Quest

ion1 Chapt
er1

Answertheff2quest
ionswi
thr
egar
dtot
hef
orcest
hatdet
ermi
net
henat
ureofdev
elopmentdur
ing
adul
thood:

a) Explainhowtheint
eracti
onofbiol
ogical
,psychol
ogi
cal
,soci
ocul
tur
alandli
fe-cycl
efor
ces
shapeaper son’
sdevelopmentand,t
herefor
e,coul
dexpl
aini
ndiv
idualdi
ff
erencesin
developmentduri
ngadulthood……[
10]

1. I
ntr
oduct
ion

Therearevariousforcesthatshapeusaswemat ure.Theseforcesdi
rectourdevel
opment.Human
developmentisthemul ti
disci
pli
naryst
udyofhowpeoplechangeandhowt heyremainthesameover
ti
me.Toexpl ainthi
s,scienti
stsconsi
der4i
nter
acti
veforces.Thesear
ebi ol
ogical
,psychol
ogi
cal
,
sociocul
tur
alandl i
fe-cy
cleforces.

2. Bi
ologi
calf
orces

Theseincl
udeal
lgenet
icandhealt
h-r
elat
edf
actor
st hataf
fectdev
elopment
,li
kemenopause,
faci
al
wri
nkli
ngandchangesinthemajoror
gansofthesystem.

3. Psy
chol
ogi
calf
orces

Theseincl
udealli
nter
nalper
cept
ual,
cogniti
ve,emot
ionalandpersonal
it
yfactor
sthataf
fect
devel
opment.Theseprov
idethechar
acter
isti
cswenoticeaboutpeoplethatmakethem i
ndi
vidual
s.

4. Soci
ocul
tur
alf
orces

Thesei
ncludeint
erper
sonal
,soci
etal
,cult
ural,andethni
cfact
orst
hataf
fectdev
elopment
.
Soci
ocul
turalf
orcesprov
idetheover
allcontextinwhichwedevel
op.

5. Li
fe-
cycl
efor
ces

Theser ef
lectdi
ffer
encesi
nhowthesameev entorcombi nati
onofbiological
,psychol
ogical
and
soci
ocul t
uralf
orcesaff
ect
speopleatdi
ff
erentpoint
sintheirl
ives.Li
fe-cy
cleforcesprov
idethe
contextforthedevel
opmental
dif
fer
encesinadultdevel
opmentandagi ng.

6. I
nter
act
ionoft
hef
orces

Biopsychosocialframewor kandl i
fe-cycl
ef orcespr ovi
deacompl eteov er
viewoft heshaper sof
humandev elopment.Eachper soni saproductoft heuni quecombi nati
onoft hesef orcesandnot wo
peoplearet hesame( notevenidenticalt
wi ns).Exampl e: I
nvest
igati
ngt heperson’smemor yloss:
biol
ogicalfactorsli
kewhet herthereisanyunder lyi
ngdi seaseswi l
lbelookedat .Psy chological
factor
slikewhatt heper son’smemor yabil
ityhasbeent hroughouthisorherl ifeandaboutt heir
beli
efsaboutwhathappenst omemor ywi t
hi ncreasingage.Soci ocul
turalfactors,
suchast he
i
nf l
uenceofsoci alstereoty
pesaboutf or
get t
ing.Finall
yt heageoft hepersonwhenf orgett
ing
experi
enceoccur r
ed.Focusingononeort wooft heforceswoul dprovideani ncompl etev i
ewofhow
thepersonf eels.

7. Concl
usi
on

Thesameev
entcanhav
edi
ff
erentef
fect
s,dependi
ngonwheni
thappened.I
nfl
uencesofl
i
fe-
cycl
e

1|Page
forcesrefl
ect
sinfluencesofbi
opsychosocial
for
cesatdif
ferentpointsinti
me.Howt hesituat
ionis
dealtwithdependsont heindi
vi
dual’
saccumulat
edlif
eexperiences.Combiningthe4f orcesgivesa
clearvi
ewofhumandev el
opmentthatencompassesthel
ifespan, whil
stacknowledgingtheunique
aspectsofeachf actor.

b) Expl
ainhownormativeandnon-normati
veinfl
uencesdeter
minethedegreet
owhichthe
combinat
ionofbi
ological
,psy
chologi
cal,
sociocult
ural
andlif
e-cy
clef
orceswil
lbecommon
oruni
queaccordi
ngtoBal t
es(inC&B,2015)……[10]

1. Nor
mat
iveI
nfl
uences

 Normati
veage-
gradedinfl
uences:Thesear
eexper
iencescausedbybiological
,psy
chol
ogi
cal
and
soci
ocul
tur
alf
orcesthatoccurt
omostpeopleofaparticul
arage.Examples:

o Biologi
cal:puber
ty,menar
cheandmenopause.Theseindicat
eamaj orchangei
na
person’
slife.Menopausei
ndi
catet
hatonecannol ongerbearchi
l
drenwi t
houtmedi
cal
i
nterventi
on.

o Psy
chol
ogi
cal
:Mi
ddl
eagedper
son’
sconcer
nwi
thsoci
ali
zi
ngt
hey
oungergener
ati
on.

o Soci
ocul
tur
al:Thet
imet
heper
sonf
ir
stget
smar
ri
edandt
heaget
heyr
eti
re.

Normati
veage-gradedi
nfluencescorrespondtomajorti
me-mar kedev ent
swhichar
eoftenri
tual
ised.
Forexampletur
ning21,getti
ngmar r
iedandr et
ir
ementiscelebrated.Theseev
entsareconv
enientfor
peopl
etojudgethemselvesonwher et heyar
eont hesoci
alclock.

 Normativehist
ory
-gradedinfl
uences:Theseareeventsthatmostpeopl einaspeci f
icculture
experi
enceatthesamet ime.Theseeventsmaybebi ologi
cal(epidemics),psy
chological(cert
ain
ster
eotypes;
babyboom gener at
ion(1946-
1964);generat
ionX( 1965-1975);mil
lenni
al generat
ion
orechoboomer s(1979-1994)orsoci
ocult
ural
(changingatti
tudest owardssexuali
ty)
.

2. Non-
nor
mat
iveI
nfl
uences

Thesear
erandom orrar
eevent
sthatmaybeimport
antforaspeci
fi
cindi
vidual
butnotexperi
enced
bymostpeople.Theser
andom ev
entscanbef
avour
ableli
kewinni
nglott
eryorunf
avourabl
eli
ke
bei
nginv
olvedinacaracci
dent
.

Concl
usi
on

Lif
e-cycleforcesarekeyi nunder st
andingtheimportanceofthe3i nfluences.Forexampl e:History
-
gradedi nf
luencesmaypr oducegener ati
onaldif
fer
encesandconf l
i
ct–par entsandgr andpar ent;
s
experiencesasy oungadul tsi
nt he1960s( beforeAI
DSandcel lphones)wi llhavelit
tl
et odowi t
hwhat
i
sf acedbyy oungadul tstoday.Thesei nt
eracti
onsareimportantinunder statingdif
ferencest hat
appeart obeage- r
elated.Somedi f
fer
encesmaybeexpl ai
nedint er
msofdi fferentl
if
eexper i
ences
(normat i
vehistor
y-graded)ratherthanasani ntegr
alpartofagingitself(normat i
veage-gr aded).

2|Page
Quest
ion2 Chapt
er1

Byusingexamplesfr
om t
hecharact
eri
sti
csofadul
tdevel
opmentdi
scussedi
nyourpr
escr
ibedbook,
expl
ainanddiscusst
hefol
lowi
ngcoreissuesi
ndevel
opment[
20]

Cor
eIssuesi
nDev
elopment

a) Nat
ure–Nur
tur
e

Defi
niti
on:Natur
e-nurt
urereferstothedegreetowhichgenet
icorher
edi
tar
yinf
luences(natur
e)and
exper
ienti
alorenvi
ronmental i
nfl
uences(nurt
ure)det
erminet
hekindofper
sonyouar e.Thefocus
shoul
dbeonhowt heyinteract
.

Nat
ure:Thi
sref
erst
oani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sinnat
equal
i
ties.Thesedet
ermi
net
her
angeofhumanpot
ent
ial
.

Nurt
ure:Theseareevent
sthatinfl
uencet
hepersonfrom bi
rt
h.Theseeventsorenvir
onmentaff
ect
howhumanpot enti
ali
sactual
ised,hel
pedorhi
ndered.I
tispersonal
experi
encesthatshapet
he
per
son.

Exampl e:Apersonmi ghtbegenet ical

l
ypr edisposedtodepressi
on.Thisdoesnotnecessaril
ymean
thatdefini
tel
ytheper sonwi llhavedepression.Theenv i
ronmentalsocontr
ibut
estothis.Theremight
betri
ggerf act
orsthatl eadt odepressi
onandi ftheenvi
ronmentisnotsupport
iveandaccesst o
medical andpsychologi calhelpi
slimited.Anotherpersonwhoi sgenet
ical
lypredi
sposedto
depressionmightnotdev el
opdepressioniftheenv i
ronmentissupport
iveandresourcesarereadi
ly
avail
able.

Concl
usi
on:Natureandnurt
ur earemut ual
lyint
eract
ivei
nfluences.Gr eatgenesalonearenotworth
muchwit
houthealthyandsti
mul ati
ngenv i
ronment.Envi
ronment alandher edi
tar
ycharacter
ist
ics
mustbeconsi
deredwhent r
yingt ounderst
andwhypeopl ebehav et hewayt heydo.

b) St
abi
li
ty–Change

Def
ini
ti
on:Thi
sist
hedegr
eet
owhi
chpeopl
eremai
nthesameov
ert
ime.

Stabi
li
ty:St
abi
li
tyisessenti
alf
orust
or ecogni
set hatonei
sthesameindi
vi
dualasti
megoeson.
Chil
dhoodpersonali
tyt
rait
ssuchasconscient
iousnessmaypredi
cti
mportantout
comesi
nadult
.

Change:Ther
ei sbeli
efthatcharact
eri
sti
csarenotseti nstone,i
fyouwanttochangey oucanchange.
Duri
ngadultyearschangessuchasphy sical
andcogni ti
veabili
ti
esoccuratarelat
ivel
ygradual rat
e
comparedtothechangesi nchil
dhoodandadol escent.Theterm“mid-l
i
fecrisi
s”causedinterestin
thechangeduri
ngadul tyear
s.Inlat
erl
ifepersonal
itydevel
opmenti sr
egardedasanunf oldingof
themesandissuespresentduringprevi
ousdecades.

Example:Fr
om birt
hto18y earsofagephy si
ologicalandcogniti
vefact
orschangeconst
antl
y.Ear
ly
negat
iveexper
iencesaff
ectdev el
opmentofchi l
dren,butrecover
yispossibl
e.Chi
ldr
engrowfrom
i
nfant
st oadol
escentst
ot eenagerstoyoungadult s.I
nadulthoodchangedependsonhowitis
measured.Anolderper
sonmaychangewhent heirpersonalaspect
schangeandt heper
specti
vethey
haveofthei
rnewchange.E. g.changei
nhealthormov ingtooldagehome.

3|Page
Conclusi
on:Ther
ei scontrover
syonhowwemeasur echange.Changet heor
ist
ssayt hatper
sonal
it
ies
aremodifi
edbyinteract
ionswithenv i
ronmentandaccul
tur
ati
on.I
ndev elopmentalpsychol
ogywe
resear
chwhichcharacteri
sti
csarelikelyt
oremainstabl
eandconsi
stent.Character
ist
icswhichar
e
l
ikelyt
ochangeincludesocialatt
it
udes.

c) Cont
inui
ty–Di
scont
inui
ty

Def
init
ion:Thisisaderi
vati
veofstabi
l
ity–changear
gument.I
tisadebat
eaboutwhetherapart
icul
ar
dev
elopment alphenomenonrepr
esentsasmoothprogr
essi
onov ert
ime(
cont
inui
ty)oraser
iesof
abr
uptshift
s( di
sconti
nui
ty)
.

Conti
nui
ty:Conti
nui
tyappr
oachesf heamountofchar
ocusont act
eri
sti
cst
heper
sonhas.Vy
got
sky
fav
ourconti
nuit
yinhist
heori
es.

Disconti
nuit
y:Disconti
nuit
yappr oachesfocusonthekindsofcharacter
ist
icsaper sonhas.Bal
tes’
pl
astici
tyref
erstot hebel
iefthatcapacit
yisnotfi
xed,butcanbelearnedorimprovedwith
practi
ce.
PiagetandEr i
ksonf avourdi
sconti
nuousgrowthpatter
ns,quali
tat
ivechanges,r
esolvi
ng
confi
ctsanddev elopi
ngdifferentabi
li
ti
esatdif
fer
entstagesindevelopment.

Example:Whenapersonislearni
ngtoplayaninst
rument
,itt
akesti
met obeperf
ect
.Thi
sisa
conti
nuousdevel
opment.Ay oungchi
ldwhocr awl
sformonthsandthensuddenl
yget
supandwal
k,
appearstobehavi
ngdisconti
nuousdevelopment.

Concl
usion:Onadaytodaybasi
s,behav
iour
soft
enlooknear
lyi
dent
icalorcont
inuous.Butwhen
vi
ewedov eracour
seofmanyyears,t
hesamebehav
ioursmayhavechangeddramatical
ly,
ref
lect
ing
di
scont
inuouschange.

d) Uni
ver
sal–Cont
extspeci
fi
cdev
elopment

Def
ini
ti
on:Thi
sisconcer
nedwi
thwhet
hert
her
eisj
ustonepat
hofdev
elopmentorsev
eral
.

Universaldev
elopment:Chi
ldr
enworldwidefol
l
owt hesamecourseofdevel
opment(uni
versal
).
Peopletendtochangei nacer
tai
nwayast heyagewhichisuni
versal
.Di
ff
erencesi
ndevelopmentar
e
regardedasvariat
ionsonafundamental
process.

Contextspeci fi
cdev elopment:Chi l
drengrowupinuniquecont extandthesocial
,economi c,
cul
tur
al,
hi
storicalandeducat ionalcontextsinfl
uencethei
rdevelopment.Developmentisaproductof
compl exinteract
ionswi ththeenvironment.Theseint
eracti
onsar enotfundamental
lythesameinall
envi
ronment s.Theor
istsarguet hatadultdevel
opmentandagi ngareinextri
cabl
yint
ertwinedwit
hthe
contextinwhi chtheyoccur .

Exampl
e:

Concl
usion:Adultdevelopmentandagingmustbeunderstoodwit
hint
hecontextinwhi
chtheyoccur
.
Someti
mescont extsaresi mil
ari
nsuchawayt hatgener
altr
endscanbeident
ifi
ed.Ot
hert
imes(li
ke
Kungtr
ibeandUSA)di f
ferencesprev
entgener
alstat
ementstobeuseduniver
sall
y.

4|Page
Quest
ion3 Chapt
er1

Expl
aint
hereasonswhyCavanaughandBlanchar
d-Fi
elds(2015,p21)comet othefol
lowing
concl
usi Conf
on:“ oundi
ngofthethr
eeeff
ects(age,cohortandti
me-of-measurementeffect
s)i
sthe
mostser
iouspr
obl
em i
nadul
tdevel
opmentandagi
ngr
esear
ch”
.
I
ny ourexpl
anati
on,refertoprobl
emswhi choccuri
ncross-
sect
ionalandl
ongit
udinal
research
designswit
hregardtot heseeff
ects.Inaconcludi
ngparagr
aph,bri
efl
yexpl
ainhowsequent i
al
designsmightal
levi
atesomeoft heinter
pret
ati
ondil
emmascausedbyt heconfoundi
ngf act
ors.

1. I
ntr
oduct
ion

Oncearesearchdesi
gnforst
udyi
ngadultdevel
opmentandagi
nghasbeenchosen,
oneneedst
o
deci
dehowt omeasurepossi
bleagechangeandagedif
fer
ence.

Agechangeoccur
sinani
ndi
vi
dual
behav
iourov
ert
ime.Agedi
ff
erencei
sobt
ainedwhent
woormor
e
di
ff
erentpeopl
eofdi
ff
erentagesar
ecompar
ed.Agedi
ff
erencedoesnotal
way
simpl
yagechange.

Thesedesi
gnsar
ebasedon3keyv
ari
abl
es:
age,
cohor
tandt
ime-
of-
measur
ement
.

Confoundingisanysi
tuat
ioni
nwhi chonecannotdet
erminewhichoftwoormoreef
fect
sis
responsi
blefort
hebehavi
oursbeingobser
ved.ThismeansthatXishappeni
ng,
buti
tisnotcl
ear
whetherA,B,orC,oranycombinati
onther
eofcausedXtohappen.

2. Ef
fect
sofagei
nresear
ch:

Ageeffectsreflectdif
fer
encescausedbyunderl
yi
ngprocessessuchasbiol
ogi
cal,psychol
ogical
or
soci
ocultur
al changes.Alt
houghageeffect
sareusuall
yli
nkedtochronol
ogi
calage,ageeffect
sare
i
nherent(naturalorinbor
n)changeswit
hinthepersonandarenotcausedbypassageoft i
me.

3. Ef
fect
sofcohor
tinr
esear
ch:

Cohortef
fect
sar edi
ffer
encescausedbyexper i
encesandcir
cumstancesuniquetothegenerat
ionto
whichonebelongs.Cohort
scanbespeci f
ic(peopl
eborninoneparti
culary
ear)orgeneral
(baby-
boom cohort
).Cohortef
fect
scorrespondwithnormati
vehist
orygr
adedi nf
luences–theseareevent
s
thatmostpeopleinaspecif
iccul
tureexper
ienceatthesametime.

4. Ef
fect
soft
ime-
of-
measur
ementi
nresear
ch:

Ti
me- of
-measurementeffect
srefl
ectdi
fferencesresult
ingfrom sociocultural
, envir
onmental,
hi
stori
cal,
orotherevent
satthet i
methedat aisobtainedfrom thepar t
ici
pant s.Ifdataaboutwage
i
ncreasesiscoll
ect
edduringeconomicrecessi on,
theresult
swi l
lindicatelowornowagei ncr
eases.
I
ncont r
ast,i
feconomyisboomi ngwagei ncreaseswillbehigh.Thismeanst hatt hepointi
ntimein

5|Page
whichresear
chercol
l
ect
sdat
acoul
dleadt
odi
ff
erentconcl
usi
onsaboutt
hephenomenonbei
ng
st
udied.

5. Cr
oss-
sect
ional
resear
ch

Inacr
oss-
secti
onalst
udydev
elopment
aldi
ff
erencesar
eidenti
fi
edbytesti
ngpeopleofdi
ff
erentages
att
hesametime.Thisal
l
owsforexami
nati
onofagediff
erencesbutnotagechange.

 Weaknessesofcr
oss-
sect
ional
studi
es:

o Peopl
earetest
edatonl
yonepoi
nti
nthei
rdev
elopment
.Ther
eisnocont
inui
tyof
devel
opment.

o Thesest
udiesareaf
fect
edbycohor
teff
ect
s.Thi
smeansthatdif
fer
encesbetweenage
groups(
cohort
s)maybeduetoenvi
ronment
alevent
sordev
elopmentalpr
ocesses.

o Cross-
secti
onal
studi
esassumethatwhenolderpar
ti
cipant
swer
eyounger
,they
resembledt
heyoungerpar
ti
ci
pantsint
hestudy.

o Ageandcohor
tef
fect
sar
econf
oundedi
ncr
oss-
sect
ional
resear
ch

6. Longi
tudi
nalr
esear
ch

I
nalongit
udi
nal
study
,thesamei
ndi
vi
dual
sar
eobser
vedort
est
edr
epeat
edl
yatdi
ff
erentpoi
ntsi
n
t
hei
rli
ves.

 Adv
ant
ages:

o Agechangesar
eident
if
iedbecauset
hesamepeopl
ear
est
udi
edov
ert
ime.

o Changeswhi
chmayoccurar
enotar
esul
tofcohor
tef
fect
.

 Weaknesses:

o Ageandt
ime-
of-
measur
ementar
econf
oundedi
nlongi
tudi
nal
resear
ch

o Mayhavetheprobl
em ofpr
acti
ceeff
ect
.Pr
acticeef
fect
sresul
tsf
rom t
hef
actt
hat
peopl
earetaki
ngthesametestov
erandoveragai
n.

o Par
ti
cipantdropout–iti
sdi
ff
icul
ttokeepagr
oupofpar
ti
cipant
sint
actov
ert
hecour
se
ofl
ongit
udinalstudy
.Somel
oseinter
est,
somedi
e,somemov eaway.

o I
tisdi
fficul
ttoapplyr
esult
stoothergroups.Thestudyisl
i
mit
edt
oonecohor
tandi
tis
quest
ionabletogener
ali
sethef
indingstoothercohort
s.

o Takeal
ongt
imeandar
eusual
l
yexpensi
ve

7. Sequent
ialr
esear
ch

Thi
sdesi
gnr
epr
esentdi
ff
erentcombi
nat
ionsofcr
oss-
sect
ional
orl
ongi
tudi
nal
studi
es.

 Cr
oss-
sequenti
aldesign:consi
stsoftwoormorecross-sect
ionalst
udi
esconductedattwoor
moret
ime-
of-measurement.Ithassameageranges,butpart
icipant
sdi
fferateacht
esti
ngwave.

 Longi
tudi
nalsequent
ialdesi
gn:consi
stsoft
woormor elongi
tudi
nal
desi
gnsthatr
epr
esentt
wo
ormorecohort
s.Eachlongit
udi
naldesi
gninthesequencebegi
nswit
hthesameagerangeand

6|Page
 f
oll
owspeopl
efort
hesamel
engt
hoft
ime.

o Adv
ant
age:

 Longi
tudi
nal
sequent
ial
studi
esy
iel
dthemosti
nfor
mat
ion,
butar
erar
elyused.

o Weaknesses:

 Cost
ly

 Takel
ongper
iodoft
ime

 Compl
exdat
aanal
ysi
sar
eexpensi
veandt
ime

 Et
hical
concer
nsofconf
ident
ial
i
tybecausenamesar
eret
ained

8. Concl
usi
on

Confoundsincross-
sect
ionalandlongi
tudi
naldesi
gnscr
eat
edif
fi
cult
yini
nter
pret
ingbehavi
oural
di
fferencesbet
weenindi
v i
duals.Someofthesedil
emmasareal
l
eviat
edbyusingcomplexsequent
ial
designs

Quest
ion4 Chapt
er2

Discusstheeff
ectsofenvir
onmentalenr
ichmentonneur alpl
ast
ici
tyinaginghumansandexplai
n
howr esear
chonani malscont
ri
butestoourunder
standingofneuralplast
ici
tyandagi
ng.Ina
concludi
ngparagraph,gi
veyouri
deasont hei
mplicat
ionsoftheabov eresearchf
orheal
thcar
e
poli
ciesinSA…..
[15]

1. I
ntr
oduct
ion

Neuralplasti
cit
yinvol
vesthechangesinthestr
uctureandfunct
ionofthebrai
nastheresul
tof
i
nteract
ionbet weenthebrai
nandt heenv
ironment.Plast
ici
typr
ovi
desawayt ounderst
and
compensat orychangesinboththemoreobservablebehavi
ourandthelessobser
vabl
ereorgani
zat
ion
ofneuralcir
cuitr
yinthebrai
n.

Plast
ici
tyi
samult
ifacetedconceptandoccur
sacrossli
fespan.Itcanbeusedt
oexpl
aint
heabi
l
ityt
o
compensatef
ordecli
ningperf
ormancefrom abehavi
ouralperspecti
ve.

