MAT 201 – FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS (2019/2020 session)

Module 1 – Review of integration and its applications

Objectives:

At the end of this module, students should be able to

- see integration as reverse process of differentiation;

- find a function whose derivative we already know

Recommended Texts:

- BD Bunday & H Mulholland (2004): Pure Mathematics for A’ level (second edition), Heinemann
Educational Books (Nigeria) Plc: Ibadan
- MR Tuttuh-Adegun, S Sivasubramaniam & R Adegoke (1997): Further Mathematics Project (revised
edition), NPS Educational Publishers Limited: Ibadan
- CJ Tranter & CG Lambe (1975): Advanced Level Mathematics (Pure and Applied), The English
Universities Press Limited: Great Britain

1.1 Introduction

Previously, we have been considering the problem of finding the differential coefficient or rate of change of a
given function. The integral calculus to which we now turn our attention is concerned with the inverse problem,
namely, given the rate of change of a function, to find the function. In symbols, we require to find f (x) where

df ( x)
= g ( x) … (1)
dx

and g (x) is given . It is more usual to write

f ( x) = ∫ g ( x)dx

and we define integration as follows. The integral of a function g (x) with respect to x is the

function whose differential coefficient with respect to x is g ( x) and it is written ∫ g ( x)dx . The justification
for the choice of the symbol will be much appreciated as we progress as integration will be seen as a process of

∫
summation. If we are required to find 3 x 2 dx , then ∫ 3x dx = x
2 3
because

d (x3 )
= 3x 2
dx

d (− cos x)
Similarly ∫ sin xdx = − cos x; because = sin x
dx
 dx d (log e x) 1
∫ x
dx = log e x; because
dx
=
x

1.2 The arbitrary constant

df ( x)
If f ( x) = x 3 then = 3x 2 so x 3 is the integral of 3x 2 .
dx

df ( x)
If f ( x) = x 3 + 5 then = 3x 2 and x 3 + 5 is the integral of 3x 2 .
dx

df ( x)
In general, if f ( x) = x 3 + c then = 3x 2 . So x 3 + c is integral of 3x 2 , f ( x) = x 3 + c
dx

is called the general solution of

f ( x) = x 3

f ( x) = x 3 + 5

f ( x) = x 3 + c

df ( x)
are particular solution of = 3x 2
dx

The constant c , in the general solution is called an arbitrary constant of integration .The general

df ( x)
= 3x 2
solution of dx

x n+1
f ( x) = + c , n ≠ −1
n +1

Remarks: To find f ( x) given g ( x) means that we have to retrace the steps we made in the process of
differentiation and then add constant. Unfortunately, there seems to be no general method for doing this, but a
few of the more common integrals can be stated from our knowledge of differential coefficients. These results
are known as standard forms and can be summarized in a tabular form for easy reference.
 S/N f ( x)
∫ f ( x)dx
1 ax n ax n+1
+ c, (n ≠ −1)
n +1
2 cos x sin x + c
3 sin x − cos x + c
4 ex ex + c
5 1 log e x + c
x
6 1 1 x
arctan( ) + c,
a + x2
2
a a a and
c are constants
7 sec x2 tan x + c

Example 1: Integrate the following functions with respect to x :

1 1
(i) x8 (ii) (iii)
x 3 25 + x 2

−2
3
1 9 −
∫ x dx = 9 x + c ∫x dx = +c
8 2
Solution: (i) (ii)
x

1 1 x
(iii) ∫ 25 + x 2
dx = arctan( ) + c
5 5

1.3 Few useful rules of operation

Rule 1: The integral of a sum of a finite number of functions is the sum of their separate integrals
(‘sum’ includes the addition of negative quantities, i.e. ‘differences’)
Rule 2: The addition of a constant to the variable makes no difference to the form of the result
Rule 3: Multiplying the variable by a constant makes no difference to the form of the result but we have
to divide by the constant
Rule 4: The integral of a fraction whose numerator is the derivative of the denominator is the logarithm
of the denominator
Rule 5: A constant factor may be brought outside the integral sign

Example 2: Integrate the following functions with respect to x :

−2 x 4x 3 −1
(i) (1 + x) 2
(ii) cos( x + 3) (iii) e (iv)
x4 − x + 2

x3
∫ (1 + x) dx = ∫ (1 + 2 x + x )dx = ∫ dx + 2∫ xdx + ∫ x dx = x + x + +c
2 2 2 2
Solution: (i)
3
 −2 x 1
(ii) ∫ cos( x + 3)dx = sin( x + 3) + c (iii) ∫e dx = − e −2 x + c
2

