ELEGTRO-HEAT

C h a n n e l i n d u c t i o n f u r n a c e t y p e I R V 7, u s e f u l c a p a c i t y 1 0 t, i n d u c t o r p o w e r 5 0 0 k W

used as a holding f u r n a c e a n d störe between the cold blast melting cupola a n d mechanized f o u n d r y plant in the Bülach f o u n d r y of
Sulzer Bros., W i n t e r t h u r . T h e induction f u r n a c e is continuouslv charged by means of a Channel.

3440 E - IV.S/XH. 12 (5.68)

 300-kW high-frequency generator (right) used in the manufacture of chipboard
T h e h. f. generator supplies a one-daylight press 7400 X 1650 mm. A sheet of chipboard 20 m m thick with a specific weight of
0-65 kg/dm 3 is heated in less than 2 min. T h e h. f. matching units are mounted on the press in the form of three boxes.
O n the left is the control console containing automatic equipment for Controlling the production programme and supervising the
complete installation.
(Photo: Storrs Wood Products Inc. .Teil City, Ind. .USA - cf. article p. 34)
 ELECTRO-HEAT

Page Page

W. LANG: Automation of Induction Melting Furnacc Plants 1 T . HAFNER: Processing of Foodstuffs Using High Frequency 54
M . RIETHMANN: Channel Induction Furnaces for Cast Iron K. G A B L E R / D . W A L L S T E I N : Frequency Conversion for In-
and Steel 10 duction Heating and Melting Using Electronic Elements 60
H . EGGELING/F. HEGEWALDT: Special Features of the Brown T . TÜRK : Heat Treatment of Metals Using Electro-heat . . 67
Boveri System of Arc Furnace Electrode Control 21
N. HERMONT: Electroslag Remelting and Refining 78
R . LINNENBRINK: The Melting of Aluminium and Casting
by the Properzi Process 27 E. ASTORI: An Air Heater for Space Research 85

J . GALLIKER/F. GOLLONITSCH: Large High-frequency Gen-

erators for Inductive and Capacitive Applications 34 B R I E F BUT INTERESTING:

E. RUNTE: Continuous High-frequency Induction T u b e R. S T E I N E R : A New Pottery in South Africa Equipped with
Welding 43 Brown Boveri Tunnel Kilns 89
R. BÄNNINGER: Induction Heating in the Manufacture of R. KRAUS: T h e Largest and Most Powerful Mains-Fre-
Rock Drills 49 quency Induction Crucible Furnace in the World . . . . 90

AUTOMATION OF I N D U C T I O N MELTING FURNACE PLANTS

621.365.5:621.745.3-52

This article deals with the factors that have to be taken
into account when planning induction melting plants. T h e
auxiliaries to improve the efficiency of the plant and to
simplify the process are described in detail, the scope being
explained in terms of the size of the plant and the task for
which it is intended.
2. E a r l y in every p l a n n i n g exercise, the orderly ex-
pansion of t h e m e l t i n g p l a n t in stages, a n d t h e
related use of auxiliary e q u i p m e n t for a u t o m a t i o n ,
must be thoroughly examined.
A detailed study of the a u t o m a t i o n possibilities
with respect to t h e m e l t i n g Operation will usually
obviate the need for costly alterations after t h e p l a n t

A B A S I C condition for the p l a n n i n g of a n induc-

tion melting p l a n t is t h a t the p l a n n i n g staff a n d
the f o u n d r y m a n a g e m e n t agree on a long-term p l a n
is installed. W h i l e a b r o a d r ä n g e of a u t o m a t i o n steps
should be investigated, only those should be a p p l i e d

for the systematic d e v e l o p m e n t of the f o u n d r y . A which justify themselves on a n economic basis.

melting p l a n t laid d o w n simply to meet c u r r e n t iron
d e m a n d without a n y built-in possibilities for e x p a n -
sion would be j u s t as mistaken as one laid out for a
p r o d u c t i o n level n o t to b e r e a c h e d by t h e f o u n d r y
for a n o t h e r 10 years. If such basic errors a r e to be
avoided, two r e q u i r e m e n t s must b e fulfilled:
1. T h e p r o d u c t i o n process must be studied for the
present p r o d u c t i o n level, for a projected increase
in capacity, a n d for a possible c u t - b a c k in Output.
These levels should be set in the light of the past
d e v e l o p m e n t record of b o t h the f o u n d r y itself a n d
the regional e c o n o m y of which it is a p a r t .
Efforts toward automating induction melting
p l a n t s h a v e t h e following basic goals:
a. R a i s i n g p l a n t utilization to a m a x i m u m , i.e. re-
d u c i n g the p e r c e n t a g e of u n p r o d u c t i v e time,
b. R e d u c t i o n of l a b o u r costs,
c. I m p r o v e m e n t of w o r k i n g conditions for t h e f u r -
n a c e crew.
A t the same time, t h e outlay for e q u i p m e n t a n d
control devices m u s t be held in r e a s o n a b l e pro-
portion b o t h to t h e c u r r e n t level of p r o d u c t i o n a n d
to t h e level forecast for the f u t u r e . Modest-size m e l t -
ing plants cannot possibly justify the same order of
investment for partial or füll automation as can the
larger installations.
A f u r t h e r aspect is that a u t o m a t i o n of the melting
shop should be seen as a p r e p a r a t o r y step towards
organizing the entire foundry process under
Computer control. I n cupola furnace plants in the
U S A , process Computers are already used for calcu-
lating charge components a n d for Controlling furnace
operation. In Europe, Computers are being in-
creasingly employed to control individual processes
in steel production. Intelligent steps toward auto-
m a t i o n of the electric melting process can lay the
g r o u n d w o r k for the application of d a t a processing
control in this field as well.
O n e of the m a j o r reasons for introducing partial
a n d füll a u t o m a t i o n to the induction melting shop
has been the relentlessly rising pressure in the foundry
industry to generally reduce production costs.
T o provide the basic d a t a necessary for analysing
the melting process a n d its component steps, one
should first construct a "time-activity" d i a g r a m . It
is also necessary to prepare a cost analysis in order
to be able to determine the effect on the total cost
picture of, on the one h a n d , investment necessary
for a u t o m a t i o n and, on the other, savings in l a b o u r
a n d other costs resulting from better plant utilization.
T h e time-activity d i a g r a m should show the neces-
sary time for each work step in the melting process,
including: charging the furnace, skimming off slag,
taking samples for analysis, checking temperature,
cooling curve, determining carbon equivalent value,
analysis correction, a n d pouring. Some of the steps
can be carried out with f u r n a c e power on. How-
ever, it is necessary to switch the power off d u r i n g
skimming a n d pouring. W h e t h e r it is also necessary
to switch off during charging depends on the f u r n a c e
Alling level a n d on the condition of the material
being charged. If heavily rusted or d a m p scrap
is being used, the f u r n a c e should be switched off
during charging for safety reasons. Adding up
the periods of " u n p r o d u c t i v e " time, i.e. w h e n the
power is off, gives a measure of plant utilization a n d
at the same time indicates the potential for improving
this utilization factor through a u t o m a t i o n . This sort
of investigation can be particularly fruitful when a
battery of furnaces is involved, since the time-activity
d i a g r a m presents a picture of the total unproductive
time (and its causes) for the entire installation. This
d i a g r a m also helps in coordinating the melt shop
with the d e m a n d locations for molten iron; in today's
mechanized foundries it is not unusual to find a n
effectively continuous d e m a n d for metal.
In induction melting, a distinction is m a d e be-
tween continuous a n d discontinuous melting proce-
dures. W h i c h one a particular foundry chooses de-
pends on the n u m b e r of grades of iron to be produc-
ed, how often a switch must be m a d e from one g r a d e
to another, a n d the particular moulding a n d casting
equipment available. Foundries producing large
Castings usually melt discontinuously, with u p to
9 0 % of the f u r n a c e content being poured off for a
Single casting. T h e pros a n d cons of this question
will not be examined f u r t h e r here.
Charging the Furnace
If m o r e t h a n a b o u t 1 t/h must be charged, it is
not practical to do the j o b manually. T h e " r a w
materials" (steel scrap, foundry returns, pig iron,
swarf) should be stored in bins near the furnaces.
Usually it is transferred to the charging Containers
via vibratory feeders. T h e most c o m m o n form of
Container is a drop-bottom bücket, b u t various types
of skips are also used.
If sufficient time is available for charging, a
n u m b e r of buckets can be filled a n d assigned to a
particular furnace. For large plants with frequent
charging, it is best to organize the traffic in charging
buckets with a monorail system leading to a n d f r o m
the furnace platform, possibly with branches leading
over the individual furnaces. T h e vibratory feeders
can be switched on a n d off automatically as a func-
tion of either Alling level or charge weight. It is
advisable to establish a " c u s h i o n " of filled buckets
so that no waiting time will be caused by the charging
system. T h e bücket traffic to the individual furnaces
can be controlled from a central control desk (Fig. 1).
If a travelling crane is used to transport the buckets,
as is often the case with large furnaces, a n d if one
wishes to avoid waiting time, it is essential to provide
an itercom system c o n n e c d n g the control desk with
the crane Operator, as well as an optical c o m m a n d
Fig. 1. - Central control desk for
supervising an induction furnace plant
consisting of 13 furnaces, each of 5 t
capacity, for the prodnction of cast iron

t r a n s m i t t e r w i t h pre-selection. T h e n u m b e r of c r a n e p o u r e d . T h e a c t u a l a m o u n t is t h e n p r i n t e d , a f t e r t h e
m o v e m e n t s is t h e n c a l c u l a t e d for the p a r t i c u l a r m e l t - o p e r a t i o n , b y m e a n s of a n a u t o m a t i c subtraction
ing programme and t h e c r a n e designed to h a v e o p e r a t i o n . T o simplify t h e o p e r a t o r ' s read-ofT duties,
r o u g h l y a 3 0 % safety m a r g i n in c a p a c i t y . a selector switch can provide him with visible
r e a d i n g s of t h e r e m a i n i n g a m o u n t to be c h a r g e d or
p o u r e d , or, if desired, t h e t o t a l f u r n a c e Contents. A
Weight Measurement
s e p a r a t e set of keys o n t h e f u r n a c e c o n t r o l console
O n e of t h e basic r e q u i r e m e n t s for a u t o m a t i n g t h e or a t t h e c e n t r a l c o n t r o l desk e n a b l e s e i t h e r the
melting process is t h e accurate measurement of o p e r a t o r or t h e Supervisor to log t h e t y p e of m a t e r i a l
m a t e r i a l s i n t o a n d o u t of t h e f u r n a c e . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n (steel, f o u n d r y r e t u r n , FeSi, F e M n , C, etc.) b e i n g
of l o a d cells, w h i c h a r e set u n d e r t h e base f r a m e of c h a r g e d . If t h e r e c o r d e d v a l u e s a r e also fed i n t o a
the f u r n a c e , fulfils this r e q u i r e m e n t to a n a c c u r a c y C o m p u t e r , these a n d t h e values to b e d e s c r i b e d b e l o w
of a b o u t 0-2 % . R e l i a b l e w e i g h i n g is o b t a i n e d r e g a r d - c a n b e used to c o n t r o l t h e e n t i r e m e l t i n g process
less of w h e t h e r t h e f u r n a c e h a p p e n s to b e in t h e a u t o m a t i c a l l y . T h e logger c a n p r i n t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
h o r i z o n t a l o r tilted position. t h e t i m e of d a y , a r u n n i n g c h a r g e n u m b e r o r regis-

Fig. 2 shows a 5 - t o n coreless m a i n s - f r e q u e n c y f u r - tration number, and the measured temperature. A

n a c e m o u n t e d o n l o a d cells. T h i s f u r n a c e has been p r i n t e r a t t a c h m e n t c a n b e a d d e d to t h e l o g g e r to

in Operation for some years melting f r o m cold e n t e r t h e d a t a o n p u n c h e d c a r d s . E v e n if t h e f o u n d r y

( " S i m p l e x " Operation) in t h e p r o d u c t i o n of d u c t i l e h a s n o d a t a processing e q u i p m e n t , t h e c a r d s c a n b e

i r o n . T h e a m o u n t c h a r g e d o r p o u r e d is displayed s e n t o u t for processing to o b t a i n a m o n t h l y Statistical

digitally to t h e f u r n a c e Operator a n d c a n be fed e v a l u a t i o n . O f course, t h e v a l u e of this analysis i n -

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n t o a n a u t o m a t i c d a t a logger. T h e creases w i t h t h e a m o u n t of d a t a e n t e r e d o n the

l a t t e r c a n b e set u p to r e c o r d t h e w e i g h t s in s e p a r a t e p u n c h e d cards.

c o l u m n s for t h e i n d i v i d u a l f u r n a c e s if m o r e t h a n If a process C o m p u t e r is a v a i l a b l e , it is f e d w i t h
o n e is i n v o l v e d . Before t h e c h a r g i n g or pouring t h e s a m e d a t a for i m m e d i a t e c a l c u l a t i o n of a d d i t i o n s ,
operation, t h e w e i g h t of t h e f u r n a c e Contents is etc., t h e results b e i n g visually d i s p l a y e d for t h e b e n e f i t
p r i n t e d , as is t h e " t a r g e t " a m o u n t to b e c h a r g e d o r of t h e m e l t i n g e n g i n e e r .

Fig. 2. - 5-t mains-frequency coreless induction furnace mounted
on load cells for determining charge weight
E i t h e r t h e p r i n t e d log or t h e p u n c h e d c a r d s c a n b e
used for i m m e d i a t e e v a h i a t i o n . T h i s Step r e d u c e s t h e
n u m b e r of w r i t t e n r e p o r t s to be filled o u t in t h e m e l t
s h o p ; fully a u t o m a t i c p l a n t c o n t r o l b y m e a n s of a
process C o m p u t e r c a n c o m p l e t e l y o b v i a t e t h e n e e d
for w r i t t e n r e p o r t i n g .
If t h e m e l t i n g f u r n a c e is n o t m o u n t e d on load cells,
it is still possible to fit t h e c r a n e w i t h such cells so
t h a t e a c h p o u r c a n be exactly w e i g h e d . S u c h a system
is s h o w n in Fig. 3. I n this case, t h e digital i n d i c a t o r
is m o u n t e d o n t h e b a c k of t h e c a b i n of t h e c h a r g i n g
c r a n e , so t h a t t h e f u r n a c e Operator c a n check t h e
p o u r e d q u a n t i t y f r o m his console.
Skimming Slag
T h e a m o u n t of slag w h i c h develops is d e p e n d e n t
o n t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e c h a r g e m a t e r i a l s , t h e n a t u r e
of t h e f u r n a c e a t m o s p h e r e a n d t h e m e l t i n g p r o c e d u r e .
W i t h i n c r e a s i n g f u r n a c e size a n d rising p o w e r r a t i n g
— t h e largest B r o w n Boveri coreless i n d u c t i o n f u r n a c e
n o w u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n is r a t e d a t 17000 k W — i t is
not possible to r e m o v e t h e slag m a n u a l l y . E v e n if this
j o b w e r e not r e n d e r e d impossible b y t h e h e a t r a d i a t e d
b y such a large b a t h surface, t h e u n p r o d u c t i v e t i m e
involved w o u l d be c o m p l e t e l y o u t of p r o p o r t i o n to
the a c t u a l m e l t i n g t i m e [2 |.
T h e s k i m m i n g d e v i c e is of t h e g r a b type. I t is
raised a n d l o w e r e d , a n d the g r a b o p e n e d a n d closed,
h y d r a u l i c a l l y . T h e device c a n b e a t t a c h e d e i t h e r to
a fork-lift t r u c k or to a s u p p o r t c o l u m n on the f u r n a c e
p l a t f o r m . A s k i m m e r of this k i n d h a s b e e n in success-
ful o p e r a t i o n for o n e y e a r , s k i m m i n g the f u r n a c e s
illustrated in Fig. 4.
A n o t h e r w a y to skim off slag is i n d i c a t e d in Fig. 5.
A b a c k w a r d s tilt of this c r a d l e - m o u n t e d u n i t e n a b l e s
t h e slag to b e r e m o v e d t h r o u g h a d o o r built i n t o t h e
u p p e r p a r t of t h e f u r n a c e . T h e o r d e r to skim t h e
f u r n a c e is t r a n s m i t t e d to t h e Operator by a n a u d i b l e
o r visible signal f r o m t h e c e n t r a l c o n t r o l s t a n d . T h e
t i m e necessary for slag r e m o v a l is p r e d i c t a b l e , a s s u m -
ing c o n t i n u o u s f u r n a c e o p e r a t i o n (see a b o v e ) a n d a
r e a s o n a b l y c o n s t a n t c o n d i t i o n of the c h a r g e m a t e r i a l .
Fig. 3. - 20-t mains-frequency coreless induction furnace rated
4250 kW, in tilted position
I t c a n thus be calculated a n d used in establishing a
rigid f u r n a c e schedule.
I n the case of p l a n t s which include c h a r g e pre-
h e a t i n g , p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n must be paid to m e a -
suring skimming time. W h i l e the degree of oxidation
d e p e n d s on the length of the p r e h e a t firing cycle a n d
on the final t e m p e r a t u r e , it is normally greater t h a n
is the case w h e n cold m a t e r i a l is c h a r g e d .

Charge Preheating

The first efforts to p r e h e a t induction furnace

charges were m a d e in cases w h e r e it was impossible
to störe t h e scrap u n d e r cover. D r y i n g t h e scrap
thoroughly before c h a r g i n g r e m o v e d t h e d a n g e r of
splatter a n d thus i m p r o v e d the reliability of the p l a n t .
Extensive investigation and the development of
Fig. 4. - Mains-frequency induction furnace plant for melting cast
highly efficient b u r n e r s h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t the iron and simultaneous superheating of blast-furnace hon
use of gas as a source of p r e h e a t i n g energy actually The plant consists of three 20-t and two 10-t mains-frequency
enables the effective melting costs to be lowered. coreless induction furnaces.

T h i s cost r e d u c t i o n is t h e result of several factors:

gas is usually c h e a p e r t h a n electricity, t h e utilization
factor of the i n d u c t i o n f u r n a c e c a n be i m p r o v e d , a n d
t h e investment for a melting p l a n t with p r e h e a t i n g
is e q u a l to or less t h a n t h a t for a c o m p a r a b l e p l a n t
melting a cold c h a r g e . T h e actual r e d u c t i o n of t h e
melting time in t h e induction f u r n a c e t h r o u g h t h e
use of c h a r g e p r e h e a t i n g presumes, of course, t h a t
a n efficient filling-firing-emptying cycle is established
a t the p r e h e a t e r which does not i n t r o d u c e waiting
time a t t h e melting f u r n a c e . BROWN BOVERI

Fig. 6 shows a p r e h e a t e r m o u n t e d on a j i b c r a n e .
U p o n completion of the firing cycle, the c h a r g e Con-
tainer is swung over t h e melting f u r n a c e , its d r o p -
b o t t o m doors o p e n i n g to allow the hot c h a r g e to d r o p
into t h e f u r n a c e . T h e scrap t r a n s p o r t b ü c k e t is
b r o u g h t to the p r e h e a t e r a u t o m a t i c a l l y f r o m the
scrap y a r d . W h e n t h e e m p t y p r e h e a t e r Container is
s w u n g back into firing position, it is a u t o m a t i c a l l y
filled by tilting the transport b ü c k e t .
Charge Energy Metering
A n i m p o r t a n t element for a u t o m a t i n g t h e m e l t i n g
o p e r a t i o n can be provided by t h e use of a c h a r g e
Fig. 5. - 80-t mains-frequency coreless induction furnace on a
tilting cradle
Furnace in tilted position for skimming.
energy m e t e r , assuming t h a t charges of t h e s a m e size
a r e m a d e repetitively. T h e r e q u i r e d n u m b e r of k W h
is set on t h e m e t e r , d e p e n d i n g on the size of t h e c h a r g e
a n d the desired p o u r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e . W h e n the
f u r n a c e is switched on, t h e m e t e r r u n s until the set
q u a n t i t y of energy is c o n s u m e d . W h e n this value is
r e a c h e d , the f u r n a c e is a u t o m a t i c a l l y switched off a n d
its condition signalled b o t h visually a n d a u d i b l y . T h e
q u a n t i t y m e l t e d is then p o u r e d off a n d t h e c o u n t e r

Fig. 6. - Charge preheater for use in the production of casl iron
set back to zero by m e a n s of a reset b u t t o n , either on
the f u r n a c e console or the central control desk. This
operation a u t o m a t i c a l l y resets the c o u n t e r for the
same energy i n p u t . T h e use of this device h a s t h e
a d v a n t a g e t h a t over-heating of the melt is avoided
even w h e n t h e p o w e r level of the f u r n a c e varies.
Such power Variation in i n d u c t i o n melting f u r n a c e s
c a n result f r o m deviations in the supply voltage or
f r o m erosion or crusting of the crucible wall (the
p o w e r d r a w n by a n induction f u r n a c e being a f u n c -
tion of the voltage a n d the crucible wall thickness).
T h u s , the c h a r g e energy m e t e r helps to eliminate
a n i m p o r t a n t source of h u m a n error on the p a r t of
t h e f u r n a c e crew, a n d at t h e same time improves
t h e o p e r a t i n g reliability of the plant.
T h e degree of accuracy to be achieved when
w o r k i n g with a c h a r g e energy m e t e r d e p e n d s largely
on t h e a c c u r a c y with which the charges a r e weighed.
T h e same is t r u e of the a m o u n t p o u r e d off, since
variations here will result in either over-filling of the
f u r n a c e or a d r o p in the b a t h level. If the b a t h level
drops in spite of the c h a r g e d q u a n t i t y rema'ning
constant, t h e t e m p e r a t u r e will fall. T h e reason is
that low f u r n a c e filling results in a r e d u c e d level of
p o w e r d r a w n ; this increases the melting time re-
q u i r e d , so t h a t a g r e a t e r a m o u n t of energy m u s t be
supplied to cover t h e f u r n a c e h e a t loss.
I n a properly r u n o p e r a t i o n with constant c h a r g e
weights a n d t a p p i n g quantities, the energy m e t e r
will a f f o r d excellent reproducibility in t a p p i n g t e m -
Fig. 7. - Kf factor as a function of furnace size in the melting
of iron
This factor multiplied by furnace power yields the power
rcduction resulting from a low initial Alling level.
p e r a t u r e . If the individual work steps (skimming,
sampling, composition correction) are accurately
reflected in the time d i a g r a m , a n d if the necessary
auxiliary e q u i p m e n t for a u t o m a t i o n is available, it
is possible to consider these " u n p r o d u c t i v e time
periods" by correcting the energy c o n s u m p t i o n set
on the m e t e r . I n o t h e r words, t h e f u r n a c e heat loss
d u r i n g t h e time the f u r n a c e is switched off can be
accurately m a d e u p w h e n it is then switched on.
At the same time, the r a d i a t i o n loss caused by having
the f u r n a c e cover open p a r t of the time must also
be a c c o u n t e d for.
Charge Clocks
I n addition to t h e c h a r g e energy m e t e r , it is
advisable to use c h a r g e clocks to assist in supervising
the melting process. T h e individual work steps in-
volved in melting a c h a r g e a r e set on this clock. T h e
f u r n a c e Operator then receives visual signals giving
him Orders such as:
charging, skimming,
sampling, t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t ,
analysis correction, t a p p i n g .
C o r r e s p o n d i n g to the n u m b e r of work steps, the
c h a r g e clock contains control elements with con-
tactors for transmitting signals. T h e melting time
p e r c h a r g e a n d the time r e q u i r e d for each work step
are pre-selected. W h e n , for example, the f u r n a c e is
switched off for t e m p e r a t u r e measurement, the clock
mechanism for expired melting time is switched off
simultaneously. Thus, only the effective melting time
will be counted. If a melting plant consists of a
n u m b e r of furnaces supervised from a central control
desk, the battery of charge clocks helps to provide
an overall view of the melt shop Situation at any
given m o m e n t . If special work steps outside the
normal programme are occasionally required,
selector switch can be used to t u r n off the charge
clock or a manually set contactor can be operated
to supervise this extra step.
Pneumatic Post Installation
If additional waiting time a n d lowering of f u r n a c e
production are to be avoided, it is necessary to des-
patch the iron samples to the laboratory as rapidly
as possible. T o d a y it is c o m m o n for foundries to
operate spectral analysis e q u i p m e n t which permits
the evaluation of 40 or more samples per
without difficulty. If such e q u i p m e n t is to be utilized
properly, the correction of furnace b a t h composition
should not be held u p by the transport of the samples.
A p n e u m a t i c post system permits the f u r n a c e oper-
ating crew to despatch the samples directly to the
laboratory themselves. T h e use of easily installed
plastic tubes in these installations enables distances
of 1000 m or more to be covered at relatively modest
cost. In the largest furnace plants, it is advisible to
locate a n u m b e r of despatch stations on the f u r n a c e
platform.
Equipment for Carbon Equivalent
Determination (Tectip Equipment)
A system has been developed for determining the
carbon equivalent (CE value) in molten iron without
using either wet chemical or spectro-analytical eva-
luation. This system permits quick evaluation of
the properties of the molten materials, a n d
affords a chance of altering them by a d d i n g alloying
components. This is done by recording the cooling
curve of an iron sample. Since a rigid relationship
exists between the " l i q u i d u s " t e m p e r a t u r e a n d the
c a r b o n equivalent, as can be seen from the iron-
c a r b o n d i a g r a m , it is sufficient to determine the
liquidus t e m p e r a t u r e a n d then read the correspon-
ding GE value from a table. Every liquidus temper-
a t u r e corresponds to a definite C E value; this
function must first be determined by test measure-
ments.
T h e e q u i p m e n t consists of a measuring head, a
a holding device, a n d a recorder. T h e measuring head
consists of a hollow body of mould sand, into
which a N i C r - N i thermocouple projects from under-
neath. T h e measuring head accepts the iron sample
a n d is replaced after every measurement. It is plugged
on to the end of the holding device a n d then removed
w h e n the cooling curve has been recorded. The
sample length of recorder strip shown in Fig. 9
indicates the way the device works, the individual
points in this picture being explained as follows:
1. T h e measuring head is plugged on to the holding
device. T h e recorder pen runs to the lower end
of the scale a n d indicates that the measuring
hour circuit is ready to operate.
2. T h e iron sample is poured into the measuring
head. T h e recorder pen begins to r u n towards
the u p p e r end of the scale, a n d switches on the
motor that drives the chart.
3. Within one second the recorder reaches the mo-
m e n t a r y t e m p e r a t u r e of the sample and starts to
trace the cooling curve.
4. After 30 to 40 s, the liquidus point a p p e a r s as
a vertical line on the chart. F r o m the t e m p e r a t u r e
value thus measured the carbon equivalent value
can be read off a previously p r e p a r e d table.
5. After a b o u t 3 minutes the solidus point is regis-
tered.
6. T h e measuring head is removed from the holding
device.
7. T h e recording pen runs from the end of the scale
back to the starting point, so that the e q u i p m e n t
is ready for the next sample.
If a battery of furnaces is involved, it is advisable
also to employ several sets of this e q u i p m e n t , the recorders
being m o u n t e d in the central control desk of the
f u r n a c e plant. T h e melting engineer is then in a
position to c o m p a r e the actual carbon equivalent
with the desired value, a n d order the necessary

BROWN BOVERI MI634 I
Fig. 8. - Recorder chart showing cooling curve for an iron sample
(Tectip analysis), see text.
composition correction to be m a d e . This device
makes it possible to evaluate the melt before pouring,
even in cases where the charge melting time is quite
short.
If the liquidus t e m p e r a t u r e is fed to a properly
p r o g r a m m e d Computer, the necessary analysis cor-
rections can be calculated virtually instantaneously
a n d passed to the furnace Operator via the control
desk.
Intercommunication System
I n the case of a battery of furnaces, it is necessary
for the individual stations of the plant to be con-
nected by an intercom system, so that the melting
process can be controlled from a central location.
These stations include:
T h e individual furnaces, the scrap yard
with weighing Station, the laboratory,
the control desk, a n d possibily the
foundry office.
T h e intercom system is used to transmit Orders
for the various work steps to the furnace Operator,
unless the same c o m m a n d s can be signalled optically
at the f u r n a c e console. Similarly, the laboratory
reports the results of its analyses to the control desk.
I n order to avoid verbal misunderstandings, partic-
ularly w h e r e a large n u m b e r of laboratory samples
are involved, it is often advisible to transmit these
laboratory results via a teleprinter. T h e values are
thus typed in the laboratory a n d can be used by
the shift Supervisor at the control desk in preparing
his melting report. Repetition of the symbol for each
sample in the typewritten text precludes the risk of
samples being mixed up after analysis. T h e shift
Superintendent can do his copy work from the type-
writer whenever he finds time, without having to
interrupt his n o r m a l routine. This is far superior to
the " m a n u a l " system, where the Superintendent is
required to record a great n u m b e r of analysis results
reported verbally by the laboratory, and give them
simultaneously to the various f u r n a c e Operators. T h e
risk of error is obviously to a very large extent
eliminated.
Central Control Desk
T h e neecl for directing the individual functions
from a central furnace control point grows as the
size of the furnace plant increases a n d as the individ-
ual work steps become m o r e complex. T h e p l a n t is
controlled from this point taking into consideration
the steady stream of measured values received for
charge weight, furnace Contents, laboratory analysis
results, pouring temperature, liquidus temperature,
a n d so on. For very large melting shops it is only
possible to achieve Optimum utilization of the plant
when the melting operation is directed from a
central point. Since such devices as charge energy
meters, power level indicators, etc., indicate the
m o m e n t a r y operating condition of the individual
furnaces, the Supervisor can introduce p r o g r a m m e
changes very rapidly. T h e individual monitoring
devices a n d controls are m o u n t e d in a console, giving
h i m an overall view of the instrumentation and
sufficient room to do p a p e r work. If there is too
m u c h e q u i p m e n t to m o u n t in the console itself, an
instrument panel is m o u n t e d above it. Fig. 9 shows
a central control console for a mains-frequency core-
less induction melting p l a n t consisting of five furnaces
each of 30 t capacity, connected to four sets of
switchgear each rated 6600 kVA. T h e plant is used
for simplex melting operation with an hourly produc-
tion rate of 35 t of molten iron.
In addition to the auxiliary equipment already
being used in induction melting plants, it would be
possible to employ television to transmit results
f r o m t h e laboratory to the f u r n a c e p l a t f o r m , r a d i o
c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n the scrap weighing Station
and the c r a n e c a b i n , etc. T h e remaining steps
towards complete a u t o m a t i o n of the melting process
a n d the application of process Computers will, how-
ever, require the installation of f u r t h e r support
e q u i p m e n t . Some of this is not necessary for modest-
sized f u r n a c e plants, nor is it all justifiable f r o m a
cost Standpoint. As m e n t i o n e d earlier, every p l a n n i n g
project should take into consideration the fact t h a t
auxiliary e q u i p m e n t for partial or füll a u t o m a t i o n
m u s t be justified by a cost study.
T h e i n d u c t i o n melting f u r n a c e is, in the final
analysis, only a tool for achieving a desired Output
level, a n d so must always be considered in relation Fig. 9. - Central control desk for supervising five 30-t mains-
frequency coreless induction furnaces with four sets of switchgear
to t h e entire melting shop. T h e p l a n n i n g staff m u s t rated 6600 kVA each
therefore be a w a r e of all the possibilities m e n t i o n e d
in this article a n d investigate t h e m thoroughly for
each new project. O n l y in this way will it be possible
to achieve o p t i m u m technical a n d economic results
f r o m the p l a n t as a whole. W. LANG: Planung und A u f b a u von Induktions-Schmelz-
anlagen in der Eisengiesserei. Giessereipraxis 1953, No.
22/66, p. 411-9.
(WF) W. LANG [2] W. L A N G , M . A . A H M A D : T h e design of material handling

equipment for induction furnaces. Brown Boveri Rev. 1964,

Vol. 51, N o . 10/11, p. 610-22.

[3] H . HEINE: Erfahrung über die Schrottverwärmung mit

Bibliography
BBC-Anlagen in den USA. Report presented at the 6th
[1] K . H . B R O K M E I E R : Induktives Schmelzen. One of a series BBC Refractories conference, 1967.
of technical books compiled by Brown Boveri and published
by Girardet, Essen.
 CHANNEL INDUCTION FURNACES FOR CAST IRON
AND STEEL

621.365.5:669.1

Channel induction furnaces have enjoyed a great increase Improved lining quality has enabled furnace
in use by iron foundries in the last five years. The reason for
p o w e r to b e increased a n d has l e n g t h e n e d lining
this rapidly rising popularity is to be found not only in
technical improvements in the furnaces and their refractory life s u f f i c i e n t l y t o m a k e t h e C h a n n e l f u r n a c e a
materials; just as important have been new areas of appli- p a y i n g p r o p o s i t i o n f o r t h e first t i m e .
cation opened up by foundry mechanisation and by rising
demands made on the molten metal supply in terms of uni- 2. T h e p a s t f e w y e a r s h a v e s e e n a g r e a t i n c r e a s e in
form temperature and composition, as well as by the need foundry mechanisation and automation. T h e com-
to meet production peaks. New uses, such as the direct Alling p l e x e q u i p m e n t i n t r o d u c e d is, h o w e v e r , f o r c e d t o
of moulds and the holding of molten steel are certain to
work under extremely unfavourable conditions,
grow in importance.
T h e Channel induction furnace has not replaced the tra- a n d b r e a k d o w n s a n d rapid w e a r caused by heat
ditional melting furnaces; rather, it offers welcome supple- a n d dirt can never be completely avoided. Since
mentary facilities as a holder, storage vessel, receiver, and stoppages o c c u r r e l a t i v e l y f r e q u e n t l y , it is ob-
pouring device. In deciding whether to purchase a Channel
furnace, the foundry manager must investigate whether the
furnace running costs would be offset by the savings it would
bring, e.g. in the form of reduced reject rates, improved
utilization of existing plant, or lower cost of metal at the
spout. Section 2 of this article gives basic data for estimating
running costs.
The remainder of the article gives an overall view of the
Channel furnace plant, in terms of design features and size
ranges, furnace lining materials and plant component design.

