Solid State Communications 375 (2023) 115342

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Solid State Communications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ssc

Au nanoparticles and reduced graphene oxide based plasmonic

photodetector with enhanced performance in visible spectral region
Bharathi Raj Muthu a, Dhandapani Vaithiyanathan a, Anuj K. Sharma b, *
a
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, National Institute of Technology Delhi, Delhi, 110036, India
b
Department of Applied Sciences (Physics Division), National Institute of Technology Delhi, Delhi, 110036, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Communicated by: Yurii Lozovik This work reports on a photodetector (PD) based on SiO2 substrate, Au nanoparticles (NPs) and reduced gra­
phene oxide (rGO) thin layer with plasmonic enhancement of light absorption in visible spectral region. Finite
Keywords: difference time domain (FDTD) methodology is used for simulation. The results show that a surrounding medium
Plasmon with higher refractive index (RI) leads to greater absorption with plasmonic enhancement resulting in higher
Photodetector
magnitudes of quantum efficiency (η) and responsivity (ρ). The proposed PD design operating at 654.52 nm
Absorption
provides the values of η and ρ as large as 0.527 and 0.278 A/W, respectively. Further, a possible practical
Nanoparticle
Responsivity implementation of the proposed PD design is reported while analyzing it with Au electrodes and rGO acting as a
Dark current conducting layer. This analysis comprises of dark current (Idark) estimation followed by the evaluation of
Detectivity detectivity (D) and detectable power (Pd). SiO2-rGO (6 nm)-Au NPs (6 nm radius) structure (with surrounding
medium RI = 1.33) further achieves the values of Idark, D, and Pd as 6.33 × 10− 14 A, 1.36 × 1011 Jones, and 2.28
× 10− 13 W, respectively. Further, the proposed PD design is able to provide superior performance (i.e., small Idark
along with large values of D and ρ) compared to recently-reported (2020-23) PD designs in visible range.

1. Introduction
A photodetector (PD) is a device that transforms optical signal into
electrical signal. It now forms a crucial component of optoelectronic
circuits and has numerous uses in areas like image sensing, consumer
electronics, optical communications, environmental monitoring, and
sensing etc. Driving it with more compatible silicon CMOS technology
allows for the integration of electronics with optical devices [1,2].
Because of silicon’s inefficient bandgap, photodetectors made for use in
the infrared region rely more on III-V InGaAs than on silicon. However,
due to cost and integration issues, above materials are primarily used in
high-value markets despite having excellent quantum efficiency, elec­
tron mobility, and temperature resistance [3]. For ultraviolet (UV)
spectral range, the silicon-based PDs fulfil the metrics such as high op­
tical response, sensitivity, and photoelectric emission efficiency. In fact,
the combination of graphene-silicon (broadly, 2D materials-silicon)
based image sensor works in a range as wide as 300–2000 nm
covering the UV, visible, and near-infrared (NIR) spectral ranges [4].
Another promising candidate is perovskites, which also offers broad­
band sensing capability and when combined with silicon substrate and
Indium–Tin Oxide (ITO), aids in photodiode, photoconductor, and
phototransistor applications with low noise and high detection range
[5]. Nonetheless, the need of easy-to-realize and robust design of PDs is
still an area where there is a lot of scope for improvement. So, it is
required that common substrates such as fused or doped silica (SiO2)
should be explored in PDs.
Manipulation of light is very important for the realization of high-
performance PDs operable in broadband spectral range. In this
context, localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) based on the
arrangement of various types of nanoparticles (NPs) can be an effective
technique [6]. A study reported an improved photoresponse of UV PDs
by the incorporation of plasmonic NPs (Au and Ag) on GaN exploiting
the resonant coupling of LSPR [7]. Another study reported on the LSPR
effect of Cu/Al nanostructures on ZnO nanorods aimed at PD applica­
tions in UV range [8]. A recent study has explicitly emphasized that the
LSPR technique can enable Si-based photodetection in NIR range [9].
Most of such works focus on either UV or NIR spectral ranges, and the
literature also indicates that there is a huge scope of work on LSPR-based
PD designs in visible spectral range.
The literature also indicates that reduced graphene oxide (rGO) can
be an extremely favorable candidate for PDs because of its high ab­
sorption in broadband spectral range, adaptable reduction level,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: anujsharma@nitdelhi.ac.in (A.K. Sharma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssc.2023.115342
Received 31 August 2023; Received in revised form 18 September 2023; Accepted 19 September 2023
Available online 20 September 2023
0038-1098/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B.R. Muthu et al. Solid State Communications 375 (2023) 115342

