FAITH ACADEMY BENIN

FIRST TERM E-LEARNING NOTES

SUBJECT: FURTHER MATHEMATICS CLASS: SSS2

SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPICS
1. Polynomials 1: (a) Definition of polynomials (b) Basic operations on polynomials.
(c) Remainder and factor theorem. (d) Zeros of polynomials.
2. Polynomials 2: (a) Roots of cubic equation: Sum of roots; Sum of products of two
Roots; Products of roots. (b) Graphs of polynomial function.
3. Permutations: (a) Permutation (arrangement) (b) Cyclic permutation (c)
Arrangement of identical objects. (c) Arrangement in which repetitions are allowed.
4. Combination: (a) Combination (selection). (b) Conditional arrangements and
selection. (c) Probability problems involving arrangement and selection.
5. Binomial Expansion 1: (a) Pascal triangle (ii) Binomial expansion of (a+b)n , where n
can be positive integer, negative integer or fractional value.
6. Binomial Expansion 2: (a) Finding nth term (b) Application of binomial expansion
7. Mid-term break.
8. Roots of quadratic equation 1: (a) Quadratic equation (completing the square and
formula method). (b) Sum and product of roots of quadratic equation (c) Finding
quadratic equation given sum and product of roots, x2 – (sum of roots) + (product) = 0
(d) Condition for quadratic equation to have: (i) Equal roots (b 2 = 4ac) (ii) Real roots
b2 > 4ac (iii) No roots b2 < 4ac
9. Roots of quadratic equation 2: (a) Conditions for given line to: (i) intersect a curve,
(ii) be tangent to curve, (iii) not intersect a curve (b) Solution of problems on roots of
quadratic equation. (c) Maximum and minimum values.
10. Revision.
11. Examination.
WEEK ONE
TOPIC: POLYNOMIALS 1
SUB-TOPICS:
(a) Definition of polynomials.
(b) Basic operations on polynomials.
(c) Remainder and factor theorem.
(d) Zeros of polynomials.
SUB-TOPIC 1
Definition of Polynomials
A polynomial is a mathematical expression which is a sum of terms, each term consisting a
variable or variables raised to a power and multiplied by a coefficient. A polynomial of one
variable x (univariate) has the following as its general form:

anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0

where the highest power of the variable n is the degree of the polynomial; the numerical
constants an, an-1, … a2, a1 are called the coefficients of the polynomial, while a0 is called the
constant term.
Examples of polynomials include:
 3x2 – 2x + 4
 2x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 3
A function whose values are given by a polynomial is called a polynomial function. Eg: f(x)
= 2x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 3
An equation that is obtained when we set a polynomial equal to zero is called a polynomial
equation. E.g.: 2x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 3 = 0
Equality of polynomials
Two polynomials,
P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0 and
Q(x) = bnxn + bn-1xn-1 + … + b2x2 + b1x + b0
are said to be equal if:
a n = bn
an-1 = bn-1
a 2 = b2
a 1 = b1
a 0 = b0
The value that is obtained by substituting a for x in a polynomial P(x) is denoted by P(a).

SUB-TOPIC 2
Basic operations on polynomial
Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials
Given
P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0 and
Q(x) = bnxn + bn-1xn-1 + … + b2x2 + b1x + b0
Then,
P(x) + Q(x) = (an + bn) xn + (an-1 + bn-1) xn-1 + … + (a2 + b2) x2 + (a1 + b1) x + a0 + b0
Similarly,
P(x) + Q(x) = (an - bn) xn + (an-1 - bn-1) xn-1 + … + (a2 - b2) x2 + (a1 - b1) x + a0 - b0
Examples:
1. Given P(x) = 5x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 7; Q(x) = 6x2 + 5x – 4; R(x) = 8x3 + 5x – 2.
Find, (a) P(x) + Q(x); (b) R(x) – P(x); (c) P(x) + 2Q(x) – 3R(x).
2. If F(x) = 3x3 + 4x2 – 5x + 9, find: (a) F(-1). (b) F(1). (c) F(0). (d) F(3).
Solution:
1. (a) P(x) + Q(x) = (5x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 7) + (6x2 + 5x – 4)
= 5x3 + (– 3x2 + 6x2) + (4x + 5x) + (7 + (-4))
= 5x3 + 3x2 + 9x + 3
(b) R(x) – P(x) = (8x3 + 5x – 2) – (5x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 7)
= (8x3 - 5x3) + (0 – (-3x2)) + (5x - 4x) + ((-2) -7)
= 3x3 + 3x2 + x – 9
(c) P(x) + 2Q(x) – 3R(x) = (5x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 7) + 2(6x2 + 5x – 4) – 3(8x3 + 5x – 2)
= (5x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 7) + (12x2 + 10x - 8) – (24x3 + 15x - 6)
= 5x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 7 + 12x2 + 10x - 8 - 24x3 - 15x + 6
= 5x3 - 24x3 - 3x2 + 12x2 + 4x + 10x - 15x + 7 – 8 + 6
= - 19x3 + 9x2 – x + 5
2. F(x) = 3x3 + 4x2 – 5x + 9
(a) F(-1) = 3(-1)3 + 4(-1)2 – 5(-1) + 9
= 3(-1) + 4(1) – 5(-1) + 9
= -3 + 4 + 5 + 9
= 15
(b) F(1) = 3(1)3 + 4(1)2 – 5(1) + 9
= 3(1) + 4(1) – 5 + 9
=3+4–5+9
= 11
(c) F(0) = 3(0)3 + 4(0)2 – 5(0) + 9
=9
(d) F(3) = 3(3)3 + 4(3)2 – 5(3) + 9
 = 3(27) + 4(9) – 15 + 9
= 81 + 36 – 15 + 9
= 111
Class activity
1. Given that P1(x) = 2x2 + 3x + 4; P2(x) = 4x2 – 6x + 8; P3(x) = 5x3 – 3x2 + 5x + 6. Find
4 P1(x) + 5 P2(x) - 2 P3(x).
2. If f(x) = x4 – 3x3 + x2 + 3x – 2, show that f(1) = f(2).

Multiplication of Polynomials
The multiplication of two polynomials is obtained by using every term of one polynomial to
multiply each term of the other polynomial and collecting together like terms.
When a polynomial of degree m is multiplied by another polynomial of degree n, another
polynomial of degree m + n is obtained.
Examples
1. Given P(x) = 7x3 – 4x2 + 3x +4 and Q(x) = 5x2 + 6x +1. Find PQ.
Solution:
Method 1:

PQ = (7x3 – 4x2 + 3x +4)(5x2 + 6x +1)

= 7x3(5x2 + 6x +1) – 4x2(5x2 + 6x +1) + 3x(5x2 + 6x +1) +4(5x2 + 6x +1)

= 35x5 + 42x4 + 7x3 – 20x4 – 24x3 – 4x2 + 15x3 + 18x2 + 3x + 20x2 + 24x + 4

Rearrange

= 35x5 + 42x4 – 20x4 + 7x3 – 24x3 + 15x3 – 4x2 + 18x2 + 20x2 + 24x + 3x + 4

= 35x5 + 22x4 – 2x3 + 34x2 + 27x + 4

Method 2: (Long Multiplication)

7x3 – 4x2 + 3x +4
X 5x2 + 6x + 1
7x3 – 4x2 + 3x +4
42x4 – 24x3 + 18x2 + 24x
35x5 – 20x4 + 15x3 + 20x2
35x5 + 22x4 – 2x3 +34x2 + 27x +4

2. Given that P(x) = 5x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 4 and Q(x) = 2x2 + 1, find P(x).Q(x)
 Solution
Method 1:
PQ = QP = (2x2 + 1) (5x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 4)
= 2x2(5x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 4) + 1 (5x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 4)
= 10x5 + 6x4 – 4x3 + 8x2 + 5x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 4
= 10x5 + 6x4 + x3 +11x2 – 2x + 4
Method 2:
5x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 4
2x2 +1
5x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 4
10x5 + 6x4 - 4x3 + 8x2
10x5 + 6x4 + 2x3 +11x2 - 2x +4

Class activity
1. If f(x) = 3x2 – 2x + 3, g(x) = x2 – 3x + 4 and h(x) = x2 + 5, find f(x).g(x).h(x).
2. Given that P1(x) = 5x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 6; P2(x) = x3 + 4x2 – 3x + 1 and P3(x) = 2x3 –
3x2 + 3x + 2, find (i) (P1 + P2)P3 (ii) (P2 – P3)P1.

Division of polynomials
A polynomial f(x) can be divided by another polynomial g(x), provided the degree of g(x) is
not greater than that of f(x).
So, we could divide say x3 + 3x2 – x + 1 (3rd degree), by x-2 (1st degree), but not x – 2 by x3 +
3x2 –x + 1.
If n ≥ m, the result of dividing a polynomial of degree n by a polynomial of degree m is
another polynomial of degree n – m.
Suppose we want to divide x3 + 3x2 – x + 1 by x-2, the polynomial x 3 + 3x2 – x + 1is called
the dividend while the polynomial x-2 is called the divisor. The result of the division is
called the quotient and what is left after the division is called the remainder.
Examples
1. Find the quotient and remainder when x3 + 3x2 –x + 1 is divided by x – 2.
2. Find the quotient and remainder when 4x3 – x2 + x – 5 is divided by x2 + x – 1.
Solution 1.
Step 1: Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor to obtain the first
term of the quotient.
X2
 X-2 x3 + 3x2 – x + 1
Step 2: Multiply the divisor by the first term of the quotient gotten and write the result under
the dividend.

X2
X-2 x3 + 3x2 – x + 1
x3 – 2x2
Step 3: Subtract the product obtained in step 2 from the dividend.

X2
X-2 x + 3x2 – x + 1
3

x3 – 2x2
5x2 – x + 1
Step 4: Repeat steps 1, 2, and 3 with x2 – 5x + 1 as the new dividend.

X2 + 5x
X-2 x3 + 3x2 – x + 1
x3 – 2x2
5x2 – x + 1
5x2–10x
9x + 1

Step 5: Repeat steps 1, 2, and 3 with 9x + 1 as the new dividend.

X2 + 5x + 9
X-2 x3 + 3x2 – x + 1
-(x3 – 2x2)
5x2 – x + 1
-(5x2–10x)
9x + 1
-(9x -18)
19
Note: x3 + 3x2 – x + 1 is the dividend.
x – 2 is the divisor.
X2 + 5x + 9 is the quotient.
19 is the remainder.
We can combine the quotient, divisor and remainder to get the polynomial as follows:
x3 + 3x2 –x + 1 = (x - 2) x (x2 + 5x + 9) + 19
Polynomial (P) = Divisor (D) x Quotient (Q) + Remainder(R)
Solution 2
4x – 5
x2 + x – 1 4x3 – x2 + x – 5
-(4x3 + 4x2 – 4x)
- 5x2 + 5x – 5
-(-5x2 - 5x + 5)
10x – 10
Note that in each of the examples above, the degree of Q = degree of P – degree of D and that
the degree of R is one less than the degree of D. The degree of a remainder is one less than
that of the divisor.
Class activity
1. Find the quotients and remainders when P(x) = 6x3 + 4x2 – x + 5 is divided by:
(a) 3x2 + 2x +1
(b) x3 – 3x + 2
2. A polynomial is divided by x + 1. The quotient is 2x – 3 and the remainder is 3, find
the polynomial.

