SOCI

OLOGY

SOCI
OLOGY
FORM FI
VECOURSE
 Soci
ologyst
udypack

1 UNDERSTANDI
Page| NGADVANCEDLEVELSOCI
OLOGYSTUDYPACK

Advancedl
evelSociol
ogycover
sallaspect
sofAlev
elf
ormf
ivesoci
ologysy
ll
abus.I
tis
sui
tabl
eforAdvancedlev
elSoci
ologyCandi
dat
es.

Thi
sbookiswri
tt
eninsi
mpl
eandst
rai
ghtf
orwar
dlanguaget
hathel
psl
ear
ner
stounder
stand
andrememberf
acts.

Thebookgi v
est estyoursel
fquesti
onsattheendofeacht opi
c.Testyour
self
íquesti
onsare
shortcomprehensionquest i
onsdesignedtoconsoli
dat
eyourunderst
andingofthetopi
c.They
couldalsobeusedasr evi
sionai
ds.Ifyouarenotsureoft
heanswer ,
youcouldlookback
thr
ought hetext
,discusswithaclassmateorasky ourt
eacherf
orsupport
.

AdvancedLevelSoci
ologySt
udypackf ur
therdealswi
thchall
engesthatst
udent
sf acein
addressi
ngexaminat
ionquesti
ons.Thus,provi
dingnecessar
yinfor
mationandpracti
sethatwi
l
l
hel
pl ear
ner
storecal
landanalysefact
s.

TheAdvancedl
evelsociologystudypacki
swri
tt
eninadiscussi
onmannert
hatwi
l
lequi
p
l
eaner
swi t
hsoci
ologicalconceptsandhel
panal
ysi
ngfacts.

I
tcov
erst
hef
oll
owi
ngt
opi
cs:

 Hi
stor
ical
backgr
oundofsoci
ology

 Soci
ologi
cal
per
spect
ives

 Soci
ogyandsci
ence

 Soci
alpol
i
cy

 Soci
ali
sat
ion

 Fami
l
yandhousehol
d

 Cul
tur
e

 Resear
chmet
hods

 Rel
i
gion

 Gender

 Educat
ion

 Soci
alst
rat
if
icat
ion

 Age

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2
TOPI
C1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOSOCI
OLOGY
Obj
ect
ives
Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,Leaner
sshoul
dbei
naposi
ti
ont
o:
i
. Di
scusst
hef
act
orst
hatl
edt
othedev
elopmentofsoci
ology
i
i
. Expl
aint
hei
mpor
tanceofst
udy
ingsoci
ology
i
i
i. Di
scussi
ngsoci
alpol
i
cyi
nit
iat
ivei
nZi
mbabweandot
hersoci
eti
es
i
v. Di
scussi
ngsoci
alandsoci
ologi
calpr
obl
ems
v
. Under
standt
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weensoci
ologyandot
hersci
encessubj
ect
s
v
i. I
dent
if
ythechar
act
eri
sti
csofasci
encesubj
ect
v
ii
. Anal
yzet
hesci
ent
if
icnat
ureofsoci
ology
v
ii
i. Out
li
neanddi
scussper
spect
ivesi
nsoci
ology

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Thereisaninteresti
ngdebat ebet weent hemacroandmi crosociol
ogicalperspecti
ves.
Macrosociologicalperspecti
v ebelievethathumanbehav i
orisshapedbysoci et
y
thr
oughitscultureandst ructuressuchasf amily
,massmedi a,reli
gionandsoon.
Howev er
,Microt heori
esbel i
evet hatsociet
yisaproductofhumanconsci ousness
meaningwear enotshapedbysoci et
yratherweshapeit.Letusdefinesociology
basi
ngont heabov estatement s.
Whati
ssoci
ology
?
Thet er
m sociol ogyi sacombi nationoft wowordsi.e.sociusandl ogos, whichmean
respecti
velysoci etyandst udy .Sociologycanbedef inedast hescienti
ficst udyof
humanbehav iori nsocietyandhowhumanbehav i
orisshapedbysoci etyandi nt urn
howatsomepoi ntthesoci etyisshapedbyhumanconsci ousness.Sociologyst udies
humansoci al
int eracti
onsatbot hmi croandmacr olev el
s.Sociologytri
est ounder stand
theindiv
idual’
spl aceinsoci ety,andsoci et
y’sef
fectont heindivi
dual.Ritzer(2015)
definessociol
ogyast hesy stemat icstudyandtheway sinwhichpeopl ear eaffectedby
andaf f
ectthesoci alstr
uctur esandsoci al
processesthatar eassociatedwi ththe
groups, or
gani zat i
ons, cul
tur es,societi
esandthewor ldinwhi chtheyexi stSager man
(1968)definessoci ol
ogyast heobj ecti
vestudyofhumanbehav i
oringr oups.Gi ner

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3(
Page| 1968)def
inessoci
ologyast
hesci
ent
if
icst
udyofhumansoci
etyt
hroughi
nvest
igat
ion
ofhumansoci albehav iorandGi ddens(1989)def inessociologyasthestudyofhuman
socialli
fe,groupsandsoci eti
esSoci ol
ogyisthesci enti
ficstudyofhumanbehav iorand
howt hegr oupi nfluencesi t
.Sociologyissomet imesr eferr
edt oasthescienceof
societyorthest udyofhumansoci eti
es.Giddens( 1993:08)definessoci
ologyasthe
systemat i
cst udyofhumansoci eties,gi
vingspeci alemphasist omodernindustr
ial
ized
societi
es.Soci ologyst udiesindustri
ali
zedsocietieswi t
hanai m ofunderstandi
ngand
predicti
ngt hef uture.Sociologytri
est ounderstandt heindivi
dual’
splaceinsoci
ety,and
society’
sef fectont hei ndivi
dual.
Whyst
udysoci
ology
/thei
mpor
tanceofst
udy
ingsoci
ology
1)Helpsust ounderst
andhowhumanbehav i
orisshapedbythegroup/soci
ety
.
Sociol
ogistsareconcernedwit
htherel
ati
onship/
conti
nuum betweenthemicro
(smallscal
e,facetoface)andmacro(gr
oups,organi
zati
ons,cul
tur
e)phenomena.
2)Helpstounderst
andhowi ndi
vi
dualsshapesoci
ety-Mi
crot
heori
esbeli
evet
hat
societ
yiscr
eatedandrecreat
edbyi ndi
vi
dual
sthr
oughever
ydayi
nter
acti
onby
gi
vingmeaningstoeventsandobjects.
3)Sociol
ogyoff
ersasociologi
cal
imaginati
on.Soci
ologistC.
W Mill
s(1959)fir
st
usedtheter
m soci
ologicali
maginat
ion.Thesoci
ologicali
maginat
ionli
nked
personal
andpubli
cproblemstosocietyorsoci
alforces(tobeexplai
nedlater
).
4)Predi
cti
oninordert
ocontr
ol–soci
ologi
calresear
chhelpsuspredi
cthowt
he
fut
urewil
lbeli
keandthusgiv
esustheabil
i
tyt ocont
rol
thefut
ure.
5) Hel
psbypr ovidi
ngameansofincr
easingourcul
tur
alsensit
ivi
ti
es.I
nter
msof
soci
al pol
icy
,ithel
psbyenabl
i
ngpolicymakersmakesuitabl
eandcultur
all
y
appropri
atesociet
ies.
6) I
nter
msofhumanresour
cemanagement,
sociologyhel
psmanagerstobeabl
e
tofor
mul
ateappr
opr
iat
epoli
ciest
hatar
eacceptablewit
hincer
tai
ncul
tur
es.
7)Sci
ent
if
icstudyofsoci
etyhasbeenpossi
blet
hroughSociol
ogy.Iti
sbasedon
manyoftoday'
sworldprobl
ems.Manybehavi
orshavebeenunderstoodthr
ough
sci
ent
if
icenquir
ythus,
experi
mentscanheusedtounderstandbehavi
or.
8)Sociol
ogywor ksinthesoluti
onofsoci alprobl
ems.Thewor ldisfaci
ngsomany
soci
al pr
oblemst husiti
sthet askofSociologytostudyt hesocialpr
oblems
thr
ought hemet hodsofscientif
icenquiry
.Thesociologicalstudyofhuman
aff
airswill
ult
imat el
yprovi
det hebodyofknowl edgeandpr i
ncipl
esthatwould
enablethesocietytocontr
ol t
heconditionsofsocialli
feandi mprovement.
9)I
tisi
mportanti
nhel
pingappl
ytheconceptofcult
uralr
elat
ivi
sm;
Cul
tural
r
elat
ivi
sm i
sanappr
eciat
ionofot
hercult
ures.Soci
etyhascometounderst
and

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4 t
hati
ndiv
idualshav
ediffer
entcul
tur
esandbehaveinthei
rownway
.Thus,
Soci
al
wor
kersforexamplet
reatpeopl
eaccor
dingt
ot hei
rcult
ure.
10)
Sociol
ogyhaschangedhumanout lookabouthumanlif
eproblemsofcr ime.Iti
s
thethr
oughthestudyofSoci
ologythatourwholeoutl
ookonv ariousaspect
sof
cri
mehaschanged.Thecriminalsforexamplenowadayscri
mi nalsar
etreatedas
humanbeingssuffer
ingf
rom inadequatesoci
ali
zat
ionandtheyar eusef
ul
member sofsoci
ety.
11)
Ithasenr
ichedhumancul
tur
ei nthesenset
hatcul
tur
ehasbeenmader
icherby
sociol
ogysincewenowunderstandthei
mport
anceofcul
tur
e.
12)
Itpr
omotescr
it
ical
thi
nki
ng;Soci
ologyhascr
eat
edacr
it
ical
mind,
whi
chcan
chal
lenget
heprobl
emsfaci
nghumanl i
fe.
Soci
ologi
cal
imagi
nat
ion
Wr i
ghtMill
scoinedt heter m soci ologicalimagi nati
onin1959.Tounder standsoci al
problemsinsociety,sociologistsst andbackandl ook( f
rom t
heout si
de)ati ndividuals
asthemember sofsoci etyrathert hanl ookingati nsidethem t
oexami net heirthought s.
Thesocialproblems, beitper sonal orpublicproblemsar einfl
uencedbysoci alforces.
Therefor
e,thesocietyhast obebl amedf orthepr oblemsindi
vidual
sfacenoti ndividuals
becauseSocialforcesexi stout sidet heindividualsintheform ofsoci
alrelationships
suchast hosetheyhav ewi thr elati
v esandf ri
ends.
Mill
sishi
ghli
ghti
ngthatIndi
v i
dualscannotbeblamedf ortheprobl
emstheyface
butsoci
ety,
forexample,i
fthewi f
edivorcesherhusband, t
heblameshouldnot
beputonthewi f
ebutonsoci etyanditsfor
ces.Forexampl ei
fyousteal
money
fr
om yourparent
s,yourmothershouldnotblamey oupr obabl
ysocial
for
cessuch
asfri
endsorpeerscanbebl amed.
Further
mor e,Soci
etyexerci
sessomuchpowerov eri
ndi viduals,asoci
ological
i
magi nati
onleadsust olooknotatthei ndi
vidual
feel
ingsoft hosewhocommi tsuici
de
forinst
ancebutatsoci alf
orces.Durkheim sawsuici
debei ngcausedbysoci alf
orces,
oneoft heforcesthathefoundtohav eani mpactonsui cidewassoci ali
solati
on.Mill
s
arguesthatmanygr eatpriv
ateissuesaswel laspubli
ct roublesaredescribedinterms
ofindiv
idualsinst
eadofdescr i
bingthem intermsoflargerpr oblemsofmoder nsociety.
I
fdivorcer
ateisveryl
ow, i
tcanbecalledapr
ivat
eprobl
em buti
fit
sr at
eitist
oo
hi
ghisnowapubl icprobl
em, asoci
etalpr
obl
em.Thus,Mil
lsi
sarguingthatal
l
pr
ivateandpubli
cproblemscanbelinkedtosoci
alf
orcesnoti
ndiv
iduals.
Anexamplegi
venbyMil
l
's(1959:
9)inMatthewmanetal(2013:xi
ii
)ist
hat“wheni
na
cit
yof100000onl
yonemani sunemployed,t
hati
shispersonalt
roubl
e,andf
orit
s
rel
iefwepr
oper
lyl
ookt
ot hechar
acteroftheman,hi
sskil
lsandimmediate

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5 oppor
Page| tuni
ti
es.Butwheni
nanat
ionof50mi
l
li
onempl
oyees,
15mi
l
li
onmenar
e
unempl oy
ed,t
hati
sapubli
cissueandwemaynothopet ofi
nditssol
uti
onwithi
nthe
rangeofopport
uni
ti
esopentoanyoneindi
vi
dual
”.Ther
efor
e,thesoci
ologi
cal
i
magi nati
onhel
ptoimagi
newherepubl
icandpri
vatei
ssuesbegan.
Mill
srealizestherelati
onshipbetweeni ndi
vi
duall
if
eandsoci ety
, whichpeopleoftenfai
l
tonotice,Henot edthatpeoplemi ghtblamethemselvesf
orthet roublestheyface
withouttakingintoaccountsocialforcesandtheeff
ectstheyhav eonl i
fe.Anothergood
exampl eoft hi
sisdivorce,
divorcecanbeaper sonalandpublicissuebutsociety/soci
al
for
cei stobebl amednoti ndivi
duals.
Summar y:Theabov ediscussionhaspict
uredoutthatsociol
ogyisthescienti
fi
cst
udy
ofhumansoci ety
.Iti
sal soref
lectedt
hatsoci
etyshapesandi sshapedbyhuman
behavi
or.Ithasbeennot edthatthest
udyofsociol
ogyisimpor t
antinthatithel
psi
n
provi
dingabetterunderstandi
ngofhumansoci et
yaswel lastheconceptof
soci
ologicali
maginati
on.

ENDUNI
T1:
1QUESTI
ONS

a)Def
inet
het
erm soci
ology
.
b)Whatdoy
ouunder
standbyt
het
erm soci
ali
magi
nat
ion?
c)Di
scusst
hei
mpor
tanceofst
udy
ingsoci
ology
.

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6 Hi
Page| stor
ical
dev
elopmentofSoci
ology
Fact
orst
hatl
edt
othebi
rt
hofSoci
ology
Thedisci
pli
neofsoci
ologycanbesai
dtohav
edev
elopedbecauseoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
fact
ors:
1.Theenl i
ght enmentthi
nker
2.I
ndust ri
ali
zat i
on
3.Urbanization
4.Growthofcommuni sm
5.Poli
ti
cal revoluti
ons
6.TheinfluenceofAugustComte
7.Reli
giouschanges
8.Thegr owt hofscience
Thedev
elopmentoft
hedi
sci
pli
newasar
esul
tofeconomi
c,soci
alandpol
i
tical
fact
ors.
1Pol
i
tical
rev
olut
ions
Learnersshoul
dbeinapositi
ontoidenti
fyandexpl
ainthel
inkbet
weenpol
i
tical
revol
uti
onsandanyot herf
act
orswiththeri
seofsociol
ogy,
someofthekey
pointsnottobelef
toutareasfol
l
ows.
Theser iesofpoli
ti
calr
evol
uti
onsusheredi nbytheFrenchrevolut
ioni
n1789carryi
ng
throught he18thcent
uryweretheimmedi atef
actor
sint heri
singofSoci
ologyi
nthe
senset hatorderandpeacewerethreat
ened.Manyt hi
nkerswer ei
nter
est
edi nt
he
restorat
ionoforderandpeaceinthesociety.
I
nthi
scase,
thechaosusheredinbyrev
olut
ionsatt
ract
edtheattent
ionoft
he
t
heor
ist
.Thi
spromotedtheoret
ical
workwhichissoci
ology
,let
’ssee;
Thesophi sti
catedt hi
nkersrecognizedthatsocialchangehadmadei ti
mpossi bleto
returntotheper i
odofsoci alorder
.Hence, theysoughtt ofi
ndnewway sofmai ntai
ning
orderinsocieti
est hathadbeenov er t
urnedbyt herevoluti
onasevidencedbyt hewor ks
ofComt eandDur kheim.Thisiswhy phi losophersuchasComt eandDur khei
m wer e
bentoni nsti
ll
i
ngor der,progressandsoci alcontr
ol.Comt ewasoft heviewthatif
philosopherscausedr evolut
ionthent hesamephi losopherscanrestor
eor der
.
Marxjust
if
iedtherev
olut
ionandencouragedchainsofr
evol
uti
onstoabol
ish
expl
oit
ati
on.Hence,t
hemor etheyweretheor
izi
ngwasthemor et
heypavedawayf
or
thebi
rthofSociol
ogy.
2.Thei
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
on
Thi
soccur
redi
nthe19t
hand20t
hcent
uryandsweptacr
ossEur
ope.Thi
swasnota

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7s
Page| i
ngl
eev
entbuti
nter
-r
elat
edsy
stem aspeopl
elef
tlandt
otowns.I
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion
gr
eatl
ychangedEuropeandit
speopl
e.Thediscover
yandinvent
ionofmachinessuch
astheSpi
nningJenny,
ledt
otheconst
ruct
ionoffactor
iesandworkhouses.
Thisl edt ochangesi nthel awsenact ede. g.theCor nLawsofEngl and1832andt he
factorylawset c.Theencl osureactledt ot hegrabbingofl andf rom peasant sthus
greatlychangi ngi ntheirlifesty
les.I
ndust ri
al r
evoluti
onandcapi tali
sm br oughtaser i
es
ofpr oblems, whi chat t
ract edtheinterestofmanysoci ologi caltheories.Pov ertyfor
i
nstancei ncreasedandt herewasneedt oexpl ai
nal lthesei nsoci ologicalterms.
Theref ore,theyspentt hei rli
vesstudy i
ngt heseproblemsandi nmanycases, theytri
ed
todev el
oppr ogr amst osol v
ethesesoci alproblems.Dur khei minhi sbookDi vi
sionof
l
aborandMar xi nhi sDasKapi taldepictt hechangesbr oughti nbycapi tali
sm.Mar xwas
advocat ingf ort hecast rationofcapi t
alism andot hersjust i
fiedithencet hemor e
sophi sti
catedt hinkerswer etheori
zingwast hemor esoci ologywasbei ngbor n.
Thisist her
easonwhyMar xishyper activeandagainst
Capitali
sm/industr
ial
izati
on.Hist heoret i
calfr
amewor kwascri
ti
cal;hesaw
povertyascausedbyt hecapital
istswhower epayi
ngworker'
sli
tt
le.Thismad
Mar xtosaycapitali
sm wasexpl oiti
v e;theonlysol
utionwasaradicalrevol
uti
on
thatwoul daboli
shcapi t
ali
sm withi tsreplacementbyanadvancedcommuni sm
society.Wit
ht hi
sstatement ,
mostt heor i
stsstr
ongl
yopposedMar xand
sociologywasbor nbysuchat heor eti
cal work.
3.Ur
bani
zat
ion
Peoplewer euprootedfrom r
ural homest otowns.Urbanizat
ionbydef i
nit
ionref
erstoa
massivepopulationshiftf
rom ruraltourbanareasenablingcit
iesandt ownstogrow.
Thisdevelopedanendl essli
stofpr oblemssuchasov er
crowding,poll
uti
on,noi
seetc.
Thesepr obl
emsat tract
edtheat t
ent i
onofthethinkersli
keDurkheim andWeber .
Durkheim waswor ri
edaboutwhatr eall
yconnectsandbr i
ngpeoplet oget
her.Thus,
thesetheori
stspavedawayf orthebi r
thofsociologyastheytrytodev el
optheori
esand
modelst oexplai
nhumanbehav ior.
Ofinteresti
st hefactthat
,ur
banizat
ionbroughtseri
esofproblemswhichneeded
sociol
ogicalexplanati
onsandsociol
ogicalsolut
ions(soci
alpoli
cy)
.Moder
nday
sociol
ogyst udiesall
areasofurbanli
fethus;sociol
ogywasbor noutof
urbanizati
on.
4.Rel
i
giousChanges
Earl
ysoci
ologi
stshadani nter
estinrel
i
gione.g.Comte,Dur
kheim andevenMarx
al
thoughMarx’
sorientati
onwasf armorer adi
calt
hancri
ti
cal.Dur
ingthatt
ime,we
wit
nessedtheemergenceofsecul arworl
d.Mar xwasworri
edabouttherol
eofrel
igi
on
i
nFrance.Hesaidthatreli
gionwasanopi um usedbytheFrenchmonarchtooppr
ess

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8t
Page| hepeasant
s.Ther
efor
e,hewasanact
ivesuppor
teroft
heabol
i
shmentofr
eli
gion.
However,
Durkhei
m di
dnotbel
i
ev et
hatRel
igi
onwasdoomedtodi
sappearbutsawi
t
decl
i
ninginsomewayshencetheor
ieswer
egener
atedl
eadi
ngtot
heriseofthe
di
sci
pli
ne.
Insoci
ologytoday,t
heroleofr el
igionishighli
ghtedandthereisaninterest
ing
secul
ari
zati
ondebateasat opicinsociology,wit
houttheinfl
uenceofr el
igi
ous
changestotheriseofsociology,sociol
ogywoul dhavesuffocatedfr
om
suff
ocati
ngdur i
ngit
sbirt
hal thought her
ear eotheri
mpor t
antfactor
saswel l
.
5.TheGr
owt
hofSci
ence
Natural sci
enti
stswerebei
ngaccor dedspeci
alhonorinsoci
ety
,thispromptedthi
nkers
l
ikeComt eandDur khei
mtodevelopt hei
rownscienceofsoci
ety.Theywantedtomodel
Sociologyafterbiol
ogyandphysicshenceposit
ivi
sm.Thisgeneratedadebatebetween
positi
vistsandthosewhobelievedthatsoci
alphenomenacouldnotbest udi
ed
obj
ect i
v el
yli
kemat ter
.
6.Theenl
i
ght
enmentper
iodandgr
owt
hofsci
ence
Manyintel
lect
ualf
orcesthatshapedthedevelopmentofclassi
cal
soci
ologyare
di
scussedwi t
hint
henationalcont
extwheretheiri
nfl
uencewasprimar
il
yfelt
.The
gener
alargumentspursuedbyenlight
enmentt hi
nker
swere:
a)Beli
efinempiri
cism –theybel
ievedthatev er
ythi
ngmustbeempi r
ical,
thatis,proved
thr
oughexper i
mentsorothermethods.Itisthroughempiri
cism thatknowl edgeis
i
ncreased.I
fonesai d,
theeart
hisspher i
calthenonehadt opr ovetheircl
aim.
Empiri
cism wasanat t
empttodepar tf
rom explaini
ngthi
ngsusi ngthesuper natural
“et
ernalver
it
ies”t
oexplainsoci
alreali
tyusingreasonandsci ence.
b)Rejecti
onofPapal infal
li
bil
it
y–t heyrej
ect
edthev i
ewt hatthepopei sinfall
ibl
e/does
notsinandar guedthateveryoneisresponsi
blef
orhis/heractions.Theyal sorej
ected
thepointthatGodappoi nt
edt henewpopeandar guedt hatpeoplehadt her i
ghttoelect
presi
dentsintooffi
ce,thati
s,toremov eandinst
all
gov ernmentsintooffice.
c)Soci
alandmor
alpr
ogr
esst
hroughsci
ence.
d)I
ndi
vi
dual
i
sm-seenast
hest
art
ingpoi
ntofal
lknowl
edge.
e)Thesear
chf
orgener
all
awsandf
reedom.
Let
'sseet
hecont
ri
but
ionoft
hebel
owt
hinker
's
RousseauandMont
esqui
eu
I
tisthevi
ewsofmanyobser
ver
sthatt
heenli
ghtenmentconst
it
uteofacri
ti
cal
devel
opmenti
nter
msoftheevol
uti
onofsoci
ologi
sts.Thi
swasaperiodofremar
kabl
e

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ell
ect
ual
dev
elopmentwher
eitwasnot
edt
hatt
hesoci
alwor
ldwasgov
ernedby
soci
all
aws.
Rousseausaid“ I
ndiv
idual
sar ebornfr
eebutar eeverywher
einchains.”Hismain
obj
ectivewast ofi
ndasoci alor
derwhosel awswer einharmonywithfundamental l
aws
ofnature.Hesoughtanal t
ernati
vetotheprevail
ingorder
,which,t
ohismi nd,pr
ecluded
man’sper f
ect
ibil
it
yandev endeformedandv iol
atedhisnatur
e.Cultur
e,forRousseau,i
s
aninventi
onofmanandi tsuppressesman’sf r
eedom.Ongov ernment,hearguedthat
gover
nment sorigi
natedinordertoprotectt
hepr oper
tyoftheri
ch.
Kar
lMarxlat
eradopt
edt
hisi
deai
nhi
sst
udyofcl
assst
ruggl
es.Thi
smeansRousseau
i
nfl
uencedhi
m.
Stri
ctlyspeaki
ng,onecannottalkabouttheri
seofsoci
ologybyonlyl
ookingat
thefoundingfatherswit
houtlooki
ngattheirt
eacher
sandphilosophi
calworkof
others,whichi
nfluencedthem asnotedbytheworkofRousseau,which
i
nfluencesMar xduringtheenli
ght
enmentperiod.
WhyRousseaui
sthef
orer
unnerofsoci
ology
a)Hewasamongt hef
ir
stphi
losopher
stoaddresssy
stemat
ical
l
ytheor
igi
ns,f
orms
andconsequencesofi
nequal
i
tyinsociet
y.
b)Hesawcl ear
lyt
hati
nequal
ityi
sthemaincauseofstr
if
eandwarwit
hinsoci
eti
es.
7.Thei
nfl
uenceofAugustComt
e(1789-1857)
Comteisregardedast hefi
rstfoundi
ngfatherofsoci
ology
,wi
thoutComtether
e
i
snot heter
m' soci
ology't
ot al
kabout.Leanersshoul
dbeinapositi
ontoi
denti
fy
andexplai
ntheinfl
uenceofAugustComt e,someofthekeypoint
snottobelef
t
outar
easf ol
lows;
Comt eiscr edi
tedf orcoiningthewor dsociology,whichtohi m meantast udyi nsocial
phy si
cs.Comt er egardedsoci ol
ogyast helastsciencetodev elopbutalsoast hemost
signif
icantandcompl exofal lsciences.SaintSimonandt heconser v
at i
vereact i
onaries
i
nf l
uencedComt e.Her egar dedsociologyasanewr eli
gionofwhi chhewast hehi ghest
priest
.ForComt e,sociologywasa“ posi t
ivephil
osophy ”inthesenset hatitemphasi zed
order,progressandsoci alcontrol.Hisphilosophyisposi ti
veinthesenset hati t
opposest hev i
ewshel dwhi chComt eregardedasnegat i
vesincetheyhadr esult
edi n
theFrenchRev ol
ut i
onandComt ebel i
evedt hatquesti
oningt i
me-honoredinst i
tuti
ons
wasdest r
uctiv
eandt hreatenedt ounder mineallsociall
ife.
Intermsofgender,Comt edespi
sedindi
vi
dualism, whichhebel ievedwasdestruct
ive,
hewasagai nstequal
ityofsexesandhearguedt hatthef emalesorsexisinast at
eof
perpetuali
nfancyt
herefore,
womencouldnotbeequat edtomal es.Moreoverwomen
knewnot hi
ngaboutissuesofstateandgovernancet herefor
et heyshouldnotbe

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lowedt
otal
kandhear
guedt
hatpeopl
ewhodonotknowany
thi
ngaboutacer
tai
n
t
opi
cshoul
dkeepqui
etandleaveever
ythi
ngtot
heint
ell
ect
ualst
hus,I
fthesepeopl
e
wer
eal
lowedt
otal
ktheybroughti
ndangerousi
deast
hatcausedsoci
almiser
y.
Comteher ehadlookeddownuponwomen.Ther ei
sgenderi
ssuei
nsociol
ogy
andthisisther
easonwhymostf unct
ional
i
stssawgenderi
nequal
i
tyas
funct
ional.
Hestressedtheimportanceofpositi
vi
sm,whichisabeli
efthatt
heworl
dcanbe
underst
oodthroughscienti
fi
cinqui
ry,Comteatt
empt edtof
ormulat
etheconditi
onst
hat
accountfort
hesocialstabi
li
tyatanyhist
ori
calmomentandt henewsoci
al sci
encet
hat
Comt esoughttoest
ablishinthefi
rstcal
l
edsocialphysi
csl
atercal
l
edsociology.
Hedecl ar
esthatSociologyi
sascienceofsociet
yandhewasconf identt
hathuman
societycoul
dbeunder stoodobj
ecti
vel
ythroughscient
if
icinqui
ry.Theuseofsocial
physicsmadeitclearthatComtesoughttomodel Soci
ologyaft
ernat ur
alsci
ences.
Hismet hodofresear
chComt eemphasizedtechni
quessuchasobservat
ion,
experi
ment sandcompar ati
veanalysi
sasthebestofdatacol
lect
ionandanalysi
s.He
wantedsociologytobemodel edalongtheli
nesofnatur
alsci
encesandhebelievedt
hat
l
ikethenaturalsci
enti
sts,soci
ologi
stswouldformul
atel
awstoexplainhumanbehavior
.
Comteplayedagreatcont
ri
buti
onofcoini
ngtheter
m sociol
ogyandposi
ti
vi
sm;
thebel
i
efthathumanbehav i
orcanbeunderst
oodinascient
ifi
cmannere.
g.
thr
oughexperi
ments.

Thr
eest
agesofsoci
etal
dev
elopment
Comt e'
slawsoft hethreestages.Thelawoft
hreestagesisanexampl eofComt e’
s
searchforinsanit
ylawsgov er
ningthesoci
alworl
d.Comt ear
guedt hatthehumanmi nd,
i
ndividualhumanbei ngs,al
lknowledgeandworl
dhistor
ydevelopthroughthree
successiv
est ages.
1.Thet
heol
ogi
cal
stage
I
tist
hefi
rstst
ageofsoci
alchangewhererel
i
gion.Thepr
iestwer
edi
rect
inghumanl
i
fe
andr
espect
edbecauseofthei
rrel
i
giousi
ntel
li
gent.
2.Met
aphy
sical
stage
Thereisamovefr
om rel
igi
oussociet
yt ovi
ewi
ngsoci
etyasanat
ural
system and
rel
i
gionhasbeenweakenedbyscience.Howev
er,
humanmi ndwassti
l
lcontr
olledby
rel
i
gion.
3.Theposi
ti
vest
age

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Page| tthel
astandhi
ghestst
agei
nComt
e’swor
k,whi
chi
sthesci
ent
if
icst
age.I
tis
charact
eri
zedbytot
al di
sappearanceofr
eli
gion,sci
enceal
onewil
ldet
ermi
nehuman
thi
nkingandther
eisthereplacementofpr
iestsbyphil
osopher
s.
Asnotedabove,
wit
houtComte;
ther
eisnothet
erm soci
ology
,hencet
humbs
andcredi
tshoul
dbegivent
oComteforpl
ayi
ngagreatrol
einupbri
ngi
ng
soci
ologyt
othesur
face.
Ther
olepl
ayedbyf
oundi
ngf
ather
sinupbr
ingi
ngsoci
ology
AugustComt
e
Hecoinedtheterm soci
ology
,devel
opedt
hreelawsofsoci
alchangeandhewas
conf
idencethathumanbehav i
orcanbeunder
stoodi
nthescienti
fi
cmannerhence
posi
ti
vism
(
Ref
ert
otheabov
enot
esf
orhi
scont
ri
but
ion)
Her
ber
tSpencer
Usedanev oluti
onaryperspectiv
et oexplai
nst abi
li
tyandchangei nsoci eti
es.Hesaid
l
ikeahumanbody ,societychangesfr om acertai
nstaget ootherstages.Hecoi nedthe
ter
m surviv
al oft
hefitt
est,equatingthisprocessofnaturalselect
ionwi thprogr
essand
success.Spencerisof t
enr egardedast hefoundingfat
herofSoci ologysincehe
popular
izedtheterm sociol
ogybypubl i
shi
ngabookcal l
edt hePri
nci pl
esofSoci ol
ogy.

Emi
l
eDur
khei
m(1858-
1917)
Hei soneofthegr eatestsociologistsoft helate19thcentury;Durkhei m grewupi n
Franceafteri
tlostthewart oGer manyi n1870.Dur kheiml egit
imizedsoci ologyin
Franceandbecameadomi nantf orceint hedevelopmentoft hedi scipl
inewor ldwide.
Muchofhi swor kisconcer nedwi thwhathol dssociet
ytoget herandwhatmakes
peoplewor ktogether;Socialsoli
dar i
ty,
dif f
erent
iati
ngbetweenmechani calandor ganic
soli
dari
ty.Hecont endedt hatthedi st
inctivesubjectmatterofsoci ologyshoul dbet he
studyofsocialfacts,whichist heimpor tanceoft hecoll
ectiveconsci ousness.Al t
hough
Durkheim col
lapsedf r
om st r
okeanddi edat59, t
odayDur kheimismai nlyremember ed
forhisfourbooksnamel y:
1.TheRulesofSoci
ologicalMet
hod:
Concernedwit
hthediff
erencesbet
weensociol
ogyandt
heothersoci
alsci
ences.Thi
s
book.Helpedt
oestabli
shsociol
ogyasauniv
ersit
ydi
sci
pli
ne.
2.TheDiv
isi
onofLaborinSoci
ety
;
Concer
nedwitht
hetransi
ti
onbetweent
radi
ti
onal
soci
etyt
omor
eindust
ri
ali
zed

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12 s
Page| oci
eti
es,
andt
hedi
ff
erencesi
nsoci
alor
gani
zat
ionbet
weent
hem.
3.Sui
cide:
Hismostf amousbookwherehequesti
onedwhypeoplekil
lthemsel ves.Fort hi
sbook,
hegatheredamassofstat
isti
cal
inf
ormationfr
om gov
ernmentr ecords.( Scient
if
ic
method).
Heexploredt
hepowerofsociet
yinshapi
nghumanbehav ior.Heasked, i
f
soci
etydoesnotshapehumanbehaviorwhythenI
ndivi
dual
scommi tsuicide.
4.Element ar
yfor msofr el
i
gion:
Inthislat
erwor k,Durkheimturnedtot herel
igi
onofpri
mit
ivesoci
eti
estodemonstrat
e
thi
s.Emi l
eDur kheim examinesreli
gioninsocietyi
nter
msofanimism,nat
uri
sm,
tot
emi sm, myth,andr i
tual
.Durkheim questi
onstherol
eandtheori
ginofr
eli
gion.He
sawr eli
gionbringingpeopletogether.
I
ndeedDur kheim playedagreatcontr
ibuti
ont hroughhi
sbooks;thebooks
moti
vatedf el
l
owsoci ol
ogi
ststodeveloptheirtheori
esofr
eli
gion,suici
deet
c.In
t
hiscase,Durkheim shouldbecredit
edf oraddingbookstosociologyaswellas
i
nfl
uencingotherf el
lowsociol
ogist
s.
Kar
iMar
x
Hi
sgr
eatwor
ksi
nsoci
ologyshoul
dal
sobenot
edi
nthesenset
hathei
sthef
ounderof
'
Mar
xism'
aconf
li
ctt
heor
y.Hewascr
it
icalandr
adi
calhencehesawhi
stor
yint
ermsof
conf
li
ctbet
weenmaj
orsoci
alcl
asses,whi
chi
sther
uli
ngandwor
kingcl
ass.Hesai
d
soci
ety
,had mov
ed f
rom pr
imi
ti
ve communi
sm t
o capi
tal
i
sm.He bel
i
eved t
hat
capi
tal
i
sm i
sexpl
oit
ati
veandcapi
tal
i
stsar
epr
imar
ybenef
ici
ari
esofexpl
oit
ati
on.Mar
x
wentont
oexposehow cl
assi
nequal
i
tywascr
eat
edandhow soci
ali
nst
it
uti
onsar
e
usedt
oinst
il
lfal
secl
ass-
consci
ousness.Hewasapr
imar
ysuppor
terofsoci
ali
sm,an
egal
i
tar
iansoci
etywher
eev
ery
onei
sequal
.

Hi
scont
ri
but
ionwasl
argel
yfel
twhenhei
nfl
uencedf
emi
nism anot
herconf
li
ctt
heor
y.
Now,
credi
tandt
humbsshoul
dbegi
vent
oMar
xforhi
scr
it
icalandr
adi
calanal
ysi
sone
coul
dnotev
eni
magi
ne.Ther
efor
e,i
tcanbear
guedt
hatwi
thoutMar
x,soci
ologywoul
d
hav
esuf
fer
edf
rom bi
rt
hcr
isesi
nthesenset
hatonecannott
alkaboutsoci
ology
wi
thoutment
ioni
ng'
Mar
xism'
.

MaxWeber

Heal
soi
nfl
uencedt
her
iseofsoci
ologyt
hroughhi
smi
crol
evelanal
ysi
s.Weberdef
ined
soci
ologyast
hest
udyofsoci
alact
ion.Unl
i
ke,Dur
khei
m andMar
xwhof
ocusont
he

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ruct
ureofsoci
etyasawhol
e,Weberonl
yfocusedont
hei
ndi
vi
dual
humanact
ions.He
sai
dther
oleofsoci
ologyi
stost
udyt
hemeani
ngsat
tachedt
oact
ionsbyact
or’
se.
g.
whyaper
soni
scut
ti
ngdownat
ree.

Heemphasi
zesont
heconceptofVer
stehen,whi
chmakesusunder
standmeani
ngs
at
tachedt
oaact
ions.Foronet
ounder
stand,he/
sheshoul
dputt
hemsel
vesi
nthe
shoesoft
heact
ort
ocompr
ehendi
ntent
ionandt
hemot
ivebehi
ndanact
ion.Thebest
wayt
ounder
standact
ioni
stocompar
eitwi
thbehav
ior
.Al
lor
gani
smsbehav
e,but
humans hav
ethe capaci
tyt
ofr
eel
y actusual
l
yref
err
ed t
o as agency (
All
an,
2010)
.Weber
'scont
ri
but
ioni
snot
edwhenhei
nfl
uencedsy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
sthence
t
her
iseofsoci
ologycanbel
i
nkedt
othecont
ri
but
ionofWeber
.

Summar
y:Thebi
rt
h ofsoci
ologycan bel
i
nked t
o acompl
exoff
act
orssuch as
ur
bani
zat
ion,
capi
tal
i
sm gr
owt
hofsci
encej
ustt
oment
ionaf
ew.Thebi
rt
hofsoci
ology
i
str
acedal
sot
hroughi
tsf
oundi
ngf
ather
s,f
orexampl
eAgust
eComt
eisr
egar
dedi
sthe
f
ir
stf
oundi
ngf
atheroft
hedi
sci
pli
newhocoi
nedt
het
erm soci
ologyandot
hert
heor
ist
s

ENDOFUNI
T1:
2QUESTI
ONS

pl
ayedacl
assi
cal
cont
ri
but
iont
osoci
ologyt
hatcannotbeunder
mined.

a)Descr
ibet
hef
act
orst
hatl
edt
othebi
rt
handdev
elopmentofsoci
ology
b)Expl
ainthecont
ri
but
ionofanyt
wof
oundi
ngf
atherofsoci
ologyt
othebi
rt
hoft
he
di
sci
pline.
c)Analy
zethevi
ewt
hat‘
wit
houtDur
khei
m,Mar
xandSpencert
her
eisnosoci
ology
total
kabout
’

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14 TOPI
Page| C1:
2THEORETI
CALPERSPECTI
VES

Usingmat hemat i
call
anguage, perspectiveisli
keaf ormulawher ey ouwi l
lnot
reachtoconcl usi
onswithoutitsappl i
cation.Sociol
ogicalperspecti
v esar eli
ke
l
ances, y
oucannotseewi thoutthem.I nthissense,youwi llneverunder stand
sociol
ogywi thouthavi
nganunder standingoft heor
eticalperspecti
ve.Li keall
theori
es/perspectiv
es,sociol
ogical theoryisselect
ive.Noamountoft heor y
hopetoexpl ainevery
thi
ng.Thisbr ingstheconceptofst r
engt hsandweaknesses.
At heor
yisasetofi deasthatprovi
desanexpl anati
onf orsomething.ASoci
ologi
cal
theoryassetofideasthatprovideanexplanationforhumansoci ety.Aper
specti
veisa
pointofview.ASocialtheoryi
sar elat
ivesyst
emat ic,abst
ractandgeneralr
efl
ecti
onon
thewor ki
ngsofsocialworld(BaertandFil
ipeCar r
eiladaSilv
a,2010).
Ther
ear
ethr
eemaj
ort
heor
eti
cal
per
spect
ivesi
nSoci
ology
.
1.Funct
ional
i
sm
2.Conf
li
ctt
heor
y(Mar
xism andFemi
nism)
3.Sy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
sm
Soci
ologicalt
heor
ies/per
specti
vescanbegr oupedint
otwot husmacro/st r
uctur
al
andmi cro/soci
alacti
ont
heori
es.Mi crotheori
esstudysoci
etyinasmall
-scale
i
nter
act i
onmeaningtheyi
gnorethewi derSocialf
ramework.Theybel
i
evet hatsoci
ety
doesnotshapehumanbehav i
or,inf
arct,i
tisshapedbyhumanbehav i
or.(
Mi crotheor
ies
tobeexami nedl
ater)
.
However,macroperspecti
veanalyzeandstudythesociet
ywithitsstr
uctur
esor
i
nsti
tut
ionssuchasr el
igi
on,famil
y,massmedi a.Theyaremainlyconcer
nedon
howsocietyworksasawhol e.Therearet
hreemacr osociol
ogicalper
specti
ves
1.Funct
ional
i
sm
2.Mar
xism
3.Femi
nism
1.FUNCTI
ONALI
SM
Thistheoryissimpletounderstand,beariti
nmi ndthatitanalysessocietyfrom a
posit
ivepointofv i
ew.ToFunctionali
sts,al
mostev eryt
hingisfunct i
onal
.For
example,letuspickfamily;
theny ouifoneisaskedtogi vefunctionsoffami l
y.
Thetheorywi l
lonlypict
urethepositi
vefuncti
onsoff amilye.g.foodprov i
sion,
shelt
er,sexualgrati
fi
cati
onetc.Inthi
ssense, t
henegat i
vefunct i
onsoff ami l
y

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Page|
15 suchasdomest i
cviolenceareignor
ed.Theref
ore,f
unct
ional
ism pi
ctur
esposi
ti
ve
funct
ionsofalmostallaspect
sofsocialst
ructur
e.Thefol
lowingar
esomeoft he
mainbasicideasoffuncti
onali
sm onecantakenoteof.
I
tisaconsensustheor
ybecauseiti
sbasedontheassumpti
onthateveryt
hingi
sagr
eed
uponi
nsocietyandFunct
ional
ist
saret
hefir
stf
oundingfat
hersofSociol
ogy.

Funct
ional
i
stsi
ncl
ude
 AugustComt
e
 Her
ber
tSpencer
 Emi
l
eDur
khei
m
 Tal
cot
tPar
sons
 Rober
t.Mer
ton
Funct
ional
i
sm i
nter
pret
ati
on/basi
cideas
Fr
om t
hewordfunct
ion,Funct
ional
i
sm isasoci
ologi
cal
perspect
ive,
whi
ch
al
mostseesev
eryt
hingasfuncti
onalf
orthesur
vival
ofsoci
ety.
Soci
etyasasy
stem
Doy ousti
llr
ememberaneco-sy stem wherethepartsofthesy st
em wor kin
harmonyfort her
elat
ivesurv
ivalofsystem?Forexampl e,sunli
ghtisresponsible
foraprocesscall
edphotosynthesi
s;thegreenplantsaresomet imesdescr i
bed
asproducersandanimalsasconsumer s.I
fsingl
epartisdistur
bed, t
hewhol e
syst
em canbedy sfuncti
onal
.Inthiscase,eachpartplaysaposi t
ivefuncti
onf or
thesmoothf unct
ionofthesystem asawhol e.
Functi
onali
sm adoptedasi mil
argesture;i
tseessoci et
yasasy st
em with
i
nterconnectedpart
s,whichwor kinharmonyf orthesur v
ival
ofsoci
etyasawhole.It
seesthestructur
esofsocietyasplayingaposi t
ivecontri
buti
onfort
hesurvi
valofthe
soci
etyasawhol ee.
g.familyandeducat i
on.Fami l
yproducesschoolmembersfor
i
nstance,andwi t
houtthefamily,
theywi l
lbenoeducat ionasaninst
it
uti
on.
Sinceal lpart
sofanecosy st
em dependoneachot herforthesurvi
valofthe
sy stem asawhol e,
societ
yhasanet workofpartssimi l
arl
yt oecosyst
em suchas
fami ly,
wi t
houtf
ami l
y,t
herewil
lbenosocietyorot herinst
ituti
onsli
keeducati
on,
wi thouteducati
ontherewill
benohealthasani nstit
uti
on.Thi senti
renet
workis
tracedf rom t
hefamily,
simil
arl
ytoecosyst
em; allpartsarenet wor
kedtosunli
ght.
Or
gani
canal
ogy

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16 Ea
Page| r
lyf
unct
ional
i
stsof
tendr
ewananal
ogybet
weensoci
etyandor
gani
sm e.
g.t
he
humanbody.Theyarguet hatsoci
etyi
sli
keanorganism suchasahumanbody.A
humanbodyhassever alpart
se.g.t
helungs,
heart
,legsetc.andt
hesepl
ayaposi
ti
ve
funct
ionf
orthesur
vivalofthehumanbodyasawhol e.
Justl
ikeahumanbody,societyhasseveralpart
sli
kefamil
y,r
eli
gion,
educati
on)which
playaposi
ti
vecont
ri
buti
onf orthesurv
ivalofthesoci
ety
.Forexample,fami
lyproduces
themembersofsoci
ety
; hence,fami
lybenefit
ssociet
yasawhol esociet
y.
Whataninterest
inganal
ysi
s;t
ounderst
andsociety,l
ookatahumanbody ;
humanbodyhaspar t
sli
kel
ungsandtheselungsplayaposi
ti
verol
ef orthe
benef
itofyourbodyasawhole.Si
milar
ly,
societyhaspar
t'
sli
kerel
i
gion,allpar
ts
pl
aypositi
vefuncti
onsfort
hesoci
etyasawhol e.Thi
siswhyfunct
ionali
sm saw
al
lparti
sasposi ti
ve.
Sti
ll
onor ganicanal
ogy, Functi
onali
sm arguesthatahumanbodyhasbasi cneedsthat
mustbemetf ori
ttosur vi
vee.g.food,
clothesetc.Withoutthosebasi
cneeds, human
bodywill
ceaset ofuncti
on.Justlikeahumanbody ,societ
yhasalsobasicneeds
(f
uncti
onal pr
erequi
sit
es)t hatmustbemetf ori
ttosurvivee.g.Cul
tur
e;withoutcul
tur
e,
soci
etywillceasetoexist.
Functi
onal
ism t
ookabiol
ogistst
ance,i
fthebi
ologi
stwanttostudyahuman
bodypartsuchasaleg;t
heydonotstudyiti
nisol
ati
on;buti
nrelat
iont
oother
part
sandr el
ati
vecont
ri
buti
on.
Simil
arl
y,tot hesoci
ety,i
tspar t
s/soci ali
nsti
tut
ionscannotbeexami nedinisolat
ion
buti
nr el
at i
onwi t
hotherpar t
s.Therefore,f
uncti
onalistseesocial
instit
uti
onsplayinga
posi
tivefunct i
oninmeetingthosebasi cneedsforthesur vi
valofthesociety;f
or
example,educat i
onteachescul t
ure,r
eligi
onalsodoest hesame. Fami l
yteaches
part
icul
aristi
cv al
uesandi tal
sodependsoneducat ionf ort
heuniversali
sti
cvalues.
I
nthiscase,funct
ional
i
sm seessoci
etyascharacter
izedbyinterconnected
par
tswhichwor ki
nharmonyforthebenefi
tofthewhol esy
stem/soci et
y'asa
whole.I
fthi
schainofnetwor
kis dist
urbed,soci
etywil
lnotfuncti
on.

Emi
l
eDur
khei
m
Soci
alf
act
sandconst
rai
nts
ForDurkheim,thesubjectmatterofsoci
ologyshoul dbethestudyofsocialf
acts.These
are“t
hings”exter
nal t
otheindi
v i
dualbutconstr
ainingandov er
whelmingindi
vidual
behavi
or.Norms, val
uesandcul t
urearegoodexampl esofnon-mater
ialsoci
alfact
s.
Othersocialf
actsincl
udesocialmorali
ty,col
l
ectiveconscienceandreli
gion.

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17 Social
factsbeingref
lectedher
ear econst
rai
ntsthatshapeourbehavi
or;
remembery ourbehaviorcanbetracedbacktoyoucultur
e,f
amily,
rel
i
gion,
schooletc.Dur
kheimissay i
ngindivi
dual
sareconstrai
nedorshapedbythe
soci
alfacts.
AccordingtoEmi l
eDurkheim(1938),member softhesocietyareconstrai
nedbysocial
factsandmor alcodes,whi
chcodifyindiv
idualstotheexpect at
ionsofsociet
y.Soci
al
factscanbet heinst
it
uti
onofsocietye.g.reli
gion.Moralcodescanbebel ief
s,whi
chare
transf
erredfr
om generati
ontothenext ,
whi chform col
lecti
veconscience.
Hearguedt
hatsocialorderismaint
ainedt
hroughconsensus.Thenormsandv al
ues
ar
eagreeduponandpr ovidegui
deli
nesforbehavi
or.Soci
etyi
scharacter
izedbysoci
al
or
derandstabi
l
itysincemember softhesociet
ysharecommonv alues.
Remembert heprevioussecti
onwher efuncti
onal
ist
swer esay i
ngeachpartof
thesystem playsaposi t
ivecontr
ibutionforthebenefi
tsociety.I
nthi
scase, we
haveSocialinsti
tuti
onsfunctioni
ngi nmeet i
ngbasicneedsofsoci et
ysuchas
cult
ure,wi
thoutt hesebasicneedst heywi l
lbenosocialorder.ToDurkheim
societ
yischar acter
izedbysocialordersinceallt
hestructuresofsociet
yare
playi
ngthei
rr oleinmeetingthebasi cneedsofsociety,
Mechani
cal
andor
gani
csol
i
dar
it
y
Durkheim di
sti
ngui
shedtwoty
pesofmor al
it
ythatexi
stintr
adit
ionalandmodern
societ
y.Thesearemechani
calanorgani
csoli
dari
ty.Mechani
calsoli
dari
tyi
sdominant
i
nsmal l-
scal
esociet
ieswhi
leorgani
csol
idar
ityi
sdominantinindust
rial
soci
eti
es.
Undermechanicalsolidari
ty,
peopleinsmal l-scal
esocieti
esareunifi
edbecauset hey
areengagedinsimilaracti
vit
ieswithsimilarresponsibi
li
ti
es.I
nmechani calsoli
dari
ty,
i
ndivi
dualsshareacommonv iewoft hewor ldandacommoncol lect
iveconscience.
Theythi
nk,feelandactt hesameandt hereforeactinconcert
.Thenat ur
eoft he
coll
ect
ivethoughtsislimit
edt ot
hei mmedi atesurroundi
ngswhilethekingroupand
tr
ibearethecenterandl i
mitsoftheiruniv
erseandsuchgr oupstendtobev eryreli
gious.
Durkheimr ecognizedthatthingslikeincreasedcommuni cati
on,tr
ansportati
on,and
i
nteractionwithothersresultedint hesocialchangefrom amechani calsoli
darit
yt o
organic.Howev er,underorganicsol i
dari
ty,peopleareheldtogetherbytheirdif
ferences
(duetospeci al
izati
on)inurbanar easwher eahi ghlevelofinter
dependencyexistse.g.a
househol dinacityneedsasuper mar ket
,baker,butcher
y ,t
elephoneetc.
Ifsoci
eti
esdevel
opt ooqui
cklyfr
om tr
adit
ionalt
omoder n,abr
eakdownofnormsand
coll
ect
iveconsci
ousnessoccurs.Theconceptofcommuni t
yandsoci
alconst
rai
nts
becomeweakened, andthi
sleadstodisor
der,cr
isi
s,andanomie.
Anomi
e

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18 I
Page| tisat
erm coi
nedbyDur
khei
mtodescr
ibeast
ateofnor
mlessness(
absenceof
norms) .I
tcomesf rom theGr eekwor danomiameani ngwithoutlaworwit
hout
regul
at i
on.Iti
sarguedt hatthet ransi
ti
onfrom small
scaletoindustr
ial
soci
eti
esl
edtoa
decli
nei ncommonmor ali
ty.Indivi
dual
saresaidtobeexper i
enci
nganomiebecauseof
suffi
cientmoralrestr
aints,becauset heyhavenoclearconceptofwhatisandwhatis
notproperbehavior.Durkhei m wenttoanextentofargui
ngt hatext
remeanomiemight
l
eadi ndivi
dualst
ocommi tsuicide.
Thr
eat
stosoci
alsol
i
dar
it
y
Dur
khei
m wasawareofthepossi
bil
i
tythatsoci
etymi
ghtnotf
unct
ionsmoot
hly
.He
say
ssociet
ycanbethr
eatenedbyegoi
sm andanomie.

Tal
cot
tPar
sons(
1951)
Soci
alor
der
LikeDur khei
m, Parsonsbel i
evest hatsoci
etyischaracter
izedbysoci alorder.Talcot
t
Parsonshebel ievedt hatsociet
yisasoci alsyst
em andar guedt hatthecentraltaskof
sociol
ogyi stoanal y
zesoci etyasasy stem.Thissy st
em hasf unctional
lyint
errelat
ed
vari
ables.Parsons( l
ikeDur kheim andComt ebeforehim)waspr eoccupiedwi th
mai nt
ainingorderinthesoci alsystem.Forexampl e,duri
ngsocializati
onthebasi c
objecti
vei st
hei ncul
cat i
onofnor msandv al
uesoft hesocialsystem.
Parsonsassumedt hati
ndivi
dualsar
epassi v eduri
ngt hesocial
izat
ionprocessandt hus
heconcent ratedinanalyzi
nghowt heor derismai ntai
ned.Thismadehi mt oconclude
thathumanbehav iorisstr
uctur
edinsoci ety.Hear guedthatsociet
yischaracter
izedby
mut ualadvantageandpeacef ulcooperationratherthanmut ualhosti
l
ityanddist
raction.
Hebel i
evest hatorderisbasedoncultureandcul t
ureprovidesbasesforhuman
behav i
or.
Val
ueConsensus
Parsonsbeli
evest
hatthecult
ureofsociet
yisagreeduponandthemember sofsoci
ety
arecommi tt
edandatt
achedtosamev al
ues.Theysharecommonidenti
tyandsame
behaviorpat
ter
nshence,or
derisreachedinsoci
ety.Accordi
ngt
oParsons,t
hemain
taskofSociol
ogyi
stostudyhowv alueconsensusisproducedi
nsoci
ety.
Therol
eofsoci ali
nsti
tut
ionsi
stomaint
ainsocial
orderi
nsoci
etybysoci
ali
zingpeopl
e
i
ntosocietalcul
tur
e.Hetheref
orear
guedthathumansbehaveaccor
dingt
ot he
expect
ationsofsociet
y.
Parson'
sisassumingthatev
erythi
ngisagr
eedinsoci
ety
,heissay
ingt
her
eis
cooperat
ionandagreementinsoci
etyandnoforcei
sappli
ed.

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19 Hea
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guest
hatsoci
etyhasgoal
sthatmustenabl
esoci
etyt
orunsmoot
hlyandbel
i
eves
t
hatsoci
etyhasf
ourf
unct
ional
pre-r
equi
sit
e/basi
cneedst
hatar
eper
for
medbysoci
al
i
nst
it
uti
ons.
a)Adapt
ati
on–f
ami
l
yorschool
b)Lat
ency
/pat
ter
nmai
ntenance–pr
isons,
pol
i
ce
c)I
ntegr
ati
on–e.
g.chur
ches
d)Goal
att
ainment–e.
g.school
s,uni
ver
sit
ies,
wor
kpl
aces
Cr
it
icsofFunct
ional
i
sm
Manyt hankstofunctionali
sm forgivi
ngaconsensusappr oachtosociet
yin
generalandsociologyinparti
cular,
li
kewhatweshal lnot
ice;societ
yisnot
always,l
ikefuncti
onalist
shavepi ct
ured.Thi
sbringst
heideat hatther
eisno
theor
y ,
whichis100%r el
iabl
eand100%unr eli
ablei
nsociology.

1.Funct ionali
stcanbecr i
ti
cizedforexagger ati
ngt hatsoci etyischaracteri
zedbysoci al
orderandt endst oignor
ecl ass,genderandr acialconf li
ctsthatprevailinsociety.
2.Goul dnercr i
ti
cizedfunctional
istforassumi ngthatsoci etyischaracteri
zedbysoci al
orderandt endst oignor
et heextenttowhi chindividual sarecoercedt odot hingst hey
donotwantt odoi nsociety. 3.Whilefunctional istbeli
evethathumanbehav ior
i
st otall
ypr ogramedi nsociety,Mead, i
soft hev i
ewt hathumanbehav i
orisnott otall
y
structuredi nthesenset hatindi
v i
dualspossessaf reewi l
l. 4.
Functional i
sm iscriti
ci
zedf orexaggerati
ngt hatsoci alor deri
sbasedonconsensusand
tendst oi gnor
et hatordercanbemai ntai
nedt hroughf orcee.g.mili
taryforce.
Funct
ional
ist
’scontr
ibuti
onisasubj
ectofdebat
e.I
fsoci
etyischar
acteri
zedby
val
ueconsensus,inwhateverwedo.Thequesti
oni
s;i
fthelawisagreedupon
whythenIndi
v i
dual
sintenti
onal
l
ybreakthel
aw?
5.Sy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
stsar
guet
hatsoci
etydoesnotshapei
ndi
vi
dual
sbutv
icev
ersa.
Functionali
sm assumest hatindi
vidualsareshapedbycul tureofsociety
.The
questionis,isitnott
hecul t
urethatiscr eat
edbyi ndivi
duals?;Howcome
i
ndividualsareshapedbyt heculturetheyhav ecreated.Thisiswhythesy mbol
i
c
i
nteractioni
stsarguethatiti
st hesocietyanditisculturethatareshapedby
i
ndividuals.
6.Conf
li
ctperspecti
vecri
ti
cizedf
unct
ional
i
stsfori
gnor
ingt
henegat
iver
oleof
ampli
fyi
ngdisorderr
athert
hanorderi
nsociet
y.
Ev
eni
ntheecosy
stem,
notal
lpar
tsar
efunct
ional
;ot
herani
mal
scanbeat
hreat

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20 toot
herani
mals.Si
milar
lyt
osociet
y.Al
lpart
sarenotal
waysfunct
ionalbutcan
bedysf
unct
ional
.Forexample,
fami
lypr
oject
sit
smember st
odomest icvi
olence
andchi
ldl
abor.
7.Confl
ictper
specti
vedisputedf
uncti
onal
i
stclai
mingthatcult
urebenef
it
ssoci
etyasa
whole,
theyarguethatcult
ureref
lect
sthei
nter
estsofpowerfulgr
oupsnotsoci
etyasa
whole.
8.Theyal
sodi
sput
edt
hatt
hosemember
sofsoci
etyshar
ecommoni
nter
est
s.
2.Mar
xism /conf
li
ctt
heor
y
Whi l
efunct
ional
i
sm isaconsensust heor
y,Marxism i
saconf l
icttheor
yanda
reacti
ontofunct
ional
ism.I
tdismissedallaspect
soff unct
ionali
sm.Theref
ore,
oneshouldnotethebelowbasici
deasofMar xi
sm inreact
iontofuncti
onal
ism.
Kar l
Marxist hefoundi ngfatherofMar xism.Hesawhi st
oryintermsofconf li
ct
betweentwomaj orsoci alclassesthusther ul
ingclass(bourgeoi
s)andt hewor ki
ng
cl
ass( pr
oletari
at).DialectMat eri
ali
sm istheMar xi
stphil
osophy ,
whichsay sthathistor
y
proceedsthroughcl assofmat ernalfor
ces.Mar xsawsoci etyascharact
erizedbycl ass
struggl
eov erscarcer esources,whichrewar dstheweakwi t
hexploi
tati
on.
From t
hefi
rstl
i
neoft
hepar
agr
aph,
Mar
xisseei
ngconf
li
ctsnotconsensusi
n
soci
ety.
Marxsawsociet
yashavi
ngamat er
ialbase,whi
chworksi
ntheproduct
ionofgoods
i
nfr
astr
uctur
e.Heseessoci
etyaspassingthr
oughsi
xmainstages,
whichare
det
erminedbyeconomi
cfor
ces.
1.Pr
imi
ti
vecommuni
sm soci
ety
2.Sl
aver
y
3.Feudal
i
sm
4.Capi
tal
i
sm
5.Soci
ali
sm
6.Adv
ancedcommuni
sm
I
nthi
ssect
ionwi
l
lexami
neonl
yfourmaj
orst
ages
Pr
imi
ti
vecommuni
sm
Refer
stoapre-
indust
ri
alsoci
ety
'andtherewasnoeconomicsur
plusi
nthi
sstage.No
pri
vat
ewealt
horowner shi
pofproper
ty,nocl
assesandpeopl
ewereequal
;i
nfar
ct
peopl
eworkedasacommuni ty.