2. Ef
fect
sofenv
ironment
alenr
ichmentonneur
alpl
ast
ici
tyi
ntheagi
ngbr
ain

Environmental
enrichment i
sthesti
mul ationofthebrai
nbyi tsphysi
calandsocialsurroundi
ngs.
Brainsinri
cher
, morestimulat
ingenvironment shav ehi
gherr at
esofsynaptogenesisandmor e
compl exdendr
itearbours,l
eadingt
oi ncr easedbrai
nactivi
ty.Resear
chshowst hatneur alst
em cel
ls
persisti
ntheadultbrainandcangener at enewneur onsthroughoutl
if
espan.Thedi scoveryofneur
al
stem cell
sprovedwr ongthelongstandi ngbelieft
hatneurogenesisdwindl
esawayatt heendof
embr yoni
cdevelopment .

Whenol dermicewereexposedt oenri

chedenvi
ronments,t
heyper for
medmuchbet teronspat ial
memor ytasksthanmi ceinmor edepri
vedenvir
onments.Physicalexerci
seenhancedt henumberof
newlygeneratedneuronsaboutf i
vefoldandthi
swasal soassociatedwithimprovedper for
mance.
Alt
hought hi
sstudystartedverylat
eintheli
feofthemice,i
tshowedt hatthebr
ainretainsitscapaci
ty
toreacttoexter
nalsti
mul ir
elat
edt oi
mpr ov
ecogniti
veperfor
mance.Env i
ronmentalenrichment
peri
odswer eshortandy etsuff
ici
enttoenhanceboththegenerationofnewneur onsaswel l as

7|Page
behav
iour
alper
for
mancei
nagedmi
ce.

Bal
tespoi
ntedoutthatt
heleapsandboundsinol
dermicei
snotcomparabl
etot
hel
eapsandbounds
i
nyoungermice,buti
tgi
vesamor eopti
mist
icnot
etotheconceptofagi
ng.

Researcher
shav etr
iedtotapintopotenti
alf
orplasti
cit
yincognit
ivefunct
ioningbyfocusi
ngont he
possi
bleimprovementofcogni t
iveperf
ormanceaf t
ertrai
ninghastakenplace.Posi
ti
vebiochemical
changesoccurr
edi nhippocampusinhealthyolderadul
tsaf t
er5weeksoft r
aini
ngusingmet hodof
l
ocimnemoni cstrategi
estoimprovememor y
.

3. Ef
fect
sofaer
obi
cexer
ciseoncogni
ti
veagi
ng

Researchshowst hataer
obicexercisesenhancebr ainplastici
tyandcanal
socounterthedecl
i
nesin
thehippocampusassoci atedwithAl zhei
mer’sdisease.Ericksonandhiscol
leaguesf
oundthat
aerobicfi
tnesslevelwasassociatedwi ththepreservat
ionofhi ppocampalv
olumewhichinturnwas
thebestpr edi
ctorofhowwel lpart
icipantsperf
ormedont hespat i
almemorytask.

4. Ef
fect
sofnut
ri
ti
ononcogni
ti
veagi
ng

Maintai
ninggoodl
evel
sofcert
ainnut
ri
ent
sinbl
oodpl
asmahel
psr
educet
hel
evel
sofbr
ainst
ruct
ural
changesandcogni
ti
vedecl
ine.

5. I
mpl
icat
ionsoft
heabov
eresear
chonheal
thcar
epol
ici
esi
nRSA

Ger
iat
ri
ccar
ecost
sar
ever
yhi
gh.

Poli
cymaker
sshouldnot
et hatresear
chhasi
dent
if
iedway
sinwhi
chcer
ebr
aldet
eri
orat
ioncanbe
rev
ersedorr
educed,
ther
efore,all
evi
ati
ngt
hecost
s.

Quest
ion5 Chapt
er3and1

Discussthecontri
but
ionofbiologi
calt
heori
esofagingtoourknowledgeofpossi
bleexpl
anat
ions
forbiol
ogicalandphy
siol
ogicalagi
ng.Inyourdi
scussi
on,r
efertot
her easonswhynotoneofthese
theori
esexplainst
heprocessofagingful
ly,

Bi
ologi
calt
heor
iesofagi
ng

1. Rat
eofl
iv
ingt
heor
ies

Thistheoryst
ipul
atest hatorgani
smshav el
imit
edenergyt ouseinali
feti
me.Thebasicideai
sthat
therateoftheorganism’smet aboli
sm i
srel
atedtohowl ongitl
iv
es.Thismeansthatageingi
s
causedbyani ncreasedr ateofdamagetocell
sandtissuesassociat
edwiththei
ncreased
metabolism.Conservingt hi
senergycanhel
puslivel
onger .

Changesinhowhormonesar
epr
oducedandusedi
nthebodyhasbeenassoci
atedwi
thagei
ng,
but
nodefi
nit
iveexpl
anat
ion.

Somer esear
chi
ndicat
edthatr
educi
ngnumberofcalor
iesmayi
ncreaselongev
ity
,butst
udiesdone
onrodentsandmonkeysshowsthatl
ongerli
vesdonotal
waysr
esultfr
om rest
ri
cti
ngcalor
ies.
Reducti
onincal
ori
eshasshowntoaffectQOL.

2. Cel
lul
art
heor
ies

a. Hay
fli
ckLi
mit

Thist
heor
yfocusonthenumberoftimescell
sdivide,
whichi
spresumedt oli
mitt
helif
espan.Cel
l
s
grownint
helabor
ator
ydishescanonlyunder
gof i
xednumberofdivi
sionsbef
oretheydi
e.The
numberofpossi
bledi
vi
sionsdecr
easedependingontheageofthedonor.

b. Cr
ossLi
nki
ng

8|Page
Thistheoryi sbasedontheobservati
ont hatwit
hage,manyt i
ssuesbecomel essf l
exibl
eand
ther
eforel essfunct
ional
.Coll
agencrossl i
nkandproducemol eculesthatmakethebodyst i
ff
er.As
weaget henumberofcr ossli
nksincreases.Thi
sprocessmayexpl ai
nwhymuscl es,suchasheart
andar t
eries,becomest i
ff
erwithage.Hear tmuscl
esbecomest i
ffcausi
ngthehearttoworkfaster,
thusincreasingpossibi
li
tyofheartat
tack.Eventhoughcrosslinki
ngoccurs,i
tisnotanadequat e
explanati
onofagi ng.

c. Fr
eeRadi
cal
s

Thistheoryproposesthatagingi scausedbyunst ablemol eculescall

edf reeradical
s.Thesear ehi
ghly
reacti
vechemi cal
sproducedr andoml yinnormal metabolism.Ev i
dencethatf reeradicalsmaybe
i
nv ol
vedinagi ngcomesf r
om r esearchwithsubst ancesthatpr eventdevel opmentoff reeradical
sin
thefir
stplace.Thesesubstances, call
edant i
oxidants(Vit.A,C, EandCo- enzymeQ) ,
pr eventoxygen
from combiningwithsuscepti
bl emol ecul
estof ormf reeradicals.Evi
dencehasshownt hati
ngestion
ofantioxi
dantspostponesappear anceofage- relateddiseasessuchascancerandcar diovascular
disease.Thereisnoevidencet osuggestt hateatingdiethi ghi
nant i
oxidant si
ncreasesl if
espan.

3. Pr
ogr
ammedCel
lDeat
hTheor
ies

Theset heoriesarebasedont heassumpt i

onthatagi
nganddeathar ebuil
tintot hegeneticbluepri
nt
ofallorganisms.Cel ldeat
hcouldbeaf uncti
onofphysi
ologi
calprocesses.Thisi saninnateabili
tyof
cell
stosel f
-destructandtheabil
it
yofdy i
ngcell
stotri
ggerkeyprocessesinot hercell
s.Itisnot
knownhowt hi
ssel f
-destr
uct
ionisact
ivatedandhowitworks.Thereisincreasingevidencethatmany
diseasesassoci atedwithagi
ng(li
keAlzheimer’
s)havegenet
icaspects.

4. Concl
usi
on

Iti
scl earthatnotonetheor ycanf ullyexplaintheprocessofagi ng.Basedont heabov ediscussed
theoriesonecanconcl udet hatbiologicalagingisanaccumul ati
onofpr ocesseswhoseef fectsmay
begr eaterthanthesum ofi tsparts.Resear chhasr evealedthatotherforcessuchaspsy chological
,
socioculturalandli
fecycleforcesal socont ri
butetoagei ng.Thereisady namicint
eracti
onbet ween
thesef orcesincl
udingbiological
for ces.Allthese4f orcesshapeusaswemat ureandt heydirectour
development :

 Biol
ogi
calforcesar
egeneti
candheal
threl
atedfact
orst
hataf
fectdev
elopmentl
i
kemenopause,
faci
alwr
inkli
ngandchangesint
hemajororgans.

 Psy chol
ogicalf
orcesareinternalper
ceptual
,cogni
ti
ve,emotional
andpersonal
i
tyfact
orsthat
affectdevelopment.Togethertheseprov
idethecharacter
ist
icswenot
iceaboutpeopl
ethatmake
them indi
vidual
s.

 Soci
ocult
uralforcesar
eint
erper
sonal,soci
etal
,cul
tur
alandet
hni
cfact
ors.Thesef
orcespr
ovi
de
theover
allcontexti
nwhichwedevelop.

 Lif
ecycl
eforcesref
lectdi
ff
erencesinhowt hesameeventorcombinati
onofbi
ological
,
psychol
ogi
calandsociocul
turalf
orcesaff
ectpeopl
eatdiff
erentpoi
ntsi
nthei
rli
ves.Lif
ecycl
e
for
cesprov
idethecontextforthedevel
opmentaldi
ff
erencesinadul
tdevel
opmentandaging.

9|Page
Quest
ion6 Chapt
er4

Di
scusstheinf
luenceofgeneticandenvironmentalfact
orsaswel laset
hnic,
genderand
i
nter
nati
onaldi
fferencesonlongevi
ty.I
naconcl udi
ngpar agraph,gi
veanexampleofhowthe
i
nter
acti
onbetweent hesefact
orscouldinfl
uencelongevity
…. .
[20]

1. Theconceptofl
ongev
ity

Longevi
tyi
st henumberofy ear
soneli
ves.I
tisdeter
minedbyacombinat
ionofgenet
icand
envi
ronmentalfact
ors.Ther
eare2typesoflongev
ity
,aver
agel
ongev
ityandmaximum longev
ity
.

 Averagelongevi
ty:Commonl ycall
edav er
ageli
feexpectancy.Referst
oageatwhichhalfofthe
peoplewhoar eborninapar t
icul
aryearwil
lhavedi
ed.Thisincludespeoplewhodieatanyage
i
ncludinginf
ancy.Averagelongevi
tyhassteadi
lyi
ncreased.Thisisduetodecli
neininf
ant
mortali
tyrat
esanddecr easeinthenumberofwomenwhodi edur i
ngchi
ldbi
rt
h.Advancesi
n
medicaltechnol
ogyandi mprovementsinhealt
hcaremeansmor epeopl
esurvi
vetooldage.

 Maximum l ongevit
y:I
tist
heol destaget
owhichanyi ndi
vidualofaspeci
esli
ves.Scient
ist
s
esti
mat ethemaximum agef orhumanstobearound120.Thi si
seli
minat
ingalldi
seasesand
consideri
ngthekeybodysy stemssuchascardiovascul
arsy st
em.Maximum longevi
tymay
changeasnewt echnol
ogi
espr oducebet
terar
ti
fici
alorgansandi mpr
ovedhealt
hcare.

Researchersaredi
fferenti
ati
ngbetweenact
iveli
feexpect
ancyanddependentl
if
eexpectancy
.Acti
ve
l
ifeexpectancyisl
iv
ingt oahealthyol
dageandt hi
sendswhenonestartsbei
ngdependentonother
people.Dependentl
ifeexpectancyisl
iv
ingalongti
me.

10|Page
 2. I
nfl
uenceofgenet
ic,
env
ironment
al,
ethni
c,genderandi
nter
nat
ionaldi
ff
erenceson
l
ongevi
ty

a. Genet
icFact
ors

Itiscleart hatli
vi
ngal ongli
fehasacompl exgenet i
cli
nk.Toincr
easechancesofal ongli
feastarti
s
tocomef rom afami l
yofi ndi
vidualswithl
ongl if
e.ResearchdonebyAlexanderBell
showbenefitsof
comi ngf rom longlivedf amil
y.Bellsayschil
drenofparentswhohav eli
vedbeyond80sur vi
ved20
yearsl ongert hanchildrenwhosepar entshadbot hdiedbefore60.Att
emptsarebeingmadet otreat
diseasesbyi mpr ov
ingt hewaymedi cat
ionwor ksandev enimpl
anti
ng“correct
ed”genesint
opeopl e
withthehopet owipeoutdef ectivegenes.Ther eisali
nkbetweengeneti
csandt heabil
i
tytocope
withdi seases.

b. Env
ironment
alFact
ors

Mosti
mpor
tantenv
ironment
alf
act
orsi
ncl
udedi
seases,
toxi
ns,
li
fest
yleandsoci
alcl
ass.

 Car
diov
ascul
arandAl
zhei
mer
’sdi
seaser
educel
ongev
ity

 Toxi
nsincludepoll
uti
oni
ntheai
randwat
er–canbefoundinfi
sh,bact
eri
aandcancercausi
ng
chemical
sindrinki
ngwat
erandair
bor
nepol
l
utant
sar
emaj oragentsi
nshort
eni
nglongevi
ty.

 Li
fest
ylei
ssuessuchassmoki
ngandexer
cise.

 Theimpactofsocialclassonlongevi
tyresul
tsfr
om r
educedaccesstogoodsandservices,
e.g.
adequat
emedi calcare.Mostethni
cgroupscannotaff
ordmedicali
nsur
anceandt hecostofa
heal
thyl
ifesty
le.Ai
randwat erpoll
uti
onsarefoundmostl
yindensepopulat
edurbanareaswhere
manypeopl ecannotaffor
dtomov e.

Envi
ronmental
fact
orsi
nfl
uenceageovert
ime,
e.g.AI
DShasr
educedav
eragel
ongev
itybyasmuch
as30y ear
sinsomeAfr
icancount
ri
es.

c. Et
hni
cDi
ff
erences

Dif
ferentethni
cgr oupsdonothav esameaver
agelongevi
tyatbi
rth.Af
ricanAmeri
cans’aver
ageli
fe
expectancyatbirthisr
oughly6.5yearsl
owerformenandabout5y ear
sl owerf
orwoment haniti
sfor
EuropeanAmer icans.Minori
tygroupsar
eatgreat
erri
skfordi
seasesandhazards(vi
olentcr
imesand
homicide).Aguessi sthatl
essaccesstoheal
thcareandheal
thyl
ifest
ylescancont
ri
butetoethni
c
dif
ferences.

d. GenderDi
ff
erences

Women’ sav er
agelongevi
tyisabout5y ear
smoret hanmen’ satbi
rt
h, nar
rowi
ngtoroughly1yearby
age85.Thesedi f
ferencescanbef oundinmostindustr
ial
isedcountr
iesbutnotf
ordevelopi
ng
countri
es.IntheUSf emaleadvant
agei naver
agelongevit
ybecameappar enti
ntheeary20thcent
l ur
y.
Beforethen,manywomendi edinchil
dbir
thandtheirav
eragelongevi
tyasagroupwasnomor ethan
thatofmen.

Thereisconfl
icti
ngr esear
chont hecausesofdiscr
epancybet
weenwomen’ sandmen’
sav
erage
l
ongev i
ty.Somer esearchspeculat
esthati
tisnotsi
mplygeneti
csandt
hatmenar eal
somore
suscepti
bletoinfecti
ousdiseasesduetocomplexinter
acti
onsofl
if
est
yle.

e. I
nter
nat
ionalDi
ff
erences

Count ri
esar oundtheworlddi
ff
erdramatical
lyi
nhowl ongtheirpopul
ati
onsliveonaverage.The
currentrangeext endsf
rom 38yearsinSier
raLeoneto800y earsinJapan.Therangerefl
ects
discrepanciesingeneti
c,soci
ocul
tural
,economiccondit
ions,aswellashealt
hcareanddi seases.

11|Page
 3. Exampl
etoexpl
aini
nter
act
ionbet
ween4f
act
orst
hati
nfl
uencel
ongev
ity

Theinteract
ionofthesef actor
scanalr
eadybeseenint heabov eexplanat i
onsofeachfactor
.Ifa
mani sinapoor ,
mi nori
tyethnicgr
ouphisaver
agelongev i
tyhasahi ghr iskofbei
nglowerbecauseof
envi
ronment alf
actors;l
imitedaccesst
ogoodhealt
hser v
icesandincr easedexposuretotoxi
ns.The
samemanmayhav einheri
tedgoodgenesandcomef rom al i
neageofl ongli
vedi
ndivi
dualsandbe
abl
et ofi
ghtdiseases.Thiswi l
lhel
ptoincr
easehi
slif
espan.Bei ngoft hemalegendermaycont r
ibut
e
negati
velytohisli
fespan.

Quest
ion7 Chapt
er5

a) Expl
ainhowKurtLewin’
sequati
onregar
dingt
heint
eracti
onbet
weent hepersonandthe
envi
ronment[
B=f(P,
E)]i
srepr
esent
edinthecompetenceandenvi
ronmentalpresst
heoryof
LawtonandNahemow…. .
[10]

KurtLewi
ndesi gnedanEcologicalModelofbehaviour
.Thismodel helpsustounder
standhow
peoplevi
ewt heirenvir
onmentsandhowt heseviewschangeov erti
me.Thisisnotamat hemat
ical
equati
on,butaheur ist
icf
ormula–i .
e.ahelpf
ulprocedureforarri
vingatasolut
ionbutnot
necessar
ilyproof).Heconceptual
i
sedperson-envi
ronmentint
eracti
onsi nt
heequati
on:

B=f(
P,E)
:Thi
srel
ati
onshipdef
ini
ngperson-
envi
ronmenti
nter
act
ionmeansbehav
iour(
B)i
saf
unct
ion
(f
)ofbotht
heperson(P)andtheenv
ironment(
E).

Anindivi
dual’
spersonalper
cepti
onofthei
renvi
ronmenti
simportantbecausei
tpl
aysrol
einpersonal
contr
ol.Furt
hermore,under
standi
ngpsychol
ogi
calagi
ngrequi
resattent
iontoi
ndi
vi
dualneeds.Thi
sis
donebyf ocusi
ngont herel
ati
onshi
pbetweenpersonandenvi
ronment.

Compet
enceandEnv
ironment
alpr
ess

Under
standi
ngpsy
chol
ogi
cal
agi
ngr
equi
resat
tent
iont
oindi
vi
dual
s’needsr
athert
hant
reat
ingal
l

12|Page
ol
deradul
tsal
i
ke.

Competencei
sdef i
nedastheupperli
mitofaperson’
sabil
it
ytofunct
ionin5domai ns:phy
sical
heal
th;
sensor
y-percept
ualski
ll
s;motorski
ll
s;cogni
ti
veskil
lsandegostrengt
h.Thesedomai nsar
e
vi
ewedasunderly
ingallot
herabi
li
ti
esandrefl
ectthebi
ologi
calandpsychol
ogi
calforces.

Env i
ronmentalpressr eferstothephy si cal,
interpersonalorsoci
al demandsthattheenv i
ronment
putsonaper son.Physicaldemandsi ncl udewal ki
ngupt hestair
st oyourapartment.Int
erper
sonal
demandsmayr equir
eadj ust
ingy ourbehav i
ourpat ternstodif
ferenttypesofpeople.Soci
aldemands
i
nv ol
v edeal
ingwi thl
awsorcust omst hatpl acecertainexpectat
ionsonpeopl e.Theseaspectsoft
he
theoryrefl
ectbiologi
cal,psychological andsoci alforces.

Bothcompet enceandenv i
ronmentalpresschangeaspeoplemov ethr
oughtheli
fespan.Theyare
theori
esthatincor
porateel
ementsofbi opsychosoci
almodelintoperson/envir
onmentrelat
ionshi
p.
Variousdemandsar eputont hei
ndividualbythei
renvi
ronment.Thesedemandschangeasonages.
Thecompet ence/env i
ronmentalpressframeworktheref
orerefl
ectsli
fe-
cycl
efact
ors.

Theabov
efi
gur
eindi
cat
eshowcompet
enceandpr
essar
erel
ated:

 Adapti
vebehavi
ourandposi
ti
veaf
fectcanr
esul
tfr
om di
ff
erentcombi
nat
ionsofcompet
enceand
envi
ronmental
press.

 Adapti
onlev
el:ar
eawherepr
essl
evel
isav
eragef
orapar
ti
cul
arl
evel
ofcompet
ence(
thi
sis
wherebehavi
ourandaf
fecti
snor
mal)
.

 Zoneofmaxi
mum perf
ormancepot
ent
ial
:ar
eawher
ether
eisasl
i
ghti
ncr
easei
npr
esswhi
ch
tendst
oimpr
oveper
formance.

 Zoneofmaximum comf or
t:sl
i
ghtdecr
easei
npr
ess.Peopl
ear
eabl
etol
i
vehappi
l
ywi
thout
worr
yingaboutenv
ironmental
demands.

 Combi
nati
onofcompetenceandenvi
ronmentalpr
esst
hatfal
lwit
hinei
theroft
he2zonesr
esul
t
i
nadapt
ivebehav
iourandposi
ti
veemotionwhichi
sequal
stohighqual
ityl
if
e.

 Whenthereisabehavi
ourthatmov
esawayf r
om zones,t
heresul
tisi
ncr
easi
ngmaladapt
ive
behav
iourandaff
ectbecomesnegati
ve.e.
g.t
oomuchenv ir
onmental
demandspl
uslow
competenceORtoofewdemandsplushighcompetence.

Int
hismodeliti
simportanttonotethateachpersonhast hepotenti
alofbei
nghappilyadapt
ivet
o
someliv
ingsi
tuati
on,butnotal
l.Functi
oningwellwi
lldependonwhet herwhattheyareabletodofi
ts
wit
htheenvir
onmentaldemandst heyencounter
.Whenabi l
i
tiesmatch,t
heindi
vidual
adapts.When
abi
li
ti
esdonotmat chthedemands, thei
ndivi
dualdoesnotadapt .

Peopl
edeal
wit
hchangesi
n2way
s:

 Whenpeoplechoosenewbehav i
our
stomeetnewdesir
esorneedstheyshowproacti
vi
tyanduse
ofcont
rol
overthei
rli
ves.Thi
sismorel
ikel
ytohappeni
npeopl
ewithhighcompetence.

 Whenpeopl
eall
owasi
tuat
iont
odi
ctat
etheopt
ionst
heyhav
e,t
heydemonst
r edoci
at li
tyand
hav
eli
tt
lecont
rol
.

Ther
eisaconsi
derabl
emeritt
othevi
ewt hatagi
ngisacomplexi
nter
act
ionbet
weenani
ndi
vi
dual
’
s
compet
encelev
elandenv
ironment
alpress,medi
atedbychoi
ce.

b) Appl
ytheabovement
ionedtheoryt
othesi
tuati
onofaf
air
lyhappy
,wel
l-
adj
ust
edel
der
ly
per
son(i
maginar
yorreal
)bydoingthef
oll
owing:

13|Page
  Gi
vebr
iefdescr
ipt
ionoft
heper
son

 Gi
vebr
iefdescr
ipt
ionoft
heenv
ironmenti
nwhi
chhe/
shel
iv
es

Expl
ainont
hebasisoftheabov
e-menti
onedtheor
y,howtheperson-
env
ironmenti
nter
act
iont
akes
pl
aceandhowitcontr
ibut
estohis/
herl
evelofadj
ustment
…..
[10]

Briefdescri
ptionoftheper
son:Stepheni
sa78-year
-ol
dreti
redgynaecol
ogist
.Helivesint
he
reti
rementestate.Hewasprevi
ouslymarr
iedanddiv
orcedtwot i
mes.Hehast wochildr
enfrom t
he
fi
rstmar r
iage.Theyarebot
hmar r
iedandli
veoutofthecountr
ywiththei
rfamil
ies.