SUB-TOPIC 3
Remainder and factor theorem
The long division method used in the previous sub-topic helps us to determine, not only the
quotient but also the remainder.
Consider the example 1 of the previous sub-topic:
Find the remainder when x3 + 3x2 –x + 1 is divided by x – 2.
X2 + 5x + 9
X-2 x3 + 3x2 – x + 1
-(x3 – 2x2)
5x2 – x + 1
-(5x2–10x)
9x + 1
-(9x -18)
19
Hence when P(x) is divided by x – 2, the remainder is 19
Now find P(2).
P(2) = (2)3 + 3(2)2 – (2) + 1 = 8 + 12 – 2 + 1 = 19.
From the above, you would have observed that when p(x) is divided by x – a, the remainder
is f(a). This forms the basis of Remainder theorem.

The Remainder theorem states that if a polynomial p(x) is divided by x – a, the

remainder is p(a).
−b
More generally, if p(x) is divided by ax + b, then the remainder is p( ¿.
a

A special case of the remainder theorem is when p(x) leaves no remainder when it is divided
by x – a. when this happens, we say x – a is a factor of p(x).
This modified theorem is called factor theorem and it is states that if p(a) = 0 then x – a
is a factor.

Examples
1. Find the remainder when 2x2 – 5x + 6 is divided by x – 3.
2. Determine the values of p and q if (x - 1) and (x + 2) are factor of 2x3 + px2 – x + q.

Solution:
1. Let f(x) = 2x2 – 5x + 6
Let R be the remainder when f(x) is divided by x – 3
Then,
R = f(3)
F(3) = 2(3)2 – 5(3) + 6
= 2(9) – 15 + 6
= 18 – 15 + 6
=9
2. Let f(x) = 2x3 + px2 – x + q
If x – 1 is a factor of f(x), then
F(1) = 0
F(1) = 2(1)3 + p(1)2 – (1) + q
=2+p–1+q
=p+q+2–1
=p+q+1
p+q+1=0 …. (1)

If x + 2 is a factor of f(x), then

F(-2) = 0
F(-2) = 2(-2)3 + p(-2)2 – (-2) + q
= 2(-8) + p(4) – (-2) + q
= -16 + 4p + 2 + q
= 4p + q -14
4p + q -14 = 0 … (2)
 Solving simultaneously…
Subtract (1) from (2)
3p – 15 = 0
3p = 15
P=5
Substitute the value of p into (2)
q = 14 – 4p
q = 14 – 4(5)
q = 14 – 20
q = -6
Hence p = 5, q = -6

Class activity
1. Find the remainders without performing long division when
(a) x3 +5x2 – 3x + 1 is divided by x + 1
(b) 2x3 – 4x2 + x – 3 is divided by x + 2
2. If (3x – 1) is a factor of the polynomial f(x) = 4x3 – 4x2 – x + p, find the value of the
constant p.

SUB-TOPIC 4
Zero polynomials
Given a polynomial function f(x), the value x = a such that f(a) = 0 is called the zero of the
polynomial.
A zero of the function f(x) is a root of the equation f(x) = 0.
To obtain the zeros of a polynomial f(x), set f(x) = 0 and solve the equation.
Examples:
1. Find the zeros of the following polynomials:
(a) F(x) = x2 – 7x + 12
(b) G(x) = x2 – 16
2. If x 2 −x−6 is a factor of f ( x )=x 3+ px 2+qx +6 , find the values of the constants p∧q
and state the zeros of f ( x ) .

Solution 1:
(a) Set f(x) = 0
x2 – 7x + 12 = 0
x2 – 3x – 4x + 12 = 0
x(x – 3) – 4(x – 3) = 0
(x – 3)(x – 4) = 0
x = 3 or x = 4
Hence the zeros of f(x) are 3 and 4.
 (b) Set g(x) = 0
x2 – 16 = 0
(x – 4)(x + 4) = 0
x = 4 or x = -4
Hence the zeros of g(x) are 4 and -4.

Solution 2:
If x 2 −x−6 is a factor, it means the zeros of x 2 −5 x+ 6 when substituted into f ( x )will give
the complete value of f ( x ) .

∴ from x 2 −x−6=0
x 2 +2 x−3 x−6=0
x ( x +2 ) −3(x +2)=0
(x + 2) (x – 3) = 0
x = -2 or x = 3
∴ f ( 3 )=¿3(3)3 + p(3)2+q (3 )=0 ⇒ 81+ 9 p+3 q +6=0 ⇒ 9 p+3 q=−6−81
9 p 3 q −87
9 p+3 q=−87 ⇒ + =
3 3 3
⇒ 3 p+q=−29 … … … … ( i )
f (−2 )=¿3(-2)3 + p (−2 )2+q (−2 )+ 6=0
4 p 2 q −18
⇒−24+ 4 p−2 q+6=0 ⇒ 4 p−2 q=−6+24 ⇒ − =
2 2 2
⇒2 p−q=9 … … … … … .(ii)
From equation (i), q=−29−3 p
Substitute −29−3 p for q∈equation ( ii ) i. e .
⇒ 2 p−(−29−3 p )=9 ,
⇒ 2 p+29+3 p=9 ,
⇒5 p=9−29
5 p −20
⇒ =
5 5
⇒ p=−4.
Hence, q=−29−3 (−4 )
q=−29+12
q=−17
∴ f ( x )=3 x 3+ (−4 ) x 2+ (−17 ) x +6=3 x3−4 x 2−17 x +6
To get the third factor of f ( x ) ,divide f ( x ) by x 2 −x−6
3 x−1
x 2 −x−6 3 x 3−4 x2−17 x +6
−¿3−3 x 2−18 x ¿
- −x 2 + x +6
−¿2 + x +6 ¿
0 0 0

1 2∧1
The third factor is 3 x−1 ⇒ 3 x−1=0 , hence, x= . Hence the zeros of f ( x ) are 3 ,− .
3 3
More generally, an nth degree polynomial will have n zeros while an equation of degree n
will have n roots.

Class activity
Given that a and b are the zeros of the polynomial f(x) = x2 – x – 6 with a˃b, and that
g(x) = f(x + 2), find:
(a) g(a) + g(b)
(b) g(a) – g(b)
(c) g(a) x g(b)

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Given that P(x) = ax2 + bx + 1, P(1) = 6 and P(-1) = 2, determine the values of a and
b.
2. In the identity ax2 + bx + c = x2 – 2, find a, b, c.
3. Given that f(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 and g(x) = x 3 +- 3x2 + 3x -1, find (a) f(x) + g(x)
(b) f(x) – g(x) (c) f(x) x g(x)
4. Given that p(x) = ax2 + bx +1, p(1) = 6 and p(-1) = 2, determine the values of a and b.
5. Find the quotients and remainders when P(x) = 6x3 + 4x2 – x + 5 is divided by:
(c) 3x2 + 2x +1
(d) x3 – 3x + 2
6. A polynomial is divided by x + 1. The quotient is 2x – 3 and the remainder is 3, find
the polynomial.

EVALUATION
1. The polynomial g ( x )=2 x 3 +3 x 2+ qx−1 ,has the same remainder when divided by
(x+2) and (x-1). Find the value of constant q. (A) -11 (B) -9 (c) -3 (D) -1
2. The polynomial 2 x3 + x 2−3 x + p has a remainder 20 when divided by (x – 2). Find the
value of constant P. (A) 8 (B) 6 (C) -6 (D) -8
3. Find the remainder when 3 x 5−4 x3 −5 x +2 is divided by x-2 (A) 28 (B) - 28 (C) - 56
(D) 56
 4. The expression 2 x2 −kx +k leaves a remainder of 6 when divided by x-k. The positive
value of k is (A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
5. Given f(x) = ax3 + 2x2 + bx + c, and f(0) = f(1) = 4 and f(-2) = 8, find the values of a,
b and c.
6. When f ( x )=x 3 + p x2 +qx +r is divided by (x-1), (x+2) and (x-3) the remainders are -
14, 16 and 36 respectively. Find the values of the constants p, q and r and hence
determine the quotient and remainder when f(x) is divided by x-4.

WEEK TWO
TOPIC: POLYNOMIALS 2
SUB-TOPICS:
(a) Roots of cubic equation: Sum of roots; Sum of products of two Roots; Products of
roots.
(b) Graphs of polynomial function.

SUB-TOPIC 1
The general cubic equation takes the form: ax 3+b x 2 +cx +d=0 , a≠ 0 (because if a=0 , it
becomes a quadratic equation).
ax 3+b x 2 +cx +d=0 …(1)
Dividing through by a,
+b 2 c d
x3 x + x + =0 …(2)
a a a
Let the roots of this equation 2 beα , β∧γ . Then ax 3
+bx +cx + d ≡ ( x−α ) ( x−β )( x−γ ) .
( x−α ) ( x −β )( x−γ ) = 0 …(3)
¿2−βx−αx +αβ ¿ ( x−γ )
x ¿ 2−βx−αx+αβ ¿- γ ¿2−βx−αx +αβ ¿

x 3−β x 2−α x 2+ αβx−γ x 2+ β γx+ α γx −αβγ

Collect like terms
3 2 2 2
x −α x −β x −γ x +αβx + β γx+ α γx −αβγ
x 3−(α + β + γ ) x 2 +(αβ + β γ + α γ ) x−αβγ …(4)
By comparing coefficients of equations (2) and (4)
 −b
i. The sum of roots α + β+ γ =
a
c
ii. The sum of product of roots αβ + γα +γβ =
a
−d
iii. The product of roots αβγ=
a

Example 1:
3 3 −7
The roots of a cubic equation α , β , γ are such that α + β+ γ = , αβ + γα +γβ = ∧αβγ= .
2 2 2
obtain the equation the roots of which are α 2, β 2, γ 2.
Solution:
The three ways of obtaining α 2, β 2 and γ 2 include.
(a). Expanding ( α + β+ γ )2¿ ( α + β+ γ )( α + β+ γ )
¿ α 2+ αβ+ αγ + βα + β 2+ γβ+ γα ++γβ + γ 2
= α 2+2 αβ +2 γα +2 γβ + β 2+ γ 2
¿ α 2+ β 2+ γ 2+2( αβ +γα + γβ)
⇒ ( α + β+ γ )2 – 2 ( αβ + γα +γβ ) =α 2+ β 2+ γ 2
∴ α 2+ β 2+ γ 2 ¿ ( α + β+ γ )2 – 2 ( αβ + γα +γβ )
3
α 2+ β 2+ γ 2¿( ) 2−2
2 2 ( )
−1 9 1
= +1=3 .
4 4
(b). Expanding ( αβ + γα+ γβ ) 2 we have:
α 2 β 2+ α 2 γ 2+ β 2 γ 2¿ ( αβ + γα+ γβ ) 2−2 αβ γ (α + β+ γ )

¿(
−1 2
2
) −2 ( )( 32 )= 14 + 212 = 1+442 = 434 =10 34
−7
2
7 49 1
(c). α 2 β 2 γ 2¿ ( αβγ )2¿( )2 ¿ =12 .
2 4 4
The required equation is x 3+¿ 2+ β 2+ γ 2) x 2+¿ 2 β 2+ γ 2(α 2+ β 2)] x−( αβγ ) 2 = 0
+ 13 2 + 43 49
x3 x x − =0
4 4 4
4 x 3+13 x 2+ 43 x −49=0

Example 2:
One of the roots of the cubic equation x 3−9 x 2+ 23 x −15=0 is 5.