Fig. 1. Proposed LSPR-based multilayered PD design with rGO thin layer and Au NPs incorporated for the simulation. Part (a) is the perspective view, while part (b)
shows the cross sectional view.

relatively easy material processing, and compatibility with various

substrates [10,11]. The optical properties of thin rGO layer (e.g., 6 nm)
can be efficiently modeled through the Lorentz oscillator model [12].
Recent studies on PDs have further shown that a rGO layer has the
ability to act as an efficient hole transporting layer owing to its high hole
mobility, thereby reducing the recombination of the photogenerated
charge carriers [13].
In this study, we have proposed and analyzed a plasmonics-based PD
design in visible range with SiO2 substrate assisted by Au NPs and thin
rGO layer. The concerned nanostructures are simulated with the
Lumerical multiphysics software based on FDTD methodology, and the
detailed absorption and transmission spectra are analyzed in detail to
observe the PD performance parameters, i.e., quantum efficiency and
responsivity. The presence of Au NPs and rGO layer in the PD design
ensures the incorporation of LSPR leading to increased absorption of
light mainly in visible spectral range. The corresponding electrical
simulations are also carried out to analyze the dark current, detectivity,
and detectable power of the proposed PD design. The key objectives of
this study are: (i) to demonstrate that the combination of Au NPs and
rGO layer lead to improved optical absorption through plasmonic
enhancement effect under different surrounding media (from air to
aqueous medium), and (ii) to propose a strategy to practically imple­
ment the PD design with performance better than the most of the PDs
existing in the related state-of-the-art.
Fig. 2. Spectral variation of absorption for SiO2-rGO-Au (NPs) structure with
2. Device configuration and simulation methodology four surrounding media of different ns values (1, 1.10, 1.21, and 1.33).

As shown in Fig. 1, the proposed PD design is based on SiO2 substrate

works [15].
of thickness 500 nm, an active layer of rGO with a thickness of 6 nm, and
spherical Au NPs (diameter: 12 nm) overlaid over the active layer.
3. Results and discussion
It is worth-mentioning that the Ag NPs can also be used in the pro­
posed PD design. However, as reported in one of the recent PD studies,
3.1. SiO2-rGO-Au (NPs) PD and role of surrounding medium
the Au NPs have been shown to possess superior PD performance in
terms of absorbance, photocurrent, responsivity, and detectivity in
In a plasmonic structure, the RI of surrounding medium (ns) plays an
visible (and NIR) region [14]. This is why Au NPs have been preferred
important role. So, how much absorption of incident light is going to
over Ag NPs for this study. The FDTD technique, which can be employed
take place also depends on the value of ns. Since, the PD application of
with the tiny pulse in time over a broad spectral range, is used to
proposed multilayer design primarily depends on the magnitude of ab­
simulate the design. In order to achieve the relevant absorption,
sorption achieved by it, therefore, it is important to estimate the influ­
reflection, and transmission results in the visible spectral range, the
ence of ns on PD application. In this context, Fig. 2 presents the
Maxwell’s equations are solved for an electromagnetic module while
simulated spectral variation of absorbance for the SiO2-rGO-Au (NPs)
taking the interaction between light and matter into consideration. The
structure surrounded by the medium with four different values of ns, i.e.,
photocurrent with respect to bias voltage and wavelength is derived
1 (air), 1.10 (low density gas), 1.21 (high density gas), and 1.33
using electrical simulation after the photo-generated carriers from the
(aqueous medium).
FDTD are exported. The maximum power absorption in the visible
It can be observed from the above simulated absorption spectra that
spectral range is obtained by optimizing the position of Au nano­
not only the peak absorption magnitude (A) increases but also there is a
structure on rGO layer considering the radius, spacing, and period. In
red-shift in the peak absorption wavelength (λ0) with an increase in ns.
Fig. 1, a simulated PD model has a 23*23 array of Au NPs arranged over
Numerically, the magnitudes of A are: 0.2546 a.u. for ns = 1 (at λ0 =
rGO and the spacing between Au NPs is 32.9 nm. Au NPs are meshed at
628.62 nm), 0.3163 a.u. for ns = 1.1 (at λ0 = 635.28 nm), 0.3794 a.u. for
10 nm, while SiO2 substrate and rGO layer are meshed at 8 nm,
ns = 1.21 (at λ0 = 643.04 nm), and 0.4278 a.u. for ns = 1.33 (at λ0 =
respectively, both overriding in the z-direction. In order to obtain better
654.52 nm). The simulation results also show that the corresponding
absorption with little to no radiated power reflection, anti-symmetric
reflectivity (R) values are 0.3003 for ns = 1 (at λ0 = 628.62 nm), 0.2492
and symmetric boundaries are employed in the x and y directions, and
for ns = 1.1 (at λ0 = 635.28 nm), 0.1974 for ns = 1.21 (at λ0 = 643.04
phase matching layer (PML) along the z direction. Refractive index (RI)
nm), and 0.1581 for ns = 1.33 (at λ0 = 654.52 nm). The above values
values of the concerned layers are adapted from previously published

