IMechE 2005
 Discharge coefficient of rotating orifices 345

Fig. 16 Discharge coefficient versus inclination angle, bo. The graph shows how the discharge
coefficient improves with the inclination angle at various values of Cd,i¼0

Figure 16 shows the relationship between discharge
coefficient and the inclination angle for various
values of Cd,i¼0.
5.7 Incidence effects
Unlike McGreehan and Schotsch [2] who used the
U/Cid ratio, the present method utilizes the incidence
angle to represent the effect of rotation on the dis-
charge coefficient. For sharp-edged orifice, the data
used were those of Carlen [5], whereas for chamfered
and radiused orifices the present experimental data
were used (Fig. 17). The dashed lines represent
extrapolated data. The trend is that the discharge
coefficient decreases with the incidence angle, but

Fig. 17 Discharge coefficient versus incidence angle for Carlen [5] and the present study

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A06704 # IMechE 2005 Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part A: J. Power and Energy
346
for corner radius, the drop in Cd is much gradual than
sharp-edged or chamfered orifices.
The rotation effect for sharp-edged orifice is
represented by
Cd:Re,r,L,P,pp,i ¼ Cd:Re,r,L,P,pp þ Csharpedged
where
Csharpedged ¼ 3:638  104 i2
However, for corner radius, the rotation effect is
represented by
Cd:Re,r,L,P,pp,i ¼ Cd:Re,r,L,P,pp
r  curve-fitted slopes of the straight sharp-edged
þ 4  0:25 (Cr=d  Csharpedged ) þ Cr=d
d
where
Cr=d ¼ 3:061  103 e0:1239i
For chamfered orifice, the rotation effect is rep-
resented by
w Cve,i ¼ 2:428  103 i2
Cd:Re,r,L,P,pp,i ¼ Cd:Re,r,L,P,pp þ 0:1
w  d
þ 7:14  0:20 (Cw=d  Csharpedged ) þ Cw=d
d orifice, the aforementioned equation can be extra-
where
Cw=d ¼ 1:40  102 e0:1201i
The effect of rotation on the inclined orifices
(Fig. 15) is also different from the straight or cham-
fered or radiused orifices (Fig. 17). Thus, a set of
correlation is made to represent the effect of rotation.
The equation obtained is an interpolation of graph of
straight orifice and the equation for 308 inclined ori-
fice. The slope for positive and negative incidence
angles is different, thus separate equations are built
for each of the incidence sign. The equation for posi-
tive incidence is obtained by interpolating the curve-
fitted slopes of the straight sharp-edged orifice and
the 158 inclined orifice with positive incidence angle.
For positive incidence angle, the rotational effect is
represented by
bo
Cd:Re,r,L,P,pp,i ¼ Cd:Re,r,L,P,pp þ(Cþve,i  Csharpedged )
30
þ Csharpedged for bo 4308 (37)
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Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part A: J. Power and Energy
A Idris and K R Pullen
where
Cþve,i ¼ 1:277  104 i2 (38)
It is noted that the limitation for the inclined orifice
(31) (bo 4 308) is based on the largest inclination angle
used by Idris et al. [3], which is 308.
For the negative incidence, the data used are the
experimental data of 158 inclined orifice. The zero
incidence angle occurs at 10 000 r/m in, thus
(32) beyond this speed, the incidence angle is negative.
The experimental data for 308 inclined orifice are
not used because the incidence angle is zero at
21 000 r/min. Owing to this, no value of negative
incidence can be tabulated. The equation for nega-
tive incidence is obtained by interpolating the
(33) orifice and the 158 inclined orifice with negative inci-
dence angle.
The rotation effect for the negative incidence angle
is represented by
(34) Cd:Re,r,L,P,pp,i ¼ Cd:Re,r,L,P,pp þ (Cve,i  Csharpedged )
þ Csharpedged (39)
where
(40)
Even though the experimental data used are of 158
(35) polated up to 308. If extrapolated to 308, the slope
will be much steeper than at 158.
At present, there are no data available in the open
literature that present the effect of preswirl or cross-
flow in terms of the incidence angle. Therefore, the
(36)
correlations given in the present paper do not
include these two effects.
5.8 Comparison with experimental results
The experimental results are compared with the pre-
dictions given by the correlations as shown in Fig. 18.
There is a good agreement between the experimental
results and the correlations, with a percentage differ-
ence of ,8 per cent. The maximum difference for
each of the case shown is 7.6 per cent for bo ¼ 08,
3.7 per cent for bo ¼ 158, 3.3 per cent for bo ¼ 308,
5.5 per cent for chamfered, and 2.2 per cent for
radiused. Table 1 shows the discharge coefficients
calculated using the correlations. The first column
shows the results for straight orifice, bo ¼ 08.
Notice how the calculation is progressively made
when using the correlations. The hole Reynolds
number used is 52 000, and this gives a discharge
coefficient of Cd ¼ 0.596 for a sharp-edged orifice.
A06704 # IMechE 2005
 Discharge coefficient of rotating orifices 347