Find the:
(a) Sum of the two other roots;
(b) Product of the two other roots.
Hence or otherwise, find the other two roots.
Solution
Let α, β and γ be the roots of the equation such that γ = 5, then
−b
α + β+ γ =
a
−d
αβγ=
a
Given that x 3−9 x 2+ 23 x −15=0
a = 1, b = -9, c = 23, d = 15
hence:
−(−9 )
α + β+ γ = =9
1
α + β+ 5=9
α + β=4 … (1)
Also,
−(−15)
αβγ= = 15
1
5 αβ =¿15
αβ = 3 … (2)
From equation (1) we have β=4−α
Substituting 4 - α for β ∈ (2 ) , we have
α (4−α )=3
2
4 α −α = 3
2
α −4 α+3=0
( α −1 ) ( α −3 )=0
α =1∨α=3
If α =1, then β =3 and
If α = 3, then β = 1
Hence:
α=1; β=3,γ=5.
Class activity
 1. The equation 2 x3+5 x 2−x−1=0 has roots α , β , γ . Find the equation whose roots
are α 3, β 3, γ 3.
−14
2. Write down the cubic equation with solutions α , β , γ such that α + β+ γ =
5
−6 13
αβ + γα +γβ = ,and αβγ= .
5 5

SUB-TOPIC 2
Graphs of polynomial function
The shape of a polynomial graph depends on the degree of that polynomial.
Polynomials of degree one
The straight line is the graphical representation of polynomials of degree one. The coefficient
of x gives us a measure of the gradient or slope of the line.
If a ˃ 0, the straight line rises as y increases when x also increases. If a ˂ 0, the straight line
falls as y decreases when x increases. If the graphs below, the points A and B on the straight
line are called the x and y intercepts respectively.
y
y
B Y = ax – b
Y = ax +b
a˂0
B a˃0

A A
x x

Determining x- and y-intercept

To find the x-intercept, put y = 0 and solve for x in the equation. The x-intercept is identified
as the zero of the corresponding polynomial.
To find the y-intercept, put x = 0 and solve for y.
From the knowledge of the intercepts, one can easily sketch the graph of a polynomial of
degree 1.
Polynomial of degree two
The parabola is the graphical representation of polynomials of degree two. It has two shapes
which depends on whether the coefficient of x2 is positive or negative.
Determining x- and y-intercept
To find the x intercept, put y = 0 and solve for x. the values of x for which y = 0 are the zeros
of the polynomial.
To find y-intercept, put x = 0.
Turning points
The lowest point A on the curve in graph 1 is a turning point and it is called Minimum point.
The highest point B on the curve in graph 2 is also a turning point and it is called Maximum
point.
Polynomials of degree three
The curve of polynomials of degree 3 is usually called cubical parabola and it has two shapes
depending on whether a ˃ 0 or a ˂ 0.
Examples:
1. Sketch y = 2x -1 by first finding the slopes and intercepts on the axes
2. Sketch y = x2 +2x – 3 showing the intercepts and turning points.
3. Sketch the curve represented by y = 12 + 4x -3x2 – x3.

Class activity
1. Show that (2x-1) is a factor of the polynomial f(x) = 8x 3 – 8x2 + 1 and find the
quadratic factor.
2. Sketch the graphs of the following: (i) y = -3x + 2. (ii) y = 8 – 2x – x 2. (iii) y = x3 +
2x2 - 5x – 6.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. The expression px2 + qx +6 is divisible by x-3, and has a remainder of 20 when it is
divided by x + 1. Find the values of p and q.
2. When the polynomial f(x) = px3 + qx + r (where p, q and r are constants) is divided by
(x + 3) and (x – 2), the remainders are -12 in each case. If (x + 1) is a factor of f(x),
find: (i) f(x); (ii) the zeros of f(x).
3. Given that x – 2 is a factor of 2x3 – x2 – 8x +4, find the other two factors.
4. The equation 2 x 3+5 x 2−x−1=0 has roots α , β , γ . Find the equation the roots of
which are α 3, β 3, γ 3.
5. Factorise completely 4x3 – 8x2y – 9xy2 + 18y3.

EVALUATION
1. If the polynomial x3 + px2 + qx – 6 has a factor (x – 1) and leaves a remainder of -24
when divided by (x + 1):
(i) find the constants p and q.
(ii) factorise the polynomial completely and find its zeros.
2. Factorise z 4−12 z3+6 z 2+12 z+ 9 and 18 y 3−9 y 2−1 7 x−4 completely.
−14
3. Write down the cubic equation with solutions α , β , γ such that α + β+ γ =
5
−6 13
αβ + γα +γβ = ,and αβγ= .
5 5
4. The remainders when f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c is divided by (x – 1), (x + 2) and (x – 2)
are respectively 2, -1 and 15, find the quotient and remainder when f(x) is divided by
(x + 1).
 5. If the polynomial f(x) = ax2 + 13x = b and g(x) = 4x2 + px + q are divided by x – 1,
the remainders are 12 and 16 respectively. It they are divided by x – 2, the remainders
are 40 and 20 respectively. Find the values of the constant a, b, p and q and hence
determine the values of x for which f(x) = g(x).

WEEK THREE
TOPIC: PERMUTATIONS
SUB-TOPICS:
(a) Permutation (arrangement).
(b) Cyclic permutation.
(c) Arrangement of identical objects.
(d) Arrangement in which repetitions are allowed.

SUB-TOPIC 1
Permutation (Arrangement)
Suppose we are interested in the different arrangement of two people in a line. If these two
people are labelled a and b then the problem is the same as finding the different arrangement
of the letters a and b.
The number of arrangement will be two i.e. ab and ba.
Suppose there are three people in the line labelled a, b, and c. finding the different
arrangements will be the same as finding the arrangements of the letters a, b and c.

a c
b
a c
b b
c a
c a
a
c b b
bac bca
abc acb cab cba
From the above, we see there are six different arrangements.
We can get the number of different arrangement of an arbitrary n terms.
N No. of different Formula
arrangements
1 1 1
 2 2 2x1
3 6 3x2x1
4 24 4x3x2x1
5 120 5x4x3x2x1
Based on the above pattern, the number of different arrangement of n objects will be:
n × ( n−1 ) × ( n−2 ) × ( n−3 ) × … ×3 ×2 ×1. This product can be written as n! for short. n! is
read n-factorial.
The factorial of a positive integer is the product of all integers less than or equal to that
given number.
I have four balls of different colours: Blue (B), Green (G), Red (R) and Yellow (Y). If I pick
three of the balls, the following are the possible results of picking in order:

BGR BRG BGY BYG BRY BYR

GBR GRB GBY GYB GRY GYR

RBG RGB RBY RYB RGY RYG

YBG YGB YBR YRB YGR YRG

TOTAL = 24

Each of these arrangement is called a permutation. For the above, we obtained 24

permutations of four (4) colours taking three at a time. The way this is done is as follows:
The 1st ball could be any of the four balls available;
The 2nd ball could be any of the three colours remaining;
The 3rd ball could be any of the two colours remaining.
Thus, we have4 ×3 ×2=24. This is called the arrangement of 4 balls taking 3 at a time.
If we have five colours to arrange, taking 5 at a time, we will obtain 5 × 4 ×3 ×2 ×1=120
permutations.
We apply the basic counting principle that: ‘‘If an activity ‘A’ can be performed in m ways
and another activity ‘B’ can be performed in n ways , then, the two activities can be performed
one after the other in m× n ways .
Permutation can therefore be defined as each of several possible ways in which a set or
number of things can be ordered or arranged. It is also all possible arrangement of a
collection of things where the order is important.
Suppose we are only interested in the number of ways, the first and second positions can be
taken by 4 people in a race, assuming there is no tie.
The first position can be taken in four ways by any of the four athletes. The second position
can be taken in 3 ways by any of the remaining 3 athletes.
So, the number of ways the first and the second positions can be taken by four people in a
race is4 ×3. This arrangement is called permutation of 4 people taking 2 at a time and is
denoted by
4 P2=4 ×3

Also, the number of permutations of 8 objects taking 3 at a time is denoted by

8 P3=8 × 7 ×6

4! 4 ! 4 ×3 ×2 ×1 8! 8! 8× 7 ×6 ×5 !
Hence , 4 P2= = = =4 ×3=12∧8 P = = = =336
(4−2)! 2! 2× 1 3 ( 8−3 ) ! 5! 5!
Thus, the general formula is
n!
nPr =
( n−r ) !
This is the permutation of n objects taking r at a time.
Examples
1. Evaluate the following: (a) 7! (b) 0! (c) 1!
7!
2. Simplify
3! 4 !
3. Evaluate each of the following: (a) 10 P2 (b) 100 P2
4. Find the number of ways of arranging the letters of the word, EIGHT.

Solution:
1. (a) 7 !=7 ×6 ×5 × 4 × 3× 2× 1=5040
(b) 0! = 1
(c) 1! = 1
7! 7 × 6× 5 ×4 !
2. = =35
3! 4 ! 3× 2× 1× 4 !

10 ! 10! 10 × 9 ×8 !
3. (a) 10 P2= = = =90
( 10−2 ) ! 8 ! 8!

100 ! 100! 100 × 99 ×98 !

(b) 100 P2= = = =9900
( 100−2 ) ! 98 ! 98 !

4. EIGHT has five different numbers. Hence, the number of permutation is

5 P5=5 !=5 ×4 ×3 ×2 ×1=120

Class activity

1. Evaluate each of the following: a) 5 P4 b) 11 P 9

2. In how many ways can five bulbs of different colours be arranged in five socket in a row?

3. In how many ways can the letters of the word ENGLISH be arranged?

SUB-TOPIC 2

Cyclic permutation
In cyclic permutation, we are concerned about arrangement of this about a circular object.
If the letters A, B, C, D are arranged in that order in a circle, and then A is moved to B’s
position and B to C’s position, C to D’s position, and D to A’s position, we obtain the same
arrangement. i.e,

A D
D C
B A

C B

To obtain different arrangement, we fix one of the letters and arrange the remaining three in
the remaining spaces. This gives 3! arrangements of the 4 letters.