Bri
efdescr
ipt
ionofhisenv
ironment
:Thereti
rementvi
ll
ageissecur
ewithhighwalls.Heis
sur
roundedbyotheragematesandtheyhav
eactivi
ti
esthatt
heydotogether.Hehasfri
endsi
nthe
vi
ll
age.

Howper
sonenv
ironmentt
akespl
aceandhowi
tcont
ri
but
est
ohi
slev
elofadj
ust
ment

Stephen’sdaughtersuggestedthathemov est oThai

landwit
hherf
oramor el
ov i
ngandsupporti
ve
env i
ronment.Shewaswor ri
edthathemayf eellonel
yandbecomedepressed,fal
li
ngintonegat
ive
affectandpossiblemaladapti
vebehaviour
.St ephenrej
ect
edtheof
fer
,hef el
tthathisret
ir
ement
communi tyenvir
onmentst i
mulateshim.

Hehasahi ghcompet encelevelandthesecur evil

lageall
owshi mt otakedail
ywalksmai nt
aini
ng
physi
calstr
ength.Heal socouchest hev il
l
agechoi randthishelpshimt omaintai
nhi scogniti
veski
l
ls.
Heengagessoci al
lywi t
hf el
lowresidentsandassistsfrai
lerresident
sinmassage, thereby
contr
ibut
ingtomot orandsensor yperceptualski
l
lstrengt
h.Hedi dexperi
encereductioninego
str
engthwiththeincreasedenv i
ronment alpresscausedbyhi smar it
alprobl
ems.Hemanagedt o
adaptandbepr oacti
ve, i
ncreasi
ngact iv
iti
esthatcontri
butedtot heego-str
engt
hbyut il
i
singhis
envi
ronmentalsuppor t.

Unf
or t
unately
,herecentl
yexperi
encedasli
ghtphysi
caldecl
ineinhi
smot
orski
l
lsandsoughthelpof
bi
okineti
cisti
nthelocalgym.Thishashel
pedhim alotandall
owedhimt
oconti
nuei
nhiscurrent
envi
ronmentwi t
halltheexi
sti
ngpresses.

Stephenhasfoundenvir
onmental
sol
uti
onsf
orherpr
obl
ems.Hehasadapt
edt
ohisenvi
ronment
.He
i
snowl i
vi
ngbetweenthezoneofmaxi
mum per
for
manceandzoneofmaxi
mum comfor
tand
enjoyi
nghigherqual
i
tyofli
fe.

Quest
ion8 Chapt
er2,
6,7

Di
scusstherel
ati
onshi
pbetweennormat
ivebr
ainagi
ngandi
nfor
mat
ionpr
ocessi
ng,
memor
yand
i
ntel
lect
ualf
uncti
oni
ngduri
ngadult
hood….[
20]

1. I
ntr
oduct
ion

Thebr ai
nisthemostcompl exstr
ucture.Observi
ngagerelat
edchangesisdi
ff
icul
t.Thereisgreat
rel
ianceonindir
ectev
idencelikememor yproblems.Advancesi
nbraini
magingtechniquesmakesit
easiertowatchongoi
ngbrainactiv
ity.Thesetechni
quesincl
udeComputerTomography( CT)
,
Magnet i
cResonanceImaging( MRI)andPositronEmissi
onTomography(PET).

2. Age-
rel
atedchangesi
nneur
ons

14|Page
Asweage,thenumberofneuronsi
nthebraindecli
nes.St
ructuralchangesincl
udedecreaseinthe
si
zeandnumberofdendri
tes,
devel
opmentoft angl
esinthefibersthatmakeupt heaxon,and
i
ncreasesi
nthedeposi
tofsomeprotei
ns.Thenumberofpot entialconnect
ionsalsodecl
ines.

3. Age-
rel
atedchangesi
nneur
otr
ansmi
tt
ers

Infor
mat iontransmi ssionbet
weenneur onsischemicall
yv ianeur
ot ransmitt
ers.Neurotr
ansmi tt
ers
alsounder goager elatedchanges.Theseaf f
ecttheeffi
ciencyofinformationflowbetweenneur ons.
Dopami nei saneur otransmit
terassociatedwi t
hhighlevelcognit
ivef unct
ioni
ngl i
keinhi
bi t
ing
thoughts, att
enti
on,pl anni
ng,emotion,mov ement,pl
easur eandpai n.Asweagedopami nedecreases,
andifthisi sextr
emewemaydev el
opPar ki
nson’sdi
sease.Ager elatedchangesi nacetylchol
ineis
associatedwi thseriousmemor ydecl i
nel i
ketheoneinAl zheimer’
sdi sease.Serot
onindecl i
neresult
s
i
ncogni tivedecli
ne.

4. Age-
rel
atedchangesi
nbr
ainst
ruct
uresandexecut
ivef
unct
ioni
ng

Wit
hincreasi
ngage,thi
nking,
remember ingandlearni
ngbecomelessef
fi
cientandef
fect
ive.Thi
sin
t
urnaff
ectsexecut
ivefuncti
oning.Executi
vefunct
ioni
ngincl
ude:

 Abi
l
ityt
ocont
rol
whatonet
hinksaboutatanyspeci
fi
cpoi
nti
nti
me

 Abi
l
ityt
ofocusonr
elev
anti
nfor
mat
ionandel
i
minat
ethei
rr
elev
ant

Fai
lur
eofexecuti
vef unct
ioni
ngi nol
deradultscanresul
tsi
nerroneousselecti
onofir
rel
evant
i
nformati
onasrelevant,t
heinabil
it
ytodivertatt
ent
ionawayfr
om irrel
evantinf
ormati
ontothetaskat
hand,andi
neff
ici
encyi nswit
chingtasks.Poorperf
ormanceonexecut i
vefuncti
oni
nghasbeenl i
nked
wit
hdecreasedvolumeoft heprefr
ontalcortex.

5. I
nfor
mat
ionpr
ocessi
ng

I
nfor
mat
ionpr
ocessi
ngmodel
isbasedon3assumpt
ions:

 Peopl
ear
eact
ivepar
ti
cipant
sint
hepr
ocess

 Bothquanti
tat
ive(
howmuchinfor
mationi
sremembered)andqual
i
tat
ive(
whatki
ndsof
i
nformati
onareremember
ed)aspect
sofperfor
mancecanbeexamined

 I
nfor
mat
ioni
spr
ocessedt
hroughaser
iesofpr
ocesses:

Speedofpr ocessingreferstohowquicklyandef fi
cientl
yt heearl
ystepsininfoprocessingare
perfor
med.I ngeneral ol
deradul
tsareslower ,
butt hi
sal sodependsont hetask.Researchindicate
thatol
deradultshav emor edif
fi
cult
yfil
teri
ngoutori nhi
bitingi
rr
elevanti
nformati
on( t
hisiscalled
i
nhibit
oryloss)thany oungeradul
ts.Agedifferencesi ndivi
dedattenti
ondependont hedegr eeoft ask
complexit
yandpr actice.

6. Memor
ypr
ocesses

Wor kingmemor yrefer

stot heprocessesandst ruct
uresinvol
vedi
nholdingi
nfor
mat ioninmindand
simul t
aneousl
yusingthatinformat i
on,someti
mesi nconjunct
ionwit
hincomingi
nfor mati
on,tosol
ve
aprobl em,ormakeadeci sion,orlearn.I
nfor
mationiskeptacti
vethr
oughrehear
sal.Wor ki
ngmemor y
declinewithage,al
thoughtheext entofdecli
neisindoubt.Therei
ssomeev i
dencet hroughresear
ch
thatagedi f
fer
encesinwor kingmemor yarenotuniv
ersal
.

I
mpl
ici
tmemor
yinv
olv
esr
etr
iev
alofi
nfor
mat
ionwi
thoutconsci
ousori
ntent
ional
recol
l
ect
ion.

15|Page
Expl
ici
tmemoryi
sint
ent
ionalandconsci
ousremember
ingofinf
ormati
onl
earnedandremembered
ataspeci
fi
cpoi
nti
nti
me.Olderadult
saregener
all
ybet
terati
mplici
tmemor
yt askst
hanexpl
i
cit
.

Longterm memor yr
eferstoabil
it
ytorememberext ensiveamountsofinfor
mat i
onfrom af ew
secondstofewhourstodecades.Therear e2typesofLTM: semanti
cmemor y(SM)islearningand
rememberingthemeaningofwor dsandconcept snotti
edtospecif
icoccurrencesofev entsintime.
Whereas,epi
sodicmemor yisthegener
al cl
assofmemor ydeal
ingwit
ht heconsciousrecollecti
onof
i
nformati
onfrom aspecif
iceventorpointinti
me.EM staysfair
lyst
ableunti
l around55-60y earsof
age,t
hendecli
nebeginaroundage65.SM i ncreasesfr
om 35-55yearsofageandt henlevelsoff.

7. Fl
uidandcr
yst
all
izedi
ntel
li
gence

Fluidi
ntelli
genceconsi stoftheabi
li
tiesthatmakey ouaf l
exibl
eandadapti
vethinker,al
lowyout o
makei nferences,andenabl eyoutounder standther el
ationsamongconcepts.Itincl
udest heabil
it
ies
youneedt ounderstandandr espondt osituati
ons,e.g.inductiv
ereasoni
ng,i
ntegrati
onandabst r
act
thinki
ng.Wher eas,crystal
li
zedint
ell
i
gencei stheknowl edgey ouhaveacqui
redthroughl i
feexperi
ence
andeducat ionandt hecultureyougrewupi n.Iti
ncludesbr eadthofknowl
edge,compr ehensionof
communi cati
onandj udgement .

Studi
esindi
catethatFl
uidint
ell
i
gencedecli
nesthr
oughoutadulthood,whereas, cr
ystal
l
ized
i
ntell
i
genceimproves.Iti
snotfull
yunder
stoodwhyfl
uidint
ell
igencedeclines,butitmayber el
atedt
o
changesint
hebr ai
n.Incontr
ast,t
heincr
easeincr
yst
all
izedi
nt el
li
genceindicatesthatpeople
conti
nueaddingknowledgeeveryday.

Thedif
fer
entdev
elopment
altr
endsi
mpl
ythatal
thoughl
ear
ningcont
inuest
hroughadul
thood,
it
becomesmorediff
icul
twi
thage.

Quest
ion9 Chapt
er4,
5

DiscussRichardLazar
usandSusanFolkman’sst
ressandcopingpar
adi
gm.Inviewofthi
s
paradigm expl
ainageandi
ndi
vidualdi
ff
erencesi
ntheexper
ienceandhandl
ingofst
ress…[
20]

1. Ther
oleofst
ress

Ther
ear
e2way
sinwhi
chwecanv
iewst
ress:

 Str
essresult
sfr
om peopl
e’
sev aluat
ionofev
entsandnotnecessar
il
ytheeventi
tsel
f.No2peopl
e
wil
lexper
iencet
hesameev entinasameway .Thener
vousandendocr i
nesyst
emspl ayar
olei
n
thi
sinst
ance.

 St
ressi
sapr
oper
tyofspeci
fi
cev
ent
s,f
orexampl
e,deat
hofapar
entorchi
l
dwher
epeopl
ewi
l
l

16|Page
 experi
enceaparti
cul
areventundert
hesamel
evel
ofst
ress.Onceagai
nitdependsonhowt
he
eventi
sinter
pret
edbytheindiv
idual
.

I
tiscommonbel i
eft
hatpeopledi
ff
eri
ntheirphysi
ologi
calresponsest
ostress.Prol
ongedexposure
tostresscancausedamagetosympathet
icnervoussystem.Thisconcer
nsy ourheartr
ate,
breat
hing,
perspir
ati
onandment al
acti
vi
tyamongotherthi
ngs.

Genderdifferencesinst r
essresponseshavealsobeendocumented.Possibl
ereasonforthe
dif
ferenceist hepresenceofoxy t
ocininwomen.Ingeneral
menchooset obealonewhengoing
thr
oughst ressfulevent.Whereas,womenpr ef
ertobewithother
s.Oxytocinhel
pswithbreast
feedi
ng
andbondi ngbet weenmot herandchild.Oxy
tocinpr
oduces“fi
ghtorfl
i
ght”inmenanda“ t
endand
befri
end”inwomen

2. Lazar
usandFol
kman’
sst
ressandcopi
ngpar
adi
gm

Thispar adi
gm viewsst r
essast heint
eracti
onofat hi
nkingpersonandanev ent.Thei
nter
pretationof
theev entbyanindividualiskey,andnottheactualev
entnorwhatwedoi nresponsetoit
.Stressisa
rel
ationshipbetweent heper sonandtheenvir
onmentorev entthatisappraisedbythepersonas
taxi
ngorexceedi nghi sresourcesandendangeringhi
swel l
-bei
ng.Thisdef i
niti
onstat
esthatstressis
at r
ansact i
onal
pr ocessbet weenapersonandt heenvir
onment .I
ttakesintoaccount:

 Per
sonal
resour
ces;

 Thatt
heper
son’
sappr
aisal
oft
hesi
tuat
ioni
skey
;

 Andthatunl
esst
hesi
tuat
ioni
sconsi
der
edt
obet
hreat
eni
ng,
chal
l
engi
ngorhar
mful
,st
ressdoes
notr
esult
.

Thet r
ansacti
onalmodelsuggestst
hateacht i
mey ouareinasit
uation;
youmakeaseparat
e
j
udgementast owhet
hertheeventisst
ressfulornot.Thi
swil
ldependontheresour
cesonthe
resourcesyouhaveandyourjudgementoftheev ent
.Incl
udedi
nr esour
cesar
e:

 pr
evi
ousexper
iencesofsi
mil
arsi
tuat
ions,

 y
ourcumul
ati
veknowl
edge,

 knowl
edgeaboutt
heev
ent
,and

 y
ourabi
l
ityt
ofi
ndhel
p.

Resourcesdiff
erfrom persontoper son.Thisisduetogeneti
c/bi ologicalfact
ors,y
ourtypeof
personali
tyorpsychologi
cal f
actor
s, yourethni
cit
yandcultur
albackgr oundwhi chi
sy our
sociocult
ural
factorsandy ourli
fe-
cycleforces,aswellaswhatstageofl if
ey ouarein.These
di
fferencesexplai
nwhysomepeopl edeal wit
hdiffi
cul
tevent
sint heirstri
de,whil
eothersstr
uggl
e.

3. Appr
aisal

Accor
dingt
oLazar
usandFol
kmant
her
ear
e3t
ypesofappr
aisal
s:

Primar yappraisal:categor i
seseventsint
o3gr oupsbasedont hesignif
icancetheyhav eonourwel l
-
being: i
rr
elevant(thingsthatdonotaf f
ectus),benignorpositi
ve( t
hingsthatar
eneut ralorgood) ,and
stressful.Pri
mar yappr ai
sal sf
il
tertheeventsweexper i
ence.Ont hi
sbasi s,ani
ndivi
dual decidefor
themsel veswhet heranev enti
sst r
essfulornot.Thefi
lt
erallowsonet omakeadeci si
ononwhet her
totakeact ionorignor e.Howev er,wemaybewr ongi
nreadingtheev entintheprimaryappr aisal
,
thereforesecondar yappr aisalt
akesplace.

Secondaryappraisal:I
nthisphaseanindi
vi
dual
eval
uatesper
ceiv
edabil
it
ytocopewi t
hharm,threat
orchall
enge.Thisappraisali
sequiv
alentt
oaski
ng“whatcanIdo?”“
Willt
hisact
ionbesuccessful
? ”
“Wil
lthi
sactionallev
iatemyst r
ess?”Someti
meswelearnmoreaboutt
hesituat
ionandthi
scall
sf or
ustore-appr
aisetheev ent.

17|Page
Re-apprai
sal
:Thisinv
olvesmakingnewprimar
yorsecondar
yappr
aisalsresul
ti
ngf
rom changesin
thesit
uati
on.Re-appr
aisalcanei
theri
ncr
easest
ressordecr
easei
t,dependingont
heinfor
mation
recei
vedabouttheevent.

Theseappr ai
salsindicat
ethatdeterminingifev
entisstr
essfuli
sady namicprocessthatmaychange
duringt hecourseoft heevent.I
niti
aldecisi
onmaybeuphel dorchangeaccor di
ngtonewi nf
ormati
on
receiv edabouttheev ent
.Dif
ferenteventsmaybeappr ai
sedt hesameway ,andsameev entsmaybe
appr aiseddif
ferentl
yatanotherpointintime.Thispat
ter
nofbehav i
ourexplai
nswhypeopl ereactt
he
wayt heydoov erthei
rlif
espan.Exampl e:asweageourphy si
ologi
calresour
ceschange, asar esul
ts
event sthatweredeemednotst ressfulduri
ngearli
ery
ears,maybeappr ai
sedasst r
essfulinolder
adulthood.

4. Copi
ng

Att
emptstodealwi
theventsthatwelabel
l
edasst r
essf
ulduri
ngprimaryapprai
salar
ecall
edcoping.
Lazar
usandFolkmanexplai
nscopingasanevolv
ingprocesswhichapersonlearnsandfi
net
unes
overt
ime.Copi
ngmeansmanagi ngthesit
uat
ion,notover
comingit
.Iti
slearned,
notautomat
ic.

 Probl
em f
ocusedcoping:Anindi
vidual
tri
estodeal
withtheprobl
em headon.e.
g.taki
ngRxfor
i
ll
nessorstudy
inghar
df orexam.Thisi
sdoingsomethi
ngdirect
lyaboutt
heprobl
em athand.

 Emotionfocusedcoping:I
tinvolvesdeal
ingwiththefeel
i
ngstheindiv
idualhasaboutthe
st
ressfulevent
.Ital
l
owsonet ov entorexpressangeratwhathappened.Thegoalisnotto
el
i
mi natethestr
essful
event,buttohelponecopebyv enti
ngemot i
onsorfeeli
ngs.

 Reli
giouscopi
ngstr
ategi
es:Manypeopl
eusetheirr
elati
onshi
pwi
thGodasthei
rbasi
sforcopi
ng.
Forbeli
ever
s,usi
ngrel
igi
ouscopi
ngstr
ategi
esusual
lyresul
tsi
nposi
ti
veout
comes.

5. Agi
ngandt
hest
ressandcopi
ngpar
adi
gm

Olderadul
tsreportstressesthatarenotrolerel
ated,
butar eagerel
ated.Thingsolderadul
tsstress
aboutareli
nkedt otheenv i
ronment,e.
g.inabil
it
ytogetaround.Olderadultsarelessli
kel
ytouse
acti
vecopingstrategi
esandar emor eli
kelytousepastex peri
ence,emoti
onf ocusedandreli
gious
copingstr
ategi
es.Aspeopl ebecomeol der,theybecomebet teratmanagingtheirli
vesandtheir
envir
onmentssoast oav oi
dstress.

6. St
ressandcopi
ngf
ramewor
k

School erappli
edLazarusandFolkman’
scognit
ivetheoryofst
ressandcopi
ngtotheunder
standing
oftheol derperson’
sinter
act
ionwitht
heenvir
onment .Thebasicpr
emiseofL&Ft
heoryist
hatpeople
evaluatesituati
onstoassessift
herei
spotenti
althr
eat.Si
tuat
ionscanbeeval
uat
edasharmf ul
,
beneficialorir
rel
evant
.

School
ereval
uateddataonasampleof521people,
drawnfr
om anat
ionalsampleof4000ol
der
adul
tsl
ivi
nginlongter
m car
efaci
l
iti
es.Heexaminedthei
mpactof3potenti
alst
ressor
s:

 Env
ironment
alchange

 Resi
dent
ial
mobi
l
ity

 Maj
orl
i
feev
ent
s

Heal soexaminedthebufferi
ngeffect
sofsocialsupportsy
stemsandecologi
calfactor
sont he
rel
ationshi
psbetweenst r
essorsandoutcomes.Schoolerwasabletoprovi
deevi
dencet hatt
he
presenceofsocialsupportsyst
emsaf f
ectedtheli
keli
hoodthatcer
tai
nsit
uati
onswoul dbedeemed
threateni
ng.e.
g.li
vi
ngaloneismor eli
kelytobestressf
ulwhenonehaslit
tl
esocialsupportt
hanwhen
hasf ri
endsint
hev i
cini
ty.

18|Page
Quest
ion10 Chapt
er6

“
Wit
hincr
easi
ngageadul
ts’
memor
ydecl
ines”

Cr
it
ical
lydi
scusst
hisst
atementbyr
efer
ri
ngt
oresear
chf
indi
ngsr
egar
dingi
mpl
ici
tmemor
y,

19|Page
sensor
ymemor
y,wor
kingmemor
yandl
ong-
ter
m memor
y(epi
sodi
candsemant
ic)
.

I
nyourdi
scussi
onpayat
tent
iont
ofact
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngmemor
y.

1. Sensor
yMemor
y

Al
lmemor
iesst
artassensor
yst
imul
i(e.
g.songhear
doraper
sonseen)
.

Defi
nit
ion:I
tisthefi
rstlevelofprocessi
ngi
ncomi nginf
ormationfrom t
heenvir
onment.SM t
akesin
l
argeamount sofinf
or api
dly,butinf
oonlyl
aststhereashorttime.Accordi
ngtoGeorgeSperl
ingSM
hol
dssensoryinfoforlessthan1second.Unlesswepayat tentiontosensor
yinfo,
itwi
llbel
ost
qui
ckly
.

Agedi ff
erencesarenott ypi
cal
lyfoundinSM buttheydoappearwhenat tenti
onal pr
ocessesare
appli
edt oSM.Thecompl extasksweengagei nwhenpr ocessingi
nfousuallyrequir
emor ethanone
att
entionalfunct
ion.e.g.whendr i
vi
ngyoumustsel ect
ivel
yattendtoorfocusont heroadandi t
s
obstacleswhileatthesamet imef i
lt
eri
ngoutdistr
acti
nginfo.Att
enti
onalprocessesareinfl
uencedby
thecapacitytodirectandsustainatt
enti
onandt hespeedwi t
hwhichinfoisprocessed.

Howi
sagedecl
iner
elat
edt
oSM

Speedofpr ocessing:Thismeanshowqui cklyandeffi

cientl
yt heear
lyst
epsininf
opr ocessi
ngare
compl et
ed.I ni
ti
all
yitwast houghtthatdeclineinspeedex pl
ainedagerel
atedchanges.Howev ert
his
theoryfell
outoff avourbecauser esear
chi ndicatet
hatdecli
nedependsonwhatt hetaski s,
because
allcomponent sofment alpr
ocessingdonotsl owequi
valentl
y.Thelevel
inwhichdeclineaff
ects
processingmayv aryfrom onetasktoanot her.

Processingresour ces:Thisistheamountoft imeonehast oappl

ytoaparti
cularsit
uati
on.Thi
s
couldexplainwhysomeol deradult
shav emor edif
fi
cult
yperf
ormingcompli
catedtasks.However
thereisproblem withthinkingthatprocessi
ngresourcesist
oblameforthi
s.Theconst r
uct
(processi
ngr esource)hasnev erbeencl ear
lydef
inedanditi
stoobroadandthereisli
ttl
eempir
ical
supportforthistheory.

