Questions

2
1. In relation to runway strength, the ACN:

a. must not exceed 90% of the PCN and then only if special procedures are
2

followed
b. may exceed the PCN by up to 10% or 50% if special procedures are followed
Questions

c. may exceed the PCN by a factor of 2

d. must equal the PCN

2. The TODA is:

a. declared runway length only

b. declared runway length plus clearway up to a maximum of 150% of TORA
c. declared runway length plus stopway
d. declared runway length plus clearway and stopway

3. Take-off distance available is:

a. take-off run available plus clearway up to 50% of TORA

b. take-off run minus the clearway, even if clearway exists
c. always 1.5 times the TORA
d. 50% of the TORA

4. Can a clearway be used in the accelerate-stop distance calculations?

a. Yes
b. No
c. Only if the clearway is shorter than the stopway
d. Only if there is no clearway

5. The take-off distance available is:

a. the total runway length, without clearway even if one exists

b. the length of the take-off run available plus any length of clearway available, up to
a maximum of 50% of TORA
c. the runway length minus stopway
d. the runway length plus half of the clearway

6. The stopway is:

a. at least as wide as the runway

b. no less than 152 m wide
c. no less than 500 ft wide
d. as strong as the main runway

7. Which class of aeroplane describes all multi-engine turbojet aeroplanes?

a. Unclassified
b. Class C
c. Class B
d. Class A

38
2 Questions

8. A propeller aeroplane with nine or less passenger seats and with a maximum
take- off mass of 5700 kg or less is described as:

2
a. unclassified
b. Class C

Questions
c. Class B
d. Class A

39
 2 Answers
Questions
2
Answers
2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
d a d d c b a b c c b d
Answers

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
c c b a b a a b a a d c

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
b b a b b a d c

40
 Chapter

3
General Principles - Climb

Climb...................................................................................................................................................... 43
Angle of Climb............................................................................................................................... 43
Excess Thrust.......................................................................................................................................... 45
The Effect of Weight on Climb Angle........................................................................................... 47
Thrust Available..................................................................................................................................... 47
Calculating Climb Gradient.................................................................................................................... 48
Climbing after an Engine Failure........................................................................................................... 49
The Effect of Flaps on Climbing............................................................................................................ 49
The Climb Angle - Gamma.................................................................................................................... 50
Parasite Drag Curve................................................................................................................................ 51
Induced Drag Curve................................................................................................................................ 51
Total Drag Curve.................................................................................................................................... 52
Factors Affecting Angle of Climb.................................................................................................. 61
Calculating Ground Gradient.................................................................................................................. 67
Rate of Climb................................................................................................................................. 71
Factors Affecting Rate of Climb.................................................................................................... 76
Questions................................................................................................................................................ 82
Answers.................................................................................................................................................. 90

41
 General Principles - Climb
3
3
General Principles - Climb

42
3 General Principles - Climb

Climb
The climb section of aircraft performance deals with the analysis of that stage of flight from the end
of the take-off phase to the beginning of the en route phase. There are two ways in which climbing

3
needs to be examined; the angle of climb and the rate of climb.

General Principles - Climb

T
LIF

DRAG THRUST
T
WEIGH

Figure 3.1

Angle of Climb
Angle of climb will be examined first. Figure 3.1 shows an aircraft in unaccelerated level flight.
Notice that the forward acting force, Thrust, balances the rearward acting force, Drag.
Therefore, the aircraft will maintain a steady speed. How much Thrust is required for unaccelerated
level flight? The same as the aerodynamic Drag. A frequently used alternative term for Drag is
“Thrust Required”.

43
 General Principles - Climb
3
However, if the aircraft is placed in a climb attitude, as shown in Figure 3.2, a component of the
aeroplane’s Weight acts backwards along the flight path and is added to Drag.
3

L
General Principles - Climb

THR
D UST
R
A
G

T
WEIGH
BACKWARD COMPONEN T
OF W E I G H T

Figure 3.2

The larger the angle of climb, the larger the backward component of Weight, as shown in Figure
3.3. In both illustrations it is apparent that the sum of the two rearward acting forces is greater than
the forward acting force. If this situation were left unchanged the aircraft would decelerate.

TH
RU
ST
D
R
A
G
T
WEIGH

BACKWARD COMPONEN T
OF W E I G H T

Figure 3.3

44
3 General Principles - Climb

Excess Thrust
To maintain a steady speed along the flight path in a climb, additional Thrust is required to balance
the backward component of Weight. This additional Thrust required is called Excess Thrust.