4x 3 −1
(iv) ∫ 4 dx = log e ( x 4 − x + 2) + c
x −x+2

1.4 Some techniques of integration

1.4.1: Integration by algebraic substitution (change of variable)

A widely used device in integration is to reduce an integral that is not in standard form by making an appropriate
algebraic substitution (to reduce to one that is in standard form)

∫x ∫x 1 + x 2 dx
2
Example 3: Evaluate (i) cos x 3 dx (ii)

du du
Solution: (i) Let u = x 3 , = 3x 2 ⇒ dx = 2 ,
dx 3x
du 1 1
∫ x cos x dx = ∫ x cos u 3x 2 = 3 ∫ cos udu = 3 sin x + c
2 3 2 3

1 3
du du 1 1
(iii) Let u = (1 + x 2 ), = 2 x ⇒ dx = , ∫ x 1 + x 2 dx = ∫ u 2 du = (1 + x 2 ) 2 + c
dx 2x 2 3

1.4.2: Integration by trigonometric substitution

Certain integral forms require trigonometric substitution if the integrands involves

(i) a 2 − x 2 , we try x = a sin θ

(ii) a 2 + x 2 , we try x = a tan θ
(iii) x 2 − a 2 , we try x = a sec θ

2
Example 4: Evaluate ∫x 2
+5
dx

 x 
Solution: Put x = 5 tan θ ⇒ θ = tan −1  , dx = 5 sec 2 θdθ ; x 2 + 5 = 5 sec 2 θ
 5

2 5 sec 2 θ 2 2 2 −1  x 
∫ x 2 + 5 dx = 2∫ 5sec2 θ dθ = 5 ∫ dθ = 5 θ + c = 5 tan  5  + c
Powers of sine and cosine

∫ sin
2
Example 5: Evaluate x cos xdx

du du
Solution: Put u = sin x = cos x ⇒ dx =
dx cos x

du u3 sin 3 x
∫ sin x cos xdx = ∫ u cos x cos x = 3 + c = 3 + c
2 2

If the integrand is a product of a sine and/or a cosine of a multiple angle

sin mx cos nx =
1
(sin(m + n) x + sin(m − n) x )
2
cos mx cos nx = (cos(m + n) x + cos(m − n) x )
1
2
sin mx sin nx = (cos(m − n) x + cos(m + n) x )
1
2

Example 6: Evaluate ∫ sin 3x cos x

1 − cos 4 x cos 2 x
∫
Solution: sin 3x cos x = ∫ 2 (sin 4 x + sin 2 x)dx = 8
−
4
+c

1.4.3 Integration by partial fraction

If a rational expression is not in a standard integral form, it could be transformed into a standard form by
splitting it into partial fractions.

4x − 5 2x3 − 2x 2 − 2x − 7
Example 7: Evaluate (i) ∫ ( x + 1)( x − 2) dx (ii) ∫ x 2 − x − 2 dx
4x − 5 3 1 3 1
Solution: (i) Using partial fraction ∫ ( x + 1)( x − 2) dx = ∫ ( x + 1 + x − 2 )dx = ∫ x + 1 dx + ∫ x − 2 dx

= 3 log e ( x + 1) + log e ( x − 2) + c

(ii) In this case the degree of the numerator is higher than the degree of the denominator. We decide to
make the expression a proper algebraic fraction
2x3 − 2x 2 − 2x − 7 3 1
∫ x 2 − x − 2 dx = ∫ (2 x + x + 1 − x − 2 )dx
 = x + 3 log e ( x + 1) + log e ( x − 2) + c
2

1.4.4: Integration by parts

This is a method of integrating a product of two functions. From

d du dv
(uv) = v +u
dx dx dx

on integrating both sides with respect to x, we have

du dv
uv = ∫ v dx + ∫ u dx
dx dx

whence

dv du
∫ u dxdx = uv − ∫ v dx dx

Example 8: Evaluate
∫ x sin xdx
Solution: Put u = x and du = dx

dv = sin xdx; v = − cos x

∫ x sin xdx = − x cos x + sin x + c

1.5 Review on applications of integration

At the end of this section, students should be able to:

(i) associate the area under a curve with an integral;

(ii) calculate area under a curve using definite integral;

(iii) apply integration to solve problems relating to dynamics;

(iv) find volume of solids generated by revolution using integrals

1.5.1 The area under a curve

The formula

∫ f ( x)dx
a

y = f (x) , and the ordinates corresponding to x = a, x = b and

is interpreted as the area bounded by the curve
the x − axis .