So2f
urt
hert
heor
ieshavebeendevel
opedt
oexpl
aint
his:
Inhibi
toryl oss:Thist heoryexpl ai
nsthatol deradul
tshav ereducedprocessingresourcesdueto
diff
icult
yi npr ocessingofr elevantinfo.Thismeansol dpeopl ehavemor etask-
irr
elevantt
houghts
duringpr ocessingandhav et r
oublekeepi ngthem outoft heirminds.Thiscouldexplainwhyold
peoplehav etroubleswi tchinganddi vidingthei
rattention.Thepr obl
em withthi
st heoryi
sthati
tisnot
universal acrossallaspect sofst imuli.Therearestrategiesthatoldpeoplecanappl ytocompensate
forthis,suchascl osingt heireyes,orav ert
inggazef r
om i r
relev
antinfo.

Attenti
onalr esources:Itlooksathowwel ladult
scanper for
m mul t
iplet
askssimul taneously,thisis
call
eddividedat tent
ion.Agedi ff
erencesobser vedi ndivi
dedat t
enti
onar eduetool deradults’
diff
icul
ti
eswi t
ht heindiv
idual tasksandnott ospr eadingtheiratt
entionacrossthem.Resear chhas
showedt hatol deradultsar ejustasabl etomul ti
task,butperform eachtaskabi tslowerthan
youngerpeopl e.Agedi fferencesondi vi
dedattentioncanbemi ni
mi sedifol
deradul tsaretrained,
therebyreducingt hedemandsonat tent
ion.Olderadul t
sper f
orm mor epoorl
ythany oungeradul t
s
whenexecut i
ngamemor ytaskwhi lstwalki
ng.Li andcol l
eaguesfoundt hatol
deradul tspri
or it
ize
walkingandmai ntai
ningbal anceatt heexpenseofmemor y.Theyfocusont hetaskmosti mpor t
ant
tothem whi chiswal kingandbal ancingtopreventf al
ls.

I
ntegr
ati
on:At
tenti
onandCogni
ti
vechangeinol
deradult
hood:Keyassumpt
ioni
ninf
opr
ocessi
ngi
s
t
hatsomeprocessi
ngoccur
saut
omatical
l
y,wher
easotherrequi
resef
for
t.

 Aut
omat
icpr
ocessi
ng:Pl
acesmi
nimal
demandsonat
tent
ional
capaci
tyandget
sinf
ormat
ion

20|Page
 i
ntothesystem l
argel
ywithoutusbeingaware.Someaut omati
cpr
ocessesareprewir
ed,whi
l
st
other
sarelear
ntthroughexperi
enceandpracti
ce.Perf
ormanceoftasksthatdependon
automat
icprocessesdonotshowsi gni
fi
cantagediff
erence.

 Ef
for
tfulpr
ocessi
ng:Requi
resal
loft
heav
ail
abl
eat
tent
ional
capaci
ty.Agedi
ff
erencest
endt
o
emer
gehere.

2. I
mpl
ici
t(pr
ocedur
al)andExpl
ici
t(decl
arat
ive)Memor
y

Impli
citmemor yinvol
vesretr
ievalofinf
ormat i
onwithoutconsci
ousori ntent
ionalr
ecol
l
ecti
on.
Whereas,expl
icitmemor yisi
ntentionalandconsciousrememberingofi nfol
earnedandremember
ed
ataspecifi
cpoint.Agediff
erenceofi mplici
tmemor ydependsont hetaskathand.Learni
ng
sequencestendt oshowagedi ffer
ences, whereasl
earni
ngspati
al contextdoesnot.

3. Wor
kingMemor
y

Iti
stheacti
veprocessandst r
ucturesinvolvedinholdingi nf
ormationi nmindandsi mul taneousl
y
usi
ngthatinf
ormation,t
osolveapr oblem, makeadeci sionorlear
nnewi nformation.Itplaysan
acti
verol
einencoding,st
orageandr etri
eval.Evidenceindicatesager elat
eddecl i
nei nwor ki
ng
memor y,
buttheextentofdecli
neisindoubt .Itappearst odependont hetypeofi nformat i
onbeing
usedandmayv aryacrossdiff
erenttasks.Ther earesev eralr
easonswhywor ki
ngmemor ydecli
ne
wit
hage.Theseincludealer
tnessatdifferentti
mesoft hedayandor deroft hetask.

4. Long-
Ter
m Memor
y

Longter
m memor yref
erstot
heabil
it
ytorememberrat
herext
ensi
veamountsofinformati
onfr
om a
fewsecondstoafewhourstodecades.I
trepr
esent
salar
gecapaci
tyst
orewhereinformati
oncanbe
keptf
orlongper
iods.Ther
eare2typesofLTM.

Semant icmemor yconcernsl earningandr emember i

ngt hemeani ngofwordsandconcept snott
ied
tospecifi
coccurrencesofev ent sintime.Itincreasesfrom 35-55y ear
sofageandt henlevel
soff
.
Althoughitst
artstodecli
neat65, thedecl i
nei smuchl esssubst anti
alt
hanforepi
sodic.Semanti
c
memor i
esareretr
ievedconcept uallyaspar tofourwor ldknowledge.Agechangesi nSM canhappen
i
fitbecomeshar dt oaccessandr etri
eve.Thi scanhappeni finfoisnotusedonar egul
arbasisOR
thereissimpl
emoment aryretrievalfail
ure.Commonexampl eisTOT( t
ipoft
hetongue).

Episodicmemor yisthegeneralcl
assofmemor yhavingtodowi ththeconsciousrecoll
ect
ionof
i
nformat i
onfrom aspecif
iceventorpointinti
me.EM st ay sfai
rl
ystableunti
laround55-60y earsof
age,thendecli
nebeginaroundage65.Ol deradul t
sper f
orm worsethany oungeradultsonrecallt
ests
ofEM becauset heyomitinf
oandi ncl
udei nt
rusions.Onr ecogni
ti
ont est
solderadultsaremor eli
kel
y
tosayt heyr
ecognizeit
emst hatwerenev erpresented.

5. Fact
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngmemor
y

Encodingdi
ff
erences:Ol
deradultsdonotspont
aneousl
yuseencodingstr
ategi
eswhenlear
ningnew
i
nfoascompar edtoyoungeradult
s.Thi
sresul
tsi
npoorencodingandthentheinf
ocannotbe
accessedwhenneeded.Olderadult
scanbetaughtt
hesestr
ategi
es.

Retr
ievaldi
ff
erences:Resear
chersfoundt
hatt
hemajorreasonmemorydecl
i
neswit
hagehastodo
wit
hr et
ri
evalpr
oblems.Olderadul
tstendt
ousefewerr
etri
evalst
rat
egi
escompar
edtoyounger
adul
ts.

Quest
ion11 Chapt
er7

Cogni
ti
vedev
elopmentcont
inuesbey
ondf
ormaloper
ati
ons.Di
scusst
hest
atementbyr
efer
ri
ngt
o

21|Page
r
elev
antt
heor
iesandr
esear
chf
indi
ngs….
.[
20]

1. Pi
aget
’sFor
mal
Oper
ati
onalPer
iodorThought

Piagetproposedthatacqui
sit
ionoff
ormaloper
ati
onalthoughtduri
ngadol
escentmar
kst
heendof
cognit
ivedevelopment.Heli
sted4aspect
sofformaloperat
ionalt
hought
:

 I
ttakesahy
pot
hesi
stest
ingappr
oacht
opr
obl
em sol
vi
ng.Thi
sist
ermedhy
pot
het
ico-
deduct
ive.

 Thi
nki
ngi
sdonei
nonef
ramewor
katat
ime.

 Thegoal
ist
oar
ri
veatonecor
rectsol
uti
on,
and

 I
tisunconst
rai
nedbyr
eal
i
ty

Hypothet
ico-deduct
ivethoughtissimil
artousi
ngscient
if
icmet
hodofhypot
hesistesti
ng,whereiti
s
ei
theracceptedorrejected.Formaloper
ati
onalt
hinki
ngall
owspeopl
etoapproachproblem sol
vi
ngin
asystematic,st
epbyst epway .Iti
susedtoarr
iveatoneunambi
guoussol
uti
ont otheprobl
em.

For
mal oper
ati
onalt
hinki
ngknowsnoconstr
aints–canbeappliedtoimaginar
yorrealsi
tuat
ions.
Whetheronecanimplementt
hesol
uti
onisir
relevant,
whatmattersi
sthatonecanthi
nkaboutit.
For
mal oper
ati
onalt
hinker
scanmakedecisi
onst hatarei
mpossibl
etoimplement
.

Acri
ti
queofPi
aget’
stheor
yisthatiti
snotuni
versal
.Manyadul
tsdonotat
tai
nfor
mal
oper
ati
ons.
Theyt
endtoappearonl
yinar
east hati
ndi
vi
dualswerehi
ghl
ytrai
ned.

2. PostFor
malThought

Riegel(
1973)wasoneoft hefir
stauthorst
opostul
atet heexi
stenceofaf i
ft
hstageofdev
elopment
,
charact
eri
sedbydi al
ect
icaloperati
ons.Hearguedthatformaloperat
ionswereli
mitedi
nit
s
appli
cabil
i
tyandhy pot
heti
calthinki
ngisnottheonl
yt ypeofthi
nkingthatadul
tsdo.Whenadult
sget
toseveralpossi
blesol
uti
ons,itcannotbeexplai
nedbyf ormaloperat
ions.

Postf
ormal
thoughti
schar
act
eri
sedbyr
ecogni
ti
ont
hat
:

 Tr
uthv
ari
esf
rom si
tuat
iont
osi
tuat
ion.

 Sol
uti
onsmustber
eal
i
sti
ctober
easonabl
e.

 Ambi
gui
tyandcont
radi
cti
onar
ether
uler
athert
hanexcept
ion.

 Emot
ionsandsubj
ect
ivef
act
orsusual
l
ypl
ayar
olei
nthi
nki
ng.

Per
ry’
s(1970)theoryi
sbasedonhisst
udiesofthecogni
ti
veandet
hical
dev el
opment
i
nundergr
aduatestudent
s. 
Hebel
ievesthatcol
l
egestudent
sgothr
oughf ourstagesofment
aland
moral
development:

 Dual
ism i
st hebeli
eft
hatever
yprobl
em i
ssol
vabl
e.Knowl
edgei
srecei
ved,
notquest
ioned;
st
udentsfeelther
eisacorr
ectanswert
obelear
ned. 

 Mult
ipli
cit
yisthest
agewheretheremaybemorethanonesol
uti
ont
oapr
obl
em,
ort
her
emaybe
nosolut
ion;st
udent
srecogni
zethatt
hei
ropi
nionsmatt
er.

 Relat
ivi
sm i
sthethi
rdst
age. 
Knowledgeisseenascont
extual;
student
seval
uat
evi
ewpoi
nts
basedonsourceandevi
dence,andevenexper
tsar
esubjecttoscrut
iny
. 

 Commi tmentisthestagewherethereisi
ntegr
ati
onofknowledgefrom ot
hersourceswith
personalexper
ienceandrefl
ecti
on;st
udentsmakecommi t
mentt oval
uesthatmat t
ert
ot hem
andlearntotakeresponsi
bil
it
yforcommittedbel
i
efs.Ther
eisrecogni
ti
onthattheacquisit
ionof
knowledgeisongoingacti
vit
y.

Ki
ngandKi
tchener(
1994)ar
etheor
ist
sint
hef
iel
dofr
efl
ect
ivej
udgement
.Iti
sawayadul
tsr
eason

22|Page
t
hroughdi
l
emmasinvol
vi
ngcurr
entaffai
rs,
rel
i
gion,
sci
ence,
rel
ati
onshi
ps,
etc.Ther
ear
e7st
ages
t
hatcanbebr
okendownint
othefol
lowing:

 Pre-r
efl
ecti
vethought(stages1-
3):
peopleatt
hisst
agedonotacknowledgeandmaynotev
en
percei
vethatknowledgeisuncer
tai
n.Theydonotunder
standt
hatther
earesomeprobl
emsfor
whichsolut
ionsdon’texi
st.

 Quasi-
refl
ecti
vethought(
stages4-5)
:peoplerecogni
sethatsomepr obl
emshaveanelementof
uncert
aint
y.Alt
houghtheysti
lluseev
idence,t
heyarelesspersuasi
vewitht
hei
rposi
ti
onson
contr
oversi
ali
ssues.

 Tr
uer ef
lecti
vejudgement( stages6-7)
:peopl
eatt hi
slevel
getknowl
edgeusingevi
denceand
ar
gumentaf tercarefulanal
ysisoft
heproblem orsit
uati
onandit
scontext
.Theycont
inual
l
yre-
ev
aluatethei
rbeliefsinviewofnewev i
dence.

Howdoesaper sonmovefr
om stagetostage?Progressi
onf
rom onestaget
oanot
heri
sgr
adual
and
qual
i
tat
ive.I
tisthr
oughopt
imall
evelofdevelopmentandski
ll
sacquisi
ti
on.

Kr
amer
,Kahl
baughandGol
dst
one(
1992)i
dent
if
ied3di
sti
nctst
ylesoft
hinki
ng:

 Absol
uti
stThinking:f
ir
mlybel
i
evi
ngt
hatt
hereisonlyonecor
rectsol
uti
ontopr
obl
emsandt
hat
per
sonalexperi
enceprovi
dest
rut
h–adol
escentsandyoungadult
sthi
nkthi
sway.

 Relati
vistThinki
ng:reali
singthatt
her
earemanysidestoanyi
ssueandt hatt
heri
ghtanswer
dependsont heci
rcumst ances–youngandearl
ymiddl
eageadult
s.Itcanleadt
ocy ni
sm “
I’
ll
do
myt hing;youdoy ours”approachtol
i
fe.Theyar
enotli
kel
ytobestr
onglycommittedtoanyone
positi
on.

 Di
alecti
calThi
nking:t
hesethi
nker
sseethemer
it
sinthedi
ff
erentv
iewpoi
ntsbutcansy
nthesi
se
t
hem intoaworkablesol
uti
on.Oft
enpr
oduci
ngstr
ongcommitmentandadefini
tepl
anofacti
on.

Thekeytopostf
ormalthoughti
stheabi
li
tytothinkint
egrat
ively
.Thisal
lowsadul
tst
ounder
stand
di
ff
erentvi
ewpoi
nts.Oneaspectoft
hisi
ntegr
ationinvol
vesbringingt
ogetherl
ogi
candemot
ion.

Labouvie-
Viefstatethatadul
tthinkingischaract
ersedbyi
i ntegrati
onoflogi
candemot i
on.Adul
ts
makechoi cesnotsomuchonl ogi calgr
ounds,butonpragmat i
c,emoti
onalandsocialgr
ounds.
Maturethi
nkersr eali
sethatt
hinkingisasocialphenomenont hatdemandsmakingcompr omisesand
tol
erat
ingambi guityandcontr
adi cti
on.Adol
escentsandyoungadul t
scannotint
egrateemoti
onand
l
ogicaswel lasmi ddleageadults.

3. Fact
orscont
ri
but
ingt
ofunct
ioni
ngonapostf
ormall
evel

a. Deci
sionmaki
ng

 Olderadul
tsshowl essef
fect
ivedeci
si
onmaki
ngwhenthesi
tuati
onisnewtothem orwhen
underti
mepr essur
e.Andalsowhendecisi
onmaki
ngi
nvol
veshighdegreeofworki
ngmemor y
.
Butthi
sismedi at
edbyotherfact
ors.

 Ever
ydaydecisi
onmakingl
ikebuyingacarordeci
dingonty
peoftr
eatment,
youngeradul
tsar
e
muchquickermaki
ngadecisionthanol
deradult
s.Ther
eisnoagedif
fer
enceinthequal
it
yof
deci
sionsmadeinsuchcontext
s.

 Whendeci si
onmaki ngrequi r
esr el
evantexperi
enceorknowledge,noagedif
fer
enceapply.
Experiencemakeolderadul tslesssuscepti
bletoir
rat
ional
biasesinthei
rdeci
sionmaking.When
decisi
onsarepersonall
yr elevantitbol
ster
solderadul
tsattent
ionalf
ocusonimportantcues
result
inginef
fi
cientdecisions.

 Ol
deradult
sfocusedmoreonposit
ivei
nformati
ont
hanyoungadult
sdidwhenmaki
ngadecisi
on.
Whenolderadul
tsaskedaboutt
hei
rsat
isfact
ionwi
tht
hei
rdeci
sionstheywer
emoresat
isf
ied
t
hanyoungeradult
s.

23|Page
 Althoughther
earesomedi f
ferencesbet
weenolderandyoungeradul
tsincogniti
vedev el
opment
anddeci si
onmaking,
olderadult
scompensatedforsomelossesbyusingtheirexperi
ence,
focussingontheposi
ti
veandal l
owingmoretimetomakeadeci si
onineverydayliv
ing.

b. Pr
obl
em sol
vi
ng

 Fi
ndingsaremixed.Denny
’smodelf
oundthatper
formancepeaksdur
ingmi
d-l
i
feanddecr
eases
af
terthat
.Other
sf i
ndconti
nuedi
mprovementunt
ilatl
east70year
sofage.

 Competencei
nsolvi
ngpr act
ical
probl
emsisamul t
idi
mensionalconst
ructandr
esear
cher
shav
e
quest
ionedwhet
herglobalconstr
uctofpr
act
ical
problem sol
vi
ngexist
s.

 Postf or
mal t
houghtisgroundedont hewaypeopleconceptual
isesit
uati
ons.Thi
sapproachof
everydayprobl
em solvi
ngincludesnotjustcogni
ti
veabi
li
ti
es,butalsosocial
,mot
ivat
ionaland
cult
uralfact
ors.Theseinfl
uencehowwesol vepr
oblems.

 Researcher sfoundagedi f
fer
encesinproblem sol
vi
ngstyl
esthatwer ehighl
ydependenton
whetherthepr oblem sit
uati
onwasemot ionall
ysali
ent
.Youngeradultsusedcognit
iveanaly
sis
strat
egies.Olderadultsusedmor eavoi
dant-deni
alandpassi
ve-dependentstr
ategi
es.These
resul
tsreflectcombinationofcogni
ti
velevelandli
feexperi
ence.

 Wedon’tusesamestrategi
eswhensolvingpr
obl
emsi
ndif
ferentcont
ext
s.Aswegr owolderand
accumulat
emoreeverydayexper
ience,
webecomemoresensiti
vetot
heprobl
em contextand
usestr
ategi
esaccor
dingly.

 Olderadul
tsdef
inedpr
obl
emsinter
msofint
erpersonal
goals,
wher eas,
adolescent
sandyounger
adult
sfocusedmoreoncompet
encegoal
s.Pr
oblem solvi
ngstr
ategiesfi
ttheprobl
em def
ini
ti
ons.

 Olderadul
tswerer
atedmoreef
fect
ivei
nthei
reverydaypr
obl
em sol
vi
ngst
rat
egyuset
han
youngeradul
tsacr
ossal
lty
pesofprobl
em si
tuat
ions.

c. Exper
ti
se

 Researchindi
catesexpertperfor
mancetendstopeakbymi ddl
eageanddropsoffsl
i
ght
lyaf
ter
that.However
,thedecli
nesar enotnear
lyasgreatastheyarefort
heabi
l
iti
esofi
nfor
mati
on
processi
ng,memor yandf l
uidint
ell
i
gencethatunder
li
eexperti
se.

 Encapsulati
onisanideat hattheprocessesoft hi
nkingbecomeconnect edt ot hepr
oduct
sof
thi
nking,suchasknowl edgeaboutwor l
dhi stor
y.Encapsulati
onallowsexpertisetocompensat
e
fordecli
nesinunder
lyingcogni t
iveabil
i
ties,bymakingthinkingintheparti
culardomainmore
effi
cient
.Itisuni
quetoadul thood,becomescompl exandr esi
stanttochangeasweage.

d. Wi
sdom

Bal
tesandcol
l
eaguesdescr
ibed4char
act
eri
sti
csofwi
sdom:

 I
tdeal
swi
thi
mpor
tantordi
ff
icul
tmat
ter
sofl
i
feandt
hehumancondi
ti
on.

 I
tist
rul
y“super
ior
”knowl
edge,
judgementandadv
ice.

 Iti
sknowledgewi
thext
raor
dinar
yscope,
dept
h,andbal
ancet
hati
sappl
i
cabl
etospeci
fi
c
sit
uat
ions.

 Whenused,
iti
swel
li
ntendedandcombi
nesmi
ndandv
irt
ue(
char
act
er)
.

Kunz(2007)r
eferredtowisdom asthestr
engths,
knowl
edgeandunder
standi
ngl
ear
nedonlybyliv
ing
thr
oughtheearl
ierstagesofli
fe.Rel
ati
onshi
pbetweenageandwi
sdom iscompl
i
cated.St
ereot
ypes

24|Page
aboutoldpeopl
ebeingwiseri
snotnecessar
il
ytrue.Thekeyvari
abl
eappearst
obehavi
ngext
ensi
ve
l
ifeexperi
encewit
hthety
peofproblem gi
ven,notjustt
heli
feexper
iencei
ngener
al.

Postfor
mal t
hinki
nghasuncov er
edot heraspecti nwisdom, e.
g.awisepersonist
heonewhocan
i
ntegr
atethi
nking,f
eel
ing,andacti
ngi nt
oacoher entapproachtoaproblem.Thisi
mpl i
esthat
empathyandcompassi onareimportantcharacteri
sti
csofwi sepeopleduetothei
rabil
it
yto
over
comeaut omaticr
esponses.Alt
houghgr owi ngoldi snoguarant
eethatonewilldev
elopwisdom,
i
tdoesoffertheoppor
tunityt
oprovidesuppor ti
vecont extf
orwisdom acquisi
ti
on.

Quest
ion12 Chapt
er8

Agingadul
tshavet
oadjustt
ochangest
hatar
eoftendebi
li
tat
ing.Di
scusst
heissueofper
sonal
contr
olint
heli
vesofagi
ngadul
tsandhowtheycanbeassist
edtoretai
naposit
ivev
iewof
sel
f……[15]

1. Per
sonalCont
rol

Personalcont r
oli
sthedegr eetowhi chonebel i
evesthatone’sper
formanceinasi t
uati
ondependson
somethingt hatonepersonallydoes.Itisthef eel
ingofbeingincontr
olofone’
slife,anditi
simport
ant
topsychologicalwel
l-
bei ng.Ahighsenseofper sonalcontrol
impli
esabelieft
hatper f
ormanceisup
toyouandt hisresul
tsinmor el
ifesati
sf act
ion,While,
alowsenseofper sonalcontr
ol i
mpli
esthat
yourperformanceisdet erminedbyf orcesot hert
hany ourown.

Personalcontr
olgui
desbehaviourandrel
atestowell-
bei
ng.I
tisthoughttoplayarol
einmemor y,
i
ntell
igenceanddepressi
on.Locusofcontr
olinf
luenceswell
-bei
ng,heal
th,f
uncti
onalcapaci
tyandthe
abi
lit
yt ousesoci
alsupport
.

Asoneget
sol deronefindstheneedt obecomemor eandmor edependentonother
stoassist
.Itcan
bedr
ivi
ng,carr
yinggroceri
es.Personalcont
rolgui
desbehavi
ourandwell-
being.I
tal
soplaysarolein
memoryperformance,int
ell
igence,i
ndepressi
onandinadjust
menttoandsur vi
vali
nli
fe.

2. Mul
ti
dimensi
onal
it
yofPer
sonalCont
rol

Generalconsensusist hatper
sonal cont
rolismult
idimensi
onal.One’
ssenseofcontrol dependson
whichdomai nisbeingassessed( e.g.i
ntell
i
gence,heal
th)
.Therefor
echangesincontrol bel
ief
s
dependondomai nbeingexami ned.Researcher
sfoundnochangesi nasenseofcont rol ov
erone’
s
healt
hupt oearly70s.Thereaft
eritstar
tstodecli
ne.Posit
ivebeli
efsaboutper
sonalcont rolar
e
associat
edwi t
hlowerst ressacrossadulthood.

