Today’s class: Natural Selection II

- modes of selection, adaptations, sexual selection

 Final Exam Schedule has been released

BIOL 121 Final Exam – is on Thursday, April 18th @ 7 pm. Location TBA
 iClicker question
Natural selection and evolution are the same thing?

A. True
B. False
 Answer
Natural selection and evolution are the samething?

A. True
B. False

Evolution is defined as achange in allele frequenciesin

a population over time(pattern); natural selection is a
process that results in changes in allelefrequencies
 iClicker Question – Natural Selection

True or false: Natural selection is a random process

A. True

B. False

C. Not sure
 Answer

True or false: Natural selection is a random process

Natural selection is not random (it is the antithesis of
A. True random/chance).

B. False Natural selection acts on the genetic variation in a population in a

non-random way.
C. Not sure Alleles that aid in survival and/or reproduction are more likely to
become common in a population than alleles that do not aid in
survival and/or reproduction.
 Learning Goals
Natural Selection: Be able to described the 3 requirements for natural selection to occur.

Natural Selection: Given a scenario, predict, describe and/or explain how natural selection
could affect allele or phenotypic frequencies in a population and justify your explanation
with specific evidence.
New: Also be able to explain whether or not a change in phenotype could be due to
natural selection or not (e.g. pigeon example).

Adaptations: Identify traits that are likely adaptations and given a scenario, determine if a
trait could be considered an adaptation and provide a logical justification for your
conclusion supported by evidence from a scenario.
• Be able to describe the 3 requirements for a trait to be considered an adaptation (a bit
different from natural selection).
 iClicker Question
For evolution by natural selection to occur, which of the following conditions
must be met?

A. There is variation in a morphological, physiological, or behavioural phenotype/trait

amongst individuals in a population.
B. This variation is heritable, so that individuals resemble their relations more than they
resemble unrelated individuals and, in particular, offspring resemble their parents
C. Differences in phenotype are associated with differences in fitness, i.e. different variants
leave different numbers of offspring.
D. None of the above
E. All of the above.
 Answer
For evolution by natural selection to occur, which of the following conditions
must be met?

A. There is variation in a morphological, physiological, or behavioural phenotype/trait

amongst individuals in a population.
B. This variation is heritable, so that individuals resemble their relations more than they
resemble unrelated individuals and, in particular, offspring resemble their parents
C. Differences in phenotype are associated with differences in fitness, i.e. different variants
leave different numbers of offspring.
D. None of the above
E. All of the above.
 Learning Goals
Natural Selection: Be able to described the 3 requirements for natural selection to occur.

Natural Selection: Given a scenario, predict, describe and/or explain how natural selection
could affect allele or phenotypic frequencies in a population and justify your explanation
with specific evidence.

Adaptations: Identify traits that are likely adaptations and given a scenario, determine if a
trait could be considered an adaptation and provide a logical justification for your
conclusion supported by evidence from a scenario.
• Be able to describe the 3 requirements for a trait to be considered an adaptation (a bit
different from natural selection).
Exam question from last class
 3 Types of Natural Selection
To understand phenotypic effects of natural selection – need to consider 3 modes of
natural selection:

• Directional

• Stabilizing

• Disruptive
 1. Directional Selection
- favours individuals with a phenotype at one end of the distribution of a trait, e.g.
darker fur, shorter wings, faster running speed, higher metabolic rates.
- outcome: the frequency distribution of the trait in the subsequent generation is
shifted in one direction from where it was in the parental generation.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Directional_Selection_(Right).
svg
 Directional Selection - outcome

Changes the average value for a Before

selection
trait in thepopulation (increases
or decreases).
Low High
Variation tends to decrease. fitness fitness
During selection

Change in
average
After selection value
 Example: Research on finches by Peter & Rosemary Grant