3
Excess Thrust is the Thrust available from the engine(s) after aerodynamic Drag is balanced.

General Principles - Climb

EXCESS THRUS T
L

TH
RU
ST

D
R
A
G
T
WEIGH

BACKWARD COMPONEN T
OF W E I G H T

Figure 3.4

From Figure 3.4 it can be seen that the forward acting force in green is now the same as the two
rearward acting forces in red and the aeroplane will maintain a steady speed along its new flight path.
To maintain a steady climb with no loss of speed, Thrust must balance not only the aerodynamic
Drag, but also the backward component of Weight.

45
 General Principles - Climb
3
In Figure 3.5 the aircraft only has a small amount of Excess Thrust available. Notice that there is too
much backward component of Weight from the climb angle that has been set, so that climb angle can
not be maintained.
3
General Principles - Climb

TH
RU
ST
D
R
A
G

T
WEIGH
BACKWARD COMPONEN T
OF W E I G H T

Figure 3.5

The angle of climb must be reduced to give a smaller backward component of Weight that
matches the Excess Thrust available, as shown in Figure 3.6. The greater the Excess Thrust, the larger
the backward component of Weight that can be balanced.

THR
D UST
R
A
G
T
WEIGH

BACKWARD COMPONEN T
OF W E I G H T

Figure 3.6

In other words, the more Excess Thrust available, the steeper the angle of climb or the greater the
weight at the same climb angle.

46
3 General Principles - Climb

The Effect of Weight on Climb Angle

L
L
I
F

3
I
F T
DECREASED
T EXCESS THRUS T

General Principles - Climb

I NCREASED
T HRUS T
B E C A U S E OF
I NCREASED DRAG

T
H
R
U T
D H
S R
T D U
R ST
R
A A

G G
T
WEIGH

WEIGHT
I NCREASED
B A C K W A R D C O M P O N E N T OF W E I G H T
DUE T O H I G H E R W E I G H T

Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8

Weight has an influence on climb performance. Figure 3.7 illustrates that if the aircraft tries to use
the same climb angle as before, but at a higher weight, the backward component of weight will be
greater and there is insufficient Excess Thrust to balance it. In addition, the higher weight will also
generate increased aerodynamic Drag (Induced), which will further reduce Excess Thrust. Increased
weight therefore decreases the maximum climb angle, as shown in Figure 3.8.

Thrust Available

EXCESS THRUS T
L

TH
RU
ST
T HRUST AVAILABL E
D

G
T
WEIGH

BACKWARD COMPONEN T
OF W E I G H T

Figure 3.9

Figure 3.9 shows that Thrust Available is the total amount of Thrust available from the engine(s) and
under a given set of conditions and in a steady climb the thrust available must be the same as the sum of
the aerodynamic Drag (D) plus the backward component of Weight (W sin γ) .

47
 General Principles - Climb
3
Calculating Climb Gradient
If Thrust Available and aerodynamic Drag are known, the maximum backward component of Weight
can be calculated by subtracting the aerodynamic Drag from Thrust Available. For most purposes, climb
gradient is used rather than climb angle, but climb angle is still an important factor. Climb gradient is
3

merely the percentage of the backward component of Weight to the aircraft Weight.
General Principles - Climb

Shown here is the formula to calculate the percentage climb gradient. This formula is very
significant.
T- D
Gradient % =
W × 100
Merely by looking at the above formula certain facts are self-evident:

• For a given weight, the greater the “Excess Thrust” (T – D) the steeper the climb gradient. The
less the Excess Thrust the more shallow the climb gradient.

• For a given Excess Thrust (T – D), the greater the weight the more shallow the climb gradient. The
less the weight the steeper the climb gradient.

If representative values of Thrust, Drag and Weight are known, the % climb gradient can be
calculated. For example:

A twin engine turbojet aircraft has engines of 60 000 N each; its mass is 50 tonnes and it has a L/D ratio
of 12:1, what is the % climb gradient? Use ‘g’ = 10 m/s/s.

From the above information the values to include in the formula have to be derived: Thrust =

60 000 N × 2 engines = 120 000 N

Drag = Weight / 12

Weight = 50 tonnes × 1000 = 50 000 kg × 10 m/s/s = 500 000 N

Drag therefore = 500 000 N / 12 = 41 667 N

120 000 N - 41 667 N 78 333 N
500 000 N ×100 = × 100 = 15.7%
500 000 N

Let us now consider the same values, but with one engine failed:

60 000 N - 41 667 N
500 000 N × 100 = 3.7%

Thrust has decreased by 50%, but climb gradient has decreased by approximately 75% or to one
quarter of the gradient possible with all engines operating. This fact is very significant. After losing
50% of the Thrust Available, why did the gradient decrease by 75%?