A
A A
D
B C D
B C

C
D B

A
C
D A A
B B
C D

D C

In general, the number of ways of arranging ‘n’ objects in a circle is given by:
No. of ways = 1 x (n-1)!
When beads are threaded in a ‘ring’ the clockwise and the anticlockwise arrangements are not
distinguishable and the ring can be turn over.
Thus, the number of distinct arrangements of ‘n’ objects round a circular ring which can
be turned over is:
( n−1 ) !
2

Examples:
1. In how many ways can 8 boys be arranged at a round table?

Solution:
Total number of arrangements = 1 x (8-1)! = 7! = 5040
2. Seven beads of different colours are threaded in a ring. How many different
arrangement is possible?

Solution:
( n−1 ) ! ( 7−1 ) ! 6 ! 6 × 5× 4 × 3 ×2 ×1
No. of arrangements = = = = =360
2 2 2 2

Class activity

1. In how many ways can eight boys be arranged around a circular table?
2. A family of seven is to be seated round a table. In how many ways can this be done if
the father and the mother are to sit together?
3. In how many ways can eight men be seated at a round table if two particular men
refused to sit together?

SUB-TOPIC 3

Arrangements of identical objects

Consider the arrangement of 8 bulbs (4 red, 3 blue and 1 yellow) in a row, there are 8! Possible
permutations (arrangements). Out of these permutations, 4! Permutations involving changes in
position of the red bulbs are not distinguishable and the 3! Permutations of the blue bulbs are also not
distinguishable.
8!
Thus, the number distinct permutations of the 8 bulbs (4 red, 3 blue and 1 yellow) =
4 !3 ! 1 !
In general, the number of distinct permutations of the ‘n’ objects containing p of one type of q of a
second type and r of a third type is given by:
n!
p! q!r!
Example
In how many ways can the letters of the following words be arranged ?
 a. ABAKALIKI
b. MATHEMATICS

SOLUTION
a) ABAKALIKI 9 letters; letter A appears 3 times, K twice, I twice, B&L once each.
9! 9 ×8 × ×7 ×6 × 5 ×4 ×3 !
No. of permutation = = =756 ways
3! 2! 2 !1! 1 ! 3 ! 2 !2! 1 ! 1!
b) MATHEMATICS = 11letters ( 2 M’s, 2 T’s, 2 A’s, & others once)
11!
∴ No . of permutation= =4989600
2! 2 !2 ! 1!1 !1! 1 !1 !

Class activity
1. Find the number of ways the letters of the words FURTHER can be permuted.
2. In how many ways can the letters of the word STRANGE be arranged so that the vowels
occupy only the odd places?
3. Find the number of arrangement in the letters of the word CONGRATULATIONS if the letter
A must be placed next to each other. (Leave your answer in terms of factorial).

SUB-TOPIC 4
Arrangements in which repetitions are allowed

Examples
(a) How many numbers greater than 600 can be formed from the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7?
(b) How many four-digits even numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 if
i. No repetitions are allowed
ii. Repetitions are allowed.

SOLUTION
(a) Without repetition: Numbers greater than 600 that can be formed from the option of 6
digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 can be a 3-digit number, 4-digit number, 5-digit number or 6-digit
number.
For a 3-digit number to be greater than 600, the first digit must be any of the 2 digits (6 or 7)
The 2nd digit, any of the remaining 5 digits ( i.e, after choosing one digit from 6 or 7)
The 3rd digit, any of the remaining 4 digits.
Therefore,
For 3-digits numbers we have 2 ×5 × 4=40
For 4-digits numbers, we have 6 ×5 × 4 × 3=360
For 5-digits numbers, we have 6 ×5 × 4 × 3× 2=720
For 6-digits numbers, we have 6 ×5 × 4 × 3× 2× 1=720
Total = 40 + 360 + 720 + 720 = 1840
With repetition: the numbers of digits greater than 600 that would be formed with 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
and 7 will be:
For 3 digits numbers, there will be 2 ×6 × 6=72
For 4 digits numbers, 6 × 6× 6 ×6=1296
For 5 digits numbers, 6 × 6× 6 ×6 × 6=7776
For 6 digits numbers, 6 × 6× 6 ×6 × 6 ×6=48656
Therefore, total numbers that can be formed = 72+1296+7776+48656 = 57,800
(b) For an even number, the last digit must be 2 or 4 or 6.
Without repetition: The last digit can be any of the 3 digits.
The 1st digit can be any of the remaining 5 digits
The 2nd digit can be any of the remaining 4 digits
The 3rd digit can be any of the remaining 3 digits.
Therefore number required = 3 ×5 × 4 ×3=180
With repetition: the number required = 6 × 6× 6 ×3=648
Class activity
1. How many 4-digits numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, …9
If: (a) repetitions are allowed (b) the last digit must not be zero and repetitions are not
allowed.
2. How many 4-digit odd numbers can be formed with the digits 1, 2, 3 and 4 if: (a)
repetition is allowed (b) repetition is not allowed.
3. How many numbers less than 3000 can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 8 and 9, if
no digit is used more than once?

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
4 !4 !
1. Simplify . (a) 24 (b) 42 (c) 72 (d) 27
2! 2 ! 2 !
2. Five students are lined up in a row. How many arrangement could be made if the
position of the last boy remains unchanged? (a) 120 (b) 12 (c) 21 (d) 24
3. Find the number of ways in which the letters of the word STATISTICS could be
arranged. (a) 15120 (b) 5120 (c) 2020 (d) 1512
4. Seven students were late to a class. In how many ways can they occupy: (a) three
available vacant seats? (b) Nine available vacant seats?
5. In how many ways are there of arranging 3 different jobs between 5 men where any
man can only do one job?
EVALUATION
1. In how many ways can 8 people be seated on a bench if only 3 seats are available?
2. If the mathematics department of a particular college has 5 members of staff and they
are to pose for a photograph by standing in a row. How many different arrangements
are possible?
3. Five people are to have a dinner jointly. In how many ways can they sit round a table
if a couple must sit together?
4. How many numbers greater than 4000 can be formed using some or all the digits 6, 5,
4, 3 and 2 without repetition? How many of these will be even?
5. How many words can be formed from the letters of VALEDICTORY provided the
letters A, E, I, O, Y are not to be separated at all?

WEEK FOUR

TOPIC: COMBINATION

SUB-TOPICS:

(a) Combination (selection).

(b) Conditional arrangements and selection.
(c) Probability problems involving arrangement and selection.

SUB-TOPIC 1

Combination (Selection)
In many situations, we make selection without regard to the order. If a committee of 4
members is to be formed from 7 members of staff of DLHS, the order in which the numbers
of the given committee are selected is not important.
Combination is therefore a way of selecting items from a collection such that (unlike
permutation) the order of selection does not matter.
In selecting three colours from 5 colours: (B, G, R, W, Y), BGR, BRG, GBR, RBG, RGB,
are counted as 6 different arrangements (permutations), although they consist of the same 3
colours. The 6 permutations thus represent one combination. Thus, each combination of three
objects yields 3! permutation.
5!
Now, the number of the permutations of 5 colours taking 3 at a time, i.e, 5 P3=
( 5−3 ) !
5!
The number of combinations of 5 colours taking 3 at a time, i.e, 5 C3 =
3 ! ( 5−3 ) !
5 P3
∴ 5C 3=
3!
 nP r n!
In general, nC r= = =nC n−r
r ! ( n−r ) !r !

Examples
1. Out of the five science club members of a school, A, B, C, D and E, just three are to
be chosen to represent the school in an exhibition. In how many ways can this be
done?
2. In how many ways can a committee of 3 chemistry teachers and 5 mathematics
teachers be formed from 6 chemistry teachers and 10 mathematics teachers?

Solution
1. The three representatives can be selected in
5! 5! 5 × 4 ×3 !
5 C3 = = = =5× 2=10 ways .
(5−3) ! 3 ! 2! 3 ! 2× 3 !
2. The chemistry teacher can be selected in 6C3 ways and the mathematics teacher can
be selected in 10C5 ways.
Total number of ways = 6C3 x 10C5
6! 10 !
= ×
3!3 ! 5 ! 5!
6 ×5 × 4 ×3 ! 10× 9 ×8 ×7 × 6 ×5 !
= ×
3 × 2×1 ×3 ! 5× 4 × 3 ×2 ×1 ×5 !
= 5 × 4 ×9 × 4 × 7
= 5040 ways .

Class activity
1. In how many ways can a disciplinary committee of 3 be formed from 10 members of
staff of a college?
2. A man travels from Nigeria to Ghana by air and from Ghana to Liberia by ship. He
returns by the same means. He has 6 airlines and 4 shipping lines to choose from. In
how many ways can he make his journey without using the same airline or shipping
line twice?

SUB-TOPIC 2
Conditional arrangement and selection
When restrictions are placed on arrangements or selection, then, the permutation or
combination is said to be conditional.
Example 1:
Find the number of ways 6 people can be seated in a round table if two particular friends
must sit next to each other.
Solution:
If two people must seat next to each other, the number of ways these friends can sit is 2!
Therefore, the number of ways six people can sit in a round table with two friends that must
be together is 2 ! × ( 6−2 ) !=2 ! × 4 !=48
Example 2:
A committee of 4 people is to be chosen from 5 married couples. Find how many ways the
committee can be chosen if: (i) everyone is equally eligible; (ii) the committee should include
at least one woman.
Solution:
i) 5 married couples includes 5 men and 5 women. Since everyone is equally eligible, then,
the possible ways of selecting 4 people for the committee are:
4 men and 0 women or
3 men and 1 women or
2 men and 2 women or
1 man and 3 women or
0 men and 4 women.
i.e, 5 C 4 × 5 C0 +5 C 3 ×5 C 1+ 5C 2 × 5C 2 +5 C1 ×5 C3 +5 C 0 × 5C 4 =¿
5! 5! 5! 5! 5! 5! 5! 5! 5! 5!
× + × + × + × + × =¿
4 ! 1 ! 5 !0 ! 2! 3 ! 4 ! 1! 2! 3 ! 2! 3 ! 1! 4 ! 3! 2! 5! 0! 4 !1!
5 ×1+10 ×5+10 ×10+ 5× 10+1× 5=5+ 50+100+50+5=210
ii) If at least one woman must be in the committee, then, the possible ways of selecting 4
members of the committee from the couples (5men & 5women) are:
3 men and 1 woman or 2 men and 2 women or 1 man and 3 women or 4 women
i.e,
5! 5! 5! 5! 5! 5! 5!
5 C3 ×5 C 1+5 C 2 × 5C 2 +5 C1 ×5 C3 +5 C 4= × + × + × + =¿
3 ! 2! 1 ! 4 ! 2! 3! 2 ! 3! 1 ! 4 ! 3 ! 2! 4 ! 1!
10 ×5+10 ×10+ 5× 10+5=50+ 100+ 50+5=205
Class activity
1. An excursion group of 4 is to be drawn from among 5 boys and 6 girls. Find the
number of ways of choosing the excursion group if the group:
(a) is to be made up of an equal number of boys and girls;
(b) is to be either all boys or all girls;
(c) has no restrictions on its composition.
2. A candidate is expected to attempt 12 out of 15 questions. In how many ways can this
be done if:
(a) the candidate is to attempt any 12 question;
(b) the first 8 questions are compulsory;
(c) a question is outside the syllabus and hence cannot be completed.
SUB-TOPICS 3
Probability problems involving arrangement and selection
Example 1:
A box contains 10 red, 3 blue and 7 black balls. If three balls are drawn at random, what is
the probability that: (a) all 3 are red, (b) all 3 are blue, (c) one of each colour is drawn?
Solution:
Number of ways of selecting any 3 balls from 20 balls = 20 C3 =¿number of element in the
sample space.
Number of ways of selecting 3 red balls out of 10 = 10 C3

no . of selections of 3 out of 10 red balls 10 C 3 120 2

(a) P(all the 3 balls are red) = = = =
no . of selections of 3 out of 20 balls 20 C 3 1140 9

no . of selections of 3 out of 3 blue balls 3 C3 1

(b) P(all 3 are blue) = = =
no . of selections of 3 out of 20 balls 20 C3 1140
10C 1 × 3 C1 ×7 C1 10 ×3 ×7 210 7
(c) P(1 red, 1 blue & 1 black) = = = =
20 C3 1140 1140 38