• Daphne Major Island – Galapagos Islands

• 1977 severe drought
• Vegetation withered
• Seedsbecamescarce
• Small, soft seeds were quickly exhausted by the birds
on the island leaving mainly large tough seeds that
the birds typically ignore.
• Beak size is heritable (HMGA2 gene)
• Natural selection favoured the birds (finches)
with large, tough beaks that could crack the shells
of these tough seeds.
• Most small finches with less powerful beaks either
emigrated or perished from starvation
.
Selective force =
food availability
(biotic factor)

Notice change in
average value of
trait (beak depth)
and reduction in
ranges of beak size
(less variation).
Keep in mind -the direction and strength of selection can changeas
the environmentchanges
1977 - larger beaks favoured by natural
selection due to drought in 1977

1995 - larger beaks once

agai again favoured ( thought not as
strongly)

~ 7 years later (1986), El Ninio –

lots of rain; smaller seeds more
abundant; small beaks favoured
over large beaks
 Example #2 - Humans as a selective force (biotic)

Also - size of
tusks is getting
smaller in males
(21%) and
females (27%)

Tim the Tusker, African Geographic Comparison of

elephants from
New: Scientist have identified two likely candidate genes for 1960s to those
tusklessness: AMELX and MEP1a. born after 1995
- In people, these genes are involved in the growth of incisors
(equivalent of elephant tusks). Duke University
- Likely X-linked Study
- The fact that there are no tuskless males suggest this may be a
lethal trait for males.
 2. Stabilizing Selection
- Selects against extreme phenotypes at both ends of the frequency
distribution.
- Selection favours intermediate phenotypes
 Stabilizing Selection
Average value of the trait remains thesame. Phenotypic/genotypic variation isreduced
Normal distribution

Before selection

Highfitness
Low Low
fitness fitness
Favours intermediate phenotypes
During selection
Removes extreme phenotypes

Reduction
in variation
After selection
 Example - Stabilizing Selection – weight of newborns
For example, very small and very large babies have a higher mortality risk
(blue curve), leaving a narrower distribution of birth weights.
Heavy
mortality
on extremes
(blue curve)
Stabilizing Selection – number of robin eggs

Robin’s typically lay 4 eggs.

> 4 eggs, not all chicks may be fedsufficiently (e.g. chicks are malnourished)
<4 eggs, risk that no offspring willsurvive (e.g. due to predation)
http://rachelbio11.weebly.com/evolution--
taxonomy.html
 3. Disruptive Selection
Both extremes are favoured at the expense of intermediate phenotypes
 Disruptive Selection
Average value of the trait remains thesame.
Increase in variation (differences between individuals in a population)
Normal distribution

Before selection
Often drives
speciation.
Low
fitness
High High
fitness fitness We will
During selection
return to this
point in the
lecture on
Increase in speciation.
variation
After selection
 Example - Disruptive Selection
Black-bellied seedcrackers have two distinct beak sizes, large and
small. They specialize on different seeds to reduce competition for
food. (Smith 1993)
Disruptive selection on life history strategies of chinook salmon
Two strategies for when male chinook salmon become sexually mature:
1. Some males become sexually mature at 2 years old, when the fish is relatively small = jack salmon (be a
sneaky male); see shaded area in figure below.
2. Some males wait until 3 years old to become sexually mature = larger hooknose males (be a strong
competitor)
Intermediate-sized fish have lower fitness; not big enough to be competitive; and not small enough to be
sneaky

Can lead to speciation – we will

return to this topic next week.
 Type of Average trait Phenotypic
Selection: value: variation:
Directional
Increases or Reduced
decreases

Stabilizing
Y-axis =
number of Does not Reduced
individuals in change
population

Disruptive
Does not Increased
change
 iClicker Question
Reindeer calves are typically born in the spring.

If calves are born earlier in the year sufficient vegetation may not
be available for the calvesto feed upon, and the mothers may not be
able to compensate completely with her milk.

If calvesarebornin the summer, plants become harder to digest later in

summer; so, calves born later may have difficulty obtaining sufficient
energy and nutrient to grow before their first winter.