Example 9: Calculate the area between the curve y = 3x( x − 4) and the axis of x .

Solution:

Hence the required area

4 4 4
= ∫ ydx = ∫ 3 x( x − 4)dx = ∫ (3 x 2 − 12 x)dx
0 0 0

= [ x − 6 x ] = −32units
3 2 4
0

Remarks: The negative sign is explained by the fact that

the curve lies below the axis of x under consideration .

1.5.2 Volumes of solids of revolution:

Another simple application of the integral calculus is the calculation of the volume of the solid formed by the
rotation of the curve y = f(x) about the axis of x. The integral

b b

∫ πy dx = π ∫ y dx
2 2

a a

is the required formula for the volume of a solid of revolution.

Example 10:

y = 2x ,
Find the volume of solid generated when the region bounded by

y = 2 x, the ordinate at x =2, x = 4 and the x- axis,

is revolved about the x-axis.

Solution: Let V be the volume of solid generated when the region is revolved about the x-axis.
 4 4
224
V= V = πy dx = π 4 x = 4 π [( x)]2 =
∫ ∫ π
2 2 4
3
2
3
0
3 units

1.5.3. Centre of mass & Centroid

Finding the total mass M and the calculation of first moments (Nx and Ny) with respect to x and y,
respectively. The total mass M can be considered as the limiting value as tends to zero of the sum of the
l

approximate elementary masses ρdx, i.e., M = ∫ ρdx

0

where ρ is the variable density of the rod at a point of abscissa x and l is the length of the rod. In the same
l

way the first moment δN x of the element is approximately xρδx so that N x = ∫0 xρdx

and the abscissa x of the centre of gravity or centre of mass of the rod is given by
l l

N ∫ xρdx Ny ∫ yρdy
x= x = 0
l and respectively y = M =
0
l
M
∫ ρdx
0
∫ ρdy
0

and the point ( x , y ) is called the centre of mass or centre of gravity.

Now consider the centre of gravity of a lamina of uniform density bounded by the curve y = f (x),

the axis of x and ordinates x = a, x = b.

The point ( x , y ) found by assuming uniform density of material over an area is usually called the centroid of
the area; when the density is uniform and the centre of gravity coincide. In this case

b b b b
1 2
x = ∫ xydx ÷ ∫ ydx , y =
2 ∫a
y dx ÷ ∫ ydx
a a a
 Module 2 – Equations of lines & circles; conic sections

Preamble
The reader is assumed to be familiar with the way in which points are plotted in elementary graphical
work. Thus, the position of a point in a plane, is conveniently specified, by the distances from two
perpendicular lines. The lines are called x-axis and y-axis and their point of intersection is called the
origin. The perpendicular distance from the y-axis is called the x-coordinate or abscissa and the
perpendicular from the x-axis is called the y-coordinate or ordinate. The coordinates form an ordered
pair with the abscissa written first (See fig. 3)

0.1. Distance between two points

If P, Q have coordinates ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) respectively then by Pythagoras theorem
PQ 2 = PR 2 + RQ 2 = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2
∴ PQ = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2
y Q ( x2 , y 2 )

P ( x1 , y1 ) y 2 − y1
x2 − x1 R
x

Figure 1.
0.2. The mid-point of a line segment
P and Q have coordinates ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) respectively. Let R with coordinates ( x, y)
PR PS
be the mid-point of PQ. As triangles PRS and PQT are similar =
RQ ST
As PR = RQ and PS = ST
x1 + x2 y + y2
∴ x − x1 = x2 − x, 2 x = x2 + x1 ⇒ x = . Similarly, y = 1
2 2

Hence, the coordinates of the mid-point of the line joining ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) are
1 1 
 ( x1 + x2 ), ( y1 + y 2 )
 2 2 
0.3 Gradients

The gradient of a line is defined as the ratio Increase in y / increase in x – in going from one
point to another on a line. In Fig. 1, let m be the gradient of the line PQ, then
QR y 2 − y1
m= =
PR x2 − x1
0.4 Angle of slope
angle α with the positive x-axis. α is called the angle of slope of the
If the line PQ makes an ang
line.
QR
Gradient of the line PQ = = tan α
PR
Hence, the gradient of a line = tangent of the angle the line makes with the ppositive
ositive x-axis.
x

α x
P R

Figure 2

The Equation of the Straight Line

Fig
Figure 3
 Consider Figure 3 in which is the straight line, angle is

any point on the straight line, is the ordinate and is parallel to

It is clear that

(Corresponding angles)

Therefore,

is the slope
pe of the straight line denoted by Thus is the gradient intercept

form of the straight line.