Researchersfoundthatmaint
aini
ngasenseofcont rolthroughoutadul thoodi
sli
nkedtobett
erqual
i
ty
ofsocialrel
ati
onshi
ps,bet
terhealt
h,andhighercognit
ivef unct
ioning.Theysuggestasenseof
controlmayoperateasaprotecti
vefact
orforone’swell-beingi
nt hef aceofdecl
i
ningheal
thand
otherlossesassoci
atedwit
htheoldestold.

3. Cont
rolSt
rat
egi
es

Brandstadter(
1999)pr
oposedthatpreserv
ationandstabi
li
zat
ionofaposi
ti
vev
iewoft
hesel
fand
personaldevel
opmenti
nlaterl
i
feinvolves3inter
dependentpr
ocesses:

25|Page
 Assimi l
ati
veact i
vi
ti
esareactivi
ti
esthatprev
entorall
eviatel
ossesindomainsthatar
e
personal
lyrelev
antforself
-est
eem andidenti
ty.Onemayj oi
ninacti
vi
ti
esthatrequi
resoci
al
i
nteracti
onlikebri
dgeclassesorplay
ingbowl orbookclub.

 Accommodat ions:peopl
emakeaccommodat i
onsandr eadj
ustthei
rgoalsandaspir
ati
onsasa
waytol essenorneut r
ali
setheef
fect
sofnegat
ivesel
f-
ev al
uati
onsinkeydomains.Soinsteadof
bei
ngi nvolvedinalotofacti
vi
ti
es,t
hepersonmaychoosef ewactiv
iti
esanddedicat
esomet ime
tofamily.Orinsteadofwalki
ng10mi nut
estot
helocalshop,t
heper sonmayincr
easeitto25
minutest ominimisefeel
ingsoff
ail
ure.

 Immunizi
ngmechanisms:t
hesealt
ertheeff
ectsofself
-di
scr
epantev
idence.I
fconfr
ontedwit
h
evi
dencethatone’
smemoryisdecl
i
ning,t
heylookforal
ter
nati
veexpl
anati
onsorsimplydenyt
he
evi
dence.

Heckhausenetal(2010)viewcontr
olasamot i
vati
onalsy
stem t
hatregul
ateshumanbehavi
ourover
theli
fespan.Thati
s,i
ndiv
idual’
sabi
li
ti
estocontrol
import
antoutcomes.Theybel
iev
edthatcont
rol
str
ategi
escanbedi v
idedintopri
maryandsecondary:

 Pr
imarycontrolst
rategi
esinvolvebr
ingi
ngtheenv
ironmenti
nli
newithone’
sdesi
resandgoal
s.
Li
keassi
milati
veactivi
ti
es,acti
onisdir
ect
edtowardschangi
ngtheext
ernal
worl
d.Ify
oulosty
our
j
obyouwoul dsearchforanother;

 Secondarycontr
olstr
ategiesinvol
vebri
ngi
ngone-sel
finl
i
newitht
heenv i
ronment.Li
ke
accommodat i
veacti
vi
ties,
itinvol
vescogni
ti
veact
ivi
ti
esdir
ect
edatsel
f.e.
g.appraisi
ngwhet
her
youreal
lyli
kedthej
oby oulost.

Inthi
sperspect
ivepr i
marycontrol hasmor ef uncti
onal impor t
anceoversecondary.Pri
mar ycontrol
l
etspeopleshapet hei
renvir
onmentt ofitt
hei rgoalsanddev elopmental
potenti
al.Thus,pri
mar y
contr
olhasadaptivevaluetothei ndiv
idual.Themaj orfunct ionofsecondarycontroli
stomi ni
mi se
l
ossesorexpandl evelsofpri
mar ycont r
ol.Thi shasi mpor tantconsequencesforaging.Schultzsays
asweage, themaintenanceofpr imarycont rolincr
easi nglydependonsecondar ycontr
ol pr
ocesses
duetothreatst
opr imarycontr
ol asaf unctionofbiol ogical decli
ne.Ther
eforesecondarycontrolwil
l
i
ncreasewithage.

Studiesshowthatani ndividual’
sbel i
efsaboutper sonalcontr
olareimportantcontri
butor
stopositi
ve
ornegat i
vewell
-bei
ng.I fsomeonef eelsthattheyhav econtr
olovergoodout come, t
hiscontr
olis
associatedwit
hhighemot ionalwell-bei
ng.Youngandmi ddl
eagedadul t
swi t
hst r
ongsenseof
controlmeansthattheycancompensat eforfail
ure.Olderadul
tsfocustheirsenseofcontrolonhow
tomast erever
ydaydemands.Foral lagegr oupsplanningforthefutur
eenhancest hesenseof
perceivedcont
rolandr esultsinhigherlif
esat i
sfacti
on.

From asociocul
tur
alperspect
ivether
eiscr i
ti
cism ofbi
ast owardsWest er
ncul
turesinthe
developmentofpri
maryandsecondaryt heor
ies.Thisperspectiv
esuggestscol
lecti
vi
sm inthe
societi
es.Heret
heemphasi si
snotont heindivi
duali
sti
cstrategies,
li
kepri
marycontrol
.Inst
ead,
the
goal i
stoestabl
i
shint
erdependenceandconnect ednesswi ththesociet
yorcommuni ty
.

4. Whatol
deradul
tsneedt
omai
ntai
nsel
f-
est
eem?

 Self
-est
eem r
isessteadil
yaspeopl
eage,butst
art
sdecli
ningaroundt
heti
meofr
eti
rement
accordi
ngtol
ongitudinalst
udyofmenandwomenr angi
ngf r
om 25–104.

 Self-
est
eem i srel
atedtobet
terheal
th,
lesscri
minalbehav
iour
,lowerl
evel
sofdepr
essionand
overal
lgreatersuccessinl
if
e.Iti
simportantt
olear
nmor eabouthowtheaver
ageperson’
sself
-
esteem changesov ert
ime.

 Educat
ion,
income,
heal
thandemploy
mentstat
ushadsomeeffectonsel
f-est
eem especial
lyas
peopl
eaged.Peopl
ewhohadhigheri
ncomeandbet
terheal
thi
nlaterl
i
fetendtomaintainthei
r

26|Page
 self
-est
eem ast
heyage.Itcannotbesai
dforcer
tai
nthatweal
thandbet
terheal
thar
edi
rect
ly
l
inkedtohi
ghersel
f-
esteem, butt
her
eappeartobesomelink.

 Accor di
ngtof i
ndings, peopleofallagesinsatisf
yingandsuppor t
iverel
ationshipstendtohave
higherself
-esteem.Despi temai nt
aininghigherself
-esteem t
hroughouttheirl
ives,peopl
einhappy
relat
ionshi
psexper iencet hesamedecl ineinself
-esteem dur
ingoldageaspeopl einunhappy
relat
ionshi
ps.Ther eforebeinginar elat
ionshi
pdoesnotpr ot
ectapersonagai nstthedecli
nein
self-
esteem thattypicall
yoccursinol dage.

 Therearetheor
iest
hatexpl
ainwhyself-
esteem ishi
gheri
nmi dl
ife.Mi
dli
feistheti
meofstabl
e
work,f
amilyandromanti
crelat
ionshi
ps.Peopl
eoccupypositi
onsofpowerandst atus,
which
mighti
ncreasethei
rsel
f-
esteem.Incontr
astolderadul
tsmaybeexper i
encingchangeinr
oles
suchasretir
ement,empt
ynestandobsol et
ewor kski
ll
sinaddit
iontodecli
ningheal
th.

 Therear
ealsofactorsofdailyliv
ingwhichhasimpactonself
-esteem, l
ikelosi
ngalovedone(e.
g.
spouse)
.Whent hatpersonwi thwhom youcouldconfr
ontmajorchallenges,shar
eideaswit
h,
sharel
if
e’smoment swith,orwasy ourbiggestf
anisnolongerthereandy oudonotrecei
ve
regul
arf
eedbackofy ourexistence,t
hatcanerodesel
f-
esteem.

 Sel
f-
est
eem i
nol
deradul
tswasf
oundst
rongl
yassoci
atedwi
th4essent
ial
cat
egor
ies:

o Ov
ercomi
ngheal
thconst
rai
nts,

o Aut
onomyorsenseofcont
rol
overone’
sli
fedeci
sions,

o Adequacyofsuppor
t,and

o Li
fe-
sat
isf
act
ion

 Thetechni
quesandatti
tudesofcaregi
ver
s,uponwhom olderdisabl
edadult
sdependonf or
neededhel
p,prof
oundlyinf
luencet
heposit
iveornegat
ivereact
ionsofdependentol
deradul
tsi
n
the4abovementionedcategori
es.

Quest
ion13 Chapt
er9

Withregardtot
henatureofident
it
ydevel
opmentduri
ngadult
hood,
explai
nandcompar eLogan’s
i
nterpret
ati
onofEr
ikson’st
heory,McAdams’l
if
e-st
orymodelandWhit
bourne’
sident
it
ytheory.[
20]

1. I
ntr
oduct
ion

Theoriessuchasfivef
actormodel ofper
sonalit
yandEr i
kson’spsy
chosocialmodel
descri
be
personali
tyfor
mationanddisposi
ti
onaltrai
ts.Thesetheor
ieshoweverlackasenseofcoherence,
uni
ty,int
egrati
onandoveral
lpurposeinit
sf ormulat
ionofpersonal
i
ty,
whi chcanbeenhancedby
i
ncludingtheconceptofi
ndivi
dualident
it
y .

Identi
tycanbedef i
nedasani ndivi
dual’
ssenseofself,constr
uctedt
hroughl
if
enarrati
vesandthe
i
nt er
nali
sationofevolvi
ngstor
ies,int
egrat
inganindiv
idual’
sreconst
ruct
edpast,
percei
vedpresent
andant i
cipatedfut
ure.Thi
sincludespersonalconcer
nssuchasgoal sandaspi
rati
ons.

2. Logan’
sint
erpr
etat
ionofEr
ikson’
sTheor
y

LogansawEr i
kson’stheoryasunclearandincomplet
eandt henher e-
inter
pret
edit.Logansuggest
ed
thatther
eisarelat
ionshipbetweenstages.Hefurt
hersuggestedthatErikson’
stheorycanbeseenas
acy cl
ewhichrepeats.Thethemesf r
om basictr
usttoident
ityt
ointegrit
yre-emerge.

Thepr
ocessofdev
elopmenti
sseenasoccur
ri
ngi
nthef
oll
owi
ngor
der
:

 Fi
r ct
stbasi r
ustmustbemast
ered

 Thenachi
evementi
spossi
ble,

 Andf
i ywhol
nal
l enesscanbeachi
eved

27|Page
Logansuggeststhatini
ti
all
ylearningabouttrustmeanslear ni
ngaboutoursel
vesandot
her
s.He
combinedEri
kson’sfir
st2dev elopmentalstages–basictrustv smist
rustandaut
onomyvsshame
anddoubt–tor epresentt
hef i
rstcycl
eoft hisdevel
opment altheme.

Thesecondcy
clewherethedev opmentoft
el rustre-
emergescanbeseeni nthesear
chforsomeone
wit
hwhom onecouldbev erycloseandform atrusti
ngr
elati
onshi
p.Thi
st hemeofint
imacyvs
i
solat
ional
soi
nvolvest
her e-emergenceoftheidenti
tyt
hemei nmasteri
nginti
macyvsisol
ati
on.I
t
al
someansmast er
ingt
heabi l
i
tytomaintai
none’ sownsenseofident
it
y.

Loganident
ifi
edtheneedforachi
evementasanongoingt
hemeinEri
kson’st
heor
y.Itcanbeseeni
n
chil
dhoodinini
ti
ati
vevsguil
tandindust
ryv
sinf
eri
ori
tyandagai
ninadul
thoodasgenerat
ivi
tyv
s
stagnat
ion.

Thecycl
eofident
it
yvsident
it
yconfusi
onthemecanbeseeninadol
escenceandi
saccompaniedby
thechal
l
engeofunder
standi
ngourselv
esaswor thwhi
l
eandwhol
e.Thi
schall
engewi
thwholenessr
e-
emergesint
helat
erst
ageofintegr
it
yv sdespai
r.

3. McAdams’
Lif
eSt
oryModel

McAdamsar guesthattheperson’sidenti
tycannotbeunder
stoodbylooki
ngatt rai
tsorper
sonal
concerns(l
ikeli
fegoalsorplans).Insteaditi
sbasedonastoryofhowt hepersoncamei nt
obeing.
Peoplecreateali
festorythatisani nt
ernal
isednarr
ati
vewit
habeginning,middleandanantici
pat
ed
end.Thisli
festor
yiscont i
nuall
yrev i
sedthroughoutl
if
easpeoplechangeandt heenvir
onmental
demandschange.

Theli
festor
ybeginsforminginlat
eadolescenceandearl
yadulthood,buthasitsroot
sinear
ly
att
achmentsininf
ancy,whil
eitisref
inedinadul
thoodandisrevisedandrefashi
onedinmidl
if
ebased
onli
fechanges.Theindi
vi
dual wil
lat
temptanappeali
ngstory“ending”i
nolderage.Theaimisto
gener
atenewbeginningsforfutur
egenerati
ons.

Essentialf
eatur
es:St
ori
esindi
cat
eone’
sbel
i
efsandv
alues,
ort
hei
deol
ogyaper
sonusest
osett
he
contextforhi
sorheract
ions.

I
ndiv
idual’
smotiv
ati
onschangeandareref
lectedint
heper
sonr
epeat
edl
ytr
yingt
oat
tai
nhi
sorher
goal
sov ert
ime.2commont hemesofgoal
si ncl
ude:

 Agency(
ref
lect
ingpower
,achi
evementandaut
onomy
)

 Communi
on(
ref
lect
ingl
ove,
int
imacyandsenseofbel
ongi
ng)

Thei
ndiv
idual’
spersonali
denti
tywil
lchangeandrefl
ecttheemotionsport
ray
edi nthestor
y(e.
g.at
ti
mesitmaybet ragedy
,comedyorromance) .I
dent
it
yisalsoshapedaroundideali
sati
onofthesel
f,
e.
g.t
hemot her,daught
er,
wife,
etc.I
tintegr
atesdi
ff
erentpersoni
fi
cati
ons.

Thepr ocessofshapi
ngandr eshapinglif
estor
iesmayatt i
mesbeconscious(e.
g.choosingacareer
),
whileatothert
imesitisunconsciousandi mpl
ici
t.I
tisstr
ongl
yinfl
uencedbycul
ture.St
oriesar
ea
productofbothspeakerandtheaudi ence.Thi
smeanst hatl
if
estori
esareaut
horedinrel
at i
ont
o
others.

Thegoal i
stocr
eat
ealif
estorythati
scoherent
,cr
edi
ble,
opentonewpossibil
i
ties,
dif
fer
entf
rom
otherst
ori
esandal
lowsfori
ntegrat
edsenseofsel
fandalsoi
ntegr
atedwi
thinone’ssoci
ocul
tur
al
context
.

4. Whi
tbour
ne’
sIdent
it
yTheor
y

Whi t
bournesuggest
sthatpeopleconstructt
heirownconcept
ionsofhowtheirl
ivesshoul
dproceed
result
inginthel
if
espanconstructortheindi
vidual
’
sunifi
edsenseofpast
,presentandfut
ure.Thel
if
e
spanconst r
ucti
sshapedbythei nf
luencesofident
ity
,val
uesandsoci
alcont
ext .

Li
fespanconst
ructhas2st
ruct
ural
component
s:

28|Page
 TheScenarioconsi
stofexpect
ati
onsaboutthefutureandinv
olv
eshowaspectsofouri
denti
ty
thatarei
mportantt
ousataspecifi
cti
mear etranslat
edint
oaplanfort
hefut
ure(agameplanor
storyofhowwewantourl i
vestogo)
.

 Thesecondcomponenti sthelif
estoryortheper sonalnar
rat
ivehistorythatorgani
sespast
eventsi
ntoacoherentsequence.Lif
estorycreatesacont i
nui
tyandper sonalmeani
ng.Aswe
repeatt
hisstor
ytoothers,i
tcanbecomeov er
-rehearsedanddistort
ionsmayoccurasmeansof
l
imiti
ngthefeel
ingsoffail
ureregar
dingcertai
naspect sofourstory.

Pr
ocessofi
dent
it
ydev
elopment
:

Ident
it
ymaydev el
opbasedonequili
bri
um devel
opingf
rom thecont
inuousfeedbackbetweeni
dent
it
y
andexper
ience.Thi
sprocessofequi
li
bri
um isbasedonPiaget’
sconceptsofassimi
lat
ionand
accommodation:

 Assi
mil
ati
oninvol
vesemploy
ingal
readyexist
ingaspect
sofidenti
tyt
ohandl
epr
esentsi
tuat
ions.
Over
-r
eli
ancetoassi
mil
ati
oncanresul
tinresi
stancetochange.

 Accommodat i
oninv
olveswi
ll
ingnessoft
hepersontoal
lowt
hesit
uati
ontodet
erminewhatt
hey
wil
ldo.Thi
softenhappensi
fthepersondoesnothaveawel
l
-dev
elopedi
dent
it
yarounda
part
icul
ari
ssue.

Sour
cesofi
dent
it
y:Whi
tbour
nedi
scov
ered2maj
oraspect
sofi
dent
it
yinherr
esear
ch:

 Mostadul
tsv
iewf
ami
l
yast
hemosti
mpor
tantaspectoft
hel
i
ves.

 Workal
soshownt
obeani mport
antsourceofi
dent
it
y.Whenindiv
idual
shaveengagi
ngand
i
nter
est
ingwor
ksi
tuat
ions,
thei
rworkident
it
ywasmor ecent
ral
topersonal
ident
it
y.

5. Compar
isonoft
het
hreet
heor
ies

Quest
ion14 Chapt
er9

“Oneoft heoldestdebatesinpsy chol

ogyconcer
nswhet herpersonal
it
ydev el
opmentcont i
nues
acrossthelif
espan”.Crit
icall
ydiscussvi
ewsoftheori
stsadv ocati
ngpersonal
ityconsi
stencyin
ter
msofcer t
aindisposit
ionaltr
aitsandthosewhoaccentuatepersonali
tychanges,wi
thspecial
ref
erencet opersonal
itystabil
it
yv er
suschangedur
ingadulthood…[20]

1. I
ntr
oduct
ion

Whatconsti
tutepersonali
ty?People’
scharact
eri
sti
cbehavi
ourscanbeunderstoodthroughattr
ibut
es
thatr
efl
ectunderl
yi
ngdi sposi
ti
onal t
rai
ts,
whichareendur
ingaspectsofper
sonali
ty.Three
assumpti
onsar emadeaboutt rai
tswhicharedeemedtobepr esentwhendeter
miningpersonali
ty:

 Tr
ait
sthatar
ebasedoncompar
isonsofi
ndi
vi
dual
s

 Qual
i
tiesofbehav
iour
smaki
ngupapar
ti
cul
art
rai
tmustbedi
sti
nct
iveenought
oav
oidconf
usi
on

 Tr
ait
sat
tri
but
edt
oaper
sonar
eassumedt
obest
abl
e.

2. Thecasef
orst
abi
li
ty

a. Cost
aandMcCr
ae’
sfi
vef
act
ormodel

29|Page
Thismodel i
sgr oundedi ncr
oss-sectional
, l
ongit
udinalandsequenti
alresearch.The5-f
actormodel
consistsof5i ndependentdimensi onsofper sonalit
y:Neurot
ici
sm;Extr
av er
sion;Opennessto
experience;Agreeablenessandconsci ent
iousness.Theysuggestthatpersonalit
ytr
ait
sstopchangi
ng
byage30andbecome“ seti
nplaster”.Overa12y earperi
odoflongi
tudinalstudi
es,t
heyfoundthat
personalit
ytrait
smeasur edwerehi ghlyst
able.

Inalongi
tudinal
studyof60,80and100y earolds,
donebyMar ti
nandcoll
eaguesfoundtherewer
eno
signi
fi
cantchangesacrossover
allpersonali
typatt
erns.However
,somechangesoccurredinthev
ery
oldwhichcouldbeexplai
nedbyincreasedwar i
nessofv i
cti
mizat
ioni
nolderadul
thood.

Thereisgrowingevi
dencebothst
abi
li
tyandchangecanbedetect
edinper
sonal
itytrai
tdevel
opment
acrosstheadultl
i
fespan.Thi
sfi
ndi
ngscameaboutbecauseofadvancesi
nstat
isti
caltechni
ques.
Theseresearcher
sfoundthewaypeopledi
ff
erinthei
rper
sonal
it
ybecomesmorepr onouncedwith
oldage:

 Ext
rav
ersi
onandopennessdecr
easewi
thage

 Agr
eeabl
enessi
ncr
easeswi
thage

 Consci
ent
iousnessappear
stopeaki
nmi
ddl
eage

 Neur
oti
cism of
tendi
sappear
sori
slessappar
enti
nlat
eli
fe

Itisther
efor
eevidentt
hatdespit
eimpressi
veevi
denceforstabi
l
ityusi
ng5factormodel
,evi
dence
alsoexist
sforchange.St
audingerandKunzmantri
edtoreconci
lethesedi
ff
erencesbypr
oposingt
hat
thereare2formsofpersonal
ity:
adjust
mentandgrowth

 Personal
it
yAdjust
mentinv
olvesdevel
opment
alchangesi
nter
msadapt
ivev
aluesand
funct
ioni
ngef
fecti
vel
yinever
ydayli
fe.

 Per
sonal
it
yGr
owt
href
erst
oideal
endst
ates,
e.g.wi
sdom,
int
egr
it
y,et
c

Gr
owthcannotoccurwi
thoutadj
ust
ment
.Gr
owt
hint
ermsofi
deal
endst
ate,
doesnotoccuri
n
ev
ery
one.

Whenl ookingatfivefact
ortheory
,changeswithageareseeni ntheabsenceofneuroti
cism and
presenceofagr eeabl
enessandconscienti
ousness.These3t r
ait
sar eassoci
atedwit
hper sonal
it
y
adjust
ment .Thereisdecreaseinopennesstonewexper i
enceswi t
hincreasi
ngage.Opennesst o
experi
encesi srel
atedtopersonalmaturi
ty,
asiti
shighlycorr
elatedwithegodevel
opment ,wisdom,
andemot ionalcomplexit
y.

b. Cr
it
iqueofr
esear
chf
orst
abi
li
ty

 The5f
act
ort
heor
ymayhav
emet
hodol
ogi
cal
probl
ems.

 Di
sposi
ti
onal
trai
tsdonotdescr
ibet
hecor
easpect
sofhumannat
ure.

 Di
sposi
ti
onal
trai
tsar
enotgoodpr
edi
ctor
sofbehav
iour

 St
abi
l
ityt
heor
ydoesnotconsi
dert
hecont
ext
ual
aspect
sofdev
elopment

 Assessmentofdi
sposit
ional
trait
sthroughquest
ionnair
esassumesthatther
espondenti
sabl
eto
takeanobj
ecti
ve,
evaluati
vestancetowardsthei
rpersonal
charact
eri
sti
cs.

3. Thecasef
orchange/dev
elopmentofper
sonal
it
yacr
ossl
if
espan

Per
sonalconcernstakeint
oaccountaperson’sdevelopmentalcontextanddisti
ngui
shbetween
havi
ngpersonal
ityt
rait
sandperfor
mingev er
y daybehavi
ours.Personalconcernsent
ail
descri
pti
ons
ofwhatpeoplearetry
ingtoaccompli
shandt hegoalstheyset.