What type of selection do you think may be acting on the birth date
of the calves?

A. Directional selection
B. Stabilizingselection
C. Disruptiveselection
D. I am not sure
 iClicker Question
Reindeer calves are typically born in the spring.

If calves are born earlier in the year sufficient vegetation may not
be available for the calvesto feed upon, and the mothers may not be
able to compensate completely with her milk.

If calvesarebornin the summer, plants become harder to digest later in

summer; so, calves born later may have difficulty obtaining sufficient
energy and nutrient to grow before their first winter.

What type of selection do you think may be acting on the birth date
of the calves?

A. Directional selection
B. Stabilizingselection
C. Disruptiveselection
D. I am not sure
 Natural Selection and Adaptations
In the literature, I have seen the term adaptation used two ways:

1. To refer to a process in which populations become more well adapted to the

environment as a result of natural selection.

2. To refer to a HERITABLE (adaptive) trait that enhances the survival or reproduction

of the organism that bears it (relative to an alternative character state).

Adaptations can take many forms

- 3 requirements must be met: heritable, functional, positive effect on fitness
 Adaptations canbestructural

https://en.wikipedia.org
 Organism of the Day - Rubber boa (Charina bottae)
• Only boa that is native to Canada
• They have a tail that looks like their head.
• Skeleton is enlarged at the tail tip
• When threatened, they will curl into a ball, hide their
head and raise their tail.

https://lpfw.org/our-region/wildlife/southern-rubber-boa/

https://www.deschuteslandtrust.org/news/blog/20
https://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/efauna/Atlas/Atlas.aspx 17-blog-posts/little-boa-of-the-northwestern-
?sciname=Charina%20bottae woods
https://californiaherps.com/snakes/images/cbottaeskeletonnmnh314.jpg
 Adaptations canbephysiological

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mrL2A7my1fc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pLPeehsXAr4

https://www.flickr.com/photos/brewbooks/2485147738
 Adaptations can also be behavioural

Source:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OOmUBuaMjzw

Source: https://www.straight.com/news/684401/anne-murray-peep-
showcases-shorebird-migration-roberts-bank
 Not all traits are adaptations..…
- not heritable; or

- not functional; or

- does not positively affect an

individual’s fitness
- note: no requirement for variation in population;
all members of population can have phenotype.
Cool Adaptation - Mr. JamieFoxx’s character (Art)

Superpower:

Hecansuper heat the air

around him and createshock
waves.
 Pistol Shrimp
• Reallife animal with those powers PistolShrimp
(Alpheuscedrici)
• Smallmarine animal
• Only 4 cm in length (approx.)
• Enlarged left claw for snapping

• Snappingtheir claw super-heatsthe water near them to ~4,800°C,whichissimilar to the

temperature at the surface ofthe sun
• Soundproducedby the snap(~218db) is louder than a bullet (~140db)
• Temperature+sound +pressurechangesstuns/kill other organisms(for food/protection)
• http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph240/nag2/#:~:text=The%20internal%20low%20pressure%20causes,over%20a%20very%20small%20area.
3-minute break (Telescope fish, Gigantura indica)

https://ocean.si.edu/telescope-fish
 Up to this point….
• Natural Selection: Ecological Selection
- the environment largely determines which alleles get passed on to the
next generation (e.g. predators, food availability, water availability)
 Charles Darwin’s Theory of SexualSelection
• Darwin recognized that his theory of evolution by natural
selection could not explain certain traits, e.g.
 Extravagant male ornamentation
 Conspicuous courtship display
 Potentially lethal male/male combat
 Sexual dimorphism*
*In some species, there are distinct differences in size/appearance/behaviour/physiology
between males and females. This is called sexual dimorphism.

https://animalia.bio/moose https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Male_Southern_Elephant_Seals_in_combat.jpeg
 Charles Darwin’s Theory of SexualSelection
• In an 1871 publication, Darwin suggested that anotherevolutionary force
was at work.