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21 Howe
Page| ver
,somei
ndi
vi
dual
sbegant
oaccumul
ateweal
thsuchasi
ront
ool
sand
domesticat
ionofanimal
s.I
tbroughtaboutpri
vateowner
shipofweal
thandpr
opert
y.
Thegroup,whichownedthesurpl
uswealth,endedupowningthemeansofpr
oduct
ion
resul
ti
nginfeudal
ism.
Feudal
i
sm
Characteri
zedbyclassesandpr i
vateowner
shipofpropert
y.Powertendedt obe
monopol i
zedbyowner soft
hemeansofpr oduct
ion,
ruli
ngclassorBourgeoi sie.They
becamet her ul
ingclassandlandlor
dswhodomi nat
edt hesubj
ectclass.Tensi onwas
createdandthisprovidedcl
assbasedconfl
ict
s.Peoplewereforcedtowor kf orthe
ruli
ngclassinordertogainaliv
ing.Thehavenotwerenotpaidforthei
rwor k.Howev er,
feudali
sm wasr epl
acedbycapital
ism.
Capi
tal
i
sm
Undercapi
tal
ism,oneshouldconsiderthef
oll
owi
ngfeat
uresthatcannotbel
eftoutas
pi
cturedbyMarx.Aftert
hissecti
on,oneshoul
dbeinaposit
iontocompareand
contr
astcapi
tal
ism andfeudal
ism.
Capital
ism isaneconomi csyst
em inwhi chresourcesandmeansofpr oduci
nggoods
andser vi
cesarepri
v at
elyowned( MacionisandPl ummer2005).Thecommon
char
act eri
sti
csofcapital
ism ar
e:pri
vateowner shipofproper
ty,
pursuitofpersonal
prof
it(greed)andfreecompet i
ti
on,consumersov er
eignt
yandmar ket
s( lai
ssei
zfai
re
approach,nogov er
nmentr egul
ati
onandi nt
erfer
encei nt
hemarket).
Marxhighl
i
ghtedthepr oblemsoft hecapit
ali
stmodeofpr oducti
onandt heclassest
hat
i
tformed.I
nacapi t
ali
stsoci et
y,peopl
ear efreetosell
thei
rlabori
nr et
urnforlow
wageshenceexploi
tati
on.Capi t
ali
sm ischaracteri
zedbyconfli
ctbetweentwomaj or
cl
assesoverscar
cer esour cesandwagedi sputes.Worker
sinacapital
istsoci
etyare
al
ienat
edordonotcont r
ol themselvesfrom theirwor
kinthefoll
owingway s;
o Theywor
kfort
her
uli
ngcl
ass
o Nocont
rol
overt
hei
rwor
k
o Don'
townwhatt
heyhav
epr
oduced
Mar xfurtherarguest hatrul
ingclassmakeprofitattheexpenseoft hewor kingcl ass
henceexpl oitati
on.Heseeswor kingcl
assassuf f
eringfrom thefalsecl
ass-
consciousness( unawarenessoft hei
rexpl
oit
ati
on).Ruli
ngclassr el
iesonf alsecl ass-
consciousnesst omonopol i
zepower .Marxsaidcapital
ism i
schar acter
izedbyt hebase
(i
nfrastructure)andsuper st
ruct
ur eandInthi
scase, superst
ructureisdetermi nedby
i
nfrastructure.
Super
str
uct
urei
sdet
ermi
nedbyi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure

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22 Ac
Page| cor
dingt
oMar
x,super
str
uct
urei
sdet
ermi
nedbyi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure.I
nfr
ast
ruct
urer
efer
s
t
othef
orcesofpr
oduct
ionoreconomi
cbase(
meansofpr
oduct
ion)suchas
o Labor
o Capi
tal
o Land
o Machi
ner
y
Super
str
uct
urer
efer
stononpr
ofi
tmaki
ngi
nst
it
uti
onsofsoci
etysuchas:
o Massmedi
a
o Educat
ion
o Heal
th
o Fami
l
y
o Rel
i
gion
Therol
eofsuperst
ruct
ureistoj
ustif
yinequal
it
ybyinsti
ll
ingfal
secl
ass-
consci
ousness,
I
tisusedt
otransmitcapi
tal
istv
alues(i
deologi
es,
believ
es).Super
str
uct
ureref
lect
sthe
val
uesofr
uli
ngclass.
LookatZi mbabweanhistor
y,whereitissai
dreli
gionwasusedtojust
if
yandl egi
ti
mat e
classpositionofki
ng.WhytheRozv i
andMut apakingsweresai
dtober el
i
giousleaders?
FollowingMar x,
thi
sshowsthatrel
igi
onisusedt otransmi
tcapi
tal
i
stval
uesandj usti
fy
theirposit
ion.
Contr
arytoFunctionali
sm, Marxsawsuperstr
uctur
easpl ayi
nganegati
vecont
ri
buti
on
i
nsocietysi
nceitper pet
uatesclassconf
li
ctse.g.r
eli
gionsaysGodcreat
edtheri
chand
thepoorhencejusti
fyinginequal
it
y.
Whatt
hephr
asesuper
str
uct
uremeansi
sdet
ermi
nedbyi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure?
Letust akeeducati
onasasuperstruct
ure,
whyi siteducati
oniscontr
oll
edbythe
State?Thest at
ehasthepowertochanget hecurri
culum andchangeschool
calendar.I
nt hi
ssenseeducat
ionisasuperstr
ucturethatiscont
rol
ledbythe
statesincetheyhaveeconomicpower(inf
rast
ructure).
Theabov
ephrasemeansthatt
hosewhoownt
hemeansofpr
oduct
ionar
einast
rong
posi
ti
ontocont
rol
inst
it
uti
onsofsoci
ety
.
Forexample,
nati
onalt
elev
isi
on,
ZimbabweBr oadcast
ingCooper
ati
on(ZBC)in
Zimbabwecanbeseenasasuper st
ruct
urethati
scontrol
l
edbyinfr
ast
ruct
ure(the
rul
ingcl
assorthoset
hatownmeansofpr oducti
on)

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23 Ther
Page| oleofsuper
str
uct
ureaccor
dingt
oMar
xist
ojust
if
yinequal
i
tyandr
uli
ngcl
ass’
s
posi
ti
on.Thisislar
gel
ytr
uewhenonelooksatal
mostall
stat
emedi
a;t
heyar
eusedt
o
tr
ansmitcapi
tali
sti
deasbygl
ori
fyi
ngt
hestateandsoon.
However,Marxpr
edictedt
het urningpoi
ntoftheevent
s;Mar xbeli
evesthatt
here
wil
lbeatimewher etheworkingclasscannotbeart
heirexploi
tat
ionanymore.
Theycannotcont
inuewatchingf r
om adist
ant;l
etusseet heothercri
ti
calsi
deof
thest
ory.
Marxbel i
evesthatonedaywor kingclasswillgai
nclass-
consciousness(anawar eness
oftheirsi
tuati
on).
Theywi ll
reali
zet hattheyarebeingoppressed.Theywill
form poli
ti
cal
part
iesandt r
adeuni ons,whichar einoppositi
onwi t
htheruli
ngclass.TheseTrade
uni
onswi llor
ganizeitsmember shipint
or ev
oluti
onarymov ementstheywillr
evolt
againstcapit
ali
sm leadingtoacommuni sm soci
ety.
Hearguedthatcapi
tal
ism soweditsownseedsfordest
ruct
ion“capi
tal
i
sm isit
sown
grav
edigger.
”Hesawt heinevi
tabi
li
tyofacommunism soci
ety'
whereequalit
yisnot
ed
.Thus,
capit
ali
sm wil
lbeev ent
uall
yrepl
acebyanadvancedcommuni sm soci
ety.
Adv
ancedcommuni
sm soci
ety
Thisi
sthelaststageofsocietalchange.Thisisanadvancedcommuni sm pr
edi
ctedby
Marx,whi
chisy ettocome.Thi sischaracter
izedbyequali
ty,
noclassesandpeoplear
e
equal
.Marxpredictedthatone-daysocietywouldreachthi
sstage
ForExample;i
nZimbabwe,wearewit
nessi
ngoppositi
onpart
iesandt
rade
unions,whi
charei
nopposit
ionwit
htherul
i
ngclass.Thisoni
tsownshowsthat
Zimbabweisprobabl
yheadi
ngtoacommuni sm soci
etywhentaki
ngt
heviewsof
Mar xint
oconsi
derat
ion.

Mar
xism cr
it
ique
From theabov ebasi ci
deasofMar xi
sm,iti
sofnodoubtt hatMarxmadeagr eat
andcriti
calcontributi
ont osociol
ogy.Judgi
ngfrom Marx'sint
erpr
etat
ions,hi
s
i
deasar estil
lrelevant,al
iveandkicki
nginmoder ni
ndustrial
.However,l
ikeany
othertheor
ists,hiscont r
ibut
ionhasbeenhot l
ydebated.Letusseethecr i
ti
cs
l
ev el
edagainstMar x.

1.Cri
ticshavearguedthatMarxi
sm tendst
oov erexaggeratetheimportanceof
economi cf
actorsi
ndet er
mini
ngchange.Hesaideconomi cbase
(i
nfrast
ruct
ure)isr
esponsibl
eforchangi
ngallstr
ucturesofsociety.Hesaidi
t
i
st hechangesintheeconomicsetup,whichchangesal l
insti
tut
ionslike

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24 f
amily.ToWeber
,soci
ali
nst
it
uti
onscanal
sochanget
heeconomi
cbasee.
g.
r
eli
gion.
2.Mar
xseesi
ndi
vi
dualbehavi
orasi
nfl
uencebyeconomi
csy st
em.Heignor
e
t
heext
entt
owhichi
ndivi
dual
smakefreechoi
cesassuggestedbyMead.
3. Mar
xism ov
eremphasi
zedclassconf
li
ctsandpaysli
tt
leat
tenti
ont
ogender
,
ageandeducat
ional
backgr
oundconfl
ict
sthatprev
aili
nsociet
y.
4.NeoMarxistdismi
ssedhisconceptofsuperstruct
ureandinfr
astr
uctur
e.
ReymondWi l
li
am'sforexample,ar
guesthattheconceptofinfr
astr
uctureand
super
str
uctureismisl
eadingbecausenotallsuperst
ruct
uresarecontr
oll
ed
bythest
atesomear eindependencefr
om thest at
e.
Lookatsomeformsofr
eligionswhi
chgoagai nstt
hestate,
inthi
scase,t
his
obser
vati
onweakensMarxistcl
aimthatal
lsuperst
ruct
uresarecont
rol
ledbytheSt
ate.
Letusl
ookatanot
herar
eathatwashot
lydebat
ed,hisconceptofofacl
assl
esssoci
ety
wasnotonl
ycri
ti
ci
zedordebat
edbutwasdismissed.
5.I
nev
itabi
l
ityofacommuni
sm/
classl
esssoci
ety
o Crit
icshavearguedthathi
stor
ywasnotbor noutofthepr
omisesofcommunism
societycont
ainedinMarx’
swriti
ng.Forexampl
e,communism soci
etywasonce
developedinEaster
nEuropein1980sbutdidnotkickof
fendconfl
ict
sandit
thendiedanat ur
aldeat
h.
o WhileMarxsaidthatrev ol
uti
onwil
lbepossiblewhenthewor ki
ngclassgained
cl
ass-consci
ousnessl i
kewhathappenedi n1789inFrance.NeoMar xi
st
port
rayedhisdream adamy thi
nthesenset hatpr
olet
ari
athavesome
awarenessoftheirexploit
ati
onbuttheycannotrevol
tbecauserul
i
ngcl assuse
mili
tar
ypowerandl awst ost
oprevolut
ionar
ymov ementshenceacommuni sm
soci
etywillr
emainMar x'sdream.
o I
nasmuchasMar xsawequali
tyinhisdream.Accordi
ngtoMosca,
theconcept
oftherulerandtherul
edi
sinevit
able.St
rati
fi
cati
onisthemai
nfeat
ureofsoci
ety
hencedismissi
ngtheMarxi
stclai
mt hatequali
tywil
lcomeoneday.
o Functi
onali
sti
deascanalsobeusedt ogoagainstMarxasParsonsbeli
eves
thatsoci
etyneedssomefor m ofaut
hori
tyf
orittofunct
ionsmoothl
y,hencehe
wouldnotbeli
evethataclassl
esssociet
yistheideal
o Alt
houghMar xsawwor kingclassformi
ngt radeunions,whi
chwi l
l or ganizei
ts
member shipi
ntorevolutionarymovements.KarlPopperhasadi fferentv iew,he
sawtradeunioni
sm indi alogueter
mswi ththeempl oyertoprev
entr ev ol
uti
ons
notencouragi
ngrevolutionsthustradeunionism i
saconser v
ativef or ce.

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25
Forexampl
e,t
herol
eofdif
fer
enttradeunionsi
nZimbabwesuchasZI
MTAi
s
t
onegoti
atewi
ththeempl
oyersothatrevol
uti
onispr
event
ed.

3.NeoMar
xism
Pupi
l
sneedtocomprehendt
hedi
ff
erencesbet
weenneoMar
xism andMar
xism
aswell
assi
mil
ari
ti
es.
NeoMar xi
star
esoci ologi
stwhoseworkhasbeengreatl
yinspir
edbyMar x'swr it
ings
andt endtorej
ectsomeaspect sofMarxi
sm whil
eagreeingont heot
her.Ther eisnoa
cleardiv
idi
nglinebetweenMar xi
stsandneo-Marxi
sts.Asthelastsect
ioni ndicated,
therearevari
ousinterpret
ati
onsofMarxi
sm t
heneo-Mar xi
stshaverej
ected.
Ant
oni
oGr
amsci
(1891-
1937)
Hei
saneoMar
xistwhohasmadesomeoft
hef
oll
owi
ngt
hef
oll
owi
ngcont
ri
but
ions;
Hesaidtheownershipofthemeansofproducti
onwasnotsuf fi
cienttoguaranteethat
therul
i
ngclasswil
l monopoli
zepowerinsoci
ety.I
nordertocontrolpowerand
dominance,
therul
ingclassusewhathecall'
hegemony'-r
uli
ngclasshav etri
edt owin
supportf
rom ot
hermember sofsoci
etye.g.i
nfl
uenti
ali
ndivi
dual
se. gbusinesspersons.
I
nt hi
scase, thi
siscr i
ti
queisdi r
ect edtoMarxasGr amsci issayi
ngr uli
ngcl ass
doesnotr elyontheowner shipofmeansofpr oductionalonet ocontrolpower .
Thisislargelyval
idwhenoneconsi der
sthefactthat,i
nev erysociety,
notal l
member sofsocietywhoownt hemeansofpr oducti
onr ule,i
nfarct,
theyar er uled.
Therefore,Gramsci hadarguedt hatrul
ingcl
asshaswonsuppor tofinfluential
people;justi
magi neiftherul
ingclassi nZi
mbabwehaswont hesuppor tofSt r
ive
Masiiwat heownerofEconet , atelecommunicati
onnet wor kinZimbabwe.
Gramsci f
urt
herdonotagr
eewithMar xi
stthatrul
i
ngcl
asscoul
deverr
elyonf
alsecl
ass
-consci
ousnesstocont
rol
powerinsocietybecauseal
lmostal
lmembersoft
hesubj
ect
havesomeawar enessoft
hei
rexploi
tati
on.
Gramsci f
urtherarguesthatinfr
astruct
ureorrul
ingcl
assdeter
minesnotal
l
superst
ructures.Worki
ngcl assarenotpassive,
asMar xhasassumed,t
heycandev
elop
thei
rownr eli
gion,mediaetc.,whichgoagainstt
hestate

4.GenderFemi
nism
Thi
sisanot
herconf
li
ctt
heor
y,butsawgenderi
nequal
i
tynotcl
assi
nequal
i
tyi
n

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26 societ
y.Tomakei tsi
mpl e,i
tisatheorythatf
ightforgenderequali
ty.Ittr
iesto
explai
nwhatgenderInequalit
yis,it
scausesaswel lassoluti
ons.I
trejects
functi
onali
stscl
aimthatthereisconsensusinsociety.Howcany out alkabout
consensuswhenwomenar eexploi
ted?Howonecansayf amil
yhasposi ti
ve
functi
onswhenwomenar eabusedbyhusbandsi nthef amil
y?Foronet o
understandfemi
nism,letuslookatt hebasi
cideasbel ow.
I
tfocusesongenderinequali
tyasamaj orconfl
icti
nsociet
y.Femini
sttheor
iesat
tempt
toexpl
ainthedif
fer
encesbetweenmenandwomenandt heysuggestwhatshoul
dbe
doneagainstt
hosediff
erences.Femi
nistsbeli
evesoci
ologyisamal estr
eam;
Abbot
tetal
(2005)
Shehasexplai
nedwaysinwhi
chsoci ol
ogyhasbeenmal est
ream;mor er
esear
ches
havebeencarr
iedoutbymenandf ormen.Shearguesthatt
hevoicesofwomanarenot
hear
dinsociol
ogyandWomanar eof t
enpresent
edassexobjectsorinasexi
stway
andgenderi
snottakenacent
ral
v ari
ablei
nmostr esear
ch.
RememberwhatComt ehadsaidaboutwomen; '
iti
snotreal
lynecessarytotal
k
aboutwomen, womenshouldacceptt
hattheyknownot hi
ngandt hosewho
knownot hingshoul
dremainsi
lentandall
owt hosewhohav esomet hi
ngt ospeak”
withthi
sst at
ement,womencannotjustwatchfrom adist
ant,f
eminism isa
theorywhichtri
estomakethev oi
cesofwomenhear dandchangetheimages
thatsoci
etyholdsaboutwomen.
Ther
eareanumberofdi
sti
nctwomenperspect
iveandtheydi
ff
eronhowt
odeal
wit
h
oppr
essi
onhencef
emini
sm appear
stobelikeaconfusedt
heory
.
Ty
pes/
school
soff
emi
nism
1.Radi
cal
femi
nist
s/f
emi
nism
2.Mar
xistandSoci
ali
stf
emi
nism
3.Li
ber
alf
emi
nism
4.Bl
ackf
emi
nism
5.Post
moder
nfemi
nism
Radi
cal
femi
nism
From thewordradical
,oneshoul
dlearnsomet
hing,
radi
calmightmeanhar
sh,
ther
eforeradi
calfemini
sm haveaharshtonet
owardgenderi
nequal
it
y.
Theyseesoci
etyaspat
ri
archal
-iti
sdomi nat
edandrul
edbymenmeaningmenaret
he
rul
i
ngclassandwomenareseenast hesubordi
nat
egroup.Radi
cal
femi
nist
sbl
ames

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27 t
Page| heexpl
oit
ati
onofwomenonmal
eaggr
essi
on.Tor
adi
cal
femi
nist
,menar
epr
imar
y
benefi
ciaryofthisoppression.Womengivebirt
h,carrypregnanci
esandbreast
feed.I
n
thi
srespect(Fi
r est
one,1972)believ
esthatthebiologicalmakeupofwomenmakes
them weakandment aket hisasanadvantagetoexploitwomen.Femaledependency
onmeni sli
kel
yt oi
ncreasedur i
ngtheperi
odofpregnancyandl aborpai
ns.
Otherradicalf
eminist
sseemen'sbi
ologyasapr oblem Mar
yDaly(1978)blamedf emal
e
oppressiononmal eaggr
essi
on.Anumberofr adicalf
emini
stsbel
i
ev ethatrapeand
malev i
olencetowardswomenarethemet hodsthroughwhichmanyhav esecuredand
maintainedthei
rpower.
Breastf
eedi
ng,l
aborpai
nsetc.burdenwomen, t
hismakesthem weak.So,
radi
calf
emini
sm sayswomenbi ol
ogicalbur
denplay
sapar t
yinperpet
uati
ng
genderi
nequal
it
yther
efor
etheycanst ayawayfr
om pregnanci
es.
Otherradi
calfeminist
ssawphonogr aphasencour agingment opossessandcont rol
women.Robi nMor gandeclar
edthatphonogr aphisat heor
yandrapeapr acti
ce.Men
areseenast heenemi est
herefor
er adicalfemini
stsofferaradi
calsoluti
ontofemal e
l
iberati
on.Theybelievethattheycanl iveanddowi thoutmenandt heyareadv ocati
ng
forthecastr
ati
onoff amilyandar eplacementofpat ri
archybymatriarchy.
Thi
sisindeedaharshapproachtogenderinequal
it
y,t
heywanta'
castr
ati
on'
of
pat
ri
archy,t
hiswordi
sindeedradical
,tot
hem, andaslongasmenareli
vi
ng
womenar eexpl
oit
ed.

Cr
it
icsofRadi
cal
femi
nism
1.Radicalfemini
stsf
ocusonlyonnegati
veexperiencesofwomenandt endst oignor
e
forexamplet heposi
ti
veexperi
encesofhappymar ri
ages;womencanaswel lfeelgood
i
nt hepresenceofhusband'
s 2.Radicalfemini
sm t
endstoportraywomen
asessentiall
ygoodandmenasbadandt end toignorethatwomencanalsobebad.
3.Inasmuchasmenexpl oitwomen,womenhav ealsothepowert
oexploitmen.
Li
ber
alf
emi
nism
Explainsgenderinequal
it
yintermsofcultureofsocietyr
atherthant hebiol
ogical
makeupofwomenassuggest edbyr adi
calfemini
sts.Unli
ket heradicalf
eministswho
bel
ievet hatmenbenef i
tfr
om femaleoppression,
toliber
alfeministsthestoryis
di
fferent.Theybeli
evethatnobodybenefi
tsf r
om genderinequali
ty.Thisisbecause
bothmenandwomenar eharmed,f
orexampl e,menar edeniedsomeoft hepleasur
es
ofhav ingacloserel
ati
onshipwitht
heirchil
dren.
Thecul
tur
eofsoci
etycausegenderi
nequal
i
tyi
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
s:

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28 o Theinst
it
uti
onsofsoci
etyper
pet
uatesgenderi
nequal
i
tyf
orexampl
erel
i
gion
prov
idesmyths,
whichj
usti
fyhumanoppressi
on.
o Soci
ali
zat
ional
sogi
vesmenanupperhandi
nter
msofexpl
oit
ingwomen.
o Di
scr
imi
nat
ional
sopr
event
swomenf
rom hav
ingequal
oppor
tuni
ti
eswi
thmen.
Thesearethecampaignersofequalri
ghtsandofferali
beral
sol
uti
ontogender
i
nequali
ty.Li
beral
femini
sm holdstheviewthatt
hepositi
onofwomencanbel i
ber
ated
thr
oughlegalandli
beral
meanse. g.campaigns,
intr
oducti
onofl
egisl
ati
onsand
educat
ingwoment ocompet ewithmen.
Unl i
keradi
calfemini
stswhobelievet
hat,womencandowi t
houtmen;t
oli
ber
al
feminist
stheapproachisdif
fer
ent.Theybel
ievethatwomendonothaveto
disassoci
atethemselv
esfrom mencompl et
elybutonlysomeli
beral
pol
ici
esneedt
obe
i
nt r
oducede.g.domesticv
iol
enceact,sexdiscr
iminat
ionact
.
Bl
ackFemi
nism
Theyseei nequalit
ybetweenbl ackwomenandwhi t
ewomen.Theybel i
evethatwhi
te
femini
stsdomi natesoci
ologyther ef
ore;itpaysmuchat t
enti
ontothe gri
evancesof
whitefeministsignori
ngthegriev ancesofbl ackwomen.Blackfemini
stsal
soaccuse
whitefeministsfortheor
etical
r acism andblackwomensuf ferbecauseofbeingbl
ack
i
nt hesenset hattheyhavebeenempl oyedint hewhi
tewomen'shouseholdas
domest i
cser vantsandtheyaret estedposi t
ivetoexpl
oit
ati
on.
Cr
it
icsofbl
ackf
emi
nist
s
Blackf
emini
sm canbecri
ti
cizedforf
ail
i
ngt oaddresstheoppressi
onofwhi
tewomen
andtheyt
endtofocusonl
yonr aceandtendstoignoreclasscontr
adi
cti
oni
nsoci
ety
.
Mar
xistSoci
ali
stf
emi
nism
Thesef emi nist
suseMar xistapproachtoexplai ngenderinequali
tyandoppressi
onand
theyarguet hatcapi t
alism isresponsibl
eforfemal eoppression.Whobenef i
tsfr
om t
his
exploi
tati
on?Tot hem, Capital
ism ist
heprimar ybenefi
ciaryofgenderinequal
it
y.
Womenwor kforthehusbandi nthefamil
yforhi supkeep,thisi
sunpaidshift
sthey
perfor
mt hus; t
hehusbandmustpaybackt hewi fehencehei scompelledt oworkf
or
thecapitali
stt oraiseincomet otakecareoft hewi f
e.
Accordi
ngt oFranAnsleywomenar ethemajorprop/supportofcapi
tali
sm int
hesense
thatawomangi vesemot i
onalsecuri
tytothehusband,Husbandsar efrust
rat
edby
i
ndustri
al st
ressandexploi
tati
onthust herol
eofthewi f
eistocomf ortt
hehusbandand
thefr
ustrati
onissuppressedandcapitali
sm isnotthr
eatenedwillsi
mplycontinue.
Anot
herpoi
ntt
onot
eist
hat
,womenar
esai
dnott
oownt
hemeansofpr
oduct
ionhence

MrTChi
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udypack

29 t
Page| heyar
eexpl
oit
ed,
Ther
efor
e,Mar
xistf
emi
nistof
ferr
adi
cal
sol
uti
ont
ogenderi
nequal
i
ty
onlycommuni
sm soci
etyi
sthewaytogoandi
nthi
ssoci
etywomenwi
l
lhav
eaccesst
o
themeansofpr
oducti
onandequal
it
ywil
lbecr
eat
ed.
Fur
thermore,capi
tal
i
sm i
stobeblamedformalevi
olence.Menarepaidlowwagesand
sal
ari
estherefor
etheyar
eli
kel
ytobefrust
rat
edhencepr oj
ect
ingvi
olencebehav
iort
o
women.
Marxistfeminist
s’analysisi
sr el
evanceinexplaininggenderi ssuesi
n
Zimbabweansoci ety, f
orexample;inZimbabwe, r
ecentr esearchhasshownt hat
domest i
cviolenceincreasesduringtheti
meofi ndustri
al str
ess.Masvingoci
v i
l
andcr i
minalcour tstati
sti
csrevealthati
treceives1129domest i
cviol
ence
i
ssuesand90di vorcecasesi n2021, t
hepreviousy earitreceived20domestic
vi
olenceissuespr obablyli
nkedtoCOVI D19l ockdownper i
odandotherpersonal
i
ssues.
PostModer
nfemi
nism
Thisi
samoder ntheor
ythatsayst
hattheoldtheori
esneedtoberepl
acedbythe
moderntheor
ies.Thear
gumentisthatSoci
etyischangi
ngtheref
orepat
ter
nsof
behavi
orshav
echangedt husnewtheori
esneedtobedev el
oped.
Postmoder nfeminism tendst orejectt heclaimthatt heyisasingletheor ytoexpl ai
nthe
positi
onofwomeni nsoci ety
.Itencour agestheaccept anceofmanydi f
ferentpoi nt
sof
vi
ewsasequal l
yv al
id;I
npar ti
cular,i
tt endst odenyt hatthereisanysi ngl
et heoryt o
explai
nt heposit
ionofwomensi ncet her earedif
ferentgroupsofwomene. g.black
women, l
esbi
anwomen, whit
emi ddlecl asswomenandi ndi
vidualwomen.These
groupsar edi
ffer
entbecauset heydonotshar eacommoni nteresthence, Post
moder ni
sm celebratesthesedi f
ferencesbecausewhati sgoodf oronemi ghtnotbe
goodf ortheother.Neverthel
ess, postmoder nfeminism suggestway sinwhi cht he
i
nterestofwomencanbepur sued, t
hesol ut
ionistosi mplychanget hepat r
iar
chal
l
anguage

Mi
crot
heor
ies
Micr
ot heoriesconcentrat
eoni ndi
vidual
snotsociet
yasawhol e.Theyst
udysociet
yin
asmall-scaleinter
acti
onandsawsoci et
ybei
ngapr oductofhumanbehavior
.They
di
sagreet hathumanbehav iorisshapebysociet
yalthoughatsomepointsoci
etyhas
animpactoni ndiv
idual
s.Microtheori
esareasfol
lows;

 Sy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
sm

 Weber
iant
heor
ies

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30  Et
hnomet
hodol
ogy

 Phenomenol
ogy
1.Sy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
sts
LikeMarxWeber ,sy
mboli
cint
eracti
oni
stsareconcernedwit
hexpl
aini
ngsoci
alact
ions
i
nt ermsofmeaningsthati
ndi
vidual
sgivetothem andtheyt
endtofocusonasmall-
scaleint
eract
ion.
GeorgeHer bertMeadisgener al
l
yregardedasthefat
herofsymboli
cint
eract
ion.I
t
analysessocietyandsit
uationsint
ernsofsubj
ectmeaningspeopl
eimposeont he
objecteventsandbehav i
or.Theybeli
evethati
ndi
vi
dualsshapesoci
etyandorderi
s
createdfrom thebott
om toupt othetop.
Inthiscase,bot t
om istheindi
vidual andtopi st
hesoci ety
; ther
efore,symbolic
i
nteracti
onistsar eofthev i
ewthatI ndivi
dualsnotsocietyinstil
ltheorderinthe
societyorculture.Forexample,inchur ch,doeschurchmai ntai
nor deror
i
ndividual
smai ntai
norderinChur ch?Tot hem, i
tistheindiv i
dualswhomai nt
ain
ordernotculture.Again,thi
sshowst hatmi cr
otheoriessawsoci et
ybei ngshaped
byindivi
duals.
Itf
urthersayssociet
yex i
stsment all
ybecauseitistheli
mitspeopleputonthei
r
behaviornotsoci
ety.Indi
vidual
scr eateandrecreat
esociet
yonadai lybasi
sthr
ough
every
dayi nt
eract
ion,hence;soci
etyi ssoci
etytodaybecauseofindiv
idual
snot
i
ndivi
dualsbeingindivi
dualstodaybecauseoft hesociet
y.
Thisisacr it
icalanal
ysi
s,inasmuchasmacr otheori
essawHumanbehav i
or
beingshapedbysoci et
y,tosymboli
cinter
acti
onism (micr
ot heor
y),
iti
sthe
societ
yt hatisshapedbecausesocietyexi
stment all
y.Thi
smeanst hatbrai
nis
theplanandsoci et
yisthestr
uctur
e.Itmakeslit
tlesenseforonetosaythat
societ
yist heplanandbr ai
nisthestr
ucture.I
nthisrespect,
thesociet
yis
str
ucturedbyhumanconsci ousness.
From t
hewor dsymboli
c.Humaninteractusi
ngsymbols,accordingt
oHandel(
2006),
i
ndivi
dual
slearnthesymbolsthr
oughsoci al
i
zati
on.Aninfanti
sunabletot
akepartin
soci
etybecauseheorsheisnotsociali
zedanddoesnotknowt hesymbol
sofsociet
y.
Asymbol i
sanythingt
hatrepr
esent
sanact i
on,
eventorbehavior.
Gen11v s5’AndtheLordsaid,
Behold,theyareonepeopl eandtheyhav
eallone
l
anguage;andthi
sisonlythebegi
nningofwhatt heywilldo,andnownothi
ng
theyhavei
maginedtheycandowillbeimpossi bleforthem.11:7Come,l
etusgo
downandt her
econfound(mixup,confuse)theirlanguage,thatt
heymaynot
underst
andoneanother'
sspeech.
’

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31 From theabovecommonbi bl
i
calver
ses,
Godonlychangedl
anguage/symbol
sto
confusethem,therefor
e,whenpeopl
esharedi
ff
erentsy
mbolstheywil
lbeno
meaningfuli
nteracti
on.
Symbolspr
oducethemeanswherebyhumanscani
nter
actmeani
ngf
ull
ywit
hother
s.
I
ndiv
idual
screat
esymbol
s.Inor
dertosurv
ivei
ndi
vi
dual
smustcreat
ethesymbol
s.
Theemphasi shereisont hewaysofinter
acti
onandcommuni cati
on,haveyou
everaskedyourselfwhereyoulear
ntthesymbol s?Forexample,i
fsomeone
wavesahand, youareablet oi
nter
preti
tinthisway ;maybeiti
sagoodby e.So,
symbolici
nteract
ioni
staresimplyholdi
ngthev i
ewt hatwit
houtthosesymbols
ther
eisnointeracti
onandcommuni cat
ionhencet heyar
eemphasi zi
ngthe
i
mpor t
anceofsy mbols.Anotherpoi
nttonoteist hat,
symbolsarecreat
edby
i
ndivi
dualshencesocietyisshapedbyindivi
duals.

Rol
eTaki
ng
Howdowel earnandunderst
andthesy
mbols,i
magi neifi
ndiv
idual
sdonot
sharecommonsy mbols,
theywil
lbenoint
eract
ion.Letuslookattheconceptof
rol
etakingbel
ow.
Accordi
ngt oMead,asociall
i
fecanonl yproceedift
hemember softhesociet
yshare
themeaningsofsymbols.Ift
hiswer enotacasemeani ngf
ulcommunicati
onwouldbe
i
mpossi bl
eInorderf
orint
eracti
ont oproceed,eachper
soninvolv
edmustinter
pretthe
meaningsandintent
ionsofothers.Thi
sismadepossi blet
hroughthepr
ocessof'role
taki
ng,’
Thepr ocessofr ol
etakingi
nvolv
esonepersontaki
ngonther ol
eofanot herby
i
magi nati
velyplaci
ngthemselvesint
hepositi
onofindi
vi
dualstheyareinter
act i
ngwith
tocompr ehendi nt
enti
on.Forexampl
e,.
gifapersonobservesanothersmi l
ing,cry
ing,
wav i
ngahandorshaki ngfi
st(t
heywil
lputthemsel
vesinanotherperson'spositi
onin
ordertointerpr
etthemeaning.Thisi
spossibl
eonlywhenindivi
dual
sar esharingthe
samemeani ngsandsy mbols.
Theconceptofsel
f
Meadar guesthatthroughtheprocessofr
oletaki
ngindi
vi
dualsdevel
opaconceptof
selfandIndi
vi
dualsmustobser vethemsel
vesfrom t
hestandpoi
ntofotherst
her
efor
e
theorigi
nanddev elopmentofconceptofsel
f-
li
eintheabil
it
ytotaketherol
eofanot
her
.
Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofsel
f
1)The'
me'-isthedefi
nit
ionofy
ourselfi
naspecif
icsoci
alr
olee.
g.y
oumi
ghtsee
your
sel
fasagoodparent,
goodstudentorloy
alf
ri
end.

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32 2)The'
Page| I
'-i
sthesameast
hesel
f-
concept
,iti
sbui
l
tupf
rom t
her
eact
ionofot
her
sand
thewaywei nter
pretthoseacti
ons.I
tcanexerci
seconsider
ablei
nfluenceonyour
behavi
ore.g.ifyouseeyoursel
fcowardl
yyouar eunli
kel
ytoactbravelyi
ndanger
ous
sit
uati
ons.AccordingtoMead,theconceptofselfi
snotin-
born;
itislear
ntdur
ing
chil
dhoodthrought womainstages.
1)Thepl
ayst
age
I
nvolv
eschil
drenplay i
ngrol
est hatarenotthei
rownf orexampl
echil
drenmayplayas
bei
ngaparent,doctorornurseandbysodoi ngtheybecomeawarethatther
eisa
di
ff
erencebet
weent hemsel
v esandther olet
heyareplayi
nghence,
theideaofsel
fis
devel
opedasthechi l
dtakest herol
eofot her
s.
2)Gamest
age
Inplayingagame, chil
drencomet oseethemselvesfrom var
iousperspect
ivesoft
he
parti
cipant.I
nor dertopl aygamessuchasf oot
ballchi
ldr
enmustbecomeawar eof
thei
rrelati
onshi pt
ot heot herplayersandmustpl acethemselvesintherol
esto
appreciatetheirownr oleinthegame.I nMead' sviewtheyseet hemselv
esfrom a
perspectiveofgener al
izedot her.Thedevelopmentofconsciousnessofselfisan
essentialpartofthepr ocessofbecomi ngahumanbei ng
Meadaccept sthatsociet
yhasacul tureandt hi
scult
uresuggestappr
opri
atety
pesof
behavi
orforpar t
icul
arsocialinsti
tut
ionslikefamil
y,r
eli
gionhaveanexist
encei
nthe
sensethattheyhav epart
icularrol
est oplay.Mead,howev erbel
i
evest
hathumanssti
ll
haveconsiderablechoi
ce, f
reedom onhowt obehave
Reasonswhyi
ndi
vi
dual
shav
efr
eechoi
ces
a).
cult
uralexpectat
ionsarenotspeci
fi
c-forexample,soci
etymightdemandspeopl
eto
wearclothesbutindivi
dual
shavemuchf r
eedom ast owhichclot
htowear.
b).Soci
etydoesnothav eanall-
embraci
ngcultur
etherefor
esomanysubcultur
esexist
henceindivi
dualshaveasubcultur
etojoi
nast owhichchoice.
Summar y:soci
ologicalperspect
iveref
erstoapoi
ntofvi
ew,asnot edabove;
the
theor
iescanbegr oupedi ntomicroandmacro.Macromeansbig,ther
eforemacr
o
theor
iesstudysocietyasawhol ewhi l
emicromeanssmall
,ther
eforetheyst
udysoci
ety
i
nasmal lscalei
nter act
ion.

ENDOFUNI
T1:
3QUESTI
ONS

a]Compar eandcontr
astmicroandmacrosociol
ogicalperspecti
ves.
b]Analyzethevi
ewthatfunct
ional
i
sm off
ersaconv i
nci
ngexpl anati
onofsoci
ety
.
c]Di
scusst heMarxi
stvi
ewoft hei
nev
itabil
i
tyofaclasslesssociet
y
d]‘
withoutsymbols,
ther
eisnohumani nter
act
ion’di
scuss

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33

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34 TOPI
Page| C1:
3SOCI
ALPOLI
CY
Uni
tst
ruct
ureobject
ives
Byt
heendofthisunit
, l
eaner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

 Definesocialpoli
cyandsocialproblem
 Identi
fyExampl esofsoci
alandsoci ol
ogi
calproblems
 discussli
nkbet weensoci
alpolicyandsocialproblems
 Analyzeperspectiv
esonsoci al
policyandsocialprobl
ems
Whati
ssocialpol
icy?

Itcanbedef i
nedast hemeasur esputinplacetoeradicat
esocialprobl
emssuchas
prostituti
on.Calv
etandCal vet(
1992),def
inesoci
alproblem pol
icyasthemai n
principlesunderwhichgov ernmentdir
ecteconomicr esour
cestomeetspeci f
icsocial
needssuchashousi ng, educati
on,cr
imepr ev
enti
onandhel ptheelderl
y.Itcanalsobe
def i
ned, asanacti
ont akenbyt hegovernmentinr
elationtoi
tsciti
zensinmeet ingthe
social needsofpopulation.Social
poli
cyisanareawher esocialandsociologi
cal
problemsf r
equentl
ymeet .

Inthesoci
ety,peopl
esufferfr
om somanysocial
problemsthathavef
utur
e
consequencese.g.pover
ty,t
heref
ore,t
hemeasuresputinpol
icyt
oeradi
cate
povert
ycanber egardedassocialpol
i
cy.

Exampl
esofsoci
alpol
i
cy

o Domest icvi
olenceact
o BasicEducat i
onAssi stancemodul
e
o Affi
r mat i
veactionpolicy
o Mai ntenancelaw
o Inheritanceact
o Educat ionforall
o Commandagr i
cultur
e
o Landr ef or
m act
o Droughtmi ti
gationprogram

Whati
sasoci
alpr
obl
em?

Oneshoul dnott hat,notal

l problemsar esoci
alproblems; asocialprobl
em can
becomeasoci al pr
oblem onceasoci alent
it
yorgov er nmentcall
sf ori
ttobe
gi
v enattent
ion.forexampl e,cheatingorextramar i
tal aff
air
sisaser i
ous
problem butthisdoesnotqual i
fyittobecomeasoci al pr
oblem;itcanonly
becomeasoci al pr
oblem i
ft hegov ernmentcal
lsfori ttobegivenat t
enti
onor
di
sappr oveitthroughcampai gns,pol
ici
esetc.8aazaaLetusseef ewdef i
nit
ions
below,

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35
Asocialproblem i
sabehav iorseent ocausepubl i
cf r
ict
ionorpri
vateoutcr
yandmi ser
y
usuall
yinvolv
esacal l f
oract i
on( St
anley2004) .I
tisasocialbehavi
orthatpowerf
ul
groupsdisapprove.Itisasoci alcondit
ionthatisperceiv
edt obeharmfultomorethan
fewpeople.Tosoci ologist
s,suicideisasocial pr
oblem becauseiti
sasoci al
condit
ion
thati
sper cei
vedtobehar mf ult
omor et hanjustafewpeopl e.

Exampl
esofsoci
alpr
obl
ems

o Drugabuse
o Corruption
o Unempl oy ment
o Domest icv i
olence
o Pov ert
y
o Suicide
o Prostit
ution
o Childlabor
o Childabuse
o Humant raff
icking
o Terrori
sm

Soci
ologi
cal
probl
ems

Accordi
ngt oWi ll
is(2011) ,asoci
ologi
calproblem i
ssimplyaquestiont hatdemands
expl
anati
one. g.,whydi sabledpeoplefacediscrimi
nati
onthusthi
smi ghtneeds
soci
ologi
cal explanati
on.Exampl esofsociologicalpr
obl
emsi ncl
ude:
o Inadequat esocializati
on
o effectsofsoci alchangee.g.cultur
aldil
utionandcult
ureerosion
o culturalcausesofgenderi nequalit
y
o st ereotypes,
o ethnocent ri
cv i
ews

Thel
i
nkbet
weensoci
ologyandsoci
alpol
i
cy

Soci ologycanhav eadi rectimpactonandI nputi

ntothegovernmentpol i
cymaking
(soci alpoli
cy).Sociologycancr eateaconducivecli
mateofopiniont hati
nfl
uencesthe
dev elopmentofgov ernmentpol iciesandgovernmentcandeducelawsorsoci alpoli
cy
basi ngonsoci ol
ogical language.
Howev er
,somesoci al scient i
stsar eoft
hev i
ewthatsociol
ogyhasv eryli
tt
leorno
effectonsoci al poli
cy .Thej obofsoci ol
ogyistostudysoci
alpoli
ciesnottoforcethe
gov er nmenttoIenactpol icies.
Theywentont oarguet hatsoci ologyshoul
dbev aluefr
eeandconf inedofdescri
bing
andunder standingthesoci alwor l
d.

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36 Soc
Page| i
ologyi
nfl
uenci
ngsoci
alpol
i
cy

Manysoci alsci
ent
istsbel
i
evethatsoci
ologyhasthepowert oInfl
uencesocialpol
icy.
Manysoci alsci
ent
istinU.
S.Acampaignedagainstpover
tyforthemostdisadv ant
aged
groups.Thismadet hegover
nmenttodeclareawaronpov ertythusU.SPresident
,
LyndonBJohnsonl aunchedtheeconomicopportuni
tytocoordinat
emeasur estofight
povert
y.

Therefore,
from t
heaboveevidence,i
tprudentforonetonotethatsoci
ologyhas
agreatimpactonsocialpol
icysincethegovernmentint
roducedalawaf teri
t
wasi nfl
uencedbysoci
ologi
ststodoso.

Becker(1967)arguest hatsoci
ologi
calr
esearchshouldpromotetheint
erestoft he
di
sadvantagedgr oups.ThombsandWhy tesupportthi
sfrom al
eftwingper specti
ve
whostressthatther oleofsociol
ogi
stsi
st oempowert hepowerl
essbypr ov i
ding
pol
ici
esandi nf
ormat ionrequir
edtochall
engepoli
cies,whichdonotbenefitthem.

Mar shland( 1995)f r

om anewr i
ghtper spectivear guesthatsoci
ologyshoul daddress
social problems.Hemai nt
ainsthatsoci ol
ogi calresearchhasanecessar y,import
ant
andconst ructiv
er ol
etoplayinr el
ationtoSoci al Poli
cyformati
on,implement at
ionand
evaluat i
on.
Goul dner(1979) ,bel
ievesthatthepoi ntofsoci ologyistomakeani mpactandi mpr ove
social poli
cies.Femi ni
stscampai gnshav einf l
uencedgov ernmentst oi
ntroducepol i
cies
whichchal l
engegenderi nequaliti
es.
Forinst ance, Aff
ir
mat i
veactionpol i
cywasi nt r
oducedi neducationthatall
owsagi rl
chil
dt oent eruni v
ersit
ywithonepoi ntlesst hanboy sforaparti
cularprogram i
n
Zimbabwe, Feminist
scampai gnsl edtodomest i
cv i
olencetobedecl ar
edasasoci al
problem andacr i
measwel l
.

Thei nfluenceandimpactoff emini

sm wasprimari
lyfelti
nZimbabwewhent he
gover nmenti nt
roduceddomest i
cviol
enceacttofi
ghtdomest icvi
olence.
Inheritanceandmai ntenancelawsaresoci
alpoli
ciesintr
oducedbyt heZi
mbabwean
gover nment .Atthi
sjunctur
e,onecansafel
yarguet hatsoci
ologyhasagreati
mpacton
social poli
cy.

Soci
ologybei
ngi
nfl
uencedbysoci
alpol
i
cy

Inasmuchassoci ologyhasani
mpactonsocialpoli
cy,manysoci
ologi
sts
bel
ievethatsoci
ologyhasnoimpactonsoci
alpoli
cy,i
nfact,
iti
simpactedby
social
poli
cy.

Theyarguet hatsoci
ologicalresearchmayor i
ginatesf r
om socialpol
i
cesint
roducedby
thegovernment .I
nBritai
nf orinst
ance, t
hei nt
roductionofquasi -market
sineducati
on
syst
em hadgener atedsociologicalresearchont heireffectoneducati
on.
Itwasasi t
uationwherebyschool swer efundedaccor dingtothei
rsuccessi
nat t
ract
ing
l
eaners.Sociologi
calresearchwasgener atedinthatt hepolicywasdiscr
imi
natorysi
nce

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37 i
Page| tledt
othosef
rom t
her
icherbackgr
oundsecur
ingpl
acesatt
hemostsuccessf
ul
school
swhi
l
ethepoorhadnochance.

Sociol
ogicalresearchwasgener atedi
nBr i
tainwhent hegov ernmentintroducedwelf
are
stat
e.Thegov er
nmentaccept sresponsi
bil
ityforensuringmi ni
mum st andardsfort
he
peopleasar i
ghtf ori
tscit
izensinastate.Mar sl
andcr i
tici
zedthisBr
iti
shwel f
are
syst
em ar gui
ngt hati
twaspr omot i
ngthedependedsy ndromeanddi scour agedsel
f-
i
mpr ovementt hrougheducation.

From t
hispointofv
iew,onecanar
guethatatsomepoi nt,i
tisindeedsociol
ogy
thati
simpactedbysocialpol
i
cysi
ncesociologi
calr
esearchwasgener atedaft
er
thegovernmenthadenactedl
aws,whi
chpr omotedsociol
ogicalwork.

Feminism researchhasfocusedonar angeofpolicyissuesandpracti

cesdesi
gnedto
promot egenderinequal
it
ies.Forexample,Pascal
l(1997)hashighl
ight
edsomeoft he
poli
cieswhichr est
ri
ctedwomenf rom working.

Soci
ologi
cal
per
spect
ivesonsoci
alpol
i
cyandsoci
alpr
obl
ems

Funct
ional
i
sm
Leaner
sshoul
dbei
naposi
ti
ont
oappl
yper
spect
ivesasdemonst
rat
edbel
ow.
Allpart
sofsocietydependoneachot hert obringaboutast ablesoci alorder.Thusthe
familydependsont heschool toeducatei tschildr
en,theschool ,i
nt urn,dependsont he
familytoprovi
deemot i
onalsuppor t
,andbot ht heschoolandt hef ami l
ydependont he
governmenttoof ferasaf eenv i
ronment .Ifsomepar tsofsoci etyfailtoperformt hei
r
functi
onstodisruptt henetwor kofinterdependenceamongal lparts,wehav eacaseof
dysfuncti
on. As
dysfuncti
onsoccur ,socialdisorderwil
ltakepl aceinform ofsocial probl
emssuchas
cri
me, povert
y,prostituti
on,unempl oymentet c.
Accor di
ngt oDur kheim, t
heroleofsoci
alpoli
cyist
omai ntai
nthesocial
pr oblemsata
normal lev
el notnecessar il
ytoremovesocialpr
oblemssi ncesomesocial probl
emsar e
functi
onal suchascr i
me, whichcanchangesociet
y .Durkhei
m beli
evesthatindivi
dual
s
shouldnotbebl amedf orsocial
probl
emssuchassui ci
de.Durkhei
mt ur
nedt osocial
forces;onef or
cet hathef oundtohaveagr eati
mpactonsui cidewassocial i
solati
on.
Hesai ditisthesoci etythatisblamedforsoci
alpr
obl emssuchassui ci
de.
Hesaidmostsocialproblemssuchasprost
itut
ionar
ef uncti
onalbecausei
thassaved
manyfamili
esormar r
iagesf r
om col
l
apsi
ng.Ift
hespousei snolongersati
sfi
edbyt
he
par
tnercanresor
ttopr osti
tut
eandthemarr
iageissaved.
Par
sonsar
guest
hat
,soci
alpr
obl
emsmayr
esul
tfr
om i
nadequat
esoci
ali
zat
ion,
thus,
it

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38 i
Page| sthesoci
etyt
hati
sbl
amedf
orsoci
alpr
obl
emssuchast
hef
tcases.Hemai
ntai
nst
hat
socialpr
obl
emsmaycausedi
sorderhencet
her
oleofsoci
alpol
i
cyi
stocont
ainsoci
al
problemshenceor
deri
smai
ntai
ned.
Sy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
sm
Social problemsoccurasar esultoftwoway s.Onewayi nvolvesdi f
fer
enti
alassoci ati
on,
thepr ocessofacqui ri
ng, t
hroughassociati
onwi thothers,“anexcessofdef init
ions
favorablet oviol
ati
onofl awov erdefi
niti
onsunf avor
ablet oviolat
ionoflaw”( Sutherland,
1939) .Thismeanst hatanindivi
dualisli
kel
yt ocommi tacr imei ftheindi
vi
dual
i
nteract smor efrequentlywithpeoplewhodef inethecri
meposi t
ivel
y(“i
t’
sokay ”)than
withthosewhodef i
nei tnegati
vely(“
it
’swrong” )
.
Anot herwayf orasoci alprobl
em toemer geisthroughl abeli
ngi ndividual
sasdev i
ants,
usual l
ybyconv ictingandi mpr i
soningthem ascr i
minal sort reatingthem as
di
sreput ablechar act er
s.Onceaper sonhasbeenl abeledat hief,arobber,oradrunk,he
orshemaybest uckwi t
hthatlabelforl
ife,rej
ected, andi solated.Asar esul
t.Fi
ndinga
j
obandmaki ngf riendsmaybecomeext remel ydiffi
cult.Consequent ly,t
hepersonmay
bef orcedt ocont inuecommi t
ti
ngsuchact sormaycommi tincreasinglydevi
antacts.
Beingl abeledadev iant,t
hen,canpusht hei ndiv
idual towar df ur
therandgr eater
deviance.Bei ngl abel edadev i
antinvolves,ineffect,thei ndivi
dual beingcaughtupina
symbol icinteract i
on.
Mar
xism
RememberMarxi
sm i
saconfl
i
ctt
heor
yandbl
amescapi
tal
i
sm f
oral
most
ever
ythi
ngwr
onginsoci
ety
.
Bel
iev
est hatsoci
alprobl
emsarecausedbycapit
ali
sm,whichpaywor ker
slowwages
andsalar
ies.Thi
sexploit
ati
venat
ureofcapi
tal
i
sm causesmanysoci alpr
oblems,
such
ascri
meanddev i
ance,bygener
ati
ngpovert
yamongt hel
owerclasses.
Capitalism f
urthercausessoci al
pr obl
emsbybr ingingaboutwi despread
unempl oyment .Toi ncreasepr ofi
t,capit
ali
stsmustf indwaystoenhancepr oducti
vi
tyat
l
owl aborcost s,includingintr
oduct ionofautomat i
on.Thesemeasur esinev i
tabl
ythrow
someoft heexistingl aborforceoutofwor kandt hewor ker
s’inabili
tytomai nt
aina
decentlivi
ngpr essur esthem t owardcrimeanddev i
ance.Capitali
sm producesnotonl y
propertycri
messuchast heftandr obberyamongt heunempl oy edlower-classpeople;i
t
al
socausesper sonal cri
messuchasassaul t
,rape,andhomicidei nadditiont ovari
ous
otherformsofdev i
ancesuchasal cohol
ism.
SocialPoli
cyisal aw,whichrefl
ectstheinter
estoftherul
ingclass.Social Policyi
stobe
blamedf ormaintaini
ngsocialprobl
emsr atherthancurbi
ngthem.ToMar xists,
revol
utionandacommuni sm soci
etyistheonlysolut
iontosocialproblemssuchas
unempl oyment,crimes,
pov er
tyetc.Inthi
ssociety,t
hecommuni tywi l
lownt hemeans

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39 ofpr
Page| oduct
ion.
Femi
nism
Feministsdidnotbel i
evet hatmostsoci al probl
emsar ecausedbycapi tal
i
sm butthey
bl
amet hepatr
iarchalsociety.Accor di
ngt oliber
al f
eminism, womenf r
om boththe
upperclassandwor ki
ngcl assar ediscr
imi natedatwor kplaceshencetheyarei
n
povert
yt husprostit
ution,shoplif
tingwillbet heotheroftheday .Thus,
femini
sm
i
nterpr
et edsocialproblemsi temsofPat riarchalcult
urenotcapi t
ali
sm.
Li
beralf
emini
sm bel i
evethatfemini
stshavemadepr ogr
essi
vesuccessesin
chal
l
engingpoli
cies,whichexploi
twomen.Ther ol
eofSocialPol
icyistoempower
womenbyr ai
si
ngt hestatusofwomeni nallspher
esoflif
e.Thus,Gouldner
,not
est
hat
i
fsocial
poli
cyisinterpr
etedinthi
swayt hengenderequal
it
ymustf ol
low.
Summar y;t
hesociologyofsocial pol
icystudi
estheimport
anceofsociol
ogicalr
esearch
i
nrelat
ionwithsocialpol
icy.Socialscient
istbel
i
evethatsoci
ologyhasaroletoplay
andwithoutsoci
ological
research, l
awmaker swouldother
wisemakeineff
ectiv
e
pol
ici
es.

Endofuni
t1:
4quest
ions

a)Def
inesoci
alpr
obl
ems(
03)
b)Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weensoci
alpr
obl
emsandsoci
ologi
calpr
obl
ems(
04)
c)Descr
ibef
unct
ional
i
sm andsy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
stv
iewsonsoci
alpr
obl
ems(
08)
D)Exami
nesoci
ologi
calper
spect
ivesonsoci
alpr
obl
ems(
10)
Di
scusst
hebar
ri
ert
osoci
alpol
i
cyi
nZi
mbabwe
Assesstheef
fect
ivenessofthesoci
alpol
i
ciesputi
npl
acebyt
heZi
mbabwean
governmentt
ocurbsocialpr
oblems(10)
Di
scusst
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weensoci
ologyandsoci
alpol
i
cy(
10)
Examinet
hev
iewthatt
heact
ivi
ti
esoft
her
eci
pient
scanbecol
l
ect
ivel
yst
rongert
han
soci
alpol
i
cy(
10)

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40

Soci
ologyandsci
ence

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Positi
vist
sbeli
evethatnaturalsci
encemet hodologycouldbeappli
edinsociologi
cal
research.I
nter
pret
ivi
stsont heotherhand,bel
ievethatthelogi
candmet hodsofthe
naturalsci
encesareinappropri
ateforsoci
ologicalenquir
ybecausethesubjectmatt
er
ofsociologyandthatofthenat ur
alsci
encesaredi ff
erent.
Sociogyisdefi
nedasthescienti
fi
cStudyofsociet
y,thisther
eforemeansthati
t
usest hesci
enti
fi
cmet hodsi
nstudyi
nghumanbehav ior.Mostsoci
ologi
stsar
eof
thev i
ewthatsociol
ogyissci
enti
fi
cinnatur
ealthoughsomequest i
onedthe
scienti
fi
cnatur
eofsoci ol
ogy
.Issoci
ologyascience?Letusdef i
netheterm
science:
Sci
enceisawayofstudyi
ngnat
ural
wor
ldwhi
chi
ssy
stemat
ic,
obj
ect
iveandcapabl
e
ofgener
ati
nguni
ver
sall
aws.
Theabov edefi
nit
ionsay sthatasciencesubjectisnotbi asedi t
isobject
iveandi t
i
scapabl eofgenerati
nguni ver
sallaws.Thequest ionsis,i
ssoci ol
ogyobj ect
ive
notbiased?Isi
tcapabl eofgeneratinguni
v er
sallaws?.Cr it
icshav earguedthat
soci
olgicalt
heori
esarebi asedforexampl eMarxonl ysawt henegat iveroleof
capi
tali
sm andignoredt hepositi
veaspect.Sociologyisunablet omakeuni v
ersal
l
awsbacausecul turalpracti
cesforexampl earenotuni ver
sal butthereare
contextual
.Thus, i
nthiscaset hescienti
fi
cnatur eofsociologyisasubj ectof
debate.
Posi
ti
vi
sm
Posi
ti
vi
sm or
igi
nat
edwi
tht
hewor
ksofAugust
eComt
e.Posi
ti
vi
sm r
efer
stot
hebel
i
ef

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41 t
Page| hatt
hesoci
alwor
ldcl
osel
yresembl
ethenat
ural
wor
ld,
andt
her
efor
enat
ural
sci
ence
methodologycouldbeappli
edinsociologi
calr
esearch.
Anexaminati
onofwhat
const
it
utesasci encemakesiteasytoanswerthesequest
ions.Accor
dingt
oSMoor
e,a
subj
ectcanber egardedasascienceifiti
s:
Empir
ical-i
tisbasedonpract
ical
investi
gati
ons–empir
ical
evi
dencet
hati
sthetest
ed
phy
sicall
y.I
tReli
esonaccurat
egatheringofinf
ormat
iontogetr
eli
abl
emeasur
abledat
a.
Obj
ecti
ve-I
tisfr
eef
rom anybiasorv
aluej
udgement
.Ithasnoper
sonal
val
ues
of
Judgmentsandmi
xedfeel
ings
Repl
icabil
i
ty-Other
scanr epeatt
hemet hod.Other
scanrepli
catetheexper
imentandso,
i
tgiv
est hemethodacl ai
mt osuperi
ori
ty.
Test
able-havetestabl
econcepts,Canbev eri
fi
edorref
uted:
-Falsi
fi
cat
ioni
sthemost
i
mpor t
antcharact
erist
icasfarasKarlPopperisconcer
ned.
Theoreti
cal-I
tisabletomakegeneral
isat
ionsbasedont her
esearchconductedto
establ
ishuniv
ersall
aws.Soci
ologycanpredicthowgroupsofpeoplewil
lreact.
The
proposalofpatt
ernsissomet
hingthatcanbet est
ed.I
talsoUncoverst
her el
ati
onshi
p
betweenphenomena.
Soci
ologyi
sasci
encebecause:

Obser vationispossibl
e-Itispossibl
et oputhumanbei ngsint
oal aborat
oryand
obser vethem alt
houghthereisnolabor atoryforhumanobser vat
ionbutthewhol e
socialwor ldi
sitslabor
atory
.Inlaboratory,experi
ment sar econductedtomeasuret he
rel
ationshipbetweent wovariabl
es,keepingot herfactorsconstant.
Insociol
ogy,we
dothesame, butnotinaformal l
aboratory.Laborat
oryexper i
ment sarenottheonly
cri
teriaforscience.HaditbeensothenAst ronomywoul dnothav ebeenqual i
fi
edtobe
sci
enceandNewt onandArchimedesdi dnoti nventtheirlawsinsi
deal aborat
ory.
Compar i
soni spossible-Compar at ivemet hodisoneoft heimpor tantmethodsi n
scientif
icinv estigat
ion.Sociologist susecompar i
sonsbet weengr oups,communi ti
es
andsoci eties.
Gener al
izationi spossible,-Thev iewt hatgeneral
isati
onisnotpossi bl
einsociologyas
i
nnat ural sciences.Sociologistsseekuni v
ersalgenerali
sati
ons.Forexample,incest
taboo( prohibitionofsexr elati
onshi pbet weenmot herandson,brotherandsister,and
fatheranddaught er)
isauni versal generaltrut
h.Ittri
estodiscoverl awsthatare
generallyappl icableinallt
hesoci eties,i
rr
espectiv
eofact ualdi
fferences.
Accurat
emeasurementi
spossibl
e-I
tispossi
blet
omeasuresoci
alrel
ati
onshi
psby
employi
ngst
ati
stical
method,
scal
esmeasurementandsoci
ometr
istet
c.
Pr
edi
cti
oni
spossi
ble-Cr
it
icspoi
ntt
hatsi
ncehumanbei
ngshav
ethei
rindul
genceand

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42 f
Page| reechoi
ce,
thi
sbehav
iori
snotpr
edi
ctabl
e,i
findi
vi
dual
sar
enotl
argel
ypr
edi
ctabl
e,l
i
fe
pr
edi
cti
onisther
efor
enotpossi
ble.However
,mostposi
ti
vistbel
i
evet
hatsoci
all
i
fei
s
pr
edi
ctabl
ebecauseindi
vi
dual
ssharethesamegroupcul
ture.
Moor
esay
sthatsoci
ologyi
sasci
encesubj
ectbecausei
tful
fi
lst
heabov
e

Keysci
ent
if
iccomponent
s
Sociologyisempi
ri
cal;
itbasesi t
stheoriesonempi r
ical
evidence.Forexampl
e,
Durkheim usedof
fi
cialst
atist
ics,asempi r
icalev
idencetostudysuicide.
Soci
ologyi
s
theoreti
cal
,bei
ngtheor
eticalmeansi texplai
nsthecauseandef fectofbehav
ior.

I
nter
pret
ivi
sm
I
nter
pret
ivi
stsar
ever
yunconv
incedaboutt
heposi
ti
vi
sts’
sci
ent
if
iccl
aims
Theyseetheworldasal ar
gelysocial
lyconstructedplacet otheextentthatl ogi
cand
methodsofthenaturalsci
encesareinappropriateforsociologi
calenquirybecauset he
subj
ectmatterofsociol
ogyandthatoft henaturalsciencesar ei
sdifferent.Asar esul
t,
themethodsandassumpt i
onsoft henaturalsciencesarei nappr
opriatetot hestudyof
humansbecause:

i
)Humansar eactiv
e,haveconsciousness-
areawareofwhatisgoingoninasoci al
si
tuati
on,canmakechoicesabouthowt oact.Nat
ural
phenomenai .
e.matt
er,l
ackthis
consci
ousness.Humanshav eaconsciousnesswhichcompri
sesoft houghts,f
eeli
ngs
andemotions,al
lofwhichcannotbedirect
lyobser
vedandobject
ivel
ymeasur edas
posi
tedbypositi
vi
sts.
i
i)Humanbehavi
ourhasmeani
ngsandpurpose;
iti
snotj
ustareacti
onto
ext
ernal
sti
mul
i.Mat
teri
ssi
mplyreact
sunconsci
ousl
ytoext
ernalst
imul
i
.
i
i
i)Soci
ologycannotmakeaccur
atepr
edi
cti
onsi
ncet
hesubj
ectmat
ter
isdi
ff
erent
i
v)Inordertoconductsociologi
calr
esear
chonemustst udyt
hesubj
ecti
vestat
esof
mindsofindiv
idual
sratherthanthecauseandef
fectr
elati
onshi
ps(Weber)
.
(v)Humanscat egor
izet
heworl
dinordertomakesenseofi
t.Thi
scat
egori
zat
ionis
subject
ive,whichmakesitf
orsoci
ologist
stodir
ect
lyobser
veorobj
ecti
vel
ymeasure
thei
rsubject.
Si
nceiti
snotpossi
bletogeti
nsi
detheheadsofactor
s,t
hediscover
yofmeani
ngs
mustbebasedonint
erpret
ati
onandint
uit
ion.
Ther
efor
eobject
ivemeasur
ementi
snot

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43 pos
Page| si
ble. vi
)Pref
erquali
tat
iveresearchmethods,
whi
ch
r
evealmeaningsbehi
ndsoci
alact
ione.
g.obser
vati
on,unstr
ucturedint
ervi
ews.
v
ii
)Stat
ist
icaldat
adonotprovi
deanygreati
nsi
ghtintohumanbehav i
our.
v
ii
i)Real
i
tyasweunder
standi
tonl
yexi
stsbecauseofagr
eedshar
edconcept
s.
Mosttheori
stsbeli
evethatsociologyisnotasciencebecausei tbasesitst
heori
es
onassumpti
onsconcer ni
ngrealit
y.Theyfurtherar
guet hatsociol
ogyisnotandwill
neverbeasciencebecauseempi rical
evidenceinsociologyareneveraccurat
e.For
example,
Theoffi
ci
alstati
sti
caldatausedbyDukhei minhi sstudyofsuici
deisbiased
anddonotshowat ruepict
ureofsocialreali
tybecauset heydon'
tincl
udeunreport
ed
cases.
Sociologylacksagreeparadi
gm -Accordi
ngtoThomasKunh, atr
uescienceistheone
whichhasanagr eedthoughtofaphenomen.Forexample,i
fyouaskonequest i
onto
realsciencesubj
ectsy ougetoneanswerebuti
fyoudot hesametosociolgyyouget
diff
erentmeanings.Therefor
esociol
ogyispresci
enti
fi
cbecauseitl
acksanagr eed
paradigms.
Summar y:Thus,
whetherornotsociol
ogicalresearchshoul
d,cannotorcanbebased
onthemethodsofnatural
sciences,
dependsont hetheor
eti
calappr
oachadopted
al
thoughmanytheor
istquesti
ont hesci
entif
icnat ur
eofsociol
ogy.

