PART 1: WRITING

UNIT 4: WRITING ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS – PART 2

IV. HOW TO WRITE ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS

1. The Introductory Paragraph

One easy way to write the introduction for an argumentative essay is to write THREE
sentences: TWO about the topic and ONE thesis statement.

You can write either Situation or Opinion introductions. There’s not much difference between
them.

a. Situation Introduction

Write two sentences to describe the two sides of the present situation. The third sentence –
the Thesis statement – will decide what you are going to do in your essay.

Sentence 1 One side of the present situation

Sentence 2 The other side of the present situation
Sentence 3 Thesis: What you are going to do in your essay

E.g.:

Who Should Take Care of Our Old People?

Sentence 1 In my country, most old people live happily with their children.
Sentence 2 Increasingly, however, many families cannot take care of their parents.
Sentence 3 This essay will describe some of the problems involved with taking care of old people,
(Thesis) and discuss who should be responsible.

Does Aid to Poor Countries Work?

For the last fifty years, poor countries have been receiving huge sums of money from
Sentence 1
rich donor countries.
Some of this money has improved lives, while much of it has disappeared or made no
Sentence 2
difference.
Sentence 3 In this essay, I will discuss some arguments for and against foreign aid.
(Thesis)

Should Dangerous Sports Be Banned?

Every year, thousands of people are injured or killed in sports such as boxing or
Sentence 1
motor-racing.
Because of this, some people are opposed to such sports, and want them to be stopped
Sentence 2
or controlled.
Sentence 3 This essay will look at some of the arguments for and against banning dangerous
 (Thesis) sports.

b. Opinion Introduction

In this kind, you give two opposite opinions in the first two sentences. The third sentence says
what you are going to do.

E.g.:

Does Space Exploration Benefit Mankind?

Sentence for Many people are excited about space exploration.
Sentence against However, others feel it is a massive waste of money.
Sentence 3
This essay will look at some of the arguments for and against space exploration.
(Thesis)

Does Space Exploration Benefit Mankind?

Space, for many people, really is the final frontier. They are excited by the exploration
Sentence for
and potential of space.
However, not everyone agrees that this money is well-spent. Many people feel that we
Sentence against
should solve problems here on earth before beginning our journey to space.
Sentence 3 This essay will look at some of the arguments for and against space exploration.
(Thesis)

Do Athletes Deserve Their High Salaries?

Everyday, we read about new record contracts and
Sentence 1 salaries earned by sportsmen and women. Some people
do not agree with these huge payments.
Others believe that our sports heroes deserve every
Sentence 2
penny.
This essay will look at some of the arguments for and
Sentence 3
against the high salaries of athletes.
(Thesis)

2. The Body

The body of the persuasive essay should always be divided into paragraphs because of the
following reasons:

- The white space or the indentation makes your essay easier to read.
- Having paragraphs shows that you have put related ideas together.

The number of the body paragraphs depends on the essay assignment. For the WRITING
TASK 2 of the IELTS test, it is advisable to develop TWO or THREE body paragraphs.

Use TWO paragraphs (of about seven sentences each) if you are giving both sides of the
argument or situation: one paragraph for, and one against (or the opposite).

- agree in one paragraph and then disagree in the second paragraph; or

- disagree in one paragraph and then agree in the second paragraph.

E.g.: Read the body paragraphs of the essays on the following topics.
 Animal Testing

Many medical treatments and procedures have been developed from experiments on animals. Since animals
share many features with humans, scientists use animals to test the safety and effectiveness of newly developed
drugs before pilot testing on small groups of patients. Medical teams practice new operating techniques such as
transplants on animals. Without animal testing, many procedures or new drugs could be extremely unsafe.

However, many people are concerned that animals are suffering unnecessarily and cruelly. They do not believe
that every new drug needs to be tested on animals, especially with the huge database of knowledge and modern
computer models. They also are worried that many animal tests are ineffective, pointing out that any drugs have
had to be withdrawn from the market despite extensive testing. They particularly feel that animal testing should
not be used for non-essential products such as cosmetics, shampoos, soaps, and cleaning products. Furthermore,
some campaigners would like to see certain tests replaced and more humane methods used.