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B.R. Muthu et al. Solid State Communications 375 (2023) 115342

Fig. 3. Variation of (a) A, (b) R, (c) λ0, (d) η, and (e) ρ with ns for SiO2-rGO-Au (NPs) structure.

Table 1
Calculated values of η and ρ for SiO2-rGO-Au NPs structure along with other
parameters obtained from simulation results.
ns (RIU) λ0 (nm) ‘A’ (a.u.) ‘R’ η ρ (A/W)
1.00 628.62 0.2546 0.3103 0.310 0.157
1.10 635.28 0.3163 0.3883 0.388 0.199
1.21 643.04 0.3794 0.4674 0.467 0.242
1.33 654.52 0.4278 0.5274 0.527 0.278

suggest that as ns increases, there is considerable increase in the

magnitude of A while the magnitude of R decreases. As far as the per­
formance of a PD is concerned, it is primarily estimated in terms of
quantum efficiency (η) and responsivity (ρ), which are defined as:
( )
η = (1 − R) 1 − e− A (1)

λ0
ρ= η (2)
1.24

In Eq. (1), ‘R’ is the reflectivity of the structure’s surface on which the
light is incident. Obtained from Fig. 2, the peak absorption ‘A’ has been
considered for the calculation of η. Notably, ‘A’ can be alternatively
obtained as a product of absorption coefficient and width of the struc­
ture’s surface. For Eq. (1), it has been assumed that all absorbed photons
can be used in an appropriate circuit to produce the corresponding
photocurrent (to be discussed in further sections). In Eq. (2), λ0 is in μm.
With the curves shown in Fig. 2 and using Eqs. (1) and (2), Fig. 3
depicts the corresponding variation of A, R, λ0, η, and ρ with ns.
For more clarity, the findings of Fig. 3 are summarized in Table 1.
Fig. 4. The electrical simulation setup of the proposed PD design.
From the above results, it is clear that employing the surrounding
medium of higher ns leads to enhanced photodetection performance in
terms of greater magnitudes of both η and ρ mainly due to: (i) increase in
A (Fig. 3a), and (ii) red-shift of λ0 (Fig. 3c). Importantly, this red-shift of
λ0 with increasing ns is particularly crucial in tuning the operating
wavelength of the photodetector.

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B.R. Muthu et al. Solid State Communications 375 (2023) 115342

Table 2
Comparative scenario of proposed work with existing visible light PD designs.
Design of visible light PD λ0 (nm) Idark ρ (A/W) D
(A) (Jones)

Au–Ti–6H–SiC [17] 694.5 1.6 × 0.0043 1.16 ×

10− 15 1010
Graphene/Cu2O/Cu gradient 550 – 0.086 –
heterostructures [18]
Dual-band organic PD [19] 650 – 0.2 7.8 ×
109
Photoelectrochemical PD based on Sunlight – 0.17 × 4.3 ×
InGaN/Cu2O core-shell nanowire 10− 3 108
p–n junctions [20]
Si photoconductor integrated in 660 1.1 × 0.030 7.00 ×
Si3N4 waveguide [21] 10− 8 1011
Si-rGO [22] 550 – 0.14 –
Ta2NiSe5/WSe2 van der waals 638 3.6 × 0.04 × 3.60 ×
heterostructures [23] 10− 12 10− 3 105
SiO2-rGO (6 nm)-Au NPs (This work) 654.52 6.33 × 0.278 1.36 ×
10− 14 1011

