Chapter 14

Lymphatic System and Immunity

Functions of the Lymphatic System

1. Fluid balance
2. Fat Absorption
3. Defense

Lymphatic System and Lymph Drainage

Components of the Lymphatic System

Lymph:
• fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries composed of water and some solutes
Lymphocytes
Lymphatic vessels
Lymph nodes
Tonsils
Spleen
Thymus gland

Lymphatic Capillaries
Carries fluid in one direction from tissues to circulatory system
Fluid moves from blood capillaries into tissue spaces
Lymphatic capillaries:
• tiny, closed-ended vessels
• fluid moves easily into
• in most tissues
• join to form lymphatic vessels

Lymphatic Vessels
Lymphatic vessels:
• resemble small veins
• where lymphatic capillaries join
• one way valves
Right lymphatic duct:
• where lymphatic vessels from right upper limb and right head, neck, chest
empty
• empties into right subclavian vein
Thoracic duct:
• rest of body empties from lymphatic vessels
• empties into left subclavian vein
 Lymph Formation and Movement

Lymphatic Organs
Tonsils:
• palatine tonsils on each side of oral cavity
• pharyngeal tonsils near internal opening of nasal cavity (adenoid)
• lingual tonsils posterior surface of tongue
• form a protective ring of lymphatic tissue around nasal and oral cavities
The Tonsils
Lymph Nodes
Lymph nodes are:
• rounded structures that vary in size
• located near lymphatic vessels
• groin, armpit, neck
• lymph passes through lymph nodes before entering blood

Lymph Nodes
 lymph moves through and immune system
 is activated (lymphocytes produced) if foreign substances are detected
 removal of microbes by macrophages

The Spleen
The spleen is:
• size of clenched fist
• located in abdomen
• filters blood
 • detect and respond to foreign substances
• destroy old red blood cells
• blood reservoir
white pulp: lymphatic tissue surrounding arteries
red pulp: contains macrophages and red blood cells that connect to veins

The Spleen

The Thymus Gland

The thymus gland is:
• bilobed gland
• located in mediastinum behind the sternum
• stops growing at age 1
• at age 60 decreases in size
• produces and matures lymphocytes
 The Thymus Gland

Overview of the Lymphatic System

Immunity
Immunity is the ability to resist damage from foreign substances.
Immunity can protect against microbes, toxins, and cancer cells.
Types of immunity:
• innate
• adaptive

Innate Immunity
Innate immunity is:
• present at birth
• defense against any pathogen
• accomplished by physical barriers, chemical mediators, cells, inflammatory
response

Physical Barriers
First line of defense
Skin and mucous membranes to act as barriers
Tears, saliva, urine wash away pathogens

Chemical Mediators
Chemical mediators are chemicals that can kill microbes and prevent their entry into
cells
Lysozyme:
found in tears and saliva to kill bacteria
Mucous membranes:
prevent entry of microbes
Histamine:
promote inflammation by causing vasodilation
Interferons:
proteins that protect against viral infections by stimulating surrounding cells to produce
antiviral proteins

Cells of the Immune System

White blood cells:
produce in red bone marrow and lymphatic tissue that fight foreign substances
Phagocytic cells:
• ingest and destroy foreign substances
• Example—neutrophils and macrophages
Neutrophils:
first to respond to infection but die quickly
Eosinophils:
• produced in red bone marrow
• release chemicals to reduce inflammation
Basophils:
• made in red bone marrow
• leave blood and enter infected tissues
• can release histamine
Macrophages:
• initially were monocytes
• leave blood and enter tissues
• can ingest more than neutrophils
• protect lymph in lymph nodes and blood in
• spleen and liver
• given specific names for certain areas of body (Kupffer cells in liver)
Mast cells:
• made in red bone marrow
 • found in skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, urogenital tract
• can release leukotrienes
Natural Killer Cells:
• type of lymphocyte
• produce in red bone marrow
• recognize classes of cells such as tumor cells or virus infected cells
• release chemicals to lysis cells

Inflammatory Response
The inflammatory response:
• involves chemical and cells due to injury
• signaled by presence of foreign substance
• stimulates release of chemical mediators
Adaptive Immunity
Adaptive immunity is defense that involves specific recognition to a specific antigen.
This immunity:
• is acquired after birth
• reacts when innate defenses don’t work
• slower than innate immunity
• has memory
• uses lymphocytes (B and T cells)
• 2 types antibody-mediated and cell-mediated

Terms Related to Adaptive Immunity

Antigen:
• substance that stimulates an immune response
• Example—bacteria, virus, pollen, food, drugs
Self-antigen:
• molecule produced by the person’s body that stimulates an immune
system response
Antibody:
• proteins the body produces in response to an antigen