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RELATI
ONSHI
PBETWEENSOCI
OLOGYANDOTHERSOCI
ALSCI
ENCES
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Theboundaryli
nebetweenSoci ologyandot hersoci
alsciencedisci
pli
nesisnotaclear
orpermanentone.Dukheimf orexampl e,believedt
hatsociolgysharebroadsimilar
it
ies
wit
hothersocialsci
encesandi tsomepoi nt,iti
sdi
ffi
culttoseparatet
het wo.Tohelp
i
denti
fypoint
sofsi mi
lari
tyanddi f
ferencesonehast olookattheothersocial
sciences
whichincl
udeEconomi cs,Psychology,Polit
icalsci
ence,Anthr
opologyetc.
Hi
stor
ySci
ence
Sociologyisoneoft hemostgenui nefrui
tsofhistor
yt owhi chitisint
imately
connect ed.
Historybeingthereconstructi
onofman’ spasti sast oryoftheexperi
ence
ofmanki ndandt herecordofhumanpast .
Sociol
ogyi sthesci enceofsociety;ont
he
otherhand, i
tisinter
estedinthepresent.Itt
ri
est oanaly sehumani nter
actionsand
i
nterrelati
onswi thall
theircomplexit
yanddi ver
sity.
Italsotri
est oviewhistori
cal
development sofsoci et
ies.
Ant
hropol
ogy
Iti
sConcer nedinindividual cul
tur
esinasociety
,ratherthanthesocietyasav whole.
Tradit
ional
ly
,anthropologyf ocusesonwhatmi ghtbetermed“ pri
miti
ve”cult
ures,suchas
theYanomamopeopl eoft heSout hAmer i
canjungle,
Anthropologi
stsplacespecial
emphasi sonlanguage,kinshippatter
ns,
andcult
uralartef
acts.Anthropologyisclosel
y
rel
atedtosociologythatinmanycasesi ti
sindi
sti
nguishable.
Pol
i
tical
sci
ence
Sociol
ogyi
stheyoungersci encewhi lepolit
ical
scienceistheol
derscience.
Iti
s
Concernedaboutthegover nmentsofv arioussocieti
es.I
tconsi
der
swhatki ndof
governmentasociet
yhas, howitformed, andhowi ndi
vidual
sattai
npositi
onsofpower
wit
hinapart
icul
argovernment .Polit
icalscienceal
soconcer nst
herelati
onofpeoplei
na
soci
etytowhateverfor
m ofgov ernmentt heyhave.Wedonothav eanywel l-
defi
ned
boundari
esmarkingpolit
icalscienceof fsociol
ogy.
Psy
chol
ogy
Soci
ologyandpsy
chol
ogyar
econt
ri
but
orysci
ences.Psy
chol
ogyhasbeendef
inedas

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45 t
Page| hest
udyofhumanbehav
iour
.Itt
akest
hei
ndi
vi
dual
outofhi
sorhersoci
al
cir
cumst ancesandexami nest
hement al processest hatoccur wi t
hint hatperson.
Psychologistsstudyt hehumanbr ainandhowi tfunctions,Socialpsy chologyplacesthe
i
ndivi
dual ’
sbehav iourinthesoci
al contexti.e.insoci
ety .I
thelpsagr eatindealing
faci
ngsev eral
socialprobl
emswi t
hsev eral socialproblems.I ti
st hest udyofthewayi n
whichthei ndiv
idual becomesmember sofandt heirfunctionsinsoci algr
oups.Soci ol
ogy
analy
sessoci alprocessesbutsoci alpsychol ogyanal ysesment alprocessesofman.

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46 TOPI
Page| C2:
SOCI
ALI
SATI
ON
OBJECTI
VES
Af
tert
heendoft
hist
opi
c,l
eaner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:
i
. Expl
aint
hepr
ocessofsoci
ali
sat
ion
i
i
. Ev
aluat
ehowt
hepr
ocessofsoci
ali
sat
ionpr
omot
esunhu/
Ubunt
u
i
i
i. Anal
yseper
spect
ivesonsoci
ali
sat
ion
i
v. Di
scussi
ngt
heor
iesofsoci
ali
zat
ion
v
. Exami
nenat
ureandnur
tur
edebat
e
v
i. Char
act
eri
sti
csofi
ndi
vi
dual
swi
thoutsoci
ali
sat
ion
v
ii
. Assesi
ngef
fect
sofl
acki
ngsoci
ali
sat
ion
Whati
ssoci
ali
zat
ion?
Manysocialsci
ent
ist
sbeli
evethatindi
vidual
sareborninablankst
ate,
wi t
hout
anycult
uralnor
msandv al
ues;
thepr ocessinwhichthebl
ankstat
eormi ndis
fi
ll
edinwithcul
tur
alnor
msandv aluesiscall
edsociali
zat
ion.
Ant honyGi ddens(2006)def i
nessoci
ologyastheprocesswher ebyahelplessi nfant
graduallylearnthecultur
eofhi sorhersoci
ety
.Parsons(1937)def i
nessocializationas
thepr ocesswher ebyindiv
idualsar
etaughtthenormsandv aluesoftheirsociet y
.Itis
definedast heprocessthroughwhichindi
vi
dualsl
earnaculture,anditcontinues
throughoutl if
e.
Ty
pesofsoci
ali
zat
ion
Therearetwomai
nty
pesofsoci
ali
zat
ion,
whi
char
epr
imar
yandsecondar
y
soci
ali
zat
ion.
Primar ysocialization-Ref er
st otheear l
ieststageofsocializati
on,wher eani nf
ant
startstoacqui ret heabi l
i
tytoactsoci allyandittakesplacei nthefami l
y.Inthefamily,
parent sandsi blingsspendsomet imeint er
actingwithi
nf antshencei nfantstakeand
i
mi tatet heappr opr i
atebehav i
orinthef amily.
Secondar ysocializati
on-Takespl aceout si
def amil
ye.g.school ,r
eligi
on,massmedi a.
Secondar yagent sofsoci ali
zati
onpr ovidesomeoft hevaluest hatarenotf oundinthe
fami l
y.Forexampl e,atschool,i
ndividuals’acquir
euniversalist
icvalues,whichenable
theni nteractwi t
hst rangers.
Agent
sofsoci
ali
zat
ion
Thesear
einst
it
uti
onst
hatpr
oducesoci
alcul
tur
eandar
easwher
eindi
vi
dual
sar
e

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47 soci
ali
zed.Thesimplepar
taboutt
hefoll
owi nginsti
tut
ionsisthat,
thesearet he
maintopi
csinsociol
ogysoformoredetail
sy ouhavetol ookatthem astopicsIn
rel
ati
ontosocial
i
zati
onthati
swheretheirrolesarecri
tical
lyexamined.These
agentsar
easf ol
lows;
o f
ami
l
y
o r
eli
gion
o massmedi
a
o educat
ion
o peergr
oups
o wor
kpl
ace
Soci
ologi
cal
appr
oachonsoci
ali
zat
ion
Funct
ional
i
sm
Keypoi
ntr
aisedbyf
unct
ional
i
sm ar
easf
oll
ows;
Thi
stheoryseessoci
ali
zat
ionaspl
ayi
ngapositi
vecontr
ibuti
ontothesoci
etyasa
whol
esinceitmaint
ainsor
der.Mur
dock(1949)ar
guesthattherol
eoffamil
yistoteach
newmember sofsociet
ynormsandval
uesandwi t
houtcult
ure,
societ
ydoesnotexist
.
Parsons(1937)sawsoci al
izat
ionasavit
alprocesstowhi chval
ueconsensusis
producedinsociety.Thi
sprocessenabl
esindivi
dualstotakeanaspectofthei
rcultur
e,
whichmakest heirbehavi
orlar
gelypr
edi
ctable,hencecontri
buti
ngt
ot hemaintenance
ofsocialor
der.
Remember ,whentheel derscreatedt
hesev al
ues,someofuswer enotyetborn,
sohowdowef ami l
iari
zeourselveswitht
heagr eevalues?Thi sisthereasonwhy
Parson'sissaying,'social
i
zationisanimportantprocesswhi chi nt
roducesnew
member sofsocietytotheircult
ureandthi
smai ntainsorder.Howsoci al
orderis
mai nt
ained?Ifpeoplenowshar ecommonl anguage, val
uesandcommon
guidel
ines,i
ngener al,t
heywi l
lbeabletodisti
nguishtherightfrom thewr ongand
orderisachieved.Justimaginet hebehavi
orofsomeonewi thi nadequate
social
izati
on;
Parsonsarguest
hatsoci
ali
zati
onpr
ovi
despeoplewithcommongoal sandteaches
appropr
iat
edbehavi
orassociat
edwi
thpar
ti
cularrol
ese.g.t
eacher
,pastoret
c.
Asapast oroneshouldbehavi
orli
keapastor
,achil
disachil
dhencey oushould
behaveinthatmanner.I
nShona, t
heysay(Mwanangaarambear i
mwana).
Theref
ore,soci
ali
zat
ionteachesappr
opri
atebehav
iorassoci
atedwit
hparti
cular

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48 r
oles.

Asani ndi
vidualissoci
ali
zedint
osociety’
snormsandv al
ues,he/
shelearnsto
takear ol
e.Rolesaresocial
l
ydefinedexpectat
ionst
hataper soninagiven
stat
usorsoci alposi
ti
onfoll
ows.Onecar r
iesoutwhetherathome, i
nthe
workplaceoratschool t
heduty.Forexample,myrol
ei stoteachandyoursisto
beattenti
vestudents.
Hefurt
herarguesthati
tteachesgenderroles.Hehol
dsthev
iewt
hati
tisbenefi
cialt
o
soci
etyofwoment akepri
mar yresponsi
bil
i
t ywhi
lemenaret
hebr
eadwi
nners.Societ
y
needsdiv
isi
onoflaborforitt
orunsmoot hly.
Parsonssaidinthef amily,i
ndivi
dualsaret aughttheparti
cul
arist
icvalues-thesearethe
yardst
ickval
ues, aninfantisabletointeractwithpeopleshe/hei sfami l
iarwi t
h.At
school,i
ndi
vidualsaret r
eatedorexpect edt obehav ebasi
ngonuni v
ersal valuesthat
applytoeveryone,thesear eUniver
salist
icv al
uesthatapplyt
oev eryone,forexampl e,
at
schoolorwor kpl
ace, anindiv
iduali
st aughtt oi
nteractwit
hstranger
s.
Ther
efor
e,f
rom theabov
ediscussi
on,
itpr
ovesbey
onddoubtt
hatsoci
ali
zat
ion
makesthest
rangefamil
i
ar.
I
foneobeysthenor
msandv
alueshe/
shewi
l
lbef
oll
owedbysanct
ions;
sanct
ionscan
beposi
ti
veornegat
ive.
Whataresancti
ons?-r
ewar dsandpuni
shmentf orpar
ticul
arconduct.I
fyoudo
somethi
nggood, y
ouwi l
lbegivenahugorbuy i
ngabi cycl
eforyou.Thi
siscall
ed
posi
ti
vesancti
onthatfol
lowsunderrewards.I
fy ouvi
olatenor
msandv al
ues,u
wil
lbefol
lowedbynegativesancti
onsforexample,pr
ohibit
edtogot oaholi
day
whil
eothersar
egoing.
CRI
TICI
SM
1.Gouldner(1970)beli
evedthatParsonsov eremphasizedthepositi
vecontri
buti
on
ofsocial
izati
onandtendst oignoretheamountofconf li
ctsthatcantakeplace
onthepr ocessofsocial
i
zation.Hesaid‘youwoul dneverguessfrom readi
ng
functi
onali
sttext
sonsoci al
izat
ionthattr
ainingchil
drencanbecont i
nual,r
oom -
to-room batt
le,i
nvar
iabl
yexhaustingtothepar ent
sandr epell
enttot
hechi l
dren.
’
2.Denni
sWr ong(1961)arguest
hatPar
sonst
endst
oignor
etheext
entt
owhi
ch
soci
ali
zat
iontr
iestoinsti
l
l.
3.Al
l
anFi
ne(
2006)bel
i
evest
hatchi
l
drendonotnecessar
il
yident
if
ysocl
osel
ywi
th

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Page|
49 par
ent
s;peergr
oupscanal
soi
nfl
uencet
hem negat
ivel
y.
4.Parsonssawgenderdi
v i
sionoflabor
,femini
stssuchAnnyOakley(1974)ar
gues
thatsoci
ali
zati
oni
snotbenefici
altothesoci
etysincei
tperpet
uatesgender
i
nequalit
y;suchadi
vi
sionoflaborisanelementofpatr
iar
chy.
5.Marxist
slikeDav
idCooperar guesthatParsonstendstoseesociali
zati
onasabedof
rosesandignoredt
heconnect i
onbet weensocial
i
zationandclassconfl
icts.Cooper
arguesthatnormsandv al
uesarenotagr eeduponandt heyt
endt oref
lecttheint
erest
oftheruli
ng(whosev al
uesaretransmitt
ed)hence,social
i
zat
ionisnotbenef i
cial
tothe
societ
yasawhol esinceitencouragesclassexpl
oit
ation.
Mar
xism andsoci
ali
zat
ion
Mar xistperspect
iveseessocial
izat
ionasplay
inganegat i
verolei
nsocietysinceit
perpet uat
esclassexploit
ati
on.Theydisagr
eethatsociali
zat
ionbenefi
tssocietyasa
whol e.Normsandv al
uesthatarepassedfrom gener
ationtogenerat
ionref
lectthe
i
nterest softherul
ingclass.
Thisisacr iti
ctof unct
ionali
sm,rememberf unct
ional
ism seessocializati
on
posit
ively,buttoMar xi
stitdoesnotbenefitsoci
etyasawhol ebutcapi t
ali
sts.
RememberMar xism saysruli
ngclasscontrol
sallsuper
struct
ures,thismeans
thatt
hev aluesthataretransmit
tedbyallagentsofsocial
izat
ionreflects
capit
alistvalues.
DavidCooper( 1972)seesfami l
yasani deol
ogical-conditi
oningdev icet
hatcondi t
ions
chi
ldrentoacceptt hei
rexploi
tati
on.Cooperar guest hatfamilylaysdownbehav ior
patter
nsinwhi chpeoplesubmi ttothosei nauthori
ty.Childr
enl earntoobeyt heir
parentsastheywi l
lobeyempl oyerslaterinl
if
e.(Hiddencur ri
cul um tobeexami ned
undereducati
onasat opic)
.BowlesandGi nt
is(1976)ar guethathi ddencur
riculum
social
izeschi
ldrentobesubser vienthenceexpl oi
tati
oni nsociety.
NeoMar
xism
Neo-Mar xi
sm tendst oar
guethatsocial
izat
ionisnotasef f
ecti
v eassomeMar xist
assume.Itinvol
vesthecreati
veresponseofpeergr oupsratherthanthepassiv
e
accept
anceofr ulesi
mposedont hem (PaulWi l
l
isstudyof12l ads)
.Theyalsoreject
thatal
lsuperstr
ucturesaredet
ermi nedbyruli
ngclass.(
ForPaul Will
isref
ertoy our
educat
ionsect i
on).
Genderf
emi
nism andsoci
ali
zat
ion
Theyseesocial
i
zati
onnegat
ivel
ysinceitencour
agesgenderinequali
tyandexpl
oitat
ion
i
nt hesoci
ety
.AnnyOakley(
1974)arguesthatsoci
ali
zat
ionsocial
izesindi
vi
dual
si nt
o
genderrol
esbetweent
hemal eandfemalesandthisder
ivedfrom cul
turenotbi
ology.

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50 Ge
Page| nderr
olesar
eder
ivedf
rom cul
tur
eoft
hesoci
ety
.Shebel
i
evest
hatt
hedi
sti
nct
ion
betweenmenandwomeni sduetot
hecultur
algenderr
olest
hatarel
earntt
hrough
social
i
zat
ion.Oakl
eyout
li
nedhowsoci
ali
zati
onshapesbehavi
orofchi
ldr
en.
a)Manipul
ati
on-thechil
dself-
concepti
saffect
edbymanipul
ati
one.
g.,
mot
her
stendt
o
payat
tenti
ontothegir
ls'hai
randdressthem i
nfemi
ninecl
othes.
b)Canal
i
zat
ion
Theseinvolv
et hedir
ect
ionofboysandgirl
stowardsdiffer
entobject
se.g.theprov
isi
on
oftoy
st hatencourageboysandgir
lstorehearset
heirexpectedadul
trol
esasmot hers
andhousewi ves.Gi
rl
saregiv
endolls,
softtoyswhil
eboy saregivent
oyslikebri
cksand
guns,whichencouragemorepracti
cal,
logi
calandaggressivebehavi
or.
Lesl
eyBest(1992)cl
aimsthatsexrolesocial
izati
onconti
nuesinschool sthr
ough
ster
eotypi
calport
ray
alofboysandgi r
lsinreadingski
lls.
Otherfeminist
shav epoi
nted
outtot
heinfl
uenceofmediaandr el
igioninperpetuat
inggenderinequal
ity.
Cr
it
ics
Somesoci ologi
stspoi
ntoutthatsocial
i
zati
ondoesnotal wayssupportpatr
iar
chal
values.Bar
baraRiesman(2006)pointsoutthatsomear enowsocial
izedinfamil
y
householdswheretheyareencouragedtobehost i
l
et opatr
iar
chyandsexistcult
ure.
From herstudyof75famil
ies,shefoundoutthatchil
drenarenowsociali
zedthatmen
andwomenshoul dbeequal.
Testy
ourpr
ogr
ess
Exami
net
hev
iewt
hatsoci
ali
zat
ionper
pet
uat
esgenderi
nequal
i
ty.
Sy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
sm
Remembert hi
sisami
crot
heor
y,r
ememberitt
alksaboutsy
mbols,howsymbol
s
aret
ransmitt
edandl
ear
nt,
andl
etusseesomeofitskeypoint
srai
sedon
soci
ali
zat
ion.
Ger
aldHandel
(2006)
Observ
esthatatbi
rt
hanewbor n,
ababyi
snotabl
etot
akepar
tinsoci
etyby
cooper
ati
ngwithot
hersbecause:
-
1)Physi
cal
l
yimmatur
e-Ast
hechi
ldgetsol
der
,hegoesthr
oughabiol
ogi
cal
matur
ati
onashemovest
owar
dsadul
thoodanddev
elopsnewcapaci
ti
es.
2)Isnotsocial
ized-Soci
ali
zati
onenabl
esachil
dtocooper
ateandinter
actwi
thot
hers
andsocial
izati
onenablesachil
dtolear
nsymbolssuchasl
anguage,whichwi
ll
make
i
nteract
ionpossibl
e.Accordi
ngtoHandel,
thepr
ocessofsoci
ali
zat
ionenabl
esachil
dto

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51 de
Page| vel
opt
hreekeycapaci
ti
es:
-
i
)Empathy-Itr
equi
resapersontoputhi
msel
forher
sel
fimagi
nat
ivel
yintheposi
ti
onof
anot
herper
sonandunderst
andhowt heymi
ghtf
eele.
g.car
eer
swhol ookaft
erbabi
es
needempathyt
oint
erpr
etbabiescr
ying.
i
i)Devel
opi
ngtheabi
li
tytocommunicate-Totakepartinsoci
ety
,achi l
dmustdev
elop
theabi
li
tyt
ocommunicateandthechil
dmustlearntousesy mbols,whichhav
e
dif
fer
entmeani
ngs.I
tfaci
li
tat
estheacqui
sit
ionoflanguageandgr ammar .
i
ii
)Senseofsel
f-Ref
erst
oone'schar
acterandper
sonal
i
ty,
whichisnotinbornbut
devel
opedt
hroughev
erydayi
nter
acti
on.Charl
esHort
onCooleybestexpl
ainsthesense
ofsel
f.
Looki
ngGl
assSel
ftheor
y
Char
lesHor
tonCool
ey
Cooleyi
sasy mboli
cint
eract
ioni
stwhodevel
opedthel
ookingGlassSelf
-t
heor
y.He
arguest
hatpeoplecametopossessalooki
ngGlassSel
f-
.Otherpeopl
eseeyoutheway
youseeyoursel
fandYoursenseofwhoy ouar
ebecomesar efl
ecti
onofhowotherssee
you.
Indi
v i
dual
sputt hemsel v
esimaginati
vel
yonami rror.Societybecomest hemi r
rort
hat
mi r
rorsyourbehav i
or.Thedevel
opmentofselfiscrucialinsociali
zati
onbecausei t
enablesachi l
dtost artt
oali
gntheirbehav
iorwit
ht hatifothers.Chil
drenst ar
ttotake
accountoft heopini
onofot her
sandt oactinway stheybelievewillr
eflectwelltothem
orinlookingglass.Themor echil
drenarecorr
ectedt hemor etheyaresoci ali
zedinthe
cultur
eofsoci et
y.
Imaginewhaty oudowhendr essi
ngyourself
,yougobef or
ey ourmir
rorandyou
useyourmirrortocorrectifyouhavepinnedthewrongbut t
on.Inthi
ssense
soci
etyisyourmi r
rorwhi chcorr
ectsyourbehavi
or,Forexample,i
fyoudressnot
accordi
ngtot heexpectationsofsoci
ety,ot
herswil
lreact,
inthisr
espectyoumay
endupknowi ngwhati sgoodorbadhencet hesenseofselfisdevel
opedby
taki
ngtheopinionsofot hers.
Dr
amat
urgi
cal
theor
y
ERVI
NGGof
fman
Erv
ingGof f
mananot hersymbol i
cinteractioni
sm i
ntroduceddramaturgi
calperspect
ive
i
nsoci ol
ogyin1959.Er vingGoffmanst udiedthei
nteracti
onsthatt
akeplaceinsociety
atthemicrolevel.Hesaidt hatsocialbehav i
orisl
i
keat heat
reordr
ama. Het ookthi
s
perspect
ivefr
om t hetheatreandusest heatr
easamet aphort
orepresenthowpeople
i
nsoci et
ybehav eandr epresentthemsel ves.

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52 I
Page| nthi
smet
aphor
,thepeopl
ear
etheact
orsandt
hesoci
etyi
sast
age.
Thei
ndi
vi
dual
s
i
nteractwithoneanot herast heact or
sexchangedi aloguet heyar ebei ngdirect
edbythe
normsandv aluesthattheyfollowast hemember sofsoci ety.Astheyhav etostickt
o
thedirecti
on,theactorsconst antl
yengagei nwhatiscal led“impressi onmanagement ”.
Thisiswhenpeopl etr
yt ocont r
oltheimpressionthatot hershav eont hem andthey
havecer t
aingoalsinmi ndaccor dingtowhicht heywillbehav e.Thebehav i
orpresent
ed
i
nsuchacasei stheonet hatwi l
lbeacceptablebyt heonewhom y ouwantt ogivean
i
mpr essione.g.whenwegof orani nt
ervi
ew, wewi l
lputonf ormal clothesandwear e
l
ikel
yt obeatourbestbehav ior.Wepr esentourselv
esi nsoci etyi
nt woway s.

THEFRONTSTAGESELF
Itisthesel fwear eli
kelytoshowt othewor ld.Thisi sthesel fwepr esentwhenwego
outofourf amilysett
ing, whenwei nteractwithpeopl ewear enoty etcomfortablewith;
thesear epeopl ewedonotknow.Thi si swher eouri mpr essionmanagementcomest o
play.Weusual lytendtoputoutbehav i
orsthatwi ll
beeasi lyacceptedbyt hepeopl eof
thesoci etye.g.whenwemeetourf ri
end'spar entsforthef irstti
me, i
tisl
ikelythatwe
woul dwi shforthem tot hinkofusasgoodcompanyf ort heirchil
drensoweputonour
bestbehav i
or.Simil
arly
, whenwest artworkingwemaywantt ocreateagoodf i
rst
i
mpr essi onamongourcol leaguesandsuper iors.Thus, wemayactaccor dinglyby
eager l
ydoi nganywor kt hati sgi
ventousandpr ocrast
inat e.

THEBACKSTAGESELF
Referstothataspectofsel
fthatwereallyare.Thi
sistheself
,whi chwear eint
he
envir
onmenti nwhichwearecomf or
table.Her eweareaccepted,peopleknowusf or
whowear eandthereisnoneedforanyki ndofimpressi
onbui l
dinge.g.whenwear e
withourfri
endswebehav einamor erelaxedmanner .Wemaybecomf ort
ableusi
ng
l
anguaget hatmaybeot herwi
seconsideredabusive.Weareof f
stage, unobser
vedand
thusmor erel
axed.Thestagethusbecomesamet aphorwhenweacti nway st
hatful
l
fi
llourneedstobeacceptedinthi
ssociet y.
Lookatamov ieoradr ama,wehav ewhatwecal l
thebackstage/behi ndthe
scenesandwhatwecal l
frontstage/onstage.Thebehav i
orofact or
sbehi nd
theseenisnotshown.Si mi l
arl
ytoahumanbehav ior
,yourtr
uebehav ioristhe
onewhi chi
sbehi ndtheseen, i
magi neyour
selfwhenyouarei ny ourr
oom or
withfri
endsthat'
sy ourtr
uebehav ior,
theotheroneyoutrytoportrayyourselfon
thestage/i
nt hepresenceofev eryoneisnotyoutruebehavior
,thusGof fman
saidhumansar eactors.
Poi
ntsr
aised

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53  Expl
ainshumanact
ioni
never
ydaysoci
ali
nter
acti
on;
Goff
man’
stheor
ytr
iest
o
expl
ainwhyweactthewatwedowhenint
eracti
ngwit
hot
her
s.

 All
ident
it
iesandbehav
ior
sar
edependentupont
heaudi
encewhom one
perf
orms.

 Ev
eryoneseekst
ocont
rol
impr
essi
onsoft
hemsel
ves.Thi
siscal
l
edi
mpr
essi
on
management.

 Dramaturgyemphasizesthedualevaluati
vewor kthati
sunder
takenbybot
hthe
perf
ormer/indiv
idualandtheaudi
ence/ soci
ety
,thusdemonstr
atingt
he
i
nseparableli
nkbetweentheindi
vidualandsociety.

 Frontstagebehavi
orsar
ethosethatar
evisi
blet
otheaudi
ence,
whil
ebackst
age
behaviorsar
ethosetowhichtheaudi
encedoesnothav
eanaccess.
Cr
it
ici
sms
Accordi
ngt oEdgleyandManni ng,dramaturgyhasbeencr i
ti
cizedi nthesenset hati
tis
pedestr
ian,nonsystemati
cform ofinqui
rythatdoesnotpossesst hepropertiesof
for
mal t
heor y.Several
schol
arshav ecri
ti
cizedthedramat urgi
calper specti
vef or
port
rayi
ngpeopl eascon–ar ti
sts,li
arsandot herdi
singenuouschar acter
s.Italso
i
gnorest heimpactofsociali
nsti
tuti
onsinshapi ngbehaviore.g.religi
on,educationet
c.
“
Me”and"
I”conceptt
heor
y
Geor
geHeber
tMead
Meaddevel
opedatheoryabouthowthesel
f-
conceptdevel
opsovert
hecourseof
chi
l
dhood.Meadsuggestedthatt
hesel
fdevel
opsthroughthr
eemainst
ages.
I
)thepr
epar
ator
yst
age
Duri
ngthi
sstage,chi
ldr
enareonlycapabl
eofimitat
ionandtheyhav
enoabili
tyto
i
maginehowt heyseethi
ngs.Theycopytheacti
onsofthepeoplewhom t
heyar e
i
nter
act
ingwith.Thi
sstagelast
sfrom t
het i
mewear ebornunti
lweareabouttheageof
t
woandchi l
dhasnoi deaandanyunderstandi
ngonwhatsheorhei sdoi
nge.g.smil
ing.
I
i)
.Thepl
ayst
age
From abouttheageoftwot osix,
chil
drenareint
heplayst
age. Duringthepl ayst
age
chil
drenbegintotakearolethr
oughgamese. g.t
heymighttrytotakeat elephoneand
i
mi t
atethewayt heyseethei
rmot her
sdoing.Dur
ingthi
sstage,chil
drenpl ayand
pret
endast hesigni
fi
cantotherandtheypret
endtothemot herorfathertheyknow.
i
i
i).
Thegamest
age
I
tisf
rom aboutsev
eny
ear
sonwar
ds.Chi
l
drenl
ear
ntoconsi
dersev
eral
rol
esatt
he

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54 s
Page| amet
imeandhowt
hei
rrol
esi
nter
actwi
theachot
her
.Theyl
ear
ntounder
stand
i
nt eracti
onsinvol
vingdiff
erentpeoplewi t
hav ari
etyofpurposese.g.achil
datt hi
s
stagei sli
kel
yt obeawar eofdiff
erentresponsibi
li
ti
esofpeoplee.g.inafootballmatch
childrendevelopanunder st
andingandl earnt
hei deaofthegenerali
zedother,whichis
thecommonbehav iorofthesociety.I
nthisstageofdevelopment,anindi
vidualisable
toi maginehowot herpeopleviewhi m orherorhowheorshev i
ewsot herpeople.In
thisrespectasenseofsel fisdeveloped.
Nat
ureandNur
tur
edebat
e
Pupil
sneedt oshowanev al
uati
oni
nform ofadebatewhet
herhumanbehaviori
sa
productofnurt
ure(env
ironment
)ornat
ure(bi
ology
).Her
earesomeoft
het heori
es
demonstratedbel
ow;
Nur
tur
ear
gument
s
Nurt
ureargumentsf ocusonthewaypeoplearebroughtupandhowenv i
ronment
moldstheirper
sonalit
yandbehavior
.Anindi
vi
dual'
spersonal
it
yandident
ityar
emolded
anddevelopedinresponsetothei
rsoci
alenvi
ronmentandpeoplet
heymeetnotbiol
ogy.
1.JohnLocke
Hecoi nedthet erm' tabula-r
asa'andar guedt hatat oddleri
sbor nt abul
a-r
asa.This
meanst hatani nfantisbor ninabl ankst ateorani nfantisbornwi thoutanycultural
normsandv aluest hereforetheblankst ateisfil
l
edi nbysoci al
izati
on.Indiv
idualsare
taughtbehav i
orpat ternssuchasl anguage, dr
essingbyt heirsurroundingse.g.parents,
sibl
ings.I
nsomecasest heyimitate,i
nt hisrespect,behav i
orisapr oductofnur t
ure.
Whoqui ckl
yr ejectedt heconceptoft abul a-
rasa?
Theabov econceptwasi ndeedrej
ectedbymanyt heor i
stbutReneDescar tesofferedan
amazingapproach, hewasani nt
eresti
ngcat.Agenius, nodoubt,butalsosomeone
wit
hphilosophythatmostgr eatmindstodaywil
ltel
ly oucouldnotbewr ong.Het otal
ly
wentagainst‘
tabula-r
asa’;
hesaiditiscrazyi
fyouthinkaboutit.Likeifyouwer eto
l
it
eral
lydowhathedescr i
bes,iti
saf or
m ofmadness; hesaidindividual
sar ebornwi t
h
i
deasofsomesor t
.
Si
gmundFr
eud
Arguesthatpeopl epossessanunconsciousmi ndthatcontainsrepressedfeel
ingsand
desir
es,whichtheyar enotawareof.These,areconcernedwi thpleasureseeki
ngand
sexuali
ty.Thechildneedstolearntocontr
olthesedesiresandt oidenti
fywiththesame
sexpartner.ForFreud,chil
dhoodexperi
enceswer evit
alforthedev el
opmentof
i
dentit
iesinadulthood.Freudsaidwebringchil
dhoodexper i
encest othedecisi
onswe
makeasadul t
s.
2.Soci
all
ear
ningt
heor
y
Al
ber
tBandur
a(psy
chol
ogi
st)

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55 Ac
Page| cor
dingt
oBandur
a,soci
albehav
iori
sapr
oductofext
ernal
env
ironment
.The
i
ndiv
idual
slearnandimitat
ebehav i
orpatt
ernsf rom externalenvi
ronmente.g.media,
par
entsetc.Hesaidtherei
snothingbiol
ogical aboutsocialbehaviorandthi
sisshown
byhi
sBobodol lexperi
mentwhereHeest ablishest heli
nkbet weenaggressi
vebehavior
andmassmedi a.(Ref
ertomethodologynot es)..Theref
ore,Banduraconcludedthat
humanbehav i
orisaproductofnurt
ure.
3.Fr
ust
rat
iont
heor
y
Accor dingtoMi l
l
erandDol l
and,socialbehav i
orisaproductofext
ernalenv i
ronment
andexper i
ence.Theybeli
evethataggressioni susuall
ycausedbyaf ai
l
uret or eacha
certai
ndef inedgoalinsoci
etye.g.,
under achievementatschool.
Anindividual whois
disappoi nt
edisli
kelytobeaggressive.Aggr essiv
ebehaviori
scausedbysoci al
problemsandexper i
encenotbiology.Thus, thi
stheoryar
guesagainstbiological
theories,whichli
nkedaggressiv
ebehav i
ortogenet i
cfact
ors.
4.Dr
amat
urgi
cal
theor
y
Accordingt oGoffman, socialbehaviorisapr oductofext ernalenvir
onment .Gof
fman
port
raysi ndivi
dualsasact orsperfor
mi ngonst agewhol ookcomposed, well-
mannered
andgiveapar ti
cularandposi t
iveimpressiont oot her
s.Thusani ndivi
dual
'sbehavi
or
canbeshapedbysoci etyinwhi chheisoper atingatanygi v
enpoi ntandtime.
Therefore,theselfgrowsoutofsoci ety '
sinterpersonali
nt eract
ions,andthepercept
ion
ofothersdet erminesani ndivi
dual'
sbehav ior.
5.Looki
nggl
asst
heor
y
Char
lesHor
tonCool
ey
Hear guesthatindividualbehavi
orisapr
oductofsociet
yt hroughhislookinggl ass
theory,hearguest hatindiv
idual
swouldnotwanttoactdifferent
lyfr
om howt heyt hi
nk
societyperceiv
est hem .Forinst
ance,
societ
ymightseeani ndivi
dualasapast or,and
thusthepast orbehav esinaway ,whi
chissoci
all
yacceptablebyt hesociety
.Thus,
behav i
orisapr oductoft heenvi
ronment
.
6.Funct
ional
i
sm
Dur
khei
m andPar
sons
Socialbehav i
orisconstrai
nedbysoci al
factsandmoralcodese.g.normsandval
ues,
familyetc.Durkheim‘sstudyofsuici
deshowedani mpactthatsociet
yhason
i
ndividuals.Hequestionedthati
ft hesociet
ydoesnothaveanimpactoni ndi
vi
dual
s
whyt heni ndi
vi
dualskil
lthemselves.Parsonsal
sosai
dthathumanbehav iori
s
str
ucturedi nsociet
ybyasetofnor msandv al
ues.
7.Femi
nism
Genderdi
ff
erencesar
easar
esul
tofcul
tur
einsoci
ety
.AnnOakl
eycl
aimedt
hatgender

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56 di
Page| ff
erencesar
ebecauseofcanal
i
zat
ion,
mani
pul
ati
ont
hatt
akepl
acedur
ingt
he
chi
ldhoodli
fe.Thegenderdi
ff
erencesar
ecultur
all
yrat
herthanbi
ologi
call
yinf
ormed.
.
Theref
ore,
sheseesbehav i
orbecauseofenv
ironmentnotgenet
icf
actors.
CASESTUDY
Thecasest
udyofAnna
Discoveredin1938bysoci alworkersinafar mhousei nr ur
alPennsy l
vania.Annal iv
eda
l
ifeofv i
rtual
lytotali
solati
onfrom herment alchallengedmot herandelderlygrandfather
.
Thet wof edAnnaonl ymi l
kandkeptherl ockedi nast orager oom unti
lherdi scoveryat
herageofsi x.Annacoul dnotspeakorwal kandsher ejectedhumancont act.After
extensivesociali
zati
onov ert
hecour seoftenday sAnnawasabl etoint
eractwi th
others,shebegant owal k.I
talsobecomecl earthathery earsofsocialisolati
onhad
causedper manentdev elopment aldamage.Byt heageoft en, Annawasusi ngsi mple
wor dsunfort
unat el
y,Annadiedatt heageoft enofabl ooddi seasethatmi ghthav e
beenr el
atedtot heyearsofisolati
on(Davis,1947) .
THECASEOFANNADEMONSTRATEDTHEPOWERANDLI
MITATI
ONSOF
SOCI
ALI
SATI
ON
Char
act
eri
sti
csofi
ndi
vi
dual
swhol
acksoci
ali
zat
ion
1.Dev
elopment
aldel
ays
2.Donotdev
eloppr
oper
ly
3.l
ookmor
eani
mal
thanhuman
4.Pr
efert
oremai
nnaked
5.Hav
enosenseofper
sonal
hygi
ene
6.Fai
ltor
ecogni
zesel
finami
rr
or
7.Showl
i
ttl
eornor
easoni
ng abi
l
ity
8.Doesnotknowt
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenr
ightandwr
ong.
Inconclusi
on,theabovecasesdemonstrat
edthathumanbehavi
orisaproductof
soci
alenvir
onmentinthesensethatsoci
albehavi
orsuchasl
anguageisnotinher
it
ed
butiti
slear
nt.Ital
sodemonstrat
edthatchi
ldr
enwhoar ei
nadequat
elysoci
ali
zed
behaveinastrangemanner.
NATURE
Natur
eargument
sfocusonthewaypeopl
earebroughtupbybi
ologi
cal
feat
ures.
Genet
icf
eatur
esandinher
it
ancef
actor
sinf
luencenat
ure.
1.Neur
osci
ent
istt
heor
y

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57 The
Page| ybel
i
evet
hatbehav
iort
rai
tisi
nher
it
edf
rom t
hepar
ent
s.Anexampl
egi
veni
sthat
someindiv
idual
sar esensit
ivet
opainandsomear enot, someareemoti
onalandsome
areaggr
essivehence,suchpersonal
it
ytrai
tsar
eshapedbybi ol
ogy.Contr
arytothe
fr
ustr
ati
onandsoci all
earni
ngtheori
es,t
heneurosci
entistsawtheaggr
essivebehavi
or
asaproductofinheri
tanceorbiol
ogynotexter
nalenvi
ronment.

2.Br
ainl
ater
ali
zat
iont
heor
y
(
Nicol
son1993)
Accor di
ngt oNichol ast hediff
erencei nbehav i
orbetweenmal esandf emal esisdueto
biol
ogy ,notsociali
zat ion.Hesaidt her i
ghtandt helef
themi sphereoft hebr ai
n
speciali
zei ndif
ferentt asks.Thel efthemi spherespeciali
zesi nverbal andl anguage
skil
l
swhi l
er i
ghthemi spheremai nlyr esponsi bl
ef orspeci
al abil
i
ties, whichr el
atetot
he
abil
it
yt olocateobj ectsi nspace..Gr ay nandBuf fer
y(1972)bel i
evet hatt heleft
hemi sphereoft hebr ainismor edomi nateingi r
lsandthisisinher i
tedaf tertheageof
twoandt heboy shav egr eaterabili
ti
esi nthosef uncti
onsconcent r
at edint heri
ght
hemi sphere.
Thismayaccountf ort heresult
sofsomet estthatappeartoshowt hatgi r
lshaveverbal
abil
it
yt hanboy sbutboy sperf
orm bet terinmat hemat i
caltesttheref oresuchbehav i
or
tr
aitsarei nheri
ted.
3.Theor
yofhor
mones
Hormonesar ebodilysecret
ionswhosef uncti
oni ncl
udetheregulat
ionoft hemal eand
femalebodies.Normal l
ywomenpr oducegr eateramount sofoestr
ogenhor mones
whil
emenpr oducemor eandrogen.Theact i
vit
yofv ari
etyofhormonescani nfl
uence
behavi
or.Animal r
esearchhasbeenusedt oli
nkandr ogenandaggr essivebehaviore.
g.
thecast
ratedmal eratsormonkey stendstof i
ghtlessthanthosenotcast rated
ther
efor
emal eaggressi
veisli
nkedtot hehormonesi nthetestesandt hesehor mones
arei
nherit
ed.
I
nasmuchasf emini
stsawgenderdi f
ferencesasaresul
tofnatur
e,t
otheabov
e
t
heor
y,t
hestoryi
sdiff
erent
,thediff
erenthormonesproducedbymenand
womenaccountf
orgenderdiff
erences.
4.Chr
omosomest
heor
y
Biol
ogi st
ssuchas Lombr osobel i
ev ethatsomebehav iortr
aitsar epasseddownf r
om
parent stothechi
ld.Ithasbeendebat edwhet herthereisacr i
mi nalgeneswhichmeans
somepeopl earemor elikelytocommi tmor ecrimesduet otheirbiologi
calmakeup.i
tis
beli
ev edt hatt
hoset r
aitsar einheri
tedandnotcul tural
lyinf
ormed.Mostbi ol
ogist
beli
ev ethatsomebehav iortrai
tsareduet of ormsofi ll
nesscausedbybi ol
ogical
features.Mostbiologistbelievethatsomei ndi v
idualshav ement alandphysical
problemsofsomesor tandt hismakesi ti
mpossi bleforthem tof oll
owthenor msand

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58 v
Page| alues.
AccordingtoPatr
ici
aJacobs,
menhaveXYchromosomeswher easwomenhaveXX
chromosomes.Anabnor malmanhasXYYchromosomesthataaccountf
ordi
ff
erent
behavior.
Thus,humanbehavi
ori
sbiol
ogi
cal
lyinf
ormed.
I
dent
it
yandsoci
ali
zat
ion
Accor
dingt
oRichardJenki
ns(1996)
,soci
ali
dent
it
yisourunder
standi
ngofwhowear
e
andofwhootherpeopl
eare.

Connelletal.(1987)arguethatwear enotbor na‘man’ ora‘woman’ ;webecome‘ men’

and‘women’ t
hr oughthesocial const r
ucti
onofgenderi denti
ties.Inotherwords,whi l
e
bi
ologicalsexr efer
stothephy si calcharacterist
icsthatcausepeopl etobel abel
led
maleorf emale, genderr
eferstot hesocial characteri
sti
csgivent oeachsex.Lips( 1993)
arguesthatdifferencesi
nmal eandf emalei dentit
iesdonotoccurnat urall
yfrom
bi
ologicaldif
ferences.Genderi dentiti
esdif ferhist
orical
l
yandcr oss-
cultur
all
y,which
meanst hattheyar ebothlearntandr elat
ive.
ToJenki
ns
Sociali
dent
ityi
saboutmeaningsandt hesemeani
ngsaresoci
all
yconstr
uctedor
createddur
inghumaninter
action.Hesaidi
dent
it
yisal
laboutt
herolesatt
achedt
oa
certai
nageandpeopleyoumi ghtrel
atewit
h.
ForKat
hWoodwar
d(2000)
I
dent i
tyi
ssocial
lyconst
ruct
edandithassomethingtodowithwhoam i,
forexampl
e,a
personmightdecidetoi
dentif
ywi
thaf oot
bal
lteam byweari
ngclot
hessi
gnif
yingt
hat
theyaresupport
ersofSheff
iel
dUni
ted.Thus,
itImor eofachoi
cenotbi
ology.
SigmundFreudar guesthatpeopl
epossessanunconsciousmi ndthatcont ai
ns
repr
essedfeeli
ngsanddesi reswhi
chtheyar
enotawar eof .Manyoft heseare
concernedwithpleasur
eseekingandsexual
it
y.Thechildneedst olearntocontrolthese
desir
esandt oidenti
fywitht
hesamesexpar t
ner.ForFreud,chi
ldhoodexper i
ences
wereVitalf
orthedev el
opmentofident
it
iesi
nadulthood.Freudsaidwebr ingchildhood
experi
encestot hedeci
sionswemakeasadul t
s.
Summar y
:thepr ocesswherebyindi
vidualsacqui
recul
tural
knowledgeiscal
led
soci
ali
zat
ion.Likewise,
functi
onali
stsawsoci al
iz
ati
onbenefit
ingsoci
etyaswhole.
Howeverconfli
cttheori
esholdthev i
ewt hatsoci
ali
zat
iontr
ansmitthecul
tur
eoft he
powerf
ulgroups.

ENDOFUNI
T1:
5QUESTI
ONS

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59
1.Exami
net
hev
iewt
hathumanbehav
iori
sapr
oductofnur
tur
e.
2.Assesst
heviewt
hatsocial
izat
ionisani
deol
ogi
cal
condi
ti
oni
ngdev
ice,
whi
ch
l
eadschi
ldr
entoacceptexploi
tat
ion.

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60 TOPI
Page| C3:
FAMI
LYANDHOUSEHOLDS
Obj
ect
ives
Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:
i
. Di
sti
ngui
shbet
weenf
ami
l
yandhousehol
d
i
i
. Toi
dent
if
yandexpl
ainsoci
ologi
cal
per
spect
ivesonf
ami
l
y
i
i
i. Out
li
net
ypesoff
ami
l
iesi
nZi
mbabwe
i
v. Exami
net
hechal
l
engesassoci
atedwi
thdi
ff
erentt
ypesoff
ami
l
ies
v
. Out
li
net
hef
ami
l
yandhousehol
dpat
ter
ns
v
i. Di
scusst
hepat
ter
nsofmar
ri
ages
v
ii
. Exami
net
hechar
act
eri
sti
csofast
abl
emar
ri
age
v
ii
i. Exami
necausesandway
sofr
esol
vi
ngdi
vor
cei
nZi
mbabwe
i
x. I
mpactofdi
vor
ce
x. Expl
ainef
fect
sofdomest
icv
iol
ence
xi
. Anal
ysegov
ernmentpol
i
ciesondomest
icv
iol
ence
xi
i
. Di
scusst
radi
ti
onal
way
sofr
esol
vi
ngdi
vor
ce
xi
i
i. Gl
obal
i
zat
iononf
ami
l
yandhousehol
dpat
ter
ns

I
ntr
oduct
ion
Thef amilyhasof t
enregardedasthecorner
stoneofsociet
y.I npre-modernandmodern
soci
et i
es,ithasbeenseenast hemostbasicunitofsocial
or ganizati
onandonethat
carr
iesv i
taltaskssuchassociali
zat
ionofchil
dren.However,mostsoci ol
ogist
s
questionedthef unct
ionsoffamil
yinrel
ati
onwithothersocialinsti
tut
ionsofsoci
ety
.
Whati sfami l
yandhousehol d?
Mur dock(1949)definesfamilyasasoci algr
oupofpeopl echaract
eri
zedbycommon
residence,
economi cco-operati
onandr eproducti
onwi thadultsofbothsexesandt hei
r
offspri
ng.Ahousehol disat erm usedt odescribethegr oupofpeopleli
vingtogetheri
n
thesamepl acee.g.familyofstudent s,acouplefosteri
ngchi l
dren,alodgerr
entinga
room inahouse. Ahousehol dconsi stsofaper sonlivi
ngal one/agroupofpeopl ewho
l
ivecommunal lye.g.shareaccommodat ionandeatt ogether.
Soci
ologi
stshav
eact
ivel
ydi
vor
cedahousehol
dfr
om f
ami
l
y,i
tisnowcl
eart
hata

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61 famil
yconsist
sofagr oupofpeoplewhoarerelat
edwhil
eahouseholdrefersto
agroupofpeoplewhoar eunderoneroofbuttheyar
enotrel
ated.Ther
efore,t
his
bri
ngstheideathat'
al
l f
amil
iesarehousehol
dsbutnotal
lhouseholdsare
famil
i
es'.
Soci
ologi
cal
per
spect
ivesoff
ami
l
y
Funct
ional
i
sm
Rememberf unct
ionali
sm i
saconsensustheor
ythatr
egardedal
lsoci
al
st
ructur
esinsocietyasposit
ivet
her
efor
ef ami
lyi
sregar
dedasplayi
nga
multi
pli
cit
yoffuncti
ons.
Geor
gePet
erMur
dock(
1949)
Hedef inesf amilyasagr oupofpeopl ewhoshar ecommonr esidencewithbi
ological
chi
ldrenoradopt edandadul tsofbothsexesper formingsoci all
yapprovedsexual
acti
viti
es. Thiskindoff ami l
yiscall
ednuclearfami l
y,whichconsi stsofhusband,wife
andbi ologicalchil
dren.Inast udyof250soci eti
es,Mur dockcl ai
medt hatsomef orms
offami lyexistedinev erysocietye.
g.nuclearfamily.Hencet histheref
oremadehi mto
concludet hatnucl earfami l
yisuniv
ersal.
Hef urtherarguest hatthenucl earf
ami lyi
suniversalperformingf ourbasi
cfuncti
onsin
al
lsoci eti
esandt hesef uncti
onsaref unct
ionalf
ort hesur v
ivalofthesociet
y.Fourmai n
Functionsoff ami lypict
ur edbyMur dockareasf oll
ows;
a)Repr oduct iv efunct i
on-f amilyisseenasf unct ional i
nthesenset hatitproduces
member sofsoci etytherefore,wi t
houtr eproduct i
v efunction,therewi l
lbenomember s
ofsoci etyhencef ami l
ybenef it
ssoci etyasawhol e.
b)Educat i
onal function-ther oleoff ami l
yist oeducat e/soci ali
zethenewmember sof
societynor msandv alues.Thus, withoutcul t
ur e,soci et
ycoul dnotf unct i
on.
c)Economi cf unction-f amilyplaysaneconomi cfunct i
one. g.thepr ov i
sionand
preparat i
onoff oodf amilyischar acteri
zedbydi visionoflaborwher ebyt hehusband
specializesi ncer tainact i
vi
tiesandt hewi f
eonot heract iv
iti
es.Forexampl e,i
nhunting
societymenki llgameani mal s,whichpr ovidemeatf orthewi vest ocook.Funct i
on
comment stheuni onduet osuchaco-oper ation
d)Sexual funct ion-f amilyisseenaspr ov i
dingapl atformf orsexual grat
ifi
cati
onforthe
spouses.i tal sost rengthent hef amilysincet hepower f
ulemot i
onswhi chaccompany
sexual activit
iesuni t
et hehusbandandt hewi fe.Fur thermor e,thisfunct i
onhelpsto
stabil
izesoci et ybecauset hesexual activ
iti
est hatar edoneout sidet hefami l
ydisr
upt
society.
Tal
cot
tPar
sons(
1959)
Hei
saf el
l
owfunct
ionali
stsoci
ologi
stwhoconcentr
atedhi
sanal
ysi
sonthe
f
amil
yinmodernAmericansoci
ety;hei
softheviewthatf
amil
yperf
ormstwo

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62 basicandirr
educi
blefunct
ionsthatarecommont othefami
lyi
nallsoci
eti
es.
Therefor
e,pupi
lsar
eexpect edt
ogr aspthesetwobasi
coffamil
yaccordi
ngto
Parsonsashismainideasinhissociologi
calpen.
Thebasi
candi
rr
educi
blef
unct
ionsoff
ami
l
y
1.Primar ysociali
zati
on-Ref erstoprimarysociali
zati
ondur i
ngtheearl
yy earsof
chi
ldhood.Ther earetwobasi cprocessesinvolvedint heprocessofprimary
sociali
zation.
a)Internali
zationofsociety'
sculture-ift
heculturewasnoti nter
nali
zedthatis
absorbedandaccept edandsoci etywoul dceasetof unctionbecausewithoutthe
sharednor msandv aluessocialli
fewouldbei mpossi ble.
b)Structuringoftheper sonali
ty-Parsonsknowst hatf amilyisafact
orywhi chpr
oduces
humanper sonalit
y.Thechi l
d'spersonali
tyi
smol dedandshapedi nt
ermsofcent r
al
val
uesofcul turetothepointwher etheybecomeapar tofhim orher.
2)Stabili
zati
onofadultchar
acter-t
heemphasi
shereisont hemarriager
elati
onshi
ps
andt heemot i
onalsecur
it
ythecouplepr
ovi
dedforeachother.
itact
sasacount er
weighttot hestr
essesandstrai
nofever
ydayl
if
ewhichtendt omaket hepersonal
it
y
unstable.
Cr
it
ici
sm off
unct
ional
i
sm
1.Murdock’
sdefi
nit
ionoffamil
yisprobl
ematicint
hesensethati
tdoesnoti
ncl
ude
othert
ypesoff
ami l
i
ese.g.gayfamil
y,chi
ldheadedfami
lyet
c.
Murdock'sdefi
nit
ionoffamil
yisseenasmi sl
eadi
ngbemusesitpict
ures
husband,wif
eandt hei
rchil
dren,hi
sdefi
nit
ioni
slessappl
icabl
etoothert
ypesof
famil
iessuchasgaysamesexf amili
eswhichhavenoadult
sofbothsexes.
2.Mur dock’spictur
eoff amil
yisratherlikean'i
ndispensableboy scoutknife'-t
he
familyisseenasmul t
i-f
uncti
onalinsti
tutionwhichisindispensabletosocietyand
Mur dockdidnotconsi derwhetherthef uncti
onsoff amilycouldbeperformedbyot her
socialinsti
tuti
onse.g.educati
on. 3.MurdockandPar sonstend
toov eremphasi zeharmonyandi ntegrationi
nthef amilyandignor edt
hedar ksideof
familye.g.domest i
cv i
olence
4.Ferminist
sdi sput
esuchasr omant icpictur
eoff amilyandtheyr egar
dedi tas
oppressivet owomen.
Mar
xistPer
spect
ive
Pupil
sshouldbeinaposi t
iontounder st
andgener ali
deasofMar xi
sm asa
perspecti
ve,
Marxi
sm isaconflicttheorythatl
inkedallsuper
struct
ures/
i
nstit
utionst
otheinevi
tabl
eclassconf li
ctincapit
ali
stsociet
ies.ToMarxism,
familybenef
it
scapit
ali
sm moret hansocietyaswhol e.

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63 Fr
Page| eder
ichEngel
s(1972)
Theor
igi
nsoff
ami
l
y
Thedev elopmentandor iginoffami l
yislinkedt
ocapi talism.Dur i
ngt heear lystageof
humanev olution,themeansofpr oducti
onwer eownedbyt hecommuni t
yandt her
e
werenor ulesl imiti
ngsexual rel
ati
onships.Fami l
ydev elopedwi ththeemer genceof
pri
vateproper tyorpr ivat
eowner shipofmeansofpr oduct i
on, i
twasdev elopedt osol
ve
theproblem ofi nheritanceofpr operty,malesownedpr oper ty
,andinor derf orthem t
o
passitont ot heiroffspring,thefami l
ywasdev eloped.
InEngelswor ds,familywasdev elopedtomai ntainthest atusquobypassi ngon
propert
yt ot hebiological son.Lateron,thestat
ei nsti
tutedl awstopr otectt he
monogamousmar ri
agehencef amilywasdev el
opedt oper petuatethesy stem of
capit
ali
sm.
El
iZar
etsky(
1976)
Heseest hefamilyasamaj orpr
op/suppor ttocapital
i
steconomy .Thecapital
ist
system isbasedupont hedomest i
cl aborofhousewi v
eswhor eproducefuture
gener at
ionsofwor kers.Healsobelievesthatfami l
yhasbecomeav it
aluni
tof
consumpt i
oninthesenset hatfamilyconsumest heproductsofcapi t
ali
sm andt hi
s
all
owst hebour geoisi
et oconti
nuepr oducingsurplusvalue.Therefor
e,familyi
sa
fact
or ythatproducesf utur
ewor kf
orce,whi chonl
ybenef itt
hecapi t
ali
stnotsocietyasa
whol e.
Mar
xistFemi
nistper
spect
iveonf
ami
l
y
Somef emini
stsuset
heMar xi
stconceptinordert
oexpl
ainandanal
yzethewayt hat
theybeli
evet
hefamil
yleadstotheexplanat
ionofwomen.Theynotethati
tisthe
posit
ionofwomenwithinthefamil
ythatisthemajorpr
optothecapi
tali
stsystem
Thepr
oduct
ionofl
aborpower
Mar
gar
etBenst
on
Shei softhev iewt hatwomenpl ayabigr
oleinsupporti
ngcapital
ism andtheemphasis
i
sbasedont hei deat hatthehusbandmustpayf ortheproducti
onandupkeepoff utur
e
l
aborandt hisact sasast rongdisci
pli
neonhisbehavioratwork.
Hecannoteasi lywi t
hdr awhi slaborsi
ncehehasawi feandchildrentosupportthe
familyandt hewi f
e.Benst onarguesthatfamil
yplaysaneconomi cfunctiontosupport
thecapital
ism andt hewi feneedst obepaidfordomesticl
aborsheper forms.
Furthermore, womenat t
endst oherhusband'
sneedst huskeepinghimi nagood
runningordert oper form hisroleasalaborer
.
Mar
xistsoci
ali
stf
eministanal
ysiscanbeseenasrelev
ancei
nZimbabwe,
womenar er
esponsi
blefortheexplanat
ionofmen.TheZi
mbabweancul
tur
eis

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64 i
ndeedpatri
archalhence;iti
stheroleofthefat
hertobeabr eadwi
nner
.The
f
athercannotrevoltagai
nstthecapit
ali
stsbecausehehasthewi f
eandchi
l
dren
t
otakecareofi nthefamilyTheref
ore,hecannoteasi
lyr
isklosi
ngthej
obdueto
t
heindir
ectpressureoftakingcareandpayingbackthewifeathome.
Fr
anAnsl
ey
Sheseest hefamilyasamaj orsupportofcapit
alism bypr ovidingemot i
onal supportto
thehusband.Shet ranslatePar son'
sviewasPar sonssay sthatf amil
ystabil
izesadul t
’s
personal
itybyprovidingemot i
onalsupport
.Shet her ef
oreseesemot i
onalsuppor t
provi
dedbyt hewifeasa' safetyval
ve’forthefrustrati
onpr oducedi nhusbandby
workinginacapitali
stsy stem.Rat herthanbeingt urnedagai nstthesystem, which
producesit,
thefrustrati
oni ssuppressedbyt hecomf ortofthewi feandinthi sway
capit
ali
sm isnotthreatened.
Theangerinthehusbandgeneratedbyi ndustr
ial
stresses,
lowwages, sal
ar i
es
andinsul
tsbyempl oyeratworkplace.Insteadofthehusbandt orevol
tagainst
theemployeraf
terhehasbeenf r
ustrated,thewif
ei sseenasr escui
ngthe
husbandbygivi
nghi m emot
ionall
ov ehenceangeri ssuppressedandcapitali
sm
wil
lsimplycont
inue.
Ther
eforetheMarxist-f
emini
stbel
i
evet
hatwi
tht
heaidofthewomen,
fami
l
yhel
pst
o
sust
aincapit
ali
sm andbothmenandwomenareexpl
oit
ed.
I
deol
ogi
cal
condi
ti
oni
ng
CooperandFeel
ey(
1972)
Fami lyisani deologicalcondi ti
oningdev i
ceinanexpl oi
tati
vesocietythatf urtherst he
i
nt er estofrulingclassorcapi tali
st.Chil
drenlearnt osubmi ttotheaut horit
ywi thinthe
fami l
y,astheywi l
lobeyt heirmanager sincapitali
stsociety.
I
nt hisregard, afount ai
ni sther ef
or el
aidforanobedi entandsubmi ssivewor kf orce
requi redbyt hecapi tali
sts.
Feel eyar guest hatthest ructureoff amil
yasaut hori
tari
anandhi erarchicalinnat ure.
Chi ldrenareexpect edtor espectandconf ormt ot heauthorit
y.Familyt eachespassi v
ity
andconf or
mi tynotr ebell
iont hust hefamilyt
eacheschi l
drent oacceptt heirplacei nthe
hierar chyofpowerandcont rol i
nsocietyhencecapi t
ali
stsocietywillber egardedast he
nor mal r
outineofl i
fe.
Cr
it
ici
sms
Marxistfemi
nistsmaytherefor
eexaggeratedtheharm causedtowomenbyf amil
i
es
andmaynegl ecttheeff
ectsofnon-familyrel
ati
onships(apar
tfrom cl
ass)on
exploi
tati
onwithi
nmar r
iage.Thus,
forexample,theysayli
tt
leabouthowt heexper
ience
ofracism mi
ghtinfl
uencefamili
es.

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65 The
Page| yal
sot
endt
opor
trayf
emal
efami
l
ymember
sast
hepassi
vev
ict
imsofcapi
tal
i
st
andpat ri
archalexpl
oit
ation.Theyignoredthepossibi
li
tythatwomenhavefoughtback
againstsuchexpl oi
tat
ionhandnowhav esomesuccessi nchangi
ngthenat
ureoffamil
y
rel
ationshi
ps.
Furthermore,theyarenotusuallypreparedtoconcedethattheremaybeposit
ive
advantagesf orwomeni nsomef amil
ies(seefunct
ional
istsandLiber
alf
emini
st
perspecti
ves).
Radi
cal
femi
nism
Valeri
eBr yson( 1992)arguest hatr adicalfemini stseeoppr essi
onofwomenr esulti
ng
fr
om t hebi ologicalfamil
y .Radi cal f
emi nistbelievethatfami l
yit
sel fi
sexploit
ativ
eand
i
spat riarchal i
nnat uresi
ncei tcondi tionswoment oacceptt hei
rexpl oi
tat
iveposi t
ions
i
nt hef ami l
y. Accor dingt oFi r
est one(1972), Womenar ebur denedbybr eastfeeding,
pregnanci est huswomenar eseenaschi l
dbear i
ngmachi nes.Duet osuchabur den,
womendependencyonmenf oral mostev eryt
hingwi l
lincreaseandapowerpsy chology
develops.Thus, womenwi l
lber egar dedasi nferiori
ney esofmen.
Radical femini stoff
eraradi cal alternativ
e, t
heysuggestt hathusbandandf amili
esar e
twoenemi esofwomenf ami l
yneedt obeabol i
shednotonl yabolishedbutalso
destroy ed.
Chr
ist
ineDel
phyandDi
anaLeonar
d
Familypl aysani mpor tanteconomi cfuncti
on, itinvolvesapar t
icularsetoflabor
rel
ati
onsi nwhi chmenbenef i
tfrom andexpl oitt hewor kofwomen.Fami l
ymember s
forexampl e,donotwor kforwomenbutf orthemanwhoi stheheadoft hef amil
y.
Theyar guet hatev eryfamilyhastwot ypesofr oles, t
hesear etheheadoft hefami l
yand
thei
rhelper sandmosthel per
sar ewomenandser vestheinterestoft hehead.Themal e
headdeci desev erythi
nginthefami l
yandassi gnst askst oot hermember s.I
nshor t
,he
makest hef i
nal decisi
on.
Theheadoff ami l
yhasamonopol yandcont rol overev eryt
hinge. g.famil
ypr opert
ysuch
ascars.Fur t
hermor e,menar ethepr i
mar ybenef i
ciaryoffami lybecauseawi feis
expectedt operformf reesex;womencanev encont r
olthei
remot ionsforthehusband's
sake.Inaddi tion,husbandsgetmor eaccesst ol eisur eti
meandf amilycarthanwomen
hencemenar eenemi es.I
fwomenwer etoli
v eaf emal eworldwi thnomen, radi
cal
femini
stwoul dbet heprimarysupportersofsuchasoci ety
.
Ger
mai
neGr
eer(
2000)
Sheisanotherr
adicalfemini
stwhoarguesthatfamil
ycont i
nuestodi sadvant
age
womeni nthesensethatwomenar eseenaswi vesther
efore;t
heyhav etobe
submissi
vetotheirhusbands.Womenar eseenasmot hers,Greerarguesthatmother
s
bearchi
ldr
eninpain,feedthem f
rom t
heirbodi
es,cheri
shandnour isht hem t
hen
prepar
etolosethem.