30|Page
 a. Jung:Foundt
hef
oll
owi
ng:

 Var
iousaspect
sofper
sonal
i
tyi
semphasi
sedsuchasmascul
i
nit
y,f
emi
nini
ty,
ext
rov
ersi
onand
i
ntr
oversi
on.

 Peopl
emov etowardsi
ntegr
ati
ngt
hesedi
mensi
onsast
heyage,
wit
hmi
dli
febei
ngaspeci
aland
i
mportantper
iod.

 Youngadultsaremoreext
rov
ert
edastheyneedtofi
ndamat e,
dev
elopacar
eerandgetonwi
th
l
if
e.Olderadult
sbecomemor ei
ntr
over
tedastheygetol
der
.

 Hewasconv
incedt
hatper
sonal
i
tydev
elopmentcont
inuedacr
ossadul
thood.

b. Er
ikson:pr
oposedt
heor
ywhi
chpost
ulat
est
hef
oll
owi
ng:

 Ther
ear
esev
eral
dev
elopment
alst
ageswhi
chani
ndi
vi
dual
hast
onav
igat
e.

 Thet
heor
ycanbei
nter
pret
edasat
rust
-achi
evement
-whol
enesscy
cler
epeat
ingt
wice

 Gener
ati
vi
tyi
smor
epr
omi
nentt
hanot
heradul
tst
ages.

 Researchhasshownthatgener
ati
veconcer
nandgener
ati
veact
ioncanbef
oundacr
ossal
ladul
t
agegroups,butt
hatt
heyaremor eappar
entdur
ingmi
ddl
eage.

 Thetheoryf
unct
ionsaccor
dingtoepi
genet
icpri
nci
plewhi
chmeanst
hateachst
agehasi
tsown
speci
alti
meofascendancyorperi
odofimpor
tance.

 Becausethest
agesext
endacr
ossawhol
eli
fespan,
itt
akesal
i
fet
imet
oacqui
real
lpsy
chosoci
al
st
rengths.

c. Loev
inger

 8st
agesofper
sonal
i
tydev
elopmentar
econsi
der
ed.

 6oft
hesest
agesoccuri
nadul
thood

 Mostadul
tsnev
ergot
hroughal
lst
ages,
andt
hel
astl
evel
isachi
evedbyonl
yahandf
ulofpeopl
e.

 Mostadul
tsar
eatt
heconsci
ent
ious-
conf
ormi
stl
evel

 Li
nkst
ocogni
ti
vedev
elopmentar
eappar
ent
.

 I
tmakesuseofthesent
ence-
compl
eti
ont
estwhi
chhasahi
gherr
eli
abi
l
ityt
hanot
herper
sonal
i
ty
dev
elopmentmeasur
es.

d. Concl
usi
onaboutper
sonal
concer
nst
heor
ies

 Thet
heor
iesshowt
hatsubst
ant
ivechangesoccuri
nadul
ts’
per
sonal
concer
nsast
heyage.

 Thi
sev
idenceofchangei
sinshar
pcont
rastt
otheev
idenceofst
abi
l
ityshownby5f
act
ort
heor
y.

 Acl
oseconnect
ionbet
weenchangeandspeci
fi
cagesi
snotsuppor
tedbyt
hebul
koft
hedat
a.

 I
tfi
ndst
hatchangeratheroccursinwidewi
ndowsoft
imedependi
ngonmanycont
ext
ual
fact
ors,
i
ncl
udesoci
o-cul
tur
alcir
cumst ances.

31|Page
 4. Li
feNar
rat
iveTheor
ies

McAdamsar guest hatonecr

eatesali
festor
ythati
sani nter
nali
sednar r
ati
vewit
habegi nni
ng,a
middleandananticipat
edending.Anadul
twouldhavereformulat
edt hatl
if
estor
ythroughout
adult
hood.Thisl
i
fest oryr
efl
ectsemoti
ons,moti
vat
ions,beli
efs,v
aluesandgoalssetinthecont
ext
forbehavi
our.

Whitbournebel
ievesthatpeopl
ehaveal
if
espanconst
ruct
;auni
fi
edsenseoft
hepast
,presentand
fut
ure.Sheint
egratestheconcept
sofPi
aget
’sassi
mil
ati
onandaccommodati
ont
oexplainhow
people’
sident
it
ychangeov erti
me.

Conclusi
onsaboutLi
feNarr
ativ
e:Tof ul
lyunderst
andaperson,weneedtoconsi
derhowthe
i
ndivi
dualint
egr
atest
hei
rli
feint
oacoher entstr
uctur
e.Theli
fenar
rat
iveappr
oachprovi
desawayt
o
l
earnhowpeopleaccompli
shthisi
ntegrati
on.

32|Page
Quest
ion15 - Chapt
er11 Rel
ati
onshi
ps

Relat
ionshipswithothersarekeyaspect
sofbei nghumanbutt henat
ureandfuncti
onsof
fri
endshipsdif
ferduri
ngchi l
dhoodandadulthood.Discusstheuniquerol
eplayedbyfr
iendshi
p
rel
ati
onshipsacrosst headultl
if
espan.Alsorefert
odi f
ferencesinmen’sandwomen’sfri
endshi
ps
aswel lastocross-
sexf r
iendshi
ps….
.[
15]

TYPESOFRELATI
ONSHI
PS

1. FRI
ENDSHI
PS

 Researcher
sdefi
nefri
endshi
pasamut
ual
rel
ati
onshi
pinwhi
cht
hosei
nvol
vedi
nfl
uenceone
another’
sbehav
iour
sandbelief
s.

 Fr
iendshi
pqual
i
tyi
sdef
inedast
hesat
isf
act
ionder
ivedf
rom t
her
elat
ionshi
p.

 Fr
iendsar
easour
ceofsuppor
tthr
oughoutadul
thood.

 Fr
iendshi
psaredi
ffer
entf
rom lov
erelat
ionshi
psmai
nlybecausef
ri
endshi
psar
elessemot
ional
l
y
i
ntenseandusual
l
ydonoti nv
olvesex.

FRI
ENDSHI
PSI
NADULTHOOD:

 ABCDEModel :Adultf
ri
endshipscanbeviewedashav i
ngi
denti
fi
abl
est
ages,
namel
y,
Acquai
ntanceshi
p,Bui
ldup,Conti
nuat
ion,
Deteri
orat
ionandEndi
ng.

o Developmentofarelat
ionshi
pfrom At
oBdependsondif
fer
entthingssuchasbasi
sof
att
racti
on,whateachpersonknowsabouttheot
her
,communicat
ionbetweenboth
part
ners,per
ceiv
edimpor t
anceofthef
ri
endshi
p.

o Whet
herf
ri
endshi
pendsdependsonav
ail
abi
l
ityofal
ter
nat
iver
elat
ionshi
ps.

 Longi
tudi
nal
studi
esshowhowf
ri
endshi
pschangeacr
ossadul
thood.

o Peopletendtohavemor
efr
iendsandacquai
ntancesdur
ingy
oungadul
thoodt
hanatany
subsequentper
iod.

o Fr
iendshi
psarei
mport
antthr
oughoutadul
thoodbecauseaperson’
sli
fesat
isf
act
ioni
s
st
ronglyr
elat
edt
othequanti
tyandqual
it
yofcontact
swi t
hfr
iends.

o Qual
i
tyandpur
poseofl
atel
i
fer
elat
ionshi
psar
eimpor
tant
:

 Havi
ngfri
endspr
ovi
desbuf
feragai
nstl
ossesofr
olesandst
atusordeat
hof
l
ovedones

 I
ncr
easeshappi
nessandsel
f-
est
eem

 Posi
ti
vebenef
it
soff
ri
endshi
p:

o St
udi
esindi
catethatbei
ngfacedwit
hthreateningsi
tuat
ionswit
hfri
endsandal
oneresul
t
i
ndif
fer
entbrai
nprocessi
ng.Iff
acedwit
ht hreatal
oneneuroi
magingshowedpart
softhe

33|Page
 br
aint
hatr
espondt
othr
eat
,butdonotr
espondwhenf
aci
ngsamet
hreatwi
thaf
ri
end.

o Theref
oreclosefri
endshipschangethewaythebr
ainf
uncti
onsr
esul
ti
ngi
nper
cept
ions
offeel
ingsaferandfeel
ingthatthet
rial
sar
emanageable.

 Pat
ter
nsoff
ri
endshi
psi
nol
deradul
ts:

o Ol
derwomenhav
emor
enumer
ousandi
nti
mat
efr
iendshi
pst
hanol
dermen.

o Bothmenandwomen’
sfr
iendshi
psev
olv
eov
ert
imeandbecomei
mpor
tantsour
cesof
suppor
tinl
atel
i
fe.

 Thr
eet
hemesordi
mensi
onsofadul
tfr
iendshi
ps:

o Aff
ect
ive/emot i
onalbasi
soffri
endshi
pref
erstosel
f-
discl
osur
eandexpressi
onsof
i
nti
macy,appreci
ati
on,af
fect
ionandsuppor
t.Al
lar
ebasedont r
ust
,loy
alt
yand
commit
ment .

o Shared/communalnatureoff
ri
endshi
pref
lect
showf
ri
endspar
ti
cipat
einorsuppor
t
act
ivit
iesofmut
ual
int
erest.

o Soci
abil
it
yandcompati
bili
tydi
mensi
onrepr
esent
showfri
endskeepeachot
her
ent
ert
ainedandar
esourcesofamusement,
funandr
ecr
eati
on.

These3t hemesarefoundinfr
iendshi
psamongadultsofal
lagesandtheychar
acter
iseboth
tr
adit
ional(f
acetofaceorper
sont operson)andonl
i
nefri
endshi
ps.I
nonli
nefri
endshipt
rust
devel
opsont hebasisof4sources:

Reput
ati
on:
groundedi
nanony
mit
yorscr
eennameoract
ual
off
li
nei
dent
it
y.

Per
for
mance:t
hisi
swhatuser
sdoonl
i
ne

Pr
e-commi
tment
:thr
oughper
sonal
sel
f-
discl
osur
e

Si
tuat
ionalf
act
ors:

LI
FESPANTHEORYOFSOCI
O-EMOTI
ONALSELECTI
VITY(
CARSTENSEN)
:

 Thist
heoryarguesthatsoci
alcont
acti
smotivat
edbyv
ari
etyofgoal
sincl
udi
ngi
nfor
mat
ion
seeki
ng,sel
f-
conceptandemot i
onalr
egul
ati
on.

 Eachofthesegoal
sar
eimpor
tantatdi
ff
erentpoi
ntsofadul
tli
feandr
esul
tsi
ndi
ff
erentsoci
al
behav
iours.

 Wheninfor
mati
onseekingisagoal
,thepersonexpl
orestheworl
dtr
yingtofi
gur
eouthowt
heyf
it
,
whatother
sar
elike.Meet
ingnewpeopleisanimportantpar
toft
heprocess.

 Whenemoti
onalregul
ati
onist
hegoal
,peopl
ebecomehi
ghl
ysel
ect
ivei
nthei
rchoi
ceofsoci
al
par
tner
sandpref
erpeoplewhoar
efamili
art
othem.

NATUREANDI
MPORTANCEOFFRI
ENDSHI
PSI
NSTAGESOFADULTHOOD:

 Pat
ter
nsoff
ri
endshi
pamongol
deradul
tst
endt
omi
rr
ort
hosei
nyoungadul
thood.

 Ol
derwomenhav
emor
enumer
ousandi
nti
mat
efr
iendshi
pst
hanol
dermen

 Ol
deradult
stendtohavefewerr
elat
ionshi
pswit
hpeopleingener
alanddev
elopf
ewernew
r
elat
ionshi
psthanpeopl
edoinmidli
feandinyoungadul
thood.

34|Page
 Carstensenandcol
leagueshaveshownthatthechangesinsoci
albehavi
ourseeni
nlat
eli
fe
ref
lectamor ecompli
catedandimport
antprocess.Theypr
oposedalif
espantheor
yof
socioemotional
sel
ecti
vit
y.

 Theybeli
evet
hati
nfor
mationseekingi
sthepredomi
nantgoal
fory
oungadult
s,emotional
regul
ati
onist
hemajorgoalf
orolderpeopl
e,andbot
hgoalsar
ebalancedi
nmidli
fe.

 Thei
rresearchsuppor
tthev
iewt
hatpeopl
ebecomesel
ect
ivei
nwhom t
heychooset
ohav
e
cont
actwith.

 Magaisummar
izedsev
eral
appr
oachest
oemot
ional
dev
elopmentacr
ossadul
thoodand
concl
udedt
hat
:

o Peopl
eori
entmor
etowar
dsemot
ional
aspect
sofl
i
feandper
sonal
rel
ati
onshi
psast
hey
growol
der
,

o Emot
ional
expr
essi
onandexper
iencebecomemor
ecompl
ex.

 Ol
deradul
tsar
emor esel
ecti
veandhavefeweroppor
tuni
ti
est
omakenewf
ri
ends,
especi
all
yin
vi
ewoftheemoti
onalbondsinv
olv
edinfr
iendshi
ps.

COMPENSATI
ONFORLOSSOFFRI
ENDSHI
PINADULTHOOD

 For
mingnewf
ri
endshi
ps

 Redef
ini
ngt
heneedf
orf
ri
ends

 Dev
elopi
ngal
ter
nat
ivenon-
soci
alact
ivi
ti
es

GENDERDI
FFERENCESI
NFRI
ENDSHI
PS:

 Women:

o Basef
ri
endshi
psonmor
eint
imat
eandemot
ional
shar
ing

o Usef
ri
endshi
pasmeanst
oconf
idei
not
her
s

o Conf
idi
ngi
not
her
sisabasi
sofwomen’
sfr
iendshi
ps

o Get
ti
ngt
oget
herasf
ri
endsi
nvol
vesdi
scussi
onofper
sonal
mat
ter
s

 Men

o Basef
ri
endshi
psonshar
edact
ivi
ti
es

o Li
ket
ocompet
e–sel
dom conf
ideaswomendo

o Compet
it
ionf
ormspar
toff
ri
endshi
ps,
emphasi
sisonsoci
alel
ement

 Cr
oss-
sexf
ri
endshi
ps:

o Hav
ebenef
ici
alef
fect
,especi
all
yformen

o Hel
pment
ohav
elowerl
evel
sofdat
inganxi
etyandhi
ghercapaci
tyofi
nti
macy

o Canbet
roubl
esomebecauseofmi
sper
cept
ions–menov
erest
imat
eandwomen

35|Page
 under
est
imat
ethei
rfr
iend’
ssexual
int
eresti
nthem

o Maintai
ningcross-
sexfri
endshi
psonceindiv
idual
senteri
ntoexclusi
vedat
ing
rel
ati
onships,marr
iageorcommi t
tedr
elat
ionshi
psisdif
fi
cultandoft
enresul
tsi
none
part
nerfeeli
ngjeal
ous.

Quest
ion16 Chapt
er12

Dual-
earnercoupl esarefoundmor eof t
ennowaday sthanev erbefor
e.Thissi
tuati
onresul
tsin
benefit
saswel lascost sforper
sonsi nvolvedint
hisarr
angement .Whatar et
hemai nbenefi
tsand
costsofdual-
ear nerarr
angement sandhowcant hebenef i
tsbeopt i
misedandthecostsbedealt
wit
hi nthemostposi ti
veway ?Inyourdi scussi
onrefert
ocogni ti
veandpersonali
tychar
acter
ist
ics
ofadultsasfactor st
hatplayimportantr ol
esindual
-earnersit
uati
ons….[
10]

36|Page
 1. Benef
it
s

Sel
f-
concept
:

 Womenwhowor
kful
lti
meexper
iencel
essanxi
etyanddepr
essi
ont
hanf
ull
timehomemaker
s.

 Husbandsgetmor
einv
olv
edwi
thchi
l
dcar
e.

 Wor
kpr
ovi
debuf
ferf
orst
ressathome

 Combi
ningr
olesofwor
kandf
ami
l
yisgener
all
yconduci
vet
owel
l
bei
ng.

Fi
nanci
aladv
ant
age:

 Famil
i
esneedtheduali
ncometopaytheirbil
lsandmaintainmoderatest
andar
dofl
i
ving.Dual
ear
nerfami
l
iesarel
esseconomi
call
yvulnerablethansi
ngle-ear
nerf
amili
es.

 Mor
efi
nanci
alr
esour
cesandmor
edi
sposabl
eincome

 I
fpar
tner
sadoptwi
sespendi
ngpr
act
ices,
theycanhav
emor
esecur
efi
nanci
alf
utur
e.

2. Cost
s

Whoi
srai
singt
hechi
ldr
en?

 Biggestdisadvantageisthestress.Workandfami l
yinfl
uenceeachother
.Whent hi
ngsgobadly
atwor k,
thef amil
ysuf f
ersandv i
ceversa.Theinf
luenceisnotthesameineachdi r
ect
ion.The
i
nf l
uenceisacompl exfunct
ionofsupportresour
ces, t
ypeofjobandotheri
ssues.

 Wor
kst
resshasbi
ggeri
mpactonf
ami
l
yli
fet
hanf
ami
l
yst
ress.

 Ther
eisast
ruggl
eforef
fect
ivet
imemanagementandchi
l
drenof
tensuf
fer
.

 Whosewor
kismor
eorl
essi
mpor
tanti
fchi
l
drenar
esi
ck?

 Wor
korf
ami
l
yaf
fect
edbyl
i
fest
agesoff
ami
l
y

Rol
eov
erl
oad

 Especi
all
yforwomenwhoareforcedint
omulti
pler
oles,
li
ke,
car
ingforfamil
ymember sincl
uding
parent
s.Therei
sunequal
div
isi
onoflabourwhi
chcausesmostargumentsandunhappiness.

 Li
tt
let
imef
orpar
ent
stor
elaxandl
i
ttl
eti
met
owor
konmar
it
alr
elat
ionshi
p

 Tr
adi
ti
onal
rol
esov
erl
apwi
thwor
krol
es.Whodoeswhat
?

 Somewomenpayhi
ghper
sonal
pri
cef
orcar
eer
.

3. Howt
oeaset
hepr
essur
eandmakei
twor
k?

 Justaswebudgetf
inances,
alsobudgett
ime,
pri
ori
ti
se,
planandschedul
ewor
kandhomeev
ent
s.

 Askforhel
p,delegat
eresponsi
bil
i
ties,
wor
ktoget
hert
odr
awupequi
tabl
eandf
airal
l
ocat
ionof
chor
esandr esponsi
bil
i
ties.

 Communi
cat
ewi
thoneanot
her

 Setboundar
iesbet
weenwor
kandf
ami
l
yti
me.

 I
dent
if
yasuppor
tsy
stem f
oremer
genci
es.

37|Page
 Ast
rongmar
it
alr
elat
ionshi
pwi
l
lresul
tinl
essi
nter
-r
oleconf
li
ct.

 Learhowt
odeal
wit
hmul
ti
pler
oles

4. Cogni
ti
vef
act
orst
hatpl
ayr
olei
ndual
-ear
nersi
tuat
ions

Thesearecharact
eri
sti
csofaper sonthataf
fectper
f or
manceandlearni
ng.Thesef
actorsserveto
modulateperf
ormancesuchthatitmayi mproveordecli
ne.Thesef
actor
sinvol
vecognit
ivefuncti
ons
l
ikeatt
enti
on,memor yandreasoning.Cogni
ti
vefactorsar
einter
nalt
oeachpersonandser v
et o
modulatebehavi
our.

Therearecostsandbenefit
sthatcomewi thdual earnerrel
at i
onshipse.
g.ti
me, energydemands,
confl
ict
sbetweenrol
es( workandf amil
y),r
ival
rybetweenspouses.St er
nberg’
sr esearchonwisdom
defi
nesitastheappl
icati
onoftacitknowledgeandv aluest owardsachievi
ngthecommongood.Dual
earni
nglif
eisstr
essf
ul butthebenefi
tscanbehugel yr ewardingifcoupl
eswor ktogetherandwisel
y
makingthemostofwhatt heyhave.Theyneedt oi nt
egr at
et houghtandemot i
ont oshowcompassion
andempat hy
.

Post-
formaloper at
ionalthought:Thisisthefurt
herdev elopmentonPi aget’stheoryofcogniti
ve
devel
opment .Intheprocessofgi v
eandt ake,
optimisingbenefit
sbypar ti
cipatingindiscussi
onsand
arr
ivi
ngatsol ut
ionstogetherinalogicalandmet hodicalmanner ,
eachpar t
nerf eel
stheyarepartof
theprocess.Forcouplestomakeadeci siontheyrequi r
ediscussion,
thought ,analysi
sand
compr omise.Accordi
ngtoPi agetstudyingimprovesf ormalthoughtoperation.

Thereisnoonesizefi
tsal
linproblem solv
ing.Postf
ormalt
houghtisempl
oyedbyappl
yi
ngcr
it
ical
thi
nkingtechni
quesandacknowledgi
ngt hatone’
sownv i
ewisnottheonl
ycorr
ectvi
ew.

Mat urecouplesappl
ythepr
ocessofr el
ativ
ism intheirthi
nki ngandproblem sol
ving.Understandi
ng
thattherearemanyv i
ewpoi
ntsorsidestoasi t
uati
on.Onecanchooseasi detoani ssue,whil
st
all
owingot herst
ohavethei
ropi
nions.Itcanbedi f
ficulti
nf amili
esifhusbandbelievesthat
housewor kiswomen’sworkandthewi febeli
evesthatear ningincomeisadual responsibil
i
ty.

Aprogressi
onofrel
ativism isdial
ecti
calt
hinki
ng.Thi
sisapplyingtheconceptofrelat
ivi
sm t
omany
di
ff
erentandequall
yv ali
dv i
ewpoi nt
sbutthenbei
ngabletosy nthesi
sethem i
ntoawor kabl
esolut
ion
whi
chpr oducest
rongr elat
ionshipcommitmentandadef i
nit
epl anofacti
on.Couplesexamine
di
ff
eri
ngpoi nt
sofview, div
idetasksandresponsi
bil
it
iesaccordingl
y.

5. Per
sonal
it
ychar
act
eri
sti
cst
hatpl
ayr
olei
ndual
-ear
nersi
tuat
ions

Behavi
ouri
nvolvesinteracti
onbetweenperson’
sunderl
yi
ngper
sonali
tyandsit
uat
ionalvar
iables.The
si
tuat
ionapersonf i
ndst hemsel
vesinplay
samaj orrol
einhowtheyreact
.Inmostcases,responses
ar
econsist
entwi t
hper sonali
tyt
rai
ts.

Cost
aandMcCr
ae’
s5per
sonal
i
tyt
rai
ts:

 Extr
aversion:I
tincl
udeschar
acter
ist
icssuchasexcit
abi
li
ty,soci
abi
l
ity
,tal
kat
iveness,
assert
ivenessandhighamountsofemot i
onalexpr
essi
veness.

 Agreeabl
eness:I
ncl
udesat
tri
but
essuchast
rust
,al
tr
uism,
kindness,
aff
ect
ionandot
herpr
osoci
al
behavi
ours.

 Consci
ent
iousness:I
ncludehighl
evel
softhoughtful
nesswi
thgoodimpul
secont
rolandgoal-
di
rect
edbehaviour
s.Thosehighinconsci
ent
iousnesstendt
obeorgani
sedandmindfulofdet
ail
.

 Neur
otici
sm:Indiv
idual
shi
ghinthistr
aitt
endt
oexper
ienceemot
ional
inst
abi
l
ity
,anxi
ety
,
moodiness,
irr
it
abil
it
yandsadness.

38|Page
 Openness:I
ncl
udei
magi
nat
ionandi
nsi
ght
.Peopl
ehi
ghi
nthi
str
aitt
endt
ohav
ebr
oadr
angeof
i
nter
ests.