Fields of Application of the Channel

Furnace

T T ' O R m a n y years, c h a n n e l - t y p e induction furnaces

have been Standard e q u i p m e n t in t h e copper
alloy a n d a l u m i n i u m industries. A l t h o u g h this t y p e
of f u r n a c e d i d n o t s u c c e e d i n g a i n i n g a f o o t h o l d i n
iron foundries until very recently, the Situation has
changed radically in the last f e w y e a r s . Interest
a m o n g i r o n f o u n d r i e s is n o w r u n n i n g v e r y h i g h .
T h e rising d e m a n d for Channel furnaces for ferrous
metals c a n be traced to a n u m b e r of c i r c u m s t a n c e s :

1. G r e a t s t r i d e s h a v e b e e n m a d e i n t h e field of r e -
f r a c t o r y m a t e r i a l s used to line these f u r n a c e s , w i t h Fig. 1. - Channel induction furnace type IRV 6 (useful capacity
new products frequently appearing on the market. 6 t) used as a receiver and for holding cast iron at temperature
 viously u n d e s i r a b l e for the various processes taking
place in the f o u n d r y to be locked inflexibly to-
gether. T h e Channel i n d u c t i o n f u r n a c e offers a n
excellent flexible link to connect the melt shop
with the p o u r i n g line. Its storage capability allows
o p e r a t i n g i n t e r r u p t i o n s of a certain maximum
d u r a t i o n to occur, either a t the p r i m a r y melting
f u r n a c e or a t the p o u r i n g Station, w i t h o u t the
molten c h a r g e suffering a n y c h a n g e in either
composition or t e m p e r a t u r e .
3. O n e of the most effective ways to i m p r o v e a pensive, however, to design the melt shop to meet
foundry's profitability is to r e d u c e t h e p e r c e n t a g e
of unsaleable castings p r o d u c e d . T o achieve this
end, o n e must p r o d u c e the castings u n d e r con-
ditions which r e m a i n as nearly constant as possible,
a n d which c a n b e r e p r o d u c e d a t a n y time. T h i s
d e m a n d s t h a t the m o l t e n m e t a l supply exhibit
u n v a r y i n g composition a n d t e m p e r a t u r e , or a t
least t h a t deviations f r o m the target values be
minimized.
V a r i a t i o n in composition, which is u n a v o i d a b l e
w h e n melting is carried out in fossil-fuel furnaces,
c a n be levelled off by t h e flywheel effect of the
Channel f u r n a c e ' s contents, i.e. by the mixing of
Fig. 2. - Channel induction furnaces
type IRS 6 (useful capacity 40 t each )
used for storing molten iron and main-
taining temperature
T h e crucible induction furnaces,
melt 24 hours per day to fill the
Channel furnaces, which are then
emptied during the 8-hour casting
shift.
t h e e n t e r i n g m e t a l with the f u r n a c e b a t h . F u r t h e r -
more, i n d u c t i v e h e a t i n g of molten m e t a l , in con-
trast to the gas or oil h e a t i n g e m p l o y e d in tra-
ditional receivers, enables energy to b e supplied
in precisely controllable a m o u n t s to hold the
t e m p e r a t u r e absolutely constant. T h i s a d v a n t a g e
applies regardless of f u r n a c e size, since the p o w e r
of the inductors is chosen accordingly.
4. T h e d e m a n d for m o l t e n iron in a f o u n d r y is
seldom steady t h r o u g h o u t the d a y . It is too ex-
peak d e m a n d , so t h e use of a c h a n n e l f u r n a c e as
a storage vessel represents a welcome a l t e r n a t i v e .
5. N e a r l y everywhere, electricity bills a r e a combi-
n a t i o n of two elements, o n e being the r a t e per
k W h c o n s u m e d , a n d the o t h e r a fixed c h a r g e for
the m a x i m u m p o w e r level d r a w n . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
different rates a p p l y a t different times of d a y .
W h e n melting is d o n e electrically, it is thus often
a d v a n t a g e o u s to m e l t a t least p a r t of the d a y ' s
r e q u i r e m e n t d u r i n g t h e hours of low network
loading (and thus of r e d u c e d tariffs).
6. Recently the steel industry has also shown a
growing interest in Channel i n d u c t i o n f u r n a c e s ,
 p a r t i c u l a r l y in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h n e w l y - d e v e l o p e d
processes for c o n t i n u o u s s t e e l - m a k i n g . I n this n e w
a p p l i c a t i o n , t h e c h a n n e l f u r n a c e p e r f o r m s as a
" b u f f e r " vessel a n d a m i x e r , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y re-
p l e n i s h i n g t h e h e a t lost b y t h e steel d u r i n g t h e
process.
Since t h e r e is little p o i n t in c i t i n g costs for o n e ' s
best possible e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h e following figures a r e
p u r p o s e l y b a s e d o n slightly pessimistic a s s u m p t i o n s ,
e.g. r e f r a c t o r y life is a s s u m e d to b e 12 m o n t h s for
the f u r n a c e p r o p e r a n d 6 m o n t h s for t h e i n d u c t o r s .
( I n m o s t cases, l o n g e r life will b e a c h i e v e d . )

Economic Considerations
Power Costs

As w i t h a n y i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l e q u i p m e n t , t h e first
q u e s t i o n s to b e a n s w e r e d w h e n o n e is c o n s i d e r i n g
t h e p u r c h a s e of a c h a n n e l f u r n a c e a r e t h e e c o n o m i c
ones. Possible e l e m e n t s of e c o n o m i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n a r e :
- R e d u c i n g t h e cost p e r t o n of m o l t e n i r o n a t t h e
spout
- S m o o t h i n g o u t the p r o d u c t i o n flow in t h e f o u n d r y
( a v o i d a n c e of w a i t i n g t i m e )
- M o r e uniform composition and temperature of the
molten iron resulting in reduced frequency of reject
Castings.
I n o r d e r to be a b l e to m a k e a r e l i a b l e e v a l u a t i o n
of t h e e c o n o m i c s of t h e c h a n n e l f u r n a c e , o n e m u s t
first k n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t its r u n n i n g costs. T h e
following d a t a is i n t e n d e d to m a k e possible a n esti-
m a t e of the m a i n e l e m e n t s of o p e r a t i n g cost for the
p o p u l ä r T y p e I R V c h a n n e l f u r n a c e series. Since it
is impossible to find figures which have universal
validity, w e shall n o t try to set o u t a complete,
d e t a i l e d analysis. W i d e differences exist in m e t h o d
of c h a r g i n g d e p r e c i a t i o n , in f r i n g e benefits to p e r -
sonnel, in c h a r g e s for s p a c e a n d l a b o r a t o r y services,
a n d in g e n e r a l a c c o u n t i n g policies. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e
T o facilitate c a l c u l a t i o n of p o w e r costs a t v a r i o u s
O u t p u t levels, it is useful to s e p a r a t e those costs w h i c h
v a r y as a f u n c t i o n of Output f r o m those w h i c h d o
n o t . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , it is realistic to a s s u m e t h a t
m o r e t h a n o n e tariff a p p l i e s a t d i f f e r e n t times of d a y .
As a m a t t e r of p r i n c i p l e , all e n e r g y costs c a l c u l a t e d
will b e m u l t i p l i e d b y 1-05 to a l l o w for t h e e n e r g y
used in d r y i n g o u t n e w linings, t h a t used during
e x c h a n g e of i n d u c t o r s a n d m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k , a n d
t h a t used to d r i v e auxiliaries such as w a t e r p u m p s ,
f a n m o t o r s , etc.
T h e a n n u a l e n e r g y costs c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y cal-
c u l a t i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l costs listed b e l o w a n d a d d i n g
them together.
E n e r g y costs to h o l d t e m p e r a t u r e :
P. 1 05 . (<i. .Vi + t2 . x2)
E n e r g y costs to s u p e r h e a t :
A . 1-05 Gai • Xl + GA2 . *2
E n e r g y costs to m e l t :
B . 1 05 GBI . Xl + GB2 . x2

total i n v e s t m e n t r e q u i r e d to install a f u r n a c e p l a n t T h e results of t h e e n e r g y cost c a l c u l a t i o n a r e p r e -

differs f r o m case to case, t h e m o s t obvious r e a s o n sented in g r a p h f o r m in Fig. 3 a n d 4.
b e i n g t h e f r e i g h t a n d d u t y c o m p o n e n t of t h e e q u i p - If m o r e than two tariffs m u s t be taken into
m e n t price. T h e civil e n g i n e e r i n g costs m u s t also b e account, the above formulas must be expanded
c o n s i d e r e d . T h e s e c a n differ w i d e l y , d e p e n d i n g o n a c c o r d i n g l y (GAS • etc.). I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e e n e r g y
w h e t h e r t h e p l a n t m u s t b e s q u e e z e d i n t o a n existing costs for h o l d i n g a t t e m p e r a t u r e , o n e m u s t k e e p in
b u i l d i n g or is p a r t of a b r a n d n e w f o u n d r y . m i n d t h a t t h e c h a n n e l i n d u c t i o n f u r n a c e needs to
T h e following d a t a a r e t h e r e f o r e limited t o : contain molten metal a t all times, i.e. even at
- E n e r g y costs Weekends.
- C o o l i n g - w a t e r costs P = H o l d i n g p o w e r , m e a s u r e d o n t h e p r i m a r y side
- Cost of f u r n a c e lining m a t e r i a l s . of t h e f u r n a c e t r a n s f o r m e r
The figures given a r e valid only for p r o d u c t i o n A = A d d i t i o n a l specific e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n for
of cast i r o n . superheating
B = Additional specific energy c o n s u m p t i o n
for melting d o w n (returns, pig iron, steel
scrap)
GAI, GA2 = A n n u a l t h r o u g h p u t s u p e r h e a t e d
Gm, GB2 = A n n u a l t h r o u g h p u t melted
Xl | Energy cost per k W h according to tariffs
*2j 1 , 2 , etc.

^J — A n n u a l usage in hours at tariffs 1, 2, etc.

BROWN B O V E R I
TABLE I «.iil7

Values for P Fig. 3. - Specific energy consumption A necessary to superheat cast

iron as a function of degrees superheated
Furnace type IRV IRV IRV IRV IRV IRV
5 6 7 8 8a 9

Useful capacity t 3-5 6 10 16 20 25 kWh/t

P assuming average
melt temperature of
1500 °C and inductor
power of:
300 kW kW 75 79 90 — — —

500 kW kW — 85 96 125 134 163

800 kW kW — — — 136 146 175

Cooling-Water Costs

Fig. 4. - Specific energy consumption B for melting cast iron

T h e cooling w a t e r system always includes a t h e r m o -
statically controlled valve for a d j u s t i n g w a t e r con-
s u m p t i o n w h e n a c h a n g e occurs in the level of h e a t
to be carried a w a y . T h e a m o u n t of cooling w a t e r Lining Costs
used is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e melt t e m p e r a t u r e , m o m e n -
tary p o w e r level, i n d u c t o r size, a n d , to a lesser degree, T h e r e f r a c t o r y lining of a Channel f u r n a c e h a s to
by t h e size of t h e f u r n a c e . last a t least o n e year, so t h a t its r e p l a c e m e n t c a n b e
T h e a n n u a l w a t e r c o n s u m p t i o n can be calculated accomplished d u r i n g t h e a n n u a l p l a n t shutdown,
using the f o r m u l a : thus a v o i d i n g a n i n t e r r u p t i o n in p r o d u c t i o n . The

Qi. ta • Q2 • GA + Qi • GB following assumptions c a n be m a d e w h e n e s t i m a t i n g

the o p e r a t i n g costs:
Values of Q1, Qz, a n d Q3 for the various f u r n a c e
sizes a r e given in Fig. 5, 6 a n d 7. Furnace:
Life of cast or r a m m e d r e f r a c t o r y : 1 year
Where
Life of cover lining: 1 year
Qi H o u r l y w a t e r c o n s u m p t i o n to hold t e m p e r a t u r e
Life of t h e r m a l insulating bricks: 2 years
Q2 A d d i t i o n a l w a t e r c o n s u m p t i o n to s u p e r h e a t
Q3 = A d d i t i o n a l w a t e r c o n s u m p t i o n to melt Inductor:
ta 7
A n n u a l f u r n a c e usage in hours Life of c o m p l e t e lining: J year
GA Annual throughput superheated I t is q u i t e possible to o b t a i n longer r e f r a c t o r y life
GB A n n u a l t h r o u g h p u t melted in the f u r n a c e . H o w e v e r , our a i m is to a r r i v e a t a
 m a t e r i a l s is given b e l o w in the f o r m of t h e a n n u a l
consumption based o n t h e a b o v e a s s u m p t i o n s on
l i n i n g life. S o m e i n d i c a t i o n of t h e l a b o u r r e q u i r e d is
given in t h e section e n t i t l e d " F u r n a c e R e f r a c t o r y " .

TABLE II
Annual consumption of lining materials

Furnace Asbestos, insulating Ramming or cast-

Fig. 5. Hourly cooling water consumption Qi white holding type bricks, cover mix able refractory for
temperature etc. (tons) furnace vessel (tons)
a. Furnaces Type IRV 5, 6 and 7 with 300 kW inductor
b. Furnaces Type IRV 6, 7 and 8 with 500 kW inductor
c. Furnaces Type IRV 8a and 9 with 500 kW inductor IRV 5 2-8 7-4
d. Furnaces Type IRV 8, 8a and 9 with 800 kW inductor IRV 6 3-6 10
IRV 7 4-8 13
IRV 8 7-3 18
IRV 8a 8-8 20
m'/h 0, 13 — IRV 9 9 21
0,1 c
b>
0,08

ÖS 0,06 Design Considerations and Size Range

0,04
T h e v a r i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s of c h a n n e l f u r n a c e s w e r e
0,02 d e a l t w i t h in t h e a b o v e b u t it is obvious t h a t t h e
specific task of a f u r n a c e h a s a m a j o r i n f l u e n c e o n its
0 50 100 200
BROWN BOVERI
a rq 1415A4 I design. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the r ä n g e of S t a n d a r d
Fig. 6. - Additional cooling water consumption Qz to superheat f u r n a c e s is necessarily limited b y t h e n e e d to f a b r i c a t e
t h e m e c o n o m i c a l l y , w h i c h is of c o u r s e in t h e interest
of b o t h v e n d o r a n d p u r c h a s e r . A well t h o u g h t - o u t
ms/h f u r n a c e design m u s t m e e t this l a t t e r d e m a n d and

1,0
nevertheless p e r m i t w i d e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n .
B r o w n Boveri c u r r e n t l y offer t w o Standard types
0,9
Q, of c h a n n e l i n d u c t i o n f u r n a c e s for f e r r o u s metals, as
| 0,f
d e s c r i b e d below.
0,6

0,4
Channel Induction Furnace Type IRV
1400 1500
BROWN BOVERI

Fig. 7. - Additional cooling water consumption Q3 to melt
a. Furnaces with 300 kW inductor
b. Furnaces with 500 kW inductor
c. Furnaces with 800 kW inductor
T h e r ä n g e of I R V f u r n a c e s , i n c l u d i n g t e c h n i c a l
d a t a a n d d i m e n s i o n s , is given in Fig. 8.
C h a n n e l f u r n a c e t y p e I R V has a n u m b e r of dis-
tinctive f e a t u r e s w h i c h h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d to its o u t -
s t a n d i n g sales r e c o r d :

- T h e f u r n a c e pivots a b o u t its p o u r i n g s p o u t . T h i s
realistic cost p i c t u r e , n o t o n e based o n Optimum means that the ladle being filled need not be
values. W a g e s a n d m a t e r i a l prices differ f r o m c o u n t r y moved, either vertically or horizontally. This
t o c o u n t r y . T h e basis for c a l c u l a t i n g t h e cost of f e a t u r e is essential w h e r e f r e q u e n t p o u r s a r e m a d e
 to supply a m e c h a n i z e d f o u n d r y . F u r t h e r m o r e , it
permits direct Alling of m o u l d s f r o m the f u r n a c e ,
assuming a reasonable relationship between t h e
weight of castings a n d f u r n a c e capacity.

- T h e c h a r g i n g spout of the f u r n a c e also lies in the

tilting axis a n d slightly higher t h a n the p o u r i n g
spout. T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t permits c h a r g i n g via
either a stationary loader or ladles i n d e p e n d e n t
of the f u r n a c e tilting angle a n d w i t h o u t inter-
r u p t i n g the p o u r i n g process.

C h a r g i n g a n d p o u r i n g spouts a r e constructed in
syphon f o r m . T h i s effectively seals the f u r n a c e
cavity f r o m t h e a t m o s p h e r e , reducing burnoff
losses to a m i n i m u m . Slag particles e n t r a i n e d in
the m o l t e n m e t a l c h a r g e d a r e largely p r e v e n t e d
f r o m entering t h e f u r n a c e p r o p e r . Experience has
shown t h a t the slag need only be skimmed off
weekly or even less often.

T h e f o r m of t h e f u r n a c e a p p r o a c h e s t h a t of a
sphere, so t h a t the outer h e a t - r a d i a t i n g surface is
kept as small as possible. This enables the f u r n a c e
" -CT

heat loss to be kept to a m i n i m u m w i t h o u t un- BROWN BOVERI

b t h hy
necessarily increasing t h e cost of the lining. F u r t h e r - IRV 5 2460 3600 2800 3700
more, the lining consists of surfaces which are IRV 6 2680 3900 2900 3980

a r c h e d o u t w a r d s , giving the refractory m a t e r i a l a IRV 7 3180 4280 3600 4850

IRV 8 3600 4900 3900 5700
high degree of structural strength.
IRV 8a 4100 4900 3900 5700
- T h e I R V f u r n a c e is erected with a m i n i m u m of IRV 9 4200 4900 4600 6500

civil work. Sizes 5 a n d 6 a r e delivered with a steel

tilting pedestal which is simply set on a Hat foun- Fig. 8. - Channel induction furnaces type IRV. Range of sizes,
d a t i o n slab. F o r the larger sizes, the cost of this technical data and dimensions

pedestal rises sharply, so it is replaced in the

Standard design by a short, less expensive b e a r i n g
block, which is simply a n c h o r e d to the f o u n d a t i o n
in the same m a n n e r .
Furnace type IRV IRV IRV IRV IRV IRV
- As shown in Fig. 8, e a c h size of f u r n a c e except the 5 6 7 8 8a 9
smallest c a n be fitted with two different sizes of
Useful capacity t 3-5 6 10 16 20 25
i n d u c t o r . A w o r n i n d u c t o r can be quickly replaced
Total capacity t 5-6 9-6 15-1 23 28 35
by a spare u n i t with t h e f u r n a c e hot.
Inductor power
The furnaces a r e designed to be particularly A kW 300 300 300 — — —

suitable for castable r e f r a c t o r y material. B kW — 500 500 500 500 500

C kW — — — 800 800 800
As a result of these design features, the c h a n n e l
Superheating t IOO °c
f u r n a c e type I R V has a n exceptionally wide field rate H

of a p p l i c a t i o n . I t is suitable for pouring, holding a t A 8-7 8-6 8-2 — — —

B — 16 15-5 14-5 14-2 13-1

t e m p e r a t u r e a n d s u p e r h e a t i n g , m o l t e n metal storage,
C — — — 25-5 251 24
a n d as a receiver.
 b t h
IRS 4 4700 5000 4240
IRS 5 4700 6300 4240
Fig. 9. - Channel induction furnaces
IRSB 5400 7170 4950
type IRS
IRS 7 6000 8900 5330
Range of sizes, technical data and
IRS 8 6500 9100 5950
dimensions

Channel Induction Furnace Type IRS

Furnace type IRS 4 IRS 5 IRS 6 IRS 7 IRS 8

A n u p p e r limit is imposed on t h e size of I R V

UsefuI
furnaces by economic considerations. T h e cost of
capacity t 16 25 40 65 100
building a t r o u g h - s h a p e d f u r n a c e increases rapidly
Total
with size if it is to w i t h s t a n d the loads imposed by the
capacity t 22 35 52 85 130
weight of the lining a n d the melt a n d also the stresses
Maximum
caused by t h e r m a l expansion. For this reason, a inductor
different design principle is used for large capacity power kW 2.500 4.500 4.500 4.800 4.800
Channel i n d u c t i o n furnaces. Maximum
t.100°c
Fig. 9 shows the general design a n d size r ä n g e of superhcating
h
rate 27 56 55 III 105
these furnaces.
T h e distinctive design features of the I R S r ä n g e
a r e as follows: - T h e f u r n a c e f o r m is cylindrical for maximum
structural strength. Since the b o d y is relatively
- T h e f u r n a c e tilts a b o u t its central axis. D o u b l e -
long a n d the bearings a r e built onto the e n d walls,
acting cylinders provide f o r w a r d tilting for tap-
it is possible to fit m o r e t h a n o n e i n d u c t o r (see
p i n g a n d b a c k w a r d tilting for skimming. I n con-
Fig. 9). T h e resultant high f u r n a c e power is often
trast to type I R V , the e n d of the spout describes
i m p o r t a n t in " d u p l e x " m e l t i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h
a n a r c d u r i n g p o u r i n g . Since such h u g e furnaces
high throughput and/or the addition of solid
a r e usually called u p o n to fill large ladles, how-
m a t e r i a l to t h e Channel f u r n a c e .
ever, this m o v e m e n t is n o r m a l l y n o t troublesome.
Slag removal is accomplished almost as easily as - T h e use of a simple f u r n a c e f o u n d a t i o n was also
in t h e case of a r c furnaces, thanks to b a c k w a r d considered in t h e design of the I R S series. T h e
tilting. f u r n a c e is s u p p o r t e d by two p a d s ; the only a d -
- T h e syphon f o r m of the p o u r i n g spout prevents ditional f o u n d a t i o n a p p u r t e n a n c e s a r e two base-
slag flowing o u t into the ladle. I r o n enters t h e plates for t h e h y d r a u l i c cylinders.
f u r n a c e either t h r o u g h a n o p e n i n g in one of the - I n d u c t o r s r a t e d 500 a n d 800 k W c a n be m o u n t e d
e n d walls, or via a syphon built into a n end wall. on I R S type furnaces. Fig. 9 indicates only t h e
I n either case, c o n t i n u o u s c h a r g i n g of m o l t e n m a x i m u m n u m b e r of i n d u c t o r s a n d maximum
m e t a l is possible, regardless of tilting position. i n d u c t o r p o w e r for each size. Obviously, a smaller
 n u m b e r of i n d u c t o r s c a n be used, d e p e n d i n g on
p o w e r level r e q u i r e d . For those sizes w h e r e 800-kW
inductors a r e shown, 500-kW inductors c a n of
course be used instead.
- Furnaces type I R S are designed to accept a lining
of wedge-shaped bricks. In transitional
w h e r e the surface is relatively complex, a r a m m i n g
mix or castable m a t e r i a l is employed.
T h e p a r t i c u l a r design features of t h e I R S r ä n g e
m a k e it suitable for use as a storage vessel, a receiver,
or for h o l d i n g at t e m p e r a t u r e or s u p e r h e a t i n g .
Inductors
Brown Boveri supply c h a n n e l f u r n a c e s for iron a n d
steel with three i n d u c t o r sizes, 300, 500 a n d 800 k W .
All a r e built on the same design principles, the m a i n
f e a t u r e of w h i c h is simplicity. T h e chief c h a r a c t e r -
istics of the design a r e :
- Single-channel f o r m with n o n - u n i f o r m bore for
increasing m e t a l m o v e m e n t in the channel.
H i g h power b u t relatively modest demensions.
- Water-cooled i n d u c t o r housing a n d coil.
Easy i n d u c t o r exchange using special p r e f a b r i c a t e d
gaskets a n d r a p i d fastening with wedges.
- Castable refractory.
T h e single-channel design was chosen in preference
to the double-channel form (in which the
branches share a c o m m o n leg in t h e s h a p e of a " W " )
because it provides electrical readings which give a
simple a n d u n m i s t a k e a b l e indication of c h a n n e l con-
dition. F u r t h e r m o r e , it permits smaller inductor
dimensions for a given power. T h u s the ceramic p a r t
of the single-channel i n d u c t o r is b o t h simpler a n d
smaller, w h i c h makes it less susceptible to cracking.
T h e n o n - u n i f o r m c h a n n e l cross-section effects a
distinctly i m p r o v e d m e t a l m o v e m e n t in the direction
of increasing bore. This i m p r o v e m e n t reduces the
t e m p e r a t u r e differential b e t w e e n the metal in the
f u r n a c e p r o p e r a n d t h a t in t h e c h a n n e l a t a given
p o w e r ; by the same token, it enables a higher power
level to be a p p l i e d if one is Willing to p u t u p with
the higher t e m p e r a t u r e differential.
Furnace Refractory
F o r a long time, a n i m p o r t a n t s t u m b l i n g block
to w i d e use of the c h a n n e l f u r n a c e was t h e r e f r a c t o r y
lining. Since lining r e p l a c e m e n t is a t i m e - c o n s u m i n g
o p e r a t i o n , it can only be d o n e d u r i n g a p l a n t shut-
areas,
d o w n . F o r this reason, foundries usually m a k e the
following d e m a n d s :
- T h e f u r n a c e lining m u s t last a t least o n e y e a r
- Replacement of t h e r e f r a c t o r y lining m u s t be
carried out d u r i n g the a n n u a l s h u t d o w n of 2, 3
or 4 weeks.
W h i l e t h e first condition has been m e t t h r o u g h
i m p r o v e d lining m e t h o d s a n d painstakingly a c c u m u -
lated o p e r a t i n g experience, it h a s not b e e n possible
to r e d u c e t h e lining time sufficiently using t h e tra-
ditional r a m m i n g mixes. F o u n d r i e s were often forced
to struggle along with t e m p o r a r y measures w a i t i n g
for t h e c h a n n e l f u r n a c e to b e p u t back i n t o Service,
resulting in r e d u c e d profits because of higher reject
rates, a n d so on.
T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of castable r a m m i n g mass, w h i c h
still h a s to be i m p o r t e d f r o m t h e U n i t e d States, has
m a d e possible for the first time a substantial r e d u c -
tion in t u r n - r o u n d time, indeed d o w n to 1 - 2 weeks.
T h e a c t u a l placing of the mass takes only 6 - 1 2 hours,
d e p e n d i n g on f u r n a c e size. O r d i n a r y c o n c r e t e v i b r a -
tors a r e used to c o m p a c t the m a t e r i a l (see Fig. 10).
T h i s greatly reduces t h e d a n g e r of h u m a n e r r o r a n d
the resultant unevenly c o m p a c t e d areas, c o m p a r e d
with r a m m e d linings.
two
The preparation and casting of the chemical
b i n d i n g mass m u s t be carried o u t expeditiously be-
cause of its short c u r i n g time. I t is therefore advisable
to choose t h e size of the m i x e r (used to moisten t h e
m a t e r i a l ) , as well as t h e n u m b e r of vibrators, de-
p e n d i n g on the size of the f u r n a c e . T h e p u r e casting
time should not exceed 12 h o u r s for t h e largest
f u r n a c e ( I R V 9). T h e a p p r o x i m a t e time necessary
for m i x i n g a n d placing t h e castable mix in t h e various
sizes of f u r n a c e of the r ä n g e is as follows:
Furnace type I R V 5 I R V 6 I R V 7 I R V 8 I R V 8 a I R V 9
M a n hours 36 42 60 90 96 102
Max. casting
time in hours 6 7 8 10 10 12
 T h e i n d u c t o r s c a n be cast in 1 - 1 J h o u r s .
T h e g r e a t a d v a n t a g e s w o n b y use of c a s t a b l e m i x
a r e p r e s e n d y l i m i t e d to t h e I R V r ä n g e a n d to t h e
i n d u c t o r s . Because of their d r u m s h a p e , the f u r n a c e s
of t h e I R S r ä n g e m u s t b e lined w i t h brick. I t is
possible to a c h i e v e excellent life w i t h t h e h i g h - g r a d e
c o r u n d u m bricks n o r m a l l y used, a s s u m i n g t h a t suffi-
c i e n t c a r e is t a k e n in t h e b r i c k l a y i n g . C o m p l i c a t e d
shapes a n d transition areas are usually executed with
mouldable material.
Design of Plant Components
Since i n d u c t o r p o w e r r a t i n g s r e m a i n t h e same
r e g a r d l e s s of f u r n a c e size, t h e i n d i v i d u a l p l a n t c o m -
p o n e n t s c a n r e a d i l y b e s t a n d a r d i z e d . T h e following
comments deal with the considerations involved
w i t h t h e solutions chosen b y B r o w n Boveri.
Electrical Equipment
T h e m a i n o b j e c t i v e in l a y i n g o u t the electrical
e q u i p m e n t is to r e d u c e t h e d u t i e s r e q u i r e d of t h e
o p e r a t i n g a n d m a i n t e n a n c e p e r s o n n e l to a n a b s o l u t e
m i n i m u m . All c o m p o n e n t s a r e a s s e m b l e d in a single
c u b i c l e , s i m p l i f y i n g t h e e r e c t i o n w o r k . O n e p a r t of
Fig. 10. - Casting the refractory lining for a Channel induction
furnace type IRV
t h e c u b i c l e c o n t a i n s m e a s u r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s a n d con-
trols, i n c l u d i n g m o t o r starters for t h e auxiliaries. A
s e p a r a t e c u b i c l e section c o n t a i n s the c a p a c i t o r b a n k
a n d c i r c u i t - b r e a k e r . If t h e r e is n o r o o m for this l a r g e
cubicle near the furnace, the operating and measuring
devices c a n b e m o u n t e d in a small wall-mounted
p a n e l (Fig. 11). S h o u l d it b e necessary to b a l a n c e
the three-phase load on the supply, an additional
cubicle containing the necessary devices c a n be
added.
Connection Facilities
Fig. 12 shows t h e v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s for c o n n e c -
ting a Channel f u r n a c e to t h e s u p p l y g r i d . If m o r e
t h a n o n e i n d u c t o r is i n v o l v e d , t h e total l o a d o n t h e
g r i d c a n be b a l a n c e d u s i n g a V c o n n e c t i o n (2 i n d u c -
tors) or a d e l t a c o n n e c t i o n (3 i n d u c t o r s ) . I n such
cases t h e r e is n o n e e d for b a l a n c i n g r e a c t o r s and
capacitors.
W h e n e v e r possible, a n i n d u c t o r s h o u l d b e con-
n e c t e d to t h e g r i d in s i n g l e - p h a s e c o n n e c t i o n , since
this r e d u c e s t h e necessary o u t l a y . I n m o s t cases, t h e
level of u n b a l a n c e produced in t h e high-voltage
system will be t o l e r a b l e in v i e w of t h e total f o u n d r y
l o a d . O n e s h o u l d k e e p in m i n d h e r e t h e fact t h a t
m o s t Channel f u r n a c e s a r e o n l y r u n a t maximum
p o w e r for a s h o r t p e r i o d e v e r y m o r n i n g .
Cooling-water System
Fig. 13 is a s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m of the cooling-
w a t e r circuit. T h e i n d u c t o r is p a r t of a closed w a t e r
loop, w h i c h is k e p t füll a u t o m a t i c a l l y b y a float valve
in a n expansion tank. A hydraulically operated
emergency water valve opens whenever the p u m p
pressure falls, assuring c o n t i n u i t y of t h e cooling-
w a t e r s u p p l y w h e n a p o w e r f a i l u r e occurs o r t h e
p u m p fails.
T h e r a w w a t e r circuit c o n t a i n s a t h e r m o s t a t i c a l l y
o p e r a t e d v a l v e w h i c h m a t c h e s w a t e r s u p p l y to d e -
mand.
If m o r e t h a n o n e i n d u c t o r m u s t b e cooled, a l l t h e
closed loops a r e c o n n e c t e d in p a r a l l e l a n d t h e h e a t
e x c h a n g e r is e n l a r g e d a c c o r d i n g l y .
 Fig. 12. - Possible connections to supply network

a. Single-phase, high-voltage connection

b. Three-phase, high-voltage connection
c. Three-phase, low-voltage connection

1 = High-voltage circuit breaker 6 = Power factor capacitors

2 = F u r n a c e transformers 7 = Inductor
3 = F u r n a c e contactor 8 = Overload protection
4 = Balancing capacitors 9 = Measurement
BROWN B O V E R I 5 = Balancing reactor

Fig. 11. Supplementary control panel for a Channel

induction furnace

Hydraulic Oil System

All of the c h a n n e l furnaces described above a r e

tilted by high-pressure oil, a n d the skimming door of
the I R S f u r n a c e is also a c t u a t e d in this way. T i l t i n g
m o t i o n is controlled by electrically o p e r a t e d valves.
I n o r d e r to limit the pressure peaks caused by t h e
considerable m o m e n t u m present w h e n these valves
a r e closed, pressure-relief valves or shock suppressors
( d e p e n d i n g on f u r n a c e size) a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d . As
dictated by the f u r n a c e application, one or two
tilting speeds are e m p l o y e d .

Channel Induction Furnaces for Steel

Fig. 13. Cooling-water system
I n the past, c h a n n e l f u r n a c e s for iron were used
1 = Inductor 4 = Water pumps
virtually w i t h o u t exception in foundries. V e r y re- 2 = Cooling water supervision 5 = Expansion t a n k
cently a need has also arisen in connection with new 3 = W a t e r re-cooler 6 = Emergency w a t e r valve
 Fig. 14. - Layout of a channel furnace plant

1 = Furnace 5 = Cooling water equipment

2 = Transformer 6 = Control panel
3 = Switchgear cubicle 7 = Erection opening
4 = Oil-hydraulic equipment

processes for t h e c o n t i n u o u s p r o d u c t i o n of steel. O u r

firm delivered a c h a n n e l f u r n a c e for a pilot p l a n t of
this kind a n d the positive o p e r a t i n g results soon
resulted in an o r d e r for a second such f u r n a c e .
Since the experience g a t h e r e d a t t h e time this was
written was limited to that o b t a i n e d with the first
f u r n a c e , it is obviously difficult to d r a w conclusions
which have general validity. However, the following
points h a v e been d e m o n s t r a t e d so f a r :
- Because of the tight seal afforded by the IRV
types, these f u r n a c e s a r e characterized by a very
weak oxidizing a t m o s p h e r e , resulting in a low level
of oxygen absorption in t h e steel (for example,
m u c h lower t h a n t h a t f o u n d in a r c - f u r n a c e steel).

- Raising the steel's c a r b o n c o n t e n t can be achieved

with virtually 100% efficiency, using a lance.

- D e c a r b u r i z a t i o n using oxygen can b e carried out

w i t h o u t difficulty.

