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STRATEGIES
FOR SOUND
MASKING
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 Contents
Part One
5 Specifying and procuring sound masking systems
By Niklas Moeller, MBA

Part Two
13 Providing acoustic comfort with sound masking
By Niklas Moeller, MBA

21 Part Three
Understanding acoustic privacy within the built environment
By Niklas Moeller, MBA

Part Four
30 Sound advice on speech privacy
By Sean D. Browne

36 Part Five
Selecting the right ceiling for an office
By Chris Marshall

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 Strategies for
Sound Masking

Part One
Specifying and procuring sound masking systems

BY NIKLAS MOELLER, MBA

Niklas Moeller, MBA, is vice-president of K.R. Moeller

Associates Ltd. (Burlington, Ont.), a global developer and
manufacturer of sound masking systems for more than 30
years. He has been in the sound masking business since 1998.
Moeller writes an acoustics blog at soundmaskingblog.com.
He can be reached via e-mail at nmoeller@logison.com.

SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 5


Sound Advice
Specifying and procuring sound masking systems
By Niklas Moeller, MBA
E
veryone has heard the old adage “silence is golden,” but
just as with lighting and temperature, the comfort zone
for the volume of sound is actually not zero. In fact, if
the background sound level in a space is too low, conversations
and noise can easily be heard, even from a great distance,
impacting speech privacy and disrupting one’s concentration.
Many organizations use a sound masking system to maintain
an appropriate ambient sound level in their facilities, which
is typically between 42 and 48 decibels (dB) in commercial
interiors. This technology consists of a series of loudspeakers,
which are installed in a grid-like pattern in or above the ceiling,
and a method of controlling their output. While the sound
the loudspeakers distribute has been specifically engineered to
increase speech privacy, it also covers up intermittent noises or
reduces their impact by decreasing the change between baseline
and peak volumes. Although the background sound level is
technically higher, occupants perceive the space as quieter. Many
systems also provide paging and music distribution, eliminating
the need for a separate system.
Types of sound masking systems have been used in various
applications for decades, including:
• offices;
• c all centres;
• banks;
• courthouses;
• libraries;
6 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
Photo © Zahid Ghafoor. Photo courtesy K.R. Moeller Associates Ltd.
•m
 ilitary facilities; and
•h
 ealthcare environments.
In recent years, they have gained even more popularity because
of the increased use of open-plan space and demountable
partitions, rising densities, and sustainable design practices––all
of which have a significant impact on acoustics.
The field has also changed with the introduction of new sound
masking systems. Users are no longer limited to a choice between
centralized (Figure 1, page 7) and decentralized products (Figure
2, page 7), but can now select a digital or networked technology
(Figure 3, page 8). However, what often gets lost in the shuffle
are the key design and performance features that can have a
substantial impact on the outcome within each space.
The specification gap
Sound masking is a critical design choice for which one does not
want to leave a lot of room for interpretation. After all, when
purchasing a system, the user is not seeking the mere pleasure of
owning the equipment. Without a set of performance standards,
poor procurement decisions can be made. The desired level of
speech privacy, noise control, and occupant comfort may be
sacrificed, as well as the user’s ability to easily and cost-effectively
adjust the system in the future.
To keep the focus on design and performance, the manner in
which sound masking systems are specified must be updated.
They are often specified according to the aforementioned
types, limiting the number of vendors Figure 1
that can bid on a given project. Bidding
opportunities are further restricted when

Images courtesy K.R. Moeller Associates Ltd.

the specification incorporates propriety
elements such as the dimensions of
components, types of inputs/outputs,
and other minor details. At the other end
of this spectrum are specifications that
merely state “provide a sound masking
system.” When compared to the manner
in which most other building systems such
as HVAC or fire alarms are specified, the
contrast is striking.
The best practice approach for sound
masking is to write a performance- A centralized masking system features a centrally located rack of equipment used for
sound generation, volume, and frequency adjustment. This equipment is connected
based specification focusing on the to a set of loudspeakers that all reproduce the centrally generated sound.
qualities that are critical to the system’s
effectiveness and occupant comfort. Figure 2

Key performance criteria

A sound masking system’s performance
is determined by the following criteria:
• a djustment zone size;
•m  asking sound generation;
•v  olume adjustment capabilities;
• f requency adjustment capabilities;
• loudspeaker requirements; and
•m  easured results.
These six elements are vital to every
project’s success. Clear requirements
can be set for each one, in addition to
various masking technologies that can
meet those standards. In other words, a
specification focusing on these elements
A decentralized masking system features master and satellite loudspeakers. The former
allows competitive bids and, providing includes the electronics for sound generation, volume, and frequency adjustment. Local
the terms of the specification are upheld, changes are made by physically accessing the controls on each master, while global volume
also ensures a high performance level adjustments and timer functions are centrally controlled.
from the system selected.
user to make compromises that increase system can allow as much as a 6-dB
Adjustment zone size the system’s effectiveness in some areas variation (i.e. ±3 dB), meaning the
Acoustic conditions and user needs vary while diminishing occupant comfort in system’s effectiveness will be halved in
between private offices, meeting rooms, others, or vice versa (Figure 5, page 9). some areas of the user’s space.
corridors, and reception areas, as well The impact of these compromises is far Zone size also affects the ease with
as across open-plan spaces (Figure 4, from minimal. A few decibels of variation which the user can make changes to the
page 8). Sound masking designs with in masking volume can dramatically system in the future. Churn rates and
small adjustment zones (i.e. individually impact the system’s effectiveness, even renovations require systems that can
controllable groups of loudspeakers) without taking into consideration the be quickly, easily, and cost-effectively
enable the user to adjust the frequency consistency of frequency levels. In readjusted. Large zones limit the user’s
and volume to meet these diverse needs. many situations, users can expect a 10 ability to reconfigure the sound masking
Conversely, any designs using large per cent reduction in performance for system without first physically changing
adjustment zones––ranging from eight to each decibel variation below the target its design, moving loudspeakers, or re-
hundreds of loudspeakers––require the masking volume. A poorly designed wiring parts of the system.

SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 7

 Figure 3
A networked masking system consists of networkable components,
loudspeakers, and a central method of control such as a small
panel or software application. All local and global changes,
including those to zoning, are made from the central location.
In other words, the most important factor within a sound
masking specification is to place an upper limit on adjustment
zone size. In this case, less truly is more––one to four
loudspeakers in each zone provide a high degree of flexibility.
Masking sound generation
Each small adjustment zone should have a dedicated masking
sound generator to avoid a phenomenon called phasing
(i.e. uncontrollable variations in masking levels), which occurs
when numerous speakers adjacent to each other emit the same
masking signal.
To maximize unobtrusiveness, each generator should also
provide a sound that occupants perceive as being random
(i.e. with no noticeable repeat cycle). The sound produced by
the generator must cover the entire masking spectrum of 100 to
8000 Hz––frequency output beyond this range is unnecessary.
Volume adjustment capabilities
The masking sound is greatly affected by the overall workplace
design, including the materials used, furnishings, location
on the floor, and items above the ceiling. These elements
have an impact no matter how the loudspeakers are installed
(e.g. upward-facing above a suspended ceiling or direct-facing
cut through a ceiling). For this reason, ASTM E 1573-09,
Standard Test Method for Evaluating Masking Sound in Open
Offices Using A-weighted and One-third Octave Band Sound
Pressure Levels, requires measurements to be taken in areas
representative of all workspace types.
If the adjustment zones are large, numerous loudspeakers
are set to the same output level, but after interacting with
8 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
Figure 4
Image © iStockphoto.com/Peter Willems
Acoustic conditions and user needs vary across each facility,
including open-plan spaces. Small zones allow the system
to be tuned to provide a consistent masking sound, speech privacy,
and noise control across the entire installation.
the variables in the space as noted above, the masking
volume fluctuates. Variations of 2 dB or more call attention
to the masking sound, reveal its source to occupants, and
diminish results.
Large-zoned designs attempt to mitigate these volume
variations by including audio transformers as volume controls
on each loudspeaker. However, they only provide rough
adjustments of 3 dB each. When the volume cannot be finely
adjusted in small areas, users need to set a volume that is best
‘on average,’ compromising comfort or effectiveness at various,
unpredictable points across their space.
The specification should call for fine volume controls for each
small zone. Increments of 0.5 or even 1 dB enable the user to
adjust the sound whenever needed in order to accommodate
variable acoustic conditions. The specification should also
require the final masking volume be consistent within a range of
1 to 1.5 dB in all areas desired. Again, the benefits are consistent
performance and comfort.
Frequency adjustment capabilities
The sound masking system should also provide fine frequency
control within each small adjustment zone.
 Figure 5
Image courtesy K.R. Moeller Associates Ltd.
The most important factor is to place an upper limit on zone size. Small zones of one to
four loudspeakers provide a high degree of flexibility. Larger zones require compromises
to be made between comfort and effectiveness. As the diagram shows, the larger the zone,
the more people affected by those compromises.
The range of masking sound is generally
specified to be between 100 to 8000 Hz. The
system should provide control over these
frequencies via third-octave adjustment
because it is both the industry standard and
the basis for masking targets that are set
by acousticians.
However, providing third-octave
adjustment is not enough when these
controls are paired to large adjustment
zones. A well-designed system provides
equalization for each group of one to four
loudspeakers.
Loudspeaker requirements
As long as the masking system can
meet the volume and frequency targets
established by the specification, it is not
essential to specify the loudspeaker’s size,
wattage rating, or other parameters. Yet,
it is worth noting very small loudspeaker
drivers (i.e. less than 76 mm [3 in.])
are unlikely to generate sufficient levels
below several hundred hertz (i.e. down
to the required 100 Hz). These low
frequencies are necessary to create the
full masking spectrum. While they play a
relatively minor role in reducing speech
intelligibility, they are vital to occupant
comfort. Most masking loudspeakers are
102 to 203 mm (4 to 8 in.) in diameter and
rated from 10 to 25 watts.
Measured results
The true gauge of whether the sound
masking system ultimately selected is
performing as required is gained from
post-adjustment measurements.
The specification should require
specific results that are measured and
documented. Best practice is to require
a test in each 93-m2 (1000-sf) area,
and have the vendor adjust the sound
masking system within that area as needs
dictate. (Some systems may be able to
outperform this requirement, but it is a
good baseline.)
Two or three types of measurements
should be required:
1. 
Overall volume and variation
tolerances—masking volumes tend
to range between 42 and 48 dB,
depending on the type of space and
the user’s performance requirements.
As previously mentioned, the results
should be consistent within a range of
1 to 1.5 dB or less.
2. 
Masking frequency curve––there
is a general curve the acoustical
community considers effective and
comfortable. It is defined in third-
octave bands. The specification
should set maximum variations for
each frequency band; ± 2 dB variation
is a reasonable expectation.
SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK
3. 
Temporal uniformity––this refers to
the consistency of the masking volume
over time. While this attribute can be
assessed, it is usually not an issue and is
less frequently specified and evaluated.
It is important to remember there
are no independent standards for
masking performance, only standards
relating to measurement such as ASTM
E1573-09. A specification stating the
sound masking system is or should be
‘compliant’ with any ASTM standard is
misleading. Instead, it is essential that it
outlines all the above requirements for
masking output.
Additional considerations
Depending on their significance to
the project at hand, some secondary
characteristics may also need to be
included in the specification, including:
• t imer functions;
• z oning and control methods;
• s ecurity features;
•p  aging functions;
• esthetics;
• certification;
•d  rawings; and
• c ompliance form.
Timer functions
Timers automatically adjust the masking
volume to vary in anticipation of noise
levels throughout the day, balancing
effectiveness and comfort. For example,
the user may want a lower masking
volume at a certain time when there are
fewer occupants in the facility.
Considerations may include:
• whether the timer provides variable
rates of volume change;
• number of independent timer zones;
• whether the daily schedules can be
independent; and
• if unique schedules can be programmed
for specific days of the year (e.g. holidays
and special events).
Masking systems may also offer a ramp-
up feature. It is best to specify this in
retrofit situations because it is used to
9