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66 Gr
Page| eeral
soar
guest
hatdur
ingchi
l
dbi
rt
h,medi
cal
att
ent
ionf
ocusesont
hewel
l
-bei
ngof
thebabywhi l
ethemot her'
shealt
hi sundermined.Afterbirt
h,mot hersandbabi esare
notwel comeinsoci
ety,rest
aurants,shopsorbusesbecauset heyar econsider edas
polluting.Moreov
er,societ
yblameot hersforwhathappensi nthechi l
dren'
slife.
Womenar eseenasdaught erswhoneedext r
acare.Fami l
ydoesnotbenef itwomen
sincewomenwhoar eseen, asdaught er
sareunrewar ded.Greernot esthatrecent
evidenceshowst hatdaught er
sarequi teli
kel
ytoexper i
encesexual abusefrom father
s,
stepf ather
sandotheradult’
smal erelati
ves.Menwantt oexerci
set heircontrolwit
hin
thef ami l
yandwomenshoul dservi
cemen' sneeds.
Si
mil
ari
ti
esbet
weenr
adi
cal
andMar
xistf
emi
nist
s’per
spect
ives
Bothbel i
ev ethatf amilyisoppr essi
vet owomen.
Bothadv ocat eforar adicalchangeal thought heorient
ati
onisdiffer
ent
.
Bothbel i
ev ethatwomendonotownt hemeansofpr oducti
on.
Dif
ferencesbet weent woappr oaches
Womenar eoppr essedduet ot hei
rbiologicalmakeupandcul t
ure.Forexampl ewomen
giv
ebi rt
h, breastf eedhencet hismaket hem tobeweak.* Howev er,
Marxistfeminist
s
beli
evet hatwomenar eoppr essedbycapi tal
ism
Radicalfemi nist
sbel i
evethatmenbenef itfr
om thisexpl
oit
ati
on.*Howev er,mar xi
st
feministsawcapi tali
sm benef i
ting.
Patri
archal societyneedst obeabol i
shedt oLiber
atewomen* Howev er,
Mar xist
feministsbel i
evet hatcapital
ism needst obeabol ishedandreplacedbycommuni sm
societ
yt hatwi ll
liberatewomen.

Li
ber
alFemi
nism
Beli
evethatfamil
yasanagentofsociali
zati
onperpet
uatesgenderinequal
i
ty.Unl
i
ke
radi
calfemini
stswhoadv ocat
efortheaboli
shmentoffamilyt
orescuewomen, Li
ber
al
femini
sm beli
evethatgenderi
nequali
tycanbeachiev
edt hr
oughli
beralmeanssuchas
campaigns.
Jeni
ferSomer
vil
l
e
Unlikemostr adicalfeminists,shear guest hatfami l
yneedsnott obeabol i
shedbutt he
posit i
onofwomencanbechangedt hroughl egalandl i
beralmeans.Shemai ntainsthat
womendonotneedt odisassoci atet hemselv esfrom mencompl etelybutsome
reali
st i
cpol i
ciesneedt obeempl oy
ed.
Inrecenty ears,therearenot ablepr ogressest hathav ebeenmadef orwomen; for
exampl e,Fami lyisnowl essexpl oit
ivei nthesenset hatwomennowhav egreater
freedom t ot akepai dwor kev eniftheyar emar r
ied.Thereisnowmuchchoi ceabout
whet hert heymar ryorcohabi t,becomesi ngl emot hersorliv
eont heirownHowev er
,
Radi calfemi nistsuchasGr eersay st hatwomenar eangryanddisappointedinmen
hencet heycanl i
veanddowi thoutmen.

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67 Tol
Page| i
ber
alf
emi
nist
s,womenhav
eachi
evedmostoft
hei
rri
ght
sint
hef
ami
l
yint
hesense
t
hat
,
1.Womennowt akewagelabor
2.Fr
eedom astowhent omarr
y
3.Fr
eedom tochooset omarr
y,cohabi
tat
eort
obesi
ngl
e.
4.Nowmakedeci sionsint
hefamily
5.Ri
ghttoeducation
6.Ri
ghttodivor
ce

Si
mil
ari
ti
esbet
weenr
adi
cal
andl
i
ber
alf
emi
nistper
spect
ivesonf
ami
l
y
 Bot
hbel
i
evet
hatf
ami
l
yisexpl
oit
ati
veont
hesi
deofwomen
 Bot
hacceptt
hatt
hecul
tur
eofsoci
etycont
ri
but
eint
heexpl
oit
ati
onofwomen.
 Theyal
ladv
ocat
eforchange
Di
ff
erences
 Radi
cal
femini
stsbel
ievet
hatf
amil
yneedstobeabol
ishedwhi
l
eliber
alf
emi
nist
sawnoreasontoaboli
shf
amil
ybutonl
yli
beral
pol
ici
escandoli
berat
ewomen.
 Radi
calbeli
evesthataslongasfamil
yisi
nexi
stencewomenar eexpl
oit
ed
whereasl
iberal
nowbel i
evesthatf
amilyi
snol
ongerthatexpl
oit
ati
vedueto
l
iber
alpol
ici
es.
 Radicalsawmenbenef i
ti
nginthefamil
ywhereasl
i
ber
alarguet
hatnobody
benefit
sfrom t
hisexpl
oit
ati
onsincebot
hmenandwomenar el
osi
ng.For
example,thehusbandi
sdeniedaclosecont
actwit
hchi
ldr
en.
Cr
it
ici
sm f
emi
nism i
ngener
al
1.Femini
stpay smuchat t
ent
iontogenderi nequal
it
yandt endstoignor
eclass
i
nequali
tyandot herf
ormsofinequal i
ty,
whichprevaili
nsociety.
2.Womenar eseenaspassi v
eandi ndi
vidual
swhocannotf ightfort
hemselves,t
hey
haveneglect
edt hepowerofwomeni nabusingmen, andforexample,r
ecentresear
ch
showsthat3.menhav emoresuicidalcasesli
nkedtoextramar i
talaf
fai
resascompared
towomen.
3.Inasmuchasf amil
yisaprisonforwomen, t
heytendtoignorethatf
amilycanbe
alsoapri
sonf orment oo.
Act
ivi
ty
Assesst
herel
evanceoffemini
sm t
heoryoff
amil
yinZi
mbabwe.
Compareandcontr
astl
iber
alandradi
calf
emini
stsonf
ami
ly.

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68 Va
Page| r
ioust
ypesoff
ami
l
ies
Therear
ev ar
ioustypesoff
amil
iesi
nallsocieti
esandsomear ef
oundin
Zimbabweansocietyandsomearenot
,therefore,
t hi
ssect
ionseekstotouch
someofthety pesoffami
li
est
hathadbeenexami nedbysociol
ogist
s.
1Nucl
earf
ami
l
y
Anucl earfami
lyi
sonemadeupofanadul tman,anadul
twomanandt heirdependent
chil
dren.Tradi
ti
onal
ly
,themenwast he“
breadwi
nner
"responsi
bleforprovidi
ngwhat
thefami l
yneededtosurv
iveandpr
osper
,whilet
hewomenwasr esponsibl
eforhome
andfami ly
.
Isthenuclearfami l
ychangi ng?Lesst hanaquarterofhousehol dsinBrit
ainar
enow
couplesthatdependchi l
dren.Thus,thissuggestthatthenucl earfamilyi
sindecl
ine.
Forfuncti
onal i
st,t
heconv entionalnuclearfami
lyisthei dealfami l
yformodernsoci
ety
becauseitfitstheneedofsoci et
ysowel l
,andmakest hebestuseofmenandwomen' s
diff
erentnaturalabil
i
ties.Inthepast,peoplehadtor el
yont heirfamili
esformanyneeds
fore.g.t
ocar eforthem whent heywer esickorol
d, t
ol endorgi vemoneyt oeachof
them
2.
Samesexcoupl
e
Suchhouseholdsdon' tcontainadultsofbot hsexes,atleastt
woofwhom maintai
na
societ
ysocial
lyappr ovedsexual r
elati
onships.Mostchi l
drenofgaycoupl
esr
esult
s
from aprevi
oushet erosexualrel
ati
onship,adoption,orproducedusi
ngnewproducti
ve
technol
ogiese.g.sperm donat i
onorsur r
ogat emot her
hood.The2013Zimbabwean
consti
tut
iondoesnotl egalhomosexualit
y
3Ext
endedf
ami
l
y
Ast henamesuggest sinvolvesomeaddi ti
onalfamilymember sisonewher et he
nuclearfamil
yhasbeenaddedt oorextend, ei
thervert
ical
ly(i.
e.wit
hgr andpar ents,
parentsandchil
dren)orhorizontall
y(i.
e.withtwoormor ebrother
s/si
stersl i
vingwi th
thei
rrespecti
vespouseandchi l
dren)Anext endedf amilycontai
nsnuclearf ami l
y,but
addedt oitar
eotherrelati
ves.Ifthere,t
hreegener at
ionsli
vingtoget
her( grandpar ents,
parentsandchil
dren)thisisverti
callyextendedfami l
y.Anextendedfami lyalsoconsi st
oftwoormor enucl
earf amili
es
St
rengt
h
Moreeconomi cresourcesduetomor eadult
scontr
ibut
ingincome,moreadult
s
avai
labl
et ocareforchil
drenandteachchi
ldr
enfamilyt
radi
tions(soci
ali
zat
ionoft
he
chil
d)extendfamilywasmor eusefuli
nthatalar
gefamilymeantthatt
hereweremore
peopletohelpeachot her

MrTChi
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69 We
Page| aknesses

 Lackofaut
onomyforadul
tpar
entsastheel
destfamil
ymember
sret
aint
hemost
power,
eveninchi
l
dreari
ngandeconomicdeci
sion.

 di
sput
esandconf
li
ctsar
esomeoft
hef
eat
uresofext
endedf
ami
l
y

 chi
l
dsexual
abuse

 f
avor
it
ism

 Encour
agesant
i-
soci
albehav
iorsuchasbadl
anguage,
abor
ti
onet
c.
4.Singl
epar
entfamil
i
es
ref
erstoahousehol
dsconsistofal
oneparentwi
thdependentchi
l
dren,
iti
saf
ami
l
y
headedbyasingl
eparentduetodif
fer
entci
rcumst
ances
Causesofsi
ngl
epar
entf
ami
l
y
1. Di
vor
ce(f
oll
owscour
tpr
oceedi
ngs)
2. Separ
ati
on
3. Deat
hofaspouse
4. Whenoneofspousessav
ingapr
isonsent
ence
5.El
li
sCashmore(1985)f
ound,
somewor ki
ngcl
assmot
her
swi
thl
essear
ning
powerchosel
i
veonthei
rownforwel
far
ebenef
it
s
6.Si
ngl
ebychoi
ce
7.Femini
stideas,
andgr
eat
eroppor
tuni
ti
esf
orwomen,
mayal
sohav
eencour
aged
anincr
easeinit
Pr
obl
em f
acedbysi
ngl
epar
entf
ami
l
ies
1.l
ackofemot
ional
suppor
t
2.noeconomi
cco-
oper
ati
on
3.i
nadequat
esoci
ali
zat
ion
4.pov
ert
y
5.wi
tchcr
aftandpr
ost
it
uti
onaccusat
ion
6.mostloneparent
sar
ewomen,whogener
all
year
nlesst
hanmen,
hencet
heyf
ace
economicandemoti
onal
probl
ems
7.f
ail
ureoff
ather
stopaymai
ntenance,
especi
all
yift
heyhav
efor
medasecond

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Page|
70 f
ami
l
ythatt
heyhav
etosuppor
t
8.Si
nglef
amilyparent
sespeci
all
yifi
tisfemaleheaded,
maybevi
ewedasan
out
castordevi
antinsoci
ety
,ther
efor
esocietymaynotpr
epar
edtoassi
stt
hem.
9.pr
obl
emsemanat
ingf
rom cont
actwi
tht
hepr
evi
ousspouse
Sol
uti
onst
otheabov
epr
obl
ems

 Wel
far
est
ate

 Remar
ry

 Engagei
nspecul
ati
vepr
oject
s

 Chi
l
dfest
eri
ng

 Enf
orci
ngmai
ntenancepol
i
ces
5.St
epf
ami
l
ies/
reconst
it
utedf
ami
l
ies
Thi si
saf amil
ycreat edbecauseofdi vorcedcoupl eremar ryi
ngwhomayhav echi l
dr en
from pr evi
ousmar riage.Newst epfami l
iesar eformedwhensi ngleparentsfor m anew
par t
ner shi
p.Thust hef actorsli
kedivorceandsepar ationarecausingani ncreasei nt he
numberofsi nglepar ents.Mor echil
dreni nstepf amil
iesarefrom thewomen' spr ev i
ous
relati
onshi pt
hant heman' sbecausewhenmar ri
agesandcohabi t
ati
onsbr eakup
childrenar emorelikelyt oremainwitht heirmot her.St epparent
sar eatgreat err
iskof
pov ertybecausether ear eoftenmor echi l
drenandbecauset hest epfathermayal so
hav etosuppor tchildrenf r
om apr evi
ousr elationshi
p.Someoft hetensionsf acedby
stepfami li
esmaybet heresultofalackofcl earsocialnormsabouthowi ndividuals
shouldbehav einsuchf amili
es
6.Chi
l
dheadedf
ami
l
y
I
tisafamilyi
nwhichami norchi
ldoradolescence,undert
heageof18;hasbecomethe
headofthehousehol
d.Deathoril
lnessofparentsaswellasabandonmentbypar
ent
s
andfai
lur
eoftheextendedfamil
ytoabsorbchildrencauseit
.
Pr
obl
emsofchi
l
dheadedf
ami
l
iesi
ncl
ude:

 l
ackofadul
tcar
eresul
tsi
ninadequat
esoci
ali
zat
ion

 Expl
oit
ati
onanddi
scr
imi
nat
ion

 Poorper
for
mancei
nEducat
ion

 Psy
chol
ogi
cal
probl
ems

 Pov
ert
y

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71 Fa
Page| mi
l
yandhousehol
dspat
ter
ns
Sociologistsbel i
evet hatt het r
adi t
ional nuclearandext endedf ami l
iesar enowunder
thr
eat s,recentsoci ologi cal surveyshowst hatst r
ucturesoffami lyhav echanged.Some
sociologistsbelievet hatf ami l
yhasl ostitsfunct i
onsinindustrialsoci ety.Instituti
ons
suchaseducat i
on, wel far eorgani zations,busi nessesnowspeci ali
zei nt hef unctions
formal l
yper f
or medt hef ami ly.
TalcottPar sonsar guest hatsoci etyischangi ngtherefor
ethef ami l
yhasbecome
almostcompl etelyf unct ionless.Itdoesnoti t
sel f
,expecthereandt her e,andengagei n
economi cpr oduct i
on.I tisnotasi gni f
icantuni tinthepoli
ti
cal powersy stem; itisnota
maj ordirectagencyofi nt egrati
onoft helar gersociety.
Furthermor e,therisei ndi vorcerat etodaycanbeseent oshowt hatt hef ami lyisnow
l
osingi tssignifi
cancef unf unctions.Thi sist ruewhenonel ooksatt her oleofaunt ,
whichi snowunder mi ned.
Howev er,t
hisdoesnotmeant hef ami l
yisnowdoomed.Par sonsmai nt ainedt hatfamil
y
i
snowmor especi alizedt hanbef or e.
Furthermore,notallsociologist
swoul dagr eet hatfamil
yhasl ostmanyofi t
sfuncti
ons.
RonaldFl et
chermai ntai
nst hatjustt heopposi tehashappened.Hear guesthatnotonly
familyretai
neditsfuncti
onbutal soal lt
hosef unctionhaveincr easedi ndetai
land
i
mpor t
ance.Hear guesthatspeci alizedinst i
tutionssuchasschool sandhospi tal
shav e
addedt oandi mprov edthef amilyfunctionr atherthansuper sededt hem.Hemai nt
ains
thatthef amil
y'
sresponsi bil
ityf
orsoci ali
zingi sasi mportantasi tev erwas-state
educationhasaddedt oratherthanr emovedt hisresponsibi
lit
y.Par entsareencouraged
todot heirbestguidetogui de,encour ageandsuppor tt
heirchi l
dreni nthei
reducati
onal
andoccupat ionalcareer
s-t hefamilyi ssti
llaimedatmai ntainingtheheal thofthei
r
member s.
Radi
calfeministsuchasChrist
ineDelphyandDi anaLearnard(1992)acceptst hat
i
ndustri
ali
zati
oncr eat
ednewuni t
sofproductionsuchasf actori
esbutt heydenythati
t
removedthepr oducti
onfr
om thefamily.Theyacceptthatsomepr oducti
vefuncti
onsof
fami
lyhavebeenl ostandsomear enowper formedmuchhi gherthaninthepaste.g.
morecompl exofmeal swit
hav ari
etyofcooking.
Conjugalr
oles-canbedef i
nedast herol
esofhusbandsandwi v eswithi
nmar ri
age.
Jointconj
ugalrol
esarejoi
ntr oleswherebyspousesshar eresponsibil
iti
esfordomesti
c
tasksandbothhavepaidempl oyment.Accordi
ngtoWi l
lmot tandYoung( 1973)t
he
conjugalr
olesarenolongersegr egat
ed(whent hehusbandandwi f
etendt ohave
diff
erentr
oles)butnowjoint.Thisshowst hatt
hestructureoff amilyhaschanged.
Ot
hernot
abl
echanges
Todayther
earemanydi
ff
erentf
ami
l
iesandsoci
ologi
stsseet
hesechangesposi
ti
vel
y
andnegati
vi
ty

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72 Pe
Page| opl
enowl
i
vingt
oget
herwi
thoutmar
ri
age
Thisi
snowduet osecular
izat
ion,lesspeopl
enowpracti
cerel
i
giont
herefor
edonotsee
l
ivi
ngtoget
her,
andhav i
ngchildrenoutsi
deofthemarr
iageasasasin.Femini
stssay
thi
sisari
ghtal
ternat
ivebecausemar ri
ageisoppr
essi
ve.
Mor
esamesexf
ami
l
ies
Therearest i
llsmal lnumber sofsamesexf amil
ies,butt hesear enowmor esociall
y
acceptable.Thisi sbecauseofcampai gnsbygayr i
ght sgr oupsandchangesi nl
aws
suchasbei ngal lowedt oteachaboutsamesexf amil
iesi nschool sandanequal ageof
sexualconsent .Functionali
stsayt hatt hefamil
yandot herinst i
tuti
onsofsoci et
yneed
toinvolv
ei nordert ocontinuetobeusef ul
insociet
yther eforewoul dregarditasan
adjustment.Femi ni
sthavedi f
ferentviewsonsamesexf ami l
ies, becausethereisstil
l
economi cinequal it
ybetweenmenandwomen, whichmeanst hatgaymenar emor e
l
ikelytohav emor emoney ,betterj
obsandhi gherstatust hanl esbian.Thenewr ightsee
samesexf amiliesasbadf orsocietybecauset heyaresoci al
izingchildrenthewr ong
way
Smal
l
erhousehol
dsi
ze
Therearesingl
eper sonholds(apersonliv
inginthei
rown)-t hi
sisduetoWomenl i
vi
ng
l
ongerthanmen, y
oungerwomenchoosi ngmar r
iagethanfamilyandmen.Fami l
ies
alsohavefewerchi l
drenthani
nthepast.Feministsvi
ewt hesechangesposit
ivel
yas
womenhav egreaterchoiceov
ertheirf
utureanditismoreaccept abl
eforwomenchose
thei
rcar
eerov ermar ri
age.
Inthepast
,part
icular
lyinAf r
icansociet
ies,i
twaswel lknownt hatfamilyhad
manyf amil
ymember sorchi ldreningeneral
.Manysonsser vedassour ceof
l
abort oworki
nt hefi
eldsandher di
ngcattl
ewhiledaught erswereregardedas
sourceofweal
th.Howev er,
duet omoder neducati
onandi ndustr
ial
izat
ion,
ther
e
i
saut omati
onandmachi neshav erepl
acedmanual labor.Duet otheimpactof
feminism,
womenar enol ongerseenaschi l
dbeari
ngmachi nes.Theref
orefamil
y
i
snowdoomed, ifnotthenitisundersuspense.
Mor
esi
ngl
epar
entf
ami
l
iest
hani
nthepast
Div
orcel
awshav emadei teasi
erforpeopletotakedi
vorce.Feministsareokaywi t
hthis
si
ncemarri
agei soppressive.Functi
onal
istsdonotbel
ievethatsingleparentfamil
ies
cansoci
ali
zechildr
enadequat el
ysincemal eandfemalerol
esocializati
onishealt
hyfor
i
tsmember s.Theyfurtherdonotbeli
evethatsuchafami l
ycouldpr operl
yfuncti
on
wit
houtdi
visionoflaborandemot i
onalsupport.
Mar
ri
age
1whati
smar
ri
age?

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73 2.
Page| Mar
ri
agepat
ter
ns
3.Char
act
eri
sti
csofast
abl
emar
ri
age
4.Gl
obal
i
zat
ionandf
ami
l
y
Whati
smar
ri
age?
Marri
agei
saphysi
cal,
legalandmoralunionbet
weenamanandawomani ncompl
ete
communit
yli
fef
ortheestabli
shmentoffamil
y.I
tcanbedef
inedasal
egal
uni
on
bet
weentwospouses.
Mar
ri
agePat
ter
ns
Marr
iagepatternsar
enotuni
ver
sal
theyar
ecul
tur
alspeci
fi
c,mar
ri
agepat
ter
nsi
n
Zi
mbabwei ncludes
a)Unr
egi
ster
edcust
omar
ymar
ri
ages
Thesearemar r
iagesbasedont raditi
onsandar emor eimportantinthesociety.In
Zimbabwe,theyincludethepay mentofl obola,andi
nr el
ati
onwi thtr
adit
ional procedur
e.
Customarymarriagesarepot enti
allypolygamousandi nrel
ati
onandusual l
yar e
dissol
vedbydeat handdivorceisr are.t
hel awrequi
resthatwhenoneent erinto
customarymarriageunionthismustber egister
edbutifnotregister
ediscalled
unregi
ster
edcust omarymar ri
ages.
B)r
egi
ster
edcust
omar
ymar
ri
ages
I
tisamar r
iagebasedontr
adit
ionsandsomemoder naspectofsomesor
t;i
tis
r
egist
eredaftert
hepaymentoflobol
a/br
idepr
ice.
c)Ci
vi
lmar
ri
age
Thistypeofmarri
agepatter
nisdonel
egall
yaccordingt
olawsassignedbythe
government.Theyareal
somainlymonogamousandcanbedi ssol
vedbydeathand
di
vorce.Thi
smar ri
ageceremonyismai
nlyconductedbythechur
ch.Ital
sostat
est
hat
husbandisonlyall
owedtomar r
yonewife
d)Monogamy
i
tisacust om ofbeingmar r
iedt
oonlyonepersonatapart
icul
arti
mei ti
sani
dealwi
de
spreadandr ati
onaltypeofmarr
iagefoundi
nmostcivil
i
zedsociet
ies.
iti
snor
mall
y
unbreakableinnaturebecausei
tcont
inuesunti
ldeat
h.
e)Pol
ygamy
I
tisacust
om ofhavi
ngmoret
hanonewife-i
tismainl
ycommonamongt heri
chpeopl
e
pol
ygamousf
ami l
i
esareal
soi
nfl
uencedbyothercul
tse.
g.apost
oli
csect
sli
keJohane

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74 Ma
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ange.Accor
dingt
otheconst
it
uti
onofZi
mbabwe,
bot
hmember
soft
hecoupl
ehav
e
t
hegoal
ofr
esol
vi
ngconf
li
ctandr
e-est
abl
i
shi
ngcl
osenessandi
nti
macy
.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofst
abl
emar
ri
ages
I
nordert
ohav
ethesechar
act
eri
sti
cs,
bot
hmember
soft
hecoupl
emustbeemot
ional
l
y
heal
th
Goodcommuni cat i
on-happycoupl estalk,theyv erbali
zet heirfeel
ingsi nsteadof
acti
ngt hem out -t
hecommuni cati
onofhappycoupl eshav et hegoal ofr esolvi
ng
confl
ictandr eestablishclosenessandi ntimacy .
Commi tment-happycoupl esar ecommi t
tedt ooneanot her,theymakemar ri
agev ows
andcommi t
menti sagl uethatcomment sar elati
onship.
Accept ance-Happycoupl esaccepteachot herf orwhot heyar eandt heyaccepteach
other
'si neffect i
veness
passi
on-happycoupl esarepassionateabouteachot herandsexual passi oni s
somet hingthatmaycomeandgo, passionf oreachot herandf orthei
rr elat
ionshipis
constant.Itisf ueledbygoodcommuni cati
on.
Love-ahappycoupl ei salovi
ngcoupl e,lovei snotconv eyedt hruwor dsbutt hru
acti
ons
Thr
eat
stomar
ri
ages
Theri
seindivor
ceratesindi
catesthatmarr
iageasaninsti
tut
ioni
sbr
eaki
ngdown.
Marr
iageisbecominglesspopular-decr
easingnumbersofpeopl
ear
egetti
ngmar r
ied
mostpeoplearedevel
opingalt
ernati
vestoconvent
ional
mar r
iedl
i
fet
hesealt
ernat
ives
cant
akeanumberoff or
ms
Cohabitati
on-Peopleareincr easi
nglyli
vingtogetherratherthanmar r
ying.
iti
sat hreat
tomar ri
age,alt
houghthev astmaj ori
tyeventuall
ymar ry.
Separati
on-Ref er
stophy sicalseparati
onofspouses, theynol ongersharethesame
dwell
ing.
Div
orce- Therehasbeenst eadyr i
seindivorcerateinmostmoder nindustr
ialsociet
ies
i
ncludingZimbabwe.Di v
or cedpeopl earemar r
ingagainr emar r
iages.
Emptyshel lmarri
ages-Spousesl i
vetogether,r
emai nlegall
ymar ri
edbuttheirmar r
iage
exi
stnameonl y.

Di
vor
ce
Divorcei
sthel egal
terminat
ionofmari
taluni
on,
thecancel
l
ingoflegalduti
esand
responsi
bil
it
iesofmar r
iageanddissol
vi
ngofthebondsofmatri
monybet weena
mar r
iedcouple,whil
eotherpeopl
emar r
yandwed,somepeoplemar r
yev ent
ual
lyendup

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75 di
Page| vor
cing.
Reasonsf
ordi
vor
ce

Easeofdi vor ce-di vorcehasbecomeeasi ert oobt ainincont empor arysocieti

esduet o
changesi nl aws( Har t
)
Infertil
ity-chi ldlessness;barrennessi sanot hermaj orcauseofdi vorce,especial
ly
soci etiesAf rica.West ernnat i
onsoptf oradopt i
onofchi ldrenint hecaseof
childlessness.
Conf l
ictbet weenspouse-mi sunder standi ngsbet weencoupl esar eamaj orcauseof
divor ce
Riseoff emi ni stmov ement s-f emini stideasofj ointconj ugalroles, genderinequali
tyin
thehomeet c.hav einmostcasesf acedr esistancef r
om mal eswhost rongl
yhold
pat r
iar chal v aluesofmascul init
yandmal edomi nance.
Secul ar i
zat ionofr eli
gion-Peopl enol ongerpr eservet hesanct it
ymar r
iage.Reli
gionis
l
osi ngi t
ssoci alsignif
icanceinbi ndingf ami l
iestoget heranddi vorceisnol onger
treatedasasi n.
Di v
or cei snowmor esociall
yaccept abl e-di vorceisnol ongerr egardedasasoci al
tabooi ncont empor arysocieties.
WomenI ndependence-bet terempl oy mentoppor tuni ti
esmaymaket hem less
financi allydependentont hei
rhusbandshencedi vorcei sli
kely ,
sincewomencanf ull
y
suppor tt hemsel ves.
I
mpactofdi
vor
ce
Negat
ivei
mpact
s

 pooreducat
ional
achi
evement

 si
ngl
ePar
ent
hood

 psy
chol
ogi
cal
react
ion

 Chi
l
dheadedf
ami
l
y

 Chi
l
dlabor
Posi
ti
ve
Femi
nistseei
tasawayofescapi
ngf
rom anexpl
oit
ati
vei
nst
it
uti
on
Domest
icv
iol
ence
Domesti
cvi
olencecanal
sobenameddomest i
cabuseorf
amil
yviol
ence)i
sviol
enceor
ot
herabusi
vebyonepersonagai
nstanot
herper
soninadomest
icsett
ing,
suchasin

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76 ma
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ri
ageorcohabi
tat
ion.i
tcanal
soi
nvol
vev
iol
enceagai
nstchi
l
dren,
par
ent
s,or
el
der
lyandmaybedonef
orsel
fdef
ense
For
msofdi
vor
ce
I
tt akesanumberoff or
msi ncl
udi
ngphy si
cal
, v
erbal
,economic, emoti
onal
,rel
i
gious,
reproduct
iveandsexual abusewhichrangefrom subt
itl
e,coerci
v ef
ormstomar i
talr
ape
andt ophysicalabusesuchaschoking,beati
ng,femalegenit
al muti
lat
ionandacid
throwingthatresult
sindisf
igur
ementordeat h
Theef
fect
sofdomest
icv
iol
ence
Becauseofabuse, vi
cti
msmayexper i
encephysical
disabili
ti
es,dysregulated
aggression,chronichealthproblems,mentali
ll
ness,poorabilit
ytocr eatehealt
hy
rel
ationships,psychologicaldi
sorder
ssuchaspost -
traumat i
cst r
essdi sor
ders.Chi
l
dren
areaf f
ectedpsy chologi
callyfr
om anearlyagesuchasav oi
dance, hypervigi
l
anceto
dysregulatedaggr essi
onwhi chmaycont ri
but
etov i
carioustraumat i
zation
Way
sofmi
nimi
zi
ngdomest
icv
iol
ence
Gover nmentpoli
cies/l egislati
onondomest icvi
ol encee.g.Domest icViol
enceAct( DVA)
of2007-Thi slegisl
ationdi scouragesanyf orm ofabusei nt hefamily.Al
though,thi
sact
i
sef fecti
ve,i
tischaracterizedbysomanyweaknesses.Accor dingtoChi l
var
y,thelegal
system isgenderbiasedt her efor
eiti
slikelynotf emaleviolenceascr imes.Moreov er
,
manyf amil
ymember sdonotr eportfamilyissuet othepoliceduet oanumberof
fact
or ssuchasf earofembar r
assment,lackoff aithinpoli
cesol ut
ions,di
vorcethreats,
cutt
ingof fr
esponsibil
itiesandsoon.Tr aditi
onal waysofr esolv
ingf amil
yconfli
cts-
i
nv i
ti
ngf amil
ymember ssuchasaunt .

ENDOFUNI
T1:
7QUESTI
ONS

Di
scusst
hef
unct
ionsoff
ami
l
y
Assesst
hev
iewt
hatf
ami
l
yhasl
osti
tsf
unct
ionsi
nmor
der
ndaysoci
eti
es.
Di
scussf
unct
ional
i
stsv
iewoff
ami
l
y

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77

TOPI
C4:
CULTURE
Obj
ect
ives
Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,l
eaner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto
i
. Di
scusssoci
ologi
cal
per
spect
ivesoncul
tur
e
i
i
. I
dent
if
yfor
msofcul
tur
e
i
i
i. Out
li
neTy
pesofcul
tur
e
i
v. Expl
ainel
ement
sofcul
tur
e
v
. Di
scussi
ngcul
tur
aldi
ver
sit
y
v
i. Expl
ainchar
act
eri
sti
csofcul
tur
e
v
ii
. Di
scusst
hei
nfl
uenceofcul
tur
eonUnhu/Ubunt
u

Def
ini
ti
ons
RalphLint
on( 1945)definescultur
easawayofl i
feofitsmember s,coll
ectionofi deas
andhabitswhi chthey.Learnandshar efr
om generat
iontogenerati
on.Gi ddens( 2001)
cult
urereferstothewayofl i
feofthemember sofsocietyorgroupswi t
hint hesociety
,
whichhast hef ol
l
owingat t
ribut
es:dressi
ng,marri
age,customs,familyli
feet c.Robert
s
(1987)cul
t ur
er ef
erstoallthesharedproduct
sofhumansoci ety
.
1.Cult
urei
sorgani
candsupraorgani
c:-I
tisor
ganicwhenweconsidert
hef actt
hat
ther
eisnocul
turewit
houthumansociet
y.I
tissupr
aorgani
c,becausei
tisf
arbey ond
anyindi
vi
dual
lif
eti
me.Indi
vi
dual
scomeandgo, butcul
tur
eremainsandpersist
s.
2.Cultur
ei sovertandcov er
t-Itisgeneral
lydivi
dedintomat
eri
alandnon-mater
ial
cul
tures.Mat er
ialcult
ureconsi
st sofanytangibl
ehumanmadeobj ect
ssuchast ools,
automobiles,buil
dings,et
c.mat eri
alcul
tureconsist
sofanynon-
physi
calaspect
slike
l
anguage, beli
ef,i
deas,knowledge, at
ti
tude,val
ues,etc.

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78 3.
Page| Cul
tur
eisexpl
i
citandi
mpl
i
cit-I
tisexpl
i
citwhenweconsi
dert
hoseact
ions,
whi
ch
canbeexpl ainedanddescr i
bedeasi l
ybyt hosewhoper formt hem.I tisimpl icitwhen
weconsi derthoset hingswedo, butar eunabl etoexplainthem, yetwebel i
evet hem t o
beso.
4.Cultur eisideal andmani f
est-I deal cultureinvolv
est hewaypeopl eoughtt obehav e
orwhatt heyoughtt odo.Mani f
estcul tur einvolveswhatpeopl eact uallydo.
5.Cultur eisstableandy etchangi ng-Cul tureisstablewhenweconsi derwhatpeopl e
holdv aluableandar ehandi ngov ertot henextgener ati
oni nordertomai ntai
nt hei r
normsandv alues.Howev er,whencul turecomesi ntocont actwithot hercul tures, i
tcan
change.Howev er, culturechangesnotonl ybecauseofdi r
ectorindirectcont act
betweencul t
ur es, butalsot hroughi nnov at i
onandadapt ati
ont onewci rcumst ances.
6.Cultur eisshar edandl earned-Cul turei sthepubl i
cpr opert
yofasoci al groupof
people( shared) .Individualsgetcul tural knowl edgeofthegr oupthr oughsoci alizati
on.
Howev er,weshoul dnot et hatallthingsshar edamongpeopl emightnotbecul tural,as
ther
ear emanybi ol ogicalattr
ibutes, whichpeopl eshareamongt hemsel v es(Kot tak,
2002). 7.
Cultureissy mbol ic-I tisbasedont hepur posefulcreati
onandusageofsy mbol s; i
tis
exclusivetohumans.Sy mbolicthoughti suni queandcr ucialtohumansandt ocul ture.

El
ement
sofCul
tur
e
Cul
tur
eincl
udeswithi
nitselfel
ement
sthatmakeuptheessenceofasoci
etyorasoci
al
gr
oup.ThemajoronesincludeSymbol
s,val
ues,
nor
ms, andlanguage.
Symbols-Sy mbolsr ef
ertoany thi
ngtowhichpeopl eatt
achmeaningandwhi chthey
usetocommuni cat
ewi thot
her s.Morespeci
ficall
y,symbol
sar ewords,objects,
gest
ures,soundsori magest hatrepr
esentsomet hi
ngelserathert
hant hemsel v
es.
Symboli
ct houghtisuniqueandcr uci
altohumansandt ocultur
e.I
ti
st hehumanabi l
it
y
togi
veat hingorev entanarbit
rarymeaning,grasp,andappreci
atethatmeani ng.
Language-Language, specif
icall
ydefinedasasy stem ofverbalandinmanycases
wri
ttensymbolswithr ul
esabouthowt hosesymbolscanbest rungtogethert
oconv ey
morecompl exmeanings, i
sthedi st
inctivecapaci
tyandpossessi onofhumans; i
tisa
keyelementofcultur
e.Cultureencompassesl anguage,andthroughlanguage,cul
turei
s
communi cat
edandt ransmitted.Withoutlanguage,i
twoul dbeimpossibletodevelop,
el
aborateandtransmitcultur
et othef uturegener
ati
on.
Values-Valuesareessent i
alelement sofnon-mat eri
alculture.Theymaybedef i
nedas
general
,abstractguidel
inesforourli
v es,deci
sions,goals,choi ces,andact i
ons.They
aresharedideasofagr oupsorasoci etyastowhati srightorwr ong, corr
ector
i
ncorrect,
desirabl
eorundesi rabl
e,accept abl
eorunaccept abl e,ethicalorunet
hical
,et
c.
regardi
ngsomet hing.Theyaregener alroadmapsf orourlives.Val uesaresharedand

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79 a
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elear
nedi
n-gr
oup.Theycanbeposi
ti
veornegat
ive.Forexampl
e,honest
y,t
rut
h–
tell
ing,r
espectf
orothers,hospit
ali
ty,
helpi
ngthoseinneed,et
c.arepositi
vevalues.
Exampl esofnegat
ivevaluesincl
udet hef
t,i
ndecency
,di
srespect
,dishonesty
,falsehood,
frugali
ty,
etc.
Cust om -form ofsoci albehaviorthat,
havingpersi
stedalongperi
od, hasbecome
traditi
onal andwel lestabl
ishedi nasociet
yandhasr ecei
vedsomedegr eeoffor
mal
recogni t
ion.Cust om isapat t
ernofact i
onsharedbymostoral lmember sofasociet
y.
Habi tisaper sonal
it
yt r
ait
,wher easthecustom i
sagr ouptr
ait
.Fashionandcustoms
canbedi ff
er enti
atedinthatwhi lecust
om changesatslowerrate,
fashionchangesata
fasterrate.
Norms-ar ealsoessent i
al el
ement sofculture.Theyarei mplici
tpri
ncipl
esforsociall
i
fe,
rel
ati
onshipandi nteract
ion.Normsar edet ai
ledandspeci fi
crulesf
orspecifi
c
sit
uati
ons.Theyt el
l ushowt odosomet hing,whatt odo, whatnottodo, whentodoi t
,
whytodoi t,
et c.Normsar ederiv
edf rom values.Thatmeans, forever
yspecifi
cnor m,
ther
eisgener alval
uet hatdeter
mi nesitscont ent.I
ndiv
idualsmaynotactaccor dingto
thedefi
nedv aluesandnor msoft hegr oup.Ther efor
e,violati
onofvaluesandnorms
anddeviat
ingf rom thestandardvaluesandnor msar eof t
encommon.

For
msofcul
tur
e
1.Materi
alcul
ture-Thesear
ephysi
cal
obj
ectsmadebymembersofsoci
etye.
g.cl
oths,
bui
ldi
ngsetc.
2.Non-materi
alcul
tur
e-Thosear
ehumancreat
urest
hatar
enotphysi
cal
e.g.l
anguage,
bel
ief
s,customsetc.
Ty
pesofcul
tur
e

 Highculture–usuallyref
ersasopera,
classi
cal
musicandl i
terat
ure.Formany
whouset het
erm,highcultur
eisseenassuperi
ortolesserf
or msofcultur
e.r
st o
cult
uralcreat
ionsthathaveaparthi
ghst at
us–forexample,theproductsoflong
establ
ishedartfor
mssuch

 Folkcul
tur
e-r ef
erstothecult
ureofordinarypeople,par
ti
cul
arl
ythosel
ivi
ngin
prei
ndustr
ial
societi
es.Examplesincl
udet r
adit
ionalfol
ksongsandstor
iesthat
havebeenhandeddownf rom gener
ati
ont ogenerati
on.

 Masscul t
ure–f ori
tscri
tics,
masscul turei
sseenasalessworthythanhi
gh
cult
ureorfolkcult
ure.I
tisapr oductofthemassmediaandincl
udespopular
feat
urefil
ms, TVsoapoper asandpopmusi c.Cri
ti
csofmasscultur
eseeitas
debasingforindi
vi
dualsanddest ruct
ivetot
hefabri
cofsoci
ety.

MrTChi
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Page|
80  Popul
arcul
tur
e–of tenusedwithameani ngsimilart
o‘ masscultur
e’.Popular
cul
tur
eincl
udesanycultur
alpr
oductsappr eci
atedbyy outhgroupswhoshar e
commonmusi calt
astesandenjoythesamel ei
sureact i
vi
ties;
ethni
cgr oups;
peopl
ewhoshar et
hesamer el
igiousbel
iefs;member softhesamegang.

 Global
cultur
e–i mpl i
esanal l
-embraci
ngcult
urecommonl ar
genumber sof
ordi
narypeople:
forexampl e,TVprogrammes, mass-marketfi
lms,andpopular
fi
cti
onsuchasat erm ofabuse,thi
sisnotthecasewithpopularcultur
e.Whil
e
somedoseepopul arcult
ureasshal l
owandhar mful
,other
s,i
ncludingsome
postmoderni
sts,arguethatiti
sjustvali
dandwor t
hwhil
eashi ghculture.

 Subcul
tur
e–t heter
m hasbeenappli
edtoawider
angeofgroups,
incl
udi
ng:
thosewholi
veclosetoget
herandhaveshar
edali
fest
yle;

 Globalcult
ure–iti
scommont opeopleal
lovertheworld.Feat
herst
one(1990)
arguesitdoesnotexi
stbecausepeopledonotshareacommonl i
fest
yle;
however,somecultur
alpr
oductsacrossnat
ionalboundari
es.
Somet heori
sts,par
ticul
arl
yf uncti
onal
ist
s,emphasi
zethedegreetowhichcul
tur
eis
shar
edbymember sofasoci ety.Manyothert
heori
stsemphasizecul
tur
alpl
ural
i
sm
orsubcult
uralvari
etyinsociety
Cultur
al uni
ver
sal s-Referstothosepracti
ces,bel
iefs,v
alues,norms, materi
alobjects
etc.whichareobser vedacr osssociet
iesinthewor l
d.Thismayr efertoglobalcult
ure,
whichisobserv edacr osstheborderssuchas; f
aithheali
ngpr oper
tyrightsfi
remaki ng,
sexualrestr
ict
ionset c.
Ethnocentri
sm -Itistendenciestojudgeothercul
turesbyt hestandardsofone's
cultur
e.i
tmeansr egardingyourowncul t
ureasbeingsuper iortoothers
Adv
ant
agesofet
hnocent
ri
c
o I
tpr
ovi
desf
ait
handconf
idencei
none'
sowncul
tur
e.
o Bei
ngi
thel
pst
oreducei
nfl
uencebyf
orei
gner
s.
o I
tencour
agessol
i
dar
it
yamongci
ti
zens.
o I
tenhancesasenseofpat
ri
oti
sm.
o Ci
ti
zenswhoar
eet
hnocent
ri
chav
ethepowert
ofi
ghtf
ort
hei
rindependence.
Di
sadv
ant
ages
o Bei
ngt
ooet
hnocent
ri
cmaybet
hesour
ceofhat
redorconf
li
ctamongpeopl
e.
o Suchpeopl
emaybexenophobi
cthati
shav
inghost
il
it
ytowar
dsot
hercul
tur
es.
Xenocent
ri
sm -i
sthebel
i
eft
hatf
orei
gncul
tur
eisbet
tert
hanone'
sowncul
tur
e.

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udypack

81 Adv
Page| ant
agesofxenocent
ri
sm
o Suchci
ti
zensadapteasi
l
ytonewcul
tur
e.
o Theyacceptchange.
o Theyat
endencyofdemocr
ati
c.
o For
eigner
smayeasi
l
ycont
rol
peopl
ewhodonotl
i
ket
hei
rcul
tur
e.
o I
tmayl
eadt
oer
osi
onandul
ti
mat
elydeat
hofacul
tur
e.
Cul
tur
aldi
ver
sit
y
Mostsoci eti
esthroughoutt heworldhav ebecomehet erogeneousasar esul
tof
vari
oussoci al,
economi candpolit
ical development s( Lemmer ,MeierandVan
Wy k,2006) .TheZimbabweansoci etyhasnotbeenspar edasi thasbeen
describedasasoci etywhi chhasmor ethanoner aciallydefinedgroup( Murphr
ee,
1985) .Thistheref
or erendersZimbabweamul ti
-cult
ur alsociety.TheMi ni
str
yof
Educat i
on, Sport
sandCul ture(MOESC)dr aftedacul turalpolicyinSeptember
2004whi chwasr ev i
sedi n2009inamov et hati
ll
ustrat edandr ecognizes
Zimbabweasamul t
icult
uralandmul ti
-racialsociety
.Thi sisnotar ef
lecti
onof
i
nfriourit
yorsuper iorit
ybutitisareflectionofcul tur
al diversit
y.
Itwasalsopossibletol ivepeacef ul
l
yinmulti
cult
ural
i
sm asv ari
ouscultur
esar e
accor
dedequal status.El lert(2000)descri
bedthecompositionofethnicgroupsin
Zimbabweasf oll
ows: t hemaj ori
tyareShonas,whoconstit
uteabout77%, theNdebel
e
const
it
uteabout14%andmi nori
tygroupsl
iketheTonga,Kalanga,VendaandShangani
comprise9%oft het otal popul at
ion.Agai
nstthi
sbackground,ther
eisnodoubtt hat
Zimbabweismul ti
cul t
ur al societ
y.
Whati
scul
tur
aldi
ver
sit
y?
Theaboveintroducti
onhaspictur
edthatZi
mbabwehasdi ff
erentgroupswith
di
ff
erentcult
uralpracti
ceswhichlat
eronmadesociologi
stt
odecl ar
eZi mbabwe
asamul t
icul
turalsoci
etyther
efor
ecult
ural
div
ersi
tyiseasynowt odefine.
Cul
tur
aldi
versi
tyr
efer
st othepr
esenceofdi
ff
erentcul
tur
esandacti
vi
ti
esinasociet
y.I
t
i
salsodef
inedasthepresenceofvar
iousf
ormsofcult
urethataf
oundinsoci
ety
.
Way
sinwhi
cht
hezi
mbabweansoci
atyi
sdi
ver
se
Language-I
nzimbabwe,t
herearev
ari
ouset
hni
cgroupst
hathav
edi
ff
erentl
anguages
forexampl
etheShona,
Kalanga,
Ndebel
eandsoon.
Food-di
ff
erentgr
oupshav
edif
fer
entf
oodt
ypest
heyaddt
othei
rdi
et.Forexampl
e,
someeattot
oisandsomedonot.

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82 Re
Page| l
igi
ousbel
i
efs-Ther
ear
evar
iousr
eli
giousor
gani
zat
ionsi
nZi
mbabwe.Forexampl
e
somear
ebel
i
evei
nIsl
am,
indegi
nousr
eli
gion,
Chr
ist
iani
tyandsoon.
Dr
essi
ng-eachcul
tur
algr
oupshasi
tsowndr
essi
ngal
thoughgl
obal
i
zat
ioni
scr
eat
inga
gl
obal
cul
tur
e.
Marr
iagecust
oms-themarri
agecust
omsoftheNdebele,
Shona,
Kal
angaet
c.ar
eabi
t
di
ff
erenti
ntheway
si nwhi
chthemarri
agei
spract
iced.
I
mpor
tanceofcul
tur
aldi
ver
sit
y.
Cult
uralr
elat
ivi
sm -i
tisanappr eci
ati
onofot herpeopl
esculture.Accor
dingtoBoaz,
i
ndivi
dualsshouldt
reatpeopleaccordingtotheirowncul
turewi t
houtcompar i
ngi
tto
one'
sown.Forexampl esocialworkerstreati
ndivi
dual
sintheirownculture.
Soci
alsol
idar
it
y-duet osoci
ologi
calr
esearch,
soci
etyhascometounderst
andthat
peopl
earedif
ferent
iat
edbytheirowncult
ureandoneshouldnotj
udgebutappr
eciat
e.
Equal
it
y-cul
tur
aldi
versi
tyhasmadeusunderst
andthatt
her
eisnothinginbor
nabout
bei
ngaNdebeleorShona,cul
tur
eisl
ear
nthencethi
sdoesnotref
lectsuperi
ori
tyor
i
nfri
our
ity
.
Dr
awbacks
Xenocentrism -othergroupsmightbel
iev
ethatt
heyarei
nfr
iourandwil
lhaveno
appreci
ationoft hei
rcultur
ebutother
soutgr
oupcult
ure.
Ethnocentrism -i
tisthebeli
eft
hatone'sowncul
tur
eissuperi
orhence,
thi
smightr
aise
di
scrimination.
Tri
balwars-i
tisesti
matedthatt
ri
balwar
sareontheri
sethannati
onconfl
i
cts.For
example,
theGukurahundi
tri
balwarwhi
chtookpl
acebetweentheNdebel
eandt he
ShonainZimbabwe.
Soci
ologi
cal
per
spect
ivesoncul
tur
e
Funct
ional
i
sm
Dur
khei
m –cul
tur
eandconf
ormi
ty
Durkheim(1961)bel i
evedthatasharedcultureisnecessaryifasociet
yistorun
smoot hl
y.Thissharedcultur
eispasseddownf rom generat
iontogenerati
onandexi sts
outsi
deoft hewishesandchoi cesofindi
v i
duals.Peoplemustconf or
mt othecultureof
thei
rsocietyi
ftheyar etoavoi
dt heri
skofpuni shment.Inordertodevel
opculture,
humansmustdev elopasy st
em ofclassi
fyingthings.Thecategori
escomef rom society
withtwosocialgroupswi l
lcl
assifyever
ythingintwoswhi l
stmor ecomplexsocieties
havemor ecompl excategori
es.
Reli
gionisbasedont heclassif
icati
onofobj ect
sassacr edorprofaneandisthebasi c

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83 oft
Page| hecol
l
ect
iveconsci
encei
nsi
mpl
esoci
eti
es.Thi
sweakeri
nmor
ecompl
exsoci
eti
es,
butacommoncul
tur
eisnecessar
yforsoci
eti
es,
forsoci
eti
est
orunsmoot
hly
.
Ev
aluat
ion
Durkheim’sworkhasbeencri
tici
zedf
orusingev i
denceselecti
vel
yandexaggerat
ingt
he
ext
entt owhichthesoci
alst
ructur
edeterminescult
ure.However,hi
sworkpavedthe
wayf orlat
erworkonthewaysocialf
actorsmightshapeculture.
Mar
xistt
heor
yofcul
tur
e
Mar xclaimedt hatinclass-strat
ifi
edsoci eti
esculturecouldbeseenasl i
tt
lemor et
han
ruli
ng-classideol ogy.I
tissi mplyanexpr essionoft hedistor
tedviewofthewor l
d
adv ancedbyt hedomi nantcl ass.Contempor aryMar xi
stshav edevel
opedtheori
esof
culturalforces,suchast hemassmedi a.Onei nt
erpret
ationofMar xseestheworki
ng
classassuf feri
ngf r
om f al
secl ass-consciousness–t her ul
i
ngclassshapesitsbel
ief
s
andcul ture.
Otheri
nter
pret
ati
onsseeworki
ng–classcult
ureandot
hercul
tur
alf
ormsaspossessi
ng
someindependencef
rom r
uli
ng-
classdominati
on.
Neo-
Mar
xist
Mar xi
sm hassi gnifi
cant l
yinf
luencedthisappr oach,butallt
endtoarguethatculture
hasconsi derableindependencef rom economi cinfl
uences,andthereisno
strai
ghtf
or wardcor respondencebet weencl assandculture.Wil
li
ams( 1961,
)criti
cizes
Mar xi
sttheoristforbeingt oodetermini
sti
c.Hear guesthattheyunderesti
mat ethe
creati
vi
tyofdi ff
erentgr oupswi t
hinthecultureandhav etoonar r
owonar tandl i
ter
at ur
e.
Thebasisofwor king-classiscoll
ecti
veactioni nresponsetolackofoppor t
unity
.
Wor ki
ng-classcultureandbour geoisindiv
idualist
iccult
ureinter
actandov erl
ap.
Ev
aluat
ion
Will
i
amsencouragedother
stot
akewor
king-
classcul
tur
eser
iousl
y,butpost
moder
nist
s
denyit
srel
evancetoday
.
Summar y:Cul
tur
eisaproductofsoci
etyt
hathasthepowert
odir
ecthumanmi nd.
Withoutcul
tur
e,mostsoci
ologi
stbeli
evet
hatther
ewouldbenoanymeaningf
ul human
societ
y.

ENDOFUNI
T1.
7QUESTI
ONS

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84

Topi
c5r
eli
gion
Obj
ect
ives
Byt
heendoft
het
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:
i
. I
dent
if
yandev
aluat
ethet
heor
yofr
eli
gion
i
i
. I
dent
if
yrel
i
giousor
gani
zat
ionsi
nZi
mbabwe
i
i
i. Exami
net
hei
nfl
uenceofr
eli
giousmoment
sinZi
mbabwe
i
v. Di
scusssecul
ari
zat
iondebat
e

'
Inthebegi nningwast heWordandt heWor dwaswi thGod, andtheWordwasGod;t
he
godofChr i
stianit
yisasupremebeing,hiswordistheulti
mat etrut
h,hi
spoweri
s
omni potent.Hisfoll
owersworshi
phim, prai
sehim,andl i
vebyhi s
commandment s.Rel
igi
ousbeli
efsofonesor toranotherarepresenti
never
yknown
society,
butt heirvar
iet
ycannotbecount edusingfi
ngers.
Whati
srel
i
gion?
Accor dingtoDurkheim( 1961),rel
i
gionisdef i
nedaccor dingt odisti
ncti
onbetween
sacredandt hepr ofanethings.Sacred-referstothoseobj ects,
whi charerespected,
holyandownede. g.thecrossi nChristi
anity.Profanethingsr eferstotheobjects,whi
ch
arenothol y.Medf ordSpiro1965say sreli
gionisani nsti
tutionconsi st
ingofcultur
all
y
patternedinter
actionwithcultural
lypostulatedsuperhumanbei ngs.Yi
ngerdefined
rel
igionasasy stem ofbel i
efsandpr acticesbymeansofwhi chagr oupofpeopl e
str
uggl eswiththeul t
imateproblemsofhumanl i
fe.
Ty
pesofr
eli
gion

 Chr
ist
iani
ty

 Hi
ndui
sm

 Buddhi
sm

MrTChi
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Page|
85  Judai
sm

 I
slam

 Af
ri
cant
radi
ti
onr
eli
gion
Per
spect
ivesonr
eli
gion
Asusual ,
manyt heoret
icalperspect
iveshavemixedv iewsont heroleofreli
gionin
society
.Ther earesomanydi ffer
entgroupsinsociet
ysuchaswomen, men,classes,
racejusttoment ionaf ew.Sincesocietyi
sstrat
if
ied,notallsoci
ologistswouldagr ee
withFunctionali
ststhatrel
igionbenefit
sallgr
oups, i
nfarct
,theseeot hergr
oups
benefit
ingmor ef r
om reli
gionthanothersdo.
Funct
ional
i
sm
Emi
l
eDur
khei
m(1961)
Accordingt oDurkheim( 1961)r eligionisauni fi
edsy st
em ofbel i
efsandsacr i
fi
ces
rel
atedtosacr edthings. Iti
sal sot hedi sti
nctionbet weensacr edandpr ofanethings.He
beli
evest hatall
societiesar ediv idedi ntot wo, t
hussacr edandnonesacr edt hi
ngs.He
basedhi sargumentont hestudyofAust rali
anAbor igi
nessociety.TheAbor igi
nal
societ
yisdi vi
dedintosev eralclans, eachcl anhasgoti tsownt otem usuall
yanani mal
orplant,theseobjectsar eseen, assacr ed( holy).Thet otem i
sasy mbol,which
repr
esentacl an.Dur kheim arguest hatt hetotem i sasy mbol ofgodandt hesy mbol of
societ
yhencei nwor shi pingGodpeopl ear einfarct-worshippi
ngsociety.
Rel
i
gionandt
hecol
l
ect
iveconsci
ence
Durkheim beli
evest hatsoci all
ifewasi mpossi blewi thoutt heshar edv al
uesandmor al
beli
efsthatformt hecol l
ectiveconsci ence.Inthei rabsence, ther ewoul dbenosoci al
order,
socialcont r
ol andsoci alsoli
dar i
tyorco-oper ation.Infarct ,
therewoul dbeno
societ
y.Thewor shi
pofsoci etystrengthenst hev aluesandmor albeli
efsthatformthe
basisofsocialli
fe.Accor dingt oDur kheim,indiv
idual sunder standandexpr esstheir
fai
thincommonv aluesandbel ief
saswel lasmor albondswhi chuni tethem.Therefor
e,
therol
eofr eli
gionist omai ntainor derthroughthecol lect
iveconsci encethatprovi
des
commonv aluesandi ndi
vidualsactcol lecti
vely
.

Br
oni
slawMal
i
nowski
(1954)
Li
keDur
khei
m,Malinowskiseesr
eli
gionasr
einf
orci
ngsoci
alnor
msandv
alueshence
pr
omoti
ngsoci
alsoli
dar
it
y
Rel
i
gionandl
i
fecr
isi
s

MrTChi
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a0718786253
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86 ToMa
Page| l
inowski
,anxi
etyandt
ensi
ont
endt
odi
sruptsoci
all
i
fehenceor
derneedst
obe
maintained.Ther ear esi
tuati
onst hatpr oduceemot ionalstresssuchasbi rt
h, pubert
y,
marriageanddeat h.
Malinowski (
1954)seesr eli
gionasbei ngpar t
icular
lyconcer nedwi thsituati
onsof
emot i
onal stress.Hesai dthatallsocietiessufferfrom li
fecr isi
se.g.,death,deathis
seenassoci all
ydi sr
upti
vebecausei tremov est hemember sofsoci ety.Thisev ent
cannotbepr edictedorcont r
olledandi tproducesemot ional str
ess.Hesai dt hattherol
e
ofreli
gionist ocomf or
ttheber eaved.Member sofar eli
giousor ganizati
ongat hersat
thefuneral comf orti
ngtheber eaved.Ther ef
ore, thi
si sexpressionofsoci alsolidari
ty
rei
ntegratessoci etyandorderi srestored.
Pr
edi
cti
onandcont
rol
Mal i
nowski saidtherearesomeev ents,whichcannotbepr edictedorcontrol
ledwhich
producet ensionandr i
tual
ssur roundt hoseevent
s.Hebasedhi sobservati
onont he
TrobriandIslands.Fi
shingforexampl e, wasseenast heimpor tantacti
vi
tyinthe
TrobriandIslandsandi twasdonei nthecalm water
sofl agoon.Howev er,
therewasa
dangerofst orm whichcouldr esult
sint helossofli
ves.Ritual
swer eassociatedwit
h
thi
semot i
onal st
resstoensureagoodcat chandprotectthef i
sherman.Therefore,
rel
igionisseenasmai ntai
ningsoci al
sol i
dari
tybydeali
ngwi thsituat
ionsofemot i
onal
stressthatthreatensthesocialstabil
ityofsociet
y.
Theemphasisherei
sthatr
eli
gionact
sasameansofsocialcont
rol
andprovi
des
afeel
ingofcont
rol
.Asschoolpupi
ls,
whydoyoupraybef
oreyoubeginy
our
schoolt
ri
p?Thismeansrel
igi
onprovi
desaf
eeli
ngofprot
ecti
onandcontr
ol.
Tal
cot
tPar
sons
Rel
i
gionandVal
ueconsensus
Hesaidhumanbehav iorisdi
rect
edandcont r
oll
edbynor msandv
alueswhichguide
thesocialsyst
em e.g.inaChrist
iansociet
y,t
hetencommandmentsoperateinaway
ofprov i
dingguidel
i
nesf orbehaviore.
g.donotki
llhenceor
derwi
llbemaint
ainedby
provi
dingcommonv alues.
Soci
alor
der
Parsonsl i
keMal i
nowski seesr eli
gionasbeingaddr essedt oparti
cularproblemsthat
occurinallsociet
ies,whi chdi sruptshumanl i
fe.Indivi
dualsarehitbyev ents,whi
chthey
cannotf or
eseeorpr epar ef ore.g.death.TheroleofRel i
gionisthereforetocomfortt
he
bereavedhencet hisisf urtherseenasamechani sm ofadjustment sforsuchevents
andasameansofr estoringnor mal patt
ernsoflife.
Furthermore,t
hesecondar eaoft heprobl
em isthatof'uncertai
nty'-Thisreferst
o
somet hi
ngwher eagr eatdeal ofef for
tandskillhasbeeni nvest
edbutwher eunknown
anduncont rol
l
ablef actorcanaf fectasuccessfuloutcome.Oneexampl eishumanity'
s

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87 i
Page| nabi
l
ityt
opr
edi
ctorcont
rol
theef
fect
sofweat
heronagr
icul
tur
e.Agai
n,f
oll
owi
ng
Mali
nowski
,Parsonssawtherol
eofr
eli
gioni
stomai
ntai
nsoci
alor
derandst
abi
l
itybuy
soundi
ngal
lproblemswit
hrit
ual
s.
Rel
i
gionmakesl
i
femeani
ngf
ul
Religi
ousbel iefsgivemeani ngstoli
febyansweringmy steri
ousquestions.Theroleof
rel
igionist omakesenset oalll
i
feexperi
ences nomat terhowmeani nglessor
cont r
adictorytheyappear .Agoodexampl eofthisi
sthequest ion'whydowe/ peopl e
suffer?Religionpr ovi
desar angeofanswerse.g.suf
feringisimposedbyGodt otest
one'sfaithori tisapunishmentf rom si
n.I
nthi
scase, suffer
ingbecomesmeani ngful.
Parsonst heref oreseesamaj orfuncti
onofrel
i
gionasmaki nglif
emeani ngf
ulthust hi
s
promot esor derandst abi
lity
.
Cr
it
ics
Thefunct i
onali
stperspecti
veemphasi zest hepositi
vecont r
ibutionofrel
igi
ontosociet
y
andthet endtoignoreitsdysfuncti
onal aspects.Rel
igiondoesnotal way spr
omot e
harmony ,i
ntegrati
onandsoci alsol
idari
ty.Inmanyi nstances,reli
gioncanbeseenasa
deci
siveanddest r
ucti
veforce.
I
tconsi der
shost i
li
tybetweendiffer
entr eli
giousgroupswi t
hint hesamesoci et
ye.g.
Chri
stianit
yandI sl
am.
Reli
gioncanal socreateconfli
ctinsocietyassuggest edbyMar xism andFeminism.
Mar
xism
From Marxi
stperspect
iveonr
eli
gion,
tobeconsi
der
edbel
ow,
prov
idesacont
rast
toFunct
ional
ist
sv i
ews.
Whati
srel
i
gionf
rom Mar
x?
InMar x'
swords,Reli
gionisthesighoftheoppr essedcr
eature,t
hesent i
mentoft he
heartlessworldandhesoul ofthesoull
essconditi
ons.I
tistheopium oft hepeople-i
t
actsast heopiatetodul l
thepainproducedbyoppr essi
on.Therefore,reli
gionisan
i
llusi
ont hateasesthepai ncausedbyexpl oi
tati
on.
Itisaser i
esofmy ththatjusti
fyandlegit
imatethesubordi
nationoft hesubj ectcl
ass
anddomi nat
ionofther ul
ingclass.Hemai nt
ainsthati
tisadistort
ionofr eal
it
y,which
providesmanyoft hedecept ionsthatf
ormt hebasisofrul
ingclassideol ogyandf al
se
class-consci
ousness.
Fr
om Mar
x'swor
ds,
rel
i
gioncandul
lthepai
nofoppr
essi
oni
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
s;
a)Itpromisesaparadi
seofeternal
blissi
ntheli
feafterdeat
h-Engel
sarguesthatt
he
appeal ofChr
ist
iani
tyt
ooppressedclassesl
iesi
nt hepromiseofsal
vati
onfrom.
Christ
ianvisi
oncanmakeli
feonear thmorebearablebygivi
ngpeoplesomethingt
o
l
ookf orwardto.