• He called this force sexualselection.

 SexualSelection
Darwin argued that:

• sexually dimorphic traits could be explained by the struggle for

mates/mating opportunities (as opposed to the struggle for survival).

• certain conspicuous traits (e.g. large size, bright colouration, intricate

dances) that potentially decrease survival could be selected for if they gave
an individual an advantage in the struggle for reproduction, either by:
• enabling an individual to outcompete rivals for access to a mate; or
• increasing the likelihood that an individual would be able to woo a
prospective mate.
 Two mechanisms of sexual selection
Darwin identified 2 mechanisms of sexual selection:
1. Intrasexual selection – competition between individuals of the same sex for mates (usually
males, but not always).
- responsible for male armaments (e.g. deer antlers, beetle horns, large body size)
- provide an advantage when fighting off potential competitors for a mate

2. Intersexual selection – interactions between the sexes (usually female mate choice).
- responsible for elaborate behavioural displays and morphological traits.
 Darwin’s reasoning
Darwin predicted that females would be more choosy than males with respect to mate
choice

Why: Asymmetry in the gametes

CHEAP SPERM and COSTLY EGGS

https://scitechdaily.com/scientists-solve-an-evolutionary-curiosity-why-a-human-egg-is-10-million-
times-the-volume-of-a-sperm-cell/

In most animal species, females produce relative few, large gametes that contain a lot
of resources (e.g. yolk, more cytoplasm and more organelles such as mitochondria) .
Relatively expensive to produce.

Males produce relatively abundant, small (microscopic), stripped-down cells with few
organelles (e.g. mitochondria) and little cytoplasm. So, relatively cheap to produce.
 https://www.audubon.org/news/why-kiwis-egg-so-big

Fun Facts: In a kiwi bird, the egg can weight as much as a quarter of the female’s
body weight. A male kiwi could produce trillions of sperm with the same resources a
female needs to make one egg.
In humans, one egg is 10 million times the volume of a human sperm.
Another reasons for females to be more choosy:

Females: One mating should be enough to fertilize all of a

female’s eggs. So, multiple matings (during the same mating
season) would not increase a female’s fitness.

In contrast, a male can increase their fitness by mating more

frequently (and fertilizing more eggs).

So, all else being - perhaps expect:

females to be selective in choosing a mate due to the high
costs of their gametes, i.e. female should choose a mate that
will maximize the fitness of their offspring
males to maximize their fitness by maximizing their mating
opportunities, and, if necessary compete with other males for
those opportunities.
 Intrasexual selection - direct interactions

• Individuals may physically combat each other

• Individuals may evolve:
- “weapons” that give them an advantage in a fight

www.Wikipedia.org https://www.springfieldnewssun.com/news/deer-bucks-lock-horns-front-porch-california-
home/3IrYFSWpFQV2P09WNUdX4H/
 But physical combat can be costly to bothindividuals

https://www.kansascity.com/news/nation-
world/national/article246642643.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XI8WU9ReFG0
 Next class - Thursday

#1 Finish Sexual selection

#2 Genetic Drift
If time:
#3 Gene flow
#4 Mutations
 Midterm #1
Overall – very well done!

For those people who did not do as well as planned, please know that no exam defines who
you are.

It only means that there is something that you need to learn.

https://www.flickr.com/photos/93893852@N08/8645746456
 Midterm #1
I will post an answer guide today on Canvas > Midterm #1 module
- guide will contain some of the common errors.

48 hour rule in place

- This means NO questions about the exam for at least 48 hours 
- Any regrade requests
- you must hand in your exam to me for at least a day
- provide a note about which questions you would like remarked and a reason why
you think you deserve a different mark (ideally refer to the answer guide)
- a statement that you do not know why you received the mark you did is not
enough ; tell me why you think your grade should be different.
- entire exam may be remarked.

From left (by last name):

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