Lymphatic System and Immunity • lymph passes through lymph nodes before entering blood

• lymph moves through and immune system is activated (lymphocytes

produced) if foreign substances are detected removal of microbes by
Lymphatic system reacts when foreign substance or any macrophages
microorganisms will come along or will try to invade our body. Lymphatic • Usually enlarges when we get sick, in cases that we have wounds or
system functions against it. even a simple tonsillitis or sore throat can cause inflammation of the
lymph nodes. When it enlarges, it may even cause pain the lymph
nodes.
Functions of the Lymphatic System • Lymph nodes enlarge due to the increase in the production of the
1. Fluid balance lymphatic fluid and lymphocytes (Dumadami ang lymphocytes fluid
- Lymphatic system itself has its own fluid and it is called the lymph, dahil dumadami din ang lymphocytes thus causing enlargement of the
which is the fluid that circulates around our lymphatic system. lymph nodes)
2. Fat Absorption
3. Defense
- How our body respond to foreign substance or the presence of
microorganisms.

Lymphatic System and Lymph Drainage

Overview of the Lymphatic System

Components of the Lymphatic System

Lymph:
- fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries composed of water and some solutes
- responsible in circulating substances like lymphocytes to other parts of the
body.
Lymphocytes
- substances found in the lymph.
- increases in case of infection to respond to microorganism
- it increases when it detects microorganisms.
Lymphatic vessels
Lymph nodes
- Important in increasing the lymphocytes and increase production of lymph
Tonsils
- helps in the defense mechanism of the body
Spleen
- largest organ of the lymphatic system
Thymus gland
- important because it is responsible in making our T lymphocytes mature
Lymph Formation and Movement

Immunity
Immunity is the ability to resist damage from foreign substances.
Immunity can protect against microbes, toxins, and cancer cells.

Types of immunity:
• innate
• adaptive

Innate Immunity
Innate Immunity
Innate immunity is:
• present at birth
Lymph Nodes • defense against any pathogen
Lymph nodes are: • accomplished by physical barriers (e.g. skin), chemical mediators,
• rounded structures that vary in size cells, inflammatory response
• located near lymphatic vessels
• groin, armpit, neck Physical Barriers
 ✓ First line of defense
✓ Skin and mucous membranes to act as barriers Agranulocytes
✓ Tears, saliva, urine wash away pathogens Macrophages:
Some microorganisms are very persistent and are able to pass through this • initially were monocytes
physical barriers which will led to stimulation of chemical mediators • leave blood and enter tissues
Chemical Mediators • can ingest more than neutrophils
Chemical mediators are chemicals that can kill microbes and prevent their • protect lymph in lymph nodes and blood in
entry into cells • found in spleen and liver
Lysozyme: • given specific names for certain areas of body
-found in tears and saliva to kill bacteria (Kupffer cells in liver- keeps the liver healthy)
Mucous membranes: • Larger type of cells and it has more capacity to eat/kill/engulf
- prevent entry of microbes microorganisms
Histamine: Mast cells:
- promote inflammation by causing vasodilation • made in red bone marrow
- released (by the mast cells) when the antigen are being detected. • found in skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, urogenital tract
- produces allergic reaction (antihistamine is taken in cases of allergies to • can release leukotrienes
control the release of hstamin) • mast cells once stimulated by the histamine, it releases the
- mast cells- important cells that prevent proliferation of the antigen leukotrienes and once leukotrienes is released, it trigger the
- when the blood vessels dilate, this will increase the blood flow to where the stimulant of the lymphocytes. When it triggered the stimulants of
microorganism is. the lymphocytes particularly the B cells and the T cells, this helps
- when the body detected microorganisms, the mast cell will release in the immune response
microorganisms and the histamine will vasodilate to increase blood flow in Natural Killer Cells:
the area thus increasing blood supply to the area. When the blod supply is • type of lymphocyte
increased in that area, it will cause: • produce in red bone marrow
1. swelling
• recognize classes of cells such as tumor cells or virus
2. redness
• infected cells
3. Warmth
• release chemicals to lysis cells
4. pain- because of the increase in prostaglandin release
Our lymphocytes specifically our T lymphocytes (produced in the bone
Interferons:
marrow and go to thymus to mature) and B cells (produced and will remain in
- proteins that protect against viral infections by stimulating surrounding cells
the bone marrow until it mature).
to produce antiviral proteins
One T cells and B cells mature already, the both travel going t the lymph
- more specific to viruses
nodes and will stay there to guard/prepare for any possible infection
- In case that the interferons are outnumbered by the virus, there is now an
overpower of the infection
Inflammatory Response
- the lesser the viral load, the lesser the s/sx
The inflammatory response:
Cells of the Immune System • involves chemical and cells due to injury
- Inflammatory reponse happens because of the release of chemicals and cel
White blood cells:
tissue damage/ injury.
- produce in red bone marrow and lymphatic tissue that fight foreign
• signaled by presence of foreign substance
substances
- considered as the policemen of the body • stimulates release of chemical mediators
- chemical substance discussed above only trigger to fight the
microorganisms but the WBC actually fights the microorganism
- large cells that fights and kills microorganisms
- WBC is also known as leukocytes
Phagocytic cells:
• ingest and destroy foreign substances
• Example—neutrophils and macrophages
- WBC is also known as leukocytes; it is divided into granulocytes and
agranulocytes.
• Granulocytes
- Neutrophil, Eosnophil, Basophils
• Agranulocytes
- Monocytes, Macrophages.