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88 b)Somer
Page| eli
gionsj
ust
if
yoppr
essi
onandsuf
fer
ingaspuni
shmentf
rom God-
Mar
x
stat
est hatsocial principl
esofChr i
sti
anitydeclarealltheactsofoppr essorsagainst
oppressedt obeapuni shmentf orsins.
c).i
tof fer
sthehopeofsuper nat urali
nterventi
ont osolvethepr oblemsonear th-
Member sofreligi
ousor ganizationssuchasJehov ah'
swi t
nessesl i
veintheanticipati
on
ofthedaywhent hesuper natural powerswi ll
descendf r
om onhi ghandcr eat
eheav en
onear th.Anti
cipationoft hisf uturemakesl i
feonear t
hmor ebear abl
e.
d)Religionoftenjust if
iesthesoci alorderandaper son'sposi
tionwi t
hinit-Godcanbe
seenaascr eatingandor dainingsoci alstructures.Thisissupportedbyt heVictorian
hymn" Al l
thi
ngsbr i
ghtandbeaut i
ful
"thistherefore,makesst r
atifi
cati
onaccept ableand
j
ustif
iedandaccept able.
Rel
i
gionandsoci
alcont
rol
From Mar xistv iewpoint,rel
igi
oni samechanism andinst r
umentofsoci alcontrol.Thi
s
i
sdonebymai nt ai
ningtheexi st
encesy st
em ofoppressionandr einforci
ngcl ass
rel
ati
onshi psbymai ntai
ningonesposi ti
onacceptabl
eandbear abl e.Mar xsay sthat
Chri
stianitypr eachessubmi ssiv
enessandhumbl enesst ot heplor etar
iat.
Thismakesl if
e
bearable,int hiscaser el
igionactasaconser vati
veforce-I tt
urnst odiscouraging
peoplef r
om at t
empt i
ngtochanget hei
rsit
uati
onbyof feri
ngani llusionofhopet oa
hopelesssi tuation,Itactuall
yprev ent
sthoughtsofoverthrowingt hesy stem and
maintainingt hest atusquo.
Ithelpstoproducefor
ceclass-
consciousnessthatbl
indst hemember softhesubject
classt othei
rtr
uesi
tuati
on.Theruli
ngclassadoptreli
giousbeliefst
ojust
ifythei
r
position.Theli
nes“
Godmadet hem hi
ghandl owlyandor deredthei
rest
ate"showshow
reli
gioncanbeusedt ojust
if
yinequali
ty.
Letusgobackt oO' l
evelhistor
y,hist
oryt oldust hatNy atsambaMut otawasthe
fi
rstki ngofMut apastateandhewast her el
igiousleader.Rel i
gionpl ayedamaj or
rol
ei nt hepol i
ticalsy
stem ofMut apast ateint hesenset hatitinstall
edKi ngs,
j
ust i
fiedt heposi ti
onofkingssinceki ngswer esai dtobei nstall
edbyGod, i
tal
so
gaveadv i
cest othekings.Inthi
scase, reli
gionwasusedt omakepeopl erespect
rul
ingcl assandki ngsdecisionssincewer er egardedasdi vi
ne.Ther efore,
rel
igionaccor dingtoMar xisasuper structurethatiscont rol
ledbyt hosewho
ownt hemeansofpr oducti
onandt heroleofsuper structureistot ransmi t
capitalistideologies.
Li
kewise,one-
dayworkingclasswil
lgai
nclass-
consci
ousnessandrev
oltagai
nst
Capi
tali
sm andit
sreli
gion.Marxsawthedisappear
anceofrel
igi
oni
nacommuni sm
soci
ety-thi
sisaclassandr el
igi
onwil
lceasetohaveanysoci
alpur
pose.
NeoMar
xist

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89 Ac
Page| cor
dingt
oEngel
s,r
eli
giondoesnotal
way
ssuppor
tcapi
tal
i
sm butcanbe
r
evol
uti
onar
ymeani
ngi
tcanal
sobeaf
orceofchange.
Ot
to-
Madur
o
Ther
elat
iveaut
onomyofr
eli
gion
ReligionhassomeI ndependenceorr elati
v eautonomyfrom t heBour geoisi
e.Hedenies
thatrel i
gionisalwaysaconser v
ativeforce, i
tcanber ev
ol ut
ionary .Hesai drel
igi
onis
notanecessar il
yconservat
ivefactorbuti tcanbr i
ngsocialrevolut i
one.g.theCatholi
c
Chur chi nLati
nAmer icahasincreasinglydemonst rat
edt hei
raut onomy /i
ndependence
from t heBourgeoisi
ebycr i
ti
cizi
ngt hem andact ingagainsttheirinterests.Theyplaya
roletodi scourageexploi
tat
ionandoppr ession.Inthi
sregard, r
eligionisnotalway s
conser v
ativ
eitcanalsober evolut
ionary.
GenderFemi
nism andr
eli
gion
Feministtheoriesofrel
igi
onoftenfoll
owMar xi
sttheori
esinarguingthatrel
igi
on
canbeani nstrumentofdominati
onandoppr essi
on.Howev er
,unlikeMarxism,
theytendtoseer el
i
gionasapr oductofpat
ri
archyrathert
hanasapr oductof
capit
ali
sm.Theyseer eli
gionasservi
ngtheinter
estofmenr atherthanthoseofa
Capit
alistclass.
Radi
cal
femi
nistper
spect
iveonr
eli
gion
Accordi
ngtoKar enArmst
rong(1993)
,noneofthemaj orr
eligi
onshasbeengoodto
womeni nthesensethatwomencontinuetobeexcludedfrom thekeyr
olesinmany
rel
i
gions.Theradical
femi
nist
sarguethatgenderi
nequali
tyisli
nkedtorel
igi
on.
Si
monedeBeauv
oir
Reli
gionoppresseswomenandt heremustber el
igi
onforwomen.Theoppressor
s(men)
canuser el
i
giont ocontr
olwomen.Religionalsoservesasatoolofcompensati
ng
womenf ortheirsecond-
classstat
us.I
nmanyr el
i
gions,mani
sthemasterbydivi
ne
ri
ghts.Womenar edecei
vedbyr el
i
gionintothinki
ngofthemsel
vesasequal t
omen,
despitet
heirevidenti
nequali
ty.
Womenar etaughttobepassi veandsubmi ssi
vetotheirhusbandsandthismakes
them tobev i
ewedasi nferi
or.Insomeway s,rel
i
gionpor t
raysWomenasbei ngcloserto
Godt hanmenar eeveni ftheyareunlikelyt
oholdpositi
onsofpowerwi t
hinrel
igions.
Religi
ongiveswoment hefalsebeli
eft hatt
heywi l
lbecompensat edforthei
rsufferi
ng
onEar thbyequalit
yinheav en.Womenar ealsovit
albecausetheyintr
oducechi l
drento
rel
igiousbeli
efs.Therefore,theconclusionwasdr ownthatreli
gionsubli
mateswomen.
Mar
yDal
y(1973)

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90 Da
Page| l
y(1973)Bel
i
evest
hatr
eli
gioni
spat
ri
archal
andexpl
oit
ati
vet
owomen.Shear
gues
t
hatr
eli
gionoppr
esseswomeni
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
s;
a)Reli
gionsuchasChr i
sti
anit
yhasoftenproclai
medt hatt
hesubordinati
onofwomen
i
sGod’ swil
l.
b)Godi spotrayedasamanandasf ather-suchonesexsy mbolism ofthi
ssortplaces
womeni nani nfer
iorposit
iontomen.
c)Reli
giontel
lsbeliever
sthatredempti
oncomest hroughpr ay
ernotthroughtr
yingto
changethesituati
onandabol ishi
ngexpl
oit
ation.Forthisreason,
rel
igiontendsto
supportPatri
archyhenceact i
ngasaconservativeforce.
Dal
lysai
dtherel
i
gi ousl
anguagesneedtobechanged.Themet hodofl
iber
ationthen
i
nvolv
esthe'
castrati
on'
oflanguageandimagest
hatreflectt
hesexi
stworl
d.This
i
nvolv
estheabol
ishmentofmal es’
godsandrepl
aci
ngt hem wit
hdif
fer
entlanguages.
Nawal
ElSaadawi
Sheclaimst hatr eli
gionitselfisthemai ncauseofpat riarchy .Shesaidr el
igionneedst o
beover t
hrownt hrought hest r
uggl e.Thisisbecauser eligionv i
olatestheright sof
women.Shehadaper sonal exper i
enceofoppr essionwi thinpatri
archalsoci ety
.She
sai
dt hatshef acedahor r
if
icandt errori
ncidentasay ounggi r
lwhenherpar ent sfor
ced
herwithoutwar ningorexpl anationt ounder gofemal eci rcumci si
on.Thi shasof t
enbeen
att
ri
butedt othei nfluenceofI slam. Shesai dif
rel
i
gioncomesf rom God, howi tcouldor dermant ocutof fanorgancr eatedbyhi m as
l
ongast hatorgani snotdi seased.Anaut henti
cRel igi
onai msatt r
uth,equality,j
usti
ce,
l
oveforal lmenandwomen.Rel igionhelpst ojusti
fyorl egiti
mat etheoppr essionof
women.Shear guest hatreligi
onbecamepat r
iarchal t
hrought hemi sint
erpret at
ionof
rel
i
gionbymenf orinstance.Ev eispor tr
ay edassomeonewhocr eatedsin.
Li
ber
alf
emi
nist
Mostl
i
ber
alf
emi
nism acceptt
hatr
eli
gionpl
aysapar
tinoppr
essi
ngwomen.
JeanHol
m
Holm accept
sthatwomenar esubor dinatedanddev al
uatedbyrel
igiousbelief
swhile
theclassi
calt
eachingsofmanyr eli
gionshav estressedequali
tybetweenmenand
womenbuti nreali
ty,menandwomenar efarfr
om equal .Shesaidwomenodonot
haveapar tt
oplayinrel
igi
on,iftheyhav e,i
tisl
ikelytobei nt
heprivatesectorthan
publi
cspheree.g.Japanesefolkr el
igion,womenor gani
zepubli
cr i
tualsandmencan
takeparti
nthepubl i
cperf
ormance.
Rel
i
gionv i
olet
'st
her
ightsofwomen, womenaretr
eatedast hesecondclassinmost
Rel
i
gion.Forexampl
e,chil
dbir
th,menstr
uat
ionetc.areregardedaspoll
utingandi
n
manytradi
ti
onswomenar efor
biddentoent
erthesacredplaceortouchsacredobj
ect
s

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91 dur
Page| ingmenst
ruat
ion.Musl
i
m womenar
enotal
l
owedt
otoucht
heKor
anorpr
aydur
ing
menst
ruat
ion.
Howev er
,theliber alf
emi nistsuggestt hatt herear esomepr ogressest hathavebeen
made.Somer eligionsar egenerallypatriarchalbutt heycanst i
llbeaspect softhem,
whichprovidesi gnifi
cantoppor tunit
iesf orwomen.Forexampl e, unli
keChr i
sti
an
womenwhochanget heirfamil
ynamewhent heygetmar r
ied,Musl i
mswomenkeep
thei
rfamil
yname.Womenar enowal l
owedt opreachinmanyr eli
gionse.g.Christ
ianit
y.
Theliber
alfemi nistbelievethatduet ot hel iber
al poli
cies,
reli
gionisnowmer it
ocratic.
Inconclusion,r
adicalfemini
st stendtobel i
evethatpatr
iar
chyissobuilti
ntoexisti
ng
rel
igi
onst husonlytheirdestructi
onorr eplacementwithanalter
nat
ivecanleadt othe
fur
theringofwomen.r adical feminist
sbel i
evethatr
eli
gionneedstobecastratedto
l
iberatewomen.Howev er,l
iberalfeministwhil
ealsoregardi
ngtheexisti
ngreli
gionas
patri
archal,t
heybeliev
et hatreli
gionneedst ober ef
ormedt hr
oughsomepol ici
esnot
castrat
ingit.
Rel
i
gionasaconser
vat
ivef
orce
Thephr aseconservati
onisusuallyref
erredtor el
igi
onaspr eventi
ngchangeand
maintaini
ngthestatusquo( posit
ioninthesoci ety)
.Funct
ionali
st,Marxi
stsand
Feministshavegenerall
yarguedt hatrel
i
gionactasaconser v
ativ
ef or
ce.Funct
ional
i
st
haveclaimedthatitactsinthiswaybecausei tpromotesintegrat
ionandsocial
sol
idarit
y.Rel
igi
onpr ovi
dest hesharedbeliefs,normsandv aluesandhelpindiv
idual
sto
copewi thst
resshencet hesocietyisnotthreatened.
Marxi
stshavethesi
milarv
iews;t
heybel
ievethatrel
i
gionpr
eventst
hought
sof
over
thr
owingthesyst
em sincei
tdoesnotencouragetheworki
ngcl
asstochanget
hei
r
posi
ti
on.
Femini
stsal
sobel
i
evethatrel
igi
ondoesnotencouragegenderequal
i
tybuti
nequal
i
ty
thr
oughprov
idi
ngfal
sebeli
efsthatwomenareinf
eriort
omen.
Rel
i
gionasaf
orcef
orchange
Rel
i
giousor
gani
zat
ions
I
tref
erstoagroupofpeopl
ewhoshar ethecommonr eli
giousbel
ief
s,doctr
inesand
pr
acti
ces.Manymembersofsociet
yexpressthei
rrel
igi
ousbelief
sthrough
or
ganizat
ionsandor
gani
zati
onscaninfl
uencethegroup.
Ty
pesofr
eli
giousor
gani
zat
ions
Thechur
ch
Accor
dingt
oTr
olcsh,
thet
erm chur
chr
efer
stoal
arger
eli
giousor
gani
zat
ionwher
e

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92 a
Page| l
mostal
lmember
sofsoci
etybel
ongt
oe.
g.RomanCat
hol
i
cChur
ch
Char
act
eri
sti
csofaChur
ch
a)Indi
vidualsdonothav et odemonst ratetheirfaithtobecomemember sofachur ch.
Mostoft hem t heysimpl ygot ochur chbecauset heyar ebor nintoaChur ch.
b).
Baptism isapr actice- Thepr acticeofbapt ism ensur est hatal l
childr
enoft he
member sar eaut omat i
cal l
yr ecruit
edbef or
et heyareol denought ounder standt he
rel
igi
ousf ait
h. c)Thechur chmi ghttrytobeuni versal-The
churchtri
est oembr aceal lthemember soft hesoci ety.Themember saredr awnf rom
all
classesi nthesoci ety. d)The
churchisclosel yrel
atedt ot hest ate.Forexampl e,theRomanCat holi
cChur chinthe
middleageshadi mpor tantpol i
ti
cal,educational andsoci al functi
ons.Ev eni n
contempor aryBr i
tai
n, t
hequeeni sbot htheheadoft hechur chandoft hest at
e.
e)Churchcl ai
msamonopol yofr eli
gioustruth-chur chmi ghtt rytoclaim amonopol yof
rel
igi
ousaut hor i
tyandi tisnotr eadyt owor kwi t
hot herreli
gi ousor ganizations.
f)Churchhasahi erarchyofpai dof fi
cial
s.-Chur chhasahi er ar
chyofbi shops, pr
iest
s
andotherof fi
cialswhor eceiv edmont hlyall
owances.
Denomi
nat
ions
I
tcanbedef i
nedasabr eakawayofachur
ch.Accor
dingtoSt arkandBainbri
dge[
1985]
,
theter
m denominat
ionisusuall
yusedt
orefert
oanor ganizati
onthatshar
essever
al
butnotal
lthesupposedfeatur
esofachur
che.g.Methodist,Angl
icanetc.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofdenomi
nat
ion
a)Unlikeachur ch,denomi nati
onsarenotr el atedt othest ate-Denomi nationssuppor
t
andappr ov
et hesepar ati
onsofchur chandst ate.
b)Unlikeachur ch,denomi nati
onsdonotcl aim monopol yofr eli
gioustruth-Theyare
prepai
dt osepar at
eandt ol
eratewithotherr eligiousor ganization.
c)Likeachur ch,denomi nati
onshav eahi erar chyofapai dof fi
cialse.g.Bishops,
pastors. d)Denomi nat ionsar eusual l
yconser vativ
e- Members
acceptthenor msandv aluesofsociety. e)Likeachur ch, membersare
fr
eelyadmittedbef oretheyar eoldenought ounder standr el
igiousfaithasbapt i
sm i
s
al
sodone.
Sect
s
Accor
dingtoTroel
schsetshavethechar
acter
ist
icswhi char
eal
mostopposedt
othose
ofachurchandtheyaresmallandrel
ati
vel
yanewgr oup.
Asectcanbedef i
nedasbreakawayofademonst rat
ion.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofsect
.
a)Theyar
esmal
l
erandst
rongl
yint
egr
atedt
hananot
herr
eli
giousor
gani
zat
ions.

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93 b)Ra
Page| t
hert
handr
awi
ngmember
sfr
om al
lsect
ionsofsoci
ety
,sect
sar
econnect
edwi
th
thelowerclass.
c)Theyar enotconnectedtot hest ate-somesect sopposeorar ei nconflictwit
ht he
state. d)Theyar ef arf r
om bei ngconser v
ativ
e-Theydon’ tacceptt he
normsandv al
uesoft hesocietytheyar einoppositi
onwi ththestat e.Theyr ej
ectthe
valuesofthewor l
dthatsurroundst hem.Thi siswhyi nsomecasest heyar eregarded
asadev iantgroup. e)
Member sofasectar eexpect edt obedeepl ycommi t
tedtotheirbel i
efs-Theymaybe
excludedfrom thesectift
heyf ailtodemonst ratesuchacommi t
ment .
f)Youngchi l
drencannotusual l
yent ert hesectbybei ngbaptizedbecauset heyarenot
oldenought ounderstandthesi gnifi
canceoft heceremony ,mustj oinwill
inglyasadults.
g)Unlikechurchessectsarenotor ganizedbyhi erarchyofpaidof fi
cials-Theaut hori
ty
usuallyr
estinthehandsofasi nglechar i
smat i
cleaderwhoseper sonalit
yper suadesthe
foll
owerstoadher etohisorhert eachi ngs.
Cul
ts
Aculttendstobemor ei
ndiv
idual
isti
ct hanotherorgani
zedformsofreli
gion-i
tlacksa
f
ixeddoctri
nebuttheyaswelltol
erateotherbeli
efs.i
talsoanewrel
igiousgroupand
t
hisgrouphighl
ycontrol
thei
rmember '
sl i
vesandisdomi nat
edbyasinglechari
smatic
l
eader.Cult
softenhavecust
omer sratherthanmember s.
Secul
ari
zat
ions
Thi
sisapr ocesswherebyreli
giousthinki
ngpracti
ceandinsti
tuti
onslosesoci
al
si
gnifi
canceManysociologistsareoftheviewthatrel
i
gionislosi
ngitspower.
Bry
anWi lsondefi
nesseculari
zati
onast heprocesswherebyreli
giousthi
nki
ngpract
ice
andinsti
tuti
onsl
osesocialsignif
icance.
Theor
iesofsecul
ari
zat
ion
AugustComt
e
Bel
i
evesthathumanhi
stor
ypassest
hrought
hreest
agesandeachst
agehasani
mpact
onRel
igi
on
Theologicalst
age-Reli
giousandsuper sti
ti
ousbeliefswi l
lbedomi nantinthi
sstage.
Thepr i
estwasmosti mpor t
antandr espectedfortheirreli
giousintell
igence.
Metaphy si
calstage-I
nt hi
sstagephi l
osophywoul dbecomemor ei mpor t
antand
rel
i
gionwi ll
beweakenedbysci ence.
Posit
ivestage-nt hi
sstagear eli
gionisdoomed, Itr
ef erstothef i
nal di
sappearanceof
rel
i
gionandsci encealonewill
bedomi nantindir
ecti
nghumant hinkingandhuman
behavior
.
Dur
khei
m

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94 Hedi
Page| dnotagr
eet
hatRel
i
gionwasdoomedt
odi
sappearbutsawsomet
hinget
ernal
aboutr
eli
gion;
hesawi tdecl
ini
nginsocial
signi
fi
cance.Divi
sionoflaborin
i
ndustr
ial
i
zedsocietywouldseerel
igi
onlosesomeofi tsi
mpor t
anceasf ori
ntegr
ati
ng
soci
ety
.Socialsol
i
dari
tywouldincr
easingl
ybeprovidedbyeducati
onnotr el
igi
on.
Mar
x
Hedi dnotbeli
evethati ndustr
ialcapit
ali
sm assuchwoul dheral
dthedecli
neofrel
igi
on
buthebelievesthatitwoul dsetemot i
onachai nofeventsthatwouldl
eadt o
disappear
anceofr eli
gion.Iindustri
ali
zat
ionisanaspectofcapital
i
sm societyt
heref
ore
Religi
onisneededt olegiti
mat ei
nequalit
y.
Howev er,
capital
ism woul deventuall
yber epl
acedbyclassl
esscommuni sm soci
etyand
reli
gionwil
lceasetohav eanysocialpurpose.
Weber
Heanti
cipatedaprogressi
ver
educt
ionint
heimportanceofr
eli
gionandsawpeopl
e
act
ingi
nt er
msofr ati
onalpur
sui
tsofgoal
sandlessinter
msofmagi cal
myster
yinthe
l
inewit
ht r
adit
ion.
Cont
empor
arysoci
ologi
sts
Br
yanWi
l
son
Hearguest hati
ndustri
ali
zati
onhasi ndeedleadtorel
i
gionlosesomeofi t
simportance.
Wil
sonar guesthatsecular
izati
onhasi ndeedtakenpl
ace.Wi l
sondef
inessecul
ari
zati
on
astheprocesswher ebyrel
igioust
hinkingpracti
ceandinst
ituti
onsl
osesocial
si
gnif
icance.
Dav
idMar
ti
nandSt
eveBr
uce
Di
sengagement
Theybel ievet hatr el
igionisl osingitspowerandhav et hereforeseenempt ychur chesas
evidenceofsecul ari
zat i
on.Di sengagementmeanswi thdrawi ngf r
om thewi dersoci et
y.
Mar ti
nsawt hisv iewasconcer nedwi t
hdecli
nei nthepower ,wealthy,i
nfl
uenceand
presti
geoft hechur ch.Int hepast ,churchasai nst
itutionwasi nvolv
edinev eryar eaof
socialli
fe.Forexampl e,pr eviouslythechurchhast hepowert ojudge,empl oyand
educat ebutt hishasbecomel ost.Today,churchesar enol ongert hecenterof
communi ty.Br ucear guest hatthechur chhaslostitspowerasi thasbecomedi stant
fr
om t heBr it
ishst at
e.TonnyBl air
,thepri
memi ni
sterinUKf rom (1997-2007)was
knownf orhav ingst rongr eligiousconv i
cti
ons.Whenhewasaskedaboutr eligioni n
2003byhi sdi rectorofcommuni cationBlai
ranswer ed, "
Wedon' tdoGod"t her efore,thi
s
showst hatreligioni snowdoomed.
Cr
it
icsoft
hisv
iew

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95 Pa
Page| r
sonsar
guest
hatt
hechur
chmaybehav
elosti
tsf
unct
ionsbutst
il
lhav
eadi
sti
nct
ive
rol
ei nsoci et
y.I
nZi mbabwef orexampl e,churchremai nsanati
onali
nsti
tut
ion
performi ngnati
onal f
uncti
ons,churchesar einvi
tedt oblessgov
ernmentevents.
Further more,r
eli
giousrevi
valsandcr usadear esti
llconductedi
nstr
eets.Reli
gious
servicesar esti
l
ldonei nZi
mbabweanschool sthereisalsotheemergencyofreli
gious
organi zati
on,whichhavestrongpolit
icalandeconomi candpoli
ti
calval
ueson
gover nment se.
g.ZimbabweanCounci lsofChur ches(ZCC) .
Decl
i
nei
nrel
i
giousbel
i
efs
Toprovet hatsecular
izati
onistakingpl
ace,peopl
enowbel i
evelessinspi
ri
tual
conceptssuchasheav enorhellasinthepast.Br
il
lybel
i
evesthattherei
sani ncr
easei
n
nonebelieversthaninthepast.
Reli
gionisnowusedf ornonereligi
ouspurposese.
g.Herber
gfoundpeopleusi ng
rel
i
giontoj usti
fythel
ifest
ylese.g.marri
age.
Ther
iseofnewRel
i
giousmov
ement
's
Somer esearcher simpli
esthatt
het r
ulyr
eligi
oussociet
yhasonef ai
thandonechur ch
e.
g.theAust rali
anAbor i
ginesst
udiedbyDur kheim.Rel
igi
ousplur
ali
sm isanindicat
ion
ofsecular
ization;indi
vi
dualsnowhav enati
onal choi
cesastowhichrel
igiontojoin.
Thesenewr eligionsgroupsareri
singagainsteachotherhencesecul
ari
zation.

ENDOFUNI
T1:
8QUESTI
ONS

1.Di
scusshowr
eli
gionmayaboutchange
2.Assessthev
iewt
hatr
eli
gioni
snol
ongeraf
orcef
orsoci
alor
derbutr
ather
di
sorder
.
3.Anal
yzet
hev
iewt
hatr
eli
gionhasl
osti
tsf
unct
ionsi
nmoder
nindust
ri
alsoci
eti
es
4.Di
scusssoci
ologi
cal
appr
oachonr
eli
gion.

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96

TOPI
C6METHODOLOGY
Obj
ect
ives
Af
tert
heendoft
hist
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:
i
. Di
scussquant
it
ati
veandqual
i
tat
iver
esear
chmet
hods
i
i
. I
dent
if
yanddi
scussst
epsi
nthesci
ent
if
icr
esear
ch
i
i
i. Out
li
neanddi
scussr
esear
cht
ool
s
i
v. I
dent
if
yfact
orswhi
chdet
ermi
neone'
schoi
ceofr
esear
chmet
hod

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97 v
. Di
scusst
hei
mpor
tanceofsoci
ologi
cal
resear
chi
nZi
mbabwe

Anyacademi csubjectrequi
resmet hodologytoreachit
sconclusi
ons:i
tmust
haveway sofproducingandanal yzi
ngdat asothatnewtheori
escanbet ested,
acceptedorrej
ected.Sociologyisdefinedasthestudyofhumanbehav i
or;
ther
efore,t
hissecti
oni sconcernedwit ht
hedetail
edresear
chmet hodsthrough
whichdataarecollected.Asweshal lseeinthi
sbook,eachresearchmethodhas
i
tsstrengthandweaknesses.
Oneshoul dbearitinmindt hatt her
ear etwomaj oropposi ngr esearchpar adigmsi n
sociologythusquant it
ati
veandqual itat
iveresearchapproaches.Quant i
tat
iveist he
researchappr oach,whichisoft heviewthatsocial behavi
orcanbest udiedby
empl oyingscienti
ficmethodssuchasexper iment s.Howev er,notallsociologistswould
agreet hatiti
sappr opri
atetousesci enti
fi
cmet hodsi nsocial r
esear ch;tosoci ol
ogist
s
underqual it
ativ
eappr oach,thesubj ectmatterofnat ural
sci enceandt hatofsoci al
wor l
di sdiff
erentbecausemat terinnaturalworldhasnoconsci ousnesshencei tis
i
mpossi bl
et oscienti
fi
call
yst udyhumanbei ngsbecausepeopl epossessa
consciousness.
Quant
it
ati
vedat
a
Thisisaquantit
ati
veappr
oach,whi
chsupportstheuseofscienti
fi
cmet
hodsi
n
research.Bel
owarethemainchar
acter
ist
icsoneshouldconsider
.
Thisisthepositi
vism approachsuppor t
stheuseofscienti
fi
cmethodol
ogyinsoci
al
research.I
tisthescienti
ficquantit
ati
vedataispresent
edinnumeri
calf
orm suchas
stati
sti
cs,percentage,r
atioetc.andpositi
vi
stsbeli
evethati
twaspossi
blet
oclassi
fy
thesocialworldinanobj ect
iveway .
Whytheter
m object
ive?
,object
ivemeansdat
ahasnopersonalv
aluesorisf
ree
f
rom bi
ases;si
ncequantit
ati
veismoresci
ent
ifi
c,dat
ahastobevaluef
ree.
Itshowsacor relat
ion-atendencyf ortwoormor ethingstobef oundt ogetherit
pictur
est hecausal connect
ionbet weent woormor esocialphenomena.Soci ology
shouldpicturet hecausesofcer t
ainbehav iorpatt
erns,forexampl e,
itispossi bl
eto
observet hatprosti
tuti
onisprobablylinkedwi thunempl oyment.Inthiscase,
unempl oymenti sthecausepr osti
tuti
oni stheeffect.I
tusesinduct i
veappr oach;
Inducti
vemet hodol ogystar
tsbycol l
ectingt hedata,dataisanalyzedandat heoryi
s
formedt herefore,i
ssupportedbyposi ti
v i
stwhoaswel lsupportsthenot i
ont hat
sociol
ogyi sscientifi
cinnatur
e.
Adv
ant
ageofquant
it
ati
vemet
hodol
ogy
I
tri
chi
nrel
i
abi
l
ity
-si
ncei
tissci
ent
if
ic;
thest
udyshoul
dber
epl
i
cat
ed/
repeat
edand

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98 pr
Page| oducesamer
esul
ts.
Letusgobackt ophy si
calsci
ence,themostcommonexper i
mentwasthe
test
ingofaleaff orastarch,t
heexper i
mentisrepeatedforsolongusi
ngthe
sameordi f
ferentmat eri
alandscienti
stst
il
lobtainsamer esul
ts.I
nthi
scase,
datainsoci
ologyi sreli
ablebecauseiti
sabletorepli
catethestudyandst
il
l
obtainsamedat a.
Iti
sappl iedonl argesampl es, quanti
tati
vemet hodscanbeusedt ostudylargesampl es
hencegi vingar epr esentati
v esampl eanddat apresentedinnumer i
calform canbe
easilyquant if
ied.
Showsacor relationofphenomena-t hecausal connecti
onofv ari
abl
esi salsopictur
ed
thereforeItismor escientifi
c,Itcapturesthewho, what,whenandwher e.Compar i
son
canbemadeusi ngquant i
tativedataandi tSummar iesvastsourcesofdat ain
numer icalform.I nformat i
on.
Changesi npeopl e'sbehav iorcanbeobser vedovertimee.g.whenusingl ongit
udinal
studies.Per sonal biasesarel essli
kelytointrudeint
odat acol
lecti
onprocessessi nceit
i
smor esci entifi
c.
Li
mit
ati
ons
Kruger(2002)say sitisdif
fi
culttogett herealmeani ngofanissuebylookingatl
arge
number se.g.Durkheim'sstati
stical
anal y
sisofsuicidear emoreinf
iguresthan
explanati
ons.McCul lough(1988)say squantit
ativ
edat aisl
imit
edsi
ncei ssuesar
eonly
measur ediftheyareknownt ot heresearcher,Therei snoin-
depthi
nformation
requestedhenceanar rowrangeofi nformati
oniscapt ur
edhencedataislessval
id.
Qual
i
tat
ivemet
hodol
ogy
Thi
sisanotherresear
chapproach,
whichrej
ect
sheuseofquant
it
ati
veappr
oach
andadvocatefornonsci
ent
if
icmethods;bel
owaret
hekeypoint
s:
Ituseshumani st i
candqual i
tativemet hodsandi tisani ntepr
eti
vism r
esearchparadi
gm
ori nter
pr etivi
stssuppor ti
t.Itrejectstheuseofsci enti
ficmethodsinsoci alr
esear
ch;in
fact ,
theappr oachcl aimsthatsci enti
ficmethodsar einadequateont hei
rownf or
collecting,analy zingandinterpretingdata.
Suppor tersoft hisapproachsuggestt hatquali
tati
vemet hodsshouldsupplementor
replacesci enti
ficmet hods.Whi lequant i
tat
ivedataispr esent
edinnumer icalf
orm;to
i
nt erpretivi
stst hest or
yisdifferent,dataisusuall
ypr esentedintheform ofwords,
pictureset c.
St
rengt
hs
Peopleareall
owedt
ot al
kandactfr
eel
yespeci
all
ywhenusi nggroupint
erv
iews.
Theref
ore,compl
exreasonsf
orbehavi
orar
ecaptured.Rapportorst
rongpersonal

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99 r
Page| elat
ionshi
pisest
abl
i
shedbet
weent
her
esear
chandt
her
espondent
se.
g.i
nmor
e
unstr
ucturedi
nterv
iews.Thus, r
espondentsar eli
kel
ytogivehonestanswers.People
arestudi
edinanat ur
alsett
ingwher erealbehaviorcanbemeasuredandcapt ured
henceat r
uepictur
eofsocial r
eali
tyisgiv
enanddat ai
srichinval
i
dity-gi
vesat rue
pi
ctureofwhatisbeingstudiedandgi vesin-depthanal
ysisofdat
a.
Li
mit
ati
ons
Iti
sl esssci
enti
fi
ct heref
ore;atheorycannotbegeneral
i
zedbecausedat aisbasedon
personalevi
dence,also,i
tislowinreli
abil
i
ty-i
tisdi
ffi
cul
ttorepeatt
hest udy.Qual
it
ati
ve
met hodscannotst
udyl argersampleshencedatalacksrepr
esentat
ivenessofthe
populati
on
Pr
imar
yqual
i
tat
iveandquant
it
ati
vesour
ces.
Pri
marydatareferst ot
hefirsthanddat aorinformat i
oncoll
ectedbyr esearchersdur
ing
thecour
seoft hei
rwor k.I
tisdata, whichiscoll
ectedbyt heresearchersthemselves,
it
i
snewandor i
ginal.Pri
marysour cesenablether esearchert
ogetascl oseaspossi bl
e
towhatactual
lyhappenedandhi sorherhandsar eont hescene.I tr
eflect
st he
i
ndivi
dualvi
ewpoi ntofapartici
pantorobser verandmayaswel lrefertoaf i
rst-
hand
i
nformati
onfrom aper sonwhowi tnessedorpart i
cipat
edinanev ent.
Secondar
yqual
i
tat
iveandquant
it
ati
vesour
ces
Secondar
yresear
chusesi
nfor
mat i
onthathasalr
eadybeenpr oducedbyotherpeopl
e.
Asecondarysour
cei
susedbyaper sonusual
lynotpresentattheeventandrel
yi
ngon
pri
marydocumentsf
orinf
ormati
on.Exampleareasfoll
ows
1.Pr
evi
ousr
esear
ch2.
2.Of
fi
cial
stat
ist
ics3.
3.Massmedi
apr
oduct
s(newspaper
s]
4.Di
ari
es
5.Let
ter
s
6.Gov
ernmentr
epor
ts
7.Webi
nfor
mat
ion(
int
ernet
)
8.Hi
stor
ical
dat
aandi
nfor
mat
ion
9.Books/Magazi
nes

Pr
imar
yquant
it
ati
vemet
hods

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100  Quest
ionnai
res
 St
ruct
uredi
nter
views
 Exper
iment
s
 Cr
osssect
ional
sur
vey
s
 Longi
tudi
nal
sur
vey
s
 Sampl
i
ng
Pr
imar
yqual
i
tat
ivemet
hods
 Semi
str
uct
uredorf
ocusi
nter
views
 I
nst
ruct
edi
nter
views
 Par
ti
cipantandnon-
par
ti
cipantobser
vat
ions
Pr
imar
yquant
it
ati
vemet
hodsi
ndet
ail
1.Quest
ionnai
re
Refer
stowri
ttenquesti
onst
hatseekt
oinv
est
igat
esoci
ologi
cal
issuesandt
he
quest
ionsar
eadmi ni
ster
edorpost
ed.
Ty
pesofquest
ionnai
re
a)Openended–r
efer
stoaquest
ionnai
rewher
ether
espondent
sar
eal
l
owedt
oanswer
usi
ngthei
rownwords
b)cl
osedended–r ef
erstoatypeofstr
uctur
edquest
ionswher
ether
espondent
sar
e
gi
venalt
ernat
ivesandtheyusual
l
yrespondinanooryesfor
mat.
St
rengt
hs
Theyar
eusedt
ocol
l
ectl
argequant
it
iesofdat
a-Suchl
argesampl
escannotbest
udi
ed
usi
ngot
herr
esear
chengi
nessuchaspar
ti
cipantobser
vat
ion.Forexampl
e,TheBr
it
ish
Cr
ime sur
vey used a sampl
e of 46000 Househol
ds pr
ovi
ng t
hat t
hey gi
ve
r
epr
esent
ati
venessofdat
a.

I
tisr
elat
ivel
yqui
ckov
erashor
tper
iod-Ther
esul
tsofquest
ionnai
rer
esear
chcanbe
easi
l
yquant
if
ied,andwi
tht
heassi
stantofcomput
erst
her
esul
tscananal
yzedqui
ckl
y
andef
fi
cient
lywi
thl
i
ttl
eornohumaner
ror
sthusmanyv
ari
abl
escanbei
dent
if
ied
qui
ckl
y.

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101 I
Page| tisusef
ulf
orcompar
isonpur
poses-Quest
ionnai
rescanbeusedt
obackupand
compar
edat
afr
om v
ari
ousst
udi
es,t
husst
udi
esofBr
it
ish el
ect
ionsov
ersev
eral
decadeshav
epr
oduceddat
athatcanbeusedt
odet
ermi
nechangi
ngpat
ter
nsofv
oti
ng
andchangi
ngsoci
alat
ti
tudeswi
thi
nel
ect
orat
e.Thus,Cl
arkeetal(
2010)i
nthei
rst
udy
oft
he2010Br
it
ishel
ect
ionwer
eabl
etousedat
afr
om t
hei
rownandot
herel
ect
ion
st
udi
est
orev
eal
changesi
nvot
ingbehav
ior
.

At
heor
ycanbef
ormul
ated-dat
afr
om quest
ionnai
rescanbeanal
yzedsot
hatat
heor
y
canbemade.Posi
ti
vi
stsar
guet
hati
nduct
iveappr
oachcanbeusedt
otr
ytoest
abl
i
sha
causal
rel
ati
onshi
pthr
oughmul
ti
var
iat
eanal
ysi
s.

Li
mit
ati
ons

I
tisl
ow i
nval
i
dit
y-cr
it
icshav
ear
guedt
hatt
hev
ali
dit
yofdat
acanber
educedby
unwi
l
li
ngnessori
nabi
l
ityofr
espondent
stogi
vef
ullandaccur
ater
epl
i
est
oquest
ions.
Respondent
smayl
i
eandt
her
eisnoguar
ant
eeofpr
ovi
ngt
hatr
espondent
shav
e
under
stoodquest
ionspr
oper
lyornott
hus,ani
n-dept
hint
erv
iew,whi
chhasar
oom f
or
cl
ari
fi
cat
ion,
canbeusedt
ocompl
i
mentt
heweaknessesofquest
ionnai
re.

Ver
yexpensi
ve-quest
ionnai
rescanbeexpensi
vewhenempl
oyedt
oabi
gresear
ch
pr
ojectt
her
efor
ear
esear
chercanr
elyonot
herr
esear
chengi
nes,whi
char
eless
expensi
ve e.
g. of
fi
cial st
ati
sti
cs.
Hav
eal
owr
etur
nrat
eSoci
ologi
stsbel
i
evet
hatquest
ionnai
reshav
elowr
etur
nrat
eof
25%t
her
efor
esuchal
owr
etur
nrat
ecannotr
epr
esentsoci
etyasawhol
e.

Canbewr
ongl
ywei
ghed-Quest
ionsar
eli
kel
ytobebi
asedi
nthei
nter
estoft
he
r
esear
cher
.

2.Exper
iment
s
Refer
stoapr
ocesswherebysociologi
stst
estandwei
ghthevali
dit
yofa
hypot
hesi
sbyi
solat
ingkeyvar
iablesinanopenorcl
osedenv
ironment.
Var
iabl
esi
nexper
iment
s
Actor
sthatcanbechanged(manipul
ated)byt
heresear
chert
ounderst
andthei
r
ef
fectonbehavior
,tocar
ryoutanexperi
mentther
eareimpor
tantv
ari
ablest
hat
ar
emani pul
ated.

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102 a
Page| )I
ndependentv
ari
abl
e-I
tist
hev
ari
abl
ethati
scont
rol
l
edandmani
pul
atedr
esul
ti
ngi
n
thechangeofot hervari
abl
es.Forexampl e,medi
awast hei
ndependentvar
iabl
eduri
ng
theBobodollexper i
mentwhichbr oughtachangeinbehavi
or.
b).Dependentvariabl
e-Iti
sthev ari
ablethati
schangedornewbehaviore.
g.
aggressi
vebehav i
ordepict
edaftertheBobodol l
experi
mentwastheindependent
vari
able.
Ty
pesofexper
iment
s
a)Labor
ator
yexper
iment
Laborat
oryexper
iment
sreferstoanexperimentwhichtakesplacei
nacl osed
envi
ronmentoraroom whichall
owsar esearchert
ocontroli
ndependentvari
abl
esthey
wishwhilecal
cul
ati
ngtheeffect
sindependentvari
abl
eont hedependentvari
abl
es.
Commonl
abor
ator
yexper
iment
s
1.TheBobodol
lexper
iment
.

Theai m oftheexper i
mentwast oshowwhet hermedi ahasani mpactonhuman
behav i
orornot .Banduraexami nedt heef f
ectsonchi ldrenofv iewingmedi aimagesof
viol
ence.Chi ldr
enwer eshownaf il
m ofanadul tbehav ingaggressivelytowar dsabobo
doll,
Inthefilm seenbyonegr oup, anotheradultenteredt heroom andcr i
ti
cizedthe
manf orattackingthedol l
;inasecondgr oup,anadul tpr ai
sedt hemanf orhisbehavi
or;
i
nat hir
dgr oupnobodyent er
edt her oom topasscomment .Allchil
drenwer ethen
placedindividual
lyinaroom t hatincludedBobodol lamongot hertoys.Itwasf ound
thatthechildrenwhohadwat chedt hefil
m wher etheadul thadcr it
ici
zedf orbeing
aggressivewer eleastli
kelytobeaggr essi
ve.Therefor e,Bandur aconductedt hatMedi
a
hasani nfl
uenceonhumanbehav ior.(Cit
edinHar alambosandHol bor n8thediti
on,
2013).
2.Howel
landFr
ost(
1989)

Conduct
edani
nter
est
ingexper
imentaboutt
heef
fect
ivenessofl
eader
shi
pski
l
ls.I
twas
ai
medatshowi
ngt
heef
fect
ivenessofl
eader
shi
p.Thr
eegr
oupsofst
udent
swer
easked
t
ocar
ryoutbusi
nesst
askswi
tht
hreedi
ff
erentt
ypesofl
eader
sthuschar
ismat
icl
eader
andt
woot
hert
ypes.Theexper
imentpi
ctur
edt
hatst
udent
sper
for
medbet
terundert
he
admi
nist
rat
ionandsuper
visi
onofChar
ismat
icl
eader
.Ther
efor
ethechar
ismat
icl
eader
wasf
oundt
obet
hemostef
fect
ive.

b)
.Fi
l
edexper
iment
s

I
tisanot
hert
ypeofex
per
iment
,Iti
sanexper
imentwhi
cht
akespl
aceout
sidet
he

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103 l
Page| abor
ator
yinar
eal
li
feset
ti
ng.

Commonf
iel
dexper
iment
s

1)
.JacobsonandRosent
hal
studyofEducat
ion(
1967)
.

Theai
m oft
heexper
imentwast
oshowwhet
hert
eacher
s’expect
ati
onsmi
ghti
nfl
uence
educat
ional
achi
evementornot
.Theexper
imentwascar
ri
edouti
nel
ement
aryschool
in
Cal
i
for
nia.Theysel
ect
edar
andom sampl
eof20%ofst
udent
’spopul
ati
onandt
est
ed
t
hei
rIQbef
oret
hest
udyandt
heywer
efoundnott
obei
ntel
l
igent
.Theyi
nfor
medt
he
t
eacher
sthatt
hest
udentcoul
dbeexpect
edt
oshowr
api
dint
ell
ect
ualgr
owt
h.Af
tera
y
ear
,the sampl
e was r
etest
ed and showed gr
eat
ergai
ns i
nIQ.Ther
efor
e,t
he
hy
pot
hesi
swasconf
ir
medandconcl
usi
onswer
edr
awnt
hatt
eacher
s’expect
ati
ons
det
ermi
needucat
ional
achi
evement
soft
hel
ear
ner
.

2)Si
ssonsExper
iment
.

Si
ssonsobser
vedt
her
eact
ionsofmember
soft
hepubl
i
cout
sidePaddi
ngt
onst
ati
oni
n
Londonwhenanact
oraskedt
hem f
ordi
rect
ions.Theai
m wast
opi
ctur
ewhet
her
someone'
sappear
ancei
nfl
uencest
her
eact
ionsofot
her
s.Theappear
anceofanact
or
v
ari
ed buthe changed f
rom bei
ng dr
essed as a Labor
er.Si
ssons f
ound outt
he
member
s oft
he publ
i
c wer
e mor
e hel
pfulwhen t
he act
orwas dr
essed as a
busi
nessper
son r
athert
han a Labor
er;Si
ssons t
hen concl
uded t
hatsomeone'
s
appear
ancei
nfl
uenceshumanbehav
ior
.

c)Hawt
hor
neexper
imenti
ndet
ail
.

El
ton May
o conduct
ed t
heexper
imenton t
heHawt
hor
newor
ker
soft
heWest
ern
El
ect
ri
ci
tyCompanyi
n Chi
cago and t
he exper
imentwas i
ntended t
otestv
ari
ous
hy
pot
hesesaboutwor
kpr
oduct
ivi
ty.Hewant
edt
oseewhet
herwor
kpr
oduct
ivi
tywoul
d
i
ncr
easeordecr
easeaf
tert
hecondi
ti
onswer
eimpr
ovedormadewor
se.Var
iabl
essuch
asr
oom-t
emper
atur
e,t
hest
rengt
hoft
hel
i
ght
sandl
engt
hofbr
eakswer
evar
ied.
Howev
eri
tappear
edt
hatwor
ker
sbecameawar
eoft
hef
actt
hatanexper
imentwas
t
aki
ngpl
aceandt
heyr
espondednegat
ivel
ybyi
ncr
easi
ngpr
oduct
ivi
ty.Thi
swasdonet
o
pr
over
esear
cherwr
ong.Suchawar
enessi
slat
erdescr
ibedasHawt
hor
neef
fect
.In

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udypack

104 mos
Page| texper
iment
s,t
heawar
enesst
hatanexper
imenti
staki
ngpl
acei
sknownas
Hawt
hor
neef
fect
.

St
rengt
hsofl
abor
ator
yandf
iel
dexper
iment
s

Labor
ator
yexper
iment
s

Enabl
essoci
ologi
stst
otestpr
eci
sepr
edi
cti
ons-Labor
ator
yexper
iment
senj
oymuch
popul
ari
tyi
nsoci
alr
esear
chduet
oit
sst
rengt
hoft
est
ingapr
eci
sepr
edi
cti
onsor
hy
pot
hesi
sthewayt
hatPopperadv
ocat
es,
Resear
cher
sar
eabl
etocont
rolv
ari
abl
esso
ast
oconf
ir
m orr
ejectahy
pot
hesi
s.

Faci
l
itat
esr
epl
i
cat
ions-Dat
aisr
eli
abl
eint
hesenset
hatot
hersci
ent
istcanpr
oduce
i
dent
ical
condi
ti
onst
oseei
fthesamer
esul
tsar
eobt
ained.

Showst
hecausesandr
esul
tantbehav
ior-Ther
oleofsoci
ologi
stsi
stoexpl
aint
he
causesofbehav
iorandt
her
esul
tantef
fect
se.
g.t
heBobodol
lexper
imentbyBandur
a
showedt
hataggr
essi
vebehav
iorcoul
dbest
imul
atedbymedi
amessagesandv
iol
ent
scenes.

At
heor
y can be f
ormul
ated -When usi
ng exper
iment
s,r
esear
cher
s can t
urna
hy
pot
hesi
sint
oat
heor
y.Bandur
a concl
uded t
hatv
iol
ence medi
a cont
entt
ri
gger
aggr
essi
vebehav
ior
.

Var
iabl
escanbecont
rol
l
ed-Exper
imentt
hatt
akepl
acei
nacl
osedenv
ironmentenabl
e
r
esear
cher
stocont
rol
keyv
ari
abl
est
heywi
sht
ohencev
ali
dit
yisachi
eved.

Fi
eldexper
iment
s

Fi
eldexper
imentt
akespl
acei
nanat
uralset
ti
ng-Fi
eldexper
imenti
scar
ri
edouti
na
r
eall
i
feset
ti
ngandt
hecauseofbehav
iorcanbe obser
vede.
g.Si
ssonswasabl
eto
obser
vet
hatone'
sappear
ancei
nfl
uenceshumanbehav
iori
nar
eal
li
feset
ti
ng.

Hy
pot
hesi
scanbet
est
ed-I
tcanbedonebyi
sol
ati
ngkeyv
ari
abl
es,f
orexampl
e,
Rosent
halandJacobson(
1968)t
est
edt
hehy
pot
hesi
sthatsel
f-
ful
fi
ll
i
ngpr
opheci
es
coul
daf
fecteducat
ionalat
tai
nmentbymani
pul
ati
ngt
hei
ndependentv
ari
abl
esoft
he

MrTChi
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105 pupi
Page| l
sIQ.

Li
mit
ati
onsofl
abor
ator
yandf
iel
dexper
iment
s

Exper
iment
slackVal
i
dit
y-Labor
ator
yexper
iment
sdonotgi
vev
ali
dit
ybecausesoci
ety
doesnotf
iti
naLabor
ator
y.Ther
esul
tsobt
ainedI
naLabor
ator
ymayhav
eli
tt
le
r
elat
ionshi
pto how peopl
emi
ghtbehav
eout
sidet
heLabor
ator
ythusr
esul
tsl
ack
ext
ernalv
ali
dit
y.The r
esear
chercan r
elyon par
ti
cipantobser
vat
ion,whi
ch gi
ves
v
ali
dit
y. .

Hawt
hor
neef
fect-
Exper
imentsuf
ferf
rom aHawt
hor
neef
fect
,thust
heknowl
edgeof
t
hef
actt
hatanexper
imenti
staki
ngpl
acemi
ghtwel
laf
fect t
hebehav
ioroft
hese
i
nvol
vedanddi
stor
tst
her
esul
tsi
tist
her
esear
cher
's ef
fectwhi
chaf
fect
sthev
ali
dit
y
andr
eli
abi
l
ityoft
hest
udye.
g.t
heHawt
hor
neexper
iment
sexper
iencedHawt
hor
ne
ef
fect
. .
Exper
iment
srai
seet
hicalef
fect
sissues-Theconsentoft
hesubj
ecti
snotv
aluedand
r
espect
ede.
g.t
heBobodol
lexper
iment
sdi
dnotconsi
deret
hical
codesofconduct
.

I
tisdi
ff
icul
ttocont
rolkeyv
ari
abl
es-Fi
eldexper
iment
smakei
thar
dforr
esear
cher
sto
cont
rolkeyv
ari
abl
es.Forexampl
es,Si
sson'
sexper
iment,i
twasnotpossi
blet
ocar
ry
outt
het
woexper
iment
satt
hesamet
imeandt
hesamepl
aceandsi
ncet
heyt
ookpl
ace
atdi
ff
erentt
imes,
fact
orssuchasweat
herandt
het
imeoft
hedaymi
ghthav
eaf
fect
ed
t
her
esul
ts.

Testy
ourpr
ogr
ess

1a)whatdosoci
alr
esear
chermeanbyt
heconceptofHawt
hor
neef
fect
s(03)

b)Descr
ibet
wo ot
herexper
iment
sinsoci
alr
esear
cht
hathav
e beenused by
Soci
ologi
stbesi
dest
heHawt
hor
neexper
iment(
04)

c)Descr
ibet
heHawt
hor
neexper
imenti
ndet
ail(
08)

d)Assesst
her
elev
anceofexper
iment
sasr
esear
cht
ool
s(10

3.St
ruct
uredi
nter
view

I
tisv
erysi
mil
art
oquest
ionnai
resast
heyar
eor
gani
zedar
oundaser
iesofquest
ions

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udypack

106 t
Page| hatt
hei
nter
vieweecanr
espond.Al
thoughi
nter
viewsar
elongerandwi
ndedt
han
quest
ionnai
res,
theyar
emor
eper
sonal
thanquest
ionnai
resandar
eabl
etocol
l
ectmor
e
i
nfor
mat
iont
hati
sdet
ail
ed.I
nter
viewsusual
l
ytakepl
acef
ace-
to-
faceandone-
to-
one,
whi
ch enabl
est
hei
nter
viewert
o gai
ninf
ormat
ion on amor
esensi
ti
vesubj
ect
.A
st
ruct
uredi
nter
viewi
swher
ether
esear
cherasksquest
ionst
orespondent
sinper
son.
Toachi
eveconsi
stentandcompar
abl
eresul
ts,t
hesamequest
ionsar
easkedi
nthe
sameor
dereacht
ime.I
tisasetofst
andar
dquest
ionsaskedbyt
her
esear
cheroft
he
r
espondent
.Iti
ssi
mil
art
oaquest
ionnai
re,
buti
sdel
i
ver
edbyt
her
esear
cherr
athert
han
compl
etedbyar
espondent
.

St
rengt
hs

Room f
orcl
ari
fi
cat
ion-Onest
rengt
hoft
hest
ruct
uredi
nter
view f
ormati
sthatt
he
r
esear
cher can r
esol
ve pot
ent
ial r
eli
abi
l
ity pr
obl
ems, such as r
espondent
s
mi
sunder
standi
ng or not answer
ing quest
ions.
I
tisr
epr
esent
ati
vei
tav
oidst
hepr
obl
em ofunr
epr
esent
ati
vesampl
esbecauset
he
r
esponse r
ates wi
l
lbe 100%. .
Gener
ali
zat
ioni
spossi
ble-Unl
i
kepar
ti
cipantobser
vat
ion,i
nter
viewscanut
il
izel
arge
sampl
esso gener
ali
zat
ioni
spossi
ble.Ri
chi
nrel
i
abi
l
ity-
Iti
spossi
blet
o pr
oduce
st
ati
sti
cal
dat
aandi
tiseasi
ert
orepl
i
cat
ether
esear
chandcheckr
esul
ts.

Compar
isoni
spossi
ble-Becauset
her
eisadegr
eeofst
ruct
urei
nani
nter
view,i
tis
easi
ert
omakedi
rectcompar
isons

Usef
ulf
orgener
ati
ngnewhy
pot
hesi
s-I
nter
viewscanbeusedt
ogener
atenewt
heor
ies
andhy
pot
hesi
stheResear
chernotot
her
wisehav
ethoughtof
.forexampl
e,i
nSi
mon
Wi
nsl
ow'
s(2001)st
udyofcr
imei
nSunder
land'
sagei
ng'
har
dmen'
sal
l
owedWi
nlowt
o
dev
elopnov
elt
heor
iesaboutway
sinwhi
chcr
imehadchangedi
ntheci
ty. .

Pr
oducesv
ali
dit
ydat
aofsensi
ti
vei
ssues-Br
yne(
2012)bel
i
evest
hati
nter
viewscan
pr
oducev
ali
ddat
aofsensi
ti
vei
ssueswhi
chcanbet
easedoutast
rustbet
ween
i
nter
vieweeandr
esear
chergr
owsandt
hei
nter
vieweri
spr
obet
ogodeeper
.

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107 L
Page| i
mit
ati
ons:

Bi
ases-St
ruct
uredi
nter
viewsi
nvol
vepr
ejudgment
saboutpeopl
e’
sbehav
iorand,l
i
ke
quest
ionnai
res,
cancont
ainuni
ntent
ional
l
ybi
asedquest
ions. .

Ther
eisl
ackofanony
mit
y-i
nani
nter
view;t
hiscont
ri
but
est
olow v
ali
dit
ybecause
r
espondent
ssi
mpl
ypr
ovi
deanswer
stheyt
hinkt
her
esear
cherwant
s.

Ther
esear
cher
’sef
fect-Theanswer
sgi
venmaybei
nfl
uencedbyt
hepr
esenceoft
he
r
esear
cher
.Labov(
1973)
,fori
nst
ance,f
ound t
haty
oung bl
ackAmer
ican chi
l
dren
r
espondeddi
ff
erent
lywheni
nter
viewedi
ndi
ff
erentcont
ext
s.St
atusconsi
der
ati
ons,
basedonf
act
orssuchasgender
,age,cl
assandet
hni
cit
y,mayal
sobi
ast
hedat
a.For
exampl
e,af
emal
erespondentmayf
eelembar
rassedaboutanswer
ingquest
ionsabout
hersexual
i
typosedbyamal
eresear
cher
.

Lessv
ali
ddat
a-I
tisv
erypossi
blet
hatt
her
esponsesgi
venmaynotbeaccur
ateand
maynotr
efl
ectr
ealbehav
ior
.Respondent
s mayl
i
e,mayf
orgetormayl
ackt
he
i
nfor
mat
ion r
equi
red.Forexampl
e,Tay
lor(
1984)l
atercl
aimed t
heyhad madeup
f
anci
ful
stor
iesaboutt
hei
rescapadesi
nor
dert
oseehowgul
l
ibl
eTay
lorwas.

TESTYOURSELF

Compar
eandcont
rasti
nter
viewsandquest
ionnai
res(
08)

Assesst
her
elev
anceofi
nter
viewsi
nsoci
alr
esear
ch(
10)
4)

4.Cont
entanal
ysi
s

entanal
Cont ysi
shasbot
hquant
it
ati
veandqual
i
tat
ivef
ormsandwhatbot
hty
peshav
e
i
ncommoni
sthest
udyoft
ext
s(dat
asour
cessuchast
elev
isi
on,wr
it
tendocument
s
et
c.)
.Quant
it
ati
veanal
ysi
sofmedi
atext
s,f
orexampl
e,usesst
ati
sti
calt
echni
quest
o
cat
egor
izeandcountt
hef
requencyofpeopl
e’
sbehav
iorusi
ngacont
entanal
ysi
s.
Cont
entanal
ysi
sresear
chmet
hodusedf
ort
hesy
stemat
icanal
ysi
sofmedi
atex
tsand
communi
cat
ions.

St
rengt
hs

MrTChi
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 Soci
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udypack

108 Cont
Page| entanal
ysi
scani
dent
if
yunder
lyi
ngt
hemesandpat
ter
nsofbehav
iort
hatmaynot
be i
mmedi
atel
y appar
ent-Recur
rentt
hemes,such as f
emal
e associ
ati
ons wi
th
housewor
k,i
ncompl
exf
ormsofsoci
ali
nter
act
ioncanbei
dent
if
ied.Hogenr
aad(
2003)
usedcomput
er-
basedanal
ysi
stosear
chhi
stor
icalaccount
sofwari
nor
dert
oident
if
y
r
ecur
ri
ngt
hemesandwor
dsi
nthel
ead-
upt
oconf
li
cts.Thi
ssuggest
sthatquant
it
ati
ve
anal
ysi
scanhav
epr
edi
cti
vequal
i
ties;byi
dent
if
yingapat
ter
nofpastbehav
iort
hat
al
way
s l
eads t
o war
, i
t woul
d be possi
ble t
o pr
edi
ct f
utur
e
conf
li
ct. .
Per
sonalchar
act
eri
sti
cs Si
mil
arl
y,Kosi
nskietal
.(2013)used cont
entanal
ysi
s of
Facebookt
oshow how auser
’sper
sonalchar
act
eri
sti
cs,suchast
hei
rint
ell
i
gence
quot
ient(
IQ)
,sexual
i
tyandpol
i
ticalv
iews,
coul
dbei
nfer
redf
rom t
het
hings,
they'
li
ked.
'
‘
’
.
Cont
entanal
ysi
scanbeusedt
orev
eal
shi
ddensoci
alpr
ocesses,
suchashowwebsi
tes
col
l
ectpr
ivat
einf
ormat
ionanddat
acanbecheckedandr
epl
i
cat
ed.

Li
mit
ati
ons

Not100%r
eli
abl
e-I
nsomet
ypesofcont
entanal
ysi
srel
i
abi
l
itymaybel
i
mit
edbecause
r
esear
cher
smustmakesubj
ect
ivej
udgement
saboutbehav
iororowni
nter
pret
ati
on.

Cont
entanal
ysi
sdoesnott
ellusv
erymuchabouthow orwhyaudi
encesr
ecei
ve,
under
stand,
acceptori
gnor
ethemesandpat
ter
nsThi
siswhycont
entanal
ysi
sisof
ten
usedi
ncombi
nat
ionwi
thaqual
i
tat
ivemet
hodssuchassemi
ology
.

5)Soci
alsur
vey
s

Canbedef
inedasr
esear
chpr
oject
sthatcol
l
ectst
andar
dizeddat
aaboutl
argenumber
s
ofpeopl
eov
eranext
endedper
iod.Dat
aisusual
l
yinst
ati
sti
calf
orm,andt
hemost
pr
act
icalwayofcol
l
ect
ingsuchdat
aist
hrought
heuseofquest
ionnai
res;bel
owi
san
exampl
eat
ypeofsoci
alsur
vey
,

Longi
tudi
nal
sur
vey
s

I
tor
igi
nat
ed f
rom at
ti
tude sur
vey
s and t
her
e ar
e a numberofdi
ff
erentt
ypes of

MrTChi
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 Soci
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109 l
Page| ongi
tudi
nal
studi
es,
incl
udi
ng:

1.I
ndi
vi
dual
studi
es,
wheni
ndi
vi
dual
sar
etr
ackedandst
udi
ed

2.Househol
dpanelsur
vey
s,wheni
ndi
vi
dual
sar
efol
l
owedandobser
vedwi
thi
n
t
hei
rhousehol
dandi
nfor
mat
ioni
scol
l
ect
ed

3.Cohor
tst
udi
es,
whenpeopl
efr
om cer
tai
nagegr
oupsar
est
udi
edt
oexpl
oret
hei
r
di
ff
erentt
raj
ect
ori
esast
heyage.