Who Learns Faster: Children or Adults?

It is undoubtedly true that children seem to learn very quickly. In just a few years, they can learn to play a
musical instrument, speak one or even two new languages, and deal with many subjects at school. They even
have time for sports and hobbies, and become experts in their favorite pastimes. However, how much of this is
social pressure and how much is genetic? I am convinced that while children's brains have a natural ability to
absorb new information as part of their developmental growth, much of their achievement is because of social
pressure. Schools force them to take many subjects. Parents force them to practice new sports or to learn music.
Even their playmates force them to become better at computer games or to read Harry Potter novels faster. In
summary, children may enjoy learning, but their environment also is a big motivating factor.

Adults on the other hand are supposed to be poor learners. However, I disagree with people who say that adults
cannot learn quickly. Adults have many skills that compensate for the decline in the ability of the brain to grasp
and remember new material. They can organize their learning by setting times for reading or practice. They can
build on skills and experiences they know already. Adults usually cannot learn to do ballet or to play the violin,
but even despite these physical challenges, their motivation can often be higher than a child's. Unfortunately,
society does not encourage many adults to learn. People are busy with families and work, and some adults may
feel that further learning is pointless, since they have already achieved many goals at work or in their personal
life.

College and Success in Life

Success in life can be achieved in different ways. Many magazines and television programmers tell us that
success means having a lot of money, having a fulfilling career, and being powerful. In contrast, most religious
and spiritual organizations claim that success means finding spiritual happiness and being at peace with God
and with yourself. Another idea of success focuses on relationships - being surrounded by people who love you
and care about you, spending time with family and friends.

A university education can help you achieve some types of success, but it makes little or no difference to
whether or not you are successful in other areas of life. Undoubtedly, a university education is essential if you
want to have a career in a profession such as law, engineering, teaching, or medicine. However, you do not
need a university degree to become a wealthy and powerful movie star, sports star or businessperson. In fact, a
university education does not generally enable you to achieve spiritual happiness, or to have successful
relationships with family and friends.

Use THREE paragraphs (of about five sentences each) if you are only giving one side.

- agreeing in all three paragraphs; or

- disagreeing in all three paragraphs.

E.g.: Read the body paragraphs of the essays on the following topics.
Animal Testing

Those against the use of animal testing claim that it is inhumane to use animals in experiments. I disagree
completely. It would be much more inhumane to test new drugs on children or adults. Even if it were possible,
it would also take much longer to see potential effects, because of the length of time we live compared to
laboratory animals such as rats or rabbits.

Opponents of animal testing also claim that the results are not applicable to humans. This may be partly true.
Some drugs have had to be withdrawn, despite testing. However, we simply do not have alternative methods of
testing. Computer models are not advanced enough, and testing on plants is much less applicable to humans
than tests on animals such as monkeys. Until we have a better system, we must use animal testing.

A further point often raised against animal testing is that it is cruel. Some of the tests certainly seem painful, but
the great majority of people on this planet eat meat or wear leather without any guilt. Where is their sympathy
for animals? Furthermore, animals do not feel the same way as humans, and scientists are careful to minimize
stress in the animals, since this would damage their research.

Animal Testing

Animal testing allows scientists to test and create new drugs. Animals such as monkeys or rabbits have similar
physical processes to humans. This allows scientists to test the effects of certain drugs. If a drug produces
adverse effects in animals it is probably unfit for human use.

Additionally, animal testing is cheap. There is a large supply of animals for medical research. Animals are
easily bred, and maintained safely in controlled labs. The costs of testing in humans would be extremely high.

Many people argue that animal testing is cruel. In some cases this is true. However it would be much more
cruel to test new drugs on people or children, or to let people die because there was not enough information
about a drug. Furthermore, legislation in most countries sets standards for animal treatment, and laboratories
have guidelines to prevent cruelty.

Should Dangerous Sports Be Banned?

Some sports are nothing but an excuse for violence. Boxing is a perfect example. The last thing an increasingly
violent world needs is more violence on our television. The sight of two men (or even women) bleeding, with
faces ripped open, trying to obliterate each other is barbaric. Other sports, such as American football or rugby,
are also barely-concealed violence.