Note: The aircraft data gave the L/D ratio from which the value of Drag was extracted, yet
the value of Lift is obviously less than Weight when the aircraft is in a steady climb. Isn’t this
an inaccurate value? If the climb angle is less than approximately 20 degrees, and it always will
be, the difference in the magnitude of Lift and Weight in a steady climb is insignificant and
they can be considered (for purposes of these and other calculations) to be the same.

48
3 General Principles - Climb

Climbing after an Engine Failure

Consider Figure 3.10: Losing 50% of the Thrust Available reduces Excess Thrust by approximately 75%
because the same value of aerodynamic Drag must still be balanced. Figure 3.11 emphasizes that a two-

3
engine aeroplane with one engine inoperative, has a severely reduced ability to climb.

General Principles - Climb

BOTH ENGINE THRUST AVAILABLE
L
L
I
I
F
F
T
T

THR ONE ENGINE

UST
INOPERATIVE

D EXCESS THRUST
R TH
A D RU
G R ST
A
G
T
WEIGH

WEIGHT

Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11

The Effect of Flaps on Climbing

High lift devices (flaps) increase aerodynamic Drag. From the study of Principles of Flight it was
learned that the purpose of flaps is to reduce the take-off and landing run. Figure 3.12 and Figure
3.13 show it is obvious that flaps reduce the climb angle because they increase aerodynamic Drag
and therefore decrease Excess Thrust.

FLAPS REDUCE
EXCESS THRUS T
L
L
I
I
F
F
T
T
MORE DRAG
FROM FLAPS TH
RU
ST TH
T HRUST AVAILABL E
RU
ST
D
D
R
R
A
T
WEIGH

A
T
WEIGH

G
BACKWARD COMPONEN T
OF W E I G H T FLAPS G
REDUCE
CLIMB ANGLE

Figure 3.12 Figure 3.13

49
 General Principles - Climb
3
The Climb Angle - Gamma
Figure 3.14 includes the symbol used for climb angle, the Greek letter GAMMA (γ). Note that the
angle between the horizontal and the flight path (climb angle) is exactly the same as the angle
3

between the Weight vector and the transposed Lift vector. We will be using climb angle for the
FREE AIR climb.
General Principles - Climb

I
F

TH
RU
ST

WEIGHT

Figure 3.14

When an aeroplane is in a steady climb there will be a gain in height after a given horizontal distance
travelled. This relationship is the % climb gradient. The calculation on page 48 gave 15.7% climb
gradient, all engines. From Figure 3.14 it can be visualized that for 100 units of horizontal travel,
the aeroplane will be 15.7 units higher. This is a fundamental concept.

For example: an aircraft with a climb gradient of 15.7% all engines operating, will be 314 ft higher
after travelling 2000 ft horizontally, but the one engine inoperative climb gradient of 3.7%, will only
give a height gain of 74 ft in the same distance.

Horizontal distance = 2000 ft

Gradient = 15.7% (For every 100 ft horizontally, a height gain of 15.7 ft)

2000 ft
100 = 20
20 × 15.7 ft = 314 ft (All engines)

Gradient = 3.7% (For every 100 ft horizontally, a height gain of 3.7 ft)

20 × 3.7 ft = 74 ft (One engine inoperative)

50
3 General Principles - Climb

Parasite Drag Curve

An easy way to visualize how an aeroplane can maximize Excess Thrust and therefore its climb angle is to
use a simple graph showing the relationship between Thrust and Drag under various conditions. But first,

3
the parts of the Drag curve will be studied in detail.

General Principles - Climb

PARASITE
DRAG

IAS

Figure 3.15

Figure 3.15 shows Parasite Drag increasing with the square of the IAS. (Parasite Drag is
proportional to IAS squared). If IAS is doubled, Parasite Drag will be increased four times. Note that at
low speed Parasite Drag is small, but reaches a maximum at high IAS. Parasite Drag will increase with
increasing “Parasite Area” (flaps, undercarriage or speed brakes).

Induced Drag Curve

INDUCED
DRAG

IAS

Figure 3.16

Figure 3.16 shows Induced Drag decreasing with IAS squared. (Induced Drag is inversely
proportional to IAS squared). If IAS is doubled, Induced Drag will be decreased to one quarter of its
previous value. Note that Induced Drag is at its highest value at low IAS, but decreases with
increasing IAS. Induced Drag will vary with Lift production. Increasing the Weight or banking the
aircraft will increase Induced Drag.