Sound masking consists of a series of loudspeakers installed
in a grid-like pattern in or above the ceiling, and a method
of controlling their output.
gradually introduce the masking sound, allowing occupants to
easily acclimatize to the change in their acoustical conditions.
Zoning methods
Beyond masking zones, most systems can be zoned for various
functions, including paging and timer functions, as well as
local occupant control (e.g. in a meeting room). In this case,
the type of zoning is relevant. For example, hardwired zones
require advanced planning because a contractor will have to
re-cable parts of the system when future changes need to be
made. Digital zones can usually be re-assigned without altering
the system’s physical design. Less planning is required from the
outset because any changes can be made in minutes.
Control methods
The method of controlling the system impacts the ease,
cost, precision, and amount of disruption associated with
making initial and future adjustments. Some designs provide
central control over a limited range of features. Others
provide central control over a few features and local control
over others. There are also designs offering control over all
features from a central location.
Most users make significant changes to their space over time––
to department location, demountable partition placement, or
furniture system configuration––and it is important to consider
how the corresponding changes will be made to the sound
masking system. The specification can include the types of
features and settings that need to be controlled and from what
kind of access point (e.g. hardware and/or software).
Security features
Depending on the user, security may be another key
consideration. In this case, the specification should describe
both the physical and electronic security features for the sound
masking system.
10 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
Figure 6
Photo © iStockphoto.com/Yvan Dubé
Drawings can help identify differences between masking proposals
because they show the components, quantities, and locations, making
it easier to spot design shortcuts and discuss them with the vendor.
Physical features can include housing below-ceiling equipment
in locked enclosures and also ensuring enclosed rather than
exposed cabling connections. Electronic measures can include
monitoring, password-controlled access, and encrypted
communication.
If security is a concern, additional masking generators and
longer generation cycles are better because short cycles can easily
be filtered out of recorded conversations.
Paging functions
Many sound masking systems can provide simultaneous overhead
paging and background music functions. If the user requires
these features, they should be covered in the specification.
Esthetics
When installed in an open ceiling, the system’s appearance should
be considered, including the look of the loudspeakers (e.g. an
industrial esthetic or similar to a lighting pendant), the cable and
cable connections, as well as the loudspeaker suspension methods
(e.g. chain or a braided steel cable).
Certifications
Another important aspect of the specification concerns the
system’s certifications. Though not critical to performance per se,
they are essential to meeting regulatory requirements.
Sound masking systems must meet Underwriters Laboratories
(UL) or similar standards for electrical safety. Any components
installed in air-handling plenum or via cut-throughs in a
suspended ceiling must also be tested to meet UL 2043, Standard
for Safety Fire Test for Heat and Visible Smoke Release for Discrete
Products and their Accessories Installed in Air-handling Spaces.
Cables must be plenum-rated. If using low-voltage power
supplies, these should conform to UL 1310, Class 2 Power Units,
to avoid conduit requirements. Digital masking systems need to
meet the electromagnetic interference (EMI) standards.
SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 11
 Figure 7
Photo © iStockphoto.com/Steve Cole
A well-constructed specification is essential to ensuring the masking
system provides an effective and comfortable environment for all
employees, increasing productivity.
As long as the loudspeaker can meet the volume and frequency
targets, it is not essential to specify other parameters, except in
open ceilings where esthetics matter.
If sustainability is a goal within the space, users might
also voluntarily require compliance with the European
Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive,
which limits the quantities of certain materials used in the
system’s components.
Drawings
Even if the sound masking technology the vendor proposes
adheres to a generally worded design guide, the vendor may
intend to implement it in a different manner. Therefore, it is
important whenever possible, to require drawings as part of the
bid submission process (Figure 6, page 10).
12 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
These documents can help identify differences between
sound masking proposals because they show the components,
quantities, and locations, making it easier to spot design
shortcuts and subsequently discuss those deviations with the
vendor.
Ideally, of course, the drawings should be included as
part of the specification itself, allowing the user to set the
adjustment zones for each area. For example, there may be
areas where the client wishes to use zones smaller than the
four-loudspeaker maximum, such as in private offices and
meeting rooms. These drawing should be created by the
user in conjunction with an acoustical consultant or trusted
vendor.
Compliance form
Another useful document to request in the specification is
a compliance form. Vendors should be asked to submit a
statement indicating their adherence to each aspect of the
specification. They should also be required to note any
deviations, describing how their system’s design differs.
Own the spec
Acoustics are an integral part of a project’s long-term success
and should be planned from the outset. While every sound
masking system introduces a sound into the space, overall
performance can vary dramatically. A well-constructed
specification is essential to ensure the technology and
the system’s design meets the user’s current and future
requirements (Figure 7). If not, the sound masking system
may be ineffectual, underused, or become a source of
irritation itself and possibly turned off.
However, even with a well-written specification, the user
could end up with a non-conforming system unless the
specifier, user, or another person involved in the design
and procurement process is appointed as a guardian whose
responsibility it is to ensure bids meet the criteria outlined.
Many times the value of a well-designed specification is
nullified because no one is asked to ensure all proposals––
and, indeed, the system ultimately selected––conform to the
desired performance levels.
It is also wise to learn what services are offered in
conjunction with each proposal under consideration. The
sound masking system should be supported by professionals
who can properly design and implement it and provide the
user with ongoing support.
Notes
1
For a sample of a performance-based specification online,
visit www.soundmaskingspecs.com.
 Strategies for
Sound Masking

Part Two
Providing acoustic comfort with sound masking

BY NIKLAS MOELLER, MBA

Niklas Moeller, MBA, is vice-president of K.R. Moeller

Associates Ltd. (Burlington, Ont.), a global developer and
manufacturer of sound masking systems for more than 30
years. He has been in the sound masking business since 1998.
Moeller writes an acoustics blog at soundmaskingblog.com.
He can be reached via e-mail at nmoeller@logison.com.

SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 13


Tuning Out Noise
Providing acoustic comfort with sound masking
By Niklas Moeller
O
pen-plan space, modular walls, and reflective
surfaces such as glass, concrete, and metal are
just a few of the design trends making today’s
interiors even more dependent on sound masking
for speech privacy and noise control. Since a sound
masking system’s ability to provide these benefits
largely depends on meeting the specified
spectrum—or ‘curve’—throughout the facility,
post-installation tuning is an essential part of the
commissioning process. When handled poorly (or
skipped altogether), the tuning of sound masking
can greatly affect speech intelligibility, as well as
occupants’ concentration and their overall
workplace satisfaction.
14 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
All images courtesy K.R. Moeller Associates Ltd.
The curve defines what the sound masking
system’s measured output should be within the
facility where it is installed. This target should be set
by the client’s acoustician or a third party such as the
National Research Council (NRC), rather than by
the sound masking system’s manufacturer or vendor.
The typical range is between 100 to 5000 hertz (Hz),
but can go as high as 10,000 Hz. Unlike white or
pink noise—terms often mistakenly substituted for
‘sound masking’—the volume of these frequencies
follows a non-linear curve specifically engineered
to balance acoustic control and occupant comfort.1
Successful sound masking implementation involves
achieving both goals in equal measure.
 Regardless of how the sound masking system
has been designed (i.e. the out-of-the-box settings,
placement, and orientation of loudspeakers), the
sound it distributes changes across the facility as
it interacts with various interior elements, such as
the layout and furnishings. To meet the specified
curve, the client’s acoustician or the sound
masking vendor’s technician must adjust the
system’s volume and frequency settings. In other
words, the masking sound has to be tuned for the
particular environment in which it is installed.
This process should occur after the ceilings and
furnishings are in place, and with mechanical
systems operating at daytime levels. As activity
and conversation prevent accurate measurement,
it should also be done before the facility is
occupied or after hours. The exact method will
vary by product, but generally the acoustician or
technician uses a sound level meter to measure
the masking sound at ear height (i.e. the level at
which occupants experience its effects), analyzes
the results, and adjusts the volume and frequency
settings accordingly. He or she repeats these steps A sound masking spectrum or ‘curve’ should be specified by an acoustician or
supplied by an independent third party like the National Research Council (NRC).
until the curve is met at each tuning location.