4.Recor
dli
nkagest
udi
es,
admi
nist
rat
iveorcensusdat
aar
eli
nkedacr
osst
ime

Thesear
eaf
orm ofcompar
ati
veanal
ysi
sthati
nvol
vest
racki
ngchangesamonga
r
epr
esent
ati
vesampl
eov
ert
ime,
from af
ewmont
hst
omanyy
ear
s.Thesamegr
oupi
s
anal
yzedatdi
ff
erentst
agesi
nthei
rli
ves,
usi
ngmet
hodsr
angi
ngf
rom quest
ionnai
rest
o
non-
par
ti
cipantobser
vat
ion.I
tusesbot
hquant
it
ati
veandqual
i
tat
ivemet
hods.Li
ke
par
ti
cipantobser
vat
ionst
udi
es(
seebel
ow)
,longi
tudi
nalsur
vey
sar
ecar
ri
edoutov
era
si
gni
fi
cantper
iodoft
ime;
theycanl
astmanyy
ear
s.Howev
er,
inl
ongi
tudi
nal
sur
vey
sthe
r
esear
cherr
emai
nsdet
achedf
rom t
hest
udygr
oup,hav
ingcont
actwi
tht
her
esear
ch
subj
ect
sonl
yonal
i
mit
edbasi
satseti
nter
val
s

St
rengt
hs

Summar
izesv
astsour
cesofdat
a-Kr
ugerar
guest
hatonest
rengt
hofl
ongi
tudi
nal
sur
vey
sist
hatt
heycanbeused ‘
to summar
izev
astsour
cesofi
nfor
mat
ionand
f
aci
l
itat
ecompar
isonsacr
osscat
egor
iesandov
ert
ime.

Showst
hepowerofquant
it
ati
vemet
hodsi
ntr
acki
ngper
sonali
nfor
mat
ion-Because
t
heyexpl
oitt
heabi
l
ityofquant
it
ati
vemet
hods,t
heyhel
ptoi
dent
if
yandt
rackper
sonal
and soci
alchanges.Hi
l
ls etal
.(2010)
,forexampl
e,used dat
afr
om t
he Engl
i
sh
Longi
tudi
nalSur
veyofAgei
ngt
oanal
yzet
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenmor
tal
i
tyr
atesand
l
evel
s ofweal
th.The st
udyf
ound a st
rong cor
rel
ati
on bet
ween l
ow weal
th and
pr
emat
uredeat
h.

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110 Ge
Page| ner
ater
eli
abl
erepr
esent
ati
vesampl
est
osuggestcausalr
elat
ionshi
ps.Poweretal
.
’s
(
2011) 10-
year st
udy of 200 f
ami
l
ies r
aisi
ng chi
l
dren i
n hi
ghl
y di
sadv
ant
aged
nei
ghbor
hoods,f
orexampl
e,f
ound a‘
cl
earcauseand ef
fectbet
ween phy
sicalor
env
ironment
ali
mpr
ovement
stoanar
eaandt
hewel
l
-bei
ngofi
tsf
ami
l
ies.

Li
mit
ati
ons

Sampl
eat
tri
ti
on-Thenumberofpeopl
ewhowi
thdr
aw f
rom t
heor
igi
nalsampl
eov
er
t
ime,i
samaj
orl
i
mit
ati
onoft
hesesur
vey
sandhi
ghl
evel
sofat
tr
it
ioncanr
educet
he
r
epr
esent
ati
venessoft
hesampl
eov
ert
ime.Forexampl
e,TheBr
it
ishHousehol
dPanel
sur
veyhadl
ostar
oundhal
fofi
tsr
espondent
sbyt
het
ent
hyearoft
her
esear
ch(
Pay
ne
andPay
ne,
2004)
.

Lessv
ali
ddat
a-Quant
it
ati
vel
ongi
tudi
nalst
udi
escol
l
ectdat
ausi
ngsuchr
esear
ch
met
hodssuchasquest
ionnai
resandi
nter
views;t
hesemet
hodsar
elessv
ali
dont
hei
r
own.

Thegr
oupi
sawar
eoft
hest
udy-Thegr
oupi
sconsci
ousoft
hef
actt
hatt
hei
rbehav
ior
i
sbei
ngst
udi
ed,t
her
efor
e,t
hismayi
nfl
uencet
hem andchanget
hei
rbehav
iorbecause
t
heyt
hinkmor
ecar
eful
l
yaboutt
hei
ract
ions,andi
thasapr
act
icaldi
sadv
ant
ageof
bei
ngt
imeconsumi
ng.

6)
.Cr
osssect
ional
sur
vey
s

I
tist
ypeofsur
veyt
hati
sexpl
i
cit
lydesi
gnedt
opr
oducea‘
snapshot
’ofbehav
ioratany
gi
vent
ime.I
tusesbot
hquant
it
ati
veandQual
i
tat
iveappr
oaches.Qual
i
tat
ivef
ormsar
e
gener
all
ydescr
ipt
ive,
wit
htheobj
ect
ivebei
ngt
oil
l
ust
rat
eapar
ti
cul
art
ypeofbehav
ior
.

I
tmayi
nvol
ve,f
orexampl
e,l
ooki
ngatacer
tai
npopul
ati
onchar
act
eri
sti
c,suchas
sui
ci
de,
incomeorpov
ert
y,appl
i
edt
oasi
ngl
ecount
ry,
alar
gear
eawi
thi
nacount
ryora
speci
fi
cfeat
ureofdi
ff
erentcount
ri
es.

Quant
it
ati
vef
orms,
themostcommont
ype,
areanal
yti
c:t
heobj
ect
ivei
stoanal
yzebot
h
cor
rel
ati
onsandcausat
ionsbet
weendi
ff
erentphenomena.Dur
khei
m’sst
udyofsui
cide,

MrTChi
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111 f
Page| orexampl
e,usedcr
osssect
ionalsur
vey
stakenf
rom di
ff
erentsoci
eti
est
obui
l
dupa
compar
ati
veanal
ysi
sofv
ari
abl
esui
cider
ates.Heused t
heseast
hebasi
sfora
t
heor
eti
cal
expl
anat
ionofdi
ff
erentt
ypesofsui
cide.

Cr
osssect
ionalsur
veyr
esear
chmet
hodf
ocusedoni
dent
if
yinggr
oupst
hatshar
ebr
oad
si
mil
ari
ti
es,suchasl
evelofeducat
ion,andmeasur
ingdi
ff
erencesi
nasi
ngl
evar
iabl
e;
whet
her
,forexampl
e,peopl
ewi
thahi
ghl
evelofeducat
ionhav
ehi
gherr
atesofsui
cide
t
han t
hose wi
thal
owerl
evelofeducat
ion.Bot
hty
pes ofcr
oss-
sect
ionalsur
vey
nor
mal
l
yrequi
rer
epr
esent
ati
vesampl
esbecauseoneoft
hemai
nobj
ect
ivesi
sto
gener
ali
zeaboutbehav
ior
.Int
hisr
espect
,cr
oss-
sect
ionalsur
vey
stendt
ofocuson
i
dent
if
yinggr
oupst
hatshar
ebr
oadsi
mil
ari
ti
es.

7)
.Sampl
i
ng

Doy
oust
il
lrememberOl
evel
agr
icul
tur
ewher
eyouwer
esentoutofacl
assr
oom
byt
het
eachert
opi
ckacer
tai
nty
peofsoi
l
?Int
hisr
espect
,youwer
esentt
o
br
ingt
het
eacherasampl
eofsoi
lnott
hewhol
epar
t.

Asampl ei
st her
efore,def
inedasapar tofl argepopulati
onandisusuall
yselectedt
o
representthatpopulat
ion.Thef i
rstst
agei nsampl i
nginvolvesi
denti
fyi
ngthetarget
grouporpopul ati
on.Thepopul ati
onincludesal l
rel
evantsampli
ngunits.Samplinguni
t-
i
st heindiv
idualsorgroupinthatpopul ati
on, t
heresearchermaythentrytoobtaina
sampl i
ngframe-al istofallr
elevantsampl ingunit
s.
Ty
pesofsampl
i
ng
Random sampl i
ng-Thesampl ei spickedatr andom andensur est
hateachsampl euni
t
hasanequal chanceofbeingchosent otakepar ti
nr esearch.
Strat
ifi
edsampl ing-I
nv ol
vesthedi vi
sionofsampl ingFr anceintot
wogr oups
Quotasampl i
ng-Whenquot asampl i
ngi sused, t
hei nter
viewersaretol
dhowmany
respondentswi t
hparti
cularcharacterist
icstoquest i
on, t
hust heover
allsampleref
lect
s
thechar act
eri
sti
csoft hepopulati
onasawhol e.
Mul t
istagesampl ng-
i Itsi
mplyi nvol
v esselecti
ngasampl ef r
om anothersample.
Volunteersampl i
ng-Invol
vesinv i
ti
ngpeopl et ovolunteertotakepartinresear
ch
St
rengt
hs

Gener
ali
zat
ioni
spossi
ble-I
fsampl
i
nghasbeencar
ri
edoutsat
isf
act
ori
l
y,r
esear
cher
s

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udypack

112 s
Page| houl
dbeabl
etogener
ali
zebasedont
her
esul
ts.Thi
smeanst
hatt
heyshoul
dbeabl
e
t
omakest
atement
saboutt
hewhol
epopul
ati
onwi
thouthav
ingconduct
edr
esear
chi
nto
ev
ery member of t
he popul
ati
on.
Lesst
imeconsumi
ng -
Dat
acan beobt
ained and anal
yzed qui
ckl
y.When usi
ng a
r
andom sampl
i
ng,t
he r
esear
ch ensur
es t
hateach sampl
e has a pr
obabi
l
ityora
l
i
kel
i
hoodofbei
ngchosent
otakepar
tinr
esear
ch. .
Rel
ati
vel
ylessexpensi
ve-Muf
tist
agesampl
i
ngsi
mpl
yinv
olv
essel
ect
ingasampl
e
f
rom anot
hersampl
ethusaccor
dingt
oKenLev
ine(
2001)i
tsav
esmoneywher
ether
eis
a v
ery l
arge popul
ati
on.
Enabl
est
her
esear
chert
oident
if
yandcont
roli
mpor
tantv
ari
abl
es-St
rat
if
iedsampl
i
ng
f
ori
nst
ancei
nvol
vest
hedi
vi
sionofsampl
i
ngf
ramei
ntogr
oupsi
nor
dert
oensur
ethat
t
hesampl
eisr
epr
esent
ati
ve.Forexampl
e,t
her
esear
chermi
ghti
dent
if
ygenderand
cl
assasi
mpor
tantv
ari
abl
es.I
nthi
scaset
hepopul
ati
onwi
l
lbedi
vi
dedi
ntowor
king
cl
ass-mal
es,wor
kingcl
ass-f
emal
es,Mi
ddl
ecl
ass-f
emal
esmi
ddl
ecl
ass-mal
esand
uppercl
ass-f
emal
es;uppercl
assmal
es. i
tcanbeusedwhent
he
peopl
eofi
nter
estar
erar
elyspr
ead-I
tinv
olv
esusi
ngper
sonalcont
act
stobui
l
dupa
sampl
eoft
hegr
oupofpeopl
etobe.Lev
ine(
2001)ar
guet
hatt
hist
ypeofsampl
i
ngi
s
mostappr
opr
iat
ewhenexampl
esofpeopl
etobest
udi
edar
erar
eandwher
ethepeopl
e
of i
nter
est ar
e l
i
kel
yto know each ot
her
. .
Thosewhot
akepar
tar
eli
kel
ytobekeenandi
nter
est
edi
nthet
opi
c.-Accor
dingt
ocl
i
ve
seal
e(2012),whenv
olunt
eersampl
i
ngi
sused,t
hosewhot
akepar
tar
eli
kel
ytobe
i
nter
est
edi
nthet
opi
candar
eli
kel
ytobekeenpar
ti
cipant
shencer
eli
abi
l
ityi
sensur
ed
i
nresear
ch.

Li
mit
ati
ons
Sampl i
ngi slessideal-Suchav er
ysmal lsamplecannotrepresentsoci
etyasawhol e
hencet hev ali
dit
yofdat aisasubjectofdebat e.
Lessv ali
dbecausepeopl ehavediff
erentexper i
ences-Thosewhov ol
unteert
ot ake
partcanhav ethediff
erencesinexperienceswi t
hthosewhor efusetotakepartunder
vol
unteersampl i
ng.
Snowbal l
ingsampl ingisnotideal
-personal cont
actscannotbeusedt orefl
ectthe
characteri
sticsofagr oup,peopl
ebehav i
orindiff
erentways.
8)
.Api
l
otst
udyi
sasmal
l

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113 I
Page| tisasmal
l
-scal
epr
eli
minar
yst
udyconduct
edbef
oret
hemai
nresear
chi
nor
dert
o
checkthefeasi
bili
tyortoimprov
ethedesignoftheresearch.Theyarefr
equent
ly
carr
iedoutbeforelargescal
equant
it
ati
ver esear
chinanat t
empttoav oi
dti
meand
moneybeingwast edonanadequatelydesignedproj
ect(cit
edinHaralambosand
Holborn8t
hedi t
ion,2013).
St
rengt
hs
Quest ionsar etested-I fint er
viewsorquest ionnair
esar et obeused, thequest ionscan
bet estedt omakesur et hatt heymakesenset other espondent s.
Itmayhel pther esear cherdev elopway sofget ti
ngt hef ullcooper ati
onoft hoset heyare
studying. -Forexampl eHannahGav ron(1966)f orherresear chintoHousehol d
mot her '
s, foundi twasnecessar ytoest abli
shagoodr elationswi thther espondent sto
gethonestanswer st her ef oreshespentsomet i
mechat tingwi ththegr oupbef orethe
actual Interview.
Itcanbeusedt odev elopt heresearchski l
l
soft hoset aki ngpar t-Forexampl e,Rexand
Toml inson( 1979)st udyofi mmi grantsinBirmingham, theyusedt heirpilotstudyt o
trainamat eurinterviewer st heywer eusing.
Maydet erminewhet hert her esearchgoesaheadornot-Ther esearchermi ghtdiscover
practical problemst hatl eadt othem droppingthepr oject ,pil
otstudymaybeusedt o
conv i
ncet hegov er
nmentaboutt heusefulnessoft hest udyhencef undingi snecessary,
i
ft herei snomeani ngf ul response, t
hest udycanbeabandoned.
Howev
er,
dat
aobt
ainedcannotbeanal
yzedandt
urnedi
ntoat
heor
y.
-Pi
l
otst
udi
esar
enotusual
l
yappr
opr
iat
eforCasest
udi
es
-Canonl
ybeusedwhent
her
eist
ime
-Canl
eadt
oresear
cher
’sef
fect

SECONDARYQUANTI
TATI
VEMETHODS
Of
fi
cial
stat
ist
ics
Offi
cial
stati
sti
cscreat
edandpublishedbygov
er nmentsandit
'sagentsmostl
yand
otherorgani
zati
ons.Off
ici
alst
ati
sti
csareamajorsourceofsecondaryquant
it
ativedat
a
usedbysociologi
ststoexaminetr
endsandpatternswit
hinandbetweensoci
eties.
St
rengt
h
Patter
nsofbehavi
ormaybepi ckedup-St at
ist
icalanaly
sisprovi
desabr oadoverv
iew
ofbehavioracr
osspotent
ial
lywideareas:
local
, nat
ionalandi
nternat
ional.Dur
khei
m
(1897),f
orexample,
ident
ifi
eddi
stinctpat
ter
nst osuici
dalbehavi
orbasedona

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114 c
Page| ompar
ati
veanal
ysi
sofof
fi
cial
sui
cidest
ati
sti
csacr
ossar
angeofdi
ff
erentsoci
ety
.
Trendsandpat ter nsofbehav ior-I nt er msoft rends, statistical datadr awnf rom
diff
er enty earscanbeusedt ounder st andhowsomet hi
ngchanged.Forexampl e,
educat ionst atist i
cscant rackchangesi nlev elsofachi ev ement .St atist i
cscanal sobe
usedt ot r
ackchangesi nbehav ior,suchasbef oreandaf tert hei ntroduct i
onofanew
l
awe. g.domest icv iolenceact .
Compar i
soni spossi ble-St atisticscanbeusedf orcompar isonswi thingr oups, suchas
diff
er encesi nmi ddl e-andwor king- classf ami l
ysi ze, andbet weensoci eties.Bakewel l
(1999)suggest st hatof ficial refugeest atisticsar eusef ul becauset heyqui cklyand
easilydemonst rat et hesi zeandscal eofani nternat ional soci alprobl em.
Producesdat at hatcannotbepr oducedbypr imar ysour ces-i npr act ical terms
offi
cialialstat i
sticsmaybet heonl yav ail
abl esour cecov eringapar ticul arar eaofst udy,
suchassui cide.
Lesst i
me- consumi ng-t hisi sbecausedat ai salmostcompl et el
yanal y zed.
Datai sr eadilyav ail
abl eSt at i
st i
csespeci al l
yonmar riage, divorceorcr imear ereadily
availablesi ncet hedev elopmentoft hei nt ernet .
Offi
ci alstatisticsar er epresent ativeness-AsMar shal l(1998)not es, st at i
stical‘dataare
almosti nvariablynat ional l
yr epr esent ative, becauset heyar eobt ainedf rom compl ete
censusesorv eryl arge- scalenat ional sampl esur vey s.
Datai sr eli
abl e-Thi si sbecauser esear chcanber eplicatedandcompar edal though
definiti
ons, ofar eassuchas‘ unempl oy ment ’maychangeov ertime.
Highdegr eeofaccur acy-Al thoughsomest ati
stical dat ahasl owv alidity ,somef or
exampl e,dat aaboutmar ri
age, divor ce, birthanddeat hcanr ecor dt heseev entswi tha
highdegr eeofaccur acy .
Li
mit
ati
ons
Lessval
id-of
fici
alstati
sti
csi
nvolveofproblemsofval
idi
tyduet
owhatgover
nments
i
ncludei
norexcludef r
om publ
isheddata.Suchdatamayonlygi
veapar
ti
alpi
ctur
eof
real
it
yduetothefactthatdar
kf i
gurei
snotr ecor
ded.
Pr
imar
yqual
i
tat
ivemet
hods
1.Semi
-st
ruct
uredi
nter
views
Nichols(1991)def i
nest hi
smet hodasani nformal int
erv i
ew, notstruct uredbya
standardli
stofquest ions.Researchersar ef reet odeal withthet opicsofi nterestinany
orderandt ophr asetheirquesti
onsast heyt hinkbest .
’Semi -st
ructur edintervi
ews,
therefor
e,all
owar espondenttot al
katl engthandi ndept haboutapar t
icul
arsubj ect.
Thef ocusort opicoftheintervi
ewi sdeci dedbyt heresear cher.Thei nterv
iewhasa
structur
eor‘intervi
ewschedul e’–t heareast heintervi
ewerwant st of ocuson–but
thereisnolistofspeci f
icquestions.Dif
f erentr espondent smaybeaskeddi fferent
questionsont hesamet opic,
dependi ngonhowt heintervi
ewdev elops.Theobj ectiv
eis

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udypack

115 t
Page| ounder
standt
hingsf
rom t
her
espondent
’sv
iewpoi
nt,
rat
hert
hanmakegener
ali
zat
ions
aboutbehav ior
.
Open- endedquest i
onsar efrequentl
yusedi nsemi -
str
uct uredinter
views.Someoft hese
arecreatedbefor etheintervi
ew, whi
leothersar isenatur al
lyfr
om what evert
he
respondentwant stot alkabout.Forexampl e,iftheinterv i
ewfocusedonunder standing
familylif
e,t
heint er
viewermi ghtbeginwithaquest i
onl ike‘Tel
l meabouty ourf
ami ly
.’I
f
therespondentt henment i
onstheirchi
ldren,thei nt
erviewermi ghtdecidetocontinue
withquest i
onsuchas‘ Tellmeabouty ourrelationshipwi thyourchil
dren.’

St
rengt
hs
Thereislessriskoftheresearcherpredeterminingwhatwi llbediscussed-thisi
s
becauset her
ear enospecifi
cquest i
onspr epared.I
nsituationswher etherespondent
cantalkaboutt hi
ngsthatint
erestthem itispossibl
etopi ckupi deasandi nf
ormation
thatmaynothav eoccurr
edtot heinter
viewerorofwhi cht heyhadnopr i
orknowledge.
Thenewknowl edgecanbeusedt oinform subsequentinterviewswi t
hdiffer
ent
respondentsandt osuggestfurtherquesti
ons.
Byal l
owingr espondentst odevel
opt heirideas,theresear chert r
iest odiscov erwhat
someoner eallymeans,thinksorbelievesandt heyf ocusesoni ssuest hatthe
respondentconsi dersimpor t
antresult
si namuchgr eaterdept hofi nformat i
on.
Thismayi ncr easethevalidi
tyofthedat a,asitismor eli
kelyt hatther esearchwi l
l
achieveitsreal ai
ms.Oat ey(1999)suggest sthat‘fr
eedom f ortherespondentt o
answerhowt heywishisimpor t
antingi vi
ngt hem af eeli
ngofcont rol i
nt heinter
view
sit
uation.
Therei saroom f orcl
arif
icati
on-face-to-faceinteractionallowst her esearchertohelp
andgui derespondent s.
Li
mit
ati
ons
Thismet hoddemandscer tai
nskill
si nther esearcher
,suchasaski ngt heright
quest ions, establishingagoodr apportandt hi
nkingquicklyaboutr elevantquestion
oppor t
uni t
ies.Italsor equiresskil
lfrom ther espondent;aninarti
cul aterespondentwi l
l
probabl ybeunabl et ot al
kopenl yandi ndet ailaboutt
her esearcht opic.
Oat eyal soar guest hatopen- endedquest i
ons‘ cancauseconf usionei therbecauseof
thel ackofunder standi ngoft hequest i
onorbyt helackofunder standi ngoft he
quest ions.
I
nter viewsar enotonl ymor etimeconsumi ngt hanquestionnair
esbutt hel ar
ge
amount sofinf ormat iont heyproducemustal sobeanal yzedandi nt er
preted."isdatais
rarelyt i
ghtlyfocusedonapar ti
culartopic,soar esearchermayspendal otofti
me
anal yzingdat at hathasl i
ttl
eornouset othest udy.
Ther ei sapossi bili
tyofnott ell
i
ngt hetruth-Respondent smustr ememberandr ecount

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udypack

116 pa
Page| stev
ent
s,andt
hiscr
eat
espr
obl
emsf
orbot
hresear
cherandr
espondent
.Whi
l
ea
researcherhasnowayofknowi ngifsomeonei stelli
ngt hetrut
h,af urt
herproblem is
i
mper fectrecall;i
tcannotonlybedi f
ficul
ttoremembert hingsthatmayhav ehappened
mont hsory earsago, butmemor i
escanal sobesel ecti
veandr espondent sonlyrecal
l
thoset hi
ngst hatseem importantt
ot hem.
Final
ly,semi-structur
edinter
viewslackstandardi
zat i
on;thesamequest ionsarenot
necessaril
yputt oallr
espondentsandsi mil
arquestionsmaybephr aseddiff
erentl
y.
Thisreducest her eli
abi
li
tyofthedataandmakei tdiff
iculttogenerali
sttheresearch.

2)
.Unst
ruct
uredi
nter
views
Unstructuredintervi
ewsar ebui l
tonagener ali
deaortopicthatt
heresear cherwantst o
understand.Respondent sareencour agedt otalkfr
eelyaboutthethingstheyf eelar
e
i
mpor tant.Kvale(1996)st atesthat‘behav i
orisunderstoodf r
om t
heper spectiveof
thosebei ngstudied;thei
rper cepti
ons, att
itudesandexperiencesarethef ocus’.I
tafree
forminter v
iewmet hodwher etheobj ectiv
ei stogettherespondenttotalk,without
prompt i
ngori nterr
uption,aboutwhat evertheyfeeli
simpor t
antaboutat opic.
St
rengt
hs:
Ther esear cherhasl i
mi tedi nputandt hismeanst hatdat aref l
ectsthei nterest soft he
respondent .Itist herefor emor el ikel
yt obeanaccur ateanddet ai
ledexpr essi onoft heir
beliefs.Hami detal .
(2010)usedt hismet hodi ntheirst udyofy oungPaki st ani femal es
because‘ unst ructuredi nterv i
ewshel pedel abor at eont het opicsofpar ticipant s’ choi ce
[mar riageandsexual it
y]andpr obedf ur t
hert heirconcer ns’.
Thist echni queav oidsthepr oblem oft her esear cherpr ejudgingwhatconst it
utes
i
mpor tantori r
relevantdat a.
Ther esear cherdev elopsar appor twithr espondent s.Ifthisr apportisachi ev ed, peopl e
whomaybenat urallywar yofbei ngstudi edcanopenupt other esearcher , al
lowi ng
sensi tiveissuest obeexpl oredi ndept h, forexampl e,Hami detal .establisheda
rel
at ionshipwi ththeirrespondent sbymeet ingthem anumberoft imesbef oret heir
resear chst ar ted.Thi s‘hel pedt hepar ti
cipant stoopenupanddi scusssensi t
ivei ssues
regar dingsexual i
tyandgr owingupwi t href erencet ot heirmar riageandot herr el ated
topicsoft hei rchoi ce’.
Ifther esear chi srelati
v elyinformal i
tcant akepl acesomewher etherespondent swi ll
feel atease, suchasi nt heirownhomehencef ort h,r
espondent sar efreet ogi vehonest
responses
Li
mit
ati
ons
Unstr
uctur
edi
nter
viewsdemandskil
l
sofbot
htheresear
cherandtherespondentfor
example,t
her
esearchermustr
esi
stthet
empt
ati
ontoinf
luence,
encourageorint
errupt

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117 t
Page| hest
udyandr
espondent
smustbeabl
etoexpr
esst
hemsel
vescl
ear
lyand
understandabl y.
Theresear cher,bydesi gn,hasl it
tlecontrolovert hedi rect
ionoft heintervi
ewandt he
conversati
onmayst r
ayintoar east hatl
aterpr ovei rr
elevanttother esearch.
Int
ervi
ewsar eti
me- consumi ngi nthemsel ves,butsoi sanalyzi
ngandi nter
preti
ngal l
the
datatheygener at
e.
Reli
abil
ityal sotendst obel owbecauset henon- st andar di
zedformatmakest he
i
ntervi
ewi mpossi bletoreplicate.
Amor esev ereli
mi tat
ionist hear gumentt hatinterviewef fect
sinher entl
ybiasal l
forms
ofint
erv i
ewi ng.CohenandTay lor(1977)ar guethatt hemostsi gnifi
cantoft hese
eff
ectsi sthatthrought heactofquest i
oningpeopl e,aseriesofst atusmani pulat
ions
comei ntopl ay.Theout comeoft hi
si st
hatr espondent str
yt opleaset heresearcherby
tel
li
ngt hem whatt heybeli
ev et heywantt ohear .
Testy
ourpr
ogr
ess
Descr
ibet
hedi
ff
erencesbet
weenunst
ruct
uredandsemist
ruct
uredi
nter
views(
08)
3)
.Par
ti
cipantobser
vat
ion

I
tiswhent
her
esear
cheri
sinv
olv
edorheshet
akespar
tint
her
esear
cht
hati
sbei
ng
conduct
edf
orexampl
eMal
i
nowskiusedpar
ti
ci
pantobser
vat
ioni
nhi
sresear
chon
r
eli
gioni
ntheTr
obr
iandI
slands.I
npar
ti
cipantobser
vat
ion,
ther
esear
cherwoul
dent
era
gr
ouporsi
tuat
iont
hatt
heywer
egoi
ngt
ost
udy
,andt
ryt
ogett
oknow t
hegr
oupof
peopl
eort
hesi
tuat
ionf
rom t
hei
rpoi
ntofv
iew andj
oini
nwi
thwhatt
heydo.Dur
ing
par
ti
cipantobser
vat
ion,t
he r
esear
cherwoul
dtr
yto under
stand t
he mot
ives and
meani
ngs of t
he per
son t
hey ar
e st
udy
ing;t
hey ar
etr
ying t
o gai
n a deeper
under
standi
ngoft
heper
son’
sli
fe,t
hei
rbel
i
efs,andact
ivi
ti
esoft
hegr
oupandwher
e
andhowt
heyl
i
ve.I
tisaMal
i
nowski
ant
radi
ti
on,whi
chi
nvol
veshandson,ont
hel
i
ves
andact
ivi
ti
esoft
het
argetgr
oupal
l
owi
ngt
her
esear
chert
oobser
vet
hegr
oupf
rom i
ts
ownper
spect
ive.

Ty
pesofpar
ti
cipantobser
vat
ion

Cov
ertpar
ti
cipantobser
vat
ion-i
sasi
tuat
ionwher
ebyt
her
esear
cherdoesnotr
eveal
hi
sident
it
yori
ntent
ionsandt
hesubj
ect
sunderobser
vat
ionar
enotawar
ethatt
heyar
e
under
obser
vat
ion.
Ov
ertpar
ti
cipantobser
vat
ion-i
sasi
tuat
ionwher
ebyt
her
esear
cherr
evi
ewshi
sident
it
y

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118 a
Page| ndt
hesubj
ect
sar
eawar
eoft
hef
actt
hatt
heyar
ebei
ngobser
ved.

Whati
sgoi
ngnat
ivei
npar
ti
cipantobser
vat
ion?

Goi
ng nat
ivecan bedef
ined asa si
tuat
ion wher
ebyt
her
esear
cherbecomest
oo
i
nvol
vedorat
tachedt
otheact
ivi
ti
esoft
hegr
oupunderobser
vat
ion.Ther
esear
chercan
bemar
ri
edt
oagr
oupandcar
ri
edawaybyt
hegr
oupunder
-obser
vat
ionupt
oanext
ent
ofl
osi
ngobj
ect
ivi
ty.Ar
esear
chercandev
elopaf
ri
endshi
prel
ati
onwi
tht
hegr
oupunder
obser
vat
ionl
eadi
ngt
othef
ail
ureofar
esear
chert
oobser
vet
hegr
oupf
rom anobj
ect
ive
poi
ntofv
iew.

.
Ther
esear
cherwi
l
lbet
oobi
asedandv
ali
dit
yofdat
aisaf
fect
ede.
g.Pr
yce(
1997)f
ound
hi
msel
fgoi
ngnat
ivewhenhewasst
udy
ingsomeoft
heWestI
ndi
ansi
nBr
ist
ol.The
st
udywasdi
rect
edt
othegr
oupwhi
chwasi
nvol
vedi
nlegalact
ivi
ti
essuchasdr
ugs.He
coul
ddr
inkwi
th,
tal
kto,
spentt
imewi
tht
hushebecamet
ooat
tachedt
othegr
oupsand
obj
ect
ivi
tywasr
epl
acedbysubj
ect
ivi
ty.

Mal
i
nowski-encour
agedet
hnogr
aphi
cfort
heneedt
ogetascl
oseraspossi
blet
othe
soci
eti
est
heywer
einv
est
igat
ingasopposedt
oAr
mchai
rant
hropol
ogi
sts.Hebasedhi
s
st
udyont
heTr
obr
iandI
slandswhenhewasst
udy
ingwomanandcul
tur
es.Hebecame
t
ooat
tachedt
othegr
oupandobj
ect
ivi
tywasl
ost
.Hegotcar
ri
edawaybyt
hegr
oupup
t
oanext
entofi
mpr
egnat
ing oneoft
hewomenhewasst
udy
ingt
huset
hnogr
aphyand
par
ti
cipantobser
vat
ionhav
e aweaknessofgoi
ngnat
ivewhi
chi
sli
kel
ytoaf
fectt
he
v
ali
dit
yoft
hedat
a.

St
rengt
hs

NB:
Candi
dat
eshav
etospeci
fyt
het
ypesofobser
vat
ions

Ther
esear
chercanav
oidpar
ti
cipat
ingi
ndanger
ousandi
mmor
alpr
act
ices-Howar
d
Par
kerf
ori
nst
ancecoul
dref
uset
otakepar
tint
het
hef
tofcarr
adi
oswi
thoutt
arni
shi
ng
hi
simage orr
elat
ionshi
p wi
tht
he gr
oup he wasst
udy
ing usi
ng ov
ertpar
ti
cipant
obser
vat
ion.

Ther
esear
chercandev
elopacl
oser
appor
twi
tht
hegr
oup-Thi
sal
l
owst
her
esear
cher

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udypack

119 t
Page| oopenuf
orexampl
e,Bev
erl
ySkeggswasabl
etogetat
ruepi
ctur
eofsexual
i
tyamong
y
oungwomensheobser
vedduet
othecl
osenessoft
her
elat
ionshi
pshedev
elopedwi
th
t
hem.

Bestmeansofobt
aini
ngv
ali
dit
y-Theuseofpar
ti
cipantobser
vat
ionenabl
est
he
r
esear
chert
ogetav
ali
dandt
ruepi
ctur
eofsoci
alr
eal
i
ty.Fori
nst
ance,par
ti
cipant
obser
vat
ion enabl
ed Why
tet
o agetat
ruepi
ctur
eofwhatwasi
mpor
tanti
nthe
Amer
icanI
tal
i
ansheobser
ved.

Li
mit
ati
ons

Ti
meconsumi
ng-Thi
sisapr
act
icaldi
sadv
ant
agei
nthesenset
hatt
her
esear
cheri
s
l
i
kel
ytoconcl
udebasedoni
ncompl
eteobser
vat
ion.Forexampl
e,Ci
cour
el(
1976)spent
f
oury
ear
sst
udy
ingJuv
eni
l
eJust
icei
nCal
i
for
niaandVenkat
esh(
2008)spentmor
e
t
hanf
oury
ear
sst
udy
ingadr
uggangi
nChi
cagom Skeggs(
1997)spentat
otalof12
y
ear
sconduct
inget
hnogr
aphi
cresear
chf
oll
owi
ngt
hel
i
vesofwomenwhohadacar
ing
cour
seataf
urt
hereducat
ioncol
l
egei
nEngl
and.

St
udi
esasmal
lnumberofpeopl
e-Suchasmal
lsampl
ecannotr
epr
esentsoci
etyasa
whol
ether
efor
e.t
her
esear
chercanusedt
heQuest
ionnai
rest
hatcanbeusedt
ost
udy
l
arge number of peopl
e t
o gi
ve a r
epr
esent
ati
veness of
dat
a. .

I
thas a weakness ofgoi
ng nat
ive*
*Consi
dert
he abov
e def
ini
ti
on and exampl
es
Ther
esear
chercanpar
ti
cipat
einl
egalbehav
ior-Thef
ir
stsoci
ologi
sti
nZi
mbabwe
Godor
nChav
hundukacl
aimedt
hathe par
ti
cipat
edi
nwi
tchcr
aftdur
inghi
sst
udyof
wi
tchcr
afti
nZi
mbabwe.

Ther
esear
cherhast
obephy
sical
l
ypr
esentf
orr
esear
cht
opr
oceed.I
nper
sonalt
erms
suchr
esear
chmaybehi
ghl
yinconv
eni
entanddemandi
ng.Ther
esear
chermaybe
r
equi
redt
omov
ehouse,t
oli
vei
nanar
eat
heywoul
dnotot
her
wisechooseandt
omi
x
wi
thpeopl
etheywoul
dot
her
wiseav
oid.Theymayf
indi
tnecessar
ytoengagei
n
act
ivi
ti
est
heydi
sl
ikei
nor
dert
ofi
tinwi
tht
hegr
oupandmayev
enf
aceper
sonal
danger
.
ForJamesPat
ri
ckl
eftGl
asgowi
nahur
rywhent
hev
iol
encegangbegant
osi
ckenhi
m

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120 a
Page| ndhef
eltconcer
nedabouthi
ssaf
ety
.

I
trai
seset
hical
issues-Cov
ertpar
ti
cipantobser
vat
iondoesnotal
l
owi
nfor
medconsent
.

Val
i
dit
y can be af
fect
ed by t
he pr
esence oft
he r
esear
cher-Ov
ertpar
ti
cipant
obser
vat
ioni
sopent
her
efor
eval
i
dit
yisquest
ionabl
e.

Secondar
yqual
i
tat
ivedat
a

1)
.Per
sonal
document
s

I
ndi
vi
dual
swr
it
eper
sonal
document
sfort
hei
rownpur
poses.Some,
suchasdi
ari
esand
l
ett
ersar
eessent
ial
l
ypr
ivat
e,butt
heymaybecomeav
ail
abl
etosoci
ologi
sts.Ot
her
s
suchasaut
obi
ogr
aphi
esar
emor
epubl
i
c

St
rengt
hsandweaknesses

Pr
ovi
desdat
a,whi
chcannotbeobt
ainedusi
ngpr
imar
ysour
ces-Per
sonaldocument
s
maypr
ovi
dedat
aonar
easofsoci
all
i
fewhi
chsoci
ologi
stscannoteasi
l
yst
udyf
ir
st
hand.
Forexampl
e,l
ett
ersanddi
ari
esmaypr
ovi
dei
nsi
ght
sint
ofami
l
yli
fe.

Hi
ghaccur
acy-Di
ari
esf
orexampl
e,maypr
oduceagenui
nei
nsi
ghtsi
ncet
heycanbe
seenast
hepr
ivat
econv
ersat
ionbet
weent
hewr
it
erandhi
m orher
sel
f.

Di
ff
icul
tyt
o obt
ain -Pr
obl
emswi
th pr
ivat
eper
sonaldocument
sar
ethatt
heyar
e
di
ff
icul
ttoobt
ain.Somesoci
ologi
stf
orexampl
e,t
heencour
agedpeopl
etopr
oduce
per
sonaldocument
sfort
hei
rresear
che.
g.Youngandwi
l
lmot
tdur
ingaf
ami
l
yli
fest
udy
i
nEngl
and. .

Lessv
ali
d-Theawar
enessoft
hepar
ti
cipant
sthatt
hedocument
swi
l
lbeusedf
or
r
esear
chi
sli
kel
yinf
luencet
hecont
entoft
hedocument
shencev
ali
dit
yisquest
ionabl
e.

Openf
orowni
nter
pret
ati
on-Soci
ologi
stsmaygi
vet
hei
rownsubj
ect
ivemeani
ngs
basi
ngont
hei
rownunder
standi
ng.

Testy
our
sel
f

Anal
yzet
hev
iew t
hat'
wit
houtt
heuseofpr
imar
ysour
ces,soci
ologi
stsar
eawayf
ar

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udypack

121 f
Page| rom achi
evi
ngv
ali
dit
yandr
eli
abi
l
ity
'(10)

Et
hicsi
nresear
ch

Et
hicalconsi
der
ati
ons ar
e ofpar
ti
cul
ari
mpor
tance t
o soci
ologi
sts because t
hey
i
nvest
igat
epeopl
e.Ar
esear
chermustt
her
efor
eremai
nmi
ndf
ulofherorhi
set
hical
r
esponsi
bil
i
ties t
o par
ti
cipant
s because et
hicalconsi
der
ati
ons ar
e of so much
i
mpor
tance;soci
ologi
stsadher
eto ar
igor
oussetofet
hicalgui
del
i
nes.Themost
i
mpor
tant et
hicalconsi
der
ati
on of soci
ologi
calr
esear
ch i
sthat par
ti
cipant
sin
soci
ologi
cali
nvest
igat
ionar
enothar
med.Ar
esear
cher
'spr
imar
ydut
yist
her
efor
eto
pr
otectt
hewel
far
eoft
hesubj
ect
s.Forexampl
e,ar
esear
cherwhosest
udyr
equi
res
ext
ensi
vequest
ioni
ngofv
olunt
eer
s'per
sonali
nfor
mat
ionshoul
dscr
eent
hesubj
ect
s
bef
orehandt
oassur
ethatt
hequest
ioni
ngwi
l
lnotdi
str
esst
hem.Ther
ear
esev
eral
uni
ver
sal
l
yrecogni
zedconsi
der
ati
onssuchas;

Par
ent
alconsent
/per
missi
on-Resear
chonchi
l
drenandy
out
hal
way
srequi
respar
ent
al
consent
.Resear
chonadul
tsal
sor
equi
resi
nfor
medconsentandpar
ti
cipant
sar
enev
er
f
orcedt
opar
ti
ci
pat
e.Agr
eei
ngt
opar
ti
cipat
einast
udybasedondi
scl
osur
eofr
esear
ch
i
nfor
mat
ionconst
it
utesi
nfor
medconsent .

Conf
ident
ial
i
tyandanony
mit
y-Thesear
etwo addi
ti
onalpr
act
icest
hatensur
ethe
saf
etyofpar
ti
ci
pant
swhensensi
ti
vei
nfor
mat
ioni
spr
ovi
ded(
e.g.
,sexual
i
ty,i
ncome,
et
c.)
.

Br
ief
ing-Ar
esear
chershoul
dal
soi
nfor
m subj
ect
saboutt
hei
rexpect
edr
olesi
nthe
st
udy
,thepot
ent
ialr
isksofpar
ti
cipat
ing,andt
hei
rfr
eedom t
owi
thdr
awf
rom t
hest
udy
atanyt
imewi
thoutconsequences.

Debr
ief
ing-Af
tert
hest
udyi
sfi
nished,t
her
esear
chershoul
dpr
ovi
desubj
ect
swi
th
compl
etedet
ail
saboutt
hest
udyandt
hisi
scal
l
ed Debr
ief
ing. .

Decept
ioni
snotaccept
abl
e-manycr
it
icsbel
i
evet
hatdecept
ioni
sunaccept
abl
ewhen

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122 doi
Page| ngr
esear
ch.(
Conceal
i
ngt
hepur
poseandpr
ocedur
esofast
udyf
rom par
ti
cipant
s).

Testy
our
sel
f

Di
scusst
hei
mpor
tanceofet
hicalconsi
der
ati
onsi
nsoci
ologi
calr
esear
ch(
10)

Resear
chpr
ocess

St
epst
akeni
nsci
ent
if
icr
esear
ch

1)I
dent
if
icat
ionanddef
ini
ti
onoft
hepr
obl
em -Thef
ir
stst
epi
nthepr
ocessi
stoi
dent
if
y
apr
obl
em ordev
elopar
esear
chquest
ion.I
dent
if
yyourt
opi
cofi
nter
estanddev
elopa
r
esear
chquest
ioni
nthef
orm ofacause-
and-
eff
ectr
elat
ionshi
p.

2.Conductar
evi
ewoft
hel
i
ter
atur
e-Accessst
udi
est
hathav
eal
readybeenper
for
med
byot
herr
esear
cher
sandpubl
i
shedi
npeer
-r
evi
ewedj
our
nal
s.Youwi
l
lfi
ndoutwhati
s
al
readyknownandsai
daboutt
het
opi
candwher
emor
eresear
chi
sneededhencet
his
pr
ovi
desf
oundat
ional
knowl
edgeaboutt
hepr
obl
em ar
ea.

3.For
mul
ateahy
pot
hesi
s-Ref
iney
ourr
esear
chquest
ioni
nawayt
hatwi
l
laddnew
i
nfor
mat
iont
otheexi
sti
ngr
esear
chl
i
ter
atur
e,expr
essi
ngi
tint
hef
orm ofat
est
abl
e
r
esear
chassumpt
ion.Thi
sincl
udesi
dent
if
yingt
woormor
evar
iabl
esandar
ti
cul
ati
ng
how onev
ari
abl
eist
houghtt
oinf
luencet
heot
her
.Itmi
ghtbewr
it
tenasaquest
ion,
whi
chcapt
urest
hecauseandef
fecte.
g.Gov
ernmentschoolpassr
atei
slowduet
ohot
si
tt
ing

.
4.Desi
gnt
her
esear
chpl
an-Thepl
anf
ort
hest
udyi
sref
err
edt
oast
hei
nst
rument
ati
on
pl
an.Thi
spl
anser
vesast
her
oadmapf
ort
heent
ir
est
udy
.Ther
esear
cheri
dent
if
iest
he
met
hodol
ogyaswel
lassampl
eoft
hepopul
ati
on.

5)
.Dat
acol
l
ect
ion-Col
l
ect
eddat
ausi
ngt
her
esear
chi
nst
rument
ssel
ect
edi
nyour

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123 r
Page| esear
chdesi
gn.Anexper
imentcanbecar
ri
edoutpr
obabl
ytoi
sol
atekeyv
ari
abl
est
o
t
estt
hev
ali
dit
yoft
hehy
pot
hesi
s.

6)Dat
aanal
ysi
s-Anal
yzedat
ahi
ghl
i
ght
ingt
heef
fect
sofv
ari
abl
esi
nrel
ati
ont
o
hy
pot
hesi
sanddr
awt
rendsandpat
ter
ns.

7.Publ
i
shat
heor
y-Af
terdat
aanal
ysi
s,ahy
pot
hesi
scanbeconf
ir
medandt
urnedi
nto
at
heor
yori
tcanbef
alsi
fi
ed.

Fact
ors,
whi
chdet
ermi
net
hechoi
ceofr
esear
chmet
hods

Fundi
ng-Thesour
ceoff
undi
ngmi
ghti
nfl
uencef
orapr
oposedpr
ojectmi
ghti
nfl
uence.
Somer
esear
chmet
hodsl
i
kequest
ionnai
reshav
eapr
act
icaldi
sadv
ant
ageofbei
ng
expensi
vehencet
her
esear
chermi
ghtchooseal
essexpensi
ver
esear
chmet
hods.

Theor
eti
calst
andpoi
nt-t
hef
actt
hatt
her
esear
cheri
saposi
ti
vi
storani
nter
pret
ivi
stof
cour
sehasani
nfl
uence.Forexampl
e,posi
ti
vi
stwi
l
lobv
iousl
yuseposi
ti
vi
stmet
hods
suchasexper
iment
s.

Thenatureofthest
udy-I tdependsont hefactthatt
heresearcheri
sint
erest
edin
over
allsampleorsmall-
scalesociet
y.Large-scal
eproj
ectrequir
eamor equanti
tat
ive
methodse.g.quest
ionnai
res.
Reli
abil
i
tyandval
i
dit
yoft
hemet
hods-
Thi
shasal
soanef
fectont
hechoi
ceofa
resear
chmethod.
Ethi
cs-Researcher
swill
tendnott
ochooseresear
chmethodswhereet
hicssuchas
confi
denti
ali
tyandinf
ormedconsentar
enotpossi
blee.
g.cover
tpar
ti
cipantobser
vat
ion.
Pr
actical
i
ty/pr
acti
cal
factor
s-Manyresear
cher
swi
l
lbeat
tr
act
edt
oquant
it
ati
ve
methodsbecauseoft
heirpr
acti
cal
i
ty
Thepr
act
ical
fact
orsar
easf
oll
ows:
 Lesst
imeconsumi
ng
 Lessper
sonal
inv
olv
ement
 Canst
udyl
argesampl
es
Testy
ourpr
ogr
ess
Towhatext
entdoes,
thechoi
ceofr
esear
chmet
hodi
sdet
ermi
nedbypr
act
icalf
act
ors

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124 (
Page| 10)
Fact
orsdet
ermi
ningt
hechoi
ceofr
esear
cht
opi
c
Values-Thevaluesandbelief
soft heresear
cherwill
obv i
ousl
ypl
aysomepar t
.
Sociol
ogi
stsarelessli
kelytospendtheirti
meandi nvestener
gyi
nareast
heyf i
ndnott
o
beimportant
.Thus,Durkheim chosetostudysui
cidebecauseheregar
deditasa
ser
iousandimpor t
antissueinsociet
y
Devel
opmentsinsociol
ogyandsoci
ety-Theexistenceofl
it
eraturehasani
nfl
uence,
mostresear
cherstakethewor
kofothersociol
ogi
st sf
orwar
d.Forexample,many
soci
ologi
sthavefol
lowedthet
opicofsui
cideadvancedbyDur khei
m.
Funding-Bigresearchproj
ectsrequirefundi
ngfr
om organi
zati
ons,smal
l
-scal
e
researchproj
ectrequi
resli
tt
lefunding.Forexample,
theBri
ti
shcrimesur
veywasa
l
argepr oj
ectmadepossi bl
ebyf unding.
Et
hics-
Ethi
cal
codesofconduct
sdet
ermi
net
her
esear
cht
opi
c.
TRI
ANGULATI
ON
I
tcanbecal
l
edmet hodol
ogi
cal
plur
ali
sm;
Iti
nvol
vest
heuseofj
oini
ng2ormor
e
r
esear
chmethods
Adv
ant
ages
Compl ementarit
y-Theweaknessesofacertai
nresearchmethodcanbecover
edby
anotherresearchtool
forexample,
questi
onnai
reslackval
i
dit
yandt hei
sval
i
dis
obtai
ned af terusi
ngpart
ici
pantobser
vati
on
Val
i
dity,
-Val
iddat
aisachi
evedaf
tert
her
esear
cherhasuseddi
ff
erentr
esear
ch
methodsunl
i
keusingone
Crosschecki
ng-Tr
iangul
ati
oncanbeusedtocr
osscheckt
hedat
aobt
ainedf
rom a
cert
ainr
esearchmethodbyusi
nganother
Giveawidev ari
etyofinfor
mat i
on-Tri
angulat
ionenabl
esasearchert
ocomeupwi t
ha
vari
etyofinformat i
on.Forexample,secondarysour
cessuchaspersonal
documents
provi
desinfor mati
ont hatcannotbeobtai
nedbypr i
marysour
ces.
Di
sadv
ant
ages
Veryti
meconsuming-Ther
esear
chercant
ri
angul
ateusi
ngav
eryt
ime-
consumi
ng
resear
chmethodl
i
keobserv
ati
ons
Expensi
ve-
Usi
ngmanysour
cesmayr
equi
real
otoff
undi
ng
Br
ingsaboutconf
usi
on-Quant
it
ati
veandqual
i
tat
iver
esear
chmet
hodsar
etwo

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125 r
Page| esear
chpar
adi
gms
Thei
mpor
tanceofsoci
olgi
cal
resear
ch
Socialresearchrefer
st ot hestudyofi ndividualsandsoci et
iesandi sof t
enusedto
i
dent i
fyregularl
yoccur ri
ngsoci alpatt
er nsinsocialli
fe.Itcanbedef inedast he
systemat i
cunder st
andingofsoci alf
act sorphenomena.I tisusedt ogat heri
nfor
mat i
on
ont hesocialworld,i
nor dertocomeupwi thacour seofact ionorsimpl ytodevel
op
newknowl edge.
Theobj ecti
veofsoci alresearchi st
oident ifythecause-and-effectr
elationshi
pbetween
socialproblemssot hatt hesepr obl
emscanbesol vedt oenhancesoci etalwel
far
e.This
met hodofr esearchisempl oyedbyr esear chersandsoci alscienti
stsformanydi ff
erent
reasons,someofwhi chwewi l
lbeexpl oredbel ow.
Tounder
standthei
mpor
tanceofsoci
alr
esear
ch,
letusl
ookatsomeoft
heway
sin
whi
chitbenef
it
susasasociet
y:
I
ncreasest
hewelfar
eofHumani
ty:
Mostsoci
alsci
encest
udi
esar
econduct
edwi
tht
he
obj
ecti
veofenhanci
ngt
hewelf
areofhumani
ty.
CanPredictBehavior:Social
researchhel
psusunder st
anddiff
erentpeopl
eand
soci
eti
es.Informati
ongat heredfr
om social
researchcanhelpuspr edi
ctt
hebehav
iour
ofcert
ainindiv
idualsorgroups.Whenwehav eagoodunder st
andingofasoci
al
phenomenon, wemayhav eabet t
erideaofhowt ogovernorguideit.
Hel
psexpandorrect
if
ycur
rentknowledge:Soci
alresearchaddstotheknowl
edgewe
cur
rent
lyhav
e,andcanbeusedtotestorveri
fyoldsocialfactorbel
i
efs.
Provi
desanUnder standingofSoci
al Li
fe:
Soci
alresearchisusedtogatherinf
ormati
on
onsoci alphenomena.I tpr
ovi
desuswi thanunderstandi
ngofthesocialli
feofdi
ff
erent
groupsofi ndi
vidual
s.Forexample,duetosoci
alreseach,W.Mill
sdevelopedaconcept
ofsociolgicali
maginationwhichhelpusunder
standt herel
ati
onshi
pbet ween
i
ndividualsandt heproblemstheyface.
Str
uctur
alChanges:
Soci
alr
esear
chcanbeusedt
obr
ingpl
annedst
ruct
ural
changest
o
soci
alli
fe.
Preci
pi t
atessoci
alprogress:Socialresearchhelpsusobtainappropri
ateandreli
abl
e
knowledgeonsoci alst
ructuresandsoci algroups.Thisi
nformati
oncanbeusedt o
disi
ntegrateprej
udi
ces,mi sconcepti
ons, andsupersti
ti
ons,preci
pit
ati
ngsocialpr
ogress
andcr eati
ngamor eincl
usi v
esoci et
y.
For
mulatesNewTheor ies:Social
researchal
l
owsust ofor
mul at
enewtheor
iesi
n
di
ff
erentfi
eldsofstudy.Therearemanyexisti
ngtheori
esonleader
shi
p,moti
vat
ion,
and
humanbehav i
ourthatwouldn’texi
stifi
twasn’
tforsoci
alr
esearch.

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126 He
Page| l
psDev
elopMet
hodol
ogi
es:
Soci
alr
esear
chhasbeenusedov
ert
imet
ocr
eat
e
methodol
ogi
estodeal
withsoci
alpr
oblemssuchasdrugaddi
cti
on,
wor kerethic,
l
eadershi
pst
yle,
chi
ldl
abour,
andisconti
nual
l
yusedtorevi
seol
dmet hodologiesort
o
cr
eatenewones.
Workshandi nhandwi thsocialpol
icy-Socialscienceresear
chinfl
uences,atl
eastt
o
someext ent,socialpoli
cies,
andwi thouti
t,poli
cymaker swouldhaveli
ttl
eideaabout
whet hert
herearepol i
cieshavinganypositi
v eeffects;
whatevert
heimper f
ecti
onsof
socialsci
encesr esearch,wit
houtitsocial
pol i
cywoul dhavetobebasedonl it
tl
emore
thanguesswor k.

Summar y:AIIsoci ologistswhowi sht ocar r

youtr esear chhavetouseonemet hodor
anot her,oracombi nationofsev eral.Thet ypeofmet hodt hatt
heyusei sundoubt edly
guidedbyt heirv al
uesandbyt het heoret i
calperspectivethatmosti nf
luencest heirwor k.
Howev er, i
tispr obabl ytr
uet hatresear chersarei ncreasingl
yusingsev eral methodsi n
particularstudies,andmostsoci ologist sarenotv eryrigidaboutwhatt heyconsi derto
bet hebestmet hodst ouseMet hodol ogyi sguidedasmuchbypr act
icalit
iesasi tisby
theor i
es, ethi
csandv alues.Nor esear chmet hodpr oducesknowl edget hatisper fect
andcannotbecont est ed.inevi
tably,all r
esearchgi veapar ti
alvi
ewofsoci alreali
ty,and
thereal wayssomer oom toquest iont hev al
idi
tyand/ orreli
abi
li
tyofanyst udy.
Howev er, bybeingsel
f-cr
iti
cal,r
esearcher scantrymi ni
mizetheext entt owhichtheir
researchdi st
ortssoci
al r
eali
ty.Bybei ngexplici
tabouttheirmethod, theyallowot her
researcher stoeval
uatetheirworkand, iftheywishtoconductt heirownr esear
cht o
checki ftheygetsimil
arresults.Socialscienceresearchinfl
uences, atleasttosome
extent,socialpoli
ci
es,andwi thoutit
,policymaker swouldhav eli
ttl
ei deaaboutwhet her
therearepol i
cieshavi
nganyposi ti
veeffects;whatevertheimperfect i
onsofsoci al
sciencesr esearch,wi
thoutitsocialpoli
cywoul dhav etobebasedonl i
ttl
emor ethan
guesswor k.

ENDOFUNI
T1:
9QUESTI
ONS

Di
scusst
hei
mpor
tanceofquant
it
ati
vemet
hodsi
nsoci
alr
esear
ch
Assesst
her
elev
anceofquest
ionnai
resi
nsoci
ologi
cal
resear
ch.
Descr
ibet
hest
epst
akeni
nresear
chpr
ocess.

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127

TOPI
C7:
EDUCATI
ON

Obj
ect
ives
Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:
i
. Assesssoci
ologi
cal
per
spect
ivesoneducat
ion
i
i
. Di
scusst
hel
i
nkbet
weeneducat
ionandecomi
c
i
i
i. Assesst
hel
i
nkbet
weeneducat
ionandsoci
almobi
l
ity
i
v. Di
scussgl
obal
trendsi
neducat
ion

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128 v
. I
dent
if
yanddi
scussZi
mbabweangov
ernmentpol
i
ciesoneducat
ion
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Insmal l-scal
enon- l
iteratesocieti
es,suchashunt ingandgatheri
ngbands, educat i
on
washar dtodist
inguishf rom otheraspectsoflif
e.Youngpeoplelearnedtheirlessons
byjoininginthesocial group.Knowl edgeandski l
lswereusuall
ylear
nedi nformallyby
i
mi tat
ingexampl espr ovidedbyadul ts.Thusboysaccompani edthei
rfather'sonhunt i
ng
tri
ps,whi l
egirl
sassistedt hei
rmotherswi thcooki
ngandgat heri
ng.Howev er,i
npet ty
i
ndust ri
alsociet
ies,speci ali
zededucationali
nsti
tuti
onsslowlydevel
op,alongwi ththe
speciali
zedroleofthet eacherhencet hisbri
ngsformaleducati
on.
Whati
seducat
ion?
Iti
sr eferstot heacqui si t
ionofknowl edgeandl earni
ngofski l
lswhet heri ntent ionallyor
unintent i
onall
y .Whati seducat ion?Educat ioni sthesoci alinsti
tutiont hatf ormal ly
social i
zesmember sofsoci ety.
Whati slearni
ng?Thel ifelongpr ocessofsoci alandper sonal exper iencesal tersan
i
ndiv idual'
sknowl edge, atti
tudesandbehav i
or.Educat i
oni sthef ormal insti
tutiont hat
dir
ect smanyoft helear ningexper i
enceswi t
hinapar t
icul arsociety( Popenoe, 1994) .I
t
i
sawayofsoci alizati
onwher epeopl earet aughtt hev aluesofsoci ety .Inmoder n
societ y,f
ormal educat ionhasl argelyreplacedi nformal way sofsoci al i
zat i
on.
Inmanycases, thisformal social i
zati
oni saccompani edbycer tif
icat ion( dipl
omas,
degr ees)sucht hatt hemoder nsoci etyhasbecomeacr edent i
al soci ety .Thisshowst he
i
mpor t
anceofcer ti
fi
cat esindet erminingjobel i
gibili
tyandot herl i
fechancesal though
i
nmanycasest hesecer t
ifi
catesar enotpar ti
cularlyrelev anttot het ask.Thepaper
becomesmor ei mpor tantt hant heabi li
tytoper form at ask.Cr edent ialism ist he
i
ncr easei nthel owestl evel ofeducat ionneededt oenterapar ticularf i
eld.Itrei nforces
i
nequal i
tyinthatt herichar emor eabletoi ncreaset heirqual if
ications
Ty
pesofeducat
ion
Theabov eintr
oducti
onhaspictureddiff
erenttypesofeducati
onexisti
nsociet
y,
i
fy oureadv er
ywell,t
heeducat
ionoft hesmal l
scalenonlit
eratesoci
eti
esis
diff
erentf
rom thatofthei
ndustri
alsociet
ies.However,bot
ht ypesofeducat
ion
takeplaceinpresentsoci
eti
es
a)For
maleducati
on-itcanbedefi
nedasal ear
ningpr
ocesswhi
cht
akespl
acei
na
for
maleducat
ionali
nsti
tut
ione.
g.atschool
.
b)Inf
ormaleducat
ion–ittakespl
acemostl
youtsidefor
mal educat
ionsystem f
or
exampleathomewi t
hint
hef amil
y.I
nfor
maleducati
onteachesindi
vidual
showt odr
ess,
cook,bat
hetc.
Funct
ional
i
stsv
iewoneducat
ion

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129 Forpupi l
stounder st
andf unct
ionalistviewoneducat i
on,oneshoul
dbeari ti
n
mindt hatfunctionali
stsresearchint oeducationhasfocusedonthefuncti
onsof
educationf orsocietyasawhol e-t hecont ri
buti
onmadebyeducat i
ont othe
maintenanceofv alueconsensusandsoci alsol
idar
it
y.Thesecondobjecti
veis
focusedont hefunctionalrel
ati
onshi pbetweeneducat i
onandotherpartsof
socialsystem -thisreferstotherelat i
onshipbetweeneducati
onandeconomi c
systems.
Ingeneral
,funct
ionali
stv
iewoneducat
iontendstof
ocusontheposit
ive
contr
ibuti
oneducationmakest
othemai nt
enanceofthesoci
alsy
stem.

Emi
l
eDur
khei
m(1961)
Educat
ionandsoci
alsol
i
dar
it
y
EmileDurkhei
m sawt hemajorfunct i
onofeducationastransmi t
ti
ngofthesociety'
s
normsandv alues.
Hear guesthatther ol
eofeducationi
st ofixinthechil
dwiththe
normsandv aluesofsociet
y.Withoutt hi
s,cooper
ati
on,socialsoli
dari
tyandsociall
if
e
i
tsel
fwill
bei mpossibl
ehence; t
her oleofeducati
onistomai ntai
nsocialsol
idar
ity
.
Social sol
i
dar
yref
erstoastable,sol
idandconf
li
ctfr
eesociety
;Dur kheim
ther
ef ore,
saweducat
ionint
roducingmembersofsociet
yt K
otey
heiterm
rcul t
ure.Thi
s
providecommonbehav i
orpatter
nshenceorderwil
lbereached
Min.
iaturesoci
ety-t
hismeans
t
hatschool
isasmal
lsoci
ety
Secondly,hesaweducat i
onpr omotingsoci
alsoli
dari
tyt hr
oughthet eachingofsubject
orwhathappensatschooli
s
l
ikehistory,
heri
tageet
c.Thesesubj ect'
senablesindi
vidualstobecomeat tachedto
whathappensi nsoci
ety
.
soci
ety,theymustknowt hatt
heircountr
yhasapower f ulandgreathistory;t
hus,
educati
onhel pstopr
ov i
det hi
sli
nkbet weeni
ndivi
dualsandsoci ety,
t heref
ore,
contr
ibuti
ngt othemaintenanceofsocialsol
idar
it
y .
Educat
ionandcooper
ati
on
Durkhei
m arguest hateducati
onpr ovidesfunctionsthatcannotbepr ovi
dedbyot her
i
nstit
uti
onslikefami l
yinthesenset hatitteachesuniversalval
ues.Hemai ntai
nsthati
n
school,
indi
vidualsaretaughttointeractandcooper atewithstrangers-thosewhoar e
neit
herthei
rkinnorf ri
ends.Thi
sv alueisfunctionalt
ot hesocietyaswhol ebecause
i
ndivi
dualswi l
lmeetst r
angersoutsidef amil
yandschool communi ty
.Thist her
efore

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 Soci
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130 s
Page| uggestt
hateducat
ioni
sami
niat
uresoci
ety
.
Educat
ionanddi
vi
sionofl
abor
Hesai deducationteachesindivi
dual
sspeci f
icskill
snecessaryf
or
theiroccupati
ons;t
hisisfunctionali
nindustri
alsociet
ieswith
i
ncr easi
nglycomplexandspeci ali
zeddivi
sionofl abor
.Atschool,
leaner
sspecial
i
zei
n
diff
erentsubjectst
herefor
e, t
hisPromotesspeci ali
zeddiv
isi
onoflaborinsoci
ety
.