- Burnoff of b o t h c a r b o n a n d m a n g a n e s e is excep-
tionally low.
(WF) M. RIETHMANN
 SPECIAL FEATURES OF T H E
ARG F U R N A C E ELECTRODE
So many publications have appeared on arc furnace
control that obtaining an overall view of the subject is no
simple matter. This article attempts to develop and describe
some of the basic tenets involved, with the aim of enabling
those less conversant with the control field to gain an appre-
ciation of the importance of control techniques to economic
furnace Operation.
Demands on the Electrode Control System
T H E obvious point of d e p a r t u r e for our consider-
ations is t h e set of o p e r a t i n g conditions u n d e r
which melting a n d refining take place, since the
optimization of these conditions is the goal of the
electrode control system. For o u r purposes, the pro-
duction of a melt will be divided into the m e l t d o w n
period, the transition period, a n d t h e refining period.
Meltdown
T h e object d u r i n g m e l t d o w n is to t r a n s m i t the füll
connected power of t h e f u r n a c e transformer to the
arcs with a high degree of efficiency. This calls for
quick re-establishment of o p t i m a l a r c length as the
arc eats its way rapidly t h r o u g h the scrap. F u r t h e r -
more, shifting t h e c h a r g e as it starts to melt causes
b o t h extinction of the a r c a n d short circuits, resulting
in the a r c p o w e r d r o p p i n g to zero. Quick-acting
control is c a p a b l e of shortening the time r e q u i r e d
for re-establishment of p r o p e r a r c length to the point
w h e r e the time integral of arc power, a n d therefore
the h e a t energy transmitted to t h e charge, will be
virtually u n a f f e c t e d .
Deviations f r o m the desired p o w e r are relatively
large d u r i n g m e l t d o w n ; the a r c b u r n s unevenly. Arc
i m p e d a n c e varies between infinity (extinction) a n d
BROWN BOVERI SYSTEM OF
CONTROL
621.365.2.036.65
zero (short circuit). If the electrode drive reacts too
slowly to short-circuiting of the arc, t h e f u r n a c e
breaker will trip. Slow reaction c a n also result in
electrode b r e a k a g e w h e n t h e electrode is lowered on
to a massive piece of scrap. F o r these reasons it is
i m p e r a t i v e for the r e g u l a t o r a n d positioning devices
to react quickly to relatively large deviations d u r i n g
meltdown.
Refining Period
T h e d e m a n d s of the refining period a r e
different. A m u c h lower p o w e r level is e m p l o y e d ,
quite
a n d the a r c needs to be short in o r d e r to k e e p d o w n
both h e a t loss t h r o u g h r a d i a t i o n a n d w e a r a n d t e a r
on the roof a n d wall linings. T h e electrode is there-
fore held very close to t h e b a t h . D i p p i n g into t h e
b a t h m u s t be avoided, however, since this w o u l d
result in the melt's c a r b o n c o n t e n t being u n d e s i r a b l y
increased. T h e arc b u r n s quietly, a n d deviations f r o m
the set p o w e r a r e relatively small. I n t h e refining
period, therefore, the decisive factor is t h e d e g r e e of
precision with which electrode position c a n b e m a i n -
tained.
Transition Period
By " t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d " we m e a n the t i m e d u r i n g
which solid scrap a n d m o l t e n m e t a l exist t o g e t h e r
in the f u r n a c e . H e r e b o t h sets of conditions described
above occur simultaneously, or, p u t m o r e a c c u r a t e l y ,
in a mixed p a t t e r n . Power m u s t be r e d u c e d f r o m t h e
m e l t d o w n level, since the solid scrap n o longer sur-
r o u n d s the a r c effectively. L a r g e deviations f r o m t h e
control v a l u e still occur occasionally, b u t t h e elec-
trodes should nevertheless be p r e v e n t e d f r o m d i p p i n g
into t h e m o l t e n b a t h .
 C„Vv-V„(Tv~Th)

H-V+^H

Fig. 2. - Transfer functions of the control circuit

a: Regulator
b: Summary of positioning devices and control system
(Symbols as in Fig. 1)

4b
Conditions for Stability in Electrode Control

Fig. l a is a simplified d i a g r a m of t h e c o n t r o l circuit

for o n e a r c - f u r n a c e p h a s e . T h e a c c o m p a n y i n g block
d i a g r a m (Fig. l b ) g r a p h i c a l l y illustrates t h e response
f u n c t i o n s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s . I n t h e o r d e r in
w h i c h t h e y a c t , these a r e t h e r e g u l a t o r , t h e posi-
tioning devices (positioning valve and electrode
Fb=V„
BROWN BOVERI p+Trf lifting c y l i n d e r ) , a n d the controlled element (the
Fig. 1. - The electrode control circuit arc).
a: Schcmatic diagram E a c h block shows t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n , i.e. the
b: Block diagram with control inputs x, xi, X2, x;i, X4 response of t h e Output signal w h e n the a m p l i t u d e
x„ = Actual value of current I and voltage U
of the i n p u t signal is s h a r p l y i n c r e a s e d at t i m e t = 0
xc = Desired value
1 a, 1 b = Arc (as disturbance input 2) f r o m v a l u e 0 to v a l u e 1. T h e resulting harmonic
2 a, 2 b Lifting cylinder for positioning electrode response c u r v e c a n be s h o w n as a f u n c t i o n of the
3a, 3b = Positioning valve
c o n t r o l circuit f r e q u e n c y 00, w h e r e b y ja» is expressed
4 a, 4 b = Regulator
For other designations, see text. in t h e u s u a l m a n n e r b y t h e Operator p.
T h e h a r m o n i c response c u r v e for the e n t i r e o p e n
c o n t r o l circuit is t h e p r o d u c t of t h e expressions for
T h e best one can do in this Situation is to employ the i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s :
a compromise Solution with regard to electrode
F - F V . F H . F B . F R (1)
control: medium electrode speed and a somewhat
By s u b s t i t u t i o n , o n e o b t a i n s
improved level of positioning accuracy.
VR 1
F = . CH . Vv . VB -
1 + T r .p p
(la)
1
Possible Solutions
1 + (7V + TH)p + Tv . Th • p2
T h e r ä n g e of possibilities for fulfilling t h e d e m a n d s I n this e q u a t i o n , VR, VV, a n d VB r e p r e s e n t the
listed a b o v e is l i m i t e d b y o n e m o r e c o n d i t i o n t h a t g a i n factors a n d TR, TV, a n d TH t h e t i m e c o n s t a n t s
is i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e o t h e r s . I t is t h e r e q u i r e m e n t of the i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s in t h e c o n t r o l s e q u e n c e .
t h a t t h e d y n a m i c stability of e a c h c o r r e c t i v e m o v e - CH r e p r e s e n t s e l e c t r o d e speed, w h i c h also h a s the
m e n t b e a s s u r e d , i.e. t h a t excessive " h u n t i n g " be c h a r a c t e r of a g a i n .
p r e v e n t e d . A brief m e n t i o n of t h e r e l e v a n t e l e m e n t s T h e response of this t r a n s m i s s i o n c h a i n to a s h a r p
of c o n t r o l t h e o r y m a y b e useful a t this p o i n t , so t h a t i n p u t c h a n g e is s h o w n q u a l i t a t i v e l y in Fig. 2. A
t h e r ä n g e of m e a s u r e s o p e n to us m a y be m o r e r e a d i l y closed loop of this k i n d c a n only p r o d u c e stable
understood. c o n t r o l if t h e following c o n d i t i o n is m e t [ 1 ] :
 1 1
Cm . Vy . VB . V/1 < + — (2)
Ty + TH TR

T h e p r o d u c t of t h e l e f t - h a n d s i d e — t o t a l gain—-
m u s t b e s m a l l e r t h a n t h e t i m e c o n s t a n t expression
of t h e r i g h t - h a n d side. B o t h t h e g a i n factors a n d
BROWN BOVERI
t i m e c o n s t a n t s of t h e p o s i t i o n i n g e l e m e n t s (valve a n d
lifting cylinder) a r e , for a given f u r n a c e , fixed design Fig. 3. - Static characteristic curves of the control circuit
p a r a m e t e r s w h i c h d o n o t l e n d themselves to a d j u s t - Regulators with (a) lesser, (b) moderate, (c) greater gain.
m e n t d u r i n g a m e l t . Since t h e b e h a v i o u r of t h e a r c
itself is d e t e r m i n e d b y p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s o u t of o u r
c o n t r o l , only o n e v a r i a b l e in r e l a t i o n (2) r e m a i n s
o p e n to us in m a k i n g a d j u s t m e n t s d u r i n g a m e l t to
m e e t t h e d e m a n d s listed in section I. T h i s is t h e O n e Solution w o u l d b e to l e a v e it to t h e f u r n a c e
r e g u l a t o r g a i n , VR. A t t h e s a m e t i m e , it is obvious o p e r a t o r to a c t u a t e a selector s w i t c h d e p e n d i n g o n
that the regulator's own time constant must be kept t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e m e l t a t a n y t i m e . T h i s w o u l d
as s h o r t as possible. be a n u n d e s i r a b l e a d d i t i o n a l b ü r d e n o n t h e f u r n a c e
I t c a n t h u s b e established t h a t , for a given elec- c r e w , h o w e v e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y in v i e w of t h e trend
t r o d e speed Cu, a particular m a x i m u m regulator
g a i n VR is permissible if s t a b l e o p e r a t i o n is to b e
a c h i e v e d . T h i s v a l u e of t h e r e g u l a t o r g a i n is a n i n d i -
c a t i o n of t h e s y s t e m ' s a c c u r a c y of m e a s u r e m e n t a n d
t h u s of the smallest c h a n g e of e l e c t r o d e position AX„
w h i c h c a n still b e d e t e c t e d .
As m e n t i o n e d earlier, t h e m e l t d o w n p e r i o d (with
its h e a v y a r c d i s t u r b a n c e s ) d e m a n d s m a x i m u m elec-
t r o d e speed b u t o n l y a n i n t e r m e d i a t e level of posi-
tioning accuracy. In contrast, the refining period
calls for precise positioning, e l e c t r o d e speed b e i n g
of lesser i m p o r t a n c e . T h e t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d r e q u i r e s
a compromise between the two.

Solution Using Dissimilar Characteristic Curves

L e t us a s s u m e t h a t t h e r e g u l a t o r g a i n VR c a n be
a d j u s t e d to d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s for e a c h of t h e t h r e e
periods. Fig. 3 shows t h e t h r e e static c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
curves, i.e. t h e b e h a v i o u r of t h e Output signal xa as
a f u n c t i o n of t h e i n p u t signal xe. G a i n is i n d i c a t e d
b y t h e slope of t h e c u r v e . A c c o r d i n g to t h e c o n d i t i o n
for stability (2), it is essential t h a t t h e m a x i m u m BROWN BOVERI

e l e c t r o d e speed CH s h o u l d v a r y inversely w i t h t h e Fig. 4. - "Stepped" characteristic curve

r e g u l a t o r g a i n , since t h e i r p r o d u c t CH • VR m u s t re- I, II, III = Band widths in relation to the magnitude of dis-
main c o n s t a n t . T h i s is seen in t h e characteristic turbance values for the various operating conditions
curves in Fig. 3 in t h e l i m i t a t i o n of the Output signal. of an arc furnace.
I = Refining period A, A'
I t r e m a i n s for us to find criteria for choosing t h e II = Transition period B, B'
m o s t f a v o u r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a t a n y given m o m e n t . III = Meltdown period C, C"
towards automadc operation. Since satisfactory T h e Brown Boveri Electrode Regulator:
m e a s u r i n g instruments for the continuous super- Principle and Possible Settings
vision of f u r n a c e conditions do not yet exist, however,
the next best Solution is to employ secondary values
such as t h e m o m e n t a r y t r a n s f o r m e r p o w e r or voltage The Ferraris Measuring Device
step in c h a n g i n g f r o m one curve to a n o t h e r .
T h e i m p e d a n c e s of the arcs a r e m e a s u r e d by three
i n d e p e n d e n t Ferraris systems. T h e s e c a n be built for
Solution Using a "Steppeü " r
Characteristic Curve rigorous duty, a n d a t the s a m e time o d e r very
desirable electrical characteristics a n d a low level of
Reconsidering the control r e q u i r e m e n t s of the a r m a t u r e inertia. T h e excitation w i n d i n g w — z is
three periods, we note t h a t each exhibits a typical supplied with a constant voltage, while the control
b a n d w i d t h of deviation f r o m the control value. T h e winding u—v receives the differential voltage
a m p l i t u d e of the frequently occurring deviations c a n AU' = UR-o — IR . R. T h e control condition for
therefore be used to indicate the f u r n a c e condition. U
constant arc resistance — = constant R will be
This m e a n s we c a n discard m a n u a l switching a n d I
provide the regulator with a non-linear characteristic achieved w h e n AU' = U— I . R = 0 . T h e connec-
in such a w a y t h a t the gain drops with rising deviation tion is m a d e in such a w a y that a fixed phase angle
f r o m the control value. Fig. 4 shows such a c h a r a c t e r - of 90° el. exists between the excitation voltage a n d
istic curve. This stepped curve possesses a steep sector t h e auxiliary voltage U'. W h e n AU' is not zero, a
A-A', w h i c h exhibits high gain for small deviations positive or negative t o r q u e ( d e p e n d i n g on the signal)
Axe. N e x t c o m e sectors A-B a n d A'-B' with a smaller is t r a n s m i t t e d to the d r u m . A coil spring supplies the
slope; these a r e effective in the transition period. force necessary to r e t u r n the d r u m to the n e u t r a l
Smaller still is the gain in t h e outermost sectors B-C position; this spring determines the high gain of
a n d B'-C, which are only r e a c h e d in case of heavy sector A-A', since the location of the d r u m axis is
a r c d i s t u r b a n c e (point C indicating the general area t r a n s m i t t e d directly to the positioning valve via a
of a short circuit a n d point C' t h a t w h e r e the a r c is belt drive or a rack a n d pinion. For e a c h deviation,
extinguished). T h e Ordinate Axa is a m e a s u r e of the
final electrode speed reached in each case. T h u s the
necessary condition for stability, n a m e l v t h a t CH • VR
r e m a i n s constant, is fulfilled, because the gain, i.e.
the slope, diminishes with rising Axa.

Introducing Additional Damping

I t has been f o u n d t h a t a d d i t i o n a l d a m p i n g is
desirable in the sector of high control accuracy
(A-A1). T h i s affects the stability of the control
system in t h e s a m e way as a reduction in electrode
BROWN BOVERI
speed, without necessitating undue throttling of
the valve openings. T h e extra d a m p i n g thus enables
Fig. 5. - Brown Boveri Ferraris-type regulator
t h e slope (gain) to b e increased m o r e t h a n would
1 = Excitation and working winding
be the case were electrode speed alone Controlling, 2 = Armature
a n d so its effect is integrating. Small deviations with 3 = Lever for actuating the positioning valve
longer d u r a t i o n a r e m e t with very precise response, 4 = Damping disc with permanent magnets
5 — Springs for stepped characteristic curve as shown in
while s h o r t - t e r m deviations a r e ignored, avoiding
Figure 4
unnecessary electrode m o v e m e n t . 6 = Hydraulic cylinder for mechanical damping
 H
R S T

h
H r =Q

*1r "1
LJ
ii

I
i iu_ v tcj

A'
u u
wt /. WM 7. wt z
V i
jsttLJ m
r/

Fig. 6. - Circuit diagram of Brown 11

Boveri electrode control system using
Ferraris-type regulator

1 Are melting furnace

2 = Furnace transformer (regu-
lating transformer)
3 - Current transformer
4 Bürden resistors for c.t.3
5 = Voltage transformer
6 Intermediate voltage trans-
former with taps controlled by
furnace transformer 2
7 - Regulator
8 = Positioning valve
9 - Lifting cylinder
10 Hydraulic fluid supply BROWN BOVERI

the position assumed by the d r u m will be d e t e r m i n e d f u r n a c e voltage in such a w a y t h a t the m e a s u r e d

(both as regards direction a n d m a g n i t u d e ) by the voltage fed to the regulator is t h e same for all tap-
opposing spring a n d electrical torques. pings of the m a i n t r a n s f o r m e r .
T h e desired value of a r c i m p e d a n c e is set by ad-
j u s t i n g the resistor R, w h e r e b y each ohmic value
indirectly represents a p a r t i c u l a r level of arc c u r r e n t Additional Springs for the Stepped Characteristic
(at r a t e d mains voltage). I n o r d e r to m a k e sure, on
the one h a n d , t h a t this ratio r e m a i n s essentially the W h e n a deviation exceeds ±A.Vo, as in t h e case
same for all t r a n s f o r m e r tappings, a n d on the other, of points A a n d A' in Fig. 4, a c o r r e s p o n d i n g leaf
that the degree of control accuracy is m a i n t a i n e d , spring is a c t u a t e d . T h e total opposing spring t o r q u e
a n i n t e r m e d i a t e c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r is employed n o w increases m o r e r a p i d l y , so t h a t the progressive
(see Fig. 6). Its p r i m a r y tappings a r e locked to the angular displacement of the regulator becomes
s m a l l e r in r e l a t i o n to tlie c a u s a l d e v i a t i o n . I n o t h e r
words, t h e g a i n is less. At points B a n d B' f u r t h e r
springs c o m e into plav, r e d u c i n g the g a i n still f u r t h e r .
Attenuation
T w o d i f f e r e n t d a m p i n g systems a r e p r e s e n t . T h e
first f u n c t i o n s as a n e d d y - c u r r e n t b r a k e . I t consists
of a n a l u m i n i u m disc c o n n e c t e d to t h e regulator
axis, w h i c h r o t a t e s in the a i r g a p of s t r o n g p e r m a n e n t
m a g n e t s . A n a d d i t i o n a l h y d r a u l i c a t t e n u a t o r is used,
effective only in the a r e a of h i g h e r g a i n , A-A'. It
m a k e s possible the m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e stability con-
ditions m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r for t h e sector of g r e a t e r
control accuracy.
is i n d i v i d u a l l y suited to t h e w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s of
the f u r n a c e in q u e s t i o n . W i t h o u t g o i n g i n t o excessive
detail, let us e x a m i n e t h e a d j u s t m e n t facilities p r o v -
ided for this p u r p o s e .
T h e füll p o t e n t i a l of t h e r e g u l a t o r w i t h respect to
m e c h a n i c a l a c c u r a c y will b e realized w h e n the valve
positions for m a x i m u m r a i s i n g a n d l o w e r i n g speed
exactly c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e r e g u l a t o r e n d positions C
a n d C". T h i s a d j u s t m e n t is m a d e o n the c a m o n t h e
r e g u l a t o r Output shaft o r by t r i m m i n g t h e c o n n e c t i n g
rod lengthwise.
A t the s a m e time, t h e r e g u l a t o r s h o u l d assume
these e n d positions to c o i n c i d e w i t h the m a x i m u m
c o n t r o l deviations, n a m e l y e x t i n c t i o n of the a r c ( /
0) a n d s h o r t circuit ( [ / s» 0, / > I „ ) . T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t
c a n r e a d i l y b e m e t b e c a u s e of t h e fact t h a t t h e points
of e n g a g e m e n t of b o t h the first leaf s p r i n g (A a n d A'

Possible Settings in Fig. 4) a n d the seconcl (B a n d B') c a n be set as

desired a n d i n d e p e n d e n t l y f r o m e a c h o t h e r . T h i s
O b v i o u s l y , the f e a t u r e s of the r e g u l a t o r w e h a v e m a k e s it possible to set t h e total s p r i n g t o r q u e in the
d e s c r i b e d c a n only be fully exploited if its o p e r a t i o n e n d positions so t h a t it exactly b a l a n c e s t h e electrical
t o r q u e . Since the sector of m o d e r a t e g a i n (A-B and
A'-B') c a n be d i s p l a c e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y , t h e sector
1
;• «( » u> N of m a x i m u m sensilivity (A-A1) c a n be m a d e as w i d e
—
/ \
as is p e r m i t t e d by the d y n a m i c s of t h e electrode d r i v e

UN system. T h e h y d r a u l i c d a m p i n g , w h i c h is only effec-

| tive in this sector, serves to p r e v e n t " h u n t i n g " w i t h -

/ %•« 1
I
1
/2
o u t i n f l u e n c i n g a c c u r a c y . T h e O p t i m u m setting is
f o u n d b y first r e d u c i n g t h e d a m p i n g (with t h e elec-
-1 '• I
trodes over a m o l t e n b a t h ) u n t i l h u n t i n g takes place.
. 15 . m s - »

\I
1 \ 4,0 m m V T h e a t t e n u a t i o n is t h e n t u r n e d u p u n t i l hunting
>6
-3 stops; this is t h e p o i n t at w h i c h t h e limiting case is
45- 4 just reached.
70—*
———"23( ms
/b T h e s e settings n e e d only be m a d e once, a t f u r n a c e
0 5 s-
in
s t a r t u p , since they t a k e t h e fixed a t t r i b u t e s of the
e l e c t r o d e d r i v e i n t o a c c o u n t . I n o p e r a t i o n it only
r e m a i n s necessary to choose t h e f u r n a c e v o l t a g e step
a n d t h e associated c o n t r o l v a l u e of a r c i m p e d a n c e
to a c h i e v e t h e desired level of a r c p o w e r . T h u s t h e
BROWN BOVERI 141467 I f u r n a c e o p e r a t o r ' s j o b is g r e a t l y simplified.

Fig. 7. - Reversal of electrode direction (loweri.ng to raising)

on an 80-ton arc furnace
1 - Pressure on control valve Response—Practical Results
2 = Pressure upwards on piston
3 Lifting speed 85 mm/s
As was s h o w n in t h e discussion of conditions
4 - Regulator position
5 = Auxiliary voltage for stability, t h e t i m e c o n s t a n t s of t h e regulator
6 = Lowering speed 62 mm/s and the positioning devices essentially determine
 the maximum permissible gain under which is i m p o r t a n t f r o m the Standpoint of mechanical
stable operation c a n still be achieved. This time- stress on t h e electrode, a m o u n t s to only 4 m m . T h e
lag factor is most pronounced when the elec- füll u p w a r d speed is reached a f t e r a total time of
trode has to reverse instantaneously f r o m m a x i m u m only 230 ms has elapsed. T h u s the characteristic
speed d o w n w a r d s to m a x i m u m speed u p w a r d s . Fig. 4 f r e q u e n c y of the positioning train a m o u n t s to a b o u t
is a n oscillogram of this p r o c e d u r e on a n 80-ton 2 c/s for m a x i m u m d i s t u r b a n c e values such as short
furnace. circuit a n d extinction of t h e arc. F o r lesser disturb-
By reversing the poles of the auxiliary voltage at ances it is s o m e w h a t lower, which means that
the regulator, the electrode is slowed f r o m 6-2 cm/s resonances with the flicker f r e q u e n c y of the arc
d o w n w a r d s a n d then accelerated to 8-5 cm/s u p - ( 3 - 7 c/s) will certainly b e avoided.
wards. T h e m o v e m e n t of the regulator starts virtually The oscillogram shows clearly that electro-
w i t h o u t delay, a n d after only 15 ms the pressure on h y d r a u l i c electrode control, despite its relative sim-
the positioning valve starts to rise sharply. 45 ms plicity, a f f o r d s r a p i d a n d precise transmission of
after the control c o m m a n d has been given, the control m o v e m e n t s to t h e heavy electrode s u p p o r t
pressure wave reaches the electrode's positioning a r m s of m o d e r n , h i g h - c a p a c i t y a r c furnaces.
cylinder, which then requires 25 ms to b r i n g t h e
(WF) H . EGGELING
electrode to a halt. T h e slowing-down p a t h , which F. HEGEWALDT

THE MELTING OF A L U M I N I U M AND CASTING

BY T H E P R O P E R Z I PROCESS

621.746.27:669.71

O n e of the most up-to-date plants producing aluminium

wire rod as the raw product for making aluminium wire for
overhead transmission lines operates on the Properzi principle,
and comprises a rotating mould preceded by an induction
melting furnace and holding furnaces and followed by a
rolling mill and upcoiler. Raw foundry aluminium of the
highest purity is melted, conveyed through holding furnaces,
cast continuously, rolled and coiled. The construction and
operation of the plant are described.

The Process

' I ' H E process for continuously casting m o l t e n m e t a l

was developed in 1940 by Ilario Properzi, a n
Italian [1]. T h e principle of t h e m e t h o d is t h a t
molten m e t a l is p o u r e d into a water-cooled, r o t a t i n g
wheel-shaped m o u l d , the r i m of which is hollowed
out to form a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t r i a n g u l a r shape. A
steel b a n d passing r o u n d the m o u l d wheel a n d r o u n d
a n idler wheel of the s a m e size located some 3 m
a w a y Covers the recess in the rim of the m o u l d wheel,
thus f o r m i n g the a c t u a l casting cavity. T h e melt is Fig. 1. - Principle of the Properzi casting machine
p o u r e d f r o m a nozzlc i n t o this cavity b e l o w the p o i n t
of c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e wheel a n d steel b a n d . By
w a t e r - c o o l i n g t h e w h e e l f r o m inside a n d t h e b a n d
f r o m outside, t h e m e t a l solidifies a n d , a f t e r h a l f a
r e v o l u t i o n of the wheel, e m e r g e s f r o m t h e m o u l d as
a c o n t i n u o u s solid Strand. By off-setting t h e casting
m a c h i n e axis f r o m t h e axis of t h e rolling mill it is
possible to t a k e t h e Strand o v e r t h e h e a d of the
o p e r a t o r , p a s t t h e r o t a t i n g steel b a n d a n d o n to the
rolling mill. H e r e t h e Strand is rolled to a r o u n d
section. T o e n s u r e t h a t casting is c o n t i n u o u s , it is
necessary to h a v e p o w e r f u l f u r n a c e p l a n t w h i c h c a n
p r o d u c e a c o n s t a n t s u p p l y of m o l t e n m e t a l of u n i f o r m
t e m p e r a t u r e a n d q u a l i t y . T h e f u r n a c e s in this in-
stance comprise an induction melting furnace and
two casting furnaces.
Description of Plant
Melting Furnace
of a l u m i n i u m a n d a m a x i m u m p o w e r of 1 180 k W ,
giving a n h o u r l y Output of 2-15 t a t a pouring
temperature of 740 °C. T h e construction of the
f u r n a c e is s h o w n in Fig. 2. M a i n s - f r e q u e n c y f u r n a c e s
o p e r a t e a t 50 c/s or 60 c/s, d e p e n d i n g on t h e c o u n t r y .
P o w e r f r o m t h e h i g h - v o l t a g e system passes via iso-
lators to h i g h - v o l t a g e t r a n s f o r m e r 1, w h i c h c a n be
r e g u l a t e d in steps. T h e t e n - s t e p t a p c h a n g e r in the
transformer can beoperated fromswitchgearcabinet 2
a n d c o n n e c t s t h e desired t a p p i n g of the s e c o n d a r y
w i n d i n g to t h e f u r n a c e 4 via m a k i n g c o n t a c t o r 3.
P r o v i d i n g the s e c o n d a r y w i t h ten taps e n s u r e s t h a t
o p e r a t i o n of t h e f u r n a c e s c a n b e m a t c h e d very closely
to t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of the casting p r o g r a m m e . S h o u l d
a f a u l t o c c u r a t or a f t e r t h e casting m a c h i n e , for
e x a m p l e , t h e t r a n s f o r m e r c a n b e s w i t c h e d to a lower
v o l t a g e so t h a t t h e f u r n a c e r u n s a t r e d u c e d p o w e r
w h i c h j u s t Covers the h e a t losses. A t this s e t t i n g the
m e l t stays a t the r i g h t t e m p e r a t u r e for casting. W i t h
the h i g h e r v o l t a g e steps t h e f u r n a c e c a n b e m a t c h e d
to t h e O u t p u t to b e m a i n t a i n e d a t a n y t i m e . T h e
maximum v o l t a g e a t t h e f u r n a c e coil is 9 9 0 V.

The melting equipment is a coreless mains- C u r r e n t to t h e f u r n a c e is m o n i t o r e d by o v e r c u r r e n t

trips a n d i n d i c a t o r s . P r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t overvoltages
f r e q u e n c y i n d u c t i o n f u r n a c e w i t h a c a p a c i t y of 5 t

n -

Fig. 2. - Construction of an induction

furnace installation
•t ..vT. / > / M i
1 = High-voltage transformer
(mains connected)
2 = Switchgear cabinet
3 — Making contactor
4 = Induction furnace
5 = Capacitors (fixed capacitance)
6 = Capacitors (variable capaci- 141542 I
tance)
7 = Contactors
8 = System for balancing trans- 10 = Expansion vessel 14 Fan
former load, consisting of 11= Pumps 15 = Hydraulic control unit for fur-
capacitor and 12 = Closed-circuit cooler nace tipping mechanism
9 = Chokes 13 = Roller filtcr for outside air
is provided by a peak value indicator in the Volt- ports also h a v e the effect of throttling the discharge
m e t e r which also contains a contact system for dis- of air, a n d so c r e a t e a slight excess pressure inside
connecting the plant. For m o n i t o r i n g f u r n a c e Per- t h e f u r n a c e e q u i p m e n t which tends to p r e v e n t the
formance, cabinet 2 contains a power recorder a n d intrusion of dust.
a kilowatt-hour meter, with a second k W h m e t e r For p o u r i n g , t h e f u r n a c e is tilted a b o u t the p o u r i n g
which acts as a switching element for t h e c h a r g i n g spout by m e a n s of two h y d r a u l i c cylinders supplied
cycle. T h e function of this in the p r o d u c t i o n process with oil by h y d r a u l i c control u n i t 15. T h e f u r n a c e
will be described m o r e fully later. cover is also raised hydraulically.
T h e p a r t of the m e l t i n g f u r n a c e c a r r y i n g power
is t h e coil, which transfers energy to the melt by
The Casting Furnaces
induction. I t is w o u n d cylindrically r o u n d the cru-
cible. T h e i n d u c t a n c e of the f u r n a c e coil is c o m p e n -
T h e two 2-5 t o n n e casting furnaces a r e a r r a n g e d
sated by a p e r m a n e n t l y connected c a p a c i t o r b a n k 5.
in series in t h e process stream a n d a r e resistance
The inductance increases progressively as more
h e a t e d , each with a connected load of 60 k W . T h e y
m a t e r i a l is p u t in the crucible. C o m p e n s a t i o n of this
a r e used simultaneously as h o l d i n g a n d treatment
i n d u c t a n c e , which varies a c c o r d i n g to t h e contents
furnaces. H e a t is g e n e r a t e d by two b a n k s of h e a t i n g
of the furnace, is u n d e r t a k e n by o t h e r capacitor
elements, e a c h of a b o u t 30 k W , located u n d e r the
units 6 which a r e connected in parallel to the f u r n a c e
roof of the f u r n a c e , a n d r a d i a t e d indirectly to the
coil via contactors 7. A reactive-power regulator
b a t h . A splash plate is m o u n t e d u n d e r t h e heaters
monitors resonance in the resonant circuit, i.e. unity
so t h a t splashes c a n n o t c o m e in c o n t a c t with the
power factor, a n d passes the signals to the capacitor
elements a n d d a m a g e t h e m . T h e heat r e q u i r e m e n t
contactors to cut c a p a c i t a n c e in or out of the circuit.
is m o n i t o r e d by a t e m p e r a t u r e sensor i m m e r s e d in
A b a l a n c i n g system, consisting of capacitors 8 a n d
t h e melt a n d connected via a Controller to t h e g r o u p s
chokes 9, distributes t h e two-phase load of the f u r n a c e
of h e a t i n g elements. A t the f r o n t of the f u r n a c e s a r e
coil evenly between the three phases of the mains.
doors t h r o u g h which t h e melt c a n b e slagged a n d
T h e capacitor b a n k is composed of individual treated.
elements each with a reactive p o w e r of 200 k V a r
T h e h y d r a u l i c cylinder which tilts the f u r n a c e is
a t 900 V . T h e capacitors a r e w a t e r cooled by pipes
m o u n t e d u n d e r n e a t h . Oil f r o m t h e h y d r a u l i c control
inside, looped r o u n d the sections. As a result, h e a t
unit, which is fitted with two p u m p s of different
removal is fairly constant, a n d this has a very favour-
capacities, flows to t h e cylinder by w a y of t h e control
able effect on the life of the capacitors.
console. T h e f u r n a c e s a r e gas-tight, so t h a t it is also
T h e heat g e n e r a t e d in the copper of the f u r n a c e
possible to keep the melt in a protective a t m o s p h e r e .
coil is removed by water flowing through the
hollow copper profile. T o p r e v e n t corrosion, the
w a t e r is contained in a closed circuit which is in Operation
c o n t a c t with the outside a t m o s p h e r e only t h r o u g h
expansion vessel 10. T h e w a t e r is circulated by The economical aspect
p u m p 11, passing t h r o u g h the capacitor b a n k a n d
T h e substantially higher installed p o w e r density
f u r n a c e coil to cooler 12, w h e r e its t e m p e r a t u r e is
of some 300 k W / t is of g r e a t interest f r o m the
lowered before r e p e a t i n g the j o u r n e y .
economical Standpoint, as this results in relatively
H e a t other t h a n t h a t g e n e r a t e d in t h e coil a n d short m e l t i n g times.
capacitors, such as in busbars, chokes, the trans-
f o r m e r a n d drives, is r e m o v e d by air. O u t s i d e air Metallurgical aspects
d r a w n in by a fan 14 is cleaned in a roller filter 13 As gas a b s o r p t i o n a n d oxidation a r e extremely
a n d fed t h r o u g h the switchgear housings to the slight c o m p a r e d with o t h e r m e a n s of m e l t i n g [5],
f u r n a c e , w h e r e it escapes into the casting shop t h r o u g h t h e coreless i n d u c t i o n crucible is the best k i n d of
exhaust ports in the f u r n a c e casing. These exhaust f u r n a c e f r o m t h e metallurgical point of view [4],
O n e basic reason for this is the small s n r f a c e a r e a
of t h e b a t h b r o u g h t a b o u t b y the s h a p e of the c r u -
cible [6],
Because of the s t r o n g affinity for o x y g e n , a sealed
o x i d e film f o r m s on t h e b a t h s u r f a c e a n d protects
the m e l t f r o m f u r t h e r o x i d a t i o n d u r i n g s h u t d o w n .
O w i n g to the e l e c t r o m o t i v e force c r e a t e d by i n d u c -
tion in t h e m e l t , h o w e v e r , t h e b a t h is c o n s t a n t l y in
m o t i o n , t h e a m o u n t of m o v e m e n t b e i n g d e p e n d e n t
on t h e i n d u c e d p o w e r [7]. T h e oxide skin is b r o k e n
11p b y this m o t i o n a n d d r a w n d o w n i n t o the b a t h .
M o r e o v e r , n e w oxide films f o r m c o n t i n u o u s l v while
t h e m o l t e n m e t a l is b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d to t h e h o l d i n g
furnaces.
T h e s e oxide films m u s t be r e m o v e d b e f o r e p o u r i n g
f r o m t h e h o l d i n g f u r n a c e s , as t h e y will o t h e r w i s e
a p p e a r as inclusions in t h e cast Strand a n d c a n lower
the q u a l i t y of t h e rod a p p r e c i a b l y as r e g a r d s s t r e n g t h
and conductivity.
H y d r o g e n a b s o r b e d b y the m e l t while m e l t i n g a n d
b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d m u s t also be r e m o v e d . M e t i c u l o u s
cleanliness d u r i n g t h e p o u r i n g process is essential
when making aluminium w i r e rod for electrical
purposes.
Description of Operation
T h e m e l t i n g cycle m u s t be so a d j u s t e d t h a t t h e r e
is n o i n t e r r u p t i o n in t h e c a s t i n g process.
W h e n 2 t of a l u m i n i u m h a v e b e e n transferred
f r o m t h e m e l t i n g f u r n a c e to t h e h o l d i n g f u r n a c e , a
heel of 2-5 to 3 t of m e l t r e m a i n s in t h e i n d u c t i o n
furnace. Immediately the furnace has been tilted
b a c k f r o m t h e p o u r i n g position to t h e m e l t i n g posi-
tion, t w o 1 t o n n e b u n d l e s of a l u m i n i u m pigs a r e
p u t in. T h e r e p l a c e m e n t m a t e r i a l is v e r y p u r e f o u n d r y
a l u m i n i u m ( 9 9 - 7 - 9 9 - 8 % AI) a n d is s u p p l i e d in these
1 t b u n d l e s . T h e steel b a n d s r o u n d t h e b u n d l e s a r e
r e p l a c e d w i t h loops of a l u m i n i u m w i r e r o d . The
b u n d l e s a r e lifted on to the f u r n a c e p l a t f o r m b y
m e a n s of a n o v e r h e a d c r a n e a n d l o w e r e d i n t o the
heel in t h e f u r n a c e .
T h i s m e t h o d offers t h e following a d v a n t a g e s :
- M i n i m u m charging time
- L i t t l e risk of d a m a g i n g t h e r e f r a c t o r y
- N o i n t r o d u e t i o n of foreign m a t e r i a l
- As t h e w i r e r o d slings m e l t i m m e d i a t e l y , t h e r e is
n o n e e d for a n y m e a n s of releasing the c r a n e hook
safety c a t c h
T h e m e l t a l r e a d y in the f u r n a c e i m m e d i a t e l y fills
all the voids in the b u n d l e s , so the tightly p a c k e d
b u n d l e s e n s u r e m a x i m u m m e l t i n g efficiency.
W h i l e t h e pigs a r e m e l t i n g , the f u r n a c e is filled
up by a d d i n g return scrap.
T o h e a t 2 t of p u r e a l u m i n i u m u p to 740 °C re-
cjuires a b o u t 1150 k W h f r o m t h e m e l t i n g f u r n a c e [3],
A f t e r c h a r g i n g , this a m o u n t of e n e r g y c a n be set o n
a special m e t e r m o u n t e d in t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l w h e n
c h a r g i n g is c o m p l e t e [10]. W h e n this preset a m o u n t
of p o w e r has b e e n c o n s u m e d , t h e f u r n a c e is switched
off a u t o m a t i c a l l y a n d a n a u d i b l e signal is given to
w a r n t h e o p e r a t o r . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e is also a c c u r a t e l y
m o n i t o r e d w i t h a t h e r m o c o u p l e c o n t a i n e d in a p r o -
tective c e r a m i c sleeve s u s p e n d e d in the m e l t t h r o u g h
a small h o l e in t h e f u r n a c e c o v e r . P o w e r is fed to t h e
m e l t u n t i l t h e pouring t e m p e r a t u r e set o n a Controller
is r e a c h e d . A g a i n t h e f u r n a c e is s w i t c h e d off a u t o -
m a t i c a l l y , a n d t h e fact is a n n o u n c e d to the operator
b y a flashing light.
T o e n s u r e t h e cleanliness r e f e r r e d to earlier, t h e
o p e r a t o r t h e n skims off the o x i d e film a n d i m p u r i t i e s
f r o m t h e m e l t . T o d o this t h e f u r n a c e is o p e n e d
h y d r a u l i c a l l y , a n d t h e n closed a g a i n . T h e melt c a n
t h e n b e t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o o n e of the casting f u r n a c e s
by m e a n s of a slewing t r o u g h (Fig. 3).
I n the c a s t i n g f u r n a c e t h e m e l t is s u b j e c t e d to a
degassing a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n process. F o r this, a h o l l o w
l a n c e w i t h a l a r g e n u m b e r of small holes in o n e e n d
a n d t h e o t h e r c o n n e c t e d to a n i t r o g e n s u p p l y is
inserted in t h e m e l t . As t h e y rise, s o m e of t h e s m a l l
gas b u b b l e s b e c o m e t r a p p e d u n d e r t h e o x i d e scales
and float t h e m to t h e surface. T h e n i t r o g e n also
r e d u c e s t h e h y d r o g e n c o n t e n t of t h e melt. W h e n t h e
s u r f a c e of the b a t h has t h e n b e e n r e m o v e d , the
casting f u r n a c e is r e a d y to p o u r t h e m e t a l i n t o t h e
P r o p e r z i w h e e l . W h e n c a s t i n g begins, t h e first c a s t i n g
furnace is r a p i d l y tilted hydraulically until the
p o u r i n g a n g l e is r e a c h e d . By d i s c o n n e c t i n g o n e of
t h e t w o h y d r a u l i c p u m p s , tilting t h e n c o n t i n u e s a t
n o r m a l s p e e d . T h e tilting speed, i.e. the r a t e of dis-
c h a r g e , is set a t t h e c o n t r o l console b y a t h r o t t l e