Understanding tolerance properly designed and tuned, newer sound

Some degree of variation from the curve is expected
because it is impossible to achieve perfection in
every tuning location. However, variations have
an impact on the masking sound’s performance
and can draw occupants’ attention to it. For that
reason, the specified curve is usually accompanied
by a ‘tolerance’ limiting the amount by which the
sound is permitted to deviate from the goal across
the client’s space.
Historically, this value was often set to ±2 dBA
(i.e. plus or minus two A-weighted decibels), giving
an overall range of 4 dBA—however, such wide
swings in volume have a profound impact on speech
intelligibility. Site tests are required for absolute
Articulation Index (AI) or comprehension levels,
but one can generally state each decibel decrease in
overall masking volume reduces performance by 10
per cent.2 Therefore, a tolerance of ±2 dBA can allow
occupants to understand up to 40 per cent more of
a conversation in some areas than they can in others.
Specifications allowing ±2 dBA or even ±3 dBA
are still in circulation, but they are a remnant
of the capability of legacy technologies. When
masking systems can achieve ±0.5 dBA, giving an
overall range of 1 dBA.
The role of masking architecture
The importance of achieving tight tuning
tolerances throughout a sound masking
installation is emphasized by how the ‘architecture’
used by this technology has evolved since first
introduced in the 1960s. To improve both the
accuracy of the tuning process and the efficiency
with which it is done, industry engineers have
sought to reduce zone size (i.e. individually
controllable groups of loudspeakers) and devise
new control methods.
Centralized sound masking
The earliest sound masking systems used a
centralized architecture. In this configuration,
the electronic equipment for generating and
amplifying the masking sound, as well as providing
volume and frequency control, are located within
an equipment room or closet. The settings
established at this central point are broadcast over

SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 15


A centralized architecture uses centrally located equipment for
sound generation, volume, and frequency adjustment. This
equipment is connected to a large number of loudspeakers—as
few as eight, or as many as hundreds—forming a single zone.
A decentralized architecture uses ‘master’ loudspeakers for sound generation,
volume, and contour control. Each master is connected to up to two ‘satellites’
that repeat its settings, making zones one to three loudspeakers in size. Local
adjustments are made using a screwdriver or remote control.
16 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
a large number of loudspeakers. A global frequency
control is provided for each of these large zones.
Though most offer analog volume control at each
loudspeaker within a large zone, it is limited to four
to five settings, typically in 3-dBA steps.
Since acousticians or technicians cannot make
precise volume changes in specific areas, they have
to set each large zone to a level that is best on average.
Due to variations in the acoustic conditions across
the space and the impact of interior elements, the
masking sound is too low in some areas and too
high in others. If they raise the volume to address
a performance deficiency in one area, the sheer size
of the zone means they simultaneously increase
it in others, reducing occupant comfort, or vice
versa. This pattern repeats at unpredictable points
across the facility, which is why centralized system
specifications typically set tolerance to ±2 to 3 dBA,
giving an overall range of 4 to 6 dBA.
Decentralized sound masking
Decentralized architecture emerged in the mid-
1970s to address a major deficiency in the ability
to tune centralized systems—large zone size.
Rather than locating sound generation, volume,
and frequency control in a central location,
the electronics required for these functions are
integrated into ‘master’ loudspeakers, which are
distributed throughout the facility—hence the
‘decentralized’ name.
Each ‘master’ connects up to two ‘satellite’
loudspeakers, which repeat their settings.
Therefore, a decentralized system’s zones are only
one to three loudspeakers in size (i.e. 20 to 62 m2
[225 to 675 sf]). As each small zone offers fine
volume control, local variations can be addressed,
allowing more consistent and effective masking
levels across a facility. However, there are still
limits to the adjustments with respect to frequency.
Further, the technician must enter the ceiling to
make changes directly at each ‘master’ loudspeaker,
using either a screwdriver (i.e. with analog controls)
or an infrared remote (i.e. with digital controls),
making adjustments time-consuming.
It is advisable to measure performance and modify
a sound masking system’s settings when changes are
made to the physical characteristics of the space
(e.g. furnishings, partitions, ceiling, flooring) or to
occupancy (e.g. relocating a call centre or human

Moving sound generation, as well as control over volume and frequency, into
small zones addresses the tuning challenges that are posed by large ones.
Rather than requiring numerous occupants to make compromises between
the masking sound’s effectiveness and their comfort, technicians can adjust
the sound according to local conditions.
A networked architecture uses ‘hubs’ to house the electronics
required for sound generation, volume, and frequency control.
Zones are one to three loudspeakers in size. Local adjustments
and global changes are made from a small control panel or
software application.
18 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
resource functions into an area formerly occupied
by accounting staff). The likelihood these types of
change will occur during a sound masking system’s
10- to 20-year lifespan is almost certain, so one
simply cannot take a ‘set-it-and-forget-it’ approach.
Sound masking engineers needed to develop a
more practical way of adjusting the sound.
Networked sound masking
The first networked sound masking system
was introduced a little over a decade ago. This
technology leverages the benefits of decentralized
electronics, but networks the system’s components
together throughout the facility—or across
multiple facilities—to provide centralized control
of all functions via a control panel and/or software.
Zoning (i.e. for paging, timer functions, and in-
room occupant control) is also digital rather than
hardwired. Therefore, changes can quickly be
made following renovations or moving furniture
or personnel, maintaining masking performance
within the space without disrupting operations.
When designed with small zones of one to three
loudspeakers offering fine volume (i.e. 0.5 dBA)
and frequency (i.e. 1/3 octave) control, networked
architecture can provide consistency in the overall
masking volume not exceeding ±0.5 dBA, as well
as highly consistent masking spectrums, yielding
much better tuning results than possible with
previous architectures. For improved efficiency,
some networked sound masking systems can also
be automatically tuned using a computer, which
first measures the sound and then rapidly adjusts
the masking output to match the specified curve.
Guidelines and reporting
Due to these advancements in the field of sound
masking and the essential role it plays in achieving
effective acoustics in today’s facilities, ASTM
Subcommittee E33.02 on Speech Privacy—
part of ASTM Committee E33 on Building and
Environmental Acoustics—is currently working to
update the related performance standards through
WK47433, Performance Specification of Electronic
Sound Masking When Used in Building Spaces.
The group is also in the process of updating:
● ASTM E1130, Test Method for Objective
Measurement of Speech Privacy in Open Plan
Spaces Using Articulation Index;
 Tuning can be a time-consuming process, but it is essential if the client is to derive
the full benefit from their investment in sound masking technology.
This illustration shows the placement of sound masking
loudspeakers (i.e. the grey dots) regardless of which
type of architecture is used to form the zones.
● ASTM E1374, Guide for Open Office Acoustics
and Applicable ASTM Standards;
● ASTM E1573, Test Method for Evaluating
Masking Sound in Open Offices Using
A-weighted and One-third Octave Band Sound
Pressure Levels; and
● ASTM E2638, Test Method for Objective
Measurement of the Speech Privacy Provided
by a Closed Room.
In the meantime, a minimum-performance
guideline involves requiring the masking sound
be measured in each 90-m2 (1000-sf) open area
and each closed room, at a height between 1.2 to
1.4 m (4 to 4.7 ft) from the floor (i.e. at ear height
rather than directly below a loudspeaker), and
adjusted within that area as needs dictate. Some
systems can adjust for smaller areas, but this is an
acceptable baseline.
This illustration shows the number of zones provided by
a centralized architecture. It assigns areas to zones based
on simple categories, such as open plan, closed room,
corridor, and reception, based on the assumption
that they have the same or very similar acoustic
characteristics. Note that the volume and equalization
settings for Zone 1 (highlighted in yellow) are applied
to three different areas within the facility, encompassing
seven private offices, three bathrooms, a boardroom,
a waiting area, and a mixed-use room.
Masking volume is typically set to between 40
and 48 dBA, and the results should be consistent
within a range of ±0.5 dBA or less. The curve
should be defined in third-octave bands and range
from 100 to 5000 Hz (or even reaching as high
as 10,000 Hz). Having ±2 dB variation in each
frequency band—this tolerance is different from
that set for volume—is a reasonable expectation.
The technician should adjust the masking
sound within that area as needs dictate and
SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 19
Sound Masking and Wall Construction