Example 2:
Three-digit numbers are formed from the digits 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6. If repetition is not allowed
and a number is picked at random, find the probability that it is a multiple of 5 or an odd
number.
Solution:
Since probability is involved, we find the sample space for 3-digit numbers formed from 5-
digits i.e 5P3.
5 ! 5 × 4 ×3 × 2!
n(sample space) = = =60 ways .
2! ! 2
(a) To get multiple of 5, the last digit must be 5. That implies that
The 1st digit can be any of the remaining 4 digits.
The 2nd digit can be any of the remaining 3 digits
No. of ways = 1 x 4 x 3 = 12 ways.
12
Pr(multiple of 5) =
60
(b) To get odd number, the last digit will be any of 1 and 5
The first digit can be any of the remaining four
The second digit will be any of the remaining three.
No. of ways = 2 x 4 x 3 = 24ways.
24
Pr(odd number) =
60
 12 24
Hence, pr(multiple of 5 or odd number) = +
60 60
36
=
60
3
=
5

Class activity
1. How many committee of size 5 consisting of three men and 2 women can be selected from
8 men and 6 women if a certain man must not be in the committee?
2. A bag contains 5 white, 2 black and 3 green balls. If three ball are drawn at random, find
the probability that:
a) All three are green
b) All three are white
c) 2 are white and 1 is black
d) At least, one is black
e) 1 of each colour is drawn.

PRACTICE QUESTION
1. How many committee of size 5 consisting of 3 men and 2 women can be selected from 8
men and 6 women if a certain man must not be in the committee? (a) 315 (b) 525 (c) 840 (d)
1287
2. In how many ways can 9 bulbs be selected from 4 red, 5 green and 6 yellow bulbs if 3 of
each colour are to be selected? (a) 800 (b) 120 (c) 40 (d) 27
3. The number of ways of arranging 9 men and 8 women in a row, when the women occupy
17 ! 17 ! 16! 9 !8 !
the even places is --- (a) (b) (c)9 !8! (d)
9 !8 ! 2! 2!
4. A panel consists of 5 men and 4 women. What is the probability of 4 men and 2 women?
10 1 5 5
(a) (b) (c) (d) .
81 6 14 9
5. Five digit numbers are formed from digits 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8
a) How many of such numbers can be formed if repetition of digit is (i) allowed (ii) not
allowed?
b) How many of the numbers are odd if repetition of digits is not allowed?

EVALUATION

1. Find the number of ways of arranging 9 men and 8 women in a row, if the women
occupy the even places.
 nP
2. If =6 ,find the value of n.
3

nC4
3. A panel of 5 jurist is to be chosen from a group of 6men and 7 women. Find the
number of different panels that could be formed if: (a) a particular man must serve on
the panel (b) there is no restriction.
4. A business man intends to give a dinner party for 6 of his 10 friends. If 2 of them will
not attend the party together, in hoe many ways can he select his guests?
5. A family of 7 is to be seated round a table. In how many ways can this be done, if the
father and the mother are to sit together?
6. Four delegates are to be chosen from 8 members of staff of a college. If 2 of them are
senior members of staff, how many different delegations are possible if: (i) only one
of the senior members of staff must be in the delegation? (b) the two senior member
of staff must be included?

WEEK FIVE

TOPIC: BINOMIAL EXPANSION 1

SUB-TOPICS:

(a) Pascal triangle.

(b) Binomial expansion of (a+b)n , where n can be positive integer, negative integer or
fractional value.

SUB-TOPIC ONE
The Pascal’s triangle is a format for getting the coefficients of expansions. It applies to
binomial and binomial formed from a reduced polynomial.
Consider the expansion of each of the following:
(a+b)0
(a+b)1
(a+b)2
(a+b)3
(a+b)4
(a+b)5
By ordinary expansion of algebraic terms, we have:
(a+b)0 = 1
(a+b)1 = 1a + 1b
(a+b)2 = 1a2+2ab+1b2
(a+b)3 = 1a3+3a2b+3ab2+1b3
(a+b)4 = 1a4+4a3b+6a2b2+4ab3+1b4
(a+b)5 = 1a5+5a4b+10a3b2+10a2b3+5ab4+1b5
Consider the array of coefficients of a and b. We can display it as follows:

n (power)
¿

1 0
1 1 1
Row 1 2 1 2
1 3 3 1 3
1 4 6 4 1 4
1 5 10 10 5 1 5
We call the array of coefficients displayed above Pascal triangle named after the celebrated
French Mathematician and Physicists Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) noted for his essay on conic
section in 1640 and first invention of calculating machine in 1642.
Note the following:
 A general binomial is of the form (a+b)n .
 There are n + 1 terms.
 The expansion is homogenous i.e.the sum of the powers of a and b in each term of
the expansion is n.
 As the power of a descends (starting from n till it reaches 0), the power of b ascends
(starting from 0 till it reaches n) and vice versa.

Examples:

1. Using Pascal’s triangle, expand ( 3 x− y )4

Solution:
Let n=4

∴ the row ¿ the Pasca l ' s triangle ¿ use is:

1 4 6 4 1
Understand that the index (power) of 3 x descends as that of − y ascends.

( 3 x− y )4 =1× ( 3 x )4 (− y )0+ 4 × (3 x )3 (− y )1+ 6 × ( 3 x )2 (− y)2 +4 × ( 3 x )1 (− y)3 +1 × ( 3 x )0 (− y)4

¿ 81 x 4−108 x 3 y +54 x 2 y 2−12 x y 3+ y 4

 2. Use Pascal’s triangle to obtain the value of (1.025)4, correct to three decimal places.
( 1.025 )4 =( 1+0.025 )4
¿ 1× ( 1 )4 ( 0.025 )0 +4 × ( 1 )3 ( 0.025 ) 1+6 × ( 1 )2 ( 0.025 )2 +4 × ( 1 )1 ( 0.025 )3 +1 × ( 1 )0 ( 0.025 )4
¿ 1+0.1+0.00375+0.0000625+ 0.000000390625
¿ 1.1038
¿ 1.104 ( 3 d . p )

Class activity
1. What is Pasca l ' s Triangle ?
2. Write briefly how pasca l ' s triangle originated .
3. Use Pasca l' striangle ¿ expand ∧simplify : (4 x +3 y )3 .

SUB-TOPIC 2
Binomial Expansion of (a+b)n
Binomial Theorem

Binomial theorem gives the expansion for ( a+b )n .states that if |a|>|b|then
n ( n−1 ) n−2 2 n ( n−1 ) ( n−2 ) n−3 3 n ( n−1 )( n−2 ) ⋯ ( n−r +1 )
( a+ b )n=an +n an −1 b+ a b+ a b +⋯ × an−r br + ⋯ b n
2! 3! r!
The binomial theoreminvolves the use of combination , ncr
n! +¿¿
n
cr = 0 ≤r ≤ n ≤ Z
( n−r ) ! r !
n ( n−1 ) n−2 2 n ( n−1 ) ( n−2 ) n−3 3 n ( n−1 )( n−2 ) ⋯ ( n−r +1 )
( a+ b )n=an +n an −1 b+ a b+ a b +⋯ × an−r br + ⋯ b n
2! 3! r!

∴ n
cr = ncr
The Binomial Theorem for a positive Integral Index
If a and b are any numbers and n is a positive integer, then

( a+ b )n=¿ nC0an+nC1an-1b+nC2an-2b2+…+nCran-rbr+…nCnbn
Note:

1. The number of terms in the expansion ( a+ b )nis n+1. That is one more than the index
of binomial.
2. The (r+1) term in the expansion of the binomial is called the general term and denoted
by Tr+1 =nCran-rbr

The Binomial Theorem for Negative and Fraction

When n is not a positive integer, the expansion becomes
 2
n ( n−1 ) a
( 1+a )n=1+na+ +n ¿ ¿
2!
Provided a is numerically less than unit. That is -1< x < 1. This means that the various
coefficients cannot be expressed as nC0, nC1, nC2 etc because they have no meaning when n is
not a positive integer.
Again, the theorem can be applied only when the first term of the binomial is unity. If not, the
binomial must first be reduced to this form. For example, to expand (t+a) n has to be put in

( )
n
n a
this form t 1+ .
t
Examples:

1. Expand 3 x+( y )
2 4 x2
∧determine the coefficient of 2
y
Solution :

( ) () () () ()
4 2 3 4
2 3 2 2 2 2 2
3 x+ =¿ 4C0 (3 x) 4 + 4C1 ( 3 x ) + 4C2 (3 x) + C3 3 x
4
+ 4C4
y y y y y

= 81 x +4 ( 27 x )
4 3
( 2y )+ 6 (9 x ) ( y4 )+ 4 ( 3 x ) ( y8 )+( 16y )
2
2 3 4

x2
∴ the coefficient of is 216
y2
1
2. Expand 3 to five terms.
(1−5 x )

Solution:
1 −3
3
=(1−5 x )
(1−5 x )

n n ( n−1 ) x 2
Recall: ( 1+ x ) =1+nx + +n ¿ ¿
2!
n = -3, x=−5 x 2
2 3 4
−3 −3 (−3−1 ) (−5 x ) −3 (−3−1 ) (−3−2 ) (−5 x ) −3 (−3−1 ) (−3−2 )(−3−3 ) (−5 x)
(1−5 x ) =1±3 (−5 x ) + + +
2! 3! 4!
2 3 4
¿ 1+15 x+150 x + 1250 x +9375 x
1
3. Expand ( 4−9 x2 ) 2 to four terms.