valve with fine a d j u s t m e n t . W h e n the f u r n a c e reaches
a n angle of a b o u t 25°, a flashing light on the control
console teils the caster t h a t the f u r n a c e will shortly
b e e m p t y a n d p r e p a r a t i o n s m u s t be m a d e to c h a n g e
to t h e other. T h e c h a n g e is m a d e a t an angle of 30°.
T h i s is indicated to the caster by a bell a n d by t h e
fact t h a t the light ceases to flash a n d b u r n s steadily.
A t this point t h e second casting f u r n a c e is tilted
rapiclly to the p o u r i n g position, while the first is tilted
back a n d i m m e d i a t e l y refilled with metal.
W i t h the casting f u r n a c e in the p o u r i n g position,
the casting spout is exactly on t h e tilting axis, a n d
is so designed t h a t a n y r e m a i n i n g impurities floating
on the b a t h surface are held back.
T h e melt passes along a system of Channels to a
casting t r o u g h which forms a p a r t of the casting
m a c h i n e . At each transfer p o i n t (melting f u r n a c e
—casting furnace—Channel system—casting t r o u g h )
t h e melt is filtered t h r o u g h glass-fibre Alters to re-
m o v e a n y foreign particles. F r o m t h e casting t r o u g h
t h e melt is p o u r e d t h r o u g h a nozzle into the space
b e t w e e n t h e r o t a t i n g c o p p e r m o u l d a n d t h e sur-
r o u n d i n g steel b a n d . T h e caster must see to it t h a t
t h e level of the m e t a l settles d o w n a t a p o i n t j u s t
below the position where t h e b a n d a n d wheel meet.
T h i s ensures t h a t the tip of the nozzle is always
i m m e r s e d in the metal, thus r e d u c i n g oxidation a n d
t u r b u l e n c e . Cooling of the steel b a n d a n d the m o u l d
begins directly b e n e a t h t h e p o u r i n g point.
Fig. 5. - View of rolling mill,flying
shear, guide Channel and coiler
O n leaving the casting wheel the Strand passes in
a flat loop via a floating roller to the rolling mill
(Fig. 5). By m e a n s of a p o t e n t i o m e t e r this roller
regulates t h e rolling speed in a c c o r d a n c e with t h e
Strand speed, a n d m a t c h e s t h e rolling speed to the
casting rate. I n the rolling mill t h e Strand passes
t h r o u g h thirteen three-high stands where it is re-
d u c e d from its original cross-section of 1135 m m 3
to r o u n d wire rod 9-5 m m in d i a m e t e r . Of metallurgi-
cal benefit is the c h a n g e of profile in a l t e r n a t e stands
f r o m a polygonal section to a t r i a n g u l a r section, a n d
back again. T h e heat of the Strand on entry a n d the
heat of d e f o r m a t i o n in t h e rolling mill a r e removed
by cooling fluid.
T h e wire rod e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e rolling mill is
taken u p continuously on a d o u b l e coiler. T h e rod
passes t h r o u g h a r e t r a c t a b l e guide Channel in which
there are limit switches for the two coilers. A n elec-
tronic pulse system coupled to the mill m o t o r starts
the coiler following a preset n u m b e r of pulses after
the loose e n d passes the a p p r o p r i a t e limit switch.
A t this m o m e n t the rod shoots into a slot in t h e coiler
d r u m a n d begins to be coiled. T h e füll starting t o r q u e
of the coiler m o t o r is applied at first, b u t w h e n the
excess rod resulting f r o m the constant speed of the
mill has been w o u n d u p , a n interposed h y d r a u l i c
gear unit ensures constant coiler tension d u r i n g the
r e m a i n d e r of t h e coiling process. A füll coil has
Standard dimensions of 550 m m inside d i a m e t e r ,
1350 m m outside d i a m e t e r a n d a coil w i d t h of two years a n d has b e h a v e d perfectly a n d to t h e
850 m m , a n d weighs a b o u t 2000 kg, which is t h e c o m p l e t e satisfaction of the customer.
capacity of one of the h o l d i n g furnaces. T h e wire (DJS) R. LINNENBRINK

is then ready for d r a w i n g .

Between the rolling mill a n d the d o u b l e coiler is
a Aying shear which cuts t h e rod w h e n c h a n g i n g
Bibliography
f r o m one coiler to the o t h e r . I t also operates if there
is difficulty in e n g a g i n g t h e loose end in the coiler,
[1] E. HERMANN: H a n d b u c h des Stranggiessens. Düsseldorf,
in which case t h e rod is cut into lengths of a b o u t a 1958.
m e t e r until t h e fault has b e e n cleared. T h e r e is also
[2] K . H . B R O K M E I E R : Induktions-Tiegelöfen. BBC-Nachr.
a hydraulically a c t u a t e d shear between the casting 1956, No. 3.
m a c h i n e a n d the rolling mill. [3] F. A R E L M A N N , W . L A N G : Das B B C - N o r m p r o g r a m m f ü r
T h e following a r e the most i m p o r t a n t reasons for Induktions-Schmelzanlagen.

using i n d u c t i o n melting f u r n a c e s in the m a n u f a c t u r e [4] Aluminium-Taschenbuch. 12th edn. Düsseldorf, 1963.

of wire for the cable i n d u s t r y : [5] K . H . B R O K M E I E R : Bau u n d Wirtschaftlichkeit des Netz-
frequenz-Induktionsofens. Der Maschinenmarkt 1960,
- Little melting loss a n d little gas absorption, a n d
No. 2 5 .
so reduced p o s t - t r e a t m e n t of the melt [4, 9]
[6] G . H E N N I C K E : Induktionsofen f ü r Leichtmetall. Elektro-

- Cleanness d u r i n g melting [5] w ä r m e 1957, No. 1/2 (offprint).

[7] K . H . B R O K M E I E R : Die mechanische K r a f t w i r k u n g beim

- O p e r a t o r s exposed to little heat c o m p a r e d with
Induktionsofen. VDE-Fachberichte, 1953.
gas or oil-fired furnaces
[8] K . H . BROKMEIER: Induktives Schmelzen. Giesserei 1956,
- T h e possibility of alloying created by t h e agitation No. 3.
of the b a t h , to achieve a h o m o g e n e o u s melt [7, 8]. [9] K . H . BROKMEIER: Wirtschaftlichkeitsbetrachtungen beim
T h e design values for m e l t i n g capacity a n d p o w e r elektrischen Schmelzen von Aluminium. A l u m i n i u m 1956,
Vol. 32, No. 9 .
c o n s u m p t i o n were proved d u r i n g the acceptance
[10] W . LANG: Wirkungsweise u n d Verfahrenstechnik des In-
tests, a n d were in fact 2-5% better t h a n the values
duktionsofens in Z u s a m m e n h a n g mit der Gestaltung des
g u a r a n t e e d by t h e f u r n a c e m a n u f a c t u r e r . T h e p l a n t rentablen Schmelzbetriebes. Paper to the Verein Deutscher
has n o w been in three-shift operation for m o r e t h a n Giessereifachleute, Berlin, 20th November 1964.
 LARGE HIGH-FREQUENCY
INDUCTIVE AND GAPACITIVE
High-frequency heating installations show a trend towards
ever higher unit eapacities. A ränge of large high-frequency
generators has therefore been developed for inductive and
capacitive applications. Discussion of some general principles
of h.f. generators is followed by a description of the main
features of the new ränge.
Introduction
T H E heating of materials by high-frequency energy
has been widely accepted for a large n u m b e r of
industrial processes. O n e i m p o r t a n t reason for this
is the opportunities for rationalization and improved
cost effectiveness arising from the inherent qualitative
a n d technological advantages of the m e t h o d . A dis-
tinction is m a d e between two types of h.f. heating,
depending on the m a n n e r in which the energy is
transmitted, i.e. inductive and dielectric heating.
W i t h the first type the energy is transmitted to the
metal workpiece by induction, the frequencies used
being between 100 k H z and 5 M H z [1], W i t h the
classical dielectric, or capacitive, m e t h o d the non-
metallic article is located between two plate elec-
trodes and heated by the energy of the high-frequency
field. T h e frequencies are between 3 a n d 30 M H z .
I n this case the heat is not transferred from outside
through the surface a n d into the material, b u t is
generated directly within every p a r t of the volume
[2]. T h e high-frequency energy is supplied by h.f.
generators. Whereas generators with ratings u p to
100 k W were found to be a d e q u a t e until a few years
ago, industry is now asking for capacities u p to
1000 k W .
O n the basis of more t h a n twenty years' experience
of building high-frequency installations, a n d practical
experience of 100 k W generators [3], a new r ä n g e
of h.f. generators for inductive a n d capacitive use,
GENERATORS FOR
APPLICATIONS
621.365.52
with ratings of 250-1100 kW, has been developed
to meet the need for higher capacities.
Construction of a H.F. Generator
Installation
In developing the new ränge of high-capacity
generators the problems have also been considered
from the user's viewpoint, including such factors as
production capacity a n d quality, reliability and
ease of operation, power supply and the dissi-
pation of losses. These points were correlated with
theoretical and practical considerations a n d m a n y
years' experience of industrial h.f. plant, resulting in
a basic design concept which then determined the
direction to be taken by subsequent development.
Fig. 1 shows the general form of a high-frequency
generator in the a r r a n g e m e n t employed for the new
series. H e r e it can be seen that the installation is
divided into separate units, each of which has a
certain specific function to perform. This function
is a d a p t e d to the characteristic energy flow of the
h.f. generator in question, whereby a.c. power from
the mains supply is first rectified a n d then converted
into power at a higher frequency. Those units con-
cerned with power supply, control and plant super-
vision, a n d also the necessary means of cooling, can
therefore be of the same form for both inductive a n d
capacitive installations. This unit system also allows
the customer great freedom as regards the layout of
the various items, so that he can decide on the best
a r r a n g e m e n t for the space available. Every effort
has been m a d e to achieve m a x i m u m reliability by
employing only materials of the highest quality,
providing generous design margins, a n d even m o r e
Fig. 1. - Basic layout of a high-
frequency generator installation
B R O W N BOVERI

1 = Mains input unit

2 = High-voltage transformer 6 = Generator load for inductive applications 7 = Cooling systems
3 = High-voltage rectifier (workpiece with working 8 = Control cubicle
4 = Oscillator tube unit coil) 9 = Control console
5 = Matching and feedback quadri- capacitive applications
pole (working capacitor)

extensive m e a n s of p r o t e c t i o n , a n d m a k i n g c o n s t r u c - H.F. Induction Plant

tion s i m p l e b u t r u g g e d .
A h.f. g e n e r a t o r is a v o l t a g e s o u r c e w h i c h p e r m i t s I n a d d i t i o n to s o l d e r i n g a n d h a r d e n i n g p l a n t , h.f.
m a x i m u m p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n only a t a c e r t a i n l o a d i n d u c t i o n h e a t i n g is also b e i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y u s e d in
resistance. Unlike communications transmitters, t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of c o n t i n u o u s l y w e l d e d t u b e [5] a n d
w h i c h w o r k a t c o n s t a n t l o a d , t h e l o a d of a n i n d u s t r i a l for t h e special p r o b l e m s of t h r o u g h - a n n e a l i n g . Al-
f r e q u e n c y g e n e r a t o r alters d u r i n g the h e a t i n g p r o - t h o u g h a t p r e s e n t h.f. g e n e r a t o r s r a t e d u p to s o m e
cess, o w i n g to c h a n g e s in t h e properties of the 100 k W a r e sufficient for h a r d e n i n g a n d s o l d e r i n g ,
m a t e r i a l b e i n g t r e a t e d . T o m a i n t a i n t h e p o w e r Out- c a p a c i t i e s u p to 1000 k W a r e o f t e n r e q u i r e d for t u b e
p u t a t t h e desired v a l u e , t h e r e f o r e , t h e load m u s t w e l d i n g lines a n d c o n t i n u o u s a n n e a l i n g p l a n t .
be continuously matched to this f a v o u r a b l e load
resistance. Also, it m u s t b e possible to a d j u s t t h e
Output as s m o o t h l y as possible, a n d d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n .
F o r t h e reasons s t a t e d a b o v e , t h e self-excited t y p e
of h.f. oscillator has b e e n f o u n d t h e m o s t p r a c t i c a l
m e a n s of f r e q u e n c y g e n e r a t i o n . F o r these l a r g e u n i t
I i
c a p a c i t i e s t h e oscillator follows m o d e r n p r a c t i c e b y 141586-1

b e i n g fitted w i t h h i g h - v a c u u m triodes o p e r a t i n g in
BROWN BOVERI

Class C w i t h a m p l i t u d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n b y m e a n s of a
Fig. 2. - Basic circuit diagram of oscillator for large h.f. induc-
self-generated g r i d bias [4]. By u s i n g o u r h i g h - p o w e r
tion generator
triode B T S 150-2 for t h e n e w r ä n g e of g e n e r a t o r s it
1 = Oscillator tube
h a s b e e n possible to o b t a i n several Output r a t i n g s in 2 = Feedback transformer
a well b a l a n c e d n u m b e r of steps. Selection of t h e 3 = Grid resistor
most effective form of oscillator circuitry and 4 = H.F. transfer lead (flexible)
5 = H.F. resonant circuit
m a t c h i n g system d e p e n d s o n w h e t h e r t h e installation
6 = H.F. coupling transformer
is i n d u c t i v e or c a p a c i t i v e . 7 = Equivalent circuit diagram of generator load
 In view of this, h.f. oscillators rated between 250
a n d 1100 kW, a n d with service frequencies between
100 a n d 500 kHz, have been developed for large
h.f. induction plant. Fig. 2 shows the basic circuit
used for the oscillators. It is a p p a r e n t f r o m the dia-
g r a m that with this a r r a n g e m e n t the h.f. resonant
circuit which determines the frequency can be
m o u n t e d separate from the oscillator, a n d the in-
ductor of the resonant circuit is then also the pri-
m a r y winding of the h.f. transformer used to m a t c h
the load to the matching i m p e d a n c e of the oscillator.
As the active current of the resonant circuit is only
small, the connecting lead can be of flexible coaxial
cable. This p a r t of the e q u i p m e n t , known as an
a d a p t e r , must be close to the m a c h i n e a n d able to
move in all three axes, so making it an easy m a t t e r
to fit the e q u i p m e n t to any machine. T h e heating
inductor is connected to the secondary side of the
h.f. coupling transformer by a low-inductance, low-
loss lead, the connection to the inductor being de-
Fig. 3. - Adapter of a h.f. induction generator plant type
IG 702 S-350
signed as the fail-safe break point. A symmetrical
Output prevents flashover d u e to a large voltage
difference between inductor a n d workpiece.
Viewed electrically, the inductor a n d the work-
piece inside represent a low-impedance load. Dif-
ferent load conditions are m a t c h e d to the load
i m p e d a n c e of the oscillators by varying the coupling
factor of the h.f. transformer. T h e h.f. power Output
can also be continuously adjusted over a wide ränge
by altering the degree of coupling. C o m p a r e d with
the two usual methods of Controlling Output, i.e. by
varying the capacitance of the resonant circuit or
altering the direct a n o d e voltage, this m e t h o d has
the a d v a n t a g e that it is infinitely variable, even
during Operation, a n d sufficiently fast, it functions
at the m a x i m u m tube loading a n d causes no signif-
icant change in the operating point of the tube or
in the operating frequency. By combining the means
of a d j u s t m e n t with a Controller, the h.f. power Out-
put, once set, can be m a i n t a i n e d automatically, thus
avoiding faults due to mains voltage fiuctuations, for
example.
Fig. 3 shows the a d a p t e r for a h.f. generator instal-
lation type I G 702 S-350 (rated 350 kW). The
cylindrical air-insulated h.f. coupling transformer
can be seen in the lower part of the picture. Insu-
lation with air, as opposed to oil or synthetic material,
has the a d v a n t a g e that flashovers cannot d a m a g e the
insulation or the transformer, thus improving re-
liability considerably. T h e secondary winding, which
has one or more turns depending on whether the
Output i m p e d a n c e is high or low, is placed round
the primary winding, the degree of coupling being
varied by moving the primary by hydraulic means.
T h e transformer Output can be positioned anywhere,
simply by turning the secondary winding in the
required direction. T h e fixed capacitance of the
resonant circuit can be seen above the transformer.
By using water-cooled ceramic power capacitors
specially developed for industrial generators, it has
been possible to reduce the space requirement ap-
preciably. All these components are m o u n t e d in a
dust-tight, s p l a s h p r o o f m e t a l housing screened against
stray interference.
With a h.f. generator, however, not only must
there be a d e q u a t e facilities for matching, the re-
quirements for self-excitation must also be met. In
the present case there is a " q u a d r i p o l e " osciüator
which is self-excited by feeding back p a r t of the Out-
p u t voltage to its i n p u t t h r o u g h a s e p a r a t e " f e e d b a c k
q u a d r i p o l e " . T h e feedback circuit used here was
designed with Meissner's transformer connection in
m i n d , in which the a l t e r n a t i n g grid voltage is fed
from the a n o d e r e s o n a n t circuit to the grid t h r o u g h
a transformer coupling. A separate feedback trans-
f o r m e r with separated windings is used for this, thus
creating m o r e f a v o u r a b l e conditions for suppressing
u n w a n t e d waves. By p a y i n g careful a t t e n t i o n to the
p a r t of the transformer on the grid side it has been
possible to obtain a particularly smooth curve for the
grid c u r r e n t of the oscillator t u b e d u r i n g load changes
between füll a n d no load, a n d also in the latter case
to p r e v e n t the grid f r o m being overloaded.
T h e oscillator tube p a r t of a g e n e r a t o r type I G 800
S-700 (rated 700 k W ) c a n be seen in Fig. 4 with the
two B T S 150-2 vapour-cooled t r a n s m i t t i n g triodes.
A f u r t h e r c a b i n e t is m o u n t e d a t the back of the t u b e
unit a n d contains the feedback t r a n s f o r m e r a n d t h e
o t h e r components, except for the h.f. resonant cir-
cuit, needed for g e n e r a t i n g the oscillations.
A n inductive h.f. g e n e r a t o r type I G 802 S-400 in
a c o n t i n u o u s t u b e welding line is shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 4. - Tube section of oscillator cabinet for a h.f. induction
generator type IG 800 S-700
T u b e of 2 0 - 1 2 0 m m d i a m e t e r a n d wall thicknesses
f r o m 2 to 6-5 m m c a n be welded a t speeds of 2 0 - 8 0 with two vapour-cooled BTS 150-2 transmitting triodes

m/min with this e q u i p m e n t , which is r a t e d at

400 k W with a n o p e r a t i n g frequency of 220 k H z .
F r o m the right f o r e g r o u n d to rear left can be seen
the s h a p i n g section, t h e welding table with its uni-
versally adjustable h.f. a d a p t e r , cooling section,
sizing section a n d t h e saw. T o the right of t h e
a d a p t e r is the h.f. oscillator, a n d on the left the con-
trol console.

H.F. Capacitive Equipment

Capacitive, or dielectric, h e a t i n g is used m a i n l y

in t h e timber, plastics a n d textile industries. I m p o r -
t a n t applications in the t i m b e r industry a r e h.f.
gluing a n d the m a n u f a c t u r e of c h i p b o a r d , w h i c h is
m a d e in presses either converted or specially designed
for the purpose [6], H i g h - f r e q u e n c y generators with
ratings of u p to 600 k W a r e r e q u i r e d for this. T h e
Service f r e q u e n c y is taken as 3-5 M H z in view of the
Fig. 5. - Line for continuous induction welding of tube, equipped
with a Brown Boveri h.f. generator type IG 802 S-400
large electrodes a n d u n i f o r m i t y of voltage distri-
b u t i o n . I n the plastics a n d textile industries, high
frequencies a r e used to g r e a t effect for drying, as the
quality of t h e dried m a t e r i a l is often c o n s i d e r a b l y
 T h e high reactive power also has the effect of f u r t h e r
stabilizing the o p e r a t i n g f r e q u e n c y .
U n d e r certain circumstances, self-excited oscil-
lators can interfere with radio c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d
-O-f
L broadcast a n d television transmissions. T o prevent
BROWN BOVERI

such interference, regulations h a v e been issued in

Fig. 6. - Basic circuit diagram of an oscillator for large capacitive
m a n y countries which stipulate t h a t interference
generators
f r o m e q u i p m e n t of this kind must be suppressed a n d ,
1 = Oscillator tube 6 = H.F. transfer lead
2 = Feedback circuit 7 — Equivalent circuit diagram
f u r t h e r m o r e , allow only certain n a r r o w frequency
3 = Grid resistor of generator load b a n d s to be used. T h e coupled-circuit a r r a n g e m e n t
4 = H.F. resonant circuit 8 Transformation elements is in this respect preferable, because of its frequency
5 = Coupling coil
stability.
T h o u g h based on the properties of the coupled-
circuit a r r a n g e m e n t , the design of t h e h.f. resonant
circuit differs according to the o p e r a t i n g frequency.
better t h a n with traditional drying m e t h o d s [7]. T h e T h e classical quasi-static closed coaxial resonator is
p l a n t used is of the c o n t i n u o u s type, with Outputs used for frequencies of 13-56 a n d 27-12 M H z , t h o u g h
u p to several h u n d r e d kilowatts a n d frequencies from for 3-5 M H z it would not be possible to m a k e such
13-56 to 27-12 M H z . a resonator of reasonable dimensions. O n the other
For these applications, a coupled-circuit a r r a n g e - h a n d , w h e n l u m p e d circuit elements a r e used, stray
m e n t was chosen for the oscillator, as shown in Fig. 6. inductances and the c u r r e n t distribution present
U n l i k e the single-circuit layout, t h e c a p a c i t a n c e of difficulties because of the low i n d u c t a n c e a n d high
the r e s o n a n t circuit is not provided by t h e working c a p a c i t a n c e necessary in o r d e r to achieve high reac-
capacitor, and this capacitor is coupled to the tive power.
resonant circuit t h r o u g h a coupling element. O w i n g Fig. 7 shows the resonant-circuit u n i t (3-5 M H z )
to t h e changes in the dielectric properties of the of a h.f. g e n e r a t o r type D G 701 S-300. A Solution to
material being treated in the working capacitor the problems m e n t i o n e d a b o v e was f o u n d by a r r a n g -
d u r i n g the h e a t i n g process, its c a p a c i t a n c e a n d the ing the resonant-circuit c a p a c i t a n c e concentrically
load i m p e d a n c e which it presents also c h a n g e . In a r o u n d a hollow c o n d u c t o r which forms the i n d u c -
single-circuit a r r a n g e m e n t these changes would act tance. By using water-cooled ceramic capacitors,
directly on the resonant circuit a n d the tube, a n d a g a i n developed specially for this purpose, it has
would b e t r a y their presence t h r o u g h violent fluc- been possible to keep the v o l u m e occupied by t h e m
tuations in f r e q u e n c y a n d load, which in t u r n would small, despite the high reactive power. T h e cabinet
adversely affect P e r f o r m a n c e . W i t h the coupled- for t h e resonant circuit has been designed so t h a t its
circuit a r r a n g e m e n t the effect of these variations is u p p e r p a r t can a c c o m m o d a t e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e circuit
very m u c h less. As a result, the oscillators can be for every type of capacitive g e n e r a t o r . T h e b o t t o m
c o n n e c t e d to a variety of electrode systems forming p a r t of the cabinet contains those c o m p o n e n t s which
the Service capacitor, w i t h o u t a n y need to modify r e m a i n the same for all types, such as the heating
the r e s o n a n t circuit. For a n u m b e r of processes, transformer, a n o d e filter, grid resistor, etc.
moreover, higher electrode voltages a r e required,
T h e t u b e cabinet c o n t a i n i n g t h e oscillator t u b e is
a n d these c a n be m u c h m o r e easily achieved a n d
m o u n t e d on the side of the resonant-circuit cabinet.
m a i n t a i n e d with a coupled-circuit a r r a n g e m e n t . O n e
T h e t u b e c a b i n e t of a capacitive h.f. g e n e r a t o r type
d i s a d v a n t a g e of the coupled-circuit is that three real
D G 701 S-300 is shown in Fig. 8, with the B T S 150-2
o p e r a t i n g frequencies a r e possible. H o w e v e r , by in-
oscillator t u b e raised f r o m its cooling tank. The
cluding high reactive p o w e r in the resonance circuit
p i c t u r e also shows the m e t h o d of inserting the tube,
it has b e e n possible to completely suppress the two
which is the same for all types of g e n e r a t o r . W i t h
so-called interference frequencies (no harmonics).
the aid of a simple e x t e n d a b l e hoist the t u b e can be
BROWN BOVERI
139240.1
Fig. 7. - H.F. resonant circuit unit of a capacitive h.f. generator
type DG 701 S-300
lifted straight f r o m its p a c k i n g case into t h e cooling
tank, or vice versa. T h e t u b e u n i t is of the s a m e
construction as with i n d u c t i v e generators, except t h a t
here it also contains the c o m p o n e n t s of the feedback
circuit. The feedback voltage required for self-
excitation of the oscillator is o b t a i n e d in a H u t h -
K ü h n circuit. T h e c o m p o n e n t s a r e situated as close
as possible to the t u b e , as at these high frequencies
stray a d m i t t a n c e s have a m u c h g r e a t e r influence on
feedback. By suitably sizing t h e grid ciruit t h e grid
c u r r e n t c a n be held within a c c e p t a b l e limits between
the füll g e n e r a t o r load a n d no load.
W i t h h.f. dielectric h e a t i n g , t h e electrode system
with the treated m a t e r i a l in b e t w e e n represents, in
electrical terms, a capacitor with losses which changes
Fig. 8. - Tube section of oscillator cabinet for a large capacitive
h.f. generator type DG 700 S-300
showing a BTS 150-2 tube raised from its cooler
its c o m p l e x i m p e d a n c e d u r i n g the h e a t i n g process.
H e r e , too, in o r d e r to achieve the O p t i m u m p o w e r
transfer the load resistances must be m a t c h e d to the
m a t c h i n g resistance ( o p t i m u m value) of the oscillator.
The electrical circuit arrangement required for
m a t c h i n g d e p e n d s on t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e load
is m a t c h e d to the g e n e r a t o r , a m o n g o t h e r things. I n
t h e case of a coupled-circuit a r r a n g e m e n t this is
achieved by i m p e d a n c e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n via a c o u p -
ling coil. An o p e r a t i n g condition w h i c h is p a r t i c u l a r l y
favourable, a n d therefore f u n d a m e n t a l to t h e design
of our m a t c h i n g systems, is achieved if it is possible
to t r a n s f o r m the load resistance in such a w a y t h a t
a real resistance, of exactly the s a m e v a l u e as t h e
m a t c h i n g resistance of the oscillator, a p p e a r s in t h e
p l a n e of t h e c o u p l i n g coil. U s u a l l y , so-called dipoles
or q u a d r i p o l e n e t w o r k s a r e used for t r a n s f o r m i n g
complex impedances (admittances).
A t least t w o r e a c t a n c e s a r e r e q u i r e d in o r d e r to
b e a b l e to c a r r y o u t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to a c e r t a i n
effective resistance. Because of d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n
t h e w o r k i n g c a p a c i t o r s it is also necessary to m a t c h
l o a d resistances w h i c h a r e e i t h e r g r e a t e r or s m a l l e r
t h a n t h e r e f e r e n c e m a t c h i n g resistance of t h e oscil-
l a t o r . A t r a n s f o r m i n g a n d t u n i n g system, s h o w n in
Fig. 6, was t h e r e f o r e c o n s t r u c t e d to m e e t these re-
q u i r e m e n t s . I t consists basically of o n e e l e m e n t in
series w i t h t h e s u p p l y lead, a n d a n o t h e r in p a r a l l e l
to t h e w o r k i n g c a p a c i t o r . T h e first i n c l u d e s a n in-
finitely variable inductance and a capacitor bank
w h i c h c a n b e switched in stages to o b t a i n t h e r e q u i r e d
capacitances. The other element also c o n t a i n s a b r e a k e r s of the S B K r ä n g e a r e a v a i l a b l e w i t h p h a s e -
v a r i a b l e i n d u c t a n c e . T h e v a l u e of o n e i n d u c t a n c e
a n d t h e c a p a c i t a n c e for a given p r o d u c t i o n process
a r e preselected, a n d t h e o t h e r i n d u c t a n c e is t h e n c o n -
trolled a u t o m a t i c a l l y b y a h.f. r e g u l a t o r so t h a t t h e
m a t c h i n g r e f e r e n c e v a l u e is a p p r o a c h e d as closely
as possible.
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d t u n i n g e l e m e n t s as used in a
h i g h - f r e q u e n c y installation for m a k i n g chipboard
a r e s h o w n in Fig. 9. O n e p a r t is i n s e r t e d b e t w e e n
t h e yokes a n d the o t h e r is in t h e c e n t r e in f r o n t of
t h e press. T h e b o a r d s a r e p r o d u c e d in a o n e - d a y l i g h t
press u s i n g b o t h s t e a m a n d h i g h - f r e q u e n c y h e a t i n g ,
t h e h.f. e n e r g y b e i n g p r o v i d e d b y a B r o w n Boveri
Fig. 9. - Chipboard production plant equipped with a Brown Boveri
h.f. generator type DG 701 S-300
h.f. g e n e r a t o r t y p e D G 701 S - 3 0 0 r a t e d a t 300 k W
w i t h a n o p e r a d n g f r e q u e n c y of 3-5 M H z . B o a r d s of
7500 x 1600 m m a n d b e t w e e n 8 a n d 75 m m thick a r e
m a d e in this p l a n t . H o u r l y Output is m o r e than
4 0 0 0 kg. T h e h.f. oscillator c a n be seen o n t h e r i g h t
of the p i c t u r e , a n d t h e c o n t r o l console for t h e w h o l e
installation s t a n d s in f r o n t of t h e press.
Power Supply
T h e h.f. oscillators of h i g h - p o w e r h.f. installations
a r e s u p p l i e d w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n w i t h direct voltage,
the required power being d r a w n from the mains.
A h i g h - v o l t a g e m a i n s system is p r e f e r a b l e , in view
of the large q u a n t i t y of p o w e r n e e d e d . F o r s w i t c h i n g
the power, Brown Boveri low-oil-volume circuit
c u r r e n t i n d i c a t i o n a n d m a g n e t i c a n d t h e r m a l over-
c u r r e n t t r i p p i n g . A l o w - v o l t a g e n e t w o r k m a y also
b e used, of course, in w h i c h case t h e circuit b r e a k e r s
will b e f r o m B r o w n Boveri's G B r ä n g e . T h e m a i n
p o w e r s u p p l y c a n b e suited to the c u s t o m e r ' s p a r -
t i c u l a r needs. A h i g h - v o l t a g e t r a n s f o r m e r t r a n s f o r m s
the m a i n s v o l t a g e to t h e v a l u e r e q u i r e d for rectifi-
c a t i o n . T h e p r i m a r y of t h e t r a n s f o r m e r c a n b e c o n -
nected star-delta a n d the secondary can be tapped
a t several points, s w i t c h i n g b e i n g m a n u a l or m o t o r -
o p e r a t e d . S u i t a b l e a d j u s t m e n t of t h e v o l t a g e in this
w a y c a n i m p r o v e t h e p l a n t efficiency, s h o u l d t h e h.f.
equipment be o p e r a t e d a t lower p o w e r for any
a p p r e c i a b l e l e n g t h of t i m e .
The voltage obtained f r o m t h e t r a n s f o r m e r is
rectified in a t h r e e - p h a s e f u l l - w a v e c o n n e c t i o n . T h e
choice of rectifier e l e m e n t lies b e t w e e n t u b e and
s e m i c o n d u c t o r rectifiers. H e r e it s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d
t h a t t h e use of s e m i c o n d u c t o r rectifiers w a s a t first
restricted to relatively l o w - p o w e r units, b u t t h e r e c e n t
d e v e l o p m e n t of h i g h - p o w e r d i o d e s has e x t e n d e d their
a p p l i c a t i o n to l a r g e c a p a c i t i e s . E i t h e r t y p e c a n be
s u p p l i e d for o u r r ä n g e of l a r g e h.f. installations. T h e
t u b e rectifiers a r e fitted w i t h six B r o w n Boveri m e r -
c u r y - v a p o u r - f i l l e d t h y r a t r o n s . By blocking the c o n t r o l
g r i d of these t u b e s the d i r e c t v o l t a g e c a n be s w i t c h e d
a t n o l o a d , so this a r r a n g e m e n t is p r e f e r a b l e w h e n
t h e h.f. e q u i p m e n t is o p e r a t e d for s h o r t intervals.
Blocking t h e g r i d , in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a n e l e c t r o n i c
relay, c a n also be used for r a p i d l y disconnecting
faults d u e to overloading. T h e d e m a n d s m a d e of t h e
m e r c u r y - v a p o u r tubes r e g a r d i n g h e a t i n g voltage a n d
a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e a r e satisfied by m e a n s of voltage
stabilizers a n d a thermostatically controlled forced
air cooling system.
In semiconductor rectifiers t h e t h y r a t r o n s are
replaced by Brown Boveri silicon rectifier elements
of t h e controlled-avalanche type. T h e a d v a n t a g e s of
these a r e t h a t there is no p r e h e a t i n g time a n d no
heating transformers. T h e y a r e also less sensitive to
t e m p e r a t u r e . As the direct voltage is switched a t the
same time as the high-voltage breaker, this version
is best suited to h.f. p l a n t w h i c h is in c o n t i n u o u s
o p e r a t i o n . F u r t h e r efforts a r e being m a d e , however,
to eliminate this d r a w b a c k of semiconductor rectifiers
by using controllable rectifier elements in the f o r m
of thyristors.
A large h.f. installation also requires a variety of
ancillaries, such as transformers, motors, etc., a n d
these a r e m o u n t e d in t h e different p a r t s of the p l a n t .
I n large generators, these items a r e supplied with
p o w e r from a single point. T h i s power unit, which
includes the fuses, t h e r m a l trips a n d contactors is
contained in a cubicle, together with all the c o m -
p o n e n t s necessary for Controlling the e q u i p m e n t .
Cooling
As with a n y kind of energy conversion, power
losses in a h.f. installation a p p e a r in the form of heat.
This energy can be removed by various m e a n s a n d
in a n u m b e r of different ways. T h e most effective
m e t h o d of cooling d e p e n d s on the a m o u n t of energy
to be dissipated. In the case of large h.f. generators,
the a n o d e p o w e r losses of the oscillator tubes a r e
removed by v a p o u r cooling. T h e h e a t causes t h e
w a t e r in c o n t a c t with the a n o d e to boil a n d the
steam then gives u p its heat of evaporation in a h e a t
exchanger, condenses a n d r e t u r n s as w a t e r to t h e
tube. T h e degree of e v a p o r a t i o n , a n d hence the
cooling effect, adjusts a u t o m a t i c a l l y to the extent of
the losses. T h e cooling circuit operates a u t o m a t i c a l l y
and at normal atmospheric pressure. Moreover,
owing to the high t e m p e r a t u r e , the heat c a n be
utilized elsewhere very efficiently for heating w a t e r
or space h e a t i n g . A c o m b i n e d air a n d w a t e r system
is employed to r e m o v e t h e h e a t f r o m the other
c o m p o n e n t s . As a result it has been possible to
achieve dust-tight, splashproof cabinets, screened
f r o m interference a n d free f r o m all risk of c o n d e n -
sation.
T h e h e a t given u p in the h e a t exchangers by t h e
two cooling systems is then passed to a secondary
cooling circuit. H e r e there is a choice of two systems,
both using w a t e r : either with a n o p e n circuit or
with a closed circuit c o n t a i n i n g a cooling tower. I n
the first case, the w a t e r c a n c o m e f r o m either a river,
a lake, the sea or the factory mains. T h e r e is also
the possibility t h a t t h e h e a t c a n be used again, as
m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . W i t h t h e second m e t h o d , which
of course uses less w a t e r , t h e h e a t e d w a t e r is fed to a
cooling tower. H e r e , the r e m a i n i n g h e a t is r e m o v e d
t h r o u g h e v a p o r a t i o n of a small p r o p o r t i o n of the
w a t e r . T h e w a t e r loss of a b o u t 5 % is m a d e u p a u t o -
matically.
S o m e of t h e e q u i p m e n t for t h e cooling systems,
such as fans, heat exchangers, p u m p s , reservoirs etc.,
a r e m o u n t e d in t h e various units, a n d the others a r e
in a s e p a r a t e cooling unit. Flow rates, t e m p e r a t u r e s
a n d levels in all the w a t e r circuits a r e m o n i t o r e d .
Control and Supervision
Since h i g h - f r e q u e n c y installations a r e not o p e r a t e d
by people specially t r a i n e d in h.f. techniques, Oper-
ation m u s t be simple a n d s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d . Also, t h e
h.f. p l a n t is only a p a r t of a p r o d u c t i o n line. I t is
therefore logical t h a t t h e w h o l e line a n d t h e h.f.
e q u i p m e n t should b o t h b e o p e r a t e d a n d supervised
f r o m a central point. As a result, t h e r ä n g e of e q u i p -
m e n t described is not p r o v i d e d with a n y m e a n s of
local control at t h e g e n e r a t o r . I n s t e a d , t h e r e m o t e
control devices, instruments indicating essential
o p e r a t i n g d a t a a n d also a n i n d i c a t o r b o a r d for selec-
tive m o n i t o r i n g h a v e b e e n so designed t h a t they c a n
be installed to suit t h e c u s t o m e r ' s r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e
m o n i t o r i n g system is so devised t h a t all p l a n t con-
ditions a r e signalled back a n d e a c h o p e r a t i o n of a
safety device is selectively indicated immediately.
I n t e r r u p t i o n s of a n y length a r e thus r e d u c e d to a
minimum.
(DJS) J . GALLIKER
F. GOLLONITSCII
 Bibliography
[1] K. FLICK: Anwendungsgebiete der induktiven Hochfre-
quenzerwärmung. Elektrowärme 1964, Vol. 22, No. 10,
p. 390-6.
[2] E. SIMMEN: Fundamental theory of the radio-frequency
heating of insulating materials. Brown Boveri Rev. 1951,
Vol. 38, No. 11, p. 368-71.
[3] F. POPERT: Special features of the design of high-powered
induetive h.f. generators. Brown Boveri Rev. 1964, Vol. 51,
No. 10/11, p. 684-94.
[4] E. G. DORGELO: Über die Verwendung von Oszillator-
trioden in HF-Generatoren mit wechselnder Belastung.
Elektronische Rundschau 1958, No. 7, p. 241-7.
[5] E. RUNTE: Continuous high-frequency induction tube wel-
ding. Brown Boveri Rev. 1968, Vol. 55, No. 3, p. 113-118.
[6] T . HAFNER: High-frequency heating in the manufacture
of chipboard. Brown Boveri Rev. 1964, Vol. 51, No. 10/11,
p. 695-700.
[7] E. K O I . B E , H . G . M A R T I N : Kombinierte Infrarot-Konden-
satorfeld-Trocknung. Elektrowärme 1967, Vol. 25, No. 7,
p. 258-63.
 CONTINUOUS HIGH-FREOUENCY
High-frequency welding has become very populär in the
tube-making industry. This article describes the composition
of a tube-welding line, the principle of induction welding,
the techniques developed by Brown Boveri in this field and
the ränge of products available. The advantages are enu-
merated and some recent installations illustrated.
W O R L D p r o d u c t i o n of steel t u b e of all kinds was
estimated in 1964 to have r e a c h e d 31-5 million
tons a year. Of this, a t least 17 million tons were
electrically welded. As a result of i m p r o v e m e n t s in
the quality of welded t u b e , a n d hence its wider use,
this last figure is rising steadily. C o n s u m e r s include
the m a c h i n e industry, shipyards, the building in-
dustry, w a t e r a n d gas Utilities a n d electrical con-
tractors. T u b e s of various profiles a r e also used in
the car industry a n d recently to a n ever increasing
extent in the f u r n i t u r e industry a n d for interior
design.
M a n y dififerent welding processes h a v e been evolved
o n e after the other, only to be a b a n d o n e d later in
favour of m o r e m o d e r n m e t h o d s . All electrical weld-
ing processes c a n be classified u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g
of resistance welding. T h i s does not include
welding with e x p e n d a b l e electrodes, a technique
which is employed only in very special cases.
T h e most i m p o r t a n t methods and their
features c a n be s u m m a r i z e d as follows:
a. Resistance welding a t m a i n s f r e q u e n c y , or a mul-
tiple of it, by m e a n s of contact rollers or roller
transformers
b. M e d i u m - f r e q u e n c y i n d u c t i o n welding, using a line
i n d u c t o r a r r a n g e d in parallel to the weld
c. H i g h - f r e q u e n c y welding with sliding contacts
d. H i g h - f r e q u e n c y i n d u c t i o n welding.
INDUCTION TUBE
WELDING
621.365.52:621.774
U n t i l a few years ago, system a was used in most
welding p l a n t . T h e success of system b, m e d i u m -
f r e q u e n c y i n d u c t i o n welding, has b e e n limited, a n d
is employed especially for l a r g e - d i a m e t e r thick-walled
tube, w h e r e it has certain a d v a n t a g e s owing to the
great d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n achieved with m e d i u m -
f r e q u e n c y heating.
H i g h - f r e q u e n c y c o n t a c t welding, c, has been suc-
cessful in the sense of increasing t h e w e l d i n g rate.
T h e m e t h o d has been f o u n d of p a r t i c u l a r benefit in
the m a n u f a c t u r e of H , I a n d L profiles a n d of o p e n
t u b e s ; in other words, in all those cases w h e r e it is
difficult to use i n d u c t i o n welding. I n all o t h e r cases,
h i g h - f r e q u e n c y i n d u c t i o n welding is u n q u e s t i o n a b l y
superior. Brown Boveri h a v e therefore c o n c e n t r a t e d
on developing this process, a n d it is this m e t h o d
w h i c h is described below.
Composition of a Tube-Welding Line
T u b e - w e l d i n g lines a r e available f r o m q u i t e a
n u m b e r o f specialized m a c h i n e m a n u f a c t u r e r s (Fig. 1).
arc T h e s e a r e also usually in a position to s u p p l y t h e
necessary p l a n t for p r e p a r i n g the strip a n d f u r t h e r
processing t h e t u b e , such as d r a w i n g m a c h i n e s a n d
main r e d u c i n g mills. Brown Boveri a r e specialists in the
field of electrical drives and controls for these
1
machines.
Irrespective of the welding process used, a tube-
welding line usually includes t h e elements described
briefly below.
T h e w e l d i n g table (Fig. 2) is a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of
1
see U. H U B A C H E R , E. L A R C H E R : Electrical equipment for
pipe-welding lines. Brown Boveri Rev. 1963, Vol. 50, No. 4/5,
p. 308-15.