A sound masking system’s role is to control the acoustic

conditions throughout a facility in the same way as
temperature and lighting. One does not want cold or dark areas
and, similarly, one should strive to achieve a consistent acoustic
environment—not have a low ambient volume in one area and an
effective one in others.
Intentionally omitting sound masking from particular areas
runs contrary to the goal of ensuring this technology is as
effective and unobtrusive as possible. Occupants will walk in and
out of treated areas that differ in ambient volume (sometimes
by as much as 10 to 12 dBA), calling their attention to the sound
and, if the loudspeakers are visible, also reveal its source. The
same can be said of attempting to spot-treat an area where a
more obvious acoustical issue exists, such as within an open plan
or outside a boardroom.
However, many people continue to exclude sound masking from
private offices and meeting rooms, primarily in the belief closed
spaces are afforded sufficient speech privacy and noise control via
physical isolation.
Modern construction does not always allow for a high level of
physical containment. To preserve flexibility, walls are often built
to below the suspended ceiling or using demountable partitions,
and may be largely composed of glass. Construction budgets can
also limit wall options. In any case, even if walls are built deck-
to-deck, voices find their way from one room to another through
a variety of pathways. An open door is the biggest Achilles’ heel,
but other common channels include passing through the plenum,
return air grilles, and ductwork, gaps along the window mullions,
ceiling, and floor—and even the walls themselves.
In order to use floor-to-ceiling walls with lower sound transmission
class (STC) ratings and still achieve the acoustic control occupants
expect in closed rooms, it is best to include sound masking in their
design. If a wall decreases the intrusion of voice into the room by
a decibel, then the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) drops by a decibel.
An identical drop occurs when the masking volume is raised by
one decibel. Sound masking typically adds 5 to 12 dBA of ambient
volume to closed rooms, which is why one sometimes hears that
sound masking ‘adds 10 STC points’ to walls.
Budget-wise, the sound masking may represent $10 to $20/m2
($1 to $2/sf) of space, but it offsets much more than that in terms
of construction above the ceiling. The ability to provide private
rooms with walls to the ceiling also increases the ease and cost-
effectiveness of relocating them to suit future needs.
An exception to this guideline might be a large training room,
where speech intelligibility is vital and, therefore, sound masking
is omitted. Such rooms should be well-isolated using deck-to-deck
construction with higher STC walls.
This illustration shows the number of zones provided
by a decentralized or networked architecture within
the same facility. Whereas the centralized architecture
only offers three zones, this design features 44 zones,
allowing the technician to adjust the masking sound
according to local conditions in order to meet the
specified curve across the entire treated space.
provide the client with a detailed final report
demonstrating the desired curve is consistently
provided throughout the space. If there are any areas
where the masking sound is outside the tolerance,
this document should clearly identify the location
and reason (e.g. noise from mechanical equipment
or HVAC).
Tuning can be a time-consuming process, but it is
essential if the client is to derive the full benefit from
their investment in sound masking technology. In this
way, they can be confident the system is providing the
intended effects and they are equally enjoyed by all
occupants across their facility.
Notes
1
For a deeper exploration of the ‘colours’ of noise, see
this author’s article, “If You Need Sound Masking,
Ask for it By Name,” for Construction Canada
Online. Visit www.constructioncanada.net/if-you-
need-sound-masking-ask-for-it-by-name.
2
For more, see this author’s article, “Exploring the
Impacts of Consistency in Sound Masking,” in a
2014 issue of Canadian Acoustics (vol. 42, no. 3), the
journal of the Canadian Acoustical Association.

20 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING

 Strategies for
Sound Masking

Part Three
Understanding acoustic privacy
within the built environment

BY NIKLAS MOELLER, MBA

Niklas Moeller, MBA, is vice-president of K.R. Moeller

Associates Ltd. (Burlington, Ont.), a global developer and
manufacturer of sound masking systems for more than 30
years. He has been in the sound masking business since 1998.
Moeller writes an acoustics blog at soundmaskingblog.com.
He can be reached via e-mail at nmoeller@logison.com.

SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 21


CORPORATE
CONFIDENTIAL
Understanding acoustic privacy
within the built environment
By Niklas Moeller
T
yping the word ‘privacy’ into any search engine
yields a virtually endless stream of entries
describing the ways in which it can be violated.
There are reports of hackers acquiring credit card
information, law enforcement agencies mining social
networking sites, and members of the public using
drones to take aerial photographs. More recent
headlines indicate voice-activated televisions can
even eavesdrop on owners.
The preoccupation with vulnerabilities exposed by
the Internet and electronic products is understandable
given their relatively rapid spread into almost every
aspect of everyday life. However, privacy can still
be violated in ‘traditional’ ways. In fact, it can even be
lost to those who do not intend to infringe upon it.
22 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
Photo © iStockphoto.com/mediaphotos
People are often exposed to sensitive information
simply by being within audible range of a conversation.
Current privacy legislation tends to focus on
securing access to information stored on computers
or within filing cabinets, but attention also needs to
be paid to the built environment. When examined in
this context, privacy has both an acoustic and a visual
component. (This article primarily focuses on the
former, except insofar as it is affected by the latter.)
What is acoustic privacy?
Many people immediately equate acoustic privacy
with speech privacy, but there is more to this concept
than the ability to clearly hear what another person
is saying.
 For example, if the conversation taking place
in a room next to an occupant is unintelligible,
one may still be able to identify the speaker’s
tone and determine whether they are happy,
sad, or angry. This type of information can be
considered private under certain circumstances,
such as when coming from behind the closed
door of a human resources manager’s office—
the same can be said for non-verbal noises like
those overheard from an adjacent hotel room.
How much of a conversation is understood
also depends on whether or not the speaker can
be seen. This effect—known as visual cues—has
been quantified by various studies.1 Generally
speaking, if one can only understand 20 per cent
of someone’s conversation when not looking at
them, the ability to see their lips increases that
amount to nearly 55 per cent. If you start at