Fig. 18 The correlations formulated for rotating orifices are applied to the present data. There is a
good agreement between the prediction made by the correlations (dotted lines) and the
experimental data of the present study

As there is no inlet corner radius or chamfer, Cd 0.910, respectively. All the effects described so far
remains the same for r/d and w/d. However, in are designated for the discharge coefficient at
columns for chamfer and radius, the discharge coef- i ¼ 08. The rotational effects are shown for speeds
ficients are shown as 0.887 and 0.915, respectively. of 0 r/min, 12 000 r/min, and 21 000 r/min. The cor-
Next are the effects given by the L/d ratio and the relations used to calculate the discharge coefficient
pressure ratio. The discharge coefficient improves due to rotational effect are equation (31) (straight-
to 0.802 for straight orifice when the L/d ratio orifice), equation 5.33 (radiused), equation 5.35
increases from sharp-edged (L/d ¼ 0.03) to the long (chamfered), equation 5.37 (inclined orifices with
orifice of L/d ¼ 1.4. The pressure ratio effect for positive incidence), and equation 5.39 (inclined
P ¼ 1.06 goes in tandem with the L/d effect, and orifices with negative incidence).
thus there is only a slight increase in the discharge
coefficient. The pumping effect is not noticeable for
straight orifice, but for inclined orifices (columns 2 5.9 Comparison with other studies
and 3), the maximum discharge coefficient that can The data for rotating orifices in the open literature
be reached for bo ¼ 158 and bo ¼ 308 are 0.886 and are very limited, and thus there are only a few studies
for comparison. For example, there is no data avail-
able for rotating inclined orifices. Furthermore, the
Table 1 The discharge coefficient calculated from the pumping effect is not mentioned in the previous
correlations studies, and the data are mostly represented in
bo ¼ 08 bo ¼ 158 bo ¼ 308 Chamfer Radius
terms of the U/Cid ratio, which has the limitation
compared to the incidence angle. Figure 19 shows a
Red (equation (8)) 0.596 0.596 0.596 0.596 0.596 comparison with other studies.
r/d (equation (9)) 0.596 0.596 0.596 0.596 0.915
w/d (equation (21)) 0.596 0.596 0.596 0.887 0.596
L/d (equation (12)) 0.802 0.803 0.807 0.943 0.957
P (equation (24)) 0.805 0.807 0.810 0.943 0.957 5.10 Comparison with CFD
Pumping 0.806 0.886 0.910 0.943 0.957
(equation (28)) Various combinations of the parameters that affect
0 r/min 0.806 0.824 0.796 0.943 0.955 the discharge coefficient, beyond the limitations of
12 000 r/min 0.676 0.895 0.861 0.841 0.931 the experimental study can be tested in CFD. The
21 000 r/min 0.514 0.679 0.883 0.606 0.873
experimental data in the present study were collected

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348 A Idris and K R Pullen

Fig. 19 Comparison of the correlations with other studies

at pressure ratio of P ¼ 1.06. It is interesting to com-
pare the prediction from the correlations and CFD
when the pressure ratio is raised to P ¼ 2.0.
Figure 20 shows that there is a good agreement
between the correlations and the CFD results, with a
maximum difference of 2.9 per cent. The discharge
coefficient is much higher than at P ¼ 1.06 (at 0 r/
min, Cd ¼ 0.805 at P ¼ 1.06 compared with 0.835
(from correlation) at P ¼ 2.0). Figures 21(a) and (b)
(P ¼ 2.0, v ¼ 0 and 30 000 r/min, n ¼ 6 orifices,