Tal
cot
tpar
sons(
1961)
Educat
ionanduni
ver
sal
i
sti
cval
ues
Parsonsar guesthateducat i
onisthebr i
dgebet weenthefami l
yandt hesociety;
He
maintai
nst hatfamil
ypr ovidespri
mar ysociali
zati
on(parti
cular
ist
icvalues)andt he
schooltakesov erasthef ocalsoci
alizi
ngagency( uni
versal
isti
cv al
ues).
Inschoollearnersarejudgedbyst andardsintermsofpar ti
culari
sti
cv al
uesthatapply
equall
ytoev eryonethus,indivi
dual
scancooper at
ewi t
hnewmember s.Inthissense,
educati
onmakest hest r
angef amil
iartherefor
e;educati
onisami ni
aturesociet
y
becauseitmi rr
orssocietyasawhol e.
Educat
ionandv
aluesconsensus
School teachesindiv
idual
sintothebasi
cv al
uesofsoci
ety
.Parsons,l
ikemany
functi
onal i
sts,
mai nt
ainedthatv
alueconsensusi
sessenti
alf
orsociet
ytooper
ate
effect
ively.
School
inst
il
lst
hev
alueofachi
evement
.
Schoolsencour
agethest udenttothr
ivef
orhigherl
evel
sofacademi
cattai
nment.The
valuehasimport
antfunctionstothesoci
etyasawholesincemoder
nindustr
ial
societ
y
requir
esahighl
ymotivatedperson.
Educat
ionandsel
ect
ion.
Therol
eofeducationaccordi
ngt oPar
sonsistoprepar
ei ndi
vi
dualsfort
heirfutur
e
rol
esinsoci
ety
.Ther oleofeducati
oni
stoallocat
eindi
vidual
sintothei
rsocialrol
es
.Thi
sisdonethroughwei ghi
ngthei
rcapaci
ti
es,matchtheirt
alent
sandskill
sf ort
he
j
obstheyarebestsuited
Educat
ionandequal
i
tyofoppor
tuni
ty
Byplaci
ngindi
vidualsi
nthesamecl assroom andall
owingthem tocompeteonequal
ter
msi nexami
nat i
ons,t
hisfosterst
hevalueofequalopportuni
tyhenceschoolsar
e
seenasoperat
ingonmer itocr
aticpr
inci
ples-academicrewardsorquali
fi
cati
onsare

Acti
vi
ty
MrTChi
hot
a0718786253
Descri
betwoway
sinwhi
cheducat
ionpr
omot
essoci
alsol
i
dar
it
y.
 Soci
ologyst
udypack

131 be
Page| causeofone’
sabi
l
itysi
nceev
ery
onei
sgi
venanequal
oppor
tuni
tyofaccessi
ngt
hem.
Dav
isandMoor
e
Rol
eal
l
ocat
ionandmer
it
ocr
acy
Ther oleofeducat i
oni stoal
locatethemostt al
ent
edandabl emember sofsocietyto
mostf unctionall
yimpor t
antposit
ionforsociety
.Theeducati
onsy stem sif
tssortsand
gradesi ndi
vidualsi
nt ermsoftheirtal
entsandabil
iti
es-ever
y oneisgivenaplatformto
demonst r
atehisabili
tyandcapabi l
i
ty.Ithi
ghlyr
ewardsthemostt alentedwit
hhi gh
quali
ficati
ons, wi
thint ur
nprovideentrytothoseoccupat
ionsthataf uncti
onal
lymost
i
mpor t
anttosoci et
y.
Cr
it
ici
smsoff
unct
ional
i
sm
1.Dur khei
m assumest hateducati
ont ransmi tthecultureofsoci et
ywhi chbenef
its
societyasawhol e.Mar xi
starguethateducat ionali
nst i
tuti
onst endtotransmita
domi nantcultur
e,whichservestheinterestoft herul
ingcl assratherthanofsocietyasa
whole.
2.Whi leDurkhei
m saweducat ionasmai nt
ainingsocial soli
dari
ty,cr
it
icshav ear
gued
thatthereisnosolidari
tyinacompet i
tionhenceeducat iongi v
esst r
esst hansol
idari
ty.
Asal eaner
,yourl
eisur
eti
mei sli
mited,y
ouspendy ourt
imedoi ngschoolwork,
andsomet i
mesy ouburnthemidnightoi
l–studyingl
atehours.Surpri
singl
y,t
he
teacherawardsyoualowmar kandy ouendupthinki
ngthateducationisnotfor
theweak.Inthi
ssense,educat
iongivesstr
essthansoli
dari
ty.
3.I
nasmuchasDav isandMooresaweducati
ongradingi
ndi
vidualsintermsofabil
it
y,i
t
hasbeenarguedthatint
ell
i
gencehasli
tt
leef
fect
suponeducationalatt
ainment.
Educat
ionalact
ivi
ti
esaredeter
minedbyamulti
pli
cit
yoffact
orssuchasgender ,cl
ass,
l
abeli
ngetc.
Li
ber
alper
spect
ive
JohnDewey-Educat
ionandhumanpot
ent
ial
Pupilsshouldbeinaposi ti
ontounderstandthatthi
sperspecti
vesuggeststhat
educationdoesnotchangesoci etybutchangesindiv
idual
swhocant henchange
society
.Itsimplyanalysesther
elati
onshipbetweeneducationandindivi
dual
s
ratherthansociet
y,infacti
tsupportsthevi
ewt hateducat
ionshouldgetmor e
practi
cal t
hantheoreti
cal.
From thisperspect
ive,
themainpurposeofeducati
onist
opr omotewell-bei
ngofthe
i
ndi vi
dual.Deweyarguesthatt
hejobofeducati
onistoencourageindi
vidual
st odevelop
ful
l potenti
alashumanbeingsandPeopleshouldlear
nbyexperience,
bydoi ngthi
ngs
ratherthanbeingtol
d.Learner
’smustnotj
ustgainknowl
edgebutdev elopsomeski l
ls.
Act
ivi
ty
MrTC
Anal
yh
si
h
io
st
ta
h0
ev7
i
e1878
wth6
a2
t5
e3
ducat
ioni
s'ami
niat
ure
soci
ety
'
 Soci
ologyst
udypack

132 Thee
Page| ducat
ionmustt
eachpeopl
etheski
l
ls,
whi
chenabl
ethem t
osol
veawi
dev
ari
etyof
probl
ems.Indivi
dualswoulddevel
optheabil
it
yandmot i
vati
ontot
hinkcri
ti
cal
l
yabout
theworl
dar oundthem.
Educati
oncancr eateademocrati
csoci
ety.Thecr
it
ical
mi ndcant
hreat
entheaut
hori
ty
ofthestat
eandt hisencour
agesdemocracy.
De-
school
i
ngt
heor
y
I
vani
l
li
ch
Unli
keothert
heor
istwhosaweducationpl
ayingsomeposi t
ivef
uncti
ons.I
lli
ch
anal
ysi
swasr adi
calt
herefor
e;hesawthepresenteducat
ionasresponsi
blefor
al
lthepr
oblemsinsociet
ies.
Hear guesthatf ormal educati
onisunnecessar
y,i
tisharmf ultosoci
ety.Hearguesthat
schoolsfai
ltot eacht heseskil
ls.Heregar
dedschoolsasr epressi
veinst
itut
ionswhich
i
ndoct r
inat
epupi l
sandencour agethem toconfor
m authority
.Thisisachiev
edt hr
ough
hiddencurri
culum t hatteacheslear
nerstoacceptthei
nterestsofpowerfulgroupsand
pupil
shav enocont roloverwhattheylear
norhowt heylearn.
Somanyindivi
dualst
hinkthatt
herol
eofeducat
ionistocreat
eani nt
ell
i
gent
br
ainorcri
ti
calthi
nki
ng,buttoIl
l
icht
hestor
yisdif
fer
ent,hesaidsomelearni
ng
pr
ocessesrequi
renoteachers;
whyport
rayi
ngpupil
sli
keinmates,questi
oned
I
ll
i
ch.
Heseeseducat ionast herootoftheproblemsofmoder nindustri
alsoci
etyschool
sar
e
themostv italandi mportantst
ageinthecr eat
ionofmi ndlesspeoplewhocanbe
mani pul
atedci ti
zens. Inschoolsl
earner'
slearntodef ertoauthori
ty,andfor
gethowto
thi
nkf orthemsel ves.Heseesdeschool ingasar adicalsol
uti
on.Hear guesthatt
he
answert ot hispr oblem l
i
esintheabolit
ionofthepr esentsofsy st
em ofeducati
on
(deschooling).
I
npl aceoft heschool ,I
ll
ichoff
erstwomai nalter
natives.
1.Skillt
ochange-I nstructorsteachot herstheskill
theyuseondail
yli
fe‘
dri
l
ls`inv
olv
ing
systemat i
cinstruction.Canl earnskill
s
2.Learningweb-consi stofIndividual
swi t
hsimilarint
erest
swhomeetarounda
problem chosenanddef inedbyt heirowniniti
ati
veandwhopr oceedonabasisof
creati
veandexpl oratorylearni
ng.
Il
l
ichconcl udedt hatDeschool ingwoul ddestroyreproducti
veor
ganofaconsumer
societyandl eadt othecr eati
onofasoci et
yinwhi chpeoplecanbetr
ulyl
i
berated.
Mar
xistper
spect
ive
Thi
sisaconfl
ictper
spect
ive,
whichisbasedontheviewthatgroupswit
hin
exi
sti
ngsoci
eti
eshavefundamental
l
ydiffer
enti
nter
est.Thuseducati
onin

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ologyst
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Page|
133 cont
empor
arysoci
eti
es,
somewi
l
lbenef
itf
rom i
tthanot
her
s.
Educat i
oni sthesuperst
ructurethatisdeter
mi nedbyi nfrast
ruct
urehencetheyseea
closelinkbet weentheschool (
superstr
ucture)andt hecapi t
ali
sts(
infr
astr
uctur
e).
Mar xi
stbel i
evethatschoolmi r
rorswhathappensi nsociety,t
heref
ore,School
tr
ansmi t
scapi t
ali
stval
ues. Themajor
wayi nwhi cheducationfuncti
onsistopr ovi
decapi tal
i
st swithworkforcewhichhasthe
qualit
ieswhi chareusefultothem .Thecapital
istrequiredlaboursotheyuseeducati
on
tofishoutl abour.
From Marxi
stviewpoi
nt,educati
onlargelybenefi
tscapi
tal
istbecauseleaner
sar e
l
earningtobecomeslave’snotfreeindivi
duals.I
faslav
eiscalled,'
aneducated
oneiseasytocontrol
.Mar xsaideducat i
ondoesnotcreateeducatedpeoplebut
peoplewhofil
ledinwit
hcapi t
ali
stvalues.Ifi
twasrealeducati
on,whyt henthe
educatedmassescannotseet heirexploit
ati
on?
Samuel
Bowl
esandHer
ber
tGi
nti
es.
Thear gumenther eisthatthemaj orroleofeducat i
oni ncapitali
stsocieti
esisthe
productionoflaborpower .Inpart
icular,t
heymai ntainedthatt herei
sacl ose
'
correspondence' (
li
nk)bet weeneducat i
onandcapi t
alism.
Wor kincapitali
stsocieti
esisexploiti
ve.Forcapital
ism tosucceed, itrequi
resa
hardwor ki
ng, doci
le,obedientandhi ghlymotivatedwor kforce.Educationfuncti
onto
l
egitimateinequali
tybymaki ngsoci etyappearfairandj usthencecl assconsciousness
doesnotdev elop.Ther eisnomer it
ocracyineducat ion.Meritocracyisamy thsince
thereisnogenui neequalityofoppor t
unity
.Theybel ievethateducat i
onmeetcapi tal
i
sts
i
deol ogi
esthroughhi ddencurri
culum.
Hi
ddencur
ri
cul
um
Accordi
ngt oBowlesandGi nti
es,hiddencurri
cul
um consist
soft hosethi
ngsthatpupi
ls
l
earnthroughtheexperi
enceofat tendingschoolrat
herthanthestatededucati
onal
obj
ectiv
esofsuchi nst
itut
ion.I
talsor efer
stothoseaspectsthatarenotintheschool
syl
labusbutmightinfl
uenceal earnerInacertai
ndirect
ion.
Feat
uresofhi
ddencur
ri
cul
um
BowlsandGi
nti
esar
guet
hathi
ddencur
ri
cul
um shapest
hef
utur
ewor
kfor
cei
nthe
fol
l
owingwat
ys:-
1.Subservi
entworkf
orce-Ithel
pst oproduceuncri
ti
cal
,passiv
eanddocil
eworkf
orce
.Highgradesaregiv
ent opunctuali
ty,
respectet
c.Schoolneedsapassi
veanddocil
e
l
earnerhencethisi
sstronglyl
inkedtoexploit
ati
onbecauseitcreat
esanuni
maginat
ive
andunquestioni
ngworkforce,whichcouldbeeasil
ymanipulatedbyempl
oyer
s.
2.Theaccept
anceofhi
erar
chy-
Educat
ionencour
agest
heaccept
anceofhi
erar
chy

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 Soci
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134 .
Page| School
sar
eor
gani
zedonahi
erar
chal
pri
nci
ple.
Teacher
sgi
veaut
hor
it
yandst
udent
s
obey.Ther
eisalsohi
erar
chyi
nindust
ri
es.Thisprepar
est
hem t
owor
kincapi
tal
i
st
fi
eldswhereaut
hori
tyi
simposedandconformit
yshouldf
oll
ow.
3.Motivat
ionbyext er
nal rewards-Theschool andwor kplacessurviveonrewards.
Rewardisgiv enforaproduct i
onandt hemor eyouwor kingtogettherewardsisthe
morey ouproducingsur plusvalueforcapi t
ali
st.
Educationappli
est hejugandprinci
ple
whereknowl edgeispour edi nalearner,thus,mostlearnersdonotenj oyl
earni
ng.They
areencouragedbyext ernalrewards; sameasi nindustry,i
nordertomakepr ofi
ts,
workersmustbemot i
v atedbyext ernalrewardshenceschool spromiseempl oy
ment
rat
herthancr eat
ionofempl oyment.
4.Thefragment ati
onofknowl edge-Dur i
ngthecour seoftheschool days,l
earners
mov efr
om onesubj ecte.
g.from mat hematicst
oengl ish,geotoscience.Thi sisdone
tomaket hewor kerbusyincapital
istsi
ncemostj obsi nfactor
iesandof f
iceshav ebeen
brokendowni ntoseveralt
askscar ri
edoutbysepar ateindivi
duals.
Leanerslear
nsepar at
ely-adiv i
dedwor kf
orceiseasyt ocont r
ol.Thereforecapital
ist
appli
estheprincipl
eofdivideandconquerhencei tbecomesdi ff
icultforworkforceto
unit
einopposi t
iontoauthori
ty.
For
mal
cur
ri
cul
um
Leanersshoul
dbeinaposi
ti
ontodist
inguishhi
ddencurr
iculum f
rom f
ormal
curr
icul
um.Formal
curr
icul
um r
efer
stot hoseaspect
s,whichareexamined.
Capi
tal
istrequi
resasurplusofski
ll
edl
abour;t
hismaintai
nsahighrat
eof
unemployment.Employeescanbepaidlowwagest hr
oughbeingthr
eatenedwi
th
di
smissalandinstantr
eplacementbyt
hereservedarmylabor
.
Ev
idenceofhi
ddencur
ri
cul
um i
nZi
mbabwe
1.Hotsi tt
ing-inmostgov ernmentschool sst udentsar egroupedint hemor ni
ngand
afternoonsessi ons;Atwor kplace, worker sagr eegroupedi nthedayandni ghtshift
s
amongot hers. 2.Pupil
sgoear lytoschool Mondayto
Fri
day ;atwor kplace,workersshoul dbepunct ual . 3.Formal
dressingatschool wit
hat ie.Atwor kplace, formal dressi
ngsy mbolizesrespecttothe
empl oy ersandt iesymbolizesanel ementofsl avery.
4.Atschool ,school aut
horiti
esf orsil
l
ymi stakesi nsultl
eanersandl eanersare
expect ednott orespond;atwor kplace,wor kersshoul dgetusedt oinsult
s.
5.Badbehav iorleadstowar ningshortsorexpul si
on;atwor kpl
ace,fail
uretoobeyto
wor krel at
edr ulesisanopeni nvitat
ionf ordi smissal
Cr
it
ici
sm
Hav
ebeencr
it
ici
zedf
orexagger
ati
ngt
hecor
respondencebet
weenwor
kandeducat
ion

MrTChi
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135 .
Page| Hickoxar
guest
hatt
heBr
it
aincur
ri
cul
um l
ackedt
hef
eat
uresofhi
ddencur
ri
cul
um.
Reynodescl
aimst
hatmuchoft
hecur
ri
culum i
nBrit
ishschool
sdoesnotpr
omot
ethe
dev
elopmentofani
deal
employ
eeundercapi
tal
ism.
WhyBr
it
ishcur
ri
cul
um her
e?I
tisbecausei
twast
hef
ir
stcount
ryt
oindust
ri
ali
ze.
Paul
Wil
l
is’
s(neoMar
xist
)st
udyof12l
ads
Lookaty ourschool,
notevery
oneisatt
achedtoschoolval
uesorrespect
teacher
st hewayBowl esandGint
iespor
tray
edit.I
nfact
,someresistteacher
s’
authori
tyandthisissuppor
tedbythecasestudybel
ow;
Theladsdev el
opedaschool count er-cult
ure-culturethatcompletel
yreversesandov er
powert hemai nstream cult
ure.Theyf or
medaf riendshipgroupingwiththeattit
udeto
school,theircult
urethatwasopposedt ov al
uesinf l
i
ctedbyt heschool.
Forexampl e,the
l
adsf eltsuperiortoteachers,andt heirmainobjectivewasav oidi
nggoingt olessons.
Will
i
st hereforeconcludedt hattheeducat ionsystem doesnotal waystransmitthe
capi
tali
stv alueshencedi smissingt heviewthateducat ionperpet
uatesinequalit
yandi t
doesnotal way screatedocilewor kers.
Pi
err
eBour
dieu
Cul
tur
alcapi
tal
anddi
ff
erent
ial
educat
ional
achi
evement
Bour dieuar guest hatt heeducat i
onsy stem isbi asedt owardsi nfavoroft hecul t
ur eof
domi nantsoci alclassanddev aluest heknowl edgeandski l
lsofwor king.Accor dingt o
Bour dieu,ther oleofeducat ioni st ot r
ansmi tt
hecul tur eofthedomi nantcl asses.They
hav ethepowert oshapeeducat i
onsoasi tfit
st heirv alues.ToBour dieu,thosef rom
uppercl assbackgr oundhav eabui ltinadv ant
agebecauset heyhav ebeensoci ali
z ed
i
nt othedomi nantcul ture-thispossessi onoft hedomi nantculturei
st hecul tur
al capi t
al.
Thiscul turehasast rongmot ivation, classeducat i
oni sdesignedf ortheuppercl ass,
theirpar entshav eaneducat ional backgr oundhencet heycar rypositi
veat titudetowar d
educat ionandbestschool sar ef ort heuppercl assst udents.Thi sshowst hatthose
student swhohav eanuppercl assbackgr oundpassandhav ehighlevelsofeducat ional
thant hosef r
om t hewor ki
ngcl ass. He
mai ntainst hatwor kingcl assst udent sdonotper form wel latschool becauset heyl ack
thecul turalcapital hencecl asseducat ionbydesi gn, isnotf orthem andmostoft hem
l
ackmot ivati
on.Hef ur t
herar guest hatt hemai nfunct ionofeducat i
onsy stem ist o
eli
mi natet hemember soft hewor kingcl assf rom hi gherl evelsofeducat i
ont hr
ough
exami nat i
onf ail
ur eandsel f-el imi nation.Due, t
ot hel ackofdomi nantcul ture,
wor ki ng
classst udent sar emor eli
kelyt of ailexami nati
ons, whi chpreventsthem f rom enter ing
highereducat ion.
Hemaint
ainsthattheupperclassandmiddl
eclasspossessmorecult
uralcapit
althey
al
teront
heirchi
ldr
en.Hebelievesthatt
hemiddlecl
assstudent
’spar
ents'
adv ant
ages

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136 a
Page| r
enotcul
tur
al.Theyal
sohav
emat
eri
aladv
ant
agesov
ert
hei
rwor
kingcl
ass
count
erpar
ts.
1.Parentscanaffordt opayforpubli
ctranspor
tnecessar ytosendtheirchil
drento
schoolsthataremor edistant
.
2.Theyar emorelikelytohavecarstotaketheirchil
drentoschool.
3.Theyar emorelikelytobeabletoaffordextr
ahel p,coachi
ngorprivatelessons.
4.Theyar emorelikelytobeabletoaffordtopayf orchil
dcarefory
oungerchi ldr
enand
rapportbetweenpar entandteacheri
sdev el
oped.
Thistherefor
eshowshome–di st
anceisafact
orl eadingtoschooldropout
becausepar entsfrom l
owerwor ki
ngclassespeciall
yinmostr emoteareas
cannotaf f
ordt r
ansportcost
.Lackoffinancesfortransporti
nsomecaseswhere
therearenonear byschoolshascausedschool dropout st
huswor ki
ngclass
studentsarelikel
yt oper
form poorl
y
Task
Towhatextentdoesthecl
assbackgr
oundandcul
tur
alcapi
tal
det
ermi
neone’
s
educat
ional
achievement
?
Sy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
sm
Label
l
ingt
heor
y
TheinterestofI
nter
acti
onist
sinthesociol
ogyofeducationisont heface-
to-
face
i
nteracti
onbetweentheteacherandstudentsinaclassr
oom situati
on.The
perf
ormanceoft hestudenti
saffect
edbyper cept
ionsoftheteacheraswel l
as
negoti
ationsbet
weent hetwoparti
es.
Thecl
assr
oom asanegot
iat
edor
der
Cotgrov e(1980)ar guest hatboththet eacherandst udentsi zeupt hei rstr
engthsand
weaknessesi nt heirrespect i
vebargainingpositionstodi scov erwhatr esourceseach
canmobi li
ze.Thecl assroom isseenasessent iall
yaf ocusf orast rugglef orpowerin
thepr ocessofnegot i
ati
ngbehav i
or.Thus, st
udent swilladoptav ari
et yofstrat
egiesto
i
nfluencet heday -
to-dayact ivi
ti
esinthecl assroom-i ncl
udi ngt hecont entofthelessons
andt het eacher’sexpect ationsofwhatt heyshoul ddo.Negot i
ati
onst akepl acearound
howwor ki sassessed, mar ksarequer i
edandwhatcount sasacor r ectanswermaybe
arguedabout .Theper f
ormanceoft hest udentisnotmeasur edobject iv
elybutis
coloredbyper ceptionsoft het eacher,thebackgr oundoft hest udentandpower
rel
ations.
Teachersdist
ingui
shpupil
saccordi
ngtothei
rrelat
ionshipwit
hotherpupil
s,appear
ance
-e.g.smart
ness,soci
alcl
assetc.Hargr
eavesarguesthatsomepupi l
sarethen
regardedasdullorbr
ight
.Oncealabelorasti
ckerisattachedtoaleaner
,ther
eisa

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137 t
Page| endencyf
ort
hem t
oseet
hemsel
vesi
nter
msoft
hel
abel
andactaccor
dingl
y.Ther
eis
alsoat endencyf
orot her
stoseet hem int
ermsoft
helabelandactaccor
dingl
y.This
mayr esulti
nself-
ful
fi
lli
ngprophecy .
Labelli
ngtheori
stsarguethatpredicti
onsmadebyt
eachersaboutfut
uresuccessesor
fail
ureof
Pupi
l
swoul
dcomet
rue.
JacobsonandRosent
hal
study(
1967)
Thest udywascarr
iedoutinelementaryschool i
nCaliforni
a.Theyselectedar andom
sampl eof20%ofthestudent’
spopulation.Theyinfor
medt heteachersthatthese
studentscoul
dbeexpect edtoshowr apidint
ell
ectualgrowth,t
heyt estedtheirI
.Q
beforethenaft
eray ear
;thesamplewasr et
estedandshowedgr eatgainsinI.Q.
Therefore,
concl
usi
onswer emadet hatwhatmakesonepassi snotabi l
i
tybutlabel
i
ng.
Thest
udybyRi
st
Riststudiedabl ackAmer icanschool wher ehediscov eredt hatthet eacher ’
s
perceptionsinf l
uencedt hest udent’sabi li
ty.Wit
hin8day soft hecommencementoft he
classes,thet eacheral readykneworf eltsheknewt heabi l
it
iesoft hest udentst othe
extentthatshecoul dscreent hem i ntot hreegroups-sl owl earners,av eragelear ners
andf astlearners.Thescr eeningwasnotbasedonanyt estbutont heper ceptionsof
theteacher .Thosepl acedi nthesl owl ear ner
sgroupwer ealsopl acedf urt
hestf rom the
teacher.Fur t
heri nvestigationshowedt hatsocialclasswasav erysigni fi
cantfact ori
n
determiningwhi chgr ouponewenti nto.Mor eatt
ent ionwasgi vent ofastl earners
becauset heywer eper ceivedt obebr i
ght ,exci
ti
ng, challengingandwi llingtolear nwhi l
e
thoseinot hergr oupswer egi venlittl
eat tenti
on.Thear gumenti sthatt heawar enessof
theteachermot ivatedt hef astlearnerst oper f
orm bet terwhi l
eot hergr oupswer ede-
mot i
vated.Ther ef ore,attheendt hef astlearnersexcel led.Itbecomesasel f
-fulfi
ll
ing
prophecy .Thel abellingtheor yarguest hatt hoselabel l
edasi ntell
i
gentandbr i
ghtput
mor eefforttof ulfil
thepr ophecy .
Thelabelli
ngt heorist
sar gueagai nstthewholeideaofscreening.Theargument
bei
ngt hatthet est
susedf orassessi ngabil
i
tyhaveabias.Peopl ewho
administerthem areal sobi ased.Thebiascomesf rom t
hecl assoftheindi
vi
dual
whodoest het est
ing.Ther eforefai
li
nganexami nati
onisnotasi gnoflackof
i
ntel
li
gencebutani ndi
cat i
ont hatyouhav enotbeenaskedt hingsthaty
ouknow.
Cr
it
ics
Ast udyofbl ackgi
rlsschool i
nCompr ehensiveschool i
nLondonMar garetFull
er(1984)
arguest hatnotallstudent
swi l
lli
veuptot heirl
abelshefoundoutt hatthegi r
lswere
resentedt henegativ
est er
eotypesassociatedwithbeingblack.Theyknewt hatt
hey
werel abelledasdullandfeltt
hatmanypeopl eex pect
edt hem tofai
l.Howev er,t
hey

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138 pr
Page| ovedt
hem wr
ongbywor
kinghar
d.Ther
efor
e,sheconcl
udedt
hati
tisnotal
way
sthe
casethatonceaper
soni
spubl
i
clydul
lhe/
shewi
l
lactaccor
dingl
ybutcani
gnor
ethe
l
abel.
Label
ingtheor
yassumest hatonceast udenthasjoinedt hespecial
class-(a
cl
assofstudentswit
hlit
tl
eandl owlearningabil
i
ties)ther esul
tswil
lcome
negati
vel
y,someti
mes-posit
ivel
abelsleadstoov erconfidenceandnegative
l
abelsmayencouragestudentstoworkf orposit
ivelabels.Inthi
scase,Mar gar
et
Ful
ler
'sobserv
ati
oncanbeusedt oweakent heforcefulnessoflabel
ingtheory.

Genderf
emi
nism
Femini
stshav earguedt
hattheeducat
ionalsystem it
selfplay
sapartinperpet
uat
ing
genderexploi
tat
ionaswellasdeval
uati
ngwomen.I nasmuchasMar xistsaw
educati
onbenefiti
nguppercl
assattheexpenseofwor kingcl
ass,
tofemi ni
sm,
educati
onlargel
ybenefi
tsmenandsav etheinterestofmen.
Dal
espender
Shear guest hatmencont roltheeducati
onsy stem andgirl
sgetlessat t
enti
onthanboys
i
nt heclassroom hencedot hisaccountfordiff
erencesbetweenboy sandgir
lson
educationalachievement .
Mal espresentusual l
ytreatf emalecontr
ibuti
onst odiscussionsanddebate
dismissivel
yandboy sof t
eni nsul
tgirl
sinclassroom.Mal epupilsplayanimportantpar
t
i
ndamagi nggi r
ls'
educat ionbecauseboy sdonotl i
kegirl
s'educati
on.Educati
on
enableschi l
drentobel i
evei nmascul i
neandf eminineway shenceeducat i
onis
responsibleformai ntai
ninggenderi nequali
ty.
Cr
it
ics
Randalli
nthel
essonssheobser
ved,
foundoutt
hatgir
lshavemorecont
actwi
th
teacher
sthanboyshencegi
rl
saremoreli
kel
ytopassthanboys.
Ter
esaGr
aft
on
Gir
l'
st endtobest eer
edtowardsar
tssubj
ect
sanddi r
ectedparti
cularl
ytocooker y
,
needlework,housecraf
tetc.I
nherst
udyofcompr ehensiveschooli
nEngl and,shefound
outthatboyst ookmetalworkandwoodwork.Ther ef
ore,thesesubject
spr epareagirl
l
eanert obeahousewi fewhil
eaboychil
dasabr eadwinnerhencegenderi nequalit
y.
Al
i
sonKel
l
y
Sciencet
endstobeseenasmascul
ineandi
tappear
sasboy
’ssubj
ect.Shemaintains
thatmostsci
encesubj
ect
shav
ev er
yfewwomenpor t
ray
edi
nthem andteacher
st end

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139 t
Page| ouseexampl
eswhi
char
eli
kel
ytobekeepi
ngwi
thboy
sexper
iencee.
g.car
sar
eused
todemonstrat
eaccelerat
ion,mostofthem say'aboyri
dingabi cycl
e'
.
I
nadditi
on,boystendtodomi natesci
enceclassrooms,grabbingapparat
usbeforegir
ls
haveachancetousei tandshoutinganswersdir
ectedtoboy s.Thus,gi
rl
smayf eell
ess
athomeandi nthi
srespect,sci
enceasacl assr
oom isa'miniatur
esociety
’,whi
ch
mirr
orswhathappensi nsociet
yasawhol e.
Loban
Educat i
onrei
nforcegenderst
ereot
yping.Boysarepor
tray
edasher oeswhil
ewomenas
heroines.Boystaketheleadi
nacti
vit
iesli
ketreecl
imbi
ng,buil
dingt hi
ngs,f
lyi
ngkit
es
etc.Asgi r
lsr
ead, t
hismakesthem t
obel i
evethatmenaresuperiortothem hence
genderinequali
ty.
Fi
onaNor
man
Boysarelikelytopasst hangir
ls.Thi
sisduet oearlysocial
i
zation.Boysaregiven
constr
uctionaltoysandboy stendtobeencour agedt obemor eactivethangirl
sare.
Theseconst ruct
ionaltoyscanhelpthem todevelopscienti
ficandmat hematical
conceptthangi r
ls.Gir
l'
seducationisaf
fectedthroughplayingwithdoll
s,whichhav eno
anyscienti
ficvalue.Theref
ore,thi
sexpl
ainswhyboy stendtopassexamst hangirl
s.
Cr
it
ics
1.Br
owni ear guest hatequal oppor tunit
yprogramshav ebeendev eloped,whichhav e
i
mpr ovedoppor tuniti
esforgi r
lsf orexampl e,
Zimbabwegov ernmentadopt edthe
Affi
rmativeact i
onpol i
cy(refertot heZi mbabweangov ernmentpolici
esoneducat i
on).
2.Hear guest hatgi rl
saremor emot iv
atedandhardwor kingthanboysindoi ng
schoolwor k.
3.Byageof16, girl
sar eestimatedt obemor ematurethanboy sar
e; t
heythereforetake
examsmor eserioust hanboy sdo.Teacher stendt
obel essstri
ctwithboys.
4.Boysar emor elikel
yt odisruptcl asses;t
heyareli
kelyt obesentoutoft heclassroom
thangirl
s.
5.Girl
sar emor el i
kelytospendt hei rl
eisur
eti
mei nreadingbookswhi l
eboy splayi
ng
foot
ball,gamesst andar oundt al
ki ng.

Pr
imaryandsecondar yeducati
onminist
ersinZi
mbabwe
I
tisimport
antf orl
earnerstoknowZimbabweaneducat
ional
mini
ster
ssi
nce
i
ndependence,belowar esomeofthepopularmi
nst
ers
 ProfessorPaulmav ima
 DrLazarusDokor a
 CainMat hema
 SenatorDav i
dCol t
art

MrTChi
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140  DrEv
ely
nNdl
ovu

Thel i
nkbet weeneducat i
onandeconomy
Crit
icalthi
nking-Accor di
ngtoJohnDeweyt heroleofeducat i
oni st oacr it
icalmind
thatcansol veeconomi cproblems.Cr i
ti
calmindcanchal l
enge, interpretandi mplement
economi cpol i
cieseffici
entl
y.
Roleallocati
on- Accor di
ngtoFunct ional
ist
s,DavisandMoor e,ther oleofeducat i
onisto
evaluateandal locateindiv
idualsintothespheresoftheeconomyt heyar ebestsuit
ed.
Thev alueofachi evement-Accor dingt oParsons,afuncti
onalist,ther oleofeducation
i
st oinstil
lav alueofachievement ,thi
sv al
ueisnecessaryinhi ghlyindust ri
ali
zed
societi
es.Thesesoci eti
esneedahi ghl
ymot i
vatedwor kf
orce.
Capital
ist’
sv alues-Bowl sandGi ntiessaweducat i
oninsti
ll
ingwor kv aluessuchas
conformi t
y,har dworkandr espect .

Gl
obal
trendsi
neducat
ion

Inthi
spostmor dernsociet
y,ther
earegl
obalt r
endsthatareoccurringi
neducat i
onin
bothdevel
opedanddev el
opingnati
ons,
attheprimary,secondaryandtert
iar
ylevels,
as
wellasinadulteducat
ionregardl
essofwhethertheeducationispubicorpri
vate,on
everycont
inentofthewor l
d.Resear
chershaveident
if
iedsev enmai ntr
endsin
educati
on.

Technol ogyuseandi ntegr ation–Technol ogywi l

lnotonl yenhanceeducat ion, itwil
l
driv
el ear ningofal lkinds.
Expansi onofmobi letechnol ogy–Technol ogywi l
l becomei ncreasi
nglymobi le,
meani ngt hatoppor tuniti
esf orlearningwi ll–andal r
eadydo–exi stever
ywher e,allt
he
time.
Asset -basedappr oachest oev al
uation–Att heclassroom l evel (
thr
oughtheuseof
portfolios) ,
atther egional ornat i
onal scale(throught heuseofbenchmar ks)andona
mul ti
-nat i
onal orinternational l
evel(throught heuseofl argescal eframewor ks) .
Increasedcr eati
v i
ty–Knowl edgewi llbecr eatedandco- created,notsimply“ i
mpar t
ed”
byteacher s.Student sar enotj usttakingi nfacts,theyar ecr eat
ingnewknowl edge.
Global appr oachest olearni ng–Shar edi nterests,curi
osityandahungerf orl earningare
driv
ingust oreachbey ondourownbor ders.
Global mobi l
it
y–Teacher sandst udent sareexper iencingmor eofthewor l
d, mor eof t
en,
starti
ngf rom ay oungerage.
Border lesseducat i
on–Thebar ri
erofgeogr aphyisbei ngt ranscendedbyt echnol ogy,
creativityandadesi ret o“ gogl obal”.

TheZi
mbabweangov er
nmentpolici
esoneducati
on
Pupil
sareexpectedtoshowanassessmentandev al
uati
onofZi mbabwean
governmentpoli
ciesoneducat
ionhi
ghl
ight
ingst
rength,
effect
ivenessand
weaknesses.

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141 1Ba
Page| si
ceducat
ionassi
stancemodul
e(BEAM)
Paysschool ,tuit
ionandexam f eesforthedi sadv antaged.Thepol icywas
eff
ectiveasi tmanagedt oreduceschool dropout sf orthosel ivi
ngunderpov ert
y
datum line.
*Howev er,thepol i
cyisnotcat eri
ngf oral
l thedi sadv antaged, mostindiv
iduals
whoar ebenef ici
ariesofBEAM ar enotev endi sadvant aged.I nadditi
on,most
benefici
ariescoul dnottakeeducat ionalcar eerser iousl ysincetheylack
mot i
vationandcul turalcapi
tal.
2Af fi
rmat i
veAct ionpol icy
Itwasintroducedbecauseoff eministmov ement s.I tismeantt osuppor tagirl
chil
d.I
namal edomi natedspacebygi vingonet ot wopoi nt sadv antage,thusagirlchil
d
canBeenr oll
edi nuni versit
ieswithoneort wopoi nt ’
sadv antage.Forexampl e,agirl
cantakelawwi th14poi nts.
*Howev er
, t
hispol icyismor etheoreti
cal t
hanpr act i
cal;itisal sobi asedtowards
women.

4.STEM
Itwasmeantt oequipstudent swi t
hscienti
fi
cconcept sfori
ndustri
ali
zati
on;
it
encouragesstudentstotakesci encesubject.OfcoursetheZimbabwean
governmentshouldbeComment edformakingstudentsunderstandthe
i
mpor tanceofindustr
ial
izat
ionachangi ngeconomy .
*Howev er,
notallbenefi
ciar
iescoul dpassandgot ouniv
ersi
ty.Thegov er
nment
wasnotSosur eifthebeneficiari
eswouldgot ouniv
ersi
tyornot.

4)Educationf oral
l
Advocatef orequali
tyineducationalsect
or.Educat
ionwasdeclar
edast heri
ght
foreveryonee.g.disabl
ed, gender,
raceetc.
Howev er,notallschoolaredesignedinawayofaccommodat ingstudentswit
h
speci
al needse.g.disabledstudents.

Fact
orst
hatdet
ermi
needucat
ional
achi
evement
Theoret
icalperspect
iveshav
eprovideddif
fer
entandav ari
etyofexplanati
onson
thefact
orswhi chdetermi
needucati
onalachi
evement(expectededucational
outcome),belowaresomeoft hefactor
spict
uredbyvarioustheor
ies;
Innateabil
it
y-f unct
ionalistsbelievet hateducat i
onismer i
tocratictherefore,
everyoneis
givenaplatformt odemonst r
at etheirpot enti
alhencewhatmakesonepassi sabil
it
y.
Classbackgr ound-Mar xistbelievet hatintell
i
gencehasl i
ttl
eef fectuponeducat ional
achievement, societ
yisst r
ati
fiedhencewhatmakesonepassi sclassbackgr ound-
cultur
alcapital,educational r
esour ceset c.
Labeling-believ est
hatwhatmakesonepassi snotabi l
i
ty,abil
ityisofl i
ttl
euseifa
l
eaneri scarryinganegat i
velabel givenbyt heteachersi
ncei nteracti
oni naclassroom
willbedetermi nedbyl abel.

MrTChi
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142 Ge
Page| nder-f
emi
nism bel
i
evest
hatgendersoci
ali
zat
ion,
ster
eot
ypesandt
eacher
s
att
it
udestowardgir
lsdeter
minedthei
runderachievementandachiev
ement.
Language-accordi
ngtoDouglas,mostsubj
ectar elearnti
nengl
ishl
anguage.Thi
sisa
bl
owt ostudent
swhoar enotrai
sedinanenglishenv i
ronment.
Summar y;Educationisnowaspeciali
zedinsti
tut
iondesi
gnedt oequi
pleaner
swith
knowledge,ski
ll
sandcul tur
alv
alues.Ithasbeennotedthattherei
sagreatli
nk
betweeneducationandal lt
hebranchesoftheeconomy ,t
hust heZi
mbabwean
governmenthasi ntr
oducedanumberofpol ici
estoensurethatthepopul
ati
onrecei
ves
educati
on.

ENDOFUNI
T2:
1QUESTI
ONS

Lear
ner
smayder
ivet
heanswer
stoanswert
hef
oll
owi
ngquest
ionsf
rom abov
enot
es.
1)Educat
ionser
vest
hei
nter
estoft
her
uli
ngcl
ass.Di
scuss.
2)Di
scusst
hef
act
orst
hatdet
ermi
needucat
ional
achi
evement
.
3)Exami
net
heZi
mbabweangov
ernmentpol
i
ciesoneducat
ion

TOPI
C8GENDER
Obj
ect
ives
Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:
i
. Di
sti
ngui
shbet
weenmal
eandf
emal
egenderr
oles
i
i
. Soci
alandbi
ologi
cal
const
ruct
ionofgenderr
oles
i
i
i. Ev
aluat
egendert
heor
ies
i
v. Di
scussgenderpol
i
ciesi
nZi
mbabwe

MrTChi
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Page|
143 v
. Thei
mpactofempl
oymentont
hesoci
alst
atusofwomeni
nZi
mbabwe
v
i. Anal
yset
hepr
obl
emsf
acedbywomeni
nempl
oyment
I
NTRODUCTI
ON
Iti
sassumedt hatther
eisacleardist
inct
ionbet weenmenandwomen.Itissai
d
thatwhatmendowomencannotdo, howev er;womennowadaysdonotaccept
suchagenderstereoty
pe,t
heyar eatwarwi thmasculini
tyandt
hear
gumentis
basedontheideathatther
eisnot hi
ngbiologicalbet
weenmenandwomen.
Whati
sgender
?
DomoshandSeager( 2001)def inegenderasacul t
ure’sassumpt ionsaboutt he
diff
erencesbet weenmenandwomen; t
heirchar acters,ther olestheyplayinsocietyand
whatt heyr epresent”.Whar t
on(2012)def inesgenderasasy stem ofsoci alpr
acti
ces
thatpr oducesandr epr oducesdifferencesandi nequal i
ti
esbet weenmenandwomen.
Accor dingtoSt ol
l
er( 1965),iti
sat ermt hathaspsy chological andculturalconnotat
ions.
Itentailsstatement sonmascul ini
t yandf emi ni
nity.JacksonandScot t(2002)argue
thatgenderi sasoci ologicalconcept ,
whi chf ocusesat tentiononmenandwomenas
socialr at
hert hannat uralcategori
es.I temer gedoutofdebat es,whichsoughtt o
chall
enget he„ natur
alness‟oft hedi ff
erencesbet weenmenandwomen.
Whati
ssex?
Whatoughttobeemphasi
zedist
heideathatgenderandsexar
edif
fer
ent.Sexhasto
dowithbi
ologi
cal
dif
fer
enceswhi
legenderi
saboutthecult
ural
l
yconst
ructedrol
es
al
locat
edtomenandwomen.
Sexroles-Sexr olesar edut i
es,acti
viti
es, tasksorr esponsibi
li
ti
est hatmalesand
femalesper form orunder takethatar eani nev it
ableproductofone’ sbiol
ogy ,e.
g.
breastf
eedingf orfemal esandi mpr egnat i
ngf orthemal es.Li
kesex, theseassignment
s
arebiologi
cal l
ydet ermined,fi
xed,uni versal andexclusivetoapar ti
cularsex.
Genderr ol
es- Genderr olesaredut i
es, chor es,tasks,r
esponsibil
i
tiesorassi gnments
thatapar t
icularculturalgroupconsi derappr opri
ateforitsmalesandf emalesbasedon
themeani ngat tachedt otheirsexual i
dent ity.Theserolesarenotadi rectoran
i
nev i
tableproductofmal esorf emal es’biologybutt heyar esoci
allyconstructed.
Theor
iesofgender
Bi
ologi
cal
theor
ies

1.Thehor
monalt
heor
y-iti
sar guedthatmal
espr
oduceandr
ogensthatmaket
hem
moreaggr
essi
vet
hanfemales.Astudyonrat
srev
ealedt
hatmalerat
sweremore

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essi
vet
hanf
emal
eonesbecauseoft
hepr
esenceofandr
ogens.Thi
saggr
essi
oni
s
al
soj
usti
fi
edi
nter
msoft hemalehor
monet
est
ost
eronet
hus,
thedi
ff
erencesbet
ween
menandwomenisbi
ological
.
2.TheBr ainLat erali
zationt heorybyGr ayandBuf fery-thesear guedthatt hehuman
brai
ni sdividedi ntotwohemi spheres.Thel efthemi spher eisdomi natedbyl anguage
andanal yti
cal skil
lswhi l
et her i
ghthemi sphereisdomi natedbymat hemat ical,
engineering,architecturalskill
s.Accor dingtoGr ayandBuf fery(1971)t heleft
hemi sphereoft hebr ai
ni smor edomi nantingi r
lsaf tertheageoft wo.Itisar guedthat
thelefthemi spher eisdomi nantinwomen-t hati swhymostwomenhav egr eaterver
bal
abil
itythanmen.Ther i
ghthemi spherei sdomi nanti nmen-t hatiswhymostmenar e
engineers,phy sici
anset c.
3.Genet i
csandev oluti
on: t
hebi o-grammarar gumentbyLi onelTigerandRobi nFox.A
biogr ammari sagenet icall
ybasedpr ogram thatpr edisposeshumani tytobehav ei
n
certainway s.Mal eshuntandt hereforear epredisposedt oaggr essiveact i
vity.Women
arepr ogrammedt or eproduceandcar ef orchil
dren.Ti gerandFoxmai nlybasedt heir
argumentont hesexual di
visionofl aborinhunt i
ngsoci eti
es.
Soci
o-bi
ologi
cal
expl
anat
ions

1.Thesewer ef irstdevel opedbyWi l

sonandt henDav i
dBar ash.Theyar guet hatboth
sexesempl oydi fferentst rat
egiestomaxi mi zetheirchancesofpassi ngont heirgenes
tot heiroffspring.I tpaysmal estobeaggr essi v
e, hastyandundi scrimi nati
ng.This
theor ycanexpl ainr apebymen.Thi stheoryi tismor epr ofit
ableforwoment obecoy ,t
o
holdbackunt i
l theycani dentif
ymal eswi t
ht hebestpossi bl
egenes.Howev ernotall
mal esar eaggr essivesi nceev i
dencef rom t heTr obri
andI slanders(st udiedby
Mal inowski )rev eal t
hatt heLesu, Kutatchi
, Lepcha, KwomaandMat acowomen
frequent l
yt aket hei nit
iativeinsexual r
elationships.Mar garetMead( 1935/ 1963)
discov eredt hatamongt heTchambul iofNewGui neagenderr olesseemedt obe
'
rev ersed'.Womenwer et hepri
ncipaleconomi cpr oviderswhi l
emenst ayedathomeand
raisedchi ldren.TheTchambul iregardedwomenaspr operlydomi nantandasser ti
ve
andmenasemot i
onal andcr eativ
e.
2.GeorgeMurdock’sexplanati
on-Thereisabiol
ogicaldivi
sionoflabor.Femaleshav
e
ti
mesofhandi capsuchasdur ingpr
egnancy,menstrualperi
ods; l
act
ati
onet c.women
areconfi
nedtot hehomebecauseoft hei
rbiol
ogicalfuncti
onofchi l
dbeari
ngand
becauseoftheirphysi
que,theyarel
imit
edtolessstrenuoust asks.
3.Parsonsandfuncti
onali
sm -
Parsonsarguest hatt
herei
sabiologi
caldivi
sionofl
abor
wherewomenper form expr
essi
veroles(cari
ng,nurt
uri
ng)whil
emenper form
i
nstrumentalr
oles(br
eadwinni
ng).Accordi
ngt oParsons,
womenshoul dofferwarmth
tothemenandchi l
dren(famil
yasahav en).Theyshouldbeabletoser
vicetheirmen

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lyasawayofpr
epar
ingt
hem f
ort
hehar
shout
sidewor
ld.Thepl
ayi
ngoft
radi
ti
onal
genderrolesbymothersmakesi tpossi
blef orchil
drentofor
m stabl
ebondsandbenef i
t
from st
rongandenduringrolemodels.Withoutintensi
vemot her
-chi
ldcontactdur
ing
thefi
rstyearsofl
i
fe,chil
drencangrowupr elat
ivel
ydisori
ent
ed,isol
atedandanxious
andcanf ail
todevel
opast rongsenseofsel f.
4.JohnBowlby’
sexpl anat
ion- JohnBowlby’
sexplanati
on-hear guesthatitisessenti
al
fort
hement al
healthofchildrenthattheyexper
ienceawar m,inti
mateandcont i
nuous
rel
ati
onshi
pwiththeirmother .Thisst
emsf rom t
hev i
ewthatthereisagenet ical
l
y
basedpsychol
ogicalneedf oracloseandintimatemother-chi
ldrelat
ionship.
Soci
alt
heor
ies
Thesoci
alconst
ruct
ionofgender
Thesetheor
iesbel
i
evethatwhat
evert
hedi
ff
erencesbet
weenmenandwomenar
e
cul
tur
alnotbiol
ogi
cal
.
1.Li
ber
alf
emi
nist
s’t
heor
y
Theyar guethatwomenar eunequaltomen.Thisinequali
tyi
sencour agedbyt hedeni
al
ofsomeoppor t
unit
iestowomen.Genderinequali
tyistheref
orenotnat uralbutis
createdandmai nt
ainedbyment hrought
heinsti
tuti
onofpat r
iarchy.Thesol ut
ionthey
giveisthatther
eshouldbeapur posiv
erearr
angementofpat r
iarchalst
ructuressuch
thatwomenwoul dalsoenj
oythesameaccesst ooppor t
unit
iesasment hrough
affi
rmat i
veacti
on.

2.Mar
xistf
emi
nist
s
Theyar guet hatwomen’ sposi t
ionshoul dbeseenaspar tofacompl exclassbased
system ofexpl oitationi nwhi chwomenar edoubl yoppr
essedt hroughgender
arrangement sandcapi talism.Theydi st
inguishbetweenpublicandpr i
vatepat r
iar chy.
Wher epr iv
at epat riarchyi sasi tuationwherebywomenr emai noppr essedbecauset hey
arepr ev entedf r
om ent eringt hepubl i
cspher einareassuchasempl oymentandpol i
ti
cs.
Mar xistf emi nistsar guet hatwomeni nthedomest i
cspher eworki nordert orepr oduce
thecapi t al
istsy stem i ndirectly.Housewi vesnotonl yworkfortheirfami l
i
esbutal so
contr i
but etot her eproduct i
onoft hecapi t
ali
stlaborfor
cet hr
oughchi l
dbear ingand
reari
ng( off uturel abor ers)andt hroughtheirdail
yservi
cingofmen.Thus, capit
al i
sm
grossl ybenef i
tsf rom t heunpai dlabordonebywomen.
Chr i
stineDel phy( 1984)t heconf li
ctargument-mal edomi nanceisamaj orf eatureof
oursoci et y.Asdi stinguishesbet weenani ndust r
ialmodeofpr oduct i
on(wher ecapi t
al
exploitsl abor )andadomest icmodeofpr oduction(wheremenexpl oitwoment hrough
patriarchy ).

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146 De
Page| l
phyv
iewst
hemar
ri
agecont
ractassi
mil
art
othel
aborcont
ractwher
ethehusband
appropr iatest hewif
e’slaborpoweri nthesamewayt hatcapit
al expl oit
slabor.Publ
ic
patri
ar chy-t hisiswher ewomenar enotbar r
edf r
om thepubl i
car enasbutar e
nonet helesssubor dinatedwi t
hinthem ( gi
venlowerst atusjobs).Ther eisvert
ical
segregat ioni nthewor kpl
aceswher emenusual l
ygetmanager i
al jobst hatarewell
payingwhi lewomengetl owerst atuslesswell-payingjobssuchast eachingand
nursing.Womenar eusual l
yli
kel
yt obei nparttimeempl oymentsi nceempl oyersf
eel
thatwomen’ ssalari
esar etheretosuppl ementt hoseofmen( whoar ev iewedas
breadwi nner s).Thesolutiontoallthisistodest r
oycapi tal
i
sm andi t
scl assbased
system.
3.Psy
choanal
yti
ctheor
ies
Theyv i
ewmenashav i
nganinnat
eneedtosubj
ugatewomeninor
dertoachievedeep
psychologi
calgoal
s.Theypr
oposethatmenshoul
dunder
gother
apyinorderto
suppresstheunconsci
ousurgest
ooppresswomen.

4.Radi
cal
femi
nistt
heor
ies
Theyar guethattherootcauseofwomen’ ssuppr essionispat riarchy,whichmani fest
s
i
tselfinmen’ swi l
li
ngnesst oemployforcet osubjugatewomen.Thedest ruct
ionof
patriarchyanditsinstit
utionsi
stheonlysol uti
ont osuchapr obl em.
Accor dingtoFirestone,Womenar edisadv antagedbyt heirbiologye. g.menst ruati
on,
menopause, chil
dbirt
h,pregnancyandbr eastfeedingwhi chall hav ethemostser i
ous
social consequences.Women’ sdependenceonmeni sincreasedbyt helongper i
ods
duringwhi chhumani nfantsar
edependent ,compar edt othei nfantsofot herspecies.
Thei nterdependencebet weenmot herandchi ld,
andi nturnt heirdependenceonmen,
hasbeenf oundi neverysociet
yandhasi nf l
uencedt hepsy chol ogyofev eryhuman
being.Dependenceonmenpr oduceunequal powerr elati
onshi pst huswomenwi l
l
regar dthemselvesasweak.

5.AnnOakl
eyandgendersoci
ali
zat
iont
heor
y
Shearguesthatthesexual di
vi
sionoflabori
snotuni versalsinceamongt heMbut i
pygmiesforexampl e,
therearenospecifi
crulesfordivisi
onofl abor.Amongthe
Austr
ali
anAbor i
ginesthewomenwer eresponsibl
ef orsealhunt i
ngandf i
shi
ng.Also
amongt heAlorofIndonesiamenwer eresponsibleforchil
dmi nding.Gender
soci
ali
zati
onisthesoci al
i
zati
onofindivi
dualsintotheirpart
iculargenderrol
es.This
mainl
ytakesplacet hr
ough
1.Ver
bal
appel
l
ati
ons(
forexampl
eyouar
eanaught
yboyoragood,
sweetgi
rl
)that

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theexpect
edbehav
iorofboy
sandgi
rl
s,andexposur
etodi
ff
erentact
ivi
ti
es
(
domest
icwor
kforgi
rl
s).Thi
sfur
therr
einf
orcesgender
2Mani
pul
ati
on-Thechi
ld’
sself
-concepti
saff
ectedbymani
pulat
ione.g.mot
her
stend
t
opaymoreatt
ent
iont
ogirl
s’hairandtodr
essthem i
n‘f
emi
nine’cl
othes.
3Canali
zaton-Thi
i sinvol
vesthedirecti
onofboy sandgi r
lstowardsdif
ferentobj
ects
e.
g.theprovi
si
onoftoy swhichencouragegirl
stor ehear
set hei
rexpect
edadul tr
olesas
mothersandhousewives.Gi
rlsaregivendol
ls;softtoysetc.boysaregi
v entoysl
ike
guns,whi
chencouragemor epracti
cal,l
ogi
calandaggr essivebehavi
or.
4.Exposuretodiff
erentacti
vi
ties-Boy
sandgi
rl
sareexposedt
odif
fer
entacti
vi
ti
ese.
g.
gi
rlsareencouragedtobei nvolv
edwit
hdomest
ict
askshenceaggr
essi
venesshas
mor et
odowi thmascul i
nit
ythanhormones
6.Cul
tur
eandt
hedev
aluat
ionofwoment
heor
y(Or
tner
,1974)
AccordingtoOrtner
,iti
snotbiologyassuchthatassi
gnswoment ot
heirstatusin
society
,butthewayinwhi cheverycul
tur
edefinesandeval
uat
esfemalebiology.She
pointsoutthatI
ndustri
ali
zat
ionledtothecr
eationof‘
housewi
fe’
.

7.Dual
labormar
kett
heor
y
(
Bar
ronandNor
ri
s,1976)
Theyarguethatincapitali
sm thereexistsaprimar ylabormar ketwher etherearehigh
sal
ari
esandgoodwor kingcondi ti
onsandasecondar ylabormar ketwher ethereare
i
nferi
orjobslesspaidandl esssecur i
ty.Woment endt ogetthesecondar ylabormar ket
j
obsbecauset heyareseenaseasyt oreplaceandl essconcer nedthanmenwi t
h
sal
ari
essincemenar ebreadwi nners.Womenr egardedasar eservesupplyandt heyare
goodinsupplyingunskil
ledlabor.Thiscreatesav iciouscyclewher elowpai dwor k
i
ncreaseswomen’ sdependenceonmeni nthehomeandt heirdomest i
cposi t
ions
makesiteasyt orecr
uitwoment olowst atusjobs.
8.Theconsi
der
edchoi
cemodel
Itst
atesthatwomenar edi
sadvantagedinthewor kpl
acebecauseofthedecisi
onsthey
havemade( ofhavebeenforcedtomake) .Becauseofwomen'sdual r
oles-f
amilyand
work-,t
heytendtochoosejobsthatwil
lenablethem tobebothhomemaker sand
employees.Typi
cal
ly,
thesearepoorlypai
dpar tti
mejobsthatleadnowhere(Popenoe
1995).
9.Thedi
scr
imi
nat
ionmodel
Themodel
stat
est
hatwomenar
epl
acedi
ntosegr
egat
edj
obs,
giv
endi
ff
erent
ial
pay

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148 a
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obt
it
lesf
ort
hesamewor
kandhandi
cappedbyunequal
chancesf
orpr
omot
ion
(
Jacobs1989,
Biel
byandBar
on1986)
.
1o.Ly
nnt
heor
y
Womenandpol
i
tics
Womeni npolit
icsoftenlackthesenior
itytobeappoi ntedtopowerfulposts.One
reasonf ort
hisisthatmal ecandi
datesar eabletostartthei
rpoli
ti
calcareersear
li
er
thanwomen, whogener all
ymustwai tuntil
theirchil
drenaregrownsot hattheywil
lnot
bebr andedas'neglectf
ul mother
s'whent heyrunf oroffi
ce(Lynn1984)
GENDERPOLI
CYI
NZI
MBABWE

 MaintenanceAct–af t
erdi
vor
ce,womenareusual
lyl
eftwit
hthebur
denof
rai
singchil
dren.Thus,
thi
spol
icefor
cest
heresponsi
blef
athert
akecar
eofhi
s
offspri
ngs.

 EqualPayAct–equal
remuner
ati
onbet
weenmenandwomenwi
thsame
posi
ti
ons

 LaborRel
ati
onsAct–addr
essesgenderi
mbal
ancesatt
hewor
kpl
aceonar
eas
l
ikemater
nit
y,di
scr
imi
nati
onetc.

 DomesticViol
enceAct(
2007)–guar
dsagai
nstal
lfor
msofgenderbased
vi
olenceorabuse.

 Educat
ionAct(
2004)–bot
hsexesshoul
dhav
eanequal
chanceofaccessi
ng
educat
ion.

 GenderDi
scri
minati
onAct-guar
dsagai
nstv
ari
ousf
ormsofdi
scr
imi
nat
ion
basedongender.

 Mat
ri
moni
alPr
oper
tyAct–equal
shar
ingofpr
oper
ty

 Nat
ional
GenderPol
i
cye.
g.Cr
eat
ionofGenderandHumanRi
ght
sCommi
ssi
on
However
,alt
hought
heZimbabweangovernmentint
roducedtheabov
epol
i
cies,
itcanbe
ar
guedthatwomenareawayfarfr
om achiev
ingequali
tywit
hmen
WOMENANDEMPLOYMENT
Pr
obl
emsf
acedbyZi
mbabweanwomeni
nempl
oyment
Despit
evari
ousgenderpol
i
ciesandlawsprotecti
ngt heri
ghtsofwomen,
women
cont
inuetofacesomechal
lengesattheworkplace.Theseincl
ude:
Sexual
abuse/
harassment–employ
erstakeadvant
ageofthehi
ghrat
eof
unemploy
mentinZimbabwetoaskforsexual
favor
sinr
eturnf
orpr
omoti
onatwor
k,

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Page| obset
c. Lowchancesofpr omoti
onto
highlevelpostsl
ikemanagerialwor
kasmostempl oy
erssubscribetothester
eot
ypi
cal
beli
efaboutt he‘
unsuit
abil
it
y’ofwomen.
Paydi ff
erencesforsamewor k,
despi
teequal
payactlegi
slati
ons.
Levelort ypeofworke.g.mostwomenareemployedinthe‘secondaryl
abormarket
’as
secretari
esetc.
I
nfl
uenceofempl
oymentont
hesoci
alst
atusont
heposi
ti
onofwomen
Moderni
ndust
ri
alsoci
eti
esar
echar
act
eri
zedbyi
ncr
easi
ngwomenwor
ker
s.Thi
shas
r
esul
tedi
n

 I
ncr
easedeconomi
cindependence

 Joi
ntconj
ugal
rol
es(
asopposedt
osegr
egat
edconj
ugal
rol
es)

 Womenemanci
pat
ion

 I
ncr
easedl
i
feexpect
ance

 Owner
shi
poft
hemeansofpr
oduct
ion

 Soci
alst
atus

 Lei
sur
epat
ter
nsf
orwomenchanged

Summary
:thegenderdi
scussionhasbroughtitt
ol i
ghtthatthatgenderdif
ferencesat
bet
weenmenandwomenatl east,t
oalesserextenti
si nf
luencedbybiol
ogy .However
,
mostwomendisput
edtheclaim andcompletel
ydivorcedgenderfrom biol
ogy .

UNI
TEND2:
2QUESTI
ONS

1.Anal
yzet
hev
iewt
hatgenderr
olesar
ecul
tur
all
yrat
hert
hanbi
ologi
cal
l
yinf
ormed.
2.Explainstr
ategi
est
hathav
ebeenempl
oyedbyy
oursoci
etyt
ocount
ergender
di
fferences.
3.Discusstheef
fect
ivenessoft
hemeasur
estakenbyZi
mbabweangov
ernmentt
o
reducethegapbetweenmalesandf
emales.

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150

TOPI
C9:
SOCI
ALSTRATI
FICATI
ON
Obj
ect
ives
Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbei
naposi
ti
ont
o:
i
. Expl
aint
heconceptofst
rat
if
icat
ion
i
i
. Assesst
heor
iesofst
rat
if
icat
ion
i
i
i. I
dent
if
yingandex
plai
ningf
ormsofst
rat
if
icat
ion
i
v. Ev
aluat
etheor
iesofsoci
alcl
ass

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151 v
. I
dent
if
yfact
orsaf
fect
ingl
i
fechancei
nzi
mbabwe
v
i. Di
scusst
het
ypesofsoci
almobi
l
ity
I
NTRODUCTI
ON
Alt
houghhumanbei ngsaresaidtobet hedescendantsofAdam andEv e,this
doesnotmeani ndi
vidual
sareequal i
ntermsofabi l
it
y,speed,lev
elofintell
igence
andwealthorpropertyowner
ship.Havey oueveraskedy our
selfwhysome
i
ndivi
dualsorgr
oupedar emuchr espectedandsomear einf
luenti
al?Social
str
ati
fi
cati
ontheref
oremeanst hatindi
vidual
swillneverbeequal i
nt er
msof
power,abi
li
tywealt
handsoon.
Whati
ssoci
alst
rat
if
icat
ion?
Itisaf orm ofi nequalit
y.Socialstratif
icationbydefinit
ion, r
eferstothepr esentof
distinctgr oupswhi char erankedoneabov etheotheri ntermsoff actorssuchas
weal th,prestigeet c.Socialstr
atif
icationr efer
stotheway sinwhicht hemember sofa
soci etyrankpeopl eassuper i
orori nferiortooneanot herinsocialstanding.All
human
soci eti
esev ent hesimpl esthavelev elsofsocialrankasoneoft hemechani sms
i
nf l
uenci nghowt heirmember srel
at et ooneanot her.Socialstr
ati
ficati
onisanexampl e
ofsoci al di
fferenti
ation,ameansbywhi chindivi
dualsdisti
nguishthemsel vesfrom one
anot her.Giddens( 1993)v iewsst r
at i
ficati
onast hest r
ucturedinequali
tiesbetween
differentgroupi ngs.
I
nmostsoci ety,
socialst
rat
if
icat
ionisident
if
iedthr
oughdiff
erentstat
utes
occupi
edbyi ndi
vidual
sinwhicheachofeachhasanumberofr olestoplay
whichmightdeterminehowpower fulori
nfl
uenti
ali
ndiv
idual
sar e.
STATUS
Thisr
efer
stoapositiont
hatoneoccupiesi
nthesoci et
y.I
tisli
nkedt orolesinthatf
or
onetoperf
orm acert
ainrol
etheyhavetooccupyacer t
ainsocialposit
ion.Forexample,
tobeateacheryouhavetooccupyacertai
nposit
ion.Eachstatushasanumberofr oles
att
achedtoit
.Forexample,
apoliceof
fi
cer,hi
srol
ei stomaintainorder.
Letusgobackt oO' l
ev elhi
stor
y,I'
m surey ouallknowthatthekingshipsy st
em
ofprecol
onialstat
esinZi mbabwewasher edit
arymeaningi fthekingdies,The
fi
rstsonwoul dautomat i
cal
lyinheri
tthet hrone.So,wast hestat
usofbei nga
kingachi
evedorascribed?Inthiscase,statusisascri
bed..Letusdefinethe
terms
ASCRI
BEDSTATUS
Ascr
ibedst
atusdoesnotr
equir
eanyeff
ortf
ormtheindi
vi
dual
.Onefi
ndshersel
f/
hi
mselfint
hatposi
ti
on,most
lybybi
rt
h.Forexampl
ebeingapri
nce,
chief
,woman,man.