Cells of the Immune System

Granulocytes
Neutrophils: Adaptive Immunity
• first to respond to infection but die quickly Adaptive immunity is defense that involves specific recognition to a specific
• since it is the first to respond and actually looks for microorganisms, antigen.
it alarms the immune system when microorganism is detected This immunity:
Eosinophils: • is acquired after birth
• produced in red bone marrow • reacts when innate defenses don’t work
• release chemicals to reduce inflammation • slower than innate immunity
• has memory
Basophils: • uses lymphocytes (B and T cells)
• made in red bone marrow • 2 types antibody-mediated and cell-mediated
• leave blood and enter infected tissues Adaptive immunity is an acquired immunity, body was exposed to the antigen
• can release histamine (basophils also triggers allergic reaction Example: Vaccine (a protein component of the microorganism or the
because it can cause histamine release) weakened part of the microorganism with no ability to cause infection is
introduce to the body to promote antibodies against that microorganism)
53.25
 Terms Related to Adaptive Immunity When the antibodies recognize the microorganism, it will kill it. If it will not
Antigen: going to kill it, it will copy the RNA of the microorganism so that the next time
• substance that stimulates an immune response the organism will invade , it will be recognized already and chemicals to fight
• Example—bacteria, virus, pollen, food, drugs it will be produced already.
Self-antigen:
• molecule produced by the person’s body that stimulates an Proliferation of Helper T cells
immune system response
Antibody:
• proteins the body produces in response to an antigen

Origin and Development of Lymphocytes

Stem cells:
• red bone marrow
• give rise to all blood cells
• give rise to some pre T cells and pre B cells

Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are:
• type of white blood cell
• involved in adaptive immunity
• develop from stem cells
• differentiate into specific lymphocytes such as B or T cells

B cells:
• type of lymphocytes
• involved in antibody-mediated immunity
• originate from stem cells
• mature in red bone marrow
• move to lymphatic tissue after mature
• lead to production of antibodies

T cells:
• type of lymphocyte
Lymphocyte Proliferation
• involved in cell-mediated immunity primarily and antibody-
1. After antigen is processed and present to helper T cells, helper T cell
mediated immunity
produces interleukin-2 and interleukin 2-receptors
• mature in thymus gland
2. Interleukin-2 binds to receptors and stimulates more helper T cells
• move to lymphatic tissue after mature production
• 4 types 3. Helper T cells are needed to produce B cells
4. B cells produce antibodies
Origin and Processing of B Cells and T Cells
Proliferation of B cells

Antigen Recognition
Lymphocytes have antigen receptors on their surface

Called B-cell receptors on B cells and T-cell receptors on T cells

Each receptor only binds with a specific antigen

When antigen receptors combine with the antigen, the lymphocyte is

activated and adaptive immunity begins

Cytokines
Cytokines are:
• proteins secreted by a cell that regulates neighboring cells
• Example—interleukin 1 released by macrophages stimulates
helper T cells