BROWN BO\
Fig. 1. - General view of a modern tube-welding line equipped with
a Brown Boveri h.f. generator type IG 802 rated 400 kW
This photograph, taken during commissioning, shows from left
to right the control console, the matching transformer connected
by flexible coaxial cables to the oscillator, and the closed-circuit
cooler for the generator. T h e rectifier and switchgear cabinet is
mounted on the wall in the centre.
the line, its form d e p e n d i n g on the m e t h o d of weld-
ing used.
An a d j u s t a b l e m e a n s of guiding the slit is r e q u i r e d
with high-frequency welding, together w i t h a m o u n t
(adjustable in three dimensions) for the high-
f r e q u e n c y m a t c h i n g transformer, a n d a set of pressure
rollers. T h e rollers a r e n o r m a l l y of n o n - m a g n e t i c
steel on insulated bearings, so as to p r e v e n t high-
f r e q u e n c y p o w e r losses d u e to the closeness of the
inductor.
BROWN BOVERI 138367-1
Fig. 2. - Inductors for welding tubes of l\-6" dia., to be used
with a generator of 300 kW
It can be seen that, except for the smallest diameter, all the
inductors have only one turn and are of very simple and rugged
construction. Standardized electrical and water connections
make for rapid replacement.
Principles of H . F . Induction Welding
T h e principles u n d e r l y i n g high-frequency induc-
tion welding a r e threefold.
Induction Effect
This, with the aid of the a l t e r n a t i n g m a g n e t i c
field, permits the contactless transmission of power
to the workpiece. T h e a l t e r n a t i n g field is g e n e r a t e d
by the induction coil in a c c o r d a n c e with the following
formula:
A W
Pi = k . y / J . "
2
Pi = I n d u c e d power ( k W / c m )
k = Constant
A W = A m p e r e - t u r n s per c m of the i n d u c t o r
f = F r e q u e n c y (c/s)
Skia Effect
T h e induced high-frequency c u r r e n t flows only in
a limited surface layer, the thickness of which (e) in
c m d e p e n d s on the f r e q u e n c y a n d the properties of
the m a t e r i a l as:
e = 5030 V
V i « - /
Q = Specific resistance (Q cm)
11. Relative p e r m e a b i l i t y
Proximity Effect
T h i s means t h a t the h i g h - f r e q u e n c y currents always
flow along the p a t h of least i m p e d a n c e . T w o currents
flowing in opposite directions a r e m u t u a l l y a t t r a c t e d .
T h e s e three principles m u s t be b o r n e in m i n d
w h e n positioning the welding i n d u c t o r r o u n d the slit
t u b e a t the e n d of t h e s h a p i n g section a n d i m m e -
diately before the pressure rollers, between which the
weld is m a d e . An e x a m p l e is illustrated in Fig. 2,
while Fig. 3a shows the s a m e in d i a g r a m m a t i c form.
T h e high-frequency c u r r e n t flowing in the i n d u c t o r
induces a current in the slit tube. T h i s c u r r e n t ex-
tends along the p a t h shown in Fig. 3b. T h e resultant
t e m p e r a t u r e rise is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the square of the
i n d u c e d current. For welding, it is only the t e m p e r -
a t u r e rise a t the edges of the slit t u b e which is useful,
the rise being caused by the c o m b i n e d effect of the
skin a n d proximity effects. T h e c u r r e n t flowing at
the t u b e p e r i p h e r y gives rise to a heat loss which
must be kept small so as not to affect efficiency.
T h i s is done by r e d u c i n g the resistance at the t u b e
circumference t h r o u g h substantially b r o a d e n i n g the
c u r r e n t p a t h . T h e desired effect is achieved with a
suitably designed i n d u c t o r .
T h e c u r r e n t flowing in the edges of the slit heat
the material, the t e m p e r a t u r e increasing towards the
weld site. In the vicinity of the closure this is only
a few degrees below the melting point of the tube
material. At the frequencies n o r m a l l y used with this
process, between 200 a n d 500 kc/s, the thickness of
the heated layer on either side of the j o i n t r e m a i n s
less t h a n a millimetre. T h e thickness of t h e layer is
very m u c h d e p e n d e n t on the welding rate. The
t h i n n e r the heated layer, i.e. the higher the welding
rate, the better is t h e quality of t h e high-frequency
weld. Satisfactory w e l d s a r e practically impossible be-
low a certain speed ( a b o u t 10-15 m / m i n ) . T h e transi-
tion f r o m the hot to the cold zone is relatively a b r u p t .
T h i s has the a d v a n t a g e t h a t high roller pressures c a n
be used without risk of d e f o r m i n g t h e tube. A l t h o u g h
the weld bead is only small, all impurities or scale
residue on the edges a r e in this w a y squeezed out
of the seam.
It must be realized t h a t p a r t of the induced c u r -
r e n t would flow a l o n g t h e inner surface of the tube,
instead of at the edges of the slit. Electrically, t h e
inside surface of the t u b e represents a s h u n t resis-
t a n c e to the tube edges (Fig. 3c). If n o t h i n g is d o n e
a b o u t it, this c u r r e n t lowers the efficiency of the
heating operation a p p r e c i a b l y . By inserting a m a g -
netic core, k n o w n as a n i m p e d e r , in the slit t u b e
b e t w e e n the i n d u c t o r a n d the pressure rollers, it is
possible to suppress this c u r r e n t almost entirely
t h r o u g h raising t h e i m p e d a n c e of the inside surface
of the tube.
Product Range
H i g h - f r e q u e n c y generators for t u b e welding h a v e
to be specially designed for this purpose. T h e re-
liability of the e q u i p m e n t must not be affected by
Fig. 3a. - Diagram of welding process
The slit tube T moves at speed V in inductor I. Brought to a
high temperature, the edges are pressed together at pressure P
by the pressure rollers.
Fig. 3b. - Path in the slit tube of the useful induced h.f. current
which heats the edges
p = Welding position
Fig. 3c. - Path of leakage current
T h e use of a magnetic core virtually eliminates this loss.
oil or w a t e r v a p o u r f o r m e d d u r i n g welding, or by
scale dust. T h e fact t h a t scale is both m a g n e t i c a l l y
a n d electrically c o n d u c t i n g presents the designer
with p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m s as regards insulation.
O n the basis of m a n y years' experience of m a n u -
f a c t u r i n g h.f. generators, Brown Boveri's r ä n g e of
p r o d u c t s in this field has been steadily e x t e n d e d ,
a n d now constitutes a c o m p l e t e series of w e l d i n g
generators capable of m e e t i n g all requirements
2
arising in practice.
All the generators listed in the T a b l e a r e assembled
f r o m a small n u m b e r of s t a n d a r d i z e d units w h i c h c a n
b e installed to suit t h e customer's specification. T h e s e
units a r e t h e high-voltage t r a n s f o r m e r , rectifier a n d
switchgear cabinet, oscillator cabinet, matching
t r a n s f o r m e r , w h i c h is connected to t h e oscillator by
flexible coaxial cable, a n d finally the closed-circuit
cooler. T h e oscillator a n d the m a t c h i n g t r a n s f o r m e r
a r e each c o n t a i n e d in dust-tight cabinets. Special
measures h a v e b e e n taken to p r e v e n t a n y stray
r a d i a t i o n . T h e live p a r t s a r e thus completely sep-
arated from the surroundings and the equipment
2
J . G A L L I K E R , F. G O L L O N I T S C H : Large high-frequency gen-
erators for inductive and capacitive applications. Brown Boveri
Rev. 1968, Vol. 55, No. 3, p. 104-12.
c o m p l i e s w i t h all existing or p r o j e c t e d S t a n d a r d s a n d Our ränge of h.f. generators for tube welding
r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g suppression of h a r m o n i c
Generator H.F. Method of cooling Mains sup-
interference.
series terminal oscillator tubes and ply power,
T h e m a t c h i n g t r a n s f o r m e r is light e n o u g h to b e power, number of tubes in kVA
c a r r i e d on a m o u n t i n g a d j u s t a b l e in t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s kW approx.
a n d l o c a t e d in t h e i m m e d i a t e vicinity of t h e w e l d i n g
IG 402 W 50 Water 100
position. T h e g e n e r a t o r s of series I G 402 W a r e a n
60 2 tubes 115
e x c e p t i o n in t h a t t h e i n d u c t o r is c o n n e c t e d d i r e c t l y
to t h e g e n e r a t o r b y a n a d j u s t a b l e h.f. line. IG 502 W 100 Water 200
T h e Output i m p e d a n c e of t h e m a t c h i n g trans- 130 1 tube 250
f o r m e r s is e x t r e m e l y low, a n d the h.f. v o l t a g e at the
IG 602 W 150 Water 300
i n d u c t o r t e r m i n a l s is t h e r e f o r e very small.
200 2 tubes 390
T h e i n d u c t o r s used n o r m a l l y h a v e o n e t u r n , or
a t m o s t two. Fig. 4 shows s o m e of t h e i n d u c t o r s in IG 702 S 250 Evaporative 480
300 1 tube 570
a high-capacity welding installation. T h e extremely
350 650
low i n d u c t o r v o l t a g e e l i m i n a t e s a n y risk of flashover
w h i c h c o u l d t r i p t h e g e n e r a t o r or b u r n t h e tube IG 802 S 400 Evaporative 750
500 2 tubes 940
s u r f a c e o r t h e i n d u c t o r . T h e i n d u c t o r does not n e e d
600 1100
700 1290

IG 902 S 900 Evaporative 1660

1000 3 tubes 1830
1100 2020

Fig. 4. - View of part of a welding table of 400 kW h.f.
seen during operation
Showing the welding rollers, the single-turn inductor and the
slit tube. The white hot edges can be seen between the
inductor and the upper rollers. Under normal conditions the
inductor is almost completely immersed in cooling fluid.
to be i n s u l a t e d , even t h o u g h it is c o n t i n u o u s l y ex-
posed to t h e s p r a y of t h e w a t e r o r emulsion used for
cooling t h e p r e s s u r e rollers. T h i s g r e a t l y simplifies
m a n u f a c t u r e of t h e i n d u c t o r s , a n d also increases their
useful life.
T h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e m a t c h i n g t r a n s f o r m e r with
v a r i a b l e c o u p l i n g h a s b e e n a d o p t e d t h r o u g h o u t , so
as to e n s u r e a c c u r a t e a d j u s t m e n t of the t r a n s m i t t e d
p o w e r . T h i s consists of a v e r y w i d e , single-turn,
w a t e r - c o o l e d s e c o n d a r y w i n d i n g w h i c h is fixed, a n d
t h e p r i m a r y is i n s e r t e d i n t o it to a g r e a t e r or lesser
e x t e n t , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e d e g r e e of c o u p l i n g desired.
W i t h this m e t h o d t h e h.f. p o w e r c a n b e r e g u l a t e d
c o n t i n u o u s l y a n d a c c u r a t e l y b e t w e e n 20 a n d 1 0 0 % .
I n t h e case of g e n e r a t o r s of u p to 130 k W c a p a c i t y ,
c o u p l i n g is n o r m a l l y a d j u s t e d b y h a n d . F o r all l a r g e r
units, h o w e v e r , the p r i m a r y w i n d i n g is m o v e d b y a
power, double-acting hydraulic cylinder controlled by a n
electronic r e g u l a t o r . I n this w a y it is possible n o t
o n l y to set a n d m a i n t a i n a c e r t a i n p o w e r , b u t also
to s m o o t h out mains voltage fluctuations. With
m a n u a l l y adjusted adapters, m a i n s voltage fluctu-
ations must, if necessary, be evened out with the aid
of a n i n d u c t i o n regulator or the phase-angle control
of the rectifier thyratrons. T h e first system is accept-
able if the fluctuations a r e relatively slow. If, on the
o t h e r h a n d , t h e changes in m a i n s voltage are r a p i d
or large, phase-angle control must be provided.
W i t h the Brown Boveri system of m a t c h i n g , the
g e n e r a t o r works at constant h.f. p r i m a r y voltage
a n d constant reactive power, a n d hence also a t
virtually constant frequency. The high ratio of
reactive power to active p o w e r (at least 25) ensures
very stable o p e r a t i o n a n d provides u n u s u a l f r e e d o m 50 60 80 100 200 300 500 PHF 1000
B R O W N BOVERI 141451-1
in sizing the inductors.
Other matching systems which function with Fig. 5a. - Optimum welding rate in relation to terminal capacity
variable p r i m a r y reactive p o w e r to control trans- of generator, with tube-wall thickness as Parameter

mission of the active power are, in our opinion, not V = Productivity in metre/minute
Puf H.F. power in kilowatts
so good. A d j u s t m e n t s u n d e r load a r e m a d e by c h a n g -
s Wall thickness in millimetres
ing the t a p p i n g on the p r i m a r y w i n d i n g of the
Output t r a n s f o r m e r , or off-load by switching oscil-
lating circuit capacitors in or out. I n the latter case
some a d d i t i o n a l m e a n s of on-load p o w e r control is %
100
necessary so t h a t a d j u s t m e n t c a n be continuous. X
N \ 2
( V a r i a t i o n of t h e a n o d e voltage of the oscillator V \
80 V
tubes is often used for this purpose.) / \
/

60
/
/
\\
/
Productivity and Raw Materials 40
\

T h e p r o d u c t i o n figures achieved in practice a r e 20

particularly high, owing to the a d v a n t a g e s of the
m a t c h i n g system, as described above. 10 20 200 300mm500
O p t i m u m productivity c a n be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m BROWN BOVERI -d 141452'!

Fig. 5a a n d 5b. D o w n t i m e i n d e p e n d e n t of the a c t u a l
welding process is not i n c l u d e d .
M e n t i o n should also be m a d e of the correction
factor to be applied for small a n d large diameters.
W i t h small t u b e diameters this is necessary because
of the relatively poor coupling b e t w e e n t u b e a n d
i n d u c t o r d u e to the m i n i m u m air g a p required
between the outside d i a m e t e r of the t u b e a n d t h e
inside d i a m e t e r of the i n d u c t o r . W i t h very large
tubes, a correction is needed because of t h e increasing
losses a t the back of the tube. P r o d u c t i o n figures
calculated f r o m Fig. 5a a n d 5b will not always b e
achieved in practice because a d j u s t m e n t s m a d e by
semi-skilled staff to the welding line will not always
be the best possible. This is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e of p l a n t
Fig. 5b. - Productivity correction factor k, which allows for the
effect of tube diameter d in millimetres
T h e Optimum effective productivity is found by multiplying
productivity as read from Fig. 5a by the correction factor ob-
tained from Fig. 5 b.
T h e values given for V are valid for hot-rolled, non-pickled and
trimmed strip containing a maximum of 0-16% carbon and for
a utilization factor of 100%.
where the production programme changes frequently.
T h e most widely used r a w m a t e r i a l is l o w - c a r b o n
steel with less t h a n 0 - 1 6 % c a r b o n a n d Silicon below
0 - 2 % . L a r g e r a m o u n t s i m p a i r weldability. They
r e q u i r e special measures a n d higher welding p o w e r ,
if h a r d e n i n g d u e to self-quenching of the seam a n d
a d j a c e n t heated zones is to be avoided. If high c a r b o n
steel is used, a n n e a l i n g of either t h e whole t u b e or
j u s t the seam is essential. I n either case it is better
to employ medium-frequency induction
Brown Boveri c a n supply the e q u i p m e n t for this, too.
Since the p o w e r is transferred w i t h o u t contacts,
t h e surface quality of the m a t e r i a l to be welded is
not i m p o r t a n t . I t is therefore possible to weld hot-
rolled, non-pickled strip, as long as this is suitable
for the e v e n t u a l purpose of the tube. H o w e v e r , cold-
rolled strip is used for t u b e of faultess
high quality. For materials o t h e r t h a n steel t h e rates
given in Fig. 5a have to be corrected : with a l u m i n i u m
a n d brass the welding rate is roughly 130% t h a t for
steel, while stainless steel a n d c o p p e r can be welded
a t some 7 0 - 7 5 % of the speed o b t a i n a b l e with n o r m a l
steel.
Advantages of High-Frequency Induction
Welding
T h e a d v a n t a g e s of h i g h - f r e q u e n c y i n d u c t i o n weld-
ing c a n be s u m m a r i z e d in the following m a n n e r .
- T h e chief a d v a n t a g e is the very high welding rate,
c o m p a r e d with o t h e r m e t h o d s , a n d very
electrical efficiency, owing to the contactless h e a t i n g
of a small area. Rates of 100 m / m i n c a n n o r m a l l y
be achieved. T h e u p p e r limit is not set by the
w e l d i n g process, b u t is governed by the w a y in
which t h e strip is conveyed in the s h a p i n g section
a n d especially by the capacity of the t u b e cutter.
- T h e quality a n d uniformity of the weld a r e not
heating. affected by the surface quality of the strip.
- N o significant m a r k i n g of the tube, no oxide for-
m a t i o n or b u r n i n g , a n d hence i m p r o v e d a p p e a r -
ance of t h e end p r o d u c t . This is most i m p o r t a n t
in t h e m a k i n g of tubes for furniture, for e x a m p l e .
- H i g h - q u a l i t y welding of thin-walled tube. The
ratio of d i a m e t e r to wall thickness can be g r e a t e r
finish and
t h a n with a n y o t h e r m e t h o d . I t is limited only by
the m e c h a n i c a l design of the shaping section.
- Non-pickled strip c a n be used without i m p a i r i n g
the quality of t h e weld.
- H i g h - q u a l i t y welding of metals otherwise difhcult
to weld, lower o p e r a t i n g costs a n d less d o w n t i m e .
- N o contacts or c o n t a c t rollers to wear, therefore
lower o p e r a t i n g costs a n d less d o w n t i m e .
- For t h e same welding rate, t h e mains p o w e r re-
quired is roughly half t h a t w h e n welding with
c o n t a c t rollers, resulting in an a p p r e c i a b l e saving
in p o w e r costs.
An existing tube-welding line c a n be converted
to h i g h - f r e q u e n c y i n d u c t i o n welding w i t h o u t the
high need for extensive alterations. O f course, it is essen-
tial t h a t the m e c h a n i c a l p a r t of the line a n d the
electric drives should be c a p a b l e of operating a t the
higher welding rates arising f r o m the conversion.
(DJS) E . RUNTE
 INDUCTION HEATING IN THE
MANUFACTURE OF ROCK DRILLS

621.365.5:622.24.051

The demand for rock drills has increased in proportion
to worldwide expansion in the fields of civil engineering
concerned with mining and dam construction. Rock drilling
bits produced by previously known processes had a limited
life. The first essential for increasing the length of a hole
which can be drilled by a Single bit is to improve the quality
of the bit. The use of medium-frequency induction heating
plays an important part in increasing production and im-
proving quality. This type of heating can be used for all
forms of heat treatment including annealing, brazing, nor-
malizing, hardening and preheating for forging. These
processes are described in the following and the advantages
of clean, modern medium-frequency induction heating are
pointed out.
Hcat Treatment
has the desired effeet. T h e shafts lie parallel to each
other a n d a r e constantly m o v e d sideways so t h a t t h e
drilling head passes t h r o u g h one coil a n d the m o u n -
ting e n d passes t h r o u g h a n o t h e r . T h e type of i n d u c t o r
which is ideally suited for this p u r p o s e is shown in
Fig. 5. T h e m e d i u m f r e q u e n c y p o w e r r e q u i r e d is
d e t e r m i n e d by the weight of m a t e r i a l to be h e a t e d
per u n i t time, in o t h e r w o r d s the h o u r l y Output, a n d
this also d e t e r m i n e s t h e r a t e of feed. T h e l e n g t h of
the i n d u c t o r can b e a d a p t e d to suit t h e most f a v o u r -
able h e a t i n g period f r o m t h e metallurgical p o i n t of
view. W i t h medium-frequency induction heating
this period m a y be very brief a n d thus a high h o u r l y
Output can be a t t a i n e d .

Annealing

' I ' H E drilling shaft consists of a hollow hexagonal

rod. W a t e r or air is p u m p e d t h r o u g h the c e n t r e
bore to the c u t t i n g face for scavenging purposes. T h e
drilling head is forged to o n e e n d of the shaft a n d
a collar to t h e o t h e r . This collar connects t h e shaft
to the driving m a c h i n e r y of the drilling rig. After the
forging o p e r a t i o n it is necessary to carry out several
m a c h i n i n g Operations before the c a r b i d e cutting tips
c a n be b r a z e d in position. This m a c h i n i n g consists
of drilling holes f r o m t h e o u t e r face of the drilling
h e a d to the c e n t r e bore to permit the scavenging
m e d i u m to escape to t h e c u t t i n g surfaces a n d t u r n i n g
a t a p e r at the o t h e r e n d of t h e bore to suit the con-
necting piece a n d thus provide a leak-proof j o i n t .
T h e rolled a n d forged drilling shaft is far too h a r d
for the n o r m a l type of m a c h i n e tool cutter to cope
Fig. 1. - Examples of rock drills with sintered metal cutting inserts
with a n d therefore b o t h e n d s of t h e shaft h a v e to awaiting brazing
be softened by a n n e a l i n g . I n d u c t i v e heating of these The connection end is on the right and the four-section drilling
areas to the a n n e a l i n g t e m p e r a t u r e a n d slow cooling head can be seen on the left.

BROWN BOVE81. 138843. !
Fig. 2. - Control panel fitted with tunnel inductor for partial heating
Brazing
A f t e r final m a c h i n i n g has been carried out on the
drilling h e a d the sintered m e t a l c u t t i n g inserts a r e
b r a z e d to t h e h e a d in a n i n d u c t o r . By choosing a
suitable f r e q u e n c y a p p r o p r i a t e to the d i a m e t e r of
workpiece a n d a fairly wide air g a p in the coupling,
a virtually even h e a t distribution is achieved over
the whole cross section. T h e s e factors together with
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e h e a t i n g time ensure a perfect b o n d .
I n d u c t i o n h e a t i n g permits a c c u r a t e p o w e r dosage
and concentration. The large air gap permits
drilling shafts of various sizes to b e b r a z e d in the
s a m e i n d u c t o r . T h e size of workpiece c a n v a r y by
± 2 5 % of the m e a n . M i n i m u m time is lost in setting
u p a n d a d j u s t i n g the i n d u c t o r .
Brown Boveri have developed a special h a n d l i n g
device (Fig. 3) which permits rock drills to b e mass
produced.
138844. I
Fig. 3. - Charging device for rock drills
This device feeds the drilling heads into the brazing machine.
The inductor is mounted on a trolley and the drills are clamped
pneumatically.
A c l a m p i n g jig fitted to t h e chassis holds t h e drill
shaft a n d guides the p r e p a r e d head into the i n d u c t o r .
T h e d u r a t i o n of the h e a t i n g period can be regulated
by either a time switch or a foot o p e r a t e d switch.
T o prevent a n y Vibration d i s t u r b i n g the position of
the insert while the b o n d i n g material is freezing it
is also possible to w i t h d r a w the induction coil instead
of the drill shaft. This m o t i o n is provided by air
cylinders. T h e c l a m p i n g units c a n be a d a p t e d to suit
the length of the shafts a n d simple a d j u s t m e n t per-
mits various d i a m e t e r s a n d hexagons to be c l a m p e d .
T h e shafts a r e usually loaded a n d removed by h a n d .
I n t e r c h a n g e a b l e drilling bits with several c a r b i d e
inserts c a n be b r a z e d in the same m a n n e r . T h e s e a r e
usually held in a vertical j i g as shown in Fig. 4. It
is a d v a n t a g e o u s to use the induction f u r n a c e for
a n o t h e r p u r p o s e a p a r t f r o m brazing, e.g. h e a t i n g
the shank for h a r d e n i n g .
Normalizing
After b r a z i n g the inserts in position the m e t a l l u r -
gical notch-out of t h e hardness is in a mechanically
unsuitable location a n d the life of such a drill would
be very limited. I n o r d e r to m o v e this transition
f u r t h e r back, the corresponding zone is h e a t e d to
n o r m a l i z i n g t e m p e r a t u r e a n d after this t e m p e r a t u r e
h a s b e e n m a i n t a i n e d for the requisite period they
a r e allowed to cool slowly.
T h i s t r e a t m e n t is best carried o u t i m m e d i a t e l y
after the b r a z i n g process while t h e drill shaft is still
in t h e jig. T h e drill is m o v e d f u r t h e r into the induc-
tion coil a n d as less power is r e q u i r e d it is switched
over to a lower preset reference value. Using t h e
b r a z i n g m a c h i n e for this f u r t h e r h e a t t r e a t m e n t saves
the capital outlay for a s e p a r a t e installation a n d as
the drill remains in the same jig it also saves h a n d -
ling time.

Hardening

T h e end of the drilling bit w h i c h fits onto a t a p e r

in t h e percussion drill has to w i t h s t a n d very high
stresses. A p a r t f r o m the r o t a r y m o t i o n it is subjected
to a b o u t 50 i m p a c t s per second. I t is essential t h a t
the m a t e r i a l is of a sufficient hardness to c o m b a t
r a p i d d e f o r m a t i o n of the t a p e r e d e n d . T h e m a t e r i a l
can b e rapidly a n d accurately h e a t e d to h a r d e n i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e a n d the h e a t is highly concentrated
w h e n m e d i u m - f r e q u e n c y i n d u c t i o n heating is used.
Virtually the whole cross section heats u p simultane- BROWN BOVERI 13884S. I
o u s l y a n d therefore t h e d e g r e e of hardness is consistent
throughout.
Fig. 4. - Charging unit for brazing the carbide cutting tips into
A f t e r the desired t e m p e r a t u r e has been r e a c h e d the drilling heads
the drills are q u e n c h e d in a suitable cooling m e d i u m . The lifting device is hydraulically operated.
Mass p r o d u c t i o n is considerably eased by em-
ploying a similar u n i t to the b r a z i n g m a c h i n e for
h a r d e n i n g . I n this device the drill shaft is c l a m p e d
in a jig a n d p n e u m a t i c a l l y fed into the i n d u c t i o n
coil. T h e d u r a t i o n of the h e a t i n g period is controlled
by a time switch. Q u e n c h i n g follows i m m e d i a t e l y .

