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Polynomials
1.1. Definitions
A polynomial in x is an expression obtained by taking powers of x, multiplying them by
constants, and adding them. It can be written in the form
c0 xn + c1 xn−1 + c2 xn−2 + · · · + cn−1 x + cn
where n is an integer ≥ 0, and c0 , c1 , . . . , cn are constants. For example
1
2x6 + 5x5 + x3 + x2 − 6x − 10
2
1
Note that x 2 + 3 and 4x3 + x32 are not polynomials.
The constants c0 , . . . , cn are called the coefficients.
The constant term is cn .
The leading term is the term involving the highest power of x, here c0 xn .
The degree is the power of x in the leading term.
A degree 0 polynomial is just a constant, e.g., 2 is (a) constant
A degree 1 polynomial is called linear, e.g., 3x + 2 is linear
A degree 2 polynomial is called quadratic, e.g., x2 + 2x + 1 is quadratic
A degree 3 polynomial is called cubic, e.g., y 3 + 7y − 2 is a cubic in y.
1.2. Operations
Polynomials can be added or subtracted simply by adding or subtracting the corresponding
terms, e.g., if
f (x) = x2 − 3, g(x) = 4x3 + 3x2 − 2x + 6
then
f (x) + g(x) = 4x3 + 4x2 − 2x + 3, f (x) − g(x) = −4x3 − 2x2 + 2x − 9
To multiply two polynomials, every term of the first polynomial must be multiplied by
every term of the second.
Example 1.1.
f (x)g(x) =(x2 − 3)(4x3 + 3x2 − 2x + 6)
=x2 (4x3 + 3x2 − 2x + 6) − 3(4x3 + 3x2 − 2x + 6)
=4x5 + 3x4 − 2x3 + 6x2 − 12x3 − 9x2 + 6x − 18
=4x5 + 3x4 − 14x3 − 3x2 + 6x − 18
1
1.3. Polynomial division
Similar to long division for ordinary numbers.
To divide 2x3 + 10x2 − 3x + 1 by x + 3, we compute
2x2 +4x −15
x+3| 2x3 + 10x2 −3x +1
2x3 + 6x2
4x2 −3x
4x2 +12x
−15x +1
−15x −45
46
The term 2x3 must come from multiplying x+3 by 2x2 , so put 2x2 on the top line, multiply
x + 3 by 2x2 and subtract from the line above.
Now bring down the −3x. Multiply x + 3 by 4x and subtract.
Bring down the −1. Multiply x + 3 by −15 and subtract.
This completes the process.
The quotient is 2x2 + 4x − 15 and the remainder is 46.