Chapter XVI - Reproduction

Asexual reproduction
The process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one plant

Bacteria Fungi

Reproduce via binary fission (mitosis) Release genetically identical spores

Bacterium splits into 2 identical bacteria

Plants

Cuttings Tissue culture

Cut off a section of a plant Place section of plant tissue into nutrient jelly

Place stem/branch in water or growth hormones and Treat with appropriate plant growth hormones until
it will grow root plant develops

Runners Tubers

A lateral bud of a plant grows under the soil Tubers (i.e. potatoes) have eyes

The runner will come out of the soil to make a new Shoot tubers grow from the eyes and can grow a
plant plant

Bulbs

Small balls of small shoots form bulbs

Can be grown in following seasons

Advantages Disadvantages

No mate or gametes are needed There is little variation created, so adapting to a

changing environment is difficult
All the good characteristics of the parent are passed on
to the offspring If the parent does not have resistance to some disease,
the offspring will not either
Where there is no dispersal, the offspring will grow in the
same favourable environment as the parent Lack of dispersion causes competition for light, water
and nutrients

Sexual reproduction
Plants
Flowers
Stamen Carpel

The male organ of the flower The female organ of the flower

Made of the filament and anther Made of the stigma, style and ovary

Filament holds anther up Stigma is where pollen is deposited

Anther contains pollen sacs and make pollen grains Style is a tube down which pollen move
(male gamete)
Ovary holds ovules which will become seed (ovule)
Petals and fruit (ovary) after fertilisation

Protective covering for reproductive organs Sepals

Brightly coloured/certain shape to attract pollinators Outer protective covering of the flower usually during
budding

Pollination

The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma

Self-pollination Cross-pollination

The transfer of pollen within the same plant The transfer of pollen from the anther of one plant to
the stigma of another plant of the same species
Advantage
Advantage
Less distance for pollen to travel
More genetic variation
Disadvantage
Disadvantage
No genetic variation
Requires pollinators

Fertilisation in plants

The fusion of pollen and ovule resulting in a seed

Pollen moves down the style in a pollen tube

It will move through the micropyle and fuse with the ovule

Insect v Wind pollinated flowers

Feature Insect-pollinated Wind-pollinated

Petals Present: often large, coloured and scented Absent or small, green and inconspicuous

Nectar Produced by a nectary to attract insect or birds Absent

Long filaments allows anthers to hang freely so pollen is

Stamen Present inside the flower
exposed

Large and feathery, hangs outside flower to catch pollen

Stigmas Small surface area, inside the flower
carried by the wind
Pollen Smaller amounts, round and sticky or spiky Larger amounts, smooth and light

Bracts Absent Sometimes present

Germination

When the seed grows into a seedling

Seeds require water, oxygen and a warm temperature to germinate

Warmth Water

For enzymes to function at an appropriate rate Activates enzymes within the seed

Oxygen Transports sugars and salts through the seed and

seedling
For respiration
Helps maintain turgidity when the seedling is growing

Helps convert starch in the seed to glucose for

respiration

Humans
Secondary sexual characteristics
Caused by testosterone in males Caused by estrogen in females

Produced by testes Produced by ovaries

Voice becomes lower (breaks) Breasts grow, nipples enlarge

Hair begins to grow on chest, face, underarms and pubic Hair develops under arms and in pubic areas
areas
Hips widen
Body becomes more muscular
Uterus and vagina become larger
Penis becomes larger
Ovaries start to release eggs and menstruation begins
Testes start to produce sperm

Reproductive organs
Female Male

Ovary - stores eggs and follicles which develop mature Testes - produce sperm
eggs each month after puberty
Scrotum - a sac that holds testes to keep sperm cool
Fallopian tube - contains silica to beat eggs towards
Epididymis - tubes for sperm storage
uterus
Seminal vessels - adds fluid and nutrients to sperm cells
Uterus - a muscular sac where the fetus will develop
Sperm duct - links testes to urethra and allows the
Cervix - A ring of muscle separating the uterus from the
passage of sperm
vagina
Prostate gland - adds fluid and nutrients to sperm to
Vagina - a muscular tube which receives the penis during
create semen
intercourse
Urethra - muscular tube which carries urine and semen

Penis - made of erectile tissue and used to transfer sperm

into the vagina

Menstrual cycle
Typically around 28 days

Menstruation occurs from days 1-7

The lining of the uterine wall breaks down and is shed out of the body

FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) is released from the pituitary gland, travels through the blood to ovaries

Causes a mature egg to develop

The egg/follicle releases estrogen which helps to thicken the uterine lining

When estrogen peaks, LH is released

LH (luteinising hormone) causes ovulation at around day 14

The mature egg bursts out of the ovary and follicle

The leftover follicle (corpus luteum) continues to release estrogen and progesterone

Continue to thicken and maintain the uterine lining

Suppress FSH and LH to prevent other eggs from maturing

If the ovum is fertilised If the ovum is not fertilised

Progesterone production continues Progesterone production ceases

Keeps the uterus in a suitable state for implantation Uterus lining breaks down, shedding blood through
the cervix and vagina

Menopause
Begins between the ages of 41-55

Ovaries cease to release ova or produce hormones

Menstrual cycles cease

Can no longer have children

Sexual desire is reduced

Fertilisation in humans

The fusion of the sperm cell and egg cell to form a zygote

1. Sperm cells make their way the fallopian tube containing the egg

2. A sperm cell attaches to the zona pellucida (outer protective jelly coat) and releases hydrolytic enzymes from its head to
break the coat down

3. Once the sperm cell reaches the egg cell membrane, it fuses and releases the sperm nucleus and genetic material into the
egg