Forging

T h e necessary p a r t i a l h e a t i n g to p e r m i t the h e a d
to be forged flat is carried out in a similar m a n n e r
to the a n n e a l i n g process.
T h e drill is m o v e d slowly sideways a n d the tip is
passed t h r o u g h a n i n d u c t i o n coil of a p p r o p r i a t e length
a n d rapidly raised to forging t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e t e m -
BROWN 138846. 1
p e r a t u r e difference b e t w e e n the surface a n d the core
is negligible if t h e correct f r e q u e n c y is selected.
Fig. 5. - Inductors for various heat treatments
Scaling losses a n d s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s are m i n i m a l
Two tunnel inductors for partial heating prior to annealing are
d u e to the m u c h shorter h e a t i n g time with the in- shown at top left. T o p right shows two brazing inductors and
d u c t i o n process c o m p a r e d with to a n y other m e t h o d . bottom left an inductor for heating the shaft for hardening.
 Medium-Frequency Power Generation
A typical generation p l a n t of this type supplied
by Brown Boveri is described briefly below.
Medium-Frequency Converter
I n order to provide a separate, infinitely variable
power supply for each t r e a t m e n t process, each fur-
nace is fed by its own generator. For m a k i n g hexa-
gon drills of a b o u t one inch across flats at the rate of
100 to 150 per hour, 50 k W is an a d e q u a t e supply
for each of the above heat t r e a t m e n t processes. This
permi ts the use of uniform Converters a n d static supply
units, both of which can be switched over if neces-
sary. This system guarantees Optimum reliability.
As the d u r a t i o n of the heating period is determined
by known metallurgical facts, production c a n n o t be
increased by simply using a power greater than
50 k W per unit.
Water-cooled Converters are becoming m o r e and
more p o p u l ä r of late because there can be no ingress
of dirt along with the cooling air a n d they are also
far quieter.
Frequency Selection
Penetration depends directly on the frequency for
given material characteristics. It is therefore essential
to select the correct frequency in order to ensure a
m i n i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e difference between the core
a n d the surface. Experience has shown that the
Optimum frequency is that which results in a pene-
tration which is approximately one third of the dia-
meter. For example the ideal frequency for hexa-
gon b a r one inch across flats is 4 k H z . Brown Boveri
supply Converters for 500 H z to 10 k H z . O p t i m u m
frequency can be very easily selected w h e n using
static supply units.
Switchgear
T h e switchgear for the star-delta connection on
the supply side a n d the e q u i p m e n t for monitoring
the Converter drive motors is all contained in a
cabinet which can be installed in the Converter room
to keep the cable lengths to a m i n i m u m .
T h e supply units can be remote controlled from
control panels which are installed near the induction
heaters. T o keep the power losses as small as possible
the medium-frequency compensating capacitors are
connected as close as possible to the inductors. This
is achieved by Atting the bank of capacitors in each
control panel which is connected to the inductor by
a short busbar or flexible cable. T h e capacitor banks
are switched over by h a n d . A Standard control panel
fitted to an inductor for annealing is shown in Fig. 2.
It is not necessary to switch over the capacitors when
using static Converters because the frequency is auto-
matically corrected. 1
R i n g core transformers followed by rectifiers are
used for exciting the generators. It is not normally
necessary to regulate the power but this can be
catered for, if required, by Atting a regulator. If the
supply voltage is subject to large variations which
can effect the exciter current a n d therefore also the
m.f. Output, the excitation transformers are fed
through a mains voltage stabilizer. This simple
manoeuvre ensures that the differences in final tem-
p e r a t u r e for a given heating period are so small that
there is virtually no Variation in the quality of the
encl product. If very stringent d e m a n d s are m a d e
that each item is heated the same a m o u n t or it is
not desirable to rely on the powers of Observation
of the operator, the use of an optical pyrometer is
r e c o m m e n d e d . This automatically switches off the
power supply as soon as the desired temperature is
reached.
M e d i u m - f r e q u e n c y m a t c h i n g transformers allow
a great variety of inductors to be accurately suited
to the medium-frequency Converters. A p a r t from the
essential push buttons a n d indicator lamps the con-
trol panels also contain a quantity of m e d i u m -
frequency measuring instruments a n d fault indicating
relays for overcurrent, overvoltage, water deficiency,
excessive water temperature, motor overload, etc. as
well as the remote control e q u i p m e n t for the cor-
responding Converter. All installations are equipped
with identical control panels and therefore they can
1
K. G A B L E R , D. W A L L S T E I N : Frequency conversion for in-
duction heating and melting using electronic elements. Brown
Boveri Rev. 1968, Vol. 55, No. 3, p. 130-6.

Fig. 6. - Flexible connecting cable
The plug-in connector joins current and cooling water supply
at the same time.
be exchanged if need be, thus simplifying mainten-
ance as well as stocking of spare parts.
Flexible Connection Cables between the Matching
Transformer and Inductor
A flexible cable has to be used to make the con-
nection between the control panel and the movable
inductor.
Brown Boveri have developed a special water-
cooled cable for these applications. Several highly
flexible cables are contained in the insulated water
jacket and are connected to a universal plug-in
connector at the end. This connector couples both
current and cooling water supply at the same time.
O n e of these cables for about 4 kA is shown in Fig. 6.
(AH) R. BÄNNINGER
 PROCESSING OF F O O D S T U F F S
T h e use of high-frequeney heating for foodstuffs means very
short processing times and, as a result, minimum deteriora-
tion. This makes itself noticeable not only in the preservation
of the vitamin content, but also in the absence of the well-
known change in taste. To achieve rapid processing, either
short or micro-waves are used with a high power density with
respect to the cross-section of the material being processed.
T h e level of the power density depends on the required result
of the process.
Basically, high frequency can be used anywhere heat is
required, whether it be for thawing, baking, pasteurizing,
sterilizing, pest extermination or simply drying.
Because the use of high frequency presents a direct method
of heating, it is absolutely harmless to humans from the
medical point of view and has no connection with contro-
versial beta and gamma-ray bombardment.
For over ten years Brown Boveri have been working on
the use of high frequency in the field of food processing and
have achieved notable success. Apart from the technical results,
the commercial aspect is also of importance in considering
the introduction of this process on a large scale. The instal-
lation costs of the high-frequency plant are often in excess
of those of conventional construction, but, as a rule, these
higher costs are more than compensated by the better
efficiency of the high-frequency process.
Some of the many applications are described in the present
article.
Thawing of Frozen Meat and Fish
' • 1 H E conventional thawing of large pieces of meat
at an ambient temperature of + 10 or 15 °C takes
between 48 and 72 hours, depending on the initial
temperature. This means that if production is to be
continuous, the thawing facilities must be three times
as large as would be required for one day's Output.
As a result of the long thawing time there is a
considerable loss of juice, which can be 8 - 1 2 % of
the total weight of meat, and is particularly notice-
able when the meat has been boned and thus has
many open surfaces. This is logical since, during the
normal slow thawing process, the small ice crystals
USING HIGH FREQUENCY
621.365.52:664
can expand and split the cell walls. Since the juice
consists of valuable albumen and other important
substances, this means a distinet deterioration in the
quality of the meat. Furthermore, the danger of
infection of the foodstuff increases with the thawing
time, since this promotes the growth of bacteria. T h e
material thaws from the outside inwards and thus
allows the bacteria to penetrate to deeper levels.
A completely different Situation is present during
thawing by high frequency (see Fig. 1). Here, the
heat is produced by molecular Vibration and even
friction throughout the whole cross-section. Thawing
takes place in 90 to 120 minutes. During this
time, the meat warms up from —20 °C to between
— 2 and + 5 °C and can then be cut up and used.
T h e loss of juice during thawing is usually less than
1 % a n d the meat shows no visible signs of deterio-
ration. For example, in sausage making, the binding
quality is the same as that of fresh meat. T h e small
loss of juice can be explained by the fact that, due
to the reduced duration of the process, far fewer of
the ice crystals expand to rupture the cells.
Boned, lean meat which is supplied in symmetrical
blocks is ideally suited to thawing since it fulfils the
prerequisites of the high-frequency process. However,
asymmetrical blocks can also be thawed without
difficulty, although one must reckon with insigni-
ficant local heating. This process is well suited to the
thawing of offal, particularly liver.
Meat containing bones, e.g. whole sides of beef
or poultry and fish, can be thawed more suitably in
a water bath using high-frequency heat. The frozen
foodstuff can be wrapped in a plastic covering
insensitive to high frequency to avoid contact with
the water. Bone, having larger dielectric losses than
the surrounding flesh, would become too warm if
thawing were carried out without the field compen-
sating effect of the water bath.
 But, since the water also heats up in the high-
frequency field, the volume of water should be kept
as small as possible with respect to the volume of
meat, in order that the maximum amount of heat
is available for thawing. However, the through-put
for a given h.f. power is less than that of boned meat.
T h e energy balance is very favourable since not
all the ice in the meat must be transformed into
water. In order to take apart a block of meat and
cut it up, only half the ice need be melted. If the
increase in temperature is taken into consideration,
then approximately 65% of the total theoretical
energy is required for the thawing process.
Fig. 1. - 25-kW h.f. plant for thawing frozen meat
In two hours, up to 1000 kg of boned meat can
In the foreground, blocks of meat are laid out on the treatment
be thawed out using 25 kW h.f. power or approxi- area. The h.f. generator which feeds the process electrodes stands
mately 45 kW grid power. at the rear. T h e thawing time is 100 minutes.

T h e cost of thawing blocks of boned meat is very

modest, if we consider the saving in juice. T h e
average cost of current, tube replacement, plant
rays form the crust on the outer surface, while the h.f.
amortization, interest and servicing for a ten-hour
heat is responsible for the internal baking process.
daily process come to a maximum of Fr. 25.— per
T h e share of the required heat assumed by each of
1000 kg meat. Comparing this with a saving in
these systems can be independently adjusted, enabling
weight of 7% or 70 kg/t, the cost of thawing amounts,
the baking time to be reduced to a minimum. With
at the most, to 10% of the gain in meat.
this type of oven it is possible to bake anything from
crustless bread to rusks (see Fig. 2).
Using the high-frequency/infra-red oven, the
Baking of Bread
baking time, depending on what is to be baked, is
reduced to between a half and a quarter the time
Dough for bread, etc., must be properly preleavened
previously required, which in consequence consider-
before it can be baked. Normally, this process lasts
ably reduces the space requirements for a given
about an hour at 35 to 40 °C in the leavening channel.
throughput. T h e total baking time is governed in
If, however, the leavening temperature is reached
within minutes across the whole cross-section by
means of high frequency, then the leavening time
is reduced to approximately one third. The length
of the leavening channel will become correspondingly
shorter and the space requirements less.
T h e leavening process is such that the dough
travels on a conveyor belt into the h.f. field situated
at the entrance to the leavening Channel. After two
or three minutes an even temperature is reached
and is then kept constant by means of warm air.
At the end of the channel the leavened dough, which
has now considerably increased in size, is fed into
the oven.
For the baking itself a combination of high fre- Fig. 2. - 40 m long high-frequency infra-red oven supplied by
quency and infra-red radiation is used. T h e infra-red 2 h.f. generators rated 10 kW each, used for baking rusks
this instance by the crust formation. A n a d v a n t a g e
lies in the fact that, as a result of the h.f. heating
which w a r m s the dough from the inside outwards, the
expansion of the dough occurs before the formation
of the crust. A loaf of b r e a d baked in this m a n n e r
is therefore u p to 2 0 % larger in volume a n d , at the
same time, m u c h finer in texture.
T h e energy consumption of the high-frequency/
infra-red system for a given bakery t h r o u g h p u t is less
t h a n that of good electrical ovens of conventional
construction.
T o d a y , more than 60 high-frequency generators
of various power ratings, supplied by R e f o r m a S.A.,
Switzerland, are in operation in bakery production
lines.
Preserving by Pasteurization and
Sterilization
H e a t is nearly always used for improving the
keeping properties of foodstuffs. T h e object of the
heat t r e a t m e n t is to discourage the growth of, or to
completely destroy, the micro-organisms, e.g. bac-
teria a n d spores, which otherwise multiply rapidly
in storage. T h e process is known as pasteurization or
sterilization, depending on the t e m p e r a t u r e level
reached. T h e pasteurization temperature lies be-
tween 50 a n d 75 °C, whereas sterilization d e m a n d s
120 °C. T h e pasteurized product can be regarded as
l/h
2000
.300kW ///•'
ilOOkW ///•'
BROWN BOVERI
Fig. 3. - Production in l/h of beverages being pasteurized
sterilized with h . f . heat, as a function of temperature rise At
H . F . power levels of 100 kW a n d 300 kW are given as Para-
meters. T h e " s c a t t e r " is a result of the dissimilar Container
materials.
semi-preserved, sterilized food as fully preserved.
Q u i t e a p a r t from reaching the correct temperature,
an absolutely air-tight seal is also required to ensure
good preservation.
Definite temperatures are also required for
pasteurizing beverages, for example,
Fruit juices 65 °C, or an increase of 50 deg G
Cider 72 °C, or an increase of 60 deg C
Beer 55 °C, or an increase of 50 deg C
Milk 70 °C, or an increase of 60 deg G
W i t h conventional methods, i.e. steam or w a r m
water, the pasteurization t e m p e r a t u r e for liquids in
glass bottles is reached in 40 to 60 minutes, depend-
ing on the volume. This time is necessary since the
heat must reach the centre. T h e relatively long
d u r a t i o n of the process is necessary to ensure that
the surface temperatures do not exceed the permitted
level and the t e m p e r a t u r e gradient remains small.
D u r i n g this time a change in taste is inevitable.
Conditions are quite different using high-frequency
heat. Homogenous a n d even heating throughout the
whole bottle cross-section is possible, which means that
the required t e m p e r a t u r e is reached in a short time.
T h e heating takes place in two to three minutes a n d
no change in taste results (see Fig. 3).
T h e process is most suitably carried out in sealed
glass bottles or plastic Containers. Cans cannot be
used since they would shield the Contents from the
high frequency. T h e process may be carried out
on a n open flow before Alling, but this is not re-
c o m m e n d e d because of the d a n g e r of subsequent
contamination.
Breakages must always be reckoned with when
glass bottles are used since, with w a r m water or steam
heating, the t e m p e r a t u r e gradient in the glass is large
due to the heat being outside a n d the cold inside.
W i t h h.f. heating, the liquid is w a r m e d internally,
a n d if the glass is simultaneously heated externally
with hot water or hot gas, the stresses are minimized,
a n d breakages are consequently fewer.
I n Switzerland, export beer is pasteurized to im-
prove its 1-eeping qualities. If h.f. heat is used, the
or
cost is c o m p a r a b l e with that of the conventional hot-
water process, but the space required becomes m u c h
smaller and the taste remains similar to that of the
fresh beer.
 Sliced bread, special breacl and pastries which
arrive wrapped on the market are preserved, since
they must be storable for long periods and may not
be allowed to become mouldy. T h e mildew spores
can be destroyed not only chemically, but also with
heat. However, the larger the volume the greater
the amount of radiant heat required at the surface.
A temperature of at least 65 °C is necessary to
destroy mildew spores. Because of the low thermal
conductivity of bread, the time required to raise a
loaf 10 cm thick to the required temperature is 1 to
1 y2 hours, using radiant heat. Owing to the long
duration of the process and the high external
temperature, the humidity distribution and the
vitamin content are unfavourably influenced. T h e
vitamins which are present after baking are reduced
still further during the long heating process.
These undesirable side effects can be avoided by
using a rapid heating process. Brown Boveri have
developed a continuous micro-wave plant for this
purpose (Fig. 4). T h e processing time is 1 to 2
minutes, depending on the volume in question, and
heating is even throughout the whole cross-section
without the surface temperature becoming unduly
high.
Investigations have shown that even after a short
processing time and minimum temperatures the for-
mation of mildew is effectively impeded and the
goods can be stored for a much longer time, even
under unfavourable conditions. An air-tight wrap-
ping discourages subsequent contamination. Metal
foil, which would shield the dielectric fielcl and
prevent the production of internal heat, is not suitable
for microwave processing, and only plastic Containers
can be used.
A throughput of approximately 200 kg of bread/
liour can be achieved with 10 kW microwave power.
Sterilization, required for füll preservation, de-
mands a temperature of 120 °C. This is normally
produced in a steam pressure vessel. However, the
foodstuffs normally contain water which begins to
vapourize at 100 °C. This produces an internal pres-
sure which rises with the temperature but is com-
pensated by the external pressure of the steam vessel.
At 120 °C, the internal pressure is approximately
2 kg/cm 3 .
For the sake of simplicity, it would be preferable
137081.1
BROWN BOVERI
Fig. 4. — Continuous microwave plant rated 10 kW
T h e plant is used to treat packed sliced bread against mildew.
Depending on the type of bread, a throughput of 150 to 250 kg/h
is possible.
to carry out sterilization at atmospheric pressure
when using h.f. heating. But, in this case, the plastic
Containers would have to withstand the füll internal
pressure, which is not yet technically possible. For
this reason, high-frequency sterilization of foodstuffs
containing water can only take place in the pressure
vessel. With dry foodstuffs, however, these problems
do not arise.
Extermination of Parasites
Parasites are usually attacked with poisonous gases.
But, since the eggs can withstand such a procedure,
it must be repeated periodically. Also, gassing is not
without its dangers and corresponding safety mea-
sures must be taken.
High-frequency heat m a y also be used instead of
gassing. W h a t is known as thermal shock treatment
can be used to destroy parasites in foodstuffs, such
as flour, oatmeal, semolina and other cereals. Para-
sites such as flour moths, mites, weevils, etc., can
withstand only a certain rate of rise in temperature
without being damaged. As soon as the temperature
rises more rapidly, the organism of these creatures
can no longer adjust itself and so is destroyed. A rise
in temperature of 20 to 40 deg C in 20 to 60 seconds
results in the destruetion of the parasites at all stages
of their development, including the eggs.
T h e weevil is the most resistant of all these de-
struetive creatures. It lives in corn and is brought in
from overseas. T h e 2 m m long beetle reproduces very

1,5
AT
1 channel with a conveyor belt which brings the goods
0,5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 s
BROWN GOVERI / <«1533 I
Fig. 5. - Temperature rise A / required to kill pests in foodstujfs
such as com, flour and associated products as a function of the
process time t in seconds
quickly a n d completely devours the flesh of the grain,
leaving only the husks. T h e weevil can also be com-
pletely exterminated using t h e r m a l shock t r e a t m e n t .
Dielectric heating, due to its high concentration,
is ideally suited to the t h e r m a l shock process. De-
p e n d i n g on the material involved, t e m p e r a t u r e rises
of 0-5 to 2 deg C/s can be achieved without difficulty
(Fig. 5).
T o avoid further contamination of the grain, it
must be processed in the fully packed State, other-
wise the possibility of a second infection would arise
a n d perfect quality could not be g u a r a n t e e d .
Fig. 6. - Continuous h.f. plant rated 10 kW and 13-56 Mc/s
T h e plant is used to exterminate pests in ready-packed food-
stuffs. Depending on the pest and on the foodstuff, throughputs
between 300 and 500 kg/h can be reached.
T h e packing material used d u r i n g the process m a y
not be of metal or metallic foil, since this would
shield the Contents. T h e choice, therefore, is limited
to paper, c a r d b o a r d or plastic.
A process plant consists essentially of a process
from the packing Station to the process (Fig. 6). In
the process channel the dielectric field is produced
by either short or micro-waves supplied f r o m a high-
frequency generator. T h e rating of the generator a n d
also the length a n d b r e a d t h of the plant depend on
the target throughput, which is in turn determined
by the capacity of the a u t o m a t i c packer. T h e de-
cision whether to use short-wave or micro-wave
e q u i p m e n t depends on the material being treated
a n d on the dimensions of the Containers. As a rule,
small Containers are treated with micro-wave, larger
ones with short-wave radiation.
Drying
Normally, h.f. heat can be used for drying purposes
only if the water can be evaporated, i.e., if the pro-
duct can be allowed to reach a t e m p e r a t u r e of
100 °G without any d a m a g e to the grain, for example,
loss of vitamins, decrease in the ability to germinate,
change in taste, or similar effects.
BROWN BOVERI
Fig. 7. - Continuous h.f. plant rated 2 x 25 kW for drying
common Salt
The salt containing 2 to 3% moisture is spread 4 cm thick on
the conveyor belt (left). After travelling through the drying area
in 3 to 4 minutes it reaches the cooling area (right) with a
temperature of 108 °C. T h e throughput is approximately
1000 kg/h.
 For most products, a temperature limit of 50 to
70 °C is set to avoid damage. In such cases, high
frequency can only be used to accelerate the approach
of the water to the surface and the drying takes place
through slow evaporation. T h e drying time using
this process would be considerably longer and, as a
result, the economy of high frequency would become
questionable. T h e drying of common sah is an ex-
ception.
Most salt which is not mined is extracted as an
aqueous Solution. This is pumped u p from the earth
as brine and the concentration of salt steadily in-
creased in continuous evaporation plants until the
Fig. 8. - Completely enclosed continuous Channel rated 25 kW
salt crystallizes and is precipitated. T h e salt is then h . f . power for sterilizing animal fodder
brought from the evaporator by means of a screw T h e fodder in the continuous Channel reaches a homogeneous
conveyor to centrifuges, where the water content is t e m p e r a t u r e of 120 °C in less t h a n 8 minutes. T h e t h r o u g h p u t
reduced to about 2 or 3 % . However, the water is 400 kg/h.

content of marketable salt may not exceed 0 1 % ,

otherwise it is hygroscopic, i.e., it absorbs water from
the air and becomes hard.
Today, h.f. drying is often used instead of warm air
or infra-red drying. Drying is then quicker and better
as in the air flow the salt crystals r u b against each
other, giving rise to dust and dull, unattractive
crystals.
T h e plant works continuously. T h e wet salt is
spread to a certain thickness on a stainless-steel
conveyor belt and carried through the dielectric
field. T h e slight bonding of the salt crystals during
the drying process can be broken if a roller is
mounted at the exit of the dryer. T h e drying time
for a salt layer 40 m m thick is between 3 and
3^ minutes. T h e end temperature of the salt leaving
the drying process is 108 °C and the humidity after
cooling is not more than 0 0 5 % .
T h e power consumption of the drying plant is
30% less than that of an infra-red plant of similar
capacity. Moreover, the working life of infra-red
equipment, in spite of its relatively low temperature,
is verv short as a result of the unavoidable salt
dust and at the most amounts to 2000 hours. T h e
ensuing rise in cost is larger than the cost of tube
replacements for the generators.
T h e use of high-frequency heat in the food industry
has definite advantages and it would be profitable
to expand its application as far as economically
feasible to include areas other than those mentioned
above. T h e future will show how many products can
be improved in quality using high frequency.
•(PL) T . HAFNER
 FREQUENCY CONVERSION
HEATING AND MELTING USING ELECTRONIC
A bricf synopsis of the origin of the medium-frequency
static Converter is followed by a discussion of the essential
differences between the circuitry for series and parallel
resonant circuits. Further to this a thyristorized installation
for 750 kW and 1000 Hz with parallel resonant circuit is
described.
Background
A LTHOUGH it is only lately that the rapid
^-development a n d i m p r o v e d quality of electronic
elements has led to their widespread use in foundries
a n d forges, the origins of frequency conversion by
means of static elements go back some thirty years.
The first Brown Boveri static frequency Converter
was rated 300 k W a n d 1000 Hz and was commis-
sioned in 1938 for supplying a steel melting f u r n a c e
[1]. This installation was in Service until a few years
ago a n d the 50-Hz mains supply was converted by
a multi-anode mercury-arc rectifier into a single-
phase voltage of 1000 Hz.
Fig. 1. - Insert with a 200 A thyristor, circuitry,firing unit andfuse
FOR INDUCTION
ELEMENTS
621.314.26:621.382:621.365.5
F u r t h e r advances in the circuitry a n d develop-
ment of the Brown Boveri single-anode mercury-arc
rectifiers has enabled medium-frequency Converters
to be commissioned in the past few years for industrial
heating a n d melting plant for up to 7500 k W . Using
single-anode mercury-arc rectifiers in the field of
medium-frequency engineering enables Converter
units to be constructed for very high powers although
the m a x i m u m economically justifiable limit is a b o u t
1000 Hz. A b o u t four years ago the 1000 Hz ceiling
was raised considerably by employing Silicon thyris-
tors (controlled semiconductor devices). T h e thy-
ristors which are available today, together with tried
and tested circuitry, permit the construction of
medium-frequency Converters for up to 4000 H z .
It is therefore reasonable to assume that further
development of thyristors and specialized circuitry
will enable even higher frequencies to be attained
in the future. Fig. 1 shows a plug-in unit for a 200-A
thyristor, circuitry, firing unit a n d fuse.
The Change from Mercury-arc
Rectifiers to Thyristors
Small internal modifications were m a d e to the
single-anode mercury-arc rectifier type Lg 41 men-
tioned above a n d enabled a medium-frequency
induction installation to be constructed for 1200 kW
for the purpose of heating steel blocks to 1200 °C.
This plant was designed for heating steel blocks of
three different sizes a n d the partial heating of tubes
of two different diameters. For this reason the m e d i u m -
frequency generator has to operate on three different
frequencies. T h e most suitable frequencies for these
tasks were shown to be 170 Hz for ihe large blocks,
350-Hz for the m e d i u m a n d 500 H z for the small
ones a n d also for the partial heating p r o g r a m m e .
As the Converter was not designed for a specific
frequency [2, 3] the most economical Solution for the
heating process was found to be the static frequency
Converter. T h e Depenbrock type of resonant circuit
Converter [2] developed by Brown Boveri was used
for this application; its circuit d i a g r a m is shown in
Fig. 2. T h e type of Converter used is essentially
controlled by the load as far as the operating fre- BROWN BOVERI

quency is concerned. T h e operating frequency can

Fig. 2. - Circuit diagram of a medium-frequency heating plant for
thus be a d a p t e d to suit the dimensions of the work-
three different mains frequeticies
piece by parallel switching of various sections of the
1 = Transformer 7 == Antiparallel diodes
b a n k of capacitors. T h e medium-frequency trans- 2 = Rectifier 8 M a t c h i n g transformer
former, which transforms the high Converter Output 3 = Smoothing reactor 9 Resonant-circuit capaci-
voltage to the voltage of the resonant circuit was 4 = I n t e r m e d i a t e d.c. circuit tors
capacitor 10 Induction coil
fitted with stages for a d a p t i n g to the various induc-
5 = Mercury-arc rectifiers B ~ Series resonant circuit as
tion coils. T h e necessary measures which have to be 6 = C o m m u t a t i n g inductance Converter load
taken when another coil is connected into the circuit,
e.g. parallel switching of capacitors, selecting the
a p p r o p r i a t e transformer Output voltage a n d switching Thyristors are also used in Converters with series
processes in the control system, are all carried out resonant circuits which means that Brown Boveri are
automatically after turning a key. able to supply two fully developed and efficient types
of m e d i u m - f r e q u e n c y Converter. A detailed descrip-
As can be seen from Fig. 2, the high reactive power
tion of these two types is given in the following.
required by the induction coils is provided by bank
of capacitors connected in series with the coil a n d
thus the load circuit is extended to become a series
resonant circuit. Thyristors in Converters with Parallel ancl
Series Resonant Circuits
Connecting diodes in antiparallel eliminates any
chance of backfiring in the mercury-arc rectifiers
T h e Converter circuits employed in both types of
used in the resonant circuit during their blocking
load circuit are load controlled Converters with d.c.
phase, in spite of the high frequency, because there
intermediate circuits. This means that the mains
is only a very small negative voltage present in them.
frequency power is rectified a n d stored in a d.c. inter-
Compensating the reactive power of the induction
mediate circuit by a power störe. This d.c. inter-
or furnace coils by parallel switching of a bank of
capacitors a n d the a p p r o p r i a t e rectifier connection
would considerably increase the likelihood of back-
firing in the mercury-arc rectifiers, a n d therefore a
load circuit comprising a rectifier circuit extended
to a parallel resonant circuit would not give suitable =r= 5

reliability. T h e development of the thyristor resulted

in a semiconductor device which possesses consider-
BROWN B O V E R I
able advantages over the mercury-arc rectifier a n d
has permitted high power medium-frequency Con- Fig. 3. - Circuit diagram of a medium-frequency Converter with
parallel resonant circuit
verters to be constructed in which the load circuit
1 = Transformer Inverter
consists of a parallel resonant circuit [4], T h e circuit
2 Rectifier Load circuit
diagram for one of these Converters is shown in Fig. 3. 3 — Smoothing reactor
mediate circuit decouples the medium-frequency
network f r o m the 50 Hz mains. T h e power is then
converted into m e d i u m - f r e q u e n c y power by the
inverter. Depending on w h e t h e r the load circuit is
a parallel or series resonant circuit, the power störe
is either of the inductive o r capacitive type. T h e in-
ductive power Store (choke) in the d.c. intermediate
circuit supplies the inverter with a smoothed direct
current, whereas the capacitive Store (capacitor) sup-
plies the inverter with a smoothed direct voltage. T h e
inverter chops u p the direct current or voltage, which-
ever the case m a y be, into the required frequency. I f the
parallel resonant circuit is excited by a rectangular
current it responds with a sinusoidal voltage, whereas
the series resonant circuit which is excited with a
rectangular voltage responds with a sinusoidal cur-
rent. Fig. 4 shows the curves at the Converter outlet
a n d at the induction or f u r n a c e coils. It can be seen
from this that dual conditions exist in b o t h Converter
circuits. T h e Converter requires a small capacitive
reactive power [4] which depends on the type of
thyristors used. This is taken from the medium-
frequency circuit a n d therefore there is a slight
capacitive phase displacement between current a n d
voltage at the Converter outlet. T h e control system
used for both Converter circuits has been thoroughly
dealt with elsewhere [2, 4] a n d therefore there is no
need to discuss it f u r t h e r here. It does, however, bear
repeating that both Converter circuits are controlled
by the load, i.e. the control frequency is automatically
adjusted to the load d a t a (induction variations a n d
the resistance of the induction or f u r n a c e coils d u r i n g
/ h
't
U
\ Output
BROWN BOVERI
Fig. 4. - Comparison of time curves for Converter Output voltage
and current, and load voltage and current
a : Converter with parallel resonant circuit
b: Converter with series resonant circuit
heat-up). T h e resonant circuit is steplessly a d a p t e d
to the frequency a n d the resonant circuit is always
operated very near to its resonant frequency.
T h e p h e n o m e n o n of resonance, which is known
from the theory of resonant circuits creates dual
conditions again in the Converter circuit. In the
parallel resonant circuit, the current in the coil I c is
increased by the quality factor Q in the coil, i.e. the
ratio of the reactive power to the active power,
c o m p a r e d to the Output current I of the Converter. In
the series resonant circuit the coil voltage Uc is
increased by the factor Q c o m p a r e d to the Output
voltage U of the inverter. T h e quality factors for
melting furnaces are in the r ä n g e of 10 to 14 at rated
operating conditions a n d , d e p e n d i n g on the degree
of coupling, in the ränge of 5 to 9 for induction coils.
T h e two Converter circuits differ as a result of these
dual conditions with respect to the type of installa-
tion. As can be seen f r o m Fig. 4, the Converter has to
supply the füll coil voltage for a parallel resonant
circuit a n d the füll coil c u r r e n t in a series resonant
circuit.
Ignoring the slight capacitive reactive power re-
quired by the Converter, the following sample calcu-
lation is intended to highlight the differences between
the two systems mentioned above.
Given the following d a t a for a melting f u r n a c e :
Capacity 750 k W
Reactive power 9350 kvar
R a t e d voltage 1400 V
This results in
Current 6-7 kA
Coil quality 12-4
T h e Converter Output d a t a can now be calculated.
Converter with Converter with
parallel resonant series resonant circuit
Output circuit
Ufurn
voltage U = Up 1400 V U 113 V
Q
Ifurn
current / 540 A I = 6-7 kA
It can be seen from this that the Converter with
series resonant circuit is economical only with large
f u r n a c e voltages. Voltage stresses in the thyristors
used in the inverter of the Converter are determined
by the Output voltage of the Converter. Thyristors
with high voltage ratings always cause higher switch-
ing losses in m e d i u m - f r e q u e n c y applications. For this .c,
/

/
reason Brown Boveri developed a circuit for the Con- ^ /
—1— -c,
verter with parallel resonant circuit for high coil / «ü
/
voltages and fitted it in a n installation [4, 6] where BROWN BOVERI

it proved itself very successful. In this case the Con-

Fig. 5. - Principle of load voltage increase by capacitor distribution
verter only has to supply a selectable p a r t of the coil
voltage [5], T h e circuit is shown in Fig. 5.
By suitable selection of capacitors Ci a n d C2 in
relation to each other, the Output voltage of the Con-
verter can be doubled without increasing the installed
reactive power. As the Converter only supplies half
of the voltage required at the coils, the Converter
with parallel resonant circuit can be used for higher
furnace voltages. Results obtained in practice with
this circuit will be discussed later in this article.
Switching the capacitor bank to create a new ratio BROWN BOVER

between Ci a n d C2 results in Optimum a d a p t a t i o n

Fig. 6. - Circuit diagram for a static medium-frequency Converter
to the Converter, even in installations with various
1 High-voltage switch 7 = Smoothing reactor
induction coils or furnaces [5]. 2, 3 = Transformers 8 = Inverter
4 = Thyristor rectifier 9 = Bank of capacitors
5 = Diode rectifier 10 = Induction furnace
6 - D.C. breaker 11 = Commutating reactor
A Medium-Frequency Static Frequency 12 = Starting device
Changer Using Thyristors

T h e first static frequency changer for m e d i u m -
frequency fitted with semiconductors for high powers
was commissioned in 1967 for a Swiss iron foundry.
T h e circuit is shown in Fig. 6; it was briefly m e n -
tioned earlier a n d has been fully described in a
previous issue [4]. T h e e q u i p m e n t feeds an induction
f u r n a c e which is essentially used for melting special
types of cast iron. At rated Performance of 750 k W
a n d 1000 Hz the plant melts 1 t of iron in a b o u t
42 minutes. R a t e d Converter Output voltage is 700 V
a n d rated furnace input voltage is 1400 V . F r o m the
electrical point of view this installation represents a
completely new development. T h e semiconductor
elements and circuitry principles have been applied
in the field of m e d i u m - f r e q u e n c y engineering with
considerable success.
T h e rectifier is of the 12-pulse Diothyr connection
type, i.e. one controlled a n d one uncontrolled partial
rectifier in series connection. W i t h a favourable
power factor the direct voltage, a n d therefore also the
power, can be steplessly controlled down until the
power is virtually zero. T h e controlled partial rectifier
is fitted with Silicon thyristors a n d the uncontrolled
partial rectifier is fitted with Silicon diodes. The
d.c. intermediate circuit contains a protection switch
a n d the inductive power störe which has already
been mentioned a n d which decouples the rectifier
from the inverter a n d thus prevents a reaction f r o m
the m e d i u m - f r e q u e n c y system to the 50 Hz supply.
T h e inverter is in single-phase bridge connection a n d
supplies the resonant circuit with divided c a p a c i t a n c e
shown in Fig. 5. T h e p a r t of the circuit shown as
section 12 in Fig. 6 is the starting device which starts
the resonant circuit w h e n the p l a n t is switched 011
by switching a capacitor Cst, which has previously
been charged by a n auxiliary rectifier, into the circuit
through a thyristor Tst. This creates a damped
oscillation. T h e first half-wave is picked u p at the
f u r n a c e coil by the electronic controls a n d therefore
firing pulses are emitted to the a p p r o p r i a t e inverter
thyristors, a n d thus the further power supply is intro-
duced into the operating circuit at the working
frequency of the resonant circuit. A switch-off com-
m a n d automatically reduces the power to a m i n i m u m
value a n d opens the d.e. breaker. As the installation
can be switched on or off simply a n d quickly there
are no idling losses whatever.
T h e voltage a n d current Output curves of the Con-
verter w h e n operating with pronounced d a m p i n g in
the resonant circuit while melting a sintering charge
are shown in Fig. 7. T h e furnace c u r r e n t a n d the
Converter Output voltage are very nearly sinusoidal
b u t the Converter Output current which excites the
resonant circuit is rectangular or trapezoidal because
it is formed by chopping up a direct current. Capaci-
tive phase displacement of the current in relation to
the Output voltage is essential so that w h e n the
change-over from positive to negative current or vice
versa is complete, the interval to zero voltage is not
less t h a n the turn-off time. It is only by this means
that the thyristor can provide safe blocking of the
positive voltage.
Extensive use has been m a d e of Brown Boveri
electronic components in this installation. A p a r t from
rationalized production, this system gives the op-
portunity for extending the plant a n d in the event
of a fault it is a simple m a t t e r to exchange parts.
A n o t h e r consideration is the fact that m a i n t a i n i n g
a störe of spare parts is considerably simplified.
T h e inverter section was fitted with thyristors of
an average current rating of 150 A a n d a peak
Fig. 7. - Current I and voltage U at Converter Output
Time scale = 200 (xsec/division
voltage of 600 V so that, as well as connecting t h e m
in parallel it was also necessary to connect them in
series. T h e c u r r e n t a n d voltage distribution over the
individual elements was kept within a 10% deviation
f r o m the m e a n value a n d this was deemed to be
acceptable. D y n a m i c a n d static voltage distribution
over the Silicon thyristors connected in series is
achieved by RC networks which were specially
developed for m e d i u m - f r e q u e n c y applications. These
circuits require very accurate design because of the
different charges stored in the thyristors when they
are switched off. Good current distribution over the
parallel thyristor branches in the inverter is mainly
assured by the c o m m u t a t i n g inductors which are
connected in every valve b r a n c h a n d which must
always be fitted to limit the rate of rise of current
w h e n the thyristor is fired.
In this installation, particular attention was given
to protecting the semiconductor elements against
overvoltages a n d overcurrents in the event of a fault.
This was achieved with a high capacity surge diverter
a n d an electronic protection system in conjunction
with the d.c. breaker. Overcurrents due to arc-
through in the inverter a n d any overvoltages occur-
ring are picked u p within a few microseconds so that
emergency shut down is very rapidly instigated.
Performance of a Static Frequency
Converter
As has already been mentioned, the operating
frequency varies with the b a t h level, space factor,
t e m p e r a t u r e a n d permeability of the charge in the
furnace. T h e installation u n d e r discussion (Fig. 8)
uses a frequency ränge of 800 to 1050 Hz while
melting a charge of cast iron. As the crucible wash-
out increases, the u p p e r frequency limit rises by 20
to 30 Hz. T h e d i a g r a m in Fig. 9 shows the measured
curve of power consumed d u r i n g the melting of a
charge. T h e change of impedance in the f u r n a c e is
considerably greater a n d more r a p i d than shown by
the oscillogram. Spontaneous changes of i m p e d a n c e
of 10 to 2 0 % in fractions of a second occur very
frequently d u r i n g the first stage of the melting pro-
cess. This is caused by the collapse of bridges a n d
by large lumps falling down into the molten mass.
T h e frequency changer reacts to these load changes 1200
Hz
and automatically changes the frequency. The
1000
limiting control system prevents any overvoltages
or overcurrents arising from these load changes. T h e .. 800

medium-frequency power can be steplessly varied

<>00
by h a n d through a r ä n g e of 1 % to 100% of the rated
400
p o w e r ; it increases as the Square of the direct voltage.
Free selection of power consumption in furnace in- 200
stallations is desirable mainly for t e m p e r a t u r e m a i n -
tenance and d u r i n g the sintering charge. T h e maxi- 0 10 20 30 40 min 50
BROWN BOVERI 141548 I

m u m power value is usually selected for n o r m a l

charges. Rated voltage and rated current are Fig. 8. - Frequency'curve during melting-down of a charge

regulated by the direct voltage control. T h e level

of m a x i m u m power is theoretically only achieved
at one point of Operation, that is at one i m p e d a n c e
value, because the power consumed at low impedance
d u e to working near the current limit, a n d at high
i m p e d a n c e due to working near the voltage limit, is
somewhat lower t h a n the rated power.
For the sake of simplicity let us consider the im-
pedance as the ratio of TJ\I at the Converter Output
(Fig. 10). T h e extreme operating points are indicated
by A (empty furnace) a n d E (sintering charge) at
m a x i m u m desired value setting a n d limitation to
Uref a n d Iref • R e d u c i n g the desired value by h a n d
displaces the working point within the shaded
portion in the direction of the zero point. I n most
cases only the D-C-B ränge is used for a n o r m a l
charge. Suitable charging means that the operating
point varies only slightly about the point of m a x i m u m
power C and therefore virtually m a x i m u m power can
a n d slag removal. After this, füll power was once
more applied for two minutes to reach the desired
pour t e m p e r a t u r e .
These considerations should m a k e it clear that the
average power consumed by the f u r n a c e is some-
w h a t lower t h a n the m a x i m u m Converter Output a n d
this faet must be taken into consideration at the
design stage.
T h e sintering charge, i.e. the first charge after
renewing the f u r n a c e refractory, represents an ex-
treme operating point d u e to the p r o n o u n c e d d a m p -
ing in the resonant circuit caused by the refractory
former, in spite of the fact that the power used is
1,0-

be used for at least 9 0 % of the total melting time.