51
 General Principles - Climb
3
Total Drag Curve
3

DRAG
General Principles - Climb

or

THRUST REQUIRED
TOTAL
DRAG

PARASITE

MINIMU M
DRAG

INDUCED

V MD IAS

Figure 3.17

In flight, an aeroplane will experience both Parasite and Induced Drag. The sum of Parasite Drag and
Induced Drag is called Total Drag. When only the word Drag is mentioned, the meaning is Total Drag.
Figure 3.17 shows a Total Drag curve:

• At any given IAS, Total Drag is the sum of Parasite Drag and Induced Drag.

• The IAS at which Parasite Drag is the same value as Induced Drag will generate minimum Total
Drag.

• The IAS that gives minimum Total Drag, is called “The Minimum Drag Speed” and is called VMD.

• Flying at an IAS slower than VMD will generate more Drag and flying at an IAS faster than VMD
will also generate more Drag.

Whenever Drag is being considered it is an excellent idea to develop the habit of sketching the Total
Drag curve, together with the Parasite Drag and Induced Drag curves. This enables the result of any
variable to be included and the correct conclusion obtained.

52
3 General Principles - Climb

The Effect of Weight or Bank Angle on Drag

3
General Principles - Climb
DRAG
or
TOTAL
THRUST REQUIRED
DRAG
Heavy

PARASITE

MINIMU M
DRAG
Heav y

MINIMU M
DRAG INDUCED
L igh t
Heavy

IAS
V MD Heavy

V MD Light

Figure 3.18

Figure 3.18 shows the effect of increased Weight and/or the effect of turning the aircraft.
Induced Drag will be greater at a given IAS because Lift must be increased when the aircraft has more
weight or when turning. The reason for the proportionally greater increase in Induced Drag at the low
speed end of the graph is because Induced Drag is inversely proportional to IAS squared –
therefore, at low speed the effect is greater.

The intersection of the Induced Drag curve and the Parasite Drag curve is further towards the high
speed end of the graph and the sum of Induced Drag and Parasite is greater. Total Drag will increase
and VMD will be a faster IAS when an aircraft is operating at increased Weight or when turning.

Conversely, throughout flight Weight will decrease due to fuel use. As the aircraft becomes lighter,
Total Drag will decrease and the IAS for VMD will also decrease.

53
 General Principles - Climb
3
The Effect of Flaps or Gear on Total Drag

Gear
3

&
DRAG Flaps
General Principles - Climb

or TOTAL
THRUST REQUIRED DRAG

PARASITE
Gear
&
MINIMU Flaps
MDRAG
Gea
r&
F l a ps
MINIMU
MDRAG
"Clean" INDUCED

" Clean" V M D IAS

V M D - Gear & Flaps

Figure 3.19

Figure 3.19 shows the effect of flaps or gear (undercarriage). Parasite Drag will be greater at a
given IAS because the Parasite area will be increased. When both flaps and the gear are fully
retracted, the aircraft is said to be in the Clean configuration or the aircraft is Clean. The reason for
the proportionally greater increase in Parasite Drag at the high speed end of the graph is because
Parasite Drag is proportional to IAS squared – therefore, at high speed, the effect is greater. The
intersection of the parasite Drag curve and the Induced Drag curve is further towards the low speed
end of the graph and the sum of Parasite Drag and Induced Drag is greater. Total Drag will increase
and VMD will be a lower IAS when either the flaps or gear are lowered.

Thrust
Thrust is the force required to balance aerodynamic Drag; plus the backward component of Weight
when the aircraft is in a steady climb. A turbojet engine generates Thrust by accelerating a mass of air
rearwards. The variation of Thrust Available with forward speed is relatively small and the engine
output is nearly constant with changes in IAS.

Thrust Available = Mass Flow × Acceleration (Exhaust velocity - Intake velocity)

Since an increase in speed will increase the magnitude of intake velocity, constant Thrust
Available will only be obtained if there is an increase in mass flow or exhaust velocity. When the
aircraft is at low forward speed, any increase in speed will reduce the velocity change through the
engine without a corresponding increase in mass flow and Thrust Available will decrease slightly.
When the aircraft is flying at higher speed, the ram effect helps to increase mass flow with increasing
forward speed and Thrust Available no longer decreases, but actually increases slightly with
speed.

54