Implantation and the embryo

A fertilised egg is called a zygote

Once the zygote has divided via mitosis, it goes towards the uterus

It will burrow into the thickened uterine lining and develops into an embryo

The Placenta
The placenta must develop during pregnancy to supply Supplying:
nutrients and remove wastes of the fetus
Glucose, amino acids, vitamins and minerals are
The fetus is connected to the placenta via the umbilical transferred from the mother to the fetus
cord
Oxygen is transferred from the mother to the fetus
Tied off and cut after birth
Removing:
The placenta is adapted for the diffusion of nutrients by
Urea is transferred from the fetus to the mother
having a large surface area and thin wall
Carbon dioxide is transferred from the fetus to the
There is a safe exchange of nutrients as maternal and
mother
fetal blood never mixes

The mother and fetus could have different blood

types

Mother has a high blood pressure which is

dangerous for the fetus

The placenta detaches from the uterus after birth

Pushed out via contractions

Aka afterbirth

The placenta acts as a barrier

However, drugs (i.e. nicotine) and alcohol can pass through the placenta to the developing fetus

Viruses such as rubella and HIV can also be passed to the fetus

Pregnancy
Gestation period is around nine months

The embryo develops its major organs in the first 12 weeks

The uterine lining has a dense blood network to supply the embryo with nutrients via diffusion

After that, the placenta is formed and the embryo is now a fetus

The amniotic sac

Contains amniotic fluid

Acts as a cushion, protecting the fetus

Prevents the entry of pathogens via the vagina

Provides a constant temperature for the fetus

Allows fetus to move

Necessary for bone and lung development

Birth
Stages: Antenatal care

1. Muscles in the uterus wall contract Whilst pregnant, mothers are told to:

2. Amniotic sac breaks Take folic acid to prevent developmental problems

3. Cervix dilates Maintain a balanced diet

4. Baby passes through the vagina Exercise lightly

5. Umbilical cord is tied and cut Take precautions such as avoiding drugs and alcohol

6. Afterbirth is delivered

Breastfeeding
Advantages Disadvantages

Contains just the right amount of nutrients at the right May be painful, stressful or embarrassing
time
Can contribute to postnatal depression if milk does not
Contains antibodies come easily

Helps develop a bond between the mother and the baby Sole responsibility of breastfeeding is on the mother

Is free

Birth control
Types of birth control

Natural (abstinence, body temperature and cervical mucus)

Physical (diaphragm, condom/femidom)

Chemical (IUD/IUS, spermicide, contraceptives)

Surgical (Sterilisation in males and females)

Method of Birth Control How it works Does it prevent STIs?

Abstinence Avoiding sexual intercourse Usually no

Maintaining body Before/during ovulation, body temperature increases by 0.5 degrees. 1 day after
No
temperature the temperature returns to normal, a woman is not fertile

Monitor cervical mucus for clear, slippery, stretch cervical mucus; likely to be fertile
Cervical mucus No
during and immediately after this period
A thin rubber sheath place on the erect penis before copulation. Prevents sperm
Condom Yes
from reaching the uterus
A female condom, it is a sheath/pouch made of rubber with a closed and open
Femidom Yes
ring on the ends. During sexual intercourse, semen is trapped in the femidom
A thin rubber dome, placed in the vagina before intercourse, covers the cervix and
Diaphragm No
stops sperm entering the uterus
Chemicals which, though harmless to tissues, can kill or immobilise sperm. Placed
Spermicide No
in the vagina as a cream/gel

Intra-uterine device A small T-shaped plastic and copper device can be inserted by a doctor/nurse into
No
(IUD) the uterine wall where it prevents the implantation of a fertilised ovum

Intra-uterine system
(IUS)
Contraceptive pill
Contraceptive injection
T-shaped and releases progesterone slowly over a period of up to 5 years.
No
Progesterone prevents ovulation
Contain estrogen and/or progesterone. Suppresses ovulation and so prevents
No
conception. The pills are taken daily between menstrual periods
Contain progesterone and stays effective for 8-12 weeks. Thickens the cervical
mucus and stops sperm from reaching an egg. Thins lining of uterus to prevent No
implantation

A small plastic tube inserted under the skin in the upper arm. Slowly releases
Contraceptive implant No
progesterone, preventing pregnancy, lasts for up to 3 years.
Surgical operation where the sperm ducts are cut and sealed. Semen do not
Vasectomy No
contain sperm and sexual desire is unaffected
Surgical operation where the oviducts are tied, blocked or cut. Sexual desire and
Laparotomy No
menstruation continues, but sperm cannot reach the trapped egg

Fertility treatments
Artificial Insemination (AI) In Vitro fertilisation (IVF)

Addresses male fertility, particularly if sperm are not The woman takes injections of FSH to develop many
numerous enough or motile enough mature eggs

The male provides a semen sample which is then purified These eggs are retrieved from the ovary via a needle
placed inside the vagina, through the vaginal wall and
Often a sperm donor will be used
into the ovary
A catheter is inserted into the uterus and the woman will
Eggs are then mixed with sperm
then hopefully fall pregnant
Allowed to develop for a few days and then screened
Disadvantages
for abnormalities
Legal issues
If the fertilised egg is developing well, it is inserted into
Child may not look like either parent the uterus
Religious issues Success rate - 10%-40%

Disadvantages

Very expensive and low success rate

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

A sexually transmitted infection is transmitted via bodily fluids during sexual contact

HIV - Human Immunodeficiency Virus AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

HIV invades the body and attacks lymphocytes At this stage, the person will fall victim to many
opportunistic infections, resulting death
Over time the lymphocytes are destroyed until a immune
response will not be mounted for other diseases

Also caused by sharing injection needles

Controlling the spread of STIs

Limiting the number of sexual partners

Having protected sex

Getting tested if unprotected sex occurs

Raising awareness using educational programmes