50 per cent, visual cues increase it to almost 90.
In other words, there is also a visual component
to acoustic privacy, which is important to bear in
mind when designing a space.
Further, acoustic privacy should not only be
considered from the speaker’s perspective, but
also that of the listeners. The reasons will become
clear as this article explores the various impacts
of a lack of privacy.
Where is it needed?
A lack of acoustic privacy carries real risk,
particularly in facilities where there is a perceived
need for it or an expectation on the part of
its users. Examples include hospitals, bank
branches, law offices, government, and military
facilities. However, other types of spaces—such
as commercial offices, call centres, and hotels—
have privacy needs as well. The degree required
typically depends on the type of activities the
space hosts.
Why is it needed?
It is easy to understand the need for acoustic
privacy—or even acoustic security—from
a speaker’s perspective, particularly within
environments where medical information,
financial planning, personal relationships, trade
secrets, or matters of national security are being
discussed. However, a lack of acoustic privacy
can have impacts beyond divulging sensitive
information to unintended parties. This fact
Photo © iStockphoto.com/fotostorm
When people can unintentionally overhear a conversation,
they often feel annoyed or even the sensation their own
privacy is being violated. It can also make one insecure
about the level of speech privacy, compromising an ability
to freely communicate.
becomes clear when perspective shifts from the
person talking to the involuntary listener.
When a noise or voice enters an occupant’s ‘space,’
some degree of annoyance is typical, but it can also
make one feel as though one’s privacy—or sense of
physical separation—is being invaded. Perhaps the
most relatable examples of this sensation are when
the guest in a neighbouring hotel room turns up the
television’s volume or the patient at the other end of
a waiting area starts speaking loudly into his or her
cell phone.
If conversations can be inadvertently overheard,
occupants can also become self-conscious about their
own level of privacy. In some contexts, it can create a
sense of unease, which in turn impacts the ability to
freely communicate. For instance, if a patient can hear
what is happening in the adjacent examination room
at a medical clinic, he or she might be less inclined to

SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 23


Photo © iStockphoto.com/russelltatedotcom
Voices cause vibrations in windows, doors, pipes, and walls, which can be picked
up by audio surveillance equipment and translated into intelligible speech. Sound
masking can be applied to these structures in order to help protect privacy.
disclose information to the nurse or doctor, out of
fear of being overheard.
The degree of acoustic privacy afforded by
the built environment can even impact an
organization’s brand image. People want to be in
control of personal information when meeting
with a financial or legal advisor, for example,
and a positive acoustic experience can reinforce
confidence in a firm. This level of protection is also
indispensable for staff to effectively negotiate the
terms of various agreements.
In some countries, the protection of verbal
communication within particular types of facilities
is actually mandated by law. The Health Insurance
Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
introduced by the U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services in 1996 is a good example.
It requires healthcare entities to take “reasonable
safeguards” to ensure there is speech privacy during
both in-person and telephone conversations with
patients and between employees.
Acoustic privacy is also vital to employees’ overall
satisfaction with their workplace. A worldwide,
decade-long survey of more than 65,000 people
run by the Center for the Built Environment (CBE)
24 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
at University of California, Berkeley, found lack
of speech privacy is the top complaint in offices.2
Participants expressed irritation at being able to
overhear in-person and telephone communications,
as well as concern for their own level of privacy.
What about the open plan?
The topic of workplace satisfaction also emphasizes
the need to consider those occupying spaces other
than closed rooms. Though some may dismiss the
importance of acoustic privacy when designing an
open plan, studies show it has a significant impact
on productivity.
For instance, research conducted by Finland’s
Institute of Occupational Health shows unwilling
listeners demonstrate a five to 10 per cent decline
in performance when undertaking tasks such as
reading, writing, and other forms of creative work.
Simply hearing someone is speaking can disturb
concentration, but this problem is greatly magnified
when one can clearly understand what is being said
because, if a conversation can be followed, it is
much harder to ignore it.
Though an organization might not consider
privacy a goal within an open plan, it is impossible
to justify increasing disruptions. Taking the steps
required to lower speech intelligibility within this
type of space increases occupants’ output and
reduces error rates.
Assessing speech intelligibility
The subject of speech intelligibility cannot be
discussed without getting into the concept of
degrees because every word of a conversation
does not need to be understood for privacy to be
violated. Due to the redundancies and patterns in
speech, building occupants can follow much of
what is said even if only half of it is overheard—
particularly if they have previously been part of
a similar conversation. Further, private details
can be exposed even when a small part of the
discussion is overheard.
Further, it is difficult to subjectively assess
degrees of speech intelligibility. For example, a
listener would have a hard time indicating with any
precision whether they can understand 40, 55, or
70 per cent of what someone else is saying.
Fortunately, there are ways to measure and
quantify the degree of privacy afforded by the built
environment. The Articulation Index (AI) remains
the most widely used method. It was developed at
Bell Labs in 1921 by Harvey Fletcher as he sought
to quantify speech comprehension over telephone
lines. During the 1950s, those that were involved in
the speech privacy sciences adopted his invention
as a measure of exactly the opposite: how much one
could not understand.
To calculate AI, one uses a test signal including
the frequencies known to specifically impact speech
comprehension. This signal is measured at 1 m (3.2 ft)
from the ‘source’ and again at the ‘listener’ location.
The background sound level is also measured at the
‘listener’ location in order to quantify how loud the
test signal is relative to it—a value known as the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). This value is critical,
because the lower the SNR, the less the intelligibility
and the greater the speech privacy.
For AI, SNR is measured in each of 15 frequency
ranges (from 200 to 5000 Hz). Each of these ranges
is weighted according to the degree to which it
contributes to speech comprehension. The final
AI value ranges from 0 (where conversation is
completely unintelligible) to 1 (where everything
is heard and understood). The human voice varies
from person to person, depending on factors such as
sex and age.
AI ratings are challenging to interpret in a
meaningful way, so studies have been done to
correlate them to subjective ‘privacy’ categories.
However, the value of these groupings is somewhat
diluted by the wide range of comprehension within
each one:
• ‘confidential’ privacy ranges from 0 to 0.1;
• ‘‘normal’ from 0.1 to 0.2; and
• ‘‘marginal’ from 0.2 to 0.3.
If AI is above 0.3, there is effectively no privacy.
As shown in Figure 1, the relationship between
AI and actual comprehension is not linear. On a
0 to 1.0 scale, many would expect a value of 0.5 to
mean listeners would understand 50 per cent of a
conversation, but—as is clear from the graph—they
would actually understand approximately 95 per
cent. The shaded areas along the left of the graph
show the confidential, normal, and marginal privacy
ranges, indicating just how low an AI is required for
true privacy.
A more recent arrival on the acoustical scene is a
metric called the Privacy Index (PI). PI is based on
Figure 1
Images courtesy K.R. Moeller Associates Ltd.
The relationship between Articulation Index (AI) and intelligibility is not
linear—for example, a value of 0.5 means a listener can understand
approximately 95 per cent of a conversation, not 50 per cent. A very low
AI value is, therefore, required for true privacy.
AI, in that it is calculated as 1.0 minus the AI value,
multiplied by 100, and expressed as a percentage; in
other words:
1–AI x 100 = PI (%)
However, PI can be misleading. Part of the problem
likely stems from its use of the word ‘privacy,’ which
can cause users to come to the wrong conclusion
about the rating’s meaning. The fact it is expressed
as a percentage creates even more potential for
confusion. For example, with an AI of 0.3, there is a
PI of 70 per cent.
Figure 1 demonstrates the reason to avoid this
metric. When told the PI is 70 per cent, most would
assume they would only understand 30 per cent of
what is being said. In reality, nearly 85 per cent would
be understood. Thus, building professionals should
be cautious when investigating acoustical solutions
and interpreting related PI statements.
How sound travels
To design the built environment for acoustic privacy,
it is also important to understand the three ways
sound (e.g. voice) travels to a listener.
Sound follows a direct path when it travels
uninterrupted from the source to the listener or
penetrates a barrier between them, such as a wall.
This transmission path contributes the most to
SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 25
 Figure 2
As depicted above, he area of intelligibility around a speaker is not circular.
Its shape is determined by numerous factors, including the orientation of the
person speaking, as well as the physical barriers and absorptive/reflective
materials that are used within the space.
Figure 3
When sound masking is applied, the area of intelligibility shrinks.
high levels of speech reaching the listener. In this
context, high levels refer to more intelligible words
at a relatively high volume. However, it can also
travel on a reflected path. This type of transmission
occurs when sound bounces off the various surfaces
within the space, such as floors, ceilings, walls, and
26 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
furnishings. Finally, it should be noted that sound
can travel in a diffracted path—that is, it can bend
around obstacles. This pathway is generally less
significant than the first two.
Since speech travels in these various ways, it
can be difficult to contain. Several methods must
be employed because no single technique can
sufficiently address all transmission pathways.
Designing for acoustic privacy
Of course, the louder a person speaks, the more
likely he or she is to be heard. Building occupants
should always try to be mindful of their voice level,
but proper etiquette is only effective to a point. The
remainder of the acoustical burden has to be borne
by the design using a three-tiered approach called
the ‘ABC Rule,’ which stands for absorb, block, and
cover. Acoustic privacy is achieved by using a well-
designed combination of these tactics. (The brief
outline in this article touches on the interior fit-out
and furnishings, not the shell of a building.)
Absorb
The ‘A’ in ‘ABC’ stands for adding absorption. As
speech sounds hit various surfaces within a facility,
they are reflected back into the space. If those
surfaces comprise hard materials such as concrete,
glass, and metal, the reflected sound energy remains
high and the overall volumes will rise.
A high percentage of hard surfaces also increases
reverberation (i.e. echo) within the space, making
it uncomfortable. Additionally, it can lower
intelligibility due to the presence of more persistent
sounds in the space, often referred to as the ‘cafeteria
effect.’However, it can also increase intelligibility—
particularly in situations where there are not a lot
of competing voices—because voice travels a longer
distance and, hence, conversations can be heard from
further away.
To control this type of transmission, absorptive
materials must be applied to the ceiling, walls, and
workstation partitions. As the ceiling is usually
the largest unimpeded surface within a facility,
organizations should invest in the best acoustic
tiles or panels they can afford and ensure consistent
coverage throughout their space.
Block
The ‘B’ stands for blocking speech transmission
using walls, windows, doors, and other physical
structures. This method is most obviously used in
the construction of enclosed rooms, but it is also
extremely useful within the open plan. If there are
no barriers between occupants in these spaces,
speech travels more easily and the ability to see
