To differentiate y = xn with respect to x we multiply by the

power and reduce the power by one.

We can write this process as follows:

xn multiply by the power reduce the power by 1 nxn-1

dy
Suppose we are given the derivative = xn and asked to find
dx
y in terms of x.
Reversing the process of differentiation given above would give

x n 1
divide by the power increase the power by 1 xn
n 1
 dy
For example: If = 6 x 2 find y in terms of x.
dx
Adding 1 to the power and dividing by the new power gives:
6 3
y= x
3
= 2x3
This is not the complete solution, however, because if we
differentiated y = 2x3 + 1,
or y = 2x3 – 3,
or y = 2x3 + any constant
dy
we would also get = 6 x2
dx
We therefore have to write y = 2x3 + c.
We can’t find the value of c without being given further
information. It is an arbitrary constant.

The process of finding a function given its derivative is called

integration.

We call c the constant of integration.

The integral of 6x2 with respect to x is written as:


2 3
6 x dx = 2 x +c

This is called an indefinite integral because we don’t know

the value of c.
In general:
ax n 1
 ax dx = n  1 + c for all n  1
n

  dx, where a is a constant.

n n
ax dx can also be written as a x

For example:

Find a) 12 x 5 dx b) 8 dx c)  21 x 3 dx

6
12 x x3 1 x4
a) 12x 5 dx = +c b) 8dx = 8 x + c c) dx = × + c
6 2 2 4
x4
= 2 x6 + c = +c
8
When we differentiated polynomials we differentiated each
term at a time.
The same can be done when polynomials are integrated.

For example: Find  (8 x 3 + 5 x 2  6 x + 2)dx

      dx   6 xdx +  2dx
3 2 3 2
(8 x 5 x 6 x 2)dx = 8 x dx + 5 x
8 x 4 5 x3 6 x2
= +  +2x +c
4 3 2
= 2 x 4 + 53 x 3  3 x 2 + 2 x + c
In general:
  f ( x) + g ( x) dx =  f ( x)dx +  g ( x)dx
Suppose we know the gradient function of a curve and we
want to find its equation.
We can do this by integration if we are also given a point on
the curve.
This is because we can use the coordinates of the point to
find the constant of integration. For example:
A curve y = f(x) passes through the point (2, 9).
dy
Given that  8 x 3  10 x find the equation of the curve.
dx
dy
If = 8 x 3  10 x then y =  (8 x 3  10 x)dx
dx
8 x 4 10 x 2
=  +c
4 2
= 2 x4  5 x2 + c
The curve passes through the point (2, 9) and so we can
substitute x = 2 and y = 9 into the equation of the curve to
find the value of c.
y = 2x4 – 5x2 + c
9 = 2(2)4 – 5(2)2 + c
9 = 32 – 20 + c
9 = 12 + c
c = –3

So the equation of the curve is y = 2x4 – 5x2 – 3.

A curve has gradient function 6x2 – 7. Given that the curve
passes through the point with coordinates (2, 5) find the
equation of the curve.

f ’(x) = 6x2 – 7
f(x) = 2x3 – 7x + c
Substituting x = 2 and y = 5 into this equation gives:
5 = 16 – 14 + c
c=3
So the equation of the curve is y = 2x3 – 7x + 3.
When we find the indefinite integral of a function the answer
takes the form of an expression plus a constant of integration.
When we find a definite integral of a function we find the
integral between two given limits to give a numerical result.
For example, the definite integral of 6x2 + 5 between x = 1 and
x = 3 is written as 3
 (6 x + 5)dx
2
1
Notice that
It is evaluated as follows: square brackets
3 3
1  + 5 x + c 
2 3 are used here …
(6 x + 5)dx =  2 x
1

= (2(3)3 + 5(3) + c )  (2(1)3 + 5(1) + c )

…and rounded
brackets here. = 69  7
c cancels out.
= 62
When evaluating a definite integral we can ignore constants
of integration because they cancel out.