Some people argue that the players can choose to participate. However this is not always the case. Many
boxers, for example, come from disadvantaged backgrounds. They are lured by money or by social or peer
pressure and then cannot escape. Even in richer social groups, schools force unwilling students to play
aggressive team sports, claiming that playing will improve the students' character (or the school's reputation),
but in fact increasing the risk of injury.

Even where people can choose, they sometimes need to be protected against themselves. Most people approve
of governments' efforts to reduce smoking. In the same way, governments need to act if there are unacceptably
high levels of injuries in sports such as football, diving, mountaineering, or motor-racing.

3. The Concluding Paragraph

The conclusion is the end of the essay. It is the last part of the essay and it is the part that the
reader may remember most. It should be clear to avoid confusing the reader.

The conclusion is very similar to the introduction. However, you should avoid repeating the
same words.

A good conclusion will:

- rephrase the question;
- summarize the main ideas;
- give your opinion, if you haven’t given it already;
- look to the future (say what will happen if the situation continues or changes);
- NEVER add new information.

E.g.: Read the concluding paragraphs for the topic given below and notice how they are written.

Should We Test Products on Animals?

I agree that we need to make sure that animals who are used for testing new products have a minimum of
suffering. However, I am convinced that animal testing is necessary, and that it will continue to benefit humans
in new and wonderful way.

Should We Beat Children?

In conclusion, physical punishment can be a useful method of discipline. However, it should be the last choice
for parents. If we want to build a world with less violence, we must begin at home, and we must teach our
children to be responsible.

Is Education Important?
In conclusion, although there are undoubtedly some problems with increased levels of education, I feel strongly
that the country can only progress if all its people are educated to the maximum of their ability.

Who Are the Better Parents – men or women?

I think this is not an either/or question. Both men and women have strengths and skills that are important for
children’s psychological growth. We need to ensure that both parents play an important role in the family in
order to give children a good start in life.

Who Learns More Quickly? Adults or Children?

Finally, I feel that we cannot generalize about children or adults being better learners. It depends on the
situation and the motivation of the person, and the level of enthusiasm he or she has for learning.

Should Dangerous Sports Be Banned?

In summary, our society would be healthier if more people took part in sports of all kinds. We should continue
to try to prevent accidents and injures. However, we should also ensure that sports are challenging, exciting,
and above all, fun.

V. COMMON MISTAKES IN A PERSUASIVE ESSAY (LOGICAL FALLACIES) &

FUNDAMENTALS FOR LOGICAL ANALYSIS

1. Logical Fallacies

a. Hasty Generalization: Jumping to conclusions.

E.g.:

All required university courses are boring.

Science fiction books are not worth the time it takes to read them.

Solution: Avoid words like every, all and nothing, and qualify statements.

b. Stereotype: A form of hasty generalization, applied to people.

E.g.:

Happy families make happy children.

All English teachers have green eyes.
Women psychologists can’t be trusted.
Solution: Qualify and specify your statements; prove with valid evidence.

c. Oversimplification: Severe reduction of choices, sometimes limited to an either/or dilemma.

E.g.:

What’s wrong with this country? Just one thing. There are 11.5 million women who started but
never finished high school.
Love it or leave it. (Either love it or leave it.)

Solution: Qualify your statements; identify all causes and effects.

d. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc: (After this, therefore because of this.) X happened before Y;
therefore X caused Y.

E.g.:

He got straight As because he smoked a cigarette before every class.

The rooster crowed. The sun rose. Therefore the rooster made the sun rise.

Solution: Make sure that time is not the only thing linking cause and effect.

e. Red Herring: A statement that has no direct relevance to the topic.

E.g.: Crime, communism, and delinquency are on the rise. Therefore we had better abolish the
federal income tax.

Solution: Be precise in distinguishing the relevant from the irrelevant.

f. False Authority: Arguing that a person who is competent in one field will necessarily be
competent in another.

E.g.:

James Johnson is a good congressman. Therefore he would be a good preacher / teacher /

president / garbage collector.
Since Dr. Kissinger taught at Harvard, his ideas about foreign policy must be right.

Solution: Be certain that your sources are authorities in their fields.

g. Statistics: False use of numbers proves nothing.