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152 I
Page| trequi
resnoef
for
tIft
hef
atheri
sri
chy
ouwi
l
lgr
owr
ichandI
fthef
atheri
spoororf
rom
l
owercl
assy
ouwon'
texper
ienceanyupwar
dmobi
l
ity
.Iti
ssi
mpl
yani
nher
it
edst
atus.
WhatdoesMar
xandEngel
ssayaboutt
hei
nher
it
anceofpr
oper
tyandmai
ntenanceof
st
atusquo?
ACHI
EVEDSTATUS
Iti
st heoneoccupiedandachievedbyaper sonbecauseofhi spersonalabi
l
ityoreff
ort
.
Forexample,youcanspendsomet imestudyingasast udenttobecomeamedi cal
doctororalawyer.Anachiev
edst atusisnotthatanindi
vidualput
ssomeef fortor
str
ivestoachi
eve,e.g.bei
ngat eacher,
nurse,doctoret
c.Onei snotborninthatposi
ti
on.
STRATUM
Indi
vidual
sarenotandwi llneverbeequali
nsocietyassuggestedbymostsoci ologist
s
suchasMosca( seetheelit
etheoryonpowerandaut hori
ty)
.Societ
yisdiv
idedinto
speciall
ayersint
owhi chindi
vidual
sarefi
tt
edandcat egor
ized.Somear einthelayersof
doctors(heal
th),
teachers(educati
on)mini
ster
’s(l
awmaker s)etc.Eachoftheselayers
i
scal l
edstratum.
LI
FECHANCES
Aperson'
sposit
ioni
nast r
ati
ficat
ionsyst
em mayhaveimport
antef
fectsinmanyar eas
ofli
fe.
Itmayreduceorenhancetheli
fechancest
hatist
hechanceofobt aining those
thi
ngsdefi
ned asdesi
rable andavoi
ding t
hosethi
ngsdefi
ned as undesirable such
aspovert
y.Soifyouhaveanaccesst ohumanbasicneedssuchasshel ter,foodet c.
youhaveanaccesstol
ifechances.
SOCI
ALMOBI
LITY
I
ndiv
idual
scanmovef
rom onestrat
um t
oanother
.Forexample,
from apol
ice
of
fi
certoacabi
netmi
nist
er.Suchamovementiscal
l
edsocial
mobi l
i
tyther
efor
e,
Socialmobi
l
ityi
sthemov
ementofi
ndi
vi
dual
sinasoci
all
adderf
rom onest
rat
um t
othe
other.
TYPESOFSOCI
ALMOBI
LITY
1.Ver
ti
cal
mobi
l
ity
I
tist
hemov
ementofpeopl
einasoci
all
adderei
therupwar
dordownwar
d.
I
tisoft
wot
ypes.
A.Upwardmobi
l
ity-I
tisanupwar
dmobi
l
ityi
nasoci
all
adder
.E.
g.f
rom at
eachert
oa
Presi
dent
.

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udypack

153 B.
Page| Downwar
dmobi
l
ity-I
tisadownwar
dmobi
l
ityexper
iencedbyi
ndi
vi
dual
s.Onecan
mov efr
om thepositi
onofami nist
ertoat eacher
.Forexample,
For
merpr i
maryand
secondarymini
sterZimbabweanmi nisterDrLazarusDokor
aexper
ienced downwar
d
mobili
tytoapositi
onofalectureratBinduraUniversi
ty.
2.Hori
zont
almobil
i
ty-I
ndi
vi
dualsi
nthi
scasemov
eswi
thi
nthesamest
rat
um e.
g.f
rom
apoli
ceoff
icert
oaseni
orpol
iceof
fi
cer
.
FORMSOFSTRATI
FICATI
ON
1.Thecl
asssy
stem
Iti
sbasedonsocialandeconomi
cfactorsaswellasindi
vidualachi
evement.Acl
ass
consi
stsofasetofpeoplewhoshar
esi mil
arstat
usconcerningfactor
sli
keeducat
ion,
wealt
h,i
ncome. Ther
eissoci
almobi
li
tyinthisstr
ati
fi
cati
on,andintermar
ri
agesare
i
ndeedtoler
ated.
Thecast
esy
stem
Whereascl
assisaform ofstr
ati
ficat
ionbasedonwealt
hcast ei
sbasedonbi r
th.I
tis
i
nherit
edandther
eforeunchangeableandfi
xedatbir
the.
g.theancientcast
esystem i
n
I
ndia.I
nZimbabwe,therewasstrati
fi
cati
onaccor
dingtorace/col
orandt hi
sal
so
happenedi
ntheaparthei
dSouthAf ri
ca.
Therewer efourmaincastesinIndia(call
edVar nas).Thesewer e(i
nor derof
descendingsocialst
anding)the(a)Brahmi ns(pri
ests)(b)Kshatri
yas(war r
iors)(c)
Vaisyas(art
isansandmer chants)(
d)Sudr as(meni all
aborer
s).Therewer ealsolarge
number softheuntouchables(t
hepar i
ah)t hatmadeupt hefi
ft
hcast e.Thesedi dallt
he
di
rtyandpol l
uti
ngwor k(e.
g.gravedigging).
Castei sfi
xedatbi r
thwi t
ht hei ndividualinher it
ingthecast estandingofhi s/herfather.
Iti
scl osel
yr elat
edt ot heHi ndubel iefofr eincarnationorrebirt
hwher eitisbel i
ev edthat
i
ndividualswhof ailtoabi debyt her it
ualsanddut i
esoft hei
rcastewi l
lber ebor ninan
i
nferiorpositioninthei rnexti ncar nati
on.
TheHi ndur eli
gionr ati
onal i
zedt hrought hecont inuati
onoft hecast esy stem.Pr incipl
e
ofendogamy=l egitimat emar ri
agesonl yt ookpl acewithineachcast ethoughnon-
mar i
talsexual unionscoul dt akepl aceacr osscast eli
nes.Ev er
ymaj orsoci ali
nst i
tuti
on
ref
lectedthecast esy stem f orexampl e,resi dencewasgeogr aphicallysegr egated.Even
chi
ldr eari
ngpat ternsandot herf ami l
yrelat edmat t
ersrefl
ectedcast edi sti
nctions.
Thereisnoupwardsocialmobi
li
tyi
nacastesyst
em.Thecasteactsasanabsolute
breakontheupwardmobi l
it
yofmembersofanycast
eexceptthehighest
.In
contemporaryUSA,ther
eisacast
eli
kesyst
em whereanon-
whi t
epersoncannotcl
imb
thesocial
ladderi
ntothecl
assofwhit
es.
SLAVERY

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154 I
Page| tist
hewor
stf
orm ofst
rat
if
icat
ionwher
esomei
ndi
vi
dual
sar
eli
ter
all
yownedbyot
her
s
astheirpr
oper
ty.Theycanbeboughtandsol
dwi
thoutt
hei
rconsent(
see‘
A’l
evel
hi
storyontheTrans-
Atl
anti
csl
avetrade)
.
ESTATES
Anest at eisdef i
nedasacl osedsy stem ofst rati
ficationi nwhi chl awdefinesaper son
andmember shipisdeterminedpr i
mar ilybyi nheri
t ance.I twascommoni nfeudal
Europe. Itconsi stedofsev eral
stratawi th
dif
fer i
ngobl igati
onstoeachot her .Thesei ncludedt hear istocracy ,t
heclergy,thegent ry
,
mer chant s;arti
san’speasant s,serfset c.( seeVictorianandEl izabethanliter
at ure)
.
Unli
kei nt hecast esystem adegr eeoft olerancewast heref orintermarri
agesand
i
ndiv i
dual upwar dmobi li
tywast olerated.Forexampl e, commoner scouldbekni ght ed
fortheirspeci alservi
cetothemonar chy .Ther ei
sdi visionofl abori nthi
sst r
at i
fi
cat i
on.
Forexampl ebef oreFrenchr evolution, peasant swor kedf orthenobi li
tyandcl ergy.In
ret
ur n,thecl er
gypr ayedforal l
andt henobi li
typrov i
dedpr otection.Thest at
usi salso
ascribedbybi rt
handmar ri
age.
Soci
ologi
cal
per
spect
ives
Funct
ional
i
sm
Tal
cot
tpar
sons
Keypoi
ntsr
aised
Hebelievesthatorder,stabil
i
tyandcooper ati
oninsoci
etyarebasedonv al
ue
consensus.Het herefor
esay sthatsocialstr
ati
fi
cat
ionderi
vesfrom val
ueconsensus.
Societ
yhasdi ff
erentgoal sneedtobeachi evedbyindi
vi
dualse.
g.theneedtoelect
rif
ya
communi ty.Somei ndiv
idualsarevotedintopowerbypeopletofurt
herthegoalsof
soci
ety.
Tohim,st
rati
fi
cati
onder
ivesf
rom val
ueconsensus,i
tisagr
eeduponsincesome
i
ndivi
dual
sarevotedbysoci
etyi
ntopower,
andint hi
scase,t
heagreementi
s
thr
oughball
otbox.
Indi
vidual
swi l
lbeplacedinsomef or
m ofrankordert
hroughmer i
t.Therol
eof
educationi
st oevaluateandallocatepeopl
ei nt
othei
rposit
ions.Thosewhoperfor
m
successful
lywill
ber ankedhi
ghl yandtheyareli
kel
ytorecei
veav ari
etyofr
ewardsand
will
beaccor dedhigherprest
ige.
ToParsons,societ
y'i
smer i
tocr
ati
c,i
ndi
vi
dualshaveequal
chanceofachievi
ng
anystat
us,probablyt
hrougheducati
onandthosewhoperfor
m successf
ull
ywil
l
berankedhighl
y.
Hef
urt
herar
guest
hatsoci
alst
rat
if
icat
ioni
sfunct
ional
insoci
etybecausei
tmai
ntai
ns

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155 or
Page| derandr
einf
orcescol
l
ect
ivegoal
s.Hedi
dnotbel
i
evet
hatacl
assl
esssoci
etyi
s
funct
ional
;hether
eforebel
i
ev edthatsoci
alst
rat
if
icat
ioni
sfunct
ional
becausesoci
ety
needssomef orm ofaut
hor
ityforitt
ofuncti
on.
Imagi
ne,asociet
ywher ebyev
ery oneisequal,lookatyourschool,
itisreall
y
makeslit
tl
esensethataschool canf uncti
onwi t
houttheschoolauthori
ties.Thi
s
i
swhyPar sonsisofthev i
ewthatsoci alst
rati
fi
cati
onmaintainsordersince
soci
etyneedssomef or
m ofauthor i
tyf ori
ttofunct
ionsmoothly.
Ki
ngsl
eyDav
isandWi
l
ber
tMoor
e.(
1976)
Str
atif
icati
oni sf
uncti
onalnotonl
yfuncti
onalbutitisal
sonecessary .Al
lsoci
eti
es
haveimpor tantt
asksthatmustbeaccomplishedandcert
ainposi
tionsmustbef ill
edin.
Somej obsar emoreimportantt
hanothersareandrequi
rehar
dt r
aininge.g.medical
doctors,pi
lotset
c.
Keept hi
sinmind;allsoci
eti
eshaveimpor
tanttasksthatmustbeaccompli
shed.
I
not herwords,al
ltasksthatar
emoreimportantrecei
vebett
errewar
ds,and
thosetasksthatar
el essimpor
tantr
ecei
velessreward.
Therefor
e,aftert
rai
ningtheindi
vi
dualsdeservebett
errewardsf ort
heireff
ort
s.Most
quali
fi
edpeopl emustfil
lthoseposi
ti
ons.Classisuniv
er sal
incompl exhumansociet
ies
becauseitservestoproduceandmai nt
aindivi
sionoflaborthatisbeli
evedtobe
necessaryforanysociet
y.
Anotheri
mportantpoi
nttonotehere'
classisimportantbecausei
tpromotes
di
visi
onoflaboraccor
dingtoabi
li
tywhichisbeli
evedtobenecessaryforsoci
ety
.
Somet asks( suchasf armingandheal t
hcare)areessentialt
ot hesurvi
valofsoci
ety
andpeoplemustbemot i
vatedtoundertakethem.Howev er,someoft heseessenti
al
tasksaremor ediffi
cultandr equi
resomeski l
landtraini
ng.Societymustmot i
vate
peopletotakeupt hesej obsandmustal soselectthemostt alentedpeopl
eand
mot i
vat
et hem t otaket hejobsrequi
ringthei
rparti
cularabil
i
ties.Thismoti
vati
onisdone
byhighl
yr ewar dingsomet asksther
ebymaki ngthem mor eattracti
veandensuri
ngan
amplesuppl yofappl icati
ons.
Someposi t
ionsar esaidtobehar dorrequireahardtraini
ng,t
hereforesociet
y
shouldmotivateindi
vidualstotakethem, andhowdoessoci etymot i
vate
i
ndivi
duals?Byhi ghl
yrewar di
ngthem; forexample,moststudentswantt obe
medialdoctorsorlegalpracti
ti
onersbecauset heposi
t i
onsarehighlypaid
ther
eforeyouar emotivatedtotakethem.I nthi
scase, Davi
sandMoor earealso
sayi
ngallpositi
onsthatr equi
rehardtraini
ngorhardlaborarehighlypaid.Reall
y?
Theyalsoarguethatsoci
alst
rat
if
icat
ioni
sjust
if
iabl
ebecausepeopl
ehavedi
ff
erent
abi
li
tyandtalent
s.DavisandMooreconcl
udedthatsoci
alst
rat
if
icat
ioni
sadevi
ceby

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156 whi
Page| chsoci
etyensur
est
hatt
hemostqual
i
fiedpeopl
efi
l
lint
hemosti
mpor
tantposi
ti
ons.
Cr
it
iqueoft
hef
unct
ional
i
star
gument
Mel
vi
nTumi
n
1.Thereareproblemsi ndefi
ninganimpor t
antjob.Whatisani mpor tantjob?How
comesomej obsareimpor t
antforsurvi
valbuttheyarelowlypaid( e.
g.farmi ng)
.Notal
l
hi
ghlyrewardedposi t
ionsarediffi
cul
torsocial
l
yi mperati
ve( ai
rhostesses, moviestar
s)
norareall
similarstat
usesrewar dedsimi
larl
yinallsociet
ies.Therefore,highrewards
donotdemonst ratetheimportanceofthejobort hedegreeofskillneededt operformit.
Youshoul dalsoconsi
derthattherearesomeposi
ti
onsthatar
ehighlypaidas
wellbutlessimport
anttothesocietye.g.af
oot
bal
lerandamedicaldoctorwho
i
shighlypaid,mostfootbal
ler
sar ehighl
ypai
dbutt
heirposi
ti
onislessrel
evantt
o
thesociety.
2.
Itisnotnecessar
il
ytr
uethatt
hemosttal
entedandintel
li
gentpeopl
eoccupythese
hi
ghr ewardi
ngjobsbutsometi
mes,
chance,cl
ass,connect
ionsandopportuni
ty
deter
mi ne.
Societ
yisnotthatmerit
ocrat
icasfuncti
onali
stshaveassumed, i
nZimbabwe,
therearesomanyexampl eswherethemostqual i
fi
edpeopleintheareaarenot
givenachancetotakethoseposit
ionstheyworkedfor.Whichformulai
sbei ng
usedthattheunqual
if
iedtaketheposit
ionofthequali
fied?I
nthiscase,chance,
l
ucky ,
connect
ionsandopportuni
ti
esdet er
mine.
3.Tumi ncr i
ti
cizefunct i
onal i
stsf orassumi ngthatthemosthi ghl yrewardedposi t
ions
areindeedt hemosti mpor tantposi ti
ons.Hear guest hatmanyoccupant st hataf f
ord
l
ittl
epr estigeofeconomi crewar dscanbeseenasv i
tal t
osoci etymor et hant hose
receivehighr ewar d.Forexampl e,whoi smor efuncti
onal adoct orandsewersy st
em
mai ntai
nt eam?Soci etyisheal tht odaybecauseofgoodsewersy stems.
4.Heal sonot esthatst rati
ficati
onsy stem doesnotpr ovideequal it
yofoppor tunit
y
becauset hosebor nint othel owercl asscannotev erhav et hesameoppor tunityof
reali
zingt heirpotentialascompar edtot hosefrom theuppercl ass.
5.St r
atifi
cationisadi v
isivet oolratherthanani nt
egrat edf or
ce.Hear guest hatdiffer
ent
rewar dscanencour agehost i
li
ty,suspici
onandconf l
ictinsociet y.
Kar
lMar
x
6.ToMarx,
str
ati
fi
cati
ondoesnotderiv
ef r
om v
alueconsensust
hewayf
uncti
onal
ist
waspor
tray
edit,
infact
,itder
ivesf
rom t
heownershi
pofthemeansofpr
oducti
on.
Thereisanel ementoftr
uthintheaboveMarx'sstat
ement .I
fstr
ati
fi
cat
ion
deri
vesfrom v al
ueconsensusorifl
eader'
ssuchaspr esi
dentsarevot
edby
peoplethroughconsensusmeanst henthequesti
oniswhyt heyhaveatight

MrTChi
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Page|
157 secur
it
ywherevert
heygo,
theyar
eaf
rai
dofwho,
thesamepeopl
ewhov
oted
them i
npoweror?.
7.Marxfur
therpointsoutthatt
hefunctional
ist’
sclai
mt hatst
rat
if
icati
onbenef
its
soci
etyasawhol eismistaken,
tohimi tlar
gelybenefi
tstheupperclassandi
tisa
mechanism ofexploi
ti
ngthepowerless.
ToMar x,t
heanalysi
si ssi
mple,aslongasy ouarenotdri
vi
ngt hesamecar s
yourleadersaredri
vi
ng, t
hismeansstrati
fi
cati
ondoesnotbenef i
tever
yonebut
thepower f
ul,Tohim,itwouldbenef
itevery
oneifweallhavetheequalaccessto
l
ifechancei npar
ti
cularandmeansofpr oducti
oningeneralsuchasland,
fact
oriesetc.
Ot
hercr
it
iques
8.Classposit
ionstendtobei nher
it
edf rom onegener
ati
ontotheotherhenceitisnota
matterofabil
ityassuggestedbyPar sons.
9.Whiledivi
sionoflabori
snecessary ,acl
asssy st
em i
snotnecessar
ytocarryitout
(seedivi
sionoflaborinpr
ecapi t
ali
stsociet
ies).
Conf
li
ctt
heor
ies
MARXI
SM
KarlMarxisinagreementwi thTuminastheyallsuggestthatstratif
icati
onisadivisiv
e
tool
ratherthananintegr
ativestr
uctur
e.Marxseesi tasamechani sm wher ebysome
expl
oitothersr
atherthanameansoff ur
ther
ingcoll
ect i
vegoals.
Accordi
ngt oMarx,cl
assisasoci algr
oup,whichsharet hesamer el
ationshipwit
ht he
meansofpr oducti
on.Inallsoci
eti
es,t
heyaretwomaj orsoci
al groupst husthe
Bourgeoi
sieandthepr ol
etari
at.
Thepoweroft her ul
ingcl
assderi
vesfrom it
sowner shi
pandcont r
olofthemeansof
producti
onandt hereisabasi
cconfli
ctofinter
estbetweent hetwocl asses.Rul
ing
cl
assusest heinstit
uti
onsofsoci
etysuchasMedi a, r
eli
giontojusti
fystrati
fi
cat
ionand
Wor ki
ngclassareseenassuf f
eri
ngfrom f
alseclass-consciousness.
Thepol
ari
zat
ionofcl
asses
Henot est hatthegapbet weenthet wocl asseswi ll
increase.Mar xf oresawcl ass
polarizati
ont hatwoul dult
imatel
yl eadt ot wogr eatclasses f ightingeachot her.
Polarizationwasdef i
nedasasi tuationwher eremnantcl assesf rom pastmodesof
product i
onwer eabsorbedeitherintot hewor kingcl assori ntothecapi tal
istclass.
Thei ntroductionofmachi neswillresul ti
nhomogenouswor kingcl ass, small
businesseswi llsinki
ntoworkingcl ass, t
hepoorwi l
l becomepoor er,andt herichwill
be
ri
cher .Sincecl assesareinperpetual conf l
i
ct,wor ki
ngcl asswi l
lgaincl ass-
consci ousness, revol
uti
onisnotonl yinevit
ablebutal sonecessar yt or emov einequal
ity
,

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158 a
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dthewor
kingcl
assi
sagr
owi
ngf
orceandanucl
eusf
orsoci
alchange.
Withincr
easingmechanizat
ion,speci
ali
zat
ionanddi v
isi
onofl abor,wor
kerswould
becomedeski l
ledandloset
heirindi
vi
dualcraft
smanship.Theywoul dnolongerbeabl e
toclai
m productsasthei
rsbutwouldbecomeal ienat
edandi ncreasi
ngl
yreplaceable.
Becausetheyar epai
dlowwages, worker
swoul dbepauperizedandcapital
ism will
be
eventual
l
yr epl
acedbyanadv ancedcommuni sm soci
ety.
Weber
’s(
1864-
1920)t
heor
yofcl
ass
Keypoi
nts
1.Hedefinedacl assasaplur
ali
tyofpeopleshar i
ngthesamemar ketsit
uationor
marketvalue.Inshortcl
ass=mar ketsi
tuat
ion.Thisdefi
nit
ionwoul
dpr oduceaninfi
nit
e
numberofcl assessincesmal
ldi
f f
erencesexistbetweenpeopl
e.Weber ’
sclassesar
e
notnecessaril
yconsciousoft
heirsit
uati
on.
2.Hebeli
evedtherearet hreesourcesofst r
ati
fi
cati
on, economiccl
ass,soci
alst
atus
andpoli
ti
calpower.Ast atusgr oupisdefi
nedasagr oupofpeopl eshari
ngthesame
soci
alhonororli
fest
yle.Stat usunli
keclassisnotobjectiv
elygi
venbutdependson
peopl
e’ssubj
ecti
veevaluat ionsofsocialdi
ffer
ences.Itisbasedonpresti
georesteem.
Howev er,statusgr oupsareshapedbyl i
festyl
est hatareint ur
naffectedbyincome,
valuesandeducat ion.Thereisthereforear elati
onshipbet weeneconomi cclassand
socialstatussi ncet hoseinahi ghsoci alstat
ust endt ohav egreatereconomi cpower .
Howev er,thi
si snotal waysthecasesi nceanar istocr
aticf amil
ymayst i
l
lhav esoci al
honorbutl ivi
ngi ngent eel
poverty,i
nt hesamemannert hatar i
chper sonmaybedeni ed
respecti nsoci etybecauseoft heirbackgr oundorsoci alties.Thi
si sverytr
ueoft he
Jewishpeopl ei nEur opewhoownmanybusi nessesbutl ackpolit
icalpower.Sol diers
andpol iceof fi
cer sofourdayal soy i
eldlegal powerbuthav ef
ewornopr operty.Thi s
disputesMar xar gumentt hatthebasedet erminest hesuper st
ructure.
3.Weberar guedt hatsocietyisnotcomposedoft wocl assesonl ybutt hereisami ddle
cl
asst hatisdi vi
dedi ntoupperandl owermiddleclass.Theybel ongtothewhi te-col
lar
categorythought heyalsodonotownpr opertybutt heyenj oytheadv antageousl i
fe
chancest hatcomewi t
ht hei
rskil
ls.Healsodividedt hewor kingclassintounski l
led
manual workers,semi -
skill
edmanual workersandski l
ledmanual workers.Theyal lf
all
withi
nt heblue-collarcategoryandownnopr oper t
yt heyonl yhavemanual skil
ls.
4.Webert her ef
oredi dnotbel i
eveinthepolari
zationofcl assessi ncetherearesmal l
dif
ferencest hatexistamongandbet weenwor kers.Ther evoluti
onwast hereforenot
i
nev i
tablebutonl ypossi bleaccordi
ngtoWeber .
5.Becauseofadv antageousl i
fechancesWeberar guedt hatt hemi ddleclasswoul d
growandwor kerswoul denjoyhigh-cl
asspositionsandgr owr i
ch.
Si
mil
ari
ti
esbet
weenMar
xandWeber
’st
heor
izat
ionofst
rat
if
icat
ion

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Page| har
guet
hatt
hebour
geoi
sieex
ploi
tst
hewor
kingcl
assi
nor
dert
ohav
esur
plus
value/pr ofit
s.Thewor kermustandi scompel l
edbyt hewhipofhungert osellhisl
abor
forsur viv
al.Thewor kerisaf r
eehumanbei ngint hesenset hatheisnotasl ave(heis
paidf orser v
ices)andt hathedoesnotownanypr opert
y.Groupconfli
ctisabasi c
i
ngr edientofsoci ety.Peopl ear emotiv
at edbysel f-i
nter
est;
thosewhodonothav e
proper tycandef endt heirinterestsl
esswel lthant hosewhoownpr opert
ycan.
Economi cinsti
tutionsar eoff undament alimportancei nshapingtherestofsociety.
Thosei npowerpr omot eideasandv al
uest hathelpt hem maintai
ntheirdomi nanceonl
y
whenexpl oitat
ionbecomesext remel
yobv iouswill t
hepower l
essrevolt
,allacceptthat
weal t
hort heowner shipoft hemeansofpr oductioni sal
soasour ce/deter
mi nantof
strati
ficati
on.
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenMar
xandWeberonsoci
alcl
ass
Fact or
sotherthantheowner shi
pofpr oper t
yaresignifi
cantinthef ormationofclasses
e.g.wealth,
power,andpr est
ige.Mar xonl ysawweal thast hesourceofst rati
fi
cati
on.
Mar xonlysawt woclassesinsocietywhi chareinconf l
ictwi t
honeandanot her
wher easwebersawf ourclasses,Thepr operti
eduppercl ass,propertl
esswhi t
ecollar
wor kers,
PettyBourgeoi
sieandManual wor ki
ngclass.
Webersawnoev i
dencetosuppor ttheideaoft hepolari
zat i
onofcl asses,rat
herhesaw
upwar dmobilit
yofthewor ki
ngclassandal soWeberr ejectedtheideaoft heproletar
iat
revoluti
on,r
atherhesawonl yindustri
alact i
onnotov ert
hrowingcapi tal
ism.
Summar y: soci
alstr
ati
fi
cat
ionreferstoasituati
oninwhichpeopl
earedi vi
dedint
o
di
stinctgroupsrankedatdiff
erentl
evels.Functi
onal
istbel
i
evethatstr
atif
icat
ioni
sa
necessaryaspectofsociet
y.Howev er,confl
ictt
heori
stdonotagree,
rathersawitasa
mechanism wher ebysomeexpl oi
tothers.

ENDOFUNI
T2:
3QUESTI
ONS

1.Di
scusst
heMar
xistt
heor
yofcl
ass.
2.Anal
yzethev
iewt
hatst
rat
if
icat
ioni
sani
nev
itabl
eanddesi
rabl
efeat
ureof
soci
ety
.
3.Zi
mbabwei
smer
it
ocr
acy
;inequal
i
tyi
sbasedonabi
l
ityandhar
dwor
k.di
scuss

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160

TOPI
CTEN:
AGE

Obj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

i
. Expl
ainchi
l
dhoodi
nZi
mbabweandot
hercount
ri
es

i
i
. Di
scusschi
l
dhoodpr
obl
emsandchar
act
eri
sti
cs

i
i
i. Anal
yzepol
i
ciesont
hechi
l
dren'
swel
far
einZi
mbabwe

i
v. Di
scussy
out
handy
out
hcul
tur
e

v
. Pr
obl
emsf
acedbyy
out
hinZi
mbabwe

v
i. Assessi
nggov
ernmentpol
i
ciesony
out
h

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161 v
Page| ii
. Di
scussi
ngt
henat
ureandpr
obl
emsf
acedbyol
dage

v
ii
i. Anal
yzepol
i
ciest
ocat
erf
ort
heol
dage

i
x. Expl
ainv
olunt
eer
ism

x. Di
scussi
ngper
spect
ivesonage

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Ager ef
er st othetimeelapsedsi nceani ndividualwasbor n.Therefore,
thi
schapt erexami nes
thesociologyofageandt hel if
ecour se.Ageandagei ngareoftenseeni npsychol ogi
caland
biol
ogical terms.Birt
h,devel
opi ngtophy sical maturit
y,ageinganddeat har
epar tofuni v
ersal
biol
ogical processesthataffectallhumanbei ngsinshort;Humanl if
eisoft
endi videdintoage
spanslikechi ldhood,adol
escence, youths, adulthoodandol dage.Howev er,
mostsoci ol
ogists
beli
evet hatagecanbeunder stoodbygi vi
ngar ef
erencetosocialcontext
.

Inasmuchagei sdescr
ibedinter
msofbi ology
,whati
scall
edol dageorwhatagei stoo
oldortoolyoung?Whyitissomeadul tsbehaveli
keki
ds?Thi
st herefor
emeanst hatage
i
samat t
erofroles,
whatindivi
dualsdoaswel l
asthecul
tur
al bel
iefsofwhatoughtto
bedonebydi ff
erentagegroupshenceagecanbeaswel ldeterminedbycult
ureand
cult
urevari
esfrom soci
etytosociety
.

Sociol
ogistsarguet hattheconceptofagecannotbeful
lyunder
stoodwi t
houtreferencetot
he
social
cont ext
.From t hi
sperspect
ive,agecanbeseenasasocialconstr
uctioninthesensethat
themeani ngs,r
olesandi denti
ti
esassociatedwit
hagevaryfr
om soci
etytosociety.Giddens
arguesthatsociologistsshoul
danalyzeagei nt
ermsofsoci
alageratherthanchronologi
calor
biol
ogicalage.

Theconceptofagecanbelinkedtothelongevi
tyofpeoplei
ndif
ferentsoci
eties.Apar
ti
cular
chr
onologi
calagehasaverydiffer
entmeaninginsociet
ywherel
ifeexpectancyisusedto
i
denti
fyage.I
n2009,li
feexpectancyatbir
thinZimbabwewas48, butinBri
tain,i
twas80.

Thesedif
fer
encesinlif
eexpect
ancyhavebeenatt
ri
butedtoavari
etyofsoci
al f
act
ors
andintur
ntheyinfl
uencewhatisconsi
deredol
dindif
fer
entsoci
eti
esatdiff
erentt
imes.
Thi
siswhyGi ddensissay
ingageshouldbeanal
yzedinter
msofsocialage.

Soci
al agerefer
stothe‘
thenor
ms,
val
ues,
andr
olest
hatar
ecul
tur
all
yassoci
atedwi
tha
part
icularchr
onologi
cal
age.

CHI
LDHOODI
NZI
MBABWEANDOTHERSOCI
ETI
ES

Mi chaelwyness(2006)arguesthatchil
dhoodisanatural
andinevi
tablephasethatweall
go
throughbeforewer eachadulthood.Chi
ldhoodther
efor
etendstobet akenforgr
antedasa
biologi
calstat
ethroughwhi challt
hosewhobecomeadul tspass.

Fr
om t
hisper
spect
ive,
thenat
ureofchi
l
dhoodi
sseenasder
ivi
ngf
rom t
hebi
ologi
cal

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162 at
tr
ibutesofchi
ldren.Theexper
ienceofchi
l
dhoodf
oll
owsf
rom phy
sical
andment
al
i
mmat uri
tyofchil
dren.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofchi
l
dhood

Asoneconsi der schar acterist

icsofchi ldren, t
her ei sneedt or ecognizet hatev erychi l
di s
uniqueandspeci al i
nit sownway .Ther eare, howev er,somecommonchar act er
isticsoft he
periodofchi ldhood.
Vulner abil
ity–bei ngmor eeasi l
yphy sically
,emot i
onallyorment al
lyhurt
, i
nfluencedorat t
acked.
Resi l
ience–t hepr ocessofadapt ingwel linthef aceofadv ersity,t
rauma, tragedy ,threatsor
significantsour cesofst ress.
Soci ali
zation-Aper i
odchar acterizedbyi niti
al orpr imar ysocializati
on.Accor dingt oBer ry
May al l
,childrenar er out i
nelypor tray edast hepassi verecipientsofsoci ali
zat i
on.
Dependency-Chi l
drenar edependedonadul ts( parents, t
eacher sandguar dians)f orbot hcar e
andpr otectionf rom thecor ruptingwor ldofadul tse. g.chil
dr enar enot‘fullpersonswhomake
Innocence-Theyar eseenasi nnocentandeasyt ocor rupt.
Phy sicalandment al immat uri
ty–t heyhav enoty etdev el
opedt hecompl exandsophi st
icated
way sofact ingandi nter acti
ngwi thoneanot herusedbyadul ts.Accordingt oHandel (2006),a
chil
di sani ndi vi
dual whocannott akepar ti
nsoci etybecausehe/shei sphy sicall
yandment al
ly
i
mmat ure.Chi ldhoodi sseenasi ncompl eteper sonse. g.,
childrenar eir
responsi ble, chil
dish

Chi
l
dhoodpr
obl
emsandpossi
blesol
uti
ons

Chil
dabuse-childabuseinv ol
vesphysi
cal
,emot i
onalandverbalabuses.Accor di
ngtoJenksit
i
snotsurpri
singthatt
herei sconsi
derabl
eanxietyaboutchi
ldhood.Jenksar guesthatt
hereis
theneedformoresurvei
llanceofchil
dhoodasasol uti
ontothisprobl
em.I fpeopleareeducated
abouthowterri
blechi
ldabusei smuchparentscouldwanttopr ot
ecttheirchil
dren.I
n
Zimbabweforexample,thereisahotli
neforchil
dren(116)whereallfor
msofchi l
dabuseare
repor
ted.

Chil
dtraf
ficki
ng-Gover
nmentmustintensi
fyhumantr
aff
icki
ngawarenesscampaignst
ocurb
thepract
ice.Gov
ernmentshoul
densurethatt
herei
smaximum securi
tyatschool
sandpar
ents
shoul
daccompanyt hei
rchi
ldr
entoschool.

Chil
dl abor-i
tisal
soanothercommont y
peofchildabuse.Thi
sisasocialpr
obl
em,whi
ch
needst heatt
enti
onofthegovernment
.Thesolut
iontothiscanbetheestabl
i
shmentof
chi
ldren'shomee.g.Mbuyasaunyamainkwekwe.

Viol
ationofchi
l
drenri
ghts-chil
drenhaveri
ghtst
oeducat
ion,
cleanwat
er,bal
anceddietet
c.
Thest at
eshoul
dcreatewelfar
epolici
essuchasBasi
cEducat
ionAssi
stanceModule(BEAM)to
helpthepoorgotoschool.Thus,
theZimbabweangover
nmentcameupwi thBEAM tocurbthe
abovepr obl
em.

Marginal
i
zat
ionofchi
l
drene.g.t
hei
rvi
ewsarenott
akenseri
ousl
y.Thus,
ther
eistheneedf
ora
changeinat
ti
tudet
ochil
drenandthi
scanbeachi
evedthr
oughpubli
ccampaigns.

Pol
i
ciesonchi
l
dren’
swel
far
einZi
mbabwe

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163 I
Page| nZi mbabwe,i
twasnotedthatchi
ldr
enfaceanumberofproblemsasi
ndi
cat
edabove,
ther
efor
e,ther
earegover
nmentalandnon-gov
ernment
alpoli
ciest
ocat
erf
orthey
oungin
Zimbabwe.Belowaresomeofthenotabl
epolici
es.

UNICEF-Aft
ertheendofSecondWor l
dWar.Chi
l
drenwerethemostaffect
edi
nal
lcont
inent
s
hencethi
spoli
cysuppor
tst
her i
ghtofchi
l
drene.
g.ther
ightt
oeducat
ion.

BEAM -thi
sPoli
cypaysf
eesfort
hedisadvant
agedchi
l
dreni
nor
dert
orescuet
hem f
rom
pover
ty.Achi
l
dhast her
ightt
oeducat
ion.

Educat
ionAct-suppor
tst
heeducat
ionf
ort
hechi
l
dren.

I
mmunizati
onPol
i
cy-Infant
sbel
owt
heageoff
iver
ecei
vemedi
cal
att
ent
ionf
reei
nor
dert
o
r
educei
nfantmor
tal
i
tyrate.

Maint
enancepoli
cy-i
fthecoupl
edivor
ces,chi
l
drenshoul
dnotf
eel
theheatofdi
vor
cet
hus,
the
f
athershoul
dtakecar
eofhischi
ld/
chil
dren.

Domest
icvi
olenceact-di
scour
agesv
iol
enceandanyf
ormsofabusewhi
cht
akepl
acei
nthe
fami
l
yespeci
allyonchi
ldr
en.

However
,despi
test
hepol
ici
esputinplace,
mostchi
l
drenst
il
lfacet
heabov
epol
i
ciesduet
o
economi
cmel t
downandcul
tur
albeli
efs.

YOUTH

JanePi l
cher(1995)arguesthattheconceptofy outhisawayofunder standingt he"growingup
stagesinthelif
ecourse.Sheclaimst hatyouthareseeni ntermsofbot htheirpast-t heyareno
l
ongerchi l
dren–andt heirf
uture–t heyhavenoty etbecomeadul ts.Shet hereforesays, “
yout
h
i
sbestunder stoodasast ageoft r
ansiti
onfrom chil
dhoodt oadult
hood.
Iti
sassociatedwithbiologi
calchangesofpuber ty–auni versal
biologicalphenomenon
i
nv olvi
ngsuchchangesast hedev elopmentofsecondar ysexcharacterist
ics,thedev elopment
ofr epr
oducti
veorgans,rapi
dskeletalgrowth,thedevelopmentofrepr oductiv
eofi ncreased
strengthandendurance.

InZimbabwe,y
outharedef
inedasper
sonsbet
ween15and35yearsofage.Thi
sager angei
s
st
ipul
atedi
ntheconst
it
uti
onofZimbabweandi
sinli
newi
ththeconti
nent
aldefi
nit
ionofyout
h
asdefi
nedint
heAfri
canYouthChar
ter

Yout
handy
out
h

Youthcultureist hewayadol escentslive,andthenorms, val

uesandpr acti
cestheyshare.
El
ement sofy out hcul
tureincludebel i
efs,behavi
ors,st
ylesandinterest
s.Anemphasi son
cl
othes,popul armusic,sports, v
ocabulary,anddatingsetadolescentsapartf
rom theotherage
groups,gi
v i
ngt hem whatmanybel i
eveisadi st
inctcul
tureoftheirown.Youthcult
ureinvol
vesa
degreeofr ebell
ionagainstpar entaldi
scipli
ne,whichcancauseconf li
ctbetweenthe
generat
ions.

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164 Accor
Page| dingtoCl ar
keatall
, y
outhsubculturesoftenrepresentcreati
veat t
emptst otrytomaint
ain
orwinaut onomyorspacef r
om dominantcul t
ure.Theymaycr eatethei
rowncul ture,whi
ch
ref
lectsyouthfuli
nter
estrathert
hant hatofelders.Thisi sdonebychoosi ngali
festyl
eofthei
r
owne. g.dressi
ngandl i
steningt
opar ti
cularofmusi c.
Adolescentsputmuchemphasi sonest abli
shingtheirindependenceandonper sonal
att
racti
veness.Adultshavewor r
iedthatyouthsubcul turesaretherootofmor aldegradat
ion
andchangi ngvaluesinyoungergenerati
ons.Emer genceofy outhcult
ureisattr
ibutedto:

Thebeginningofcompulsoryschool
ing–Col emanarguesthatagesegregat
ionistherootofa
separat
ey out
hcultur
e.Beforecompulsoryschool
ing,manychil
drenandadolescent
sinter
acted
withadul
ts.Modernchil
dreninter
actwiththei
rpeers,
whichall
owst hem t
odev el
opshared
experi
ences,andmeanings,whicharetherootofyouthcul
tur
e.

Pr
obl
emsf
acedbyt
hey
out
hinZi
mbabwe

Unemployment-Accor
dingtoastudybyNat i
onalAssoci
ati
onyout horgani
zati
oninZi
mbabwe
i
n2016, about70%ofyout
hinZimbabwear enotemployedduet oeconomicmel t
down.Thi
sis
support
edbyPaul Wi
ll
i
swhoar guedthatsuchasocialpr
oblem disrupt
satransi
ti
onto
adul
thood.

Engagi
ngi
njuv
eni
l
edel
i
nquencye.
g.al
cohol
anddr
ugabuse

Peerpr
essure-peersref
erst
oagroupofy
outhshar
ingsameagechar
acteri
sti
cs.Accor
dingt
o
Mead,yout
hdev el
opthei
rowncul
ture,
whi
chopposesthemai
nst
ream cul
tur
e.

Lackofcapi t
al t
ostartprojects–manyy oungpeopl ehaver espondedtotheunav ai
labi
li
tyof
j
obsbyst arti
ngupt heirent r
epreneurialbusinessesinvarioussectorsli
ketouri
sm, agri
cult
ure,
mining,,I
Tet c.however,thesey oungf aceav ariet
yofconst rai
ntsthathi
nderthegr owt
hand
developmentoft hei
renterpr i
sese.g.limitedaccesst ostart
-upinvestmentcapit
al.Mateta
Pati
ence( 2017)analyzedt hechallengesf acedbyt heyouthinaccessingtheZimbabweany outh
empower mentf undtakingMut ar
edi str
ictashercasest udy .

Earl
ymar
ri
ages–Thi
scanbel
i
nkedt
oear
lymar
ri
ages,
economi
char
dshi
ps,
rel
i
giousbel
i
efs
etc.

Youthsl
iv
ingwi t
hHI V–al t
houghHI Vprev
alencer
at esinZimbabweareonthedecli
ne,
HIVand
AIDSamongy outhissti
lloneofthemajorhealth,social
,economicdevel
opmentandhuman
ri
ghtspr
oblemsi nthecountry
.Youngpeopl eandnot abl
ygir
lsandyoungwomenr emai
nthe
bi
ggestsectoratri
skofnewi nfect
ion.

Schooldr
opout-canbeli
nkedtohome-schooldist
ance.Accor
dingtoBourdi
eu,wor
kingclass
st
udentshaveahighrat
eschooldr
opoutbecausetheyl
ackcult
uralcapi
tal
infor
m ofparental
att
it
udetoschool
.

Gov
ernmentpol
i
ciesony
out
hempower
ment

Duetotheaboveprobl
emsbei
ngfacedbyyout
h.TheZi
mbabweangov
ernmenti
ntr
oduceda
numberofpoli
ciest
ocurbt
heaboveprobl
ems.

Nat
ional
yout
hpol
i
cyof2000

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165 Thenat
Page| ionaly
outhpoli
cywasdevel
opedin2000(andr
evisedin2013)t
opr
ovi
deanenabl
i
ng
fr
ameworkforthedev
elopmentandempowermentofyouth.

Empower
mentt
hroughy
out
hbank

Ai
medatcurbi
ngunempl
oymenti
nthecount
rye.
g.theKurer
a/Ukondlayout
hfundwhi
chwas
l
aunchedbyt
hegover
nmentt
oenabley
outhtost
artthei
rownbusinesses.

STEM

Ithasbeennotedt hatthefutureliesinthehandsoft hecurrentgenerati

onoft hey outh.
Therefor
e,thi
sprogr am encouragest heyouthtotakesciencesubj ect
sI nordertoequi p
themselveswithskill
sneededi ni ndust
ri
alsociet
y.Itpaysschool feesforsciencestudents.
Howev er
, i
twasdebat edinparliamentandnot edthatthi
spr ogram islessrelevanttosecondar
y
schoolsbuttotert
iarylevelwher ethegovernmentisguarant eedthataleanerist aki
ngt he
courseinli
newi t
ht heobjecti
vesofSTEM.

Ol
dage

Justastherearenocleardefini
ti
onsofchi l
dhoodory outh,therearenocl eardefi
nit
ionsofthe
ol
dageatwhi chadulthoodendsandl aterli
febegins.Thesoci aldefi
nit
ionofol dagev ar
ies
fr
om societyt
osociety.Forexample,i
nEur opepreindustr
ialrevolut
ionoldagebeganwhen
peoplebecame‘helpl
essanddependent ’rathert
hanwhent heyhadl iv
edf oraparti
cularnumber
ofyears(Feat
herst
oneandHepwor th,1990).
Howev er
,modernsocietiesseereti
rementfrom empl oymentandorel i
gibi
li
tyforastate
pensi
onasdef i
ningoldage.

Ol
dageref
erstoagesnear
ingorsur
passi
ngt
hel
i
feexpect
ancyofhumanbei
ngsandi
sthus
t
heendofthehumanli
fecycl
e.

Pr
obl
emsofol
dage

Gr
owingol
dcanbr
ingonvar
iouspr
obl
emsasourbodi
eschange.I
ndust
ri
alsoci
eti
esdobr
ing
pr
obl
emsfort
heel
derl
y:

Str
uctur
alIsol
ati
on,
lonel
i
nessanddepr
essi
on-chi
l
drent
endt
ofocusmor
eont
hei
rmar
ri
age
part
nersandthei
rownchildr
en.

Oftenchar acteri
zedbymat er ial
depri
vation-t heelder
lyaremor eli
kelytobepoort hanother
socialgroupsi nthepopulation,especial
lywomenandt hosefrom thewor ki
ngclass.Lowpay
andpar tti
mewor kduri
ngt hei rworki
nglivesmayhav erestri
ctedthei
rentitl
ementtopensions.
Forexampl e,
inZimbabwe, sincetheturnoft henewmi l
lenni
um thev al
ueofst at
epensionshas
decli
nedr elat
ivetoaveragewages, makingr elati
vepover t
ymor eli
kelyforthosedependenton
thestateforani ncomeaf terr et
ir
ement .

Oldagest er
eoty
ping-But l
er(1969)defi
nedageism asapr ocessofnegativest
ereoty
pingand
discr
iminati
onagainstpeoplepurelyonthei
rchronologi
calage.Ster
eotypesandthemedi aal
l
servetomakeol dageappearsi mil
artochil
dhoodi.e.ol
dagei s“i
nfanti
l
ized”anddehumanized,
asar esul
ttheyl
oset hestatusofbeingadult
swhohav eful
lpersonhood.Mostsetupsatold
people’
shomesst ereoty
pet heelderl
y(Hockey,
1993st udyofoldpeople’shomes).Forexample,

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166 t
Page| heyarenotall
owedtokeept
hei
rownmoney;t
heyar
enotexpectedtobesexual
l
yactiv
e.In
mostAfr
icansoci
eti
es,
theel
der
lyar
ebel
i
evedtobeassoci
atedwit
hissuesofwi
tchcr
aft.

Poorfacili
ti
es-ser v i
cepr ov
isionandcaree.g.l
obbyistsforthecareoft heelderl
ysaylackof
food,shelt
er ,clot
hing,drugsandot herbasi
cameni t
iesarenowwi despreadi nmostoldage
homes. Vi
olenceandabuseespeci all
yolderwomene. g.sexual,emoti
onaland
physi
cal abuse. Oldagehealthproblems–get ti
ngoldercanbr i
ngon
healt
hpr oblemsasourbodi eschangee.g.Dement i
a( memor yloss),
stroke,poorvi
sion,heari
ng
i
mpai rment, highbloodchol ester
ol,
arthr
it
is(sl
owbr eakdownofcar ti
lageandbone) ,obesit
y,
hypertensi
on, diabetesandski nproblems.

Par
sonsnot
edthatt
heel
der
lyhavelessst
atusinmostsoci
eti
ese.
g.i
nt heUS.Oncechil
dren
hav
egrownupandmenhavereti
red,t
heel
derlyl
osethei
rmostimpor
tantsoci
alr
oles.

Pol
i
cieswhi
chcat
erf
orol
dagei
nZi
mbabwe

TheZi
mbabweangov
ernmenthasnoti
gnor
edt
hepl
i
ghtoft
heaged.

TheOl derPersonsbil
l(2012)–itai
msatpav i
ngwayforselectedsocialprotecti
on
mechani smsandanol derpersonsfundtobesetasideforsuchpur posesaswel lasaddressi
ng
otheremer gi
ngissuesaffect
ingseniorci
ti
zensinZi
mbabwe.Howev er
,therehasbeenlit
tle
governmentbudgetallocati
ontoimpl ementt
helawduet ofiscalconst
raintsfacedbythe
country.

Pensionpayoutsfortheelderl
y-Inmostgov ernmentinsti
tut
ionstheelderl
y(above60years)
aregivenf
irstpri
ori
tyinservi
cedeli
verye.
g.athospital
s.Economicmel tdownorchall
enges
facedbythegov er
nmentposeaser i
ousthreattothewelfareoftheelderl
yasthegovernment
fai
ltosupporttheelderl
yinsociet
y.Pensi
onpay outspaidbyt hegovernmenttotheel
derlyar
e
l
itt
letocushionthem againstt
heeconomi chardshipsbefi
tti
ngthecount r
y.

Soci
alpol
i
cyandst
rat
egywi
thr
espectt
otheOl
derPer
sons

Themai ninst
rumentsofpover
tymonitori
ngi sthe1995Pov ert
yAssessmentStudy(
PASS–1)
sur
v eywhichhasprovi
dedapov er
tybaseli
ne.ThePASS- 2surveyisnowbeingunder
takento
i
ncludemor eatt
enti
ontohumanpov ert
yissues–i ncl
udingsocial
andotherent
itl
ements–such
asfood,shelt
er,
accesstosafewater
,healthandot her
sandt heimpactofHIV/
AIDS.BothPASS
–1andPASS- 2coverolderper
sonspov er
tyissues.

SocialSafet
ynet
swithrespectt
oolderpersonsApar
tfrom monitor
ingt
hesi
tuat
ion,
the
Gov er
nmenthasprovi
sionstocushi
ontheimpactoftherecenteconomi
csit
uati
ononolder
persons.Thefol
l
owingstepshavebeentaken:

 Pr
ovisi
onoffreefoodandnutr
it
ionundert
heWel
far
eAssi
stanceActandcar
eand
pr
otect
ionundersoci
alpr
otect
ion.

MrTChi
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a0718786253
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Page|
167  Pr
ovi
sionoff
reemedi
cal
treat
ment

 Provi
sionofshelterinthreeschemescater
ingf
orolderper
sonsinthef
orm of(i
)those
whoarei ndependent;(
ii)thosewhoneedsuper
visi
onand(ii
i)ot
herwhorequi
renursing
care24/7.Theappr oachi scommunit
ybased.

 Legislat
edcar
eandpr
otect
ionf
orol
derper
sons–aDr
aftOl
derPer
sonsbi
l
lisunder
consider
ati
on

 I
ncomeSecur
it
y–i
npr
inci
pleappr
ovedbutsuf
fer
sfr
om l
ackofadequat
eresour
ces.

Budget
aryprovi
sionforOlderPer
sons-(OPs)arei
nvol
vedinthebudgetpr
epar
ati
onpr
ocess
butl
ackofresourcesaff
ectsthebudget
aryprov
isi
onsforOPs.

TheNat
ional
Pol
i
cy.

I
nSeptember2002,
aplanni
ngwashel
dtomapoutt
heNat
ional
Pol
i
cyonagei
ngandpr
epar
ea
Nat
ional
PlanofAct
ion.

(a)Theri
ght
sofOPst oLi
feandLiber
tytowor
kandfr
eedom fr
om discr
imi
nat
ion.Abaseli
ne
surveyi
stobeunder
takenonthesit
uati
onofOPs;
awarenessr
aisi
ngisongoi
ngi nconj
uncti
on
withNGOsandfai
thbasedCBOs;

(b)Pover
tyandemploymentandincomesecuri
tyf
ocusandt heongoingr
evi
ewofNat i
onal
Social
Securi
tySchemesneededtoident
if
yopport
unit
iesforthedevel
opmentofapensi
on
schemeforolderper
sonsoutofemploymentandtheself
-employed.

(
c)Healt
h,nut
ri
ti
onandsocial
ser
vices–t
odev
elopacompr
ehensi
vemedi
cal
andsoci
al
wel
far
eschemesf orOPS;

(
d)St
rengt
henedpar
ti
cipat
ionofOPsi
nemer
genci
esandepi
demi
cs

(e)Educat
ionandtr
aini
ngcomponenti
ncl
udesadat
abankonr
eti
redper
sonsandt
he
educati
onall
evel
sofOPs.

I
ntegr
ati
onofAgei
ngi
ntoNat
ional
Pov
ert
ySt
rat
egi
es

OPswel f
areandservi
cesarecateredforbytheMini
stryofPubli
cService,
LabourandSocial
Welfar
e.TheNat i
onal
SocialSecuri
tySchemeiscurrentl
ybeingexpl
oredtoextendcover
ageof
benefi
tsandthoseOPsnotcov eredunderthescheme.TheOPspol i
cyandt hedraf
ti
ngofthe
2002OlderPersonsBil
li
sameanst oensurethatOPsright
sareaddressedandaccesstobasic
soci
alservi
cesforOPsisimproved.

Vol
unt
eer
ism

Refer
stotheneedtov ol
unteert
ocar efortheaged.Manyr eli
giousorganizat
ionsinZi
mbabwe
usual
lyputchar
it
yinpracti
cebyv ol
unteeri
ngtot akecarefortheoldage.Agapef amil
ycarefor
examplerunbyRuthMakandi wa(UFIchurch),carri
edoutcharityworkinMahusekwadi st
ri
ct.
Theelder
lyweregivenfr
eemedi cal
attenti
onandot hernecessiti
es.Thereareanumberofwel l
popul
aroldpeople'
,
shomesi nZimbabwei nwhi chsomev olunteertocarefortheold.

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168 Themostcommonol
Page| dagehomesi
nZi
mbabwei
ncl
ude:

MuchekeOl
dPeopl
e’
shome–Masv
ingo

I
dawekwakoOldAgedhome–Maronder
a
Bakor
edonhodzool
dpeopl
eshome–Highf
iel
d,Har
are.

Amav
eni
Oldpeopl
e’
shome–Kwekwe

Dar
byandJoancent
ref
ort
heAged–Bel
veder
e,Har
are.

Pi
oneerLodgehomef
ort
heAged–Masv
ingo

S.
o.d.
aSoci
etyf
ort
hedest
it
uteaged–Har
are.

Dandar
o–Bor
rowdal
e,Har
are.

Whydosomechi
l
drensendt
hei
rpar
ent
stool
dagehomes?

I
tisbel
i
evedt
hatnotonl
yar
eol
dpeopl
esent
,manyar
ewi
l
li
ngl
ygoi
ngt
osuchhomes.

Reasonsi
ncl
ude:

a.Toavoidresponsi
bil
it
yofcar
ingforat
ermi
nal
l
ysi
ckpar
entwhoneedsnur
secar
e(wi
l
la
mothersendherterminal
l
ychil
daway?)

b.Chi
l
drengoi
ngabr
oadbecauseofj
obs,
transf
ersandbet
terpr
ospect
sforchi
l
dren’
s

f
utur
eandbet
terl
i
fe.

c.Toav
oidconst
antcl
ashofv
iewsoft
heol
dandt
hey
oungergener
ati
ons.

d.Tol
i
vecomf
ort
abl
yinnucl
earf
ami
l
ies

e.Tohav
efr
eedom ofmov
ement
,tr
avel
andot
herenj
oyment
s.

f.Sel
fi
shnessr
ulesev
ery
thi
ng;
ther
eisnol
ove,
respect
,tol
erance,
empat
hyt
owar
ds
elder
s.

Whatar
etheadv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofsendi
ngy
ourpar
entt
oanol
dpeopl
e’
s
home?

b.Benef
it
sofEl
derHomeCar
eSer
vices

a.Homecar
eserv
icesar
eti
meconsumi
ng–i
tbecomesdi
ff
icul
tfort
hecar
egi
vert
obe
abl
etoj
uggl
etheti
meneeded.

b.Homecar
egi
ver
shav
ethenecessar
yexper
ienceandt
rai
ningf
ort
hespeci
fi
cjob.

Dr
awbacksofl
i
vingi
nacar
ehome

a.Car
ehomescanbev
erycost
ly

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169 b.Ther
Page| emaybel i
mit
edchoi
cesofhomeswi
thav
acancyf
ory
ourr
elat
ive,
dependi
ngonhi
s/her
ci
rcumstances

c.Unf
ami
l
iarsur
roundi
ngs

d.Lonel
i
nessandl
ossofcont
actwi
thnei
ghbor
sandol
d

Soci
ologi
cal
per
spect
iveonage

Funct
ional
i
stper
spect
ive

Letusrememberf uncti
onali
sm i
sasoci ol
ogi
cal per
specti
ve,whi
chseealmost
ever
ythingasfuncti
onalfort
herelati
vesmoothfunctionofsoci
ety
.Thi
st heref
ore
meanst hatdif
fer
encesinsocial
rolesassoci
atedwi t
hagegroupsarevi
talforthe
soci
ety.Below,ar
ethebasictenantsoffunct
ionali
sm onage;

Tal
cot
tPar
sons

Chi
l
dhood

Parsonsbeli
evedt hati
nallsocietieschil
dhoodisaper i
odwhensocializati
onintosociety'
s
cult
uretakeplace.Chil
drenlearnthenor msandv aluesassoci
atedwithdiffer
entsocialrol
es,
whichenablesthem tocontribut
et osoci
etyasadults.Par
sonsbeli
evedt hatsoci
ali
zationgir
ls
getmoreoppor tunit
ythanboy stopr acti
ceadul
troleinchil
dhood.Heassumedt hatwomen
tendedtoconcent r
ateuponmot her/housewif
eroleswhi l
emenconcent rateuponpainwor k
andbeingbreadwi nner
s.

Parsonsher ei
semphasi zingthei
mpor t
anceofsocial
i
zationdur
ingchi
ldhood.Thi
sis
seenasmai nt
aini
ngorderbecausewithoutcult
ure,
societ
ycannotexi
sts.Hethen
i
ndicatedtheideathatgirl
slearnmotherl
yrol
es.Thisi
st r
uewhenoneputi ti
nto
consider
ationthatgir
lscanhelpthei
rmot her
saroundthehomewhi l
eboy sareunl
ikel
y
tobeablet ohelpthei
rfather’
satwork.

Adol
escence

ParsonsarguesthatAdolescencei
st hetimewhenchil
drenbegi
ntodev el
opindependence
fr
om thei
rparents.Fort
hesmoot hfunct i
oni
ngofsoci
ety,i
tisvi
tal
thatchi
ldr
endev el
op
i
ndependencefrom thei
rparentstotheirmarr
iagepar
tner.

Ol
dage

Indust
ri
alsoci
eti
esdo,however,
bringproblemsfort
heelderl
y.Parsonsnotedthattheel
der
ly
havelessstat
usinUSthanothersociet
ies.Hehoweveracknowledgesthatel
derlyhave
signi
fi
cantrol
estopl
aye.g.makingdecisions.

Eval
uat
ion-Femini
stt
heor
ist
scr
it
ici
zeParsonsforassumi
ngt
hatwomenshoul
dbesoci
ali
zed
i
ntofemini
nerol
esasmother
sandhousewiveswhil
emenasbreadwi
nner
s.

Femi
nistper
spect
iveonage.

Li
keconf
li
ctper
spect
ives,
femi
nist
semphasi
zet
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weeni
nequal
i
tyandage–

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170 genderi
Page| nequal
i
ty.

AnnOakl
ey(
1994)

Chi
l
dhood

Oakleyar guesthattherearemanysimil
ari
ti
esbetweentheposit
ionofwomenandt heposi
tion
ofchildr
eni nsociet
y .Int
he19thcent
ury,t
hepositi
onswerethesame.Sincethent
heposit
ion
ofwomenhasi mprov ed,
buttheposi
ti
onofchil
drenhasnotastheyaresti
lldi
sadv
antaged
compar edt oothersocialgr
oups.Womenandchi ldr
enaremember sofminori
tygr
oupsand
l
ackt heirri
ghts.

Womenandagi
ng

Gannon

Gannonex aminesmy t
hsaboutthedi
ffer
encesintheprocessofagingformenandwomen.
I
nst eadofemanat ingfr
om bi
ologi
caldi
ff
erences,
agingdiff
erencesar
ear esul
tof“l
i
fest
yles,
habits,expectat
ionsandrol
esthatpl
acewomenatr isk”e.
g.,t
heyhavemor ecari
ng
responsibil
it
ies.

Label
l
ingt
heor
y(Rayetal
2006)

Theelderl
ycanbenegat i
vel
yaf f
ectedbyexposur etostereotypical
label
sandexperiencesof
agei
sm e.g.theuseofi nf
antil
i
zedl anguageor‘babytalk‘andlingui
sti
cexpressi
onofpity
(par
ti
cular
lyrom medi calpr
ofessionals)causeolderpeopletoaccepttheinfer
encethatthey
arenolongerindependentadultscausi ngthem t
obehav einapassi veanddependentmanner
andthinkthattheyarehelpl
ess.

Summar y:ageism isgivencul

turalexpl
anationsbysoci ologi
stsconsideri
ngthefactt
hatthe
duti
esandr olesattachedtodif
ferentagegr oupsv ar
yfrom societytosociet
y.However,ot
her
theori
stholdtheviewt hategoisamat terofbiologybecauseev eryonegoest hr
ougha
chil
dhoodst age.I
thashowev ernot edt
hatdi f
ferentagegr oupsfaceawi derangeofdif
ferent
probl
emshencet heZi mbabweangov ernmenti nconjunctionwit
hnon- gover
nmental
organi
zati
onshav eenact edchainsofpolici
estocar t
erf orage.

ENDOFUNI
T2:
3QUESTI
ONS

1.Exami
net
hepr
obl
emswhi
char
efacedbydi
ff
erentagegr
oupsi
nZi
mbabwe

2.Assesst
hemeasur
est
akenbyZi
mbabweangov
ernmentt
ocar
terf
ort
heol
dage.

3.Exami
nesoci
ologi
cal
per
spect
ivesonage

MrTChi
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udypack

171 Compi
Page| l
edby

MrChi
hot
a

Cont
actt
heabov
enumberf
ormor
e

Theend

MrTChi
hot
a0718786253