Other Forms of the Equation of a Straight Line

Gradient and One Point Form ... 1.1

Figure 4

Consider Figure 4 in which a straight line is passing through and having a

gradient is a variable point on the straight line, thus

Example: Find the equation of a straight line of slope 3, if it passes through the point

Solution: The equation of a straight line of gradient passing through is

Hence the equation of the straight line is

Two Points Form … 1.2
-
Let be two points on a straight line with slope We take a

variable point on the line, as shown below.

Figure 5

From Figure 5,

Thus the equation of the straight line is

Example: Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the points

Solution

Hence the equation of the straight line through is

The Equation of the Straight Line making Intercepts on respectively …1.3

Figure 6
Let the straight line cross the axes at respectively. Let the coordinate at
be and at Thus
Thus, using the two point form formula,

This is called the intercept form of the equation of the straight line.
Other forms of equation of a straight line exist. The reader should ende
endeavour
avour to find out.

The angle between two straight lines

Figure 7
Let and be two given straight lines (as shown in the Figure 7) with gradients

respectively. The acute angle between the lines is From our

previous knowledge Thus

the two lines is given by

Remark

1. If the two lines are parallel. Then .

2. If the lines are perpendicular to each other, then .

Therefore,

The Perpendicular Distance of a Point from a Straight Line

Let be the point and the equation of the line be

 (1)

as shown below.

Figure 8
Let the straight line be denoted and the line perpendicular to it be

From the equation

Thus, the gradient of line is . Therefore the gradient of the line is

Using the point formula, the equation of the straight line is derived thus,

Hence, the equation of the line is

(2)
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously to determine the coordinate of we have that

The distance between and is

is the length of the perpendicular.
Example: Find the length of the perpendicular from the point to the line

Solution

Hence the perpendicular distance is

2.0 The Equation of a Circle

Consider a circle with centre and radius (as shown below). Let be an

arbitrary point on the circumference of the circle.

Figure 9
It follows that

Using the expression for the distance between two points, we have

(2.1)

Or

(2.2)

If we let the centre of the circle is the origin and the equation reduces to

(2.3)

If we let the equation of a circle is thus of the form

This implies that the circle has centre

Example

Find the equation

ation of the circle with centre radius 5.

Solution

The equation is:

Exercise
Find the centre and radius of the circle

The equation of a Circle through Three Non

Non-collinear Points

Let the three points be points on the circumference

mference of the circle

Since the circle passes through all the three points, the

coordinates of each point must satisfy the equation of the circle.

Hence

Solving these equations simultaneously we obtain the values of .

Example: Find the equation of the circle through the points and determine

the radius.

Solution

Let the equation of the circle be Then since lies on the

circle,

Similarly,

and

Solving these simultaneous equations,

uations, we have
 Hence the required equation is:

The Equation of the Tangent at the Point ( , on a Circle

Let , be a point on the circumference of the circle

We need to determine the equation of the tangent to the circle at the point P

, Differentiating the equation with respect to we have

is the gradient of the tangent at the point , Thus the equation of the tangent is

Adding to both sides yields

Since lies on the circle. Hence the requi

required equation is

Conic sections: parabola, hyperbola & ellipse

 Module 3 – Sequences, series, power series & their convergence

Objectives: At the end of this module, students should be able to:

i. understand series of number or powers of x , each term of which is derived from the
preceding one by a definite law
ii. know the ideas of limits and convergence that are important in mathematics and
related subjects

Definition 2.1: A set of numbers or algebraic expressions each of which can be obtained from
the preceding one by a definite law is called a sequence or a progression. Each of the numbers or
expressions forming the set is called a term of the sequence. For example, the sets

i) 1, 2, 3,… ii) x, x2, x3, … iii) 1, 4, 9, 16,…

are all sequences. In mathematics, sequences are defined formally as follows. A sequence {an }n=1
∞

of real numbers is a function a of real numbers N into the real numbers a : N → ℜ , defined by

a ( n) = a n ∈ ℜ

for every n ∈ N .

Examples:

1 1 2
(i) Let the sequence an = 1 − , the first three elements are a1 = 0, a2 = , a3 = , etc.
n 2 3
(ii) Let the sequence bn = 2 . Then b1 = 2, b2 = 4, b3 = 8, etc
n

(iii) Let the sequence cn = 100 − 5n so c1 = 95, c2 = 90, c3 = 85, etc

Other sequences are

{−1,1,−1,1,...} - alternating sequence,

{3,3,3,...} - a constant sequence

Definition 2.2: A sequence an is bounded if