Fig. 20 Comparison between CFD and correlations for P ¼ 2.0 (v ¼ 0 to 30 000 r/min, n ¼ 6
orifices, L/d ¼ 1.4, Rh ¼ 26.25 mm)

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 Discharge coefficient of rotating orifices 349

Fig. 21 Velocity vector profiles for chamfered orifice (bo ¼ 308, w/d ¼ 0.2, v ¼ 21 000 r/min)

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A06704 # IMechE 2005 Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part A: J. Power and Energy
350
L/d ¼ 1.4, Rh ¼ 26.25 mm) show the velocity vectors
produced by CFD. For the same rotational speed,
the incidence angle for P ¼ 2.0 is much lower because
the ideal absolute velocity, Cid, is higher because
of the higher pressure ratio [i ¼ tan21 (U/Cid)].
The relative Mach number, Marel, at P ¼ 2.0 is 0.95.
The flow reaches the choking point, where the mass
flow rate would not increase any further.
The combined effects of high pressure ratio
(P ¼ 2.0) and longer orifice (L/d ¼ 5.0) is shown in
Figs 21(c) and (d) (v ¼ 0 and 21 000 r/min, n ¼ 12
orifices, Rh ¼ 26.25 mm). Even though the longer ori-
fice allows the flow to reattach inside the orifice, the
friction effect because of the length will cause the
discharge coefficient to be reduced. The discharge
coefficient at 0 r/min (Cd,CFD ¼ 0.826) is higher than
at P ¼ 1.06 (Cd,CFD ¼ 0.805); however, it is lower
than at P ¼ 2.0, L/d ¼ 1.4 (Cd,CFD ¼ 0.835). The dis-
charge coefficient also reduced with speed as
shown at 21 000 r/min.
Figures 21(e) and (f) (v ¼ 0 and 60 000 r/min,
n ¼ 6 orifices, Rh ¼ 26.25 mm) show the effect of
high pressure ratio (P ¼ 1.6) and short orifice
(L/d ¼ 0.5). The discharge coefficient, Cd,CFD ¼ 0.798,
at 0 r/min is almost similar to the P ¼ 1.6, L/d ¼ 1.4
case. The high pressure ratio improves the discharge
coefficient; however, the effect of short orifice, has
the opposite effect, and the discharge coefficient
settles between the two effects. The incidence angle
at 60 000 r/min is picked because its incidence angle,
i ¼ 27.28, is very similar to P ¼ 1.06, 21 000 r/min
where i ¼ 26.88. The discharge coefficients at 0 and
60 000 r/min show a good agreement with the predic-
tion from the correlation.
Figures 21(g) and (h) (v ¼ 0 and 60 000 r/min,
n ¼ 6 orifices, Rh ¼ 26.25 mm) show a combination
of high pressure ratio (P ¼ 1.6), short orifice (L/d ¼
0.5), and corner radiusing (r/d ¼ 0.25). The correlation
can predict accurately the discharge coefficient for
this combination. Figures 21(i) and (j) (v ¼ 0 and
21 000 r/m in, n ¼ 6 orifices, Rh ¼ 26.25 mm) show a
combination of high-pressure ratio, long orifice, and
inlet chamfering. The correlation shows a good agree-
ment with CFD results. Figures 21(k) and (l) (v ¼ 0
and 60 000 r/min, n ¼ 6 orifices, Rh ¼ 26.25 mm)
show the results for inclined orifices. As the pressure
ratio is high, P ¼ 1.6, to get a lower incidence angle,
a high rotational speed v ¼ 60 000 r/min is required.
The difference between CFD result and correlation
at 60 000 r/min is 5.2 per cent whereas at 0 r/min
the discharge coefficient is almost equal.
6 GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNERS
For rotating orifices, the highest discharge coefficient
for given flow and geometric parameters can easily
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Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part A: J. Power and Energy
A Idris and K R Pullen
be determined by setting the incidence angle to
zero. The rotational speed which offers the highest
discharge coefficient can be evaluated by having a
zero incidence angle. The following steps can be
taken to determine the discharge coefficient for the
rotating orifices.
1. The geometric parameters include the L/d
ratio, inclination angle (bo), inlet corner radiusing
(r/d), and chamfering (w/d), whereas the flow par-
ameters are the Reynolds number (Red), pressure
ratio across the orifice (P), rotation of the orifice