E.g.: Super-Slim Artificial Yogurt will help you lose weight because it has only calories per
ounce.

Solution: Ask yourself specific questions about statistics: Source? Applicability? Thorough study
or mere speculation? Recent or dated? Local, national, international data?

h. Vice and Virtue Words: The use of words that connote bad or good emotional reactions in the
reader.

E.g.:
Do you want your sons or daughters to fall victim to this Communist conspiracy? Or die at the
hands of this menace?
The first choice of discriminating travelers is Holiday Inn, a prestige hotel for those who expect
the best.

Solution: Use connotative words, but be sure that you have logical proof to support what you say.

2. Fundamentals for Logical Analysis

- Always remember never to say always and never (and all and none, and everyone and nobody).
Reasonable thinking should be reflected in reasonable language. All-inclusive statements can
rarely be proved. Qualify and specify.
- Even if you are sure that one thing is the cause of another, it may not be the only cause. Be
careful not to oversimplify.
- Suspicious words like undoubtedly and obviously are often followed by hasty generalizations and
oversimplifications.
- Any opinion you have must be qualified and specified, and must be supported completely with
facts, examples, or personal experience.

VI. SAMPLES OF PERSUASIVE ESSAYS

Sample 1: FORMAL EXAMINATIONS

In the past three decades, the use of formal examinations has become less frequent in many countries. The
educational systems in some societies, however, are still dominated by formal examinations. I believe that, to a
certain extent, examinations can give an unfair assessment of a student’s ability. Even though examination
results have been used extensively as a means of assessment in the past, there are times when they do not
appear to reflect a student’s ability accurately.

Firstly, examinations can be unfair in several ways. For example, the whole career of a candidate depends upon
what he or she does on a certain day and hour of an exam. If the candidate is ill, or if he or she has had some
emotional trauma, these factors could have a negative effect on the student’s exam results. Furthermore, some
students do not perform well under pressure and require a longer time to reach useful conclusions. Even though
they may have studied diligently, and know the subject matter thoroughly, their performance does not reflect
their ability. For these students, examinations appear to be unfair.

Yet, some people believe that examinations make people work hard. They assume that in order to do well,
students need to work throughout the course as they know they will have to prove themselves at the end.
However, in many ways, exams have the opposite effect. Some candidates merely cram so that they can
perform quickly for the demands of the test. Other forms of assessment, such as course work and oral
presentations, are a more accurate reflection of how hard students work. In the assessment of their ability,
students’ diligence, initiative, deductive reasoning and organizational skills are considered, which are important
indicators of ability but are rarely tested in a formal examination.

In conclusion, even though formal examinations have been used in the past, they should no longer be used as
the only means of assessment because they can be an unfair indication of the student’s overall ability. In the
long term, other less formal means of assessment such as course work or oral presentations are a more useful
indicator of the skills required in adult life and, therefore, a more accurate indication of a student’s ability.

Sample 2: SHOULD SMOKING BE BANNED?

It has become fashionable in the world today to condemn smoking. However, although I feel that smoking can
be harmful, I do not think it should be banned completely.

Let me deal first with the positive side of smoking. First, smoking undoubtedly helps many people to relax. For
some, it even improves concentration. Many people like to smoke before exams or when they are relaxing with
friends.

A further point is that governments throughout the world make huge profits from levying taxes on cigarettes.
This provides funds which are used for building schools, hospitals and other public amenities.

The tobacco industry also employs tens of thousands of people throughout the world, particularly in poorer
countries like Zimbabwe or India. Without cigarettes, these people would have no jobs.

I would also argue that people should have the right to choose whether they smoke or not. People should not
smoke in a room where there are non-smokers but surely they should be free to smoke elsewhere.

The arguments against smoking are well known. Smoking has been shown to be dangerous to health. Heart
disease, bronchitis and lung cancer have all been linked.

A further issue is that smoking costs governments millions of pounds because of the large number of people
who need treatment in hospitals for smoking related problems.

There is also concern today about passive smoking. Recent research has shown that non-smokers can suffer
health problems if they spend long periods of time among people who do smoke.

In general, I think the world would be a better place without cigarettes. However, the decision as to whether to
smoke or not should be for each individual to make.