Origin and Development of Lymphocytes

Stem cells:
• red bone marrow
• give rise to all blood cells
• give rise to some pre T cells and pre B cells
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are:
• type of white blood cell
• involved in adaptive immunity
• develop from stem cells
• differentiate into specific lymphocytes such as B or T cells

B cells:
• type of lymphocytes
• involved in antibody-mediated immunity
• originate from stem cells
• mature in red bone marrow
• move to lymphatic tissue after mature
• lead to production of antibodies

T cells:
• type of lymphocyte
• involved in cell-mediated immunity primarily and antibody-mediated
immunity
• mature in thymus gland
• move to lymphatic tissue after mature
• 4 types
 Origin and Processing of B Cells and T Cells

Antigen Recognition
 Lymphocytes have antigen receptors on their surface
 Called B-cell receptors on B cells and T-cell receptors on T cells
 Each receptor only binds with a specific antigen
 When antigen receptors combine with the antigen, the lymphocyte is activated
and adaptive immunity begins

The major histocompatibility complex molecule (MHC):

• contain binding sites for antigens
• specific for certain antigens
• hold and present a processed antigen on the surface of the cell membrane
• bind to antigen receptor on B or T cells and stimulate response

Cytokines are:
• proteins secreted by a cell that regulates neighboring cells
• Example—interleukin 1 released by macrophages stimulates helper T cells
 Proliferation of Helper T Cells

Lymphocyte Proliferation
1. After antigen is processed and present to helper T cells, helper T cell produces
interleukin-2 and interleukin 2-receptors
2. Interleukin-2 binds to receptors and stimulates more helper T cells production
3. Helper T cells are needed to produce B cells
4. B cells produce antibodies
 Proliferation of B Cells

Dual Nature of the Immune System

Lymphocytes give rise to 2 types of immune responses: antibody-mediated and cell-
mediated
Antigens can trigger both types of responses
Both types are able to recognize self-versus nonself, use specificity, and have memory
Antibody-mediated immunity is:
• effective against antigens in body fluids
(blood and lymph)
• effective against bacteria, viruses, toxins
• uses B cells to produce antibodies

Antibody Structure
Letter Y shape
Variable region:
• V of Y
• bind to epitopes of antigen using antigen- binding site
Constant region:
• stem of Y
• each class of immunoglobulin has same structure
Antigen-binding site:
site on antibody where antigen binds
Valence:
number of antigen-binding sites on antibody
5 classes of immunoglobulins used to destroy antigens:
IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD

Antibodies
IgG
• 80 to 85% in serum
• activates compliment and increases phagocytosis
• can cross the placenta and provide protection to the fetus
• responsible for Rh reactions, such as hemolytic disease of the newborn
IgM
• 5 to 10% in serum
• activates compliment
• acts as an antigen binding receptor on the surface of B cells
• responsible for transfusion reactions in the ABO blood system
• often the first antibody produced in response to an antigen

IgA
• 15% in serum
• secreted into saliva, into tears, and onto mucous membranes
• protects body surfaces
• found in colostrum and milk to provide immune protection to the newborn

IgE
• 0.002% in serum
• binds to mast cells and basophils and stimulates the inflammatory
response

IgD
• 0. 2% in serum
functions as an antigen-binding receptor on B cells

Effects of Antibodies
Inactivate antigen
Bind antigens together
Active complement cascades
Initiate release of inflammatory chemicals
Facilitate phagocytosis
Effects of Antibodies
Antibody Production
The primary response
• 1st exposure of B cell to antigen
• B cell undergoes division and forms plasma cell and memory cells
Plasma cells:
• produce antibodies
• 3 to 14 days to by effective against antigen
• person develop disease symptoms

The secondary response involves:

• Memory cells:
• occurs when immune system is exposed to antigen that has been seen
before
• B memory cells quickly divided to form plasma cells which produce
antibodies
• produces new memory cells
Cell-mediated immunity is used against antigens in cells and tissues.
It is effective against intracellular bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
It uses different types of T cells.

Types of T Cells for Cell-Mediated Immunity

Helper T cells (TH):
• activate macrophages
• help form B cells
• promote production of Tc
Cytotoxic T cells (Tc):
• precursor to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL)
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL):
• destroys antigen on contact
Regulatory T cells (Tr):
• turn off immune system response when antigen is gone
Proliferation of Cytotoxic T Cells
Stimulation and Effects of T Cells
Immune Interactions
Types of Adaptive Immunity
Naturally Acquired Immunity
Active:
 • natural exposure to antigens causes production of antibodies
• can be lifelong immunity
• Example—mononucleosis
Passive:
• transfer of antibodies from mother to child
• Example—breast milk or placenta

Artificially Acquired Immunity

Active:
• injection of antigens using vaccines which cause the production of
antibodies
• immunization is a process of introducing killed, live, or inactivated
pathogen
Passive:
• injection of antibodies from another person or animal

Ways to Acquire Adaptive Immunity