(v), preswirl, and inlet cross-flow.
2. The ideal mass flow rate, m _ ideal , is calculated from
equation (2), and the required parameters are the
pressure ratio (P), orifice diameter (d), pitch
radius circle (Rh), rotational speed (v), inlet temp-
erature (T1,s), and inlet pressure ( p1,s).
3. The incidence angle is calculated from
equation (7).
4. The rotational speed which gives an incidence
angle of zero is calculated from the following
equation
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 (2g=g  1)RT1,s ½1  (1=P)(g1)=g 
vi¼0 ¼
Rh ½(1= tan bo )2  ((g=g  1)R)=cp 
(41)
5. Once the incidence angle for the given parameters
has been calculated, the next step is to find the
discharge coefficient at i ¼ 08. This is the dis-
charge coefficient for stationary orifices or
rotating inclined orifices. The parameters that
contribute to the discharge coefficient at i ¼ 08 are:
(a) Reynolds number, equation (8);
(b) corner radius, equation (9);
(c) inlet chamfer, equation (21);
(d) long orifice, equation (12);
(e) pressure ratio, equation (24);
(f) pumping effect, equation (28).
The discharge coefficient is calculated taking into
account each of the stated effect.
6. The next step is to find the discharge coefficient
for i = 08. This involves system with angle of incli-
nation, rotation, preswirl, or cross-flow. The dis-
charge coefficient always decline with the
incidence angle. The highest discharge coefficient
is at i ¼ 08, which is obtained in step 5. With
increasing i, the discharge coefficient will dec-
rease and the following correlations are slopes
that give the discharge coefficient for the system
with incidence angle. The slopes vary with the
geometric parameters:
(a) sraight sharp-edged, equation (31);
(b) corner radius, equation (33);
(c) inlet chamfer, equation (35);
A06704 # IMechE 2005
 Discharge coefficient of rotating orifices
(d) angle of inclination with positive incidence,
equation (37);
(e) angle of inclination with negative incidence,
equation (39).
CONCLUSIONS
1. Correlations based on the incidence angle have
been developed to predict discharge coefficients
for various combinations of geometric and flow
parameters. The approach adopted is to group
the parameters that affect the discharge coeffi-
cient to i ¼ 08 (Reynolds number, orifice chamfer
and radius, L/d ratio, pressure ratio, and the
pumping effect) and i = 08 (rotation of the disc,
preswirl, cross-flow, and the angle of inclination
of the orifice). The effect of each parameter on
the discharge coefficient can easily be observed
using this method. Furthermore, the method
allows the parameters to be combined to give
the cumulative effect on the discharge coefficient.
2. There is a good agreement between the corre-
lations and the experimental results of the present
study, and the available data on rotating orifices in
the open literature. The correlations also agree
with various combinations run in CFD.
3. The new approach adopted in the present study,
which is based on the incidence angle, can assist
designers to find the combination of geometric
and flow parameters that gives the best discharge
coefficient for rotating orifices.
REFERENCES
1 Webster, J. G. Measurement, Instrumentation and
Sensors Handbook, 1999 (The CRC Press LLC, Boca
Raton, Florida).
2 McGreehan, W. F. and Schotsch, M. J. Flow character-
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ASME J. Turbomach., 1988, 110, 213 – 217.
3 Idris, A., Pullen, K., and Barnes, D. An investigation
into the flow within inclined rotating orifices and the
influence of incidence angle on the discharge coeffi-
cient. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, Part A: J. Power and
Energy, 2004, 218, 55 – 69.
4 Meyfarth, P. F. and Shine, A. J. Experimental study of
flow through moving orifices. ASME J. Basic Eng.,
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5 Carlen, C. D. An experimental investigation of fluid