f '( x )dx =  f ( x )a = f (b )  f ( a )

b

b
In general: a

3
Evaluate 1
x 2 dx

3
3  x3 

2
x dx =  
1
 3 1
(3)3 (1)3
= 
3 3
= 9  31
= 8 32
Suppose that we want to find the area A under a curve
between two given values of x; x = a and x = b.
If the area between x = 0 and b is
y
A(b)
and the area between x = 0 and a is
A(a)
then the area A under the curve
A(a) A(b)
A
from x = a to x = b must be
a b x
A = A(b) – A(a)

In general: The area A under a curve y = f(x)

between the limits x = a and x = b is given
b
by A =  y dx
a
 Find the area bounded by the curve y = 2x2 + 1,
the x-axis and the lines x = –1 and x = 3.
Start by sketching the graph of y = 2x2 + 1 and shading the
required area. 3
A =  (2 x 2  1) dx
1
y
3
 2 x3 
y = 2x2 + 1 = + x
 3  1
 2(3)3   2( 1)3 
= + 3    1
A  3   3 
x = 21  53
–1 3
= 22 32
The final solution can be written as 2232 units2.
Suppose the area that we are trying to find is below the x-axis.
For example:
Find the area bounded by the
curve y = x(x – 6) and the x-axis.

y This area is given by:

y = x(x – 6) 6
A =  ( x 2  6 x ) dx
0
6
=  31 x 3  3 x 2 
0 6 x 0
A =  1
3 
(6)3  3(6)2  0
= 36
The calculated area is negative because it is below the x-axis.
We write the actual area as 36 units2.
Suppose we want to find the area between a curve and a
line. For example:
Find the area bounded by the curve
y = x2 + 1 and the line y = 2x + 4.
Start by sketching the graph, and shading the required area.
y Next, we have to find the
x-coordinates of the points where
y = x2 + 1
the curve and the line intersect.
Solving: x2 + 1 = 2x + 4
x2 – 2x –3 = 0
y = 2x + 4 –1 3 x
(x +1)(x – 3) = 0
 the curve and the line intersect when x = –1 and x = 3.
The area under the line y = 2x + 4 between x = –1 and x = 3
is this area:

y
While the area under the curve
y = x2 + 1 between x = –1 and
y = x2 + 1 x = 3 is this area:

A So the area we require, A, can

be found by subtracting the
y = 2x + 4 –1 3 x area under the curve from the
area under the line.
This area is given by:
3 3
A =  (2 x + 4)dx   ( x 2 +1)dx
1 1
Since the limits are the same these two integrals can be
combined to give
 
3
A =  (2 x + 4)  ( x 2 +1) dx
1

3
=  (  x 2 + 2 x + 3)dx
1

3
=   31 x 3 + x 2 + 3 x 
1

=  9 + 9 + 9    31 +1  3 
= 9  1 32
= 7 31

So the required area is 731 units2.

The following diagram shows the curve with equation
y = x2 – 4x + 5 and the line y = 8 – 2x.
The line and the curve intersect at the points A and B.
y a) Find the coordinates of A and
B.
A b) Find the area of the shaded
region R.
R
B

x
a) Equating the given equations:

x2 – 4x + 5 = 8 – 2x
x2 – 2x – 3 = 0
(x + 1)(x – 3) = 0
x = –1 or x = 3
When x = –1, y = 10 and when x = 3, y = 2.
 The coordinates of A are (–1, 10) and the coordinates of B
are (3, 2).

b) The area of R is given by

3 3
A =  (8  2 x )dx   ( x 2  4 x + 5)dx
1 1
Combining these gives

3
A =  (  x 2 + 2 x + 3)dx
1

3
=   31 x 3 + x 2 + 3 x 
1

=  9 + 9 + 9    31 +1  3 

= 9  1 32

= 7 31

So the required area is 731 units2.