Cytokines is responsible for the release of interleukin 1 released by the Dual Nature of the Immune System
macrophages and then the interleukin 1 released by the macrophages Lymphocytes give rise to 2 types of immune responses: antibody-mediated
stimulates helper T cells, helper T cell will release interleukin 2 to trigger the and cell-mediated
cytotoxic T cells. Cytotoxic T cells will be released out of the blood to respond Antigens can trigger both types of responses
to the presence of the microorganisms At the same time it also stimulate the Both types are able to recognize self versus nonself, use specificity, and have
B cells which will produce the antiboties . memory
 Antibody-Mediated Immunity • 15% in serum
Antibody-mediated immunity is: • secreted into saliva, into tears, and onto mucous membranes
• effective against antigens in body fluids (blood and lymph) • protects body surfaces
• effective against bacteria, viruses, toxins • found in colostrum and milk to provide immune protection to the
• uses B cells to produce antibodies newborn
IgE
Antibody Structure • 0.002% in serum
Letter Y shape • binds to mast cells and basophils and stimulates the inflammatory
Variable region: response
• V of Y IgD
• bind to epitopes of antigen using antigen- binding site • 2% in serum
Constant region: • functions as an antigen-binding receptor on B cells
• stem of Y
• each class of immunoglobulin has same structure Effects of Antibodies
Inactivate antigen
Antibody Structure Bind antigens together
Active complement cascades
Initiate release of inflammatory chemicals
Facilitate phagocytosis

Effects of Antibodies

Antibody Structure
Antigen-binding site:
site on antibody where antigen binds
Valence:
number of antigen-binding sites on antibody
5 classes of immunoglobulins used to destroy antigens:
IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD

Antibody Structure

Antibodies
IgG
• 80 to 85% in serum
• activates compliment and increases phagocytosis
• can cross the placenta and provide protection to the fetus
• responsible for Rh reactions, such as hemolytic disease of the
newborn
According to studies, RH incompatibility only happens after the first born
wherein the immune system of the mother reacts to the blood of the fetus. It
doesn’t happen to the first born because there was no exposure of the
immune system yet. Exposure only happen during the cut/ separation of the
placenta during the first born. Rh incompatibility between the mother and the
baby usually results to miscarriage because the antibodies or immune system
of the mother fights the baby itself

IgM
• 5 to 10% in serum
• activates compliment
• acts as an antigen binding receptor on the surface of B cells
• IgD
• 0. 2% in serum
• functions as an antigen-binding receptor on B cellsresponsible for Antibody Production
transfusion reactions in the ABO blood system The primary response
• often the first antibody produced in response to an antigen • 1st exposure of B cell to antigen
IgA • B cell undergoes division and forms plasma cell and memory cells
Plasma cells: Immune Interactions
• produce antibodies
• 3 to 14 days to by effective against antigen
• person develop disease symptoms

The secondary response involves:

• Memory cells:
• occurs when immune system is exposed to antigen that has been
seen before
• B memory cells quickly divided to form plasma cells which
produce antibodies
• produces new memory cells

Antibody Production

Cell-Mediated Immunity
- Cell-mediated immunity is used against antigens in cells and tissues.
- It is effective against intracellular bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
- It uses different types of T cells.
Types of Adaptive Immunity
It is activated during the release of interleukins wherein the macrophages Naturally Acquired Immunity
releases the interleukins and the interleukins triggers the helper T cells which Active:
will release the interleukins 2 to stimulate the killer T cells which is • natural exposure to antigens causes production of antibodies
responsible in destroying the foreign body. • can be lifelong immunity
• Example—mononucleosis, chicken pox
Types of T Cells for Cell-Mediated Immunity Passive:
Helper T cells (TH): • transfer of antibodies from mother to child
• activate macrophages • Example—breast milk or placenta, IgG, IgA
• help form B cells
• promote production of Tc Artificially Acquired Immunity
Cytotoxic T cells (Tc): Active:
• precursor to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) • injection of antigens using vaccines which cause the production of
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL): antibodies
• destroys antigen on contact • immunization is a process of introducing killed, live, or inactivated
Regulatory T cells (Tr): pathogen
• turn off immune system response when antigen is gone Passive:
-suppresses and deactivate the cytotoxic cells so that it will stop destroying • injection of antibodies from another person or animal
normal cells • Example: Serum antibodies for Rabies/ antirabies (wherein
Proliferation of Cytotoxic T Cells antibody itself is injected and not antigen)

Ways to Acquire Adaptive Immunity

Stimulation and Effects of T Cells