Under
standi
ngpersonal
it
yt y
pesishel
pful
forappr
eci
ati
ngt
hatwhi
l
epeoplear
ediff
erent
,everyone
hasavalue,
andspecial
strengt
hsandquali
ti
es.Ev
ery
oneshoul
dbetr
eat
edwithcar
eandr espect.

AccordingtoCar lJungev ery

bodyhasel ement sofmascul i
nit
yandf emi ni
nit
y.Mostpeopleexpress
one,whilstworkinghar dtosuppresstheot her.Weacti naccordancewi thgenderster
eotyper ol
es.
Withagepeopl eexpr essthesuppressed–mengeti ntouchwithf emini
nesideandwomenbecome
morecomf ort
ablewithmanl ypursui
ts.Thiscr eatesbetterbal
anceasmenandwomencandeal wit
h
thei
rindivi
dualneedsv sbei
ngdrivenbysoci alstereoty
pes.Dual earnercoupleswil
lbenefi
tfrom
understandingthatrolesandresponsibil
i
tiesshi fti
nadulthoodandt hiscanenhanceandst rengthen
rel
ati
onships.AlsoofJungi anorigi
nisthedi stincti
onbet weenintr
ov er
sionandextr
aversi
on.Itis
i
mpor tantforcouplest obebalanced,i
.e.ahi ghlyemotionalpartnerneedsamor estable,
logical
part
nert obalanceoutt herel
ati
onship.

AccordingtoRyffthereisagrowi
ngdemandf ori
ndividual
stounder
takepersonal
growt handhavea
purposeinli
fe.Coupleswhocanmast erthei
renv
ironmentareablet
omakeuseofr esourcesand
opportuni
ti
es.Thistransl
atestomor
ei ncomeandgr owthoppor
tuni
ti
esforbothparti
es.

39|Page
Quest
ion17 Chapt
er12

Peopleneedtopr epareforret
ir
ementandt heyal
sohav etoadjusttoit.Di
scussthecomplexissue
ofret
irement,andexplai
nhowpeopl ecanpr epar
eforretir
ementandadj usttoit
.Alsodi
scusswhat
theeff
ectsofr et
ir
ementar eforaperson’ssel
f-
concept,soci
alcognit
ionandr el
ati
onshi
pwith
famil
y,fr
iendsandwi dercommunity….[20]

1. Def
ini
ti
on

Reti
rementiscomplet
ewithdr
awalfr
om ful
lti
mewor koremployment.Resear
chersvi
ewreti
rement
asoneoft het
ransi
ti
onspeopl
eexperi
enceinli
fe.Theseday
speoplecancontinuetoworkaf
ter
ret
ir
ementonaper tti
mebasistogetpai
dforwor kdone,
orvol
unteerbasi
s,wherepaymenti
s
minimalornotatal
l.

2. Whydopeopl
eret
ir
e?

 Moreworkersr
eti
rebychoi
ce.Aper
sonmayf
eelfi
nanci
all
ysecureandtheyhav
eot
herpl
anst
o
pur
sue.Theymaywanttospendqual
it
yti
mewit
hthei
rpartnerandt
ravel
.

 Mostcompani
eshav
eamandat
oryagef
orr
eti
rement
.

 Peoplemaybefor
cedtoret
irebecauseofj
obl
oss.Manycompani
esworl
dwidear
edownsizi
ng,
andareoff
eri
ngpackagest
oempl oyeest
ogoonearl
yret
ir
ement(
wherether
eismandat
oryage
forr
etir
ement
).

 Heal
thr
easons.Poorheal
thi
soneoft
hemai
nreasonspeopl
eret
ir
e.

Deci
siont
oret
ir
eisi
nfl
uencedbyt
heper
son’
soccupat
ional
hist
oryandgoal
expect
ati
ons.

3. Genderdi
ff
erences

Womenexper i
encereti
rementdifferent
lyf
rom men.Womenmayst ayathomeandr ai
sethechi
ldr
en
andt heref
ore,enterworkforcel
ate.Ingeneralt
heyhavemor edi
sconti
nuousworkhist
ori
es.Havi
ng
fewerf i
nancialr
esourcesmi ghtaffectwomen’sdeci
siontoret
ir
e.Woment endtospendlesst
ime
planningtoreti
re.Researchshowt hatwomenwhosehusbandshav epoorhealt
horhadmor e
dependant s,
chooset oretir
e.Formeni tcouldbedif
ferent
.

4. Et
hni
cdi
ff
erencesi
nSout
hAf
ri
ca

InSAt hecul
turesarediverse.I
neachcultur
eolderpersonsmayhav edi
ffer
entr ol
estopl ay.Many
peoplemayr eti
reatdif
ferentagesandstagesofthei
rlives.Olderpeopl
emaychooset ol i
vein
multi
plegenerati
onhomesandl ookaft
ergrandchi
ldr
en.Manychooset oliv
ei ntherural areasand
l
ookaf tergr
andchil
drenwhi l
stthei
rchi
l
drenwor ki
nt heciti
es.Foreconomicr easons,manySout h
Afr
icansmaychooset owor kaslongaspossibl
e,ift
heirhealt
hi sgoodandt hereissuitablework
envi
ronment .

5. Ret
ir
ementpl
anni
ng

Oneofthemostimport
antfact
ortosuccessf
ulret
ir
ementispl
anni
ng.Thisisnecessar
yforfi
nanci
al
andpsy
chologi
calr
easons.I
freti
rementi
splannedtheper
sonismoreli
kelytohavesuccessf
uland

40|Page
happyr
eti
rement
.Ret
ir
ementi
samaj
orl
i
fechangeandmanyf
act
orsneedt
obet
akeni
ntoaccount
.
Thesei
ncl
ude:

 WhendoIr
eti
re?For
cedorchoi
ce?

 Psychol
ogi
cal
aspects:
identi
ty;
whatwi
l
ltakepl
aceoff
ormal
wor
k;howt
omanagechange;
and
therol
eoff
amilyandfr
iends.

 Fi
nanci
al:
Pensi
onf
unds,
UIF,
Inv
est
ment
s,banki
ngandpensi
oner
s’di
scount
s

 Heal
th:
Nor
mal
agi
ng,
stay
ingheal
thy
,impor
tanceofexer
cise,
medi
cal
aid

 Housi
ngopt
ions:
ret
ir
ementv
il
lage,
oldagehomes

 Lei
sur
eact
ivi
ti
es:
hobbi
es,
vol
unt
eer
ing,
clubs

 Legal
:Wi
l
l

6. Adj
ust
mentt
oret
ir
ement

Retir
ementcomeswi thchangingr ol
esandl i
festyle.Adj
ust mentt oret i
rementev olveswithti
measa
resultofcompl exinteractionswithphysicalhealth,fi
nancialstat
us, degr eetowhi chreti
rementwas
voluntary,andfeelingsofper sonalcontr
ol.Forpeopl etofeel positi
veaboutr eti
rementtheyneed
fi
nanci alsecuri
ty,health,supportsyst
em off ami l
yandf r
iendsandi nternall
ydr i
vensenseof
mot i
v ati
on.Personal compet encegiveshighl evelofsati
sfactioninr etir
ement .Thisisbecause
compet entpeoplear eabletoopt i
misetheirlevelofenvir
onment alpr ess-EPi sthephy sical
,
i
nterper sonal
,orsoci aldemandst hatenv i
ronment sputonpeopl e.

 Competence:i
stheupperli
mitofaperson’
sabil
it
ytofunct
ioni
n5domains–phy
sical
heal
th;
sensor
y-per
cept
ionski
l
ls;motorski
l
ls;
cogniti
veski
ll
sandegostrengt
h.

 Adapti
onlevel
:whenpressleveli
sav erageforaparti
cularlevelofcompetence,behavi
ourand
aff
ectarenormal
.Sl
ightincr
easeinpr esstendtoimproveper formance–t hi
sislabel
l
edas“ zone
ofmaximum perf
ormancepot ent
ial
.Slightdecr
easeinpr esscreates“zoneofmaximum comf ort
”
–whereolderpeopl
eliv
ehappi l
ywithoutwor r
yingaboutenv i
ronmentaldemands.

 Congruencemodel :Thi
smodel assertthatpeopl
ewithpart
icul
arneedssearchforthe
envi
ronmentthatmeett hem best.Whent her
eisamatch,ol
derpeoplefeel
content.Ift
her
eis
mismatch,t
hiscreatesstressanddi scomf or
tinr
eti
rement.

 Ret
irementmy t
hs:Healthstart
stodecli
ne–notuni ver
sal.I
fret
ir
ementi
schosen,
healt
hcan
i
mpr ov
e.Personalr
elat
ionshipsdecl
i
ne–nott rue.Reti
redpeopl
ebecomelessact
ive–theycan
st
artvolunt
aryworkandbeabl etohelpother
s.

7. Ef
fect
sofr
eti
rementonsel
f-
concept

Decisi
ontoreti
reinvolveslossofoccupati
onalidentit
yandnotwhatpeopl emayaddintotheirl
ives.
Whatpeopledof oralivingisamaj orpar
toftheirident
it
y.Wei nt
roduceoursel
vesasteacher,
doctor,
andaccountant.Notdoi ngthosejobsanymoreweei t
herputthataspectofourl
iv
esinthepasttense
“Iusedtobeadoct or”orsaynot hi
ngatall
.Lossoft hisaspectofoursel
vescanbedif
ficul
t,sosome
l
ookf orot
herlabelotherthanretir
edtodescri
bet hemselves.

8. Ef
fect
sofr
eti
rementoni
nti
mat
erel
ati
onshi
ps,
fami
lyandf
ri
ends

Marri
edcoupl
esgiv
eeachothersupportdur
ingtransi
ti
ontoret
ir
ement
.Ther
ecoul
dbefr
ict
ionas
nowther
eismoretimetospendwitheachother.Onepart
nermaybeusedtogi
vi
ngor
dersatwork.
Str
ongmarri
agesareabl
etoworkthroughthis.

41|Page
Menwhohavenev
ermar
ri
edseem t
oadj
ustwel
l
.Wher
eas,
div
orcedorwi
dowedmenseem t
obe
l
esshappy
.

Fri
endshi
pnetwor
ksandi
nti
matefami
l
yfor
m suppor
tsy
stem f
orr
eti
rees.Aper
sonmayneed
companionf
orlei
sur
eact
ivi
ti
es.

9. Ef
fect
sofr
eti
rementoncommuni
tyt
ies

Volunt
eerwor
kassi
stsaper
sontobeinvol
vedwit
hcommuni
ty.Thi
sprovi
desser
vicet
oot
hers.
Researchi
ndi
cat
est
hatvol
unteer
sexper
iencei
ncr
easei
npsy
chologi
calwel
l-
bei
nganheal
th.

Quest
ion18 Chapt
er13

Proponent
softhecontextual
approachar ecrit
icaloft
hestagetheori
esofdy i
ngincontendi
ngthat
ther
eisnooner i
ghtwaytodie.Discussthisstatementbyevaluat
ingKubler
-Ross’
stheoryofdy
ing
andthenproposi
ngwhyt hecontextualapproachismor ehol
ist
icapproachtodyi
ng….[
20]

1. Kubl
er-
RossTheor
y

Sheassertedt
hatpeopl
efacedwi
thdeat
hexper
iencedsev
eral
emot
ional
react
ions.Shedescr
ibed5
react
ions:

 Denial
:Whentol
dtheyhav
eanincurabl
edisease,
thefi
rstr
eacti
onisshockanddisbeli
ef.
Sometimespeopl
ewil
lwantasecondopini
onast heyf
eelt
hereisamistake.Ot
hersturnto
rel
i
gion.

 Anger:thentheyfeelanger
.Askquest
ionsl
ike“
Whyme?Whyar eot
herpeopl
eheal
thy
?Thisi
s
unfai
r!Theyfeelenvyandresent
mentandtheyaref
rust
rat
ed.Wi
tht
imeandwork,t
heycan
confr
ontt hei
rangerandresol
veit
.

 Bar
gai
ningphase:May
bewi
thGod–‘
i
fyoul
etmel
i
ve,
Iwi
l
l…”or“
justl
etmel
i
veunt
ilmyson
get
smarri
ed”

 Depressi
on:Peoplereportf
eel
ingagreatl
oss,sor
row,
gui
ltandshameov ert
hei
ril
l
nessandits
consequence.Kubl
er-Rossbel
iev
edthatpeopl
eneedtodi
scussthei
rfeel
i
ngssothattheycan
mov eontoacceptancestage.

 Accept
ance:Theyseem aypeace.Thepai
nandst
ruggl
eisov
er.At
imef
orf
inal
restbef
oret
he
j
ourney
.

Kubler-
Rossacknowledgest hatnotall
peopleexperi
enceall
thesestagesatthesamerat
eorinthe
sameor der.Thesestagesshouldnotbev i
ewedasasequence.Emot i
onalr
esponsesv
ary.Heri
dea
wast ohelppeopleachieveanappropriat
edeath–onet hatmeetstheneedsofthedyi
ngperson,
al
lowingthem toworkouteachpr oblem asitar
ises.

2. Cont
ext
ual
theor
y’scr
it
iqueoft
hest
agesappr
oach

Describingprocessofdyi
ngisdif
fi
cult,
becausether
eisnooneri
ghtwaytodie.Accordi
ngto
contextualapproachthenat
ureofstagesofdyi
ngimpli
esdi
rect
ional
i
ty.Thestagetheor
ies

42|Page
emphasi sethequal i
tat
ivediffer
encesbet weenstages.Howev er,t
hedurat
ionofastageandspecif i
c
phasesv arywi del
yfrom persontoper son.Suchtheori
esassumeunder lyi
ngprocessformov i
ng
throughthest agesbutnotcl earl
ystatewhatcausesaper sontomov efr
om onestagetot henext
.
Ther eali
sati
ont hatt
hereisnocor r
ectwayt odieisthereasonfortheseprobl
ems.Aper specti
vethat
recognisesthiswouldappr oacht heissuefrom t
hemi nd-setofthedyi
ngpersonandissuesheorshe
mustf ace.

Cori
dent
if
ied4di
mensi
onsoft
hesei
ssues/t
asks:

 Bodi
l
yneeds

 Psy
chol
ogi
cal
secur
it
y

 I
nter
per
sonal
att
achment
s

 Spi
ri
tual
ener
gyandhope

Thisapproachacknowledgesindi
vi
dual
dif
ferences.Correcogni
sedt
hecopi
ngef
for
tsoff
ami
l
y,
fr
iendsandcaregiver
saswel l
asthoseofthedyingperson.

Kastenbaum andThuell(1995)saidt
hatt heoriesmustbeabl etohandl
epeopl ewhohav eawide
var
ietyofterminali
l
lnessesandbesensi t
iv etothedyingperson’
sownper specti
vesandv al
ues
rel
atedtodeath.Thesocio-envi
ronmental context
,wheredy i
ngoccurs,changesoverti
meandmust
berecognised.Apersonmaybegi ndyingpr ocessliv
ingindependent
ly,
butendupl iv
inginalong-
ter
m
carefaci
li
ty.Thismovemayhav eaneffectonhowt hepersondealswithdeath.

Acont extual
approachpr ovidegui danceforheal
thcareprofessionalsandfamili
estoseehowt hey
cani mprovethequali
tyoflifeoft hedy i
ngperson.Thiswil
lalsohelpt oprepar
et hecaregi
verswith
dying.Thecontextualapproachi samor eholi
sti
capproachasi tcatersforal
lthepeopleconcerned–
theper sonwhoisdy i
ng,fami lyandt hecaregi
vers.Theyal
sot akeintoaccounttheil
lnessthatt
he
parsoni sdyi
ngfrom.Thev aluesandconcer nsoft hedyi
ngper sonaretakenintoaccount.Thesocio-
env i
ronmentistakenintoaccountast hishaseffectonthedyingprson.

43|Page
Quest
ion19 Chapt
er13

Di
scussgri
efasanactiv
eprocessandpoi
ntoutwhi
chfactor
swil
linfl
uencethegri
evi
ngpr
ocess.
Di
scussatleast4oft
hesef
actorsi
ndetai
landexpl
ainhowtheyi
nfluencet
hegriev
ing
pr
ocess….
[20]

1. Gr
iefasanact
ivepr
ocess

Gri
efisthesorr
ow, hur t
,anger,guil
t,confusi
onandot herfeeli
ngst hatari
seaftersuffer
ingl
oss.Grief
i
sacompl icat
edandper sonal pr
ocesswhi chinvolveschoi cesincoping.Likedying,t
hereisnor i
ght
orwrongwayt ogri
ev e.Dur i
nggr i
ef,therear
enocl earlydemar catedstagesthatpeopl egothroughin
aneatsequence,butt herearecertainissuestheymustf ace.Impactofl ossofal ov
edonel astsa
ver
ylongtime.Whenal ov edonedi es,peopl
emustr eorganisetheirli
ves,est
abli
shnewpat ternsof
behavi
ourandredefiner el
ationshi
pswi t
hfamilyandf ri
ends.

 At
ti
g

Att
igstat
esthatgri
efi
st heprocessbywhichwerelear
nthewor ld.Att
igfoundt
hatiti
spr obabl
y
moreaccurat
etosayt hatwelearntoli
vewit
hourlossratherthanrecoverfr
om i
t.Deci
dingwhatto
dowiththedeceased’
spersonalbelongi
ngsispar
tofthatprocess.

o Gri
evi
ngisahighl
yindi
vidualexper
ience.Apr
ocesst
hatwor
kswel
lforoneper
sonmay
notbethebestf
oranotherperson.

o Wemustnotunderest
imat
etheamountoft
imepeopl
eneedt odealwitht
hev ar
ious
i
ssues.I
ttakesmuchl
ongert
oresol
vecomplexemot
ional
issuesfacedduri
ng
ber
eavement.

o Recoverymaybeami sl
eadingter
m.Iti
smor eaccur
atetosaywelearnt
oli
vewit
hour
l
oss, r
athert
hanwer ecoverfr
om it
.Impactoft
helosslast
salongti
me,per
hapsfort
he
restoftheperson’
sli
fe.

44|Page
 I
vancov
ichandWong

Unli
keber eavement,overwhichwehav enocont r
ol,gr
iefi
sapr ocesst hatinvolveschoicesincopi
ng,
from conf ronti
ngthereali
tyandemot i
onstousingreli
giontoeaseone’ spai n.Bereavementisthe
stat
eorcondi t
ioncausedbylossthroughdeath.Whereas,mour ningi
st hewayweexpr essourgri
ef.
Thenot iont hatgri
efisanactivecopi
ngprocessemphasi sesthatsurvivorsmustcomet oter
mswi th
thephy sicalwor l
dofthings:t
heseare:pl
aces;events;
spiri
tualplacei
nt hewor ld;int
eracti
onswith
famil
yandf r
iends;t
hedead; God;ouri
nnersel
v esandpersonal exper
iences.

 Wor
den:Accor
dingt
oWor
dengr
iefi
sanact
ivepr
ocesswhent
heper
sonmustdosev
eral
thi
ngs:

o Acknowledget
hereal
it
yoft heloss:Over
cometemptat
iont
odenythereali
tyofourloss.
Ful
lyandopenl
yacknowledgeitandreali
set
hati
taf
fectsev
eryaspectofourl
ives.

o Workthr
ought heemot ionalt
urmoil
:Iti
simpor
tanttofindeff
ect
ivet
oconf
rontand
expr
essdif
ferentemotionsthatonefeel
saft
ertheloss.Theseemoti
onsmustnotbe
avoi
dedorrepressed.

o Adjustt
otheenvi
ronmentwherethedeceasedisabsent:Newpatt
ernsofli
vingmustbe
defi
nedandadj
ustedappr
opri
atel
yandmeani ngf
ull
ytothefactt
hatthedeceasedi
snot
present
.

o Loosenti
estothedeceased:Wemustf
reeoursel
vesf
rom thebondsofthedeceasedi
n
ordert
oreengagewi
thoursocial
net
wor
k.Thismeansfindi
ngeffect
ivewayst
osay
goodbye.

 Gr
iefwor
k:Vi
cki
o

Manyr esearcher
sr ef
ertothepsychologicalsi
deofcomingtotermswi t
hbereavementasgr iefwork.
Peoplerecognisetheneedt ogiv
esur vi
vorstimetodealwit
hthei
rmanyf eeli
ngs.Thefeeli
ngs
experi
enceddur i
nggr i
evi
ngareintensewhi chmakesitdi
ffi
cul
ttocopeandcanal somaket heperson
questi
onhi sorherownr eacti
ons.Thefeelingsi
nvol
vedincl
ude:sadness,deni
al,anger
,loneli
ness,
guil
t.

Griefwor kusual
l
ytakeatleast1to2y ears.Griefi
sequall
yint
enseforbothexpectedandunexpected
deaths, buti
tmaybeginbef or
etheactualdeathwhent hepati
enthaster
mi nali
ll
ness.Normalgr
ief
reactionincl
udesorr
ow,sadness,denial
,disbeli
ef,
gui
ltandanniver
saryreacti
on.Anniv
ersar
yreact
ion
referstochangesinbehaviourrel
atedtofeeli
ngsofsadnessont hi
sdate.

2. Fact
orsi
nfl
uenci
nggr
iev
ingpr
ocess

Therear esomef actorsthatmakeber eav

ementmor
edif
fi
cult
.Whendeat
hisant
ici
pat
edpeopl
ego
throughantici
patorygrief.Thisser
vestobuf
fert
hei
mpactofthel
osswheni
tdoescomeandital
so
facil
it
atesrecovery.Factorsincl
ude:

 Mannerofdeat
h:

Deat
hcanbeexpect edorunexpected.Modeofdeathaff
ectst
hegr i
efprocess.Dif
fer
entemot
ions
ar
eexperi
encedforsudden(unexpected)t
hanforexpect
eddeath.Knowingthatdeathisi
mminent
gi
vesthesurvi
vort
imetoprepare.Planni
ngaheadforarr
angementsresult
sinmi ni
mum negat
ive
i
mpact,asther
eisenoughtimet osaygoodbye.

I
nunexpecteddeathsurv
ivor
sdon’
tgetachancetosaygoodbye.Thismayl
eav
eunr
esol
ved
r
elat
ionshi
pissues,
guil
tandanger
.Thesepr
eventcl
osureforsur
vivors.

45|Page
Howt heper sondi edorpercei
vedfai
rnessisimpor t
ant.Lossest hatchall
engethev i
ewoft hewor l
d
arehardertoaccept .E.
g.ifasmallbabydies,peoplewillt
akei tmor ehardthanifitwasanol deradul
t.
Theywi l
lthinkitisnotfai
r.Deathfr
om chronicdiseaseeasiertoacceptt hanaccidentorsudden
medicalcrisis.Deali
ngwithsuici
debringsfeel
ingsofanger ,guil
tandr egret
.

 Rel
ati
onshi
pwi
tht
hedeceased:

Thestrengthofattachmenttothedeceasedmakesadi
ff
erencei
ndeal
i
ngwit
hasuddenasopposed
toexpecteddeath.Ifthesur
viv
orhadast r
ongandcl
oseatt
achmentwi
tht
hedeceasedandt
hel
oss
wassudden, gr
eatergr i
efi
sexperi
enced.

 Rel
igi
ousbel
ief
sorspi
ri
tual
it
y

Thereisevidencet
osuggestt
hatchur
chatt
endanceorspir
it
uali
tyhel
pspeopl
edealwit
h
bereav
ementandsubsequentgri
efthr
oughthepost
-gr
iefperi
od.Spi
ri
tual
i
tyandr
eli
gionbuf
fergr
ief
byprovidi
ng:

o Copingmechanism thr
oughprayer
,tr
ustinthehi
gherpowerasasourceofstr
engt
h,and
thr
oughpastor
al car
e.Surv
ivor
saremor eli
kel
ytospeaktothei
rpast
orsthan
psychol
ogi
sts.

o Goi
ngt
ochur
chbui
l
dsasoci
alcopi
ngnet
wor
k

Somest
udi
esr
epor
tthatr
eli
giousbel
i
efsandspi
ri
tual
i
tyhasnoef
fectondur
ati
onofgr
ief
.