Solution:

Note the first term of the binomial is not unity. Let’s reduce to the form ( 1+ x )n
 (( )) ( )
1 1 1
2 2 9 x2 2 9 x2 2
(4−9 x ) = 4 1− =2 1−
4 4

9 x2
n= ½, x=
4

[ ( )( ) ( )( )( )
]
2 2 2 3
1 1 −9 x 1 1 1 −9 x
−1 −1 −2
( 2 2
) 4 2 2 2 4
2
1 −9 x
¿ 2 1+ + +
2 4 2! 3!

[
¿ 2 1−
9 x 2 81 x 4 729 x 6
8
−
128
−
1024 ]
9 x 2 81 x 4 729 x 6
¿ 2− − −
4 64 512
Class activity
1. Determine the coefficient of x 5 from the expansion of (2 x−3)7.
1
2. Expand to five terms.
( 1−2 x )3
1
3. Expand ( 25−9 x 2) 2 to three terms.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Using the binomial theorem, expand (1 + 2x)5, simplifying all the terms. Hence
calculate the value of (1.02)5 correct to six significant figures.
2. If the first three terms of the expansion of the expansion of (1+px) 5 in ascending
powers of x are 1+20x+160x2 find the values of n and p.
3. (a) Write down the binomial expansion of (1+y)8, simplifying all the terms.

(b) Using the substitution y = x – x 2 in (a), deduce the expansion of (1+ x – x 2)8 in
ascending powers of x as far as the term in x4.
(c) Find, by inspection, a value of x such that 1+ x – x2 = 1.09. Hence, evaluate (1.09)8
correct to three decimal places.
5
1
4. Write down the binomial expansion of (1+ x) , simplifying all its coefficients.
4
7
1
5. Obtain the first five terms of the expansion of (1− x )
2

ASSIGNMENT
1. The _______ triangle is a format for getting the coefficient of expansions. (a)
Binomial (b) right-angled (c) Pascal’s (d) array.
 2. Pascal’s triangle was named after the French Mathematician and Physicists
called_________ (a) Newton (b) Blaise Pascal (c) Cramer (d) Laplace
3. The general binomial is of the form ______ (a) (a+b)n (b) (a+b)r (c) (a+b)! (d) aCb
4. The (r+1) term in the expansion of the binomial is called the ________ term. (a)
Simple (b) Difficult (c) Binomial (d) General.
5. Expand ( 2 x−3 )5 .
3
6. Expand( 1+2 x+ 2 x 2 ) .

WEEK SIX

TOPIC: BINOMIAL EXPANSION 2

SUB-TOPICS:

(a) Finding nth term.

(b) Application of binomial expansion

SUB-TOPIC 1

Finding the nth term

The binomial expansion of ¿ is given as:

¿= 1+n ( 1n )+ n ( n−1
2!
)
¿

n n ( n−1 ) n ( n−1 )( n−2 ) 1

¿ 1+ + + + …+ n
n 2! n 2
3!n 3
n

¿ 1+1+
( 1− ) (1− )(1− )
1
n
+
1
n
2
n
+…+
1
2! 3! nn
This expansion is true for any natural number value of n, large or small, but when n is a large
1 1
natural number then is small. Indeed, the larger the value of n, the closer becomes to
n n
zero. The n notation for this,

lim ¿ n→ ∞
❑ ( 1n )=0 ;
1
the limit of as n→∞ is 0.
n
Also, as n→∞ , the closer the expansion above becomes to the sum of terms:
1−0 ( 1−0 ) ( 1−0 ) 1 1
1+1+ + +…=1+ 1+ + …
2! 3! 2! 3!
1 1 1 1
¿ + + + +…
0! 1 ! 2 ! 3 !
Here the ellipsis (...) at the end of the expansion means that the expansion never ends, that is
it has infinite number of terms.
Now we can use the sigma notation and write:
∞
1 1 1 1
¿ + + + +… ¿∑ 1
0! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! r =0 r !

Notice the symbol for infinity (∞) at the top of the sigma, this denotes the fact that the sum is
a sum of an infinite number of terms.
Examples:
3 y 11
1. How many terms will there be in the expansion of(2 x− ) . Find the fourth term.
4x
Solution:
nc xr
n−r r
y
(given formula)

−3 y
n=11, x=2x and y=( )
4x
(a) Number of terms = n+1 = 11+1 =12
(b) From the formula,
11c (2 x) 11−r
(3 y)r ¿¿
r

11-3r = 2
-3r =2-11
-3r = -9;∴ 3r = 9 ; hence r=3 (i.e. the 4th term)
11c (2 x) 11−3
(3 y)3 (4 x)−3
3

8 −1 −3
¿ 11c (2 x) (3 y ) (4 x) =165 x 256 x x 6 4 x 27 x
3
8 3 −3

256 8±3 −3
¿ 165 x x x 27 x
64
5 3
¿ 165 x 4 x 27 x y
5 3
¿ 17820 x y
2. Find the term x2 and then term independent of x in the expansion of ¿ find the fifth
term:
Solution:
 n
(a) The general term is cr x
12−r
(
−1 r
x)
2

12 12−r 1 12−r −r 12−2r

C r (x) ( r)= x =x
x

When it is x2, then 12-2r = 2

r=5 (i.e. the sixth term)
Hence,
¿ 12C ¿¿ 5

12
= (−12 x )
5
7
C5 x

792 2
= x
32
99 2
= x
4
(b) If the term is to be independent of x, then 12-2r = 0
∴ r =6 (i.e. the 7th term)
¿ 12 =12 924 6 ±4 924 2 231 2
C 6( x)
12−6
(
−1 6
)
6
C6 x (
−1 6
) = x = x= x
2x 2x 64 64 16
231
∴ The independent term of x is
16
Class activity
1. Find the term independent of x in the expansion ¿
2. How many terms will there be in the expansion¿?

SUB-TOPIC 2
Application of Binomial expansion in approximation
If x is very small, we can take 1 + nx as an approximation of ¿ is taken as 1-nx.
Examples:
Find the linear approximation of the following:
(a) (1.01)5 (b) (1.02)4 (c) (1.05)3 (d) (0.98)5
Solution: (a) (1.01)5
Expansion of (1+x)n = 1+nx= (1+0.01)5=1+5x0.01= 1+0.050= 1.050
(a) (1.02)4
Solution: Expansion of (1+x)n = 1+nx
(1.02)4 = (1+0.02)4≈1+4x0.02
= 1+0.080= 1.080
(c) (1.05)3; Expansion of (1+x)n = 1+nx
(1.05)3 = (1+0.05)4≈1+3x0.05= 1+0.15= 1.150
(d) (0.98)5
Solution: Expansion of 1+xn = 1+nx
(0.98)5 = (1-0.02)5≈1-5x0.02= 1-0.1= 0.09
EVALUATION
Find the linear approximation of the following:
(i) (1.002)15 (ii) (0.99)8 (iii) (2.004)7

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. How many terms will there be in the expansion of ¿
2. Find the terms in the expansion of ¿. Find the fift term.
3. Expand ¿and hence evaluate (0.98)7 correct to three decimal places.
1
4. Find the linear approximation of the following (a) (2.004)7 (b) (1.003)11 (c)
√ 4.004
(d) √3 1.006.
5. Using the binomial theorem, write down and simplify the first seven terms of the
expansion of (1+2x)10 in ascending powers of x. use your expansion to show that
1.210˃6.19.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY:
1. Find the number of terms in the expansion of ¿. Find the third term.
2. Find the term x2 and independent of x in the expansion ¿.
3. Find the coefficient of x-4 in the expansion¿.
4. Determine the coefficient of x 5 from the expansion of (2 x−3)7.
1
5. Expand ( 8−3 x ) 3 to four terms.

WEEK SEVEN

MID TERM BREAK.

WEEK EIGHT

TOPIC: ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATION 1

SUB-TOPICS:

(a) Quadratic equation (completing the square and formula method).

(b) Sum and product of roots of quadratic equation.
(c) Finding quadratic equation given sum and product of roots, x2 – (sum of roots) +
(product) = 0.
(d) Condition for quadratic equation to have: (i) Equal roots (b2 = 4ac) (ii) Real roots b2 >
4ac (iii) No roots b2 < 4ac

SUB-TOPIC 1

Quadratic equation (completing the square and formula method).

A quadratic equation (trinomial) in one variable is a three termed equation in which the
highest power of the variable is two. The general quadratic equation in variable x is of the
form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a ≠ 0.

In general, a quadratic equation has two solutions which may or may not b+e equal.

There are four major methods of solving quadratic equations. They are:

 factorisation method;
 completing the square method;
 formula method;
 graphical method.

Factorisation

Examples

Solve the following by factorisation

(a) x 2−2 x−8=0

(b) 15 x 2+14 x −8=0

Solution
(a) Product of 1st and 3rd term = -8x2
Factor of -8x that will sum to -2x (the middle term) = -4x and +2x
Replacing the middle term with the two factors, we have:

x 2−4 x+2 x−8=0

x ( x−4 )+ 2 ( x−4 ) =0
( x−4 ) ( x+ 2 )=0
x−4=0∨x +2=0
x=4∨−2

(b) Product = -120x2

Sum = 14x
Factors = -6x and +20x
2
15 x +14 x −8=0
2
15 x +20 x−6 x−8=0
5 x ( 3 x +4 )−2 ( 3 x+ 4 ) =0
( 3 x+ 4 )( 5 x−2 )=0
3 x+ 4=0∨5 x−2=0
−4 2
x= ∨
3 5
Completing the square method
Given ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0
Write the equation as ax2 + bx = -c
Divide each term by the coefficient of x2. Find half of the new coefficient of x, square it and
add this to both sides of the equality sign. This makes the expression on the LHS a perfect
square.
Take the square root of both sides and determine the values of x to the desired accuracy.
b −c
x 2+ x=
a a

( )
2 2
b b −c b
x 2+ x+ = +( )
a 2a a 2a
¿

√
2
b b −4 ac
x + =±
2a 4 a2

√
2
−b b −4 ac
x= ±
2a 4a
2

−b √ b2−4 ac
x= ±
2a 2a
−b ± √ b −4 ac
2
x=
2a
The above is the process of solving quadratic equation using the method of completing the
square.