0,9-
T h e power consumed in the first 5 minutes for the
0,8-
charge used in Fig. 9 was less t h a n rated power as
a result of limitation by the current control equip- \P 0 , 7 -
m e n t . In Fig. 10 the working point was around point PN
0,6-
D a n d after passing the Curie point it increased rela-
tively rapidly to m a x i m u m power a n d then oscillated 0,5-
in the ränge of D-C w h e n the charge was replenished.
0,4 -
T h e furnace was fully charged a n d above the Curie
point d u r i n g the second half of the melt and there- 0,3-

fore there was no appreciable change in power con- 0,2-

sumption. As the t e m p e r a t u r e increased, the working
0,1
point returned in the direction of B but the con-
sumption dropped by only a very small a m o u n t . 0-
min 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
After 40 minutes the power was reduced for a BROWN BOVER 1 —

short time to facilitate t e m p e r a t u r e measurement Fig. 9. - Power consumed white melting a charge

Fig. 10. - Operating diagram of a static Converter
relatively low. Extensive measurement has shown
that the thyristor d a t a are not exceeded at a n y stage
with a sintering charge; neither while starting the
resonant circuit nor d u r i n g normal operation.
T h e distribution of the resonant circuit capacity
leads to a slight voltage distortion at the Converter
Output when working with pronounced damping.
T h u s distortion is in a direction which aids c o m m u -
tation, i.e. the periodic chopping 11p of the direct
current is simplified. Virtually constant safety m a r g i n
figures were measured at the thyristors u n d e r all
operating conditions. This means that it is possible
to r u n the furnace under all operating conditions,
e.g. sintering the refractory with a former, melting
down f r o m cold and passing through the
point [6], without changing any connections in the
load circuit or electrical control system a n d merely
by contactless electronic current a n d voltage limi-
tation a n d a power setting selected by h a n d . This
excellent Performance is achieved with the resonant
circuit connection with subdivided compensation
capacitance as developed by Brown Boveri.
addition to this the Converter can be suited to the
loacl by the selectable ratio of voltage step-up with
partial capacitances. For this reason it is not neces-
sary in m a n y cases for the thyristors to be in series
connection.
T h e efficiency of the static frequency Converter
described here is a b o u t 9 2 % . In the meantime
further development of semiconductor devices a n d
the associated improved utilization of plant have
brought an increase in the efficiency of static fre-
quency changers of 2 to 3 % a n d therefore efficiencies
of a b o u t 9 5 % are achieved today.
Instant readiness, high efficiency even under par-
tial load, freedom from maintenance, simple spares
stockage and ease of operation are all features which
are appreciated by the operating stafT.
O u t p u t figures a n d excellent Performance with
electric furnaces lead to the expectation that static
frequency changers will be more widely used in the
future.
(AH) K. GABLER
D. WALLSTEIN
Bibliography
[1] C. E H R E N S P E R G E R : A three-phase-single-phase m u t a t o r for
supplying a high-frequency coreless induction furnace.
Brown Boveri Rev. 1938, Vol. 25, No. 5/6, p. 130-3.
[2] W . B E R E N S , H . G L I M S K I : Ein neues Umrichtungsverfahren
f ü r einphasige V e r b r a u c h e r mit h o h e m Blindleistungs-
bedarf. V D E - F a c h b e r i c h t e , 1 9 6 4 , Vol. 2 3 , p. 2 5 8 - 6 4 .
Curie
[3] K . W . K A N N G I E S S E R : Schwingkreisumrichter f ü r die induk-
tive E r w ä r m u n g . BBC-Nachrichten, 1964, Vol. 46, No. 12,
p. 637-47.
[4] K . GABLER, W . FAUST: Semiconductor static frequency
changers for induction heating and melting. Brown Boveri
Rev. 1966, Vol. 53, No. 10, p. 693-701.
[5] P. KNAPP: Characteristics of the parallel-resonance inverter
In for inductive melting. Brown Boveri Rev. 1966, Vol. 53,
No. 10, p. 702-14.
[6] P. KNAPP: Thyristorized medium-frequency static frequency
changer with parallel resonance circuit feeding an induction
furnace. Brown Boveri Rev. 1967, Vol. 54, No. 7. p. 416.
 HEAT TREATMENT OF METALS USING
Heat treatment processes for steels demand furnaces which
produce constant heating and accurate temperature control.
Electro-heat is particularly suitable for this application and
is to be recommended, provided that the economics involved
are sound. Various types of furnace have been developed to
comply with atmospheric, temperature and transport require-
ments of the diverse heat treatment processes. Several models
and the demands made of them are described here.
T 7 L E C T R O - H E A T is used extensively in the heat
-'—'treatment of steels. These heat treatments include
surface carburizing and nitriding, hardening, tem-
pering and annealing in various temperature ranges.
Various demands are made of the furnaces on
mechanical and metallurgical grounds, including
even through-heating of the workpiece, accurate
maintenance of a given temperature, even, possibly
controlled, cooling after annealing and very often
maintenance of a specific atmosphere. This atmo-
sphere may be of a neutral, carburizing or decarburiz-
ing nature. The above requirements can only be met
by a furnace which is evenly heated and can be
accurately controlled as far as temperature is con-
cerned, and is also gas-tight for occasions where a
protective gas is used. Uneven heating creates stresses
and causes distortion in the workpiece, variations
in the structure and non-uniform carburizing or
nitriding at the surface. An electrically heated fur-
nace can readily comply with all these requirements.
A decision to use combustibe fuels in preference
to electro-heat is usually based on sound economic
grounds.
Economics
Heat treatment shops consume vast quantities of
heat. As various sources of energy are available,
ELEGTRO-HEAT
621.365:621.785
including electricity, gas and oil, a cost effectiveness
investigation must be carried out before deciding
upon the most suitable source of heat supply. It is
not only the purchase price of the fuel which deter-
mines the cost effectiveness; an attempt must also
be made to place a financial value on all other
factors involved. For the reasons stated above one
would obviously like to give preference to electrical
power, and in many cases it does not require much
debate before this shows itself to be justifiable. This is
especially true for heat treatments which require
relatively low temperatures or a specific temperature
to be maintained for protracted periods. I n these
cases the electric furnace is not only more accurate
but also more economical in its power consumption.
O n the other hand, heat treatments which require
a high heat concentration and have a high power
consumption per unit time should be subjected to
closer scrutiny with respect to economics. Metal-
lurgical requirements cannot be excluded from this
scrutiny. For instance, it may be that a high tenacity,
homogeneous structure is required with as little
scatter as possible, or uniform penetration with a
specific carbon content at the surface and the work-
piece is heated with as little delay as possible. These
are requirements which demand very even temper-
ature and therefore very accurate temperature con-
trol which cannot be achieved with fuel-fired furnaces.
O n e advantage of the electric furnace is its high
efficiency stemming from a combination of its low
heat losses, better thermal insulation, method of heat
generation and the corresponding compactness of its
design.
An argument which is often against the use of
electric furnaces is the high cost of electricity, but
the consumer can often minimize this by taking
advantage of cheaper power rates during the night TABLE I

and by avoiding peak consumption periods during Various heating elements

the day. It is obviously more profitable to heat up
a furnace from cold during the night. Another con- Electric heating elements in furnaces
sideration for continuous heat treatment processes
is to use gas for the initial heating and maintain the Atmosphere: neutral, oxidizing, reducing (CO—CO2)
temperature electrically in the secondary section, as
it requires less energy in any case. T h u s greater
Heating coils
uniformity in the more important part of the furnace (nickel alloy)
is assured. up to 1100°C
BROWN BOVER

Types of Electric Furnace Strip elements

(nickel alloy)
up to 1150 °C
U n d e r normal circumstances steels are heat treated
BROWN BOVERI
at between 700 and 1000 °C but this is not true in
the case of alloy tool steels such as hot cutting steels,
high speed steels and special steels which require
Silicon-carbide rods
much higher temperatures for hardening. Selecting up to 1350 °C
BROWN BOVERI
the most suitable heating element depends on the
temperature required and also on the atmosphere
inside the furnace (see Table I). Atmosphere: Endogas (CO—H2—CH4) with added
carbohydrates
There is no real problem where an oxidizing or
neutral atmosphere is concerned because freely
radiating electric heating elements of metallic ma- Tubulär heating ele-
ments (nickel alloy)
terials wound in the form of a spiral, rod or strip
BROWN BOVERI
u p to 1000 °C
can be used. T h e rated furnace temperature de-
termines the alloy, surface loading and the size of
the heating element. These unprotected, open heating Electric heating elements in salt baths
elements can also be used in exothermic or high-
nitrogen (Monogas) protective atmospheres between Iron electrodes up to
700 °C and 1000 °C without any difficulty. 950 °C in steel tanks,
and up to 1350 °C
T h e steels to be treated may be hardening steels
in ceramic vats
or carburized case-hardening steels and have a
relatively high carbon content. O n heating they Electric heating elements in oil quenching tanks and
therefore tend to discard carbon from the surface. salt baths
This is not desirable in finished machined parts and
must be avoided at all costs. A suitable carbonaceous
Tubulär heating ele-
atmosphere can be provided by using carbon-rich r m
r ments (nickel alloy)
endothermic gas (Endogas), and the degree of up to 350 °C
BROWN BOVERI
carbon content can be adjusted by adding a small
amount of propane. This gas is of a similar composi-
tion to that used for carburizing.
T h e usual forms of open metallic heating elements short circuited and it would therefore be destroyed
are unsuitable for furnaces which have a direct supply in a short time. This type of furnace is best heated
of these gases as there is a danger of soot forming. by an element which is protected by a nickel-
A soot deposit may build u p until the element is chromium steel tube and as these tubes are gas-tight
the element does not come into contact with the gas. TABLE II
This type of element contains a non-ferrous nickel- Various heat treatments
c h r o m i u m wire conductor wound on a ceramic core
Temperature
and can be connected to low voltages through Treatment
ränge (°C)
an auxiliary transformer. T h e y can be fitted either
vertically or horizontally a n d can be used for temper- a. Rough parts:
atures u p to 1000 °C. Annealing: Normalizing 8 0 0 - 950
T e m p e r i n g furnaces which operate between 150 Step annealing 9 5 0 - 1050

a n d 650 °C are heated by open-type heating ele- Hardening 8 0 0 - 900

Tempering 4 5 0 - 650
ments in conjunction with the most extensive air
circulation that it is possible to provide. I n special
b. Finished machined parts:
cases, e.g. where oil fumes are likely to enter the
furnace and cause soot deposits to form, these Case-hardening steels:
Carburizing in gas, salt
elements can also be fitted with protective tubes.
or powder 850- 950
It is advantageous to use protected elements where Carbon nitriding 700- 850
they are immersed in the cooling m e d i u m w h e n Hardening 800- 900
heating oil-quenching or m a r t e m p e r i n g baths. This Stress relieving 120- 250

prevents local overheating in the liquid. Hardening steels: Hardening 8 0 0 - 900

T h e heating elements should be controlled for Tempering 4 5 0 - 650

various power stages wherever possible.This permits Special steels: Gas nitriding 5 0 0 - 550
improved a d a p t a t i o n to the actual consumption,
protects the heating elements a n d leads to more c. Intermediate treatments:
accurate t e m p e r a t u r e control. Intermediate annealing 6 5 0 - 700
Soft annealing 6 5 0 - 700
Stress-relief annealing 4 5 0 - 650

Different Furnaces for Different Heat
Treatments
M o d e r n processes d e m a n d heat t r e a t m e n t p l a n t
for gas carburizing, carbon nitriding, gas nitriding,
hardening, tempering, stress relieving, annealing for
pretreatment or intermediate treatments such as
normalizing, partial normalizing, stress-relief an-
nealing and soft annealing (see T a b l e I I ) . These
different treatments require different temperatures,
treatment periods a n d atmospheres. Widely differing
shapes, sizes a n d weights of workpiece, surface
textures of finished machined a n d rough machined
parts all d e m a n d furnaces of a p p r o p r i a t e size a n d
type a n d various types of feeder devices for con-
tinuously operating plant. This has resulted in the
development o f a n u m b e r of different types of furnace.
Depending on the size and Output of a heat treat-
m e n t shop the various processes can be a u t o m a t e d
to a greater or lesser degree. Plant which operates
on a batch production basis can at least have the
charging devices a u t o m a t e d , provided that suitable
feeder e q u i p m e n t is used. O n the other h a n d , instal-
lations which are in continuous operation are either
semi or fully a u t o m a t e d .
Gas Carburizing and Gas Carbon
Nitriding Plant
These installations are used for enriching the car-
bon content at the surface of low-carbon steels by
employing a gas with a high carbon content in a
t e m p e r a t u r e ränge between 780° a n d 950 °C. Nitrogen
is a d d e d to the carburizing gas in the form of a m -
monia. This means that both c a r b o n a n d nitrogen
permeate into the surface a n d m a k e it particularly
wear-resistant. After the subsequent h a r d e n i n g pro-
cess the carburized workpiece has a very h a r d sur-
face b u t the core remains tough. T h e workpiece can
be hardened directly f r o m the carburizing temper-
a t u r e or cooled for f u r t h e r m a c h i n i n g a n d subse-
quently reheated to the required h a r d e n i n g t e m p e r -
ature. This process d e m a n d s a gas-tight f u r n a c e a n d
three types have proved particularly suitable. T h e y
are the pot type and the Chamber type, which are
both charging furnaces, a n d the continuous or
through-type furnace.
A p a r t from the gas carburizing process which has
lately become the most p o p u l ä r system of carburizing,
there are two old-established methods in use; the
powdered carbon process a n d the Cyanide bath
process. Both of these are still widely used in smaller
heat t r e a t m e n t shops b u t neither can attain the high
precision of the gas process. A considerable draw-
back of the Cyanide process is that the laws regarding
water pollution are becoming more a n d m o r e strin-
gent a n d the equipment required can be very
expensive. So m u c h has already been written a b o u t
these processes that it would be pointless to discuss
their pros a n d cons here.
Fig. 1 shows an installation comprising four pot-
type electric furnaces which is used for gas c a r b u r -
izing. T h e gas required in the annealing pots can
be provided either by drip-feeding a carburizing
liquid which gasifies at temperatures above 700 °C
in the f u r n a c e or using the gas from an Endogas
generator a n d adding an a p p r o p r i a t e q u a n t i t y of pro-
p a n e to provide the desired a m o u n t of carbon in the
f u r n a c e a t m o s p h e r e . T h e a t m o s p h e r e a n d temperature
can be automatically controlled. T h e C a r b o m a a g pro-
cess [ 1 , 2 ] consists in drip-feeding ethyl acetate a n d
methanol while Controlling the dew point of the
furnace and has shown itself to be singularly suitable.
T h e lid of the f u r n a c e can be removed by a push-
button controlled hydraulic mechanism, a n d cranes
are used for charging the work which is loaded on
pallets. T h e cooling area, quenching vats, cleaning
equipment a n d the shaft f u r n a c e with air blast for
tempering are all laid out in such a m a n n e r that a
pallet can be moved f r o m one treatment process to
the next without unloading.
T h e d u r a t i o n of the carburizing period is depen-
dent on the d e p t h of penetration required. A case
thickness of between 0-5 a n d 2 0 m m requires a
t e m p e r a t u r e of a b o u t 925 °C to be maintained for
between 2 a n d 20 hours. As a result of these long
holding times an electrically heated pot furnace, on
account of its low thermal capacity when empty,
consumes less energy t h a n a similar furnace heated
by fuel, a n d is thus more economical.
T h e automatic, gas-tight Chamber f u r n a c e fitted
with a gas t r a p a n d a gas-tight oil quenching b a t h
beneath the gas t r a p is a combined carburizing a n d
hardening furnace for handling batches of work.
Fig. 1. - Four electrically heated pot-
type furnaces for gas carburizing and
direct hardening of transmission com-
ponents in a heated bath

0 0 BGS0D
Fig. 2. - Electrically heated single-
track through-type furnace installation
for gas carburizing, oil bath hardening,
rinsing and tempering of transmission
parts
This type of furnace permits hardening direct from
the carburizing temperature, without the
leaving the furnace atmosphere. Between the gas
trap, the electrically heated furnace and the oil bath
the racks carrying the charge are conveyed auto-
matically by means of chains and elevators. This
furnace can also be joined to rinsers and tempering
furnaces of the same size so that the batches of work
can be transported through in a continuous process.
Single-track and twin-track pusher-type or con-
tinuous furnaces have been developed for handling
large quantities of material which all requires the
same depth of carbon penetration. They are usually
combined with oil quenching baths, rinsers and
tempering furnaces in a U-shaped continuous pro-
cess so that loading and unloading is carried out at
the same place. T h e work to be heat treated is
loaded on racks or pallets which are either 400 x
500 m m or 500 x 500 m m . Fig. 2 shows an electrically
heated single-track pusher-type furnace viewed from
the loading and unloading end. This plant is used
for gas carburizing transmission components. T h e
air circulation ducting and automatic draw-bar feed
system at the outlet end of the tempering furnace
can be clearly seen.
Each pallet is automatically fed into the inlet gate
at a preset pace. Between 10 and 25 pallets are fed
D
through the installation by the pusher. T h e work is
work then fed through the outlet gate by a transverse
pusher and an elevator immerses each pallet in the
oil quenching vat. T h e next stroke lifts them out of
the bath whereupon the draw-bar pulls them through
the rinser and tempering furnace to the unloading
point.
T h e gas for the carburizing process is supplied by
an electrically heated Endogas generator. A constant
gas composition is maintained by regulating the air-
gas mixture. A controlled quantity of pure propane
is added to the mixture to ensure that the required
carbon content is fed into the furnace. T h e com-
position of the gas in the generator and in the furnace
is regulated through the COg phase with the aid of
an infra-red gas analyser.
As with chamber furnaces, the pusher type
furnace is also heated by three or four groups of
heating elements which are in delta-star-zero
connection and automatically controlled. T h e fur-
nace doors and the drives for the pusher mechanism,
conveyors and elevators are operated partly hydrauli-
cally and partly by electric motors. These are con-
trolled by stepping mechanisms, time switches, limit
switches and control valves so that operation is fully
automatic. As the required depth of penetration
required governs the time taken for carburizing and
the size of the pallet determines the number of
workpieces which can be loaded onto it, it is obvious
that power consumption and work throughout vary
considerably from plant to plant. These furnaces
normally operate on 150 to 350 kW, depending on
the size of the furnace.
Furnaces for Gas Nitriding
Gas nitriding is a surface heat treatment which is
carried out at between 500 and 520 °C in an atmo-
sphere of atomic nitrogen. T h e nitrogen penetrates
the surface and increases the hardness in the vicinity.
This system has increased in popularity since it was
recently discovered that not only could special
nitriding steels be treated but also the wearing
qualities of alloyed case-hardening and hardening
steels could be considerably improved. This process
has proved very successful for the treatment of large
transmission components of heat-treatable steel [3].
Electrically heated, gas-tight pot-type furnaces are
normally used for this purpose but if the conditions
demand it, hood-type furnaces can be used in their
stead. Through-type furnaces are not suitable for
this application due to the long periods under which
the work is treated. This can be between 20 and
100 hours. Electric heating is particularly suitable
and economical for this purpose because of the low
temperatures involved and the protracted periods of
temperature maintenance.
Furnace Installations for Hardening and
Tempering
Modern requirements demand that case-hardening
or hardening steel workpieces which are supplied
without any scale on the surface from the carburizing
process, or bright from previous machining, shall be
hardened without any loss of carbon and without
any formation of scale. This can be achieved if the
work is heated in an atmosphere of protective gas
(usually Endogas). Such niceties are dispensed with
in heat treatment shops where the work is supplied
with a scaly surface and the stipulations regarding the
surface condition are not so stringent.
Pot-type furnaces and automatic Chamber furnaces
which have already been refered to in the above are
particularly suitable for handling batches of work
which have to be heated in a protective gas atmo-
sphere. The gas-tight turntable furnace (Fig. 3) is
more suitable than any other type for continuous
Fig. 3. - Electrically heated turntable
furnace for hardening individual com-
ponents on the hardening press without
forming scale or losing carbon
heating of work and individual hardening on
quenching presses or other devices. Its particular
features include a gas-tight housing, gas-sealed doors,
water-cooled oil troughs for sealing the gap around
the lid and hearth, the transparent, double-layer
gas-screen in the doorways with safety devices and
adjustable air-gas mixture. T h e furnace doors are
pneumatically operated through a foot switch and
the heating elements are arranged vertically on
either side of the hearth. T h e consumption of pro-
tective gas is low and the used gas is burned off.
The hearth is normally moved in steps from Seg-
ment to segment in the same rhythm as the quenching
press. A pulse generator with an adjustable time
setting indicates to the Operator when he should press
a push button which instigates the sequence of
Operations. It is also possible to arrange a continuous
operation. Turntable furnaces have been constructed
which can handle gear wheels of up to 600 m m
diameter.
Turntable furnaces can also be built for continuous
hardening where work is loaded onto pallets and fed
through automatically. As the work is not touched
until after the quenching process in the oil bath this
furnace is particularly suitable for finished machined
components. Its throughput is about 300 to 400 kg/h.
T h e charge enters and leaves through gas screens. T h e
only work involved in running this plant consists in
loading and unloading the pallets and pushing them
into the inlet gate. T h e charges are fed into the
furnace by pushers and an extractor removes them
at the other end. From here they are fed onto an
elevator which immerses them in the oil bath. A
second elevator removes them and feeds them into
the outlet gate. In spite of the fact that each step
takes only 4 to 5 minutes the work is immersed in
oil for quite long enough because using two elevators
means that the work remains submerged for two
steps.
An extended Version of the pusher-type furnace
can be used as a through-type furnace which either
tips the heated work into the quenching bath or dips
it with the aid of an elevator, as in the case of the
turntable furnace. In choosing the most suitable
method of transporting the work, consideration must
be given to the shape, weight and surface of the
components. Finished machined parts must not be
tipped but instead must be gently dipped while
resting on a solid support.
T h e choice of heating element depends in this case
on whether an oxidizing atmosphere or a protective
gas is used.
Through-type furnaces with continuous conveyors
of either the apron type or steel mesh belting are
particularly suitable for work which can be tipped.
Through-type hardening furnaces can be combined
with quenching vats, through-type rinsers and tem-
pering furnaces to form complete hardening
and tempering installations. It is not essential to
use the same conveyor system for the individual
sections.
A through-type heat treatment plant for forged
components comprises a pusher-type furnace with
an apron-type conveyor and a quenching device with
twin vats for either water or oil quenching. These
vats can be moved sideways by an electric drive so
that the appropriate vat with built-in conveyor and
cooling device can be brought into line. T h e instal-
lation works automatically and the Containers are
constantly on the move within the pusher-type
furnace. When the plate arrives at the tipping
Position the work slides off into the vat and the plate
is returned down a chute on to a chain conveyor
running below the furnace, which transfers it to an
elevator. This elevator returns the plates to the
starting end for reloading. A continuous wire mesh
conveyor removes the work from the bath and
deposits it on the conveyor which takes it through
the rinser. A once-through rinser, a tempering furnace
with air circulation and conveyor and a washing bath
with conveyor complete the installation. This plant
has a total power consumption of 33 kW/h for an
hourly throughput of 650 kg.
T h e drum-type furnace fitted with a screw con-
veyor is ideal for the continuous hardening of small
components which are not affected by the forward
motion of the conveyor. Components are continu-
ously and evenly fed into the screw conveyor from
a hopper.
Hardening steels and case-hardening steels are
tempered or stress-relieved after hardening in order
to change the structure or attain specific material
characteristics. Shaft furnaces with air blowers are
usually used for batch tempering but chamber fur-

Fig. 4. - Endless apron conveyor seen from the inlet side of a through-
type furnace rated 700 °C with air circulation
naces with air blowers are also used, though these
are not so populär.
Continuous tempering is usally carried out in
furnaces with continuous conveyors and air blowers
or furnaces with pace-setting d r a w bar devices a n d
air blowers. Whereas the work is transported con-
tinuously or in steps by the conveyor, the pace-setting
d r a w b a r device moves Containers or pallets of work
along rails or rollers in fixed steps through the fur-
nace. This latter m e t h o d has the a d v a n t a g e that
delicate work does not have to be unloaded after
heat t r e a t m e n t b u t can be moved to the next process
in its Container or on its pallet. A 600 m m wide
a p r o n conveyor for a tempering furnace is shown in
Fig. 4. Air circulation in the f u r n a c e can be either
axial or longitudinal depending on the size of the
furnace in question. I n small furnaces with virtually
Square cross-section it is usually sufRcient to use
longitudinal circulation which requires less equip-
ment.
Annealing Furnaces
Various annealing processes are carried out in the
heat t r e a t m e n t shop to nullify certain effects from
previous processes such as forging or other mechani-
cal treatment, or to attain a softer grain structure
in the interests of improving subsequent machining.
H e a t t r e a t m e n t carried out on the material can also
play an i m p o r t a n t p a r t in preventing distortion after
forging. T h o r o u g h annealing by heating above the
AC3 point a n d allowing to cool, which is the normal
method of annealing, or cooling in stages and
m a i n t a i n i n g the t e m p e r a t u r e for a specific period in
the pearlite stage are therefore very i m p o r t a n t pro-
cesses. As these processes are usually not carried out
with sufficient accuracy in the forge they are very
often conducted in the heat treatment shop.
O t h e r treatments include intermediate annealing
for completing the structure formation, soft annealing
above the Aci critical point a n d stress relieving. T h e y
may be carried out continuously or a batch at a time.
F u r n a c e temperatures for annealing processes are
between 500 a n d 1050 °C. Electric furnaces for up
to 750 °C are usually fitted with air blowers, b u t those
for above this t e m p e r a t u r e are usually radiation
furnaces without blowers.
Batch annealing can be carried out in c h a m b e r ,
bogie hearth and shaft furnaces with or without
blowers, or in pot-type or hood-type furnaces. T h e
latter two permit annealing in an atmosphere of
protective gas.
Continuous annealing can be carried out in
rotating hearth, pusher-type, through-type with
d r a w b a r feed, continuous belt a n d double drum
furnaces.
Fig. 5 shows a twin-track through-type furnace
with a p r o n conveyor for step-annealing a n d nor-
malizing components in air. This installation was
built for a n hourly t h r o u g h p u t of 1000 kg and
operates on 435 k W . Case-hardening and hardening
steel components of between 0-5 a n d 15 kg are treated
in a through-time of a b o u t 7-5 hours. T h e plant is
divided into heating, annealing, rapid cooling (for
step-annealing case-hardening steels), constant tem-
p e r a t u r e (600 °C for the pearlite stage) a n d cooling
sections. At the end of the process the work is tipped
into Containers.
Fig. 6 shows two pusher-type furnaces which
operate in parallel for annealing under protective
gas. T h e two twin-track furnaces are connected by
a rapid cooling area to form a U-shaped installation.
Fig. 5. - Exit end of a twin-track
through-type furnace for step-annealing
and normalizing at rated temperature
of 1000 3 C with hydraulic tipping
device

Fig. 6. - Inlet gate and pusher for the

high temperature furnace of a U-
shaped twin-track installation with
two furnaces and rapid cooling Chamber
for step annealing under protective gas

This arrangement enables each furnace to be operated
independently for normalizing with or without the
cooling section, and the charge cools in air outside
the furnace. On the other hand, when step-annealing
is carried out the work passes through all three tem-
perature stages; füll annealing, rapid cooling and
low temperature sections. T h e furnaces are gas-tight
and have gas screens at both ends. T h e high temper-
ature furnace is designed f'or 1100 °C and is fitted
with strip-type heating elements whereas the low-
temperature furnace has a nominal temperature of
1000 °C and is equipped with heating coils. T h e
rapid cooling chamber is heated by sheathed
heating elements. T h e charge is indirectly cooled by
cooling coils and blowers assisted by fans fitted in the
roof. T h e rated throughput of this installation for
normalizing is 1900 kg/hour and for step-annealing
950 kg/hour, because the two processes double the

time taken. T h e total installed load for automatic
operation is 840 kW. Nitrogen is used as the protec-
tive gas and this is provided by a generator which
extracts it from air.
T h e double-drum furnace [4] is also worthy of
mention in connection with the continuous bright
annealing of bulk goods. This type is fitted with two
contra-rotating screw conveyors. This plant is par-
ticularly efficient because the cold work being fed
in is thoroughly pre-heated by the heat dissipated
from the out-flowing work in the heat exchange zone.
Maintaining the annealing temperature of 700 °C
for between 10 and 60 minutes with a throughput
of 400 kg/h results in a specific power consumption
of 100 kWh/t.
Induction Equipment for Surface
Hardening
Apart from furnaces there is other induction
heating equipment in the heat treatment shop which
is worth mentioning here. This equipment permits
much more sharply defined heating of the work
for local hardening. T h e design of these induction
heating coils makes them particularly suitable for
continuous heating of mass-produced components.
Fig. 7. - Medium-frequency instal-
lation for hardening gears
Whereas furnaces are usually erected in special
departments of the heat treatment shop, these in-
duction heating machines are fitted in the production
machining lines. T h e machines are ready for Service
at any time in the same manner as a machine tool
and do not require any heating up, as is the case with
a furnace.
A distinction is made between static hardening and
through-feed hardening in the same manner as with
a furnace. In the first case the work is stationary
during the heating process and in the second the
work is continuously moving through the induction
coil, or alternatively the induction coil moves over
the work. T h e heated work or surface is immediately
quenched by a water spray.
T h e frequency, power and heating time are de-
termined by the depth of hardening required and
also by the desired throughput. Semi and fully-
automatic hardening machines are available which
operate on either high or medium frequency. T h e
design of the hardening machine depends entirely
on the shape and size of the work and therefore they
take various forms, including vertical, rotating and
automatic turntable hardening machines. T h e auto-
matic varieties can be either specific-purpose or
multi-purpose machines. As an example let us con-
sider the vertical hardening machine [5] shown in
Fig. 7, which is used for multi-purpose surface hard-
ening and is connected to a medium-frequency
Converter for 100 k W and 10 kc/s. This machine
can be converted for hardening shafts or gears, which
are then rotated under the coil. For shaft hardening,
the inductor supplies the feed, whereas this is provid-
ed by the rotating gears themselves when gears are
being hardened. Gears are quenched in a water bath
but the shafts are cooled by a water spray.
(AH) T. TÜRK
Bibliography
[1] T . TÜRK: Gutes Aufkohlen im Topfofen. Z. wirtsch. Fertigg.
1967, Vol. 62, No. 9, p. 448-52.
[2] U. WYSS: Grundlagen der Gasaufkohlung. Härterei-Techn.-
Mitt. 1962, Vol. 17, No. 3, p. 160-71.
[3] C. G . W A H L : Nitriding in the manufacture of gearing.
Brown Boveri Rev. 1963, Vol. 50, No. 6/7, p. 446-57.
[4] T . TÜRK: Trommelöfen zum kontinuierlichen Glühen und
Härten von Kleinteilen. Draht, 1965, No. 11, p. 804-6.
[5] H. O S T E N D O R F : Praktische Anwendung der Induktions-
heizung. Maschinenmarkt, 1967, Vol. 73, No. 23, p. 440-4.
 ELECTROSLAG REMELTING
Remelting and refining steels through an electrically con-
ducting slag enables a high degree of "cleanness" to be
achieved. The following article describes the equipment and
operation of an electroslag plant, and also the remarkable
metallurgical results which can be obtained.
Introduction
U N T I L a few years ago, vacuum electric arc
furnaces were used to produce steel for high-
alloy steel ingots. However, a new process, electroslag
refining, is now rapidly becoming widely used in the
production of alloy steel.
T h e principle of the process is that an electrode
of the required type of steel is remelted through a
layer of chemically active slag in a water-cooled
copper crucible, the slag sealing off the melt from
the atmosphere. In 1930 an American inventor,
Hopkins, remelted steel using an electrically con-
ducting slag. T h e process was initially used for re-
melting steel strip, until in 1950 small steel ingots
were first remelted and refined.
Hopkins' work did not arouse the interest which
it deserved, however, and the process remained
relatively unknown.
At the same time systematic experiments were
being carried out in the USSR on welding under a
slag layer.
In the last decade many hundred thousand tons
of high-alloy steels have been produced using the
electroslag refining process. A great number of plants
are in operation and nowadays ingots u p to 40 tons
in weight can be refined.
O u r French Company, the Compagnie Electro-
Mecanique (CEM) in Paris realized the importance
of this process and together with the Compagnie
AND REFINING
621.365.3:621.745.58
des Ateliers et Forges de la Loire (CAFL) acquired
the sole licence for this process in Europe.
T h e first plant was commissioned in July 1965
at CAFL's Firminy works for refining 2-5 ton ingots
of 480 m m square section (corresponding to a cir-
cular section of 600 m m dia.).
This plant has now been in three-shift operation
for more than 2 years. A second plant has recently
been ordered from C E M and will be used for pro-
ducing ingots for rolling. T h e weight of these will
be over 3-5 tons and the diameter about 650 m m .
This plant is expected to go into Service in 1968.
As a result of close a n d fruitful collaboration,
CAFL has acquired an enormous fund of metal-
lurgical and technological knowledge over the last
two years and is now able to refine over 60 different
steels and alloys.
T h e factory at Firminy is also an experimental and
demonstration establishment and is visited by experts
from most European companies producing special
steels. Some of these firms send their own electrodes
for experimental refining.
Great interest has be shown in Britain, and more
recently in the USA, for electroslag refining and
many plants are now in use, a fact which can be
expected to lead to even greater interest and develop-
ment in this process in future.
Description of an Electroslag Refining
Plant
A typical electroslag refining plant consists of the
following:
- A vertical column on which two arms are mounted,
the upper arm holding the electrode and the lower
 arm operating the crucible. T h e solidified ingots
are carried away by a truck after the moulds have
been removed.
- A copper crucible and baseplate, both of which
are water-cooled.
- A fume extractor.
- Electrical equipment consisting of a single-phase
transformer with on-load voltage control. A means
of infinitely variable voltage control is recom-
mended, e.g. Varivolt. T h e transformer is con-
nected on the primary side to a high voltage
supply through a breaker. T h e secondary side is
connected by a water-cooled flexible cable to the
electrode and base plate.
is robust and simple, and is similar in many ways to
an electric-arc furnace. It also requires little main-
tenance.
The Process
T h e principle of the electroslag refining process is
shown in Fig. 1. T h e baseplate and remelting elec-
trode are connected to the secondary terminals of
the transformer. Both the baseplate and the crucible
are of copper and are water-cooled.