 Ageoft
heber
eav
ed

I
ngener alolderadult
sarefoundtobelessanxiousandmor eaccept
ing.Youngadul
tshav
emore
i
ntensef eel
i
ngs, t
hiscanbeduet ounexpectednessofthedeath.Youngwidowsorwidowers
questi
onbasi cassumptionsaboutthemselv
es, t
heirr
elat
ionshi
pandl i
feopti
ons.

Thelossofachi l
datanyageisdev
astati
ng.Ol
derbereavedparent
shav edeepsenseofl
ossand
di
ffi
cult
ycomi ngtotermswit
hit
.Themeaningofchil
dlosschange,butremainsprof
oundli
fel
ong.
Grandparent
ssufferthesameway,buthi
depai
nsoast obestr
ongf orchi
ldr
enwholostachil
d.

Lossofparent
sinadul
thoodisseenasar
iteofpassageandi
ssi
gni
fi
cant
.Ift
heber
eav
edi
sst
il
l
youngther
eisadeeploss.Thefeel
i
ngsar
eintenseandcompl
ex.

Thedeathofone’spartnerrepr
esent
sadeepper
sonall
oss,
especi
all
yift
hecouplehasal
ongand
cl
oserelat
ionshi
p.Olderwidowersoft
enhav
edif
fi
cul
tycopi
ng.Whereas,
olderwi
dowsoft
enhave
di
ff
icul
tyfi
nancial
ly
.

 Genderdi
ff
erences

Thereishi ghermal emor tal

i
tyaft
erbereavementthanfemale.Ther
ei shi
gherrat
eoff emale
depressiont hanmal e.Femalesingeneraltendtohavemoresocialsupport
.Survi
vor
swi t
hfriends
copebet ter.Womenhav eclosefri
ends,theref
oretendtocopebett
er.Reasonsforgenderdif
ferences
aresti
llnotcl ear.Segalsuggest
sthattalki
nghelpsreducefeel
i
ngsofhopelessnessandthati snot
al
way snat uralforment oopenup.

46|Page
Quest
ion20 - Chapt
er14

“Agi
ngtodayandi
nthefut
urei
snotwhati
twasevenafewyearsago”(p.
406).Addr
essthi
s
phenomenonbydi
scussi
ngthei
ssuesi
nheal
thandqual
it
yofli
feinadult
hoodandoldage….[
20]

1. I
ntr
oduct
ion

Agingtodayisdifferentfrom thepast.Ourl
ifespanisnowl onger.Lif
eexpectancyhassl owl ybeen
ri
singov ert
hecent urycompar edto60sand80s.Peopl ear elivi
nglonger,
thereforehealthpr omot
ion
str
ategiesareofout mosti mportance.Heal
thcar ei
mpr oveddur ingthe20thcenturyandl esswomen
di
eddur ingchil
dbirth.Remaininghealthyi
sv eryi
mpor t
ant .Ithelpstodecreaserateofagi ng.
Promotinghealthylifesty
lesisimportanti
nal l
setti
ngs,includinglong-t
erm carefacil
i
ties.Successful
agingissubject
ive.Itisreachedwhenaper sonachieveshi s/herdesi r
edgoalswi thdignityandas
i
ndependent l
yaspossi bl
e.

2. Qual
it
yofl
if
e(QOL)

QOLisrefer
stot heperson’
sper cept
ionofthei
rposit
ioni
nli
feincontextofthecul
tureandinrelati
on
tot
heirgoal
s,expectati
ons,val
uesandconcer ns.QOLisaperson’
ssubjecti
veassessmentorv alue
j
udgementofhisorherownl i
fe.Thissubj
ecti
vejudgementmayormaynotcor r
espondt oev
aluat i
on
byother
s.4factorsthataff
ectQOL: Envi
ronmental,
Physi
cal
,Social
andPsy chol
ogical.

47|Page
Ev
enthoughQOLmaydimini
shinl
atel
if
e, i
tmaynotseem li
keal ossfort
heolderperson.e.
g.An
ol
derper
sonwit
hdif
fi
cul
tytowal
kmayf eelhappyt
obealive.Anotherol
derpersonwhoi swell
abled
mayfeel
usel
essandhav
elessQOL.Therefor
e,QOLisbeststudi
edf r
om theperson’
spointofvi
ew.

QOLincludesi
nter
personal
relati
onshi
psandsocial
support
,physi
calandment
alhealt
h,
env
ironmental
comf or
tandpsy chol
ogi
calconst
ruct
sli
kelocusofcontr
ol,
emoti
ons,usef
ulness,
per
sonalit
yandmeaningoflif
e.

3. Heal
thpr
omot
ion
st
Promoti
ngheal thyli
fest
ylesisseenasoneoft hetophealthcarepri
ori
ti
esofthe21 century
.
Changi
ngunheal t
hyhabit
sl i
kesmoki ngisdif
fi
cult
, chr
onicdiseasesmakeexerci
singt
oughand
ter
minaldiseasesmakei ttought oseebenefit
sofchangi ngone’shabi
ts.Wi
thallt
his,
thefact
remai
nst hatsuchchangesi ncreasefuncti
onalcapabil
it
y.

Currentmodel
sofbehaviour
alchangear
ecomplex.Theydonotonl
yincl
udebehav
ioural
component
s,
butalsomotiv
ati
onal
,cognit
iveandsoci
alcomponent
s.Ther
earetwothatar
ethefocusofmost
research:

Sel
f-
effi
cacymodel
:itemphasi
sest
her
oleofgoal
set
ti
ngandper
sonal
bel
i
efsi
nthedegr
eet
owhi
ch
oneinf
luencest
heoutcome.

Sel
f-
regul
ati
onmodel
:focusesont
heper
son’
smot
ivat
ionf
orchange.

Ther
eisagr
owi
ngt
rendofheal
thpr
omot
ionpr
ogr
amsf
orol
deradul
ts.Thesei
ncl
ude:

 Exerci
se:ol
deradul
tsar
epronet
oinj
ury
,therefor
eexer
cisepr
ogr
amsneedt
otakesuchi
nto
accountandfocusmoreonlowi
mpactaerobics.

 Heal
theducat
ionpr
ogr
ams:
Theyar
eef
fect
ivei
nmi
nimi
singt
heef
fect
sofemot
ional
str
ess.

 Healt
hscreeni
ngprograms:ef
fect
ivel
yidenti
fyi
ngseri
ouschroni
cdi
seasest
hatcanl
i
mitQOL.
Thesecanbeaddressedthr
oughbehav i
ourali
nter
vent
ions.

o I
tisv
erycr
uci
alt
otakei
ntoaccountet
hni
cal
dif
fer
enceswhendesi
gni
ngt
hesepr
ogr
ams.

4. Theor
eti
calf
ramewor
kforenhanci
ngcompet
ency

Theuseofcomputerstoenhancecompet encyofol
deradul
tsi
sawayi nwhichtechnologycanbe
usedtoenhancecompetencyofolderadult
s.Howtoagesuccessf
ull
yisatopicofincreasi
ng
concer
n.Competencecanbemai ntai
nedandnenhancedthr
oughvari
etyofint
erventi
ons:

 Li
fespanPer
spect
ive

Li
fespanperspecti
veisagoodst art
ingpoint.Itsuggest
sthatchangesoccurwithageasar esultof
bi
ological
,psychol
ogi
cal,soci
ocul t
uralandlifecyclefor
ces.Masteri
ngtasksofdail
yli
vi
ngaswel las
morecompl extasks,
e.g.sort
ingoutf i
nances, contri
but
estoaper son’
soveral
lsenseofcompet ence,
evenifthepersonhasdement ia.Howcant hissenseofcompetencybeopt i
misedforsuccessful
l
iv
ing?

 Accor
dingtoBalt
es,
theanswerl
i
esi
nappl
yi
ng3adapt
ivemechani
smsf
oragi
ng:
SOC:Sel
ect
ion,
Opti
misati
on,Compensat
ion.

Thisframewor
kaddressesthephenomenonofol derpeopleint
entional
lyorunintent
ional
l
yfai
li
ngt
o
perfor
m uptothei
rtr
uelevelofabil
i
tybecauseofsoci alst
ereotypes.Thesestereoty
peslimi
twhat
ol
deradultsar
eexpectedtodo.Insteadofthem behavingatthei
rt r
ueabili
tyl
ev el
,ol
deradul
ts
behaveinwaysthatt
heybelievety
picalorchar
act er
ist
icofthei
ragegr oup.

48|Page
Akeyissuei nthepowerf
ulr
oleofstereoty
pesistodif
fer
ent
iat
eusualagi
ngfr
om successf
ulagi
ng.
Successf
ul agingi
nvol
vesavoi
dingdisease,bei
ngengagedwit
hli
feandmaint
aini
nghighcogni
ti
ve
andphysicalfunct
ioni
ng.

Thebasi cpr emi sesofsuccessfulagingincl

udekeepi ngabal ancebetweengainsandlossesthat
occurov ert i
meandmi nimizi
ngtheinfl
uenceoff actorsunrel
atedtoaging.UsingSOCmodel ,var
ious
typesofi nterventionscanbecr eatedtohelppeopl eagesuccessfull
y.Theseinterv
ent
ionsfocuson
theindivi
dual oronaspect softasksandphy sicalandsocialenvir
onmentthatemphasize
compet ence.Whendesi gni
ngani ndiv
idual
’sinter
v ent
ion,
itisimport
anttounder st
andthat
i
ndividual’sgoals.

5. Di
seasepr
event
ionst
rat
egi
es

Becauseofdemogr aphicshi
ft
sint
hepopul
ati
on,heal
thcarecost
sinmostdev
elopedcount
ri
esar
e
st
expect
edt oi
ncreaseduringt
he21 cent
ury
.Diseaseprevent
ionef
for
tsar
everyimpor
tanti
n
minimizi
ngthi
sincrease:

 Pr
imar
yPreventi
on:Anyi
nter
venti
ont
hatprev
ent
sadi
seaseorcondi
ti
onf
rom occur
ri
ng.e.
g.
I
mmunizat
ionsagai
nstdi
seases,
heal
thydi
et.

 SecondaryPrev
enti
on:Pr
ogram t
hatisst
art
edearlyaf
teraconditi
onhasbegunandbef
ore
si
gnif
icanti
mpairment
shaveoccurr
ed.e.
g.cancerandcar
diovascularscr
eeni
ng.

 Terti
aryPreventi
on:Involv
esef f
ortst
oav oiddevelopmentofcompli
cat
ionsorsecondarychroni
c
condit
ions;managepai nassociatedwit
ht heprimarychr
oniccondi
ti
on;andsustai
nli
fethrough
medicalint
ervent
ion.e.g.tur
ningbedri
ddenper sontoavoidbedsor
es;gett
ingpati
entoutofbed
toimprovemobi l
it
yaf t
ersurgery.

 QuaternaryPreventi
on:eff
ort
saimedatimprovi
ngthefuncti
onalcapaci
ti
esofpeoplewhohav e
chroniccondi
tions.e.
g.cogni
ti
veint
erv
enti
onforpeopl
ewi t
hAlzheimer’
sdisease;
rehabi
l
itat
ion
programsaftersurgery
.

6. st
rat
egi
esf
orsuccessf
ulagi
ng

Therearenostepsormagi
cport
iont
oguaranteesuccessf
ulagi
ng.Howev
er,
resear
chi
sshowi
ng
thatchancescanbemaxi
misedbydoi
ngthefoll
owing:

 Adopt
ingaheal
thyl
i
fest
yle.Makei
tyourdai
l
yrout
ine.

 St
ayact
ivecogni
ti
vel
y.Keepanopt
imi
sti
cout
lookandmai
ntai
nyouri
nter
esti
nthi
ngs.

 Mai
ntai
ningasoci
alnet
wor
kandst
ayengagedwi
thot
her
s.

 Mai
ntai
ngoodeconomi
chabi
tst
oav
oidf
inanci
aldependency
.

Thesear
edi
ff
icul
tinpr
act
ice,
howev
er,
theydoser
vet
omaxi
miset
hechancesofagi
ngsuccessf
ull
y.

7. Concl
usion–t
hei
mpor
tanceofexer
ciseandnut
ri
ti
onf
orheal
thpr
omot
ionanddi
sease
pr
eventi
on

Mostdiseaseint
ervent
ionprogramsfocusonkeepingfi
tandeat
ingproper
lybecauseoftr
emendous
pay
off.Theseprogramsteachadultsaboutgoodhealt
hcarepr
acti
cesandidenti
fycondi
ti
onssuch
ashypert
ension,
highcholester
olandhighbloodsugar
.

Exer
cisesi
gni
fi
cant
lysl
owsdownt
heagi
ngpr
ocess.Ev
idencesuggest
sthatapr
ogr
ammeofr
egul
ar

49|Page
exerci
secombinedwithhealthylif
esty
lecanslowthephysiol
ogicalagingprocess.Bei
ngsedent ar
yis
hazardoustoone’
shealth.Adultsbenefi
tfr
om aerobi
cs.Theyshowi mpr ov
edcar di
ovascul
ar
functi
oningandmaximum oxy genconsumpt i
on;l
owerbloodpressure;bett
erstrengt
h;endurance;
fl
exibi
li
tyandcoor
dinat
ion.Itisgoodtomai nt
ainphysi
calfi
tnessthroughoutli
fespanforopt
imum
benefit
.

Nutri
ti
ondi
rect
lyaffect
sone’smental,
emot i
onalandphy
sical
functi
oning.Nutri
ti
onal
needsand
eat
inghabi
tschangeacr osst
heli
fespan.Thi
schangemaybeduet odifferencesinmetabol
i
sm,or
howmuchener gythebodyneeds.Bodymet abol
i
sm andthedigest
iveprocessslowdownwi t
hage.

Var
iousschool softhoughtpr omotevari
ousway sofeati
nghealt
hil
y.Obesi
tyisagrowingheal
th
pr
oblem relat
edtodi et.BMIisagoodi ndi
catorofwhetheronei
sov er
weight
.Obesi
tyshowsan
i
ncreasedriskforsev eral
diseasesandmor t
ali
ty.Under
weightmayindi
catemalnut
rit
ion,whi
chis
al
sor el
atedtoincreasedmor tali
ty.

Quest
ion21 Chapt
er14

Cr
it
ical
lydi
scusst
heor
eti
cal
model
sofsuccessf
ulagi
ng….
.[
15]

1. I
ntr
oduct
ion

Successful agingi
nvolv esavoidingdisease,
beingengagedwi thli
feandmai ntai
ninghighcognit
ive
andphy sicalfunct
ioning.Successf ulagi
ngissubject
ive.I
tisreachedwhenaper sonachieveshisor
herdesiredgoal swithdi gni
tyandasi ndependentl
yaspossible.Takingabroadv iewhasallowed
resear
cher stoascertaint hatagingsuccessful
lyi
smor eli
kelywhenpeopl ehav ehigherl
evelsof
educati
on, householdi ncomeandper sonali
ncome.Incomei srelat
edt ohealt
h,becauseofbet t
er
accesstoheal thcareandgr eaterknowledge

Howonethi
nksaboutagemayhav
eanimpactonlongevi
ty.Howlongyouthi
nkyouwil
ll
iv
emay
makeyoupl
anonlif
eevent
s.Onemaybecomeconfusedwhenliv
ingpastt
heexpect
edageabout

50|Page
howt
ocar
ryonwi
thl
i
fe.

2. Model
s

2.
1.RoweandKahn

RoweandKahn’ s3partviewofsuccessf ulagi

nghasbecomecent raltheor
eti
calpar
adi
gm in
gerontologyandgeri
atr
ics.Theyconsi dergoodhealt
h; conti
nuedhi ghcogniti
veandphysi
cal
compet ence;andengagementwit hli
fet obefoundati
ononwhi chsuccessfulagingi
sbuil
t.They
assertthatabsenceofdiseaseanddi sabil
it
ymakesi teasiertomai ntai
nment al
andphysi
cal f
uncti
on.
Maintenanceofment alandphysicalfuncti
onenables(notguar antees)acti
veengagementwithli
fe.
Theyf eelthatcombi
nati
onofall3f actorsequatestosuccessf ulaging.

RoweandKahn’
svi
ewofsuccessf
ulagi
ngassumescer
tai
nthi
ngst
obet
rue,
li
ke:

 Peopl
ehav
eresour
cest
oli
veheal
thyl
i
ves

 Accesst
oheal
thcar
e

 Saf
eandheal
thyenv
ironment

 Li
feexper
iencest
hatsuppor
tindi
vi
dual
deci
si
onmaki
ng.

Notallol
deradult
smeettheseassumpti
ons.Pover
ty,
lossofspouseanddi
ff
erent
ialsocial
expectat
ionsbasedongenderi
nfl
uencewhetheraper
sonwillbeabl
etoexer
tindi
vidualcontr
oland
deci
sionsoverhealt
h.

AnotherconcernwithRoweandKahn’ smodel i
sthatt
heyequat eheal
thandsuccessf
ulagi
ng.
Theref
ore,theyimplyt
hatolderpeoplewhohavehealt
hpr oblemshavenotagedsuccessf
ull
y.I
t
assumest hatthosewit
hdisabil
i
tieshavenotagedsuccessfull
y.

2.
2.Vai
ll
ant

Vai
ll
antproposedamodelwi
th6cr
it
eri
a.Thr
eear
erel
atedt
oheal
thandt
hreet
osoci
alengagement
andproducti
veact
ivi
ty:

 Nophy
sical
disabi
l
ityatage75asr
atedbyaphy
sici
an

 Goodsubj
ect
ivephy
sical
heal
th(
nopr
obl
emswi
thact
ivi
ti
esofdai
l
yli
vi
ng)

 Lengt
hofundi
sabl
edl
i
fe

 Goodment
alheal
th

 Obj
ect
ivesoci
alsuppor
t

 Sel
f-
rat
edl
i
fesat
isf
act
ioni
n8domai
n:

o Mar
ri
age

o I
ncomepr
oduci
ngwor
k

o Chi
l
dren

o Fr
iendshi
psandsoci
alcont
act
s

o Hobbi
es

o Communi
tyser
viceact
ivi
ti
es

51|Page
 o Rel
i
gion

o Recr
eat
ionandspor
t

Vai
ll
ant’
smodel poi
ntsoutwhatpredi
ctslongli
feaswellaswhatdoesnot .Childhoodf actorsthat
werei
mpor tantpredi
ctor
sofhealt
hatmi dli
fedidnotpr
edictheal
thinlat
elife.Vail
lant’
sr esear
ch
emphasisesthatli
fehasmanyuniqueaspect sandmaynotr el
atetovari
ablesthatpr edictheal
that
ear
li
erpointsinli
fe.

2.
3.Bal
tesetal–SOCModel

Sel
ect
ionr
efer
stodev
elopi
ngandchoosi
nggoal
s.

Opt
imi
zat
ionr
efer
stot
heappl
i
cat
ionandr
efi
nementofgoal
-r
elev
antmeansoract
ions.

Compensat
ionr
efer
stosubst
it
uti
onofmeanswhenpr
evi
ousonesar
enol
ongerav
ail
abl
e.

SOCmodel canbeappliedtot hepro-

acti
vestrategi
esofli
femanagement.Successwoul
dbet oset
cleargoal
s,acquir
eandi nvestinmeanstopur suethesegoal
s,andtopersi
stdespi
teset
backsor
l
osses.Incontrasttoacopingst r
ategyadvocati
ngamor epassiveappr
oach,t
hismodelwantsusto
takeapositi
veactiontofindsubstit
utewaysofdoi ngthi
ngs.

UsingtheSOCmodel ,var
iousty
pesofinter
vent
ionscanbecreat
edtohelppeopl
eagesuccessf
ull
y.
Ingeneral
suchinter
venti
onsfocusontheindi
vi
dualoraspect
softasksandphysi
cal
andsocial
envir
onmentthatemphasisecompetence.

Whendesigningint
erventi
onsai
medpr i
mar i
lyatt
heper
sonitisimport
antt
ounderstandthet
arget
person’
sgoals.e.
g.teachi
nganolderpersontouseATM machine:beawar
eofthefearsand
concernst
hispersonmayhav ei
nt hi
sregardandaddr
essthesefears.

2.
4.Heckhausenetal

Theyv iewcontrolasamot ivati

onalsystem t hatregul
ateshumanbehav i
ourov ertheli
fespan(i.
e.
i
ndividual’
sabil
iti
estocont r
olimportantout comes) .I
tbuil
dsonSOCmodel .Primarycont r
olcapaci
ty
decl
inewi thage,theref
orewet hencompensat ewithsecondarycontr
olstr
ategies.Secondarycontr
ol
i
ncreaseswi thage.Ifapersonbel i
evest hatt heyhavecontr
oloverdesir
ableoutcomes, thi
scontroli
s
associatedwithhighemot i
onal well
-bei
ng.Theout comesar eenhancedcompet ence,highquali
tyof
l
iferelatedtosuccessfulagingandabi l
i
tyt oadapti nthefut
ure.

3. Compar
eandcont
rast4model
s

Asshownabov esuccessf ulaginghasrecentlybecomel i

nkedwi t
hgoodheal t
h, whichisprobl
emati
c.
Thesesimil
ari
ti
esarepr esentint hemodelsofRoweandKahn, aswellasVail
lant.TheSOCmodel
doesnotholdthi
sview.RoweandKahndi f
ferfr
om Vail
lantinthattheydonotment i
ongoodment al
healt
h,obj
ecti
vesocialsuppor t
,andself-
ratedli
fesati
sfacti
on.TheSOCmodel andHeckhausen’s
model i
ncontr
astwithcopi ngmodel s,
emphasi setaki
ngposi t
iveacti
ontofindsubst i
tutewaysof
doingthi
ngsasadapt i
vest r
ategies.

4. Cr
it
ici
sm ofmodel
s

Theterm successf
ulagi
ngl
acksconsensus,
makingi
tdi
ff
icul
ttospeci
fyexact
lywhatthecr
it
eri
ais
forachi
evingit
.RoweandKahn’
smodel makethefol
l
owi
ngassumpt i
onsthatarenotuni
ver
sal
lytr
ue:

 Peopl
ehav
ether
esour
cest
oli
veaheal
thyl
i
fe

 Accesst
oheal
thcar
e

52|Page
 Li
vei
nasaf
eenv
ironment

 Hav
eli
feexper
iencest
hatsuppor
tindi
vi
dual
deci
si
onmaki
ng

Notallol
deradult
s’l
ivesmeettheseassumptions.Byequat
inghealt
handsuccessfulagi
ng,Rowe
andKahni mplyt
hatolderpeoplewhohavehealthprobl
emshav enotagedsuccessf
ull
y.By
suggesti
ngpeoplewhohav edisabi
l
iti
esorhealt
hlimit
ati
onssigni
fyfai
l
ure,
themessaget hatonl
ythe
fi
tandv i
gorousaresuccessf
ulisanegati
veone.

5. Concl
usi
on

Successf
ulagi
ngmaybet heabil
i
tytopullone’sli
f et
ogetherfr
om manyper specti
v esi
ntoacoherent
wholeandbesati
sfi
edwit
hi t
.Thi
sperspectiveallowsolderadult
stoclaim successfulol
dage.Good
agingmaybegroundedi
none’scult
ure,andr ef
lectsthefactt
hatther
ei snooner ightwaytoagewell
.
Itall
comesdowntowhaty outhi
nkabouty ourownsi tuat
ion.

53|Page