flow through square edged orifices located in a rotating
disk. MSc Thesis, Air Force Institute of Technology,
Ohio, 1965.
6 Kutz, K. J. and Speer, T. M. Simulation of the secondary
air system of aero engines. ASME J. Turbomach., 1994,
116, 306 – 315.
7 Wittig, S., Jakoby, R., and Weissert, I. Experimental
and numerical study of orifice discharge coefficients
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in high-speed rotating disks. ASME J. Turbomach.,
1996, 118, 400– 407.
8 Maeng, D. J., Lee, J. S., Jakoby, R., Kim, S., and
Wittig, S. Characteristics of discharge coefficient in a
rotating disk system. ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines and
Power Trans., 1999, 121, 663 – 669.
9 Zimmermann, H., Kutz, J., and Fisher, R. Air system
correlations part 2: Rotating holes and two phase
flow. In Proceedings of the International Gas Turbine
and Aeroengine Congress and Exhibition, Stockholm,
Sweden, 2 – 5 June 1998.
10 Alexiou, A., Hills, N. J., Long, C. A., Turner, A. B.,
Wong, L.-S., and Millward, J. A. Discharge coefficients
for flow through holes normal to a rotating shaft. Int.
J. Heat and Fluid Flow, 2000, 701 – 709.
11 Dittmann, M., Geis, T., Schramm, V., Kim, S., and
Wittig, S. Discharge coefficients of a preswirl system
in secondary air systems. J. Turbomach., 2002, 124,
119 – 124.
12 Hay, N. and Lampard, D. Discharge coefficient of tur-
bine cooling holes: a review. ASME J. Turbomach.,
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13 Japikse, D. and Baines, N. C. Introduction to Turboma-
chinery, 1994 (Oxford University Press, Oxford).
14 STAR-CD V3.10 Methodology and User Manuals, 1999
(Computational Dynamics, London, UK).
15 Versteeg, H. K. and Malalasekera, W. An Introduction
to Computational Fluid Dynamics – The Finite
Volume Method, 1995 (Longman Group Ltd, Harlow,
Essex).
16 Miller, R. W. Flow Measurement Engineering Hand-
book, 1996 (McGraw-Hill, New York).
17 Benedict, R. P. Fundamentals of Pipe Flow, 1980
(McGraw-Hill, New York).
18 Cusick, C. F. Flow Meter Engineering Handbook, 1971
(Honeywell Inc., Philadelphia).
19 Lichtarowicz, A., Duggins, R. K., and Markland, E.
Discharge coefficients for incompressible non-
cavitating flow through long orifices. J. Mech. Eng.
Sci., 1965, 7(2), 210 –219.
20 Hay, N. and Spencer, A. Discharge coefficients of
cooling holes with radiused and chamfered inlets.
J. Turbomach., 1992, 114, 701 – 706.
21 Deckker, B. E. L. and Chang, U. F. An investigation
of steady compressible flow through thick orifices.
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22 Perry, J. A. Critical flow through sharp-edged orifices.
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APPENDIX
Notation
A cross-sectional area of the orifice
cp specific heat capacity at constant pressure
Cd discharge coefficient
Cid ideal axial velocity
Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part A: J. Power and Energy
352 A Idris and K R Pullen

Cu tangential component of the fluid velocity w chamfer depth

d orifice diameter W relative velocity
f r/d effects function
fw w/d effects function bo orifice angle of inclination
g L/d effects function b1 inlet relative velocity angle
h pressure ratio effects function Dp measured pressure difference across orifice
i incidence angle g ratio of specific heats
L orifice length r air density
m_ mass flow rate Qv velocity head ratio
M Mach number v angular velocity of the disc
n number of orifices P pressure ratio ( p1/p2)
N disc rotational speed
p pressure
r inlet corner radius
R specific gas constant Subscripts
Red Reynolds number based on orifice
diameter 1 upstream of orifice
Rh pitch circle radius 2 downstream of orifice
Ro rotation number ax axial
S tangential-speed parameter corr correlation
T temperature rel relative
Trot rotational temperature rot rotational
U tangential velocity s static
V velocity w chamfer

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