Uniform melting of the electrode is achieved by

means of static amplifier control and lifting gear
driven by a d.c. motor.
A special, automatic arc-welding machine is used
to weld the electrode to the header, which is of a
normal steel.

Technical Data of the Plant at CAFL (Fig. 2)

Finished cast ingot with Square

section 480 x480 m m

Finished cast ingot with rectan-

gular section 350 x 550 m m

- Single-phase transformer
capacity 1000 kVA
BROWN BOVERI

- Melting rate, depending on type

Fig. 1. - Principle of the electroslag refining process
of steel and ingot size 100-450 kg/h
1= Electrode 7 = Solid part of the ingot
- Power consumption, depending 2 = Slag 8 = Crucible inner wall
on type of steel and ingot size 1200-1700 kWh/t 3 = Slag movement 9 = Space due to metal shrinkage
4 = Steel drops 10 = Baseplate
- Cooling water consumption 50 m 3 /h 5 = Molten metal 11= Water cooled base
6 = Solidified slag
An electroslag refining plant is simple in construc-
tion compared to a vacuum electric-arc furnace.
Neither vacuum-sealed Chambers nor vacuum Current passes through the conducting slag and
p u m p sets are necessary and no d.c. generating set generates heat due to the Joule effect, as in a resis-
is required because refining can be carried out with tance heating element. T h e tip of the electrode then
50 Hz alternating current. melts and drops of molten steel pass through the slag
As there is no electric arc the process takes place layer. Effective chemical reactions such as desulphur-
uniformly and smoothly. From the electrical and izing, degassing, etc. can then take place owing to
mechanical point of view an electroslag refining plant the large contact surface between the drops of molten
steel and the slag. The impurities then pass into the
slag. T h e metal droplets collect together and solidify
rapidly. T h e melt is kept shallow so that practically
no segregation can occur. Segregation is avoided
owing to the vertical and inclined crystallization
which takes place.
To Start the process a depositing plate of the
material to be processed is placed on the water-
cooled baseplate. On making contact between the
electrode and the steel plate an arc is Struck which
melts the slag. T h e melting process then proceeds
as heat is generated by the current passing through
the molten slag. At the end of the process the rate
of melting is decreased gradually to enable the sink
hole to fill up.
T h e slag has the following effects:
- T h e molten slag seals off the melt from the atmo-
sphere. An argon protective gas can also be used
Fig. 2. - Furnace plant for electroslag refining at the Compagnie des
Ateliers et Forges de la Loire (CAFL)
when refining certain steels and alloys which con-
tain elements which oxidize easily.
- A thin layer of solidified slag forms along the walls
of the crucible and slows the rate of heat transfer
on the sides. This encourages vertical crystalli-
zation of the melt from the bottom upwards. For
this reason the ingot surface is very smooth and
can be hot formed afterwards without any further
special treatment.
- T h e molten slag ensures a constant heat supply
and enables the ingot to crystallize and solidify
slowly without segregation and piping. T h e effi-
ciency of the process is very high as only 5 % of
the total ingot weight must be removed from the
top and bottom and machining of the ingot surface
is unnecessary.
T h e process is very adaptable as regards the size
and shape of electrodes and ingots. Ingots of rectan-
gular, Square or round section can be produced.
T h e steel for the electrode can be produced in an
electric-arc or induction furnace, the molten metal
being cast either in ingot moulds or continuously.
T h e finished section can be rolled if necessary. A
block of a normal steel having the same profile as
the electrode is then welded to one end of the elec-
trode to allow the entire electrode to be melted. This
welding is carried out with a special automatic welding
machine, and does not involve the refining plant.
T h e thin slag layer between ingot and crucible
not only ensures a clean and smooth ingot surface
but also protects the crucible walls, which remain
clean and free from any crust. These are great ad-
vantages compared to refining with a vacuum-arc
furnace and for the reasons mentioned the life of
electroslag crucibles is very long.
Applications and Metallurgical Results
T h e following steels produced in Firminy deserve
mention:
- Steels for cold rolling-mill rolls
- Steels for crankshafts
- Steels for ball bearings
- Steels for the aircraft industry
- Stainless steels, with or without titanium, for use b
in the nuclear industry, for thin-walled tubes and % %
for use in artificial limbs n ~j -1,88- -1,95
1,93- -1,93
- High-temperature steels for tubine blades and discs 1,93- -1,90
J 1,95- -1,93
- Steels for hot-forming tools
- High-speed steels
f l r »
1,97- -2,00
- Nickel and cobalt alloys.
1,95- -1,97

§ j § L
Analysis, Impurities 1,97- -2,02
f 1120
Electroslag remelting and refining has practically -1,97- -2,05
no effect on the metal's composition, and the content 1,97- -2,00
of elements such as titanium, niobium and aluminium t 1,92- -1,95
1,95- -1,93
alters only slightly. T h e amount of sulphur and oxygen
1,95- -2,05
can, however, be reduced by a ratio of 2-5:1 without
BROWN BOVERI
any difficulty. This desulphurization is possible even
when the sulphur content is extremely low (Table I). Fig. 3. - Titanium in an ingot refined by the electroslag process
T h e homogeneity of the analysis was good in all a : Central zone
sections of a steel ingot with 15% Cr, 25% Ni and b: Near the surface

2% Ti as shown in Fig. 3.
No change in hydrogen content has been dis-
covered. Steels which tend to flake should be pro-
cessed from a degassed steel electrode.

Micro-Cleanness and Structure

T h e electroslag refining process ensures both a high

TABLE 1
degree of micro-cleanness and a fine micro-structure.
Reduction in sulphur and oxygen Contents in percent after
T h e remarkable degree of cleanness achieved is
refining
shown in Figs. 4a and 4b. Here the mechanical
Steel Sulphur Oxygen properties for constructional steels are greatly im-
proved, particularly in transverse test specimens (see
Elec- Ingot Elec- Ingot
Structural steel Table II).
trode trode
Fig. 5 shows a section through the upper part of
100 C 6
80 CDV 7 0-003 0-001 0-004 0-0015
a Hastelloy ingot showing the inclined crystalli-
35 CD 4 zation, the absence of porosity and the insignificant
16 N C D 13 0-011 0-004 0-006 0-0025 piping formed. T h e non-austenitic steel ingots show
35 N C D 16
little absorption of ultrasonic waves in the as-cast
0-010 0-004 0-013 0-0035 condition and give no flaw echoes when tested with
Stainless steels
without titanium a probe at a frequency of 2 M H z .
0-020 0-008 0-020 0-005

0-010 0-004 0-002

Stainless steels
with titanium
0-0015 2 Results with Some Types of Steel
0-025 0-010 0-040'

1 Steels for cold rolling-mill rolls

The average value is 0-002% oxygen but can be as high
as 0-040% on the surface. A highly polished surface can be achieved by
2
The oxygen content is uniformly low throughout the ingot. machining the rolls, owing to the high degree of
 ... • •

- - • .. • , äs* "

BROWN BOVERI
a„ bi

Fig. 4. - Effect of the etectroslag process on the cteanness of alloy 23 ACT 25

(magnification X 100)

a : C e n t r a l zone
, before refining c : M e t a l after refining
b : Near to suriace 1

cleanness of the steel, and the risk of roll surface

flaking due to surface inclusions is thereby avoided.

Steel for ball bearings

T h e small amount of inclusions in these steels is
very important, especially when fatigue testing, and
bearings of steel 100 C 6 gave a life three times that
of normal steels.

High-strength structural steels

In this group, steel 35 N C D 16 (Table II) is used,
for example, in the manufacture of highly stressed
sections in the aircraft industry. Remarkable me-
chanical properties have been achieved, such as
strengths up to 190 k g / m m a transverse to the rolling
direction, as well as a very high degree of formability.

Low-carbon stainless steels

T h e macro and micro-cleanness is greatly im-
proved and better surface quality is achieved in
the manufacture of steel tubes. Conical expansion
Fig. 5 - Section through the Upper part of a Hastelloy ingot tests on such tubes showed no material defects.
 TABLE II

Mechanical properties of steels refined by the electroslag process

Tensile Yield Reduction Impact

*
Elongation
Steel strength strength of area strength
0/
kg/mm 2 kg/mm 2 /o
% kgm

L 190 152 11 46 5-1

35 N C D 16
Electrode T 190 152 6 12 2-9
C = 0-35
L/T 1-8 3-8 1-75
Ni = 4-00
L 190 152 12 48 5-9
Cr = 1-75
Ingot ESR T 190 152 10 37 4-8
M o = 0-4
L/T — — 1-2 1-3 1-2

L 136 108 13-5 61 8-8

16 N C D 13
Electrode T 136 108 9-5 30 3-9
C 0-16
L/T — 1-4 2-0 2-3
3-25
L 136 108 13-5 65 IM
Cr = 1-00
Ingot ESR T 136 108 12-0 55 8
Mo = 0-3
L/T — — 1-1 1-2 1-4

L 123 113 12-2 50 6-9

Electrode T 123 113 8-3 21 4-4
35 C D 4
L/T — 1-5 2-4 1-55
C = 0-35
Cr = 1-00 L 123 113 13-3 56 8-3
M o - 0-25 Ingot ESR T 123 113 12-7 54 6-8
L/T — 1-05 1-04 1-2

* L = Stressed longitudinally
T = Stressed transversely
L / T = Stress ratio longitudinal/transverse

Electroslag refined steels are eminently suitable for
the manufacture of artificial limbs, as they preclude
any risk of surface corrosion.
Stainless heat-resistant steels
T h e distribution o f t i t a n i u m in these highly alloyed
steels is very uniform, see Fig. 3. Creep test results
have shown that, for the same load, electroslag refined
steels give better elongation and reduction of area
than steels produced by normal methods.
High-speed steels
Processed high-speed ingots have a remarkable
chemical homogeneity and the slow and uniform
cooling results in a very fine structure.
T h e macrograph of Fig. 6a compares the structure
of a 400 kg as-cast 6-6-2 steel ingot with that of an
electroslag refined ingot of the same size. T h e com-
plete disappearance of dendritic structure prevents
agglomerations of eutectic carbides, as shown in
Fig. 6. Because of this homogeneous structure very
little distortion of the metal can take place during
subseauent heat treatment.
Conclusion
These brief metallurgical results indicate the
Standards which can be obtained using the electro-
slag refining process, and they compare favourably
 • J M ' f ^ ü F

< ' / A - V
V

. I \ T R ^
J . r - -•Tri,
,
o- < Y .

>5 *
P
<t
x
.
N/ •
v f , t
t
^
>-
/<Yg. 6". - Macrographs of a 400 kg
. i r ' ' L ^ >
6-6-2 high-speed steel ingot
V v .
a : Left-as cast
' / • -*• V
Right-after refining
' - A N Y .
Magnification X 6-5
f
- A 4 b: Left-as cast

/ \ J
Right-after refining
Magnification x 70
BROWN BOVERI 141647 I

with results obtained using a vacuum electric-arc a high-quality ingot surface and improved forgeability
furnace. of the ingot. These features are indicative of the ad-
T h e great merits of the electroslag process are the vantages of the electroslag process over other methods.
relatively simple and robust construction of the plant, and ensure that the technique will come to be widely
versatility as far as electrode and ingot size and shape used.
are concerned, highly efficient remelting and refining, (DWB) N . HERMONT
 AN AIR H E A T E R F O R SPACE RESEARCH
621.365:629.78.001.5

An air heater built by Tecnomasio Italiano Brown Boveri convergent-divergent duct of a b o u t M a c h 12, which
S.A. in Milan for experiments in the space researeh field
is required for certain types of test.
has been successfully commissioned at the Centro Ricerche
Aerospaziali in Rome. W i t h this equipment a high-pressure T h e difficult question of selecting the correct heat
air flow of 0'5 kg/s can be heated in a few seconds to a final transfer coefficients, which is a determining factor in
temperature of some 1000 °C. As a result, the jet velocity
sizing e q u i p m e n t of this kind, was accompanied by
at the exit nozzle from the d u c t is twelve times the spccd
of sound. This article describes the construction and test
unusual problems of sealing a n d cooling.
results.

The Problem
\ V E R Y interesting a n d original application of an
^ e l e c t r i c air heater has been developed by Tecno-
masio Italiano Brown Boveri S.A. of Milan for the
Centro Ricerche Aerospaziali in R o m e . T h e heater
is used to produce a hypersonic jet of air. The
technical problems were considerable, owing to the
exacting requirements to be m e t by the materials
of the electrical p a r t a n d of the sealing system, as
these have to operate u n d e r extreme conditions.
Air at 80 to 100 atmospheres has to be heated to
a t e m p e r a t u r e of some 1000 °C with the purpose of
obtaining a m a x i m u m velocity at the exit from the
Construction
T h e principles underlying the design of the air
heater shown in Fig. 1 are essentially the same as
those usually a d o p t e d for n o r m a l heaters, i n a s m u c h
as the air is b r o u g h t into direct contact with the
heating elements. These are spiral-wound and
a r r a n g e d longitudinally in the flow direction. T h e y
are of K a n t h a i alloy a n d located in Channels in the
refractory in a m a n n e r which is described m o r e fully
below.
T h e quality a n d shape of the refractory were the
subject of detailed investigation a n d n u m e r o u s labo-
ratory tests in order to establish d a t a on t h e r m a l
expansion a n d the distribution of electric potential

r~

'•-^Ofo- ^ t ^ ? t f r ' ®
' t 'i M T
7 #H I Fn T mmn. jm _ d l
"S. i NM i na i A-JUMUIU:-,
j
vi ^SL . i ^ ä m t «1f- i1
i|
i 1
ili ui
BROWN BOVERI =L 141696-1
Fig. 1. - Diagram of air heater

M a x i m u m heat Output 600 kW, max. pressure 100 a t m M a x i m u m air flow rate 0-5 kg/s M a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e 1250 °C
 J78787 656565 434343 212121 78787 656565 434343 212121
liuu u i m www www Ulli ULU1 1111 Li u u r

Fig. 2. - Circuit diagram of power

supply to the air heater
1 = Air heater with two groups of
heating elements
2 = Transformers with tappings
3 = Off-load tapping switch
BROWN BOVERI 4 - Mains supply 220 V, 50 Hz

between the various Channels. T h e refractory chosen of the elements is 600 k W at an air flow rate of a b o u t
has a high a l u m i n a content (AI2O3) a n d no iron. 0-5 kg/s.
T h e bricks are in the form of segments, each of 120°. T h e various means of measuring and Controlling
W i t h this a r r a n g e m e n t it was possible to group power and t e m p e r a t u r e are shown in the circuit
the heating elements of each phase in separate d i a g r a m of Fig. 2.
sectors, resulting in a rational distribution of electric
potential, as mentioned above. T h e r m o c o u p l e s for
monitoring the temperatures of the elements are
Commissioning and Test Results
inserted through a central hole. T h e cylinder formed
by the segments is encased in high-density insulating Pre-heating of the heater is normally carried out
bricks, a n d these are followed by a layer of asbestos. with the elements connected in series. T h e curve of
T h e whole assembly is contained in a thick-walled t e m p e r a t u r e against time follows a relationship of
tube of special steel cooled externally by water
the type:
p u m p e d to waste through several parallel circuits,
p / K P0T \
the t e m p e r a t u r e being monitored by thermostats & = # 0 — I I e GCDA

attaehed at a n u m b e r of points on the outer surface.

T h e heating elements are divided into two three-
phase groups, each supplied by an autotransformer
with a selection of tappings. This can be connected
in series, star or delta by means of an off-load change-
over switch. T h e m a x i m u m total power consumplion
where
& = M e a n internal t e m p e r a t u r e [°C]
&o — T e m p e r a t u r e in n o r m a l operation [°C]
P Power consumption [kW]
Po = Losses in n o r m a l operation [kW]
 °c / I I I I I I B I ( 9 1 I I • 9 I 1 I I I I I •) I Ig

/ / 57 k W
1000
p = 200 k W ^/ l 0 3 k W ^ 75 kV /

<S()()

|600

1400 /
//
200

0 60 120 m i n ISO
1 - r 2 Ii 3
CROWN BOVERI 141698' I

Fig. 3. - Pre-heating at no load and different heat Outputs

T h e curves follow the differential equation given in the text

for t e m p e r a t u r e rise as a function of time (r).

G Weight of heated air [kg]

c -- Specific heat of heated air [cal/kg deg C]
r = Time [h]
K = Constant
This relationship is easily obtained by integrating
the linear equation expressing the balance between
the energy produced by the elements, that largely
absorbed by the refractory, and the losses. T h e balance
can be written:
GcM &
P . dr Po - dr
' K Vo
Aß K Po 0 KP
-\
d7 Getto Gc

which gives a linear differential equation of the form

y' ay + b with the general integral

Fig. 3 shows a number of curves obtained during

pre-heating at different heat Outputs.
T h e test model is mounted at the end of the con- BROWN BOVERI

vergent-divergent duet, and the temperature of the Fig. 4. - Temperature at air outlet before expansion in convergent-
heated air before it enters this section is measured divergent duet (obtained during acceptance tests)
with a very sensitive thermocouple and recorded by Curve Temperature Pressure H e a t Output
a 1150 °C 50 atm 0 kW
a potentiometer instrument. Fig. 4 shows some tem-
1230°C 50 atm 90 k W
perature curves obtained during acceptance tests. 1250°C 50 atm 510 kW
It can be seen from these that for the first few seconds 1250°C 80 atm 530 k W
the heat Output of the elements does not contribute show clearly that the installation performs satisfac-
significantly towards raising the air temperature at torily. T h e system also has a number of advantages
the exit. This is due mainly to the rise in temperature over other methods of heating, including fast and
achieved during the pre-heating period. simple operation, clean working conditions for
research staff and a clean air jet, and a wide ränge
of control to an accuracy which could not be attained
Conclusion otherwise. All this has been achieved, moreover, at
relatively low cost.
T h e results, obtained in close collaboration with
the technicians of the Centro Ricerche Aerospaziali, (DJS) E . ASTORI
 BRIEF BUT INTERESTING
A New Pottery in South Africa Equipped with Brown Boveri Tunnel Kilns
H U G U E N O T Porcelain (Pty) Limited of Pretoria, established
in 1964, m a n u f a c t u r e vitreous china products for house-
hold use. T h e pieces, which a r e thin, translucent a n d very
strong, a r e designed to a p p e a l to local taste, a n d have been
very well received by the public, despite strong British a n d
J a p a n e s e competition. T h e factory today can p r o d u c e 1
million pieces of inexpensive china each m o n t h w h e n
working to füll capacity.
T h e china is biscuit fired at 1280 °C a n d glost fired at
1060 °C. For these two processes there a r e n o w three
u p - t o - d a t e tunnel kilns installed in a light, spacious Work-
shop a n d tended by two B a n t u operatives.
T w o single-tunnel kilns, each 60-55 m long, were in-
stalled by Brown Boveri in 1965. Both kilns a r e structurally
identical a n d designed for a n operating t e m p e r a t u r e of
1350 °C. I n the h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e zone they a r e fitted with
non-metallic Silicon c a r b i d e h e a t i n g elements which like
the other, metal elements, which are subject to erosion
through ageing, can be c h a n g e d in complete safety d u r i n g
operation. These two kilns were sufficient for the initial
p r o d u c t i o n p r o g r a m m e . O n e was used for biscuit firing at
1280 °C, a n d the other for glost firing a t 1060 °C.
T h e Company o r d e r e d the third kiln f r o m us at the end
of 1966; a d o u b l e - t u n n e l u n i t for glost firing. T h e two
tunnels, fitted t h r o u g h o u t with metal elements for a
m a x i m u m operating t e m p e r a t u r e of 1250 °C, were h a n d e d
over in t h e m i d d l e of O c t o b e r 1967. T h e y a r e c a p a b l e of
h a n d l i n g all the biscuitware f r o m both single-tunnel kilns
so that Output will be d o u b l e d when the conversion is com-
plete. As far as possible t h e d o u b l e - t u n n e l kiln is of the
s a m e construction as t h e single-tunnel units. It is also
Fig. 1. - Air flow in an electric tunnel
kiln for firing in an oxidizing atmo-
sphere BROWN BOVERI
1 = Fans 2 = Convector fans 3 = Rapid cooling zone
621.365.413:666.5.041.55(68)
60-55 m long, a n d the useful cross-section is 0-71 x 1 -05 m .
As a result, a large p a r t of the structural materials a n d
Attings are interchangeable.
Construction of the double-tunnel kiln
As regards air supply, h e a t i n g a n d t h r o u g h p u t the two
parallel, a d j a c e n t tunnels are i n d e p e n d e n t of each o t h e r ,
a n d can be controlled separately. T h e charge travels in
the same direction t h r o u g h both tunnels. Air pressure is
held constant with the aid of roller shutters at b o t h ends
of the tunnels. T h e s e shutters engage on the u n d e r s i d e of
the trucks a n d thus move along together with t h e trucks.
A Scale on the shutters indicates t h e position of the trucks
at a n y time. T h e trucks a r e m o v e d hydraulically, a n d the
firing period is infinitely variable between 10 a n d 240
minutes per truck. A pressure valve stops the trucks if
increased resistance is encountered, a n d a t t h e s a m e time
a contact pressure g a u g e sets off a n a l a r m . T h i s avoids
a n y risk of collapse within the tunnel, should a n y t h i n g go
w r o n g with the trucks or the kiln.
E a c h tunnel is provided with eight separately controlled
groups of h e a t i n g elements with a total Output of 500 k W .
W o r n elements can be replaced at all times. Electronic
indicating a n d recording instruments hold the t e m p e r a t u r e
to the desired value set for each g r o u p .
A r e c u p e r a t i o n system utilizes h e a t liberated f r o m the
fired w ä r e in t h e cooling zone to d r y a n d p r e - h e a t t h e
cold charge as it enters the kiln. At the e n d of the h e a t i n g
zone a fan d r a w s outside air t h r o u g h a d u c t system in t h e
brickwork, thus creating a rapid cooling zone, a n d conveys
4 = Air inlets 5 = Air and vapour vents 6 = Heating zone
 Fig. 2. - Two single-tunnel furnaces, each 60-55 m long, at Huguenot Porcelain (Pty) Ltd., Pretoria
The parallel, mirror-image arrangement brings the control and operating gear close together, thus simplifying operation.

t h e h e a t e d air, a g a i n in enclosed ducts, to t h e p r e - h e a t i n g f r o m the kiln by fresh air b l o w n into t h e t u n n e l . C o n v e c t o r

zone. H e r e , some of the air is blown o u t b e t w e e n t h e h e a t i n g
elements a n d b a c k into t h e t u n n e l . T h r e e c o n v e c t o r f a n s
a t these points e n s u r e a n even t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
across t h e t u n n e l . T h e rest of t h e r e c u p e r a t e d air is i n j e c t e d
laterally i n t o t h e t u n n e l t h r o u g h a d j u s t a b l e o p e n i n g s a t t h e
t u n n e l e n t r a n c e . T h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e air system is s h o w n
in Fig. 1.
As well as being cooled indirectly in t h e r a p i d cooling
zone, t h e fired c h a r g e is also directly cooled a t the exit
fans fitted in t h e cooling zone ensure good air c i r c u l a t i o n ,
a n d h e n c e u n i f o r m cooling of the w ä r e t h r o u g h o u t the
t r u c k load. A g a i n , t h e cooling process c a n be c o n t r o l l e d ,
as fresh air c a n also b e fed to these fans.
By m a k i n g use of b o t h direct a n d indirect h e a t r e c o v e r y ,
t h e kilns a r e n o t only e x t r e m e l y e c o n o m i c a l b u t c a n also
b e suited to a n y o p e r a t i n g conditions.
(DJS) R. STEINER

The Largest and Most Powerful Mains-Frequency Coreless Induction

Furnace in the World
621.365.5:621.783.243

BROWN BOVERI a r e a t present b u i l d i n g a m a i n s - f r e q u e n c y USA. When this is c o m p l e t e d t h e m e l t i n g p l a n t will

i n d u c t i o n m e l t i n g f u r n a c e for a n Output of 40 tons of cast comprise t h r e e f u r n a c e s w i t h a total t h r o u g h p u t of 120 tons
i r o n p e r h o u r . It is r a t e d 17000 k W a n d has a c a p a c i t y of p e r h o u r . T h e s e will replace t h e t h r e e c u p o l a f u r n a c e s
65 tons. I t will work in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a preheating w h i c h a r e a t p r e s e n t covering t h e needs of t h e f o u n d r y for
p l a n t for t h e c h a r g e m a t e r i a l a n d this will also serve as cast iron.
c h a r g i n g device for the m e l t i n g f u r n a c e . O n the basis of o p e r a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d h i t h e r t o
T h i s c o n t r a c t is the first stage in t h e modernization in t h e field of i n d u c t i o n m e l t i n g it did not a p p e a r to b e a n
P r o g r a m m e for the m e l t i n g d e p a r t m e n t of a f o u n d r y in the economical proposition to b u i l d a n induction melting
f u r n a c e with a n Output equivalent to t h a t of a large cupola
f u r n a c e . M a n y points h a d to be considered d u r i n g t h e
p l a n n i n g of this installation a n d it r e q u i r e d a d a p t a t i o n of
the c o m p o n e n t parts to the process. A t r u e conception of
the j u m p in size a n d Output m a d e in f u r n a c e design
engineering with this p l a n t can only be gained f r o m a
comparison between it a n d t h e largest installations to d a t e :
- T w o years a g o a n i n d u c t i o n melting f u r n a c e installation
was commissioned w h i c h comprises four furnaces, each
of 30 tons capacity, a n d the total t h r o u g h p u t of the whole
p l a n t reaches 35 tons per h o u r . E a c h f u r n a c e is r a t e d
6600 kVA.
- A n o t h e r A m e r i c a n f o u n d r y installed a total of twelve
units rated at 5300 k V A each for a total hourly p r o d u c -
tion of 80 tons a n d a p e a k Output of 100 tons. E a c h
f u r n a c e has a capacity of 23 tons. Various grades of
cast iron which h a v e to be p o u r e d at different t e m p e r a -
tures are melted simultaneously in this foundry.
Brown Boveri supplied all the e q u i p m e n t for the a b o v e
installations.
As the f u r n a c e t h r o u g h p u t increased, two factors b e c a m e
increasingly m o r e i m p o r t a n t a n d h a d to be give d u e
consideration in designing t h e 17000 k W f u r n a c e . These
were:
1. Drying the charge
W i t h a n induction f u r n a c e t h e c h a r g e goes directly into
the molten b a t h a n d therefore only d r y material m a y be
used. T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t often presents difficulties w h e r e the
t h r o u g h p u t is h i g h ; t h e two installations mentioned a b o v e
a r e e q u i p p e d with special d r y i n g p l a n t .
2. Using the plant to best advantage
A l t h o u g h larger f u r n a c e capacities result in shorter
melting times, the time necessary for analysis checks, slag
removal a n d teeming r e m a i n t h e s a m e . Viewed in terms
of percentages therefore, t h e n o n - p r o d u c t i v e time increases.
T h i s is especially t r u e in cases w h e r e only small quantities
a r e required at relatively short intervals such as in a u t o -
matic casting p l a n t .
A p a r t from t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t a n y material arriving
in open waggons m u s t b e h a n d l e d a n d the molten m e t a l
p o u r e d into one-ton ladles, it was also stipulated t h a t the
melting must be continuous to m a k e best use of the elec-
trical supply t h r o u g h o u t the entire working shift.
T h e stipulations were complied with in the design of t h e
installation, which is specifically designed for the particular
process in the following w a y :
Preheating the charge
Brown Boveri c o m m e n c e d design work on p r e h e a t i n g
p l a n t for charge m a t e r i a l several years ago a n d this
e q u i p m e n t soon b e c a m e p o p u l ä r in foundries. At present,
induction furnaces for 4 to 20 tons capacity are operating
particularly economically with p r e h e a t i n g plant of various
sizes. All installations are designed such t h a t the charge can
go direct into the melting f u r n a c e f r o m the p r e h e a t i n g
Container. T h e gas used to p r e h e a t the c h a r g e — a p p r o x i -
mately y3 of the total heat r e q u i r e d to melt the c h a r g e —
represents a saving in electrical p o w e r a n d increases the
melting capacity. Practical results a n d f u r t h e r experiments
with the charge materials to be used in the 65 ton f u r n a c e
gave i m p o r t a n t indicators for the design a n d layout of the
plant.
Plant layout and production process
T h e capacity of the p r e h e a t e r Container, which is also
used as the c h a r g i n g bücket, is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e weight
of the c h a r g e ; u p to 6 tons. T w o burners, each p r o d u c i n g
6-25 x 10 6 kcal/h, work in parallel for each melting f u r n a c e
a n d three Containers are in circulation. T h e 6 ton charge
is m a d e u p in the material h a n d l i n g a n d sorting shop a n d
transported to the transfer Station in the melting shop.
A Container takes Over the charge a n d transports it to
the firing Station. T h e charge is h e a t e d to 550 °C in 16
minutes. T h e h e a t - u p process is a u t o m a t i c a n d is controlled
with respect to time a n d t e m p e r a t u r e . At a signal f r o m
the f u r n a c e o p e r a t i n g staff the d r o p - b o t t o m Container
travels to a point directly a b o v e the f u r n a c e , the doors
a r e opened a n d the charge slides into the f u r n a c e . I n the
m e a n t i m e the subsequent Container has r e a c h e d the pre-
h e a t i n g Station a n d the burners a r e started.
T h e melting energy is m o n i t o r e d a n d the complete
o p e r a t i n g process of the f u r n a c e is controlled w i t h respect
to energy. As t h e f u r n a c e is a u t o m a t i c a l l y kept at a constant
17000 k W , t h e e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n t impulses correspond
to definite time intervals. Slag-skimming a n d teeming is
indicated to t h e o p e r a t i n g staff b y lights. W h e n it becomes
necessary to skim off the slag, the power is a u t o m a t i c a l l y
r e d u c e d for a brief period, the f u r n a c e is tilted b a c k w a r d s
a n d the slag r e m o v e d t h r o u g h a special a p e r t u r e provided
for this purpose. Every nine m i n u t e s t h e i n d u c t i o n f u r n a c e
pours a 6 ton charge at correct t e m p e r a t u r e a n d analytical
composition into a ladle resting on a tilting trolley in f r o n t
of it. A n electronic m e a s u r i n g device indicates the weight
of m a t e r i a l p o u r e d . T h e f u r n a c e is r e t u r n e d to its n o r m a l
position a n d while it is being replenished by the charge
f r o m the second p r e h e a t i n g Station the 6 ton ladle travels
to the correct position for transferring the melt to t h e
transport ladles. O n e - t o n ladles a r e filled every 60 seconds
a n d c a r r y the iron to the casting stations of t h e various
continuous casting lines. T h e 6 ton i n t e r m e d i a t e ladle is
tilted hydraulically a n d rests on a special f r a m e .
T h e energy-controlled melting sequence ensures a n even
p o u r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e even w h e n t h e f u r n a c e is continuously
switched on. T h e result is t h a t t h e p l a n t will work at a
utilization factor of a b o u t 85 % of the m a x i m u m possible
power. N o b a l a n c i n g system is i n c o r p o r a t e d in t h e power
feed-in w i t h r e g a r d to the three units w h i c h will comprise
the final a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e f u r n a c e is coupled to t w o phases
of t h e t h r e e - p h a s e supply. O p e r a t i o n in t h e final c o n d i t i o n - exact t e m p e r a t u r e setting
will result in a virtually even l o a d i n g of the t h r e e - p h a s e - i m p r o v e d a d h e r e n c e to t h e analysis tolerances
supply. - saving in p o w e r costs
A f o u r t h f u r n a c e will be installed to e n a b l e r e p a i r s to b e - inexpensive c h a r g e m a t e r i a l
c a r r i e d o u t on t h e r e f r a c t o r y of a n y o n e of t h e o t h e r t h r e e . A s t u d y was m a d e of the t e c h n i q u e a n d economics of a
It will b e fed t h r o u g h c h a n g e - o v e r switches f r o m o n e of the 30 ton f u r n a c e r a t e d a t 5500 k V A w h i c h h a s b e e n in r e g u l ä r
switchgear cabinets. P r o d u c t i o n in t h e f o u n d r y m u s t not Service in this f o u n d r y for a n u m b e r of years before t h e
be d i s r u p t e d while this change-over is t a k i n g place. decision was m a d e to c h a n g e over to i n d u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t
I n c o m p a r i s o n to t h e present c u p o l a f u r n a c e s t h e follow- during the modernization p r o g r a m m e .
i n g m a i n a d v a n t a g e s a r e to b e g a i n e d f r o m t h e new
induction melting furnaces:
- n o air c o n t a m i n a t i o n (AH) R . KRAUS

Offprint of the Brown Boveri Review 1968, No. 3

Brown, Boveri & Company, Ltd., Baden, Switzerland

Printed in Switzerland