Quadratic formula
The formula derived above is the quadratic formula.
−b ± √ b2−4 ac
x=
2a
Example:
Use the quadratic formula to solve 2 x2 +7 x−15=0
Solution:
a = 2; b = 7; c = -15
−b ± √ b −4 ac
2
x=
2a
−7 ± √ 7 −4 × 2×−15
2
x=
2× 2
−7 ± √ 49+120
x=
4
 −7 ± √ 169
x=
4
−7 ±13
x=
4
−7+13 −7−13
x= ∨
4 4
6 −20
x= ∨
4 4
3
x= ∨−5
2

Class activity
1. Use the three methods discussed above to solve the following quadratic equations:
(a) 2x2 – 17x – 9 = 0
(b) 3x2 + 10x – 12 = 0
(c) 8x2 + 34x + 21 = 0

SUB-TOPIC 2
Sum and product of roots of quadratic equation

−b ± √ b −4 ac
2
Recall the completing the square method and general formula x= ‘ of the
2a
general equation ax 2 +bx +c=0

−b+ √ b 2−4 ac −b−√ b2−4 ac

In this case the two roots of the equation are = x= or x=
2a 2a
It is possible to represent the two roots by ∝∧β then we have

−b+ √ b 2−4 ac −b− √ b 2−4 ac

∝= ∧ β=
2a 2a
2 −b+ √ D −b−√ D
Let D=b −4 ac Then we have α = ∧β=
2a 2a
−b+ √ D −b− √ D
then α + β= +
2a 2a
−b+ √ D−b−√ D
¿
2a
−2 b −b
α + β= =
2a a
−b
∑ of the roots α + β= a
(−b+ √ D ) (−b−√ D)
Product of roots αβ =
2 ax 2 a
b 2−D b −( b −4 ac )
2 2
∝β= 2
= 2
4a 4a
 2 2
b −b + 4 ac 4 ac c
¿ 2
= 2=
4a 4a a
c
∴ αβ=
a
From the above, if we have a x 2 +bx+ c=0
2 b c
We can rewrite this as x + x+ =0.
a a
Also, if α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation, then;
( x−α ) ( x −β )=0
2
∴ x − βx−αx+ αβ=0
x 2−( α + β ) α +αβ =0
−b
Therefore, −( α + β ) =
a
c
and αβ =
a
Given a quadratic equation, we can find the sum and product of the roots using the
above information.

Example 1: if the roots of the equation x 2−8 x +12=0 are α ∧β ,

1 1 2 2
Find ( a ) α + β ( b ) αβ ( c ) + ( d ) α + β
α β
Solution: In the equation x 2−8 x +12=0

a=1 b=−8 c=12

The roots of the equation are α∧β .

Then (a) α + β=
−b
a
=−
−8
1( )
=8

c 12
(b) αβ = = =12
a 1
1 1 β+ α α + β α + β
(c) + = = =
∝ β αβ αβ αβ
From (a) α + β=8 αβ =12
1 1 8 2
∴ + = =
α β 12 3
(d)∝2+ β2 =(α + β)2−2αβ
∴ (α + β)2=82=64
−2 αβ=−2 ( 12 ) =−24
¿ 64−¿24
= 40
Example 2:- if the roots of the equations
( i ) 5 x 2−11 x+10=0 ( ii ) x2 +5 x−1=0 are ∝∧β find ( a ) ∝+ β ( b ) αβ (c) α2 - β2
Solution :- (i) The equation is 5 x 2−11 x +10=0
 a=5 b=−11 c=10
−b
( a ) ∝+ β= =−
a
11 11 1
5 ( )
= ∨25
5
c 10
∝ β = = =2
a 5
11
( c ) ∝2 −β2 =( α + β ) ( α−β )( ∝+ β )=
5
But ( ∝−β ) has no expression, then
( α −β )2=α 2 + β 2−2 αβ
¿ ( α −β )2−2 αβ −2 αβ
¿ ( ∝+ β )2 −4 αβ
But we want ( ∝−β )

∴ √( α−β ) = √ ( ∝+ β ) −4 αβ
2 2

∴ α −β =( α + β ) ( √ ( ∝+ β ) −4 αβ)
2 2 2

11
¿ ¿
5

¿
11
5 [√ 121
25
−8 ]
¿ ( 115 )[ √121−200
5 ]
This cannot be determined
The equation is x 2+ 5 x−1=0 with roots α ∧β a=1 , b=5 c=−1
−b −5
( a ) ∝+ β= = =−5
a 1
c −1
( b ) αβ = = =−1
a 1

( c ) ∝2 −β2 =( α + β ) (α−β )
Following example I (c) we can express this as

( ∝2−β 2¿=(α + β) √ ( α + β )2 +4 αβ

¿(−5) √(−5) −4(−1)

2

¿ (−5 ) ( √ 25+5)

¿(−5) √ 30
Example 3:- Express the following in terms of ( ∝+ β )∧αβ .

( a ) α 2+ β 2 ( b ) ∝3 + β 3 ( c ) ∝3 −β3
Solution:-
(a) ∝2+ β2 =(α + β)2−2αβ .
(b) α 3+ β3 =( α + β ) (α 2−αβ + β 2)

¿ ( α + β )(α 2 + β 2−αβ)

¿(∝+ β )[ (∝+ β ) −2 ∝ β−αβ ]

2

¿( α+ β ) [ (α + β) −3 ∝ β ] .
2

(c) α 3−β 3=( α−β ) (α 2 +αβ + β 2 )

¿ ( √ ( α + β ) −4 αβ ) (α 2 +αβ + β2 )
2

¿ √(α + β)2−4 αβ [( α + β ) −αβ ]

2

Class activity
(1) ∝∧β are the roots of the equation 2 x2 +7 x +3=0

Find ( a ) ∝+ β
∝β
(b )
2
( c ) ∝2 + β 2

(2) Given α + β∧αβ , prove that

1 1 α+β
(i) + = ( ii ) α 2 β 2=( ∝ β )2
∝ β αβ

2
( iii ) α 4 + β 4 =(α 2 + β 2)2−2α 2 β 2=[ (α + β)2−2 αβ ] −2(αβ )2

SUB-TOPIC 3
Find quadratic equation given sum and product of roots
We have been able to establish that given α and β as the roots of a quadratic equation
a x +bx+ c=0 where a, b and c are constant anda ≠ 0, then,
2

2 b c 2
x + x+ ≡ x −( α+ β ) α +αβ ;
a a
−b c
Also, α + β= and αβ = .
a a
Therefore, given the roots of a quadratic equation, the equation can be gotten this way:
 x −( ∑ of roots) x +( product of roots )=0
2

Example 1:-
Given that the roots of equation are 3 and 7, find the equation.
Solution:
Roots of the equation are 3 and 7
Sum of roots (∝+ β)=3+7=10
Product of roots (αβ ¿=3 X 7=21
2
∴ The equationis x −( 10 ) x+ 21=0
2
¿ x −10 x+21=0
Example 2:- Find the equation whose roots are -8 and 2.
Solution: Roots of the equation are -8, 2

∑ ∝+ β=−8+2=−6
product αβ=−8 X 2=−16

The equation is x 2−(−6 ) x + (−16 ) =0

2
¿ x + 6 x−16=0
−3
∧−5
Example 3: If the roots of the equation are 2 , find the equation.
6
−3
∧−5
Solution: Roots are 2
6

2 ( 6 ) 2 6
∑ of roots ∝+ β =−3 +
−5 −3 5
= −

−7
¿
3

product of roots ∝ β= ( −32 )( −56 )= 54

2 7 5
∴ The equatonis x + x + =0
3 4
Multiply through by 12
2
12 x +28 x +15=0
Class activity
 1. Construct and simplify equations whose roots are given below:
( a )−3,1 ( b ) √ 3−2 , √ 3+2 ( c )−5 ,−6
1 −1
2. if ∝+ β= ∧αβ = , write out the equation whose roots are α ∧β . Find the values of
6 3
α ∧β from your equation.

SUB-TOPIC 4
Condition for quadratic equation to have:

( i ) Equal roots ( b2 =4 ac ) ( ii ) Real roots ( b2 >4 ac ) ( iii ) No roots (b2 < 4 ac)
In this section, we want to see some properties of roots. We can determine the type of roots
that a particular equation will have.
The quadratic equation of
2 −b+ √ b −4 ac
2
−b−√ b2 −4 ac
a x +bx+ c=0 has two roots i . e x 1= ∧x2=
2a 2a
The part of the roots under square root sign is called the discriminant (i.e. b 2−4 ac ) of the
roots of the quadratic equation. This is because it can be used to determine the nature of the
roots.
( i ) Equal roots . if b2−4 ac=0then b2=4 ac
This means that whatever is contained inside the square root.
−b
x= twice
2a
The quadratic is said to have coincident roots. This happens when the quadratic equation is a
perfect square.
2
Example 1:- Consider the equation x −6 x +9=0
SOLUTION: By factorization
2
x −6 x +9=0
( x−3 ) ( x−3 ) =0
∴ x=3 twice.
Using the formula method a=1 ; b=−6 ; c=9Then ,

−b ± √ b2−4 ac 6 ± √ 36−36 6+ 0 6−0

x= x= x= ∨ ∴ x =3 twice
2a 2 2 2
(ii) Real roots: When b2 is greater than 4ac then the value under the roots sign is a positive
number that is b 2−4 ac> 0 . The square root of such number will have two real values, one
positive and other negative. The equation is said to have two distinct real roots.
Example 2: Solve the equation 2 x2 −4 x−5=0
 Using formulaa=2 , b=4 , c=−5

−4 ± √ 4 −(4 X 2 X −5)
2
x= b 2−4 ac , 16−( 4 X 2 X −5 )
2X2
, 16+ 40=56
−4 ± √ 56 ¿ −4 ± 7.49
x=
4 4
−4 +7.49 −4−7.49
x= ∨
4 4
3.49 −11.49
¿ ∨
4 4
(iii) Imaginary roots: When b2 is less than 4ac then the value under the root sign is a
negative number i.e b 2< 4 ac∨b2−4 ac <0. This shows that the root is not a real number.
We say that the equation has imaginary roots.
Example 3: Find the roots of the equation x 2+ 2 x +5=0
Solution: a=1 , b=2 c=5
−2 ± √ 4−(4 X 1 X 5)
Then x=
2
−2 ± √ 4−20
x=
2
−2± √ −16
¿ The roots are imaginary roots
2a
Example 4:- Without solving the equation determine whether the equation 5 x−5 x 2=1 has
two different roots, coincident roots or imaginary roots.
Solution:- Rewrite the equation
2 2
5 x−5 x =1 as 5 x −5 x +1=0
Then a=5, b=-5, c=1
Then b2 = 25
4 ac=4 X 5 X 1=20
2
∴ b −4 ac=25−20
Since b 2−4 ac> 0
Then the equation has two real different roots.
Example 5:- Determine the nature of the roots equations without solving them.
−6
( i ) 6 x−13= (ii ) 3 x ( 1−x )=1
x
 −6
Solution : ( i ) 6 x−13=
x
Rewrite the equation

6 x 2−13 x=−6∨6 x 2−13 x+ 6=0

To find the nature of the roots
a=6 , b=−13 , c=6
2 2
b −4 ac=(−13) −4 X 6 X 6
¿ 169−144=25

b 2−4 ac> 0
The equation has two distinct real roots.
( ii ) 3 x ( 1−x )=1 ¿>3 x−3 x 2=1
2
3 x −3 x+1=0
a=3 , b=−3 , c=1
2
b −4 ac=9−12=−3
2
b −4 ac< 0 The equation has no real roots.

Class activity
Determine the nature of the roots of the following equations without necessarily solving
them:
14 y
( a ) 2 x 2+3 X =+10=0 ( b ) 2 y − 2
+1=0 ( c ) ( 2 x +3 ) +12=0
y +3
( d ) 6 t 2 −13t −13=0.
4 3
For what value of k does the equation k + + 2 =0
x x

(i) Two real and different roots?