(surrounded by a medium of ns = 1.33), and with Idark = 6.33 × 10− 14 A,

Fig. 5. Dark current plot of the PD put under a voltage sweep from − 1.5 V to
+1.5 V.
3.2. Strategy for practical implementation of the PD design and
comparison with the state-of-the-art
With these results, we now move to discuss the possible practical
implementation of the PD design and carry out even more detailed
analysis of the PD’s performance in terms of other crucial parameters
such as dark current (Idark) and detectivity (D). Notably, D (measured in
Jones) is defined as [16]:
√̅̅̅
ρ S
D = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ (3)
2eIdark
In Eq. (3), ρ is responsivity, S is the effective area under illumination,
and e is electron charge. In order to envisage the practical imple­
mentation of the PD design, the Au electrodes need to be incorporated
while rGO acts as a conducting layer. Fig. 4 shows a prospective prac­
tically implementable PD design with Au electrodes (anode and cath­
ode) positioned on top of the active layer for biasing.
The configuration shown in Fig. 4 has been implemented for the
electrical charge simulation corresponding to P–I–N PD. For the mate­
rials employed in the simulation work, the semiconducting character­
istics including electronic (work function, bandgap, dc permittivity, and
effective mass) and recombination (trap-assisted, radiative, auger,
impact ionization, and band-to-band tunneling) properties have been
incorporated. Thermal attributes include density, specific heat, and
thermal conductivity, whereas dielectric permittivity is offered as an
insulator property. In order to calculate Idark of the PD design, the
reverse bias condition is applied to the electrodes by disabling the photo-
generated carriers. The Lumerical CHARGE simulation performs the
steady state DC analysis, and the associated Idark is depicted in Fig. 5.
It can be observed that the value of Idark (at 0 V) is nearly 6.33 ×
10− 14 A. For achieving even better precision, ρ is determined by
graphing the I–V characteristics after the optically produced data is
added to the model. The distribution of the electric field, charge carriers,
and energy band for the above structure is found by solving the Poisson
and carrier transport equations. Both numerical simulation and analyt­
ical computation are employed to compute the values of η, ρ, and D. The
value of S has been considered as 0.5 μm2. The simulation results reveal
that for the SiO2-rGO (6 nm)-Au NPs (6 nm radius) structure
the value of D (as per Eq. (3)) comes out to be 1.36 × 1011 Jones.
Further, the calculated value of corresponding detectable power (Pd =
Idark/ρ) is as small as 0.228 pW.
In Table 2, we have compared the performance of our practically
implementable PD design with the visible light PD designs available in
the current state-of-the-art.
Above table contains the values of major performance parameters, i.
e., operating (visible) wavelength, dark current, responsivity, and
detectivity of the concerned PD design. Certainly, an efficient PD should
have small value of dark current and large values of both responsivity as
well as detectivity. The values mentioned in Table 2 clearly indicate that
the proposed PD design has the capability to provide superior values of
performance parameters (i.e., small Idark with large values of D and ρ)
compared to visible light PD designs reported recently (2020-23) in the
state-of-the-art.
4. Conclusion
We have simulated and analyzed the design of a high-performance
PD with Au NPs and reduced graphene oxide layer leading to plas­
monic enhancement of light absorption in the visible spectral region.
SiO2 is considered as the substrate for this PD design (Fig. 1). The FDTD
simulation results indicate that a surrounding medium with higher RI
(ns), e.g., an aqueous medium (ns = 1.33), leads to higher absorption
owing to plasmonic enhancement (Fig. 2). This increased optical ab­
sorption leads to higher values of quantum efficiency (η) and respon­
sivity (ρ). More specifically, the above PD design, when operated at
654.52 nm wavelength, provides the values of η and ρ as high as 0.527
and 0.278 A/W, respectively (as shown in Fig. 3 and Table 1).
We have further analyzed the possible practical implementation of
the proposed PD design while simulating it with Au electrodes (Fig. 4).
This analysis included an evaluation of the concerned dark current, i.e.,
Idark (Fig. 5) followed by the calculation of detectivity (D) and detectable
power (Pd) of the PD design. The above analysis of the proposed SiO2-
rGO (6 nm)-Au NPs (6 nm radius) structure (with ns = 1.33) further
achieved the values of Idark, D, and Pd to be 6.33 × 10− 14 A, 1.36 × 1011
Jones, and 2.28 × 10− 13 W, respectively. We have also compared the
above performance parameters with some recently-reported visible light
PD designs (Table 2). The comparison indicates that proposed PD design
has the ability to provide better values of performance parameters (i.e.,
small Idark along with large values of D and ρ) than those existing in the
state-of-the-art.

4
B.R. Muthu et al.
Author statement
Bharathi R. Muthu: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Data
curation, Writing- Original draft preparation, Visualization, Investiga­
tion, Validation. D. Vaithiyanathan: Conceptualization, Supervision,
Visualization, Writing- Reviewing and Editing. Anuj K. Sharma:
Conceptualization, Supervision, Visualization, Writing- Reviewing and
Editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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