(ii) Coincident and real roots
(iii) No roots

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Given that ∝∧β are the roots of an equation such that ∝+ β=3∧αβ=2 , find the equation.
( a ) x 2−3 x+ 2=0 ( b ) x 2−2 x+3=0 ( c ) x2 −3 x−2=0 ( d ) x2 −2 x−3=0 .
2. If the equation x 2−x + p=0 has coincidental roots, find the value of P. (a)
−1 1 1
(b) (c ) (d ) 1 .
2 4 2
2
3. If 2 x −( b−4 ) x−4 ( b+2 ) =0 has equal roots , find the possible values of b .
4. If (2 x+ p ¿ ( x+ q ) =2 x 2−x−15 , where p and q are constant, find the possible values of q.
5. The roots of the equation 4 x2 −12 x +7=0are α and β, with α greater than β. Find the
values of: (i) α – β (ii) α2 – β2.
6. If the roots of the equation 4 x 2−6 x +1=0 are ∝∧β . Find the equation whose roots are

( 1
)
∝+ ∧( β + )
β
1
α

ASSIGNMENT
1. The roots of the equation 2 x2 + kx+5=0 are ∝+ β where k is a constant . if ∝2+ β 2=−1,find
the value of k( a ) ± 16 ( b ) ± 8 ( c ) ± 4 (d )± 2.
2. Find without necessarily solving the equation, the nature of the roots of the equation 3
2
x −x +3=0. The equation (a) distinct two roots. (b) has no roots (c) coincident real roots
(d) none of the above
3. If α ∧β are the roots of the equation 8 x 2−2 x−3=0 , find (a)
( ∝+ β )2 ( b ) α 2+ β2 ( c ) the posiive difference of ( α + β )2∧α 2 + β 2 .
4. Form the equation whose roots are -4 and 9.
5. The roots of the equation x 2+ mx +11=0 are∝∧β , where m is a constant. If ∝2+ β2 =27 ,
find the value of m.
6. If the sum of the squares of the roots of the equation a x 2 +bx+ c=0 is 1, show that
b 2=2 ac+ a2 .

WEEK NINE

TOPIC: ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 2

SUB-TOPICS:

(a) Quadratic functions (Simultaneous Equations: One linear, One quadratic)

(b) Solution of problems on roots of quadratic equation.
(c) Maximum and minimum values.

SUB-TOPIC 1

Quadratic functions (Simultaneous Equations: One linear, one quadratic)

We have discussed different ways but we need to mention that graphical solution is very
important aspect of solving quadratic equations. This is because with graphical solution a lot
of other problems can be solved.
The graph of the quadratic equation called parabola. Some call it cup or cap. The quadratic
expression is equated to y and it is called a quadratic function. The example below show the
graphical solution of quadratic function.
Example 1: Solve graphically, the equation y=3 x 2−x−2
Solution:
Draw the table of values for the equation y=3 x 2−x−2
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

3 x2 27 12 3 0 3 12 27 48

−x 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 Choose a convient scale, on x−axis

and y−axis, on x−axis let 2 cm
−2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 represents 1 unit and on y−axis 2 cm
represents 10 units .
y 28 12 4 -2 0 8 22 42

From the graph we find the point here the curve intersects x−axis at x=−7∧1.

The graph is also useful to determine the minimum value of y . the minimum value of y=−3.
we have minimum point when a> 0 and maximum point when a< 0.

Simultaneous Equations
When solving simultaneous equation (you are already used to solving it graphically). In
situation where one equation is linear and the second is quadratic, it can be solved by
substitution as well as solving graphically.
In graphical solution of one linear-one quadratic simultaneous equation, there are three
possible relationships between the straight line (linear) and the parabola (quadratic). They
are:
 Line intersecting with curve
 Line touching curve at a point (tangent)
 Line not intersecting the curve.

Example 2: Solve the simultaneous equations: 9 x 2−4 y 2 ¿ 44∧3 x +2 y=2

Solution: By substitution:
9 x 2−4 y 2 ¿ 44 … … … … … … …(i )
3 x+ 2 y =2 … … … … … … …(ii)
9 x 2−4 y 2 ¿ 44 ⇒ ( 3 x−2 y ) ( 3 x+ 2 y )=44
Since3 x+ 2 y =2, then ( 3 x−2 y ) × 2=44 … … … … iii
Hence, adding (ii)∧¿ (iii) together we get
6 x−24 ⇒ x=4
From (ii) 3 ( 4 ) +2 y=2 ⇒ y=−5 .
Example 3: Given the simultaneous equations:
y=x 2+5 x +6 and y=2 x +3
Show on the graph the points of interest. Hence write out the values of x∧ y .
Solution:
y=x 2+5 x +6
y=2 x +3
Table of values for y=x 2+5 x +6 and y=2 x +3

y=x 2+5 x +6 y=2 x +3

x −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 x −4 −2 0 1 2

x2 36 25 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 2x −8 −4 0 2 4

+5 x −30 −25 −20 −15 −10 −5 0 5 10 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3

+6 +6 +6 +6 +6 +6 +6 +6 +6 +6 y −5 −1 3 5 7

y 12 6 2 0 0 2 6 12 20
 21

20

19

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11
x -axis
y -axis

10
Y-Values
9

0
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1
From the above, there was no intersect of the curve and the straight line. The solutions to
the two equations cannot be determined because there is no point of intersection.
The points of intersection give the solution.

Example 3: On the same axes, plot the graph of y = 2x 2-5 + 4 and y = 2x + 3. Hence find the
points of intersection of the two graphs.
Solution:
Prepare the table of values for the functions given above.
y = 2x2-5 + 4

X -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

2x2 32 18 8 2 0 2 8 18 32 50 72

-5x 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 25 -30

+4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4

Y 56 37 22 11 4 1 2 7 16 29 46

Choose a convenient scale.

60

50

40

30

Axis Title 20
Y-Values
Linear (Y-Values)
10

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
-10

-20
Axis Title

The points of intersections x = 0.2 and 3.3

The above example shows the case of the line intersecting with the curve.
Example 4: solve the simultaneous equation y = x2-2x + 2 and y = 4x -7. Interpret your result
geometrically.
Solution:
Eliminate y to obtain: x2-2x + 2 = 4x -7 ⇒ x2 – 6x + 9 = 0
By factorisation:
(x – 3)(x – 3) = 0⇒x = 3(twice).
From y = 4x – 7 = 4(3) -7 = 5. The solution is x = 3 and y = 5.
Draw the graphs of the two equation to interpret it geometrically.
Table of values for y = x2 – 2x + 2. y = 4x - 7
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x 0 2 3 4
x2 4 1 0 1 4 9 16 4x 0 8 12 16
-2x 8 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -7 -7 -7 -7 -7
+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 y -7 1 5 9
y 14 5 2 1 2 5 10

20

15

10

Axis Title 5
Y-Values
Linear (Y-Values)
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-5

-10
Axis Title

The line y = 4x -7 intersects the curve y = x 2 + 2x + 2 at only one point. Therefore, the
solution to the equations is at the point x = 3 and y = 7.
Class activity
1. Solve the simultaneous equations y = 4x – 1 and y =2x 2 graphically and interpret your
result geometrically.
2. Solve y=2 x 2−9 x−1 for -1≤ x ≤ 6. Using a scale of 2cm to 1 unit on the x-axis and
2cm to represent 5 units on the y-axis.

SUB-TOPIC 2
 Solutions of problems on roots of quadratic equation
Mathematics is important of life situation because of its application. You are used to
problems leading to simple equations. We want to see the word problems leading to
quadratic equations.
In order to solve such problems, you must take note of the following:
a. Express the ideas involved in mathematical symbols.
b. Write out the equation using the symbols.
c. Solve the equation.
d. Interprete your result.
Example 1: the product of two consecutive whole numbers is 506. Find the numbers.
Solution:
Let the numbers be x and (x + 1).
Then, x(x+1) = 506 ⇒ x2 + 1 = 506 (this is now quadratic equation)
X2 + x - 506 = 0
Solve by formula to find the values of x using the parameters below
a=1 b=1 c = -506
Example 2: There are two possible routes from Lagos to Ijebu Ode. One route is through
Lagos/Ibadan express way which is 100km and the other is through Ikorodu-Epe covering a
distance of 80km. A motorist going through express way can travel 10km per hour faster than
the one going through Ikorodu and Epe and arrive Ijebu-Ode 5 minutes earlier as well. What
is the time spent on the journey to Ijebu Ode by the motorist travelling through the express
way?
Solution:
Let x be the speed of motorist going through Ikorodu/Epe and the speed of the one going
through express way is x + 10.
Time taken by Ikorodu/Epe = 80/x.
Time taken by express way = 100/ (x + 10)
Hence, 80/x – 100/(x+10) = 1/12.
80 ( x +10 )−100 x 1 80 ( x+10 )−100 x 1
= ⇒ = ⇒ 12 ( 80−20 x ) =x ( x+ 10 ) … … … … … .i
x ( x+10) 12 x (x+ 10) 12
Form a quadratic equation from (i) above and solve it using formula and conclude.
Class activity
1. The length of a rectangular field is 6m more than the width. If the area of the field is
72m2, find the dimensions of the field.
8
2. Two consecutive odd integers are such that the sum of their reciprocals is . Find
15
the odd integers.
SUB-TOPIC 3
Maximum and Minimum values
The graph of y=a x2 +bx +c as we have seen is a parabola. We have minimum point when
a> 0 and maximum point when a< 0.
The maximum or minimum value (y) is
2
4 ac−b
4a
−b
The curve is symmetrical about the line x= which is called the axis of symmetry.
2a
If f(x) = 0, then,
i. the curve cuts the horizontal axis if b 2−4 ac> 0
ii. the curve touches the horizontal axis if b 2−4 ac=0
iii. the curve does not cut the horizontal axis if b 2−4 ac< 0

Example 1:
Find the minimum value of y=3 x 2 +5 x−2 and the corresponding the value of x for which y
is a minimum.
Solution:
2
y=3 x +5 x−2

[
2 5
¿ 3 x + x −2=3 ¿
3 ]
3¿
When x = -5/6, the expression in the brackets will be zero, hence the minimum is -49/12.
The corresponding value of x for which y is minimum is -5/6.
Note that x = -5/6 is the axis of symmetry of the parabola. Alternative, let the minimum value
of y be ym then
4 ac−b 2 −49
y m= for a=3 , b=5 , c=−2 ∴ y m =
4a 12
Also the equation of the line of symmetry is
X = -b/2a = -5/6.
General evaluation:
1. Solve the equations simultaneously and show the points of intersections
Y = 4 – 11x and y = 2x2-19
2. Find the maximum value of y = 5 + 4x – x2 and the coordinates at the point where the
curve y = 5 + 4x - x2, cuts the coordinates axes.
1
3. The formula S= n(n+1) gives the sum of n consecutive whole numbers. If
2
S=325 , find n .
4. A father got his first son at 31 years. If the product of their ages is 816. Find the ages
of the father and his son.