(and be seen) further reduces privacy due to the
natural capacity for lip-reading. Again, though
some might argue privacy is not expected within
an open plan, understandable speech disrupts
occupants’ concentration. For this reason,
workstation partitions should be no lower than
seated head height—that is, 1524 to 1651 mm (60
to 65 in.). Even the direction in which people face
will often have an effect on their voices’ volume
within the neighbouring workspace. Therefore,
occupants should be seated facing away from each
other on either side of partitions.
Today, there are numerous pressures to reduce
the height of workstations or eliminate them
altogether. This trend has had a dramatic impact on
the acoustical performance of open plans because
though other treatments can reduce overall volume
levels and deal with noises generated from farther
away, they have no effect over very short distances.
When barriers are eliminated, local noise sources
remain highly intelligible and disruptive.
Cover
‘C’ stands for covering, which can involve
installing a sound masking system. This
technology consists of a series of electronic
components and loudspeakers typically installed
above the suspended ceiling, which distribute a
comfortable background sound throughout the
facility. Though most people compare the output
of a well-designed and professionally tuned
masking system to that of softly blowing air, it has
been specifically engineered to cover the range
of frequencies in human speech. This sound also
covers up incidental noises arising from general
workplace activities or minimizes their disruptive
impact on occupants by reducing the change
between baseline and peak volume levels within
the space.
The impact of background sound levels
Most people are familiar with using walls, doors,
workstations, and a well-planned layout to physically
block voices and noises, as well as the benefits of
installing ceiling tiles, wall panels, and soft flooring
to absorb them. Fewer understand the role sound
masking plays in achieving acoustic privacy.
As shown in Figure 2 (page 26) the area of
intelligibility around an individual is not a simple
circle. Rather it is a complex shape determined by
numerous factors including the speaker’s orientation,
physical barriers, and absorption/reflection of the
voice by the various interior finishings, furniture,
and other items within the space.
In any space, voices and noises diminish in
volume over distance. However, background sound
levels are often so low in indoor environments
speech carries intelligibly over 9 to 15 m (30 to
50 ft) or more in open space. By increasing the
background sound level, sound masking reduces
the signal-to-noise ratio. As shown in Figure 3
(page 26), any voices will disappear below the new
level after a much shorter distance.
The exact length is, of course, a function of
the space’s entire acoustic design. However, as
illustrated by the AI measurements conducted
between the two workstations shown in Figure 4
(page 28), sound masking plays an integral role.
This open-plan area’s acoustical design was
suitably planned. The partitions are 1650 mm (65 in.)
tall and perform well in terms of both absorption
and isolation. The ceiling tiles are highly absorptive
(i.e. 0.95 NRC). The lighting system is indirect so as
to not reflect too much voice/noise back down into
neighbouring work areas. A sound masking system
is installed above the suspended ceiling.
Figure 5 (page 28), shows the results of the AI
tests conducted between the two workstations.
Despite the high-performance acoustical design
elements, speech comprehension is nearly 85 per
cent when the sound masking system is off, because
the existing background sound level is only 40.6
dBA. When the system is turned on, comprehension
quickly declines. In fact, for each decibel of increase
in masking volume, comprehension drops by an
average of 10 per cent.
When adding sound masking, it is important to
ensure the system is both designed and tuned so
as to provide consistent coverage throughout the
space. Outdated specifications might allow for a
wide tolerance (e.g. up to 4 dBA), but as indicated
by Figure 6 (page 29), such variations in masking
levels permit a swing of 40 per cent or more in
performance. Modern, well-tuned sound masking
systems are able to keep variations to just 1 dBA
SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 27
 The doorway is a challenge for a closed space. Even when closed, the it usually
presents the weakest link, but when it is open, it does not matter how well the
walls have been constructed, the level of sound isolation dramatically drops.
Figure 4
Articulation Index tests were conducted between these two workstations to
determine how much of an impact sound masking has on speech intelligibility,
even within an otherwise acoustically well-designed space.
Figure 5
The results of the AI tests show despite using absorption and blocking
strategies, speech comprehension remains nearly 85 per cent until sound
masking is applied. Comprehension drops by an average of 10 per cent
for each decibel of increase in the masking volume.
28 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
or less, providing dependable coverage throughout
the installation.
The masking sound must be tuned to meet
a sound masking spectrum or curve, which is
specified by an acoustician or provided by an
independent party such as the National Research
Council of Canada (NRC). The specified tolerance
indicates by how much the sound is allowed to
deviate from that curve. The introduction of
decentralized-networked technologies over the last
decade has made it possible to keep variations to
just ±0.5 dBA, providing a much higher level of
consistency in the masking sound across a facility.
Considerations for closed rooms
Maintaining an adequate background sound
level is also important in closed rooms. Generally
speaking, an occupant’s expectation of privacy is
higher in this type of space than within an open
plan; however, doors and even deck-to-deck walls
are often not enough to provide it.
Walls, windows, doors, ceiling tiles, and flooring
reduce the volume of voice coming through the room’s
physical structure, but even minor penetrations can
seriously compromise its acoustic performance by
allowing sounds to transmit into adjoining spaces.
If the background sound level in those spaces is
lower than the speech passing through the wall,
it will still be possible to hear and understand a
conversation. In other words, the degree of speech
privacy experienced in closed rooms is still largely
determined by the signal-to-noise ratio. While
masking levels should be set to achieve between
45 and 48 dBA within an open plan, closed rooms
should typically be lower at 40 to 45 dBA.
The doorway is a major challenge for a closed
space. Even when closed, the door usually presents
the weakest link, but when it is open, it does not
matter how well the walls have been constructed,
the level of sound isolation dramatically drops. For
example, the effective rating of a 50 STC wall drops
to 7 when the door to a typical 3-m (10-ft) wide
office is opened. Most organizations do not want
 Figure 6
the doors to private offices to be closed at all times.
Sound masking, absorptive materials, and layout
(e.g. staggering doorways along a corridor) should
be used in order to continue to provide some degree
of acoustic privacy when they are open.
Speech security
Of course, eavesdropping can also be intentional,
and handled in a much more sophisticated manner
than leaning one’s ear against a glass and putting it
up to the wall.
Though this article focuses on acoustic
privacy rather than acoustic security—such
as what may be required by military facilities,
corporate boardrooms, or laboratories—it is
important to know without the proper treatment
windows, doors, ducts, pipes, floors, ceilings, and
walls present opportunities for electronic forms of
eavesdropping. Speech causes vibrations on these
structures, which can be picked up by probes or
microphones and translated into intelligible speech.
Further, these types of listening devices are difficult
to detect because they can be used at a considerable
distance from the target facility.
If an organization suspects it might be subject
to such a threat, a sound masking system can
be connected to transducers, which transfer the
masking sound to the aforementioned physical
structures, impeding the use of audio surveillance
equipment. In this case, it is key to ensure the
system produces a truly random masking sound
AI tests also reveal the
importance of
properly tuning the
sound masking in
order to prevent large
(i.e. greater than 1
dBA) variations in
the coverage.
(i.e. rather than on a loop) so it cannot be filtered
out of recordings.
Conclusion
Attention must be paid to the topic of acoustic
privacy within the built environment. Though this
conclusion is obvious to organizations consistently
dealing with sensitive information, the methods
they use to achieve it are the same as those needed
to accomplish other valuable acoustic goals—the
only difference is how one sees the benefit: that is,
from the perspective of the person talking or that
of the group listening.
Building occupants working in an acoustically
comfortable environment have an easier time
concentrating on their tasks, and also suffer less
stress and fatigue. An organization may decide it is
more motivated by the need for a high-performance
workplace than acoustic privacy, but taking the
steps required to lower speech intelligibility allows
them to reap both rewards.
Notes
1
For more information, see the study “Methods
and Applications of the Audibility Index in Hearing
Aid Selection and Fitting” by Amyn M. Amlani,
MS, Jerry L. Punch, PhD, and Teresa Y. C. Ching,
PhD. Visit www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC4168961.
2
For more info, visit www.cbe.berkeley.edu/research/
briefs-survey.htm.
SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 29
 Strategies for
Sound Masking

Part Four
Sound advice on speech privacy

BY SEAN D. BROWNE

Sean D. Browne is the principal scientist for global

acoustics at Armstrong Commercial Ceiling Systems. He
is a member of the Acoustical Society of America (ASA),
Audio Engineering Society (AES), and Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), Browne has engineering
degrees from Florida State University and the University
of Miami. He holds a patent for a power and signal distribution system
for use in interior building spaces, and has been published in the journals
of the International Symposium on Room Acoustics and the Acoustical
Society of America. He can be reached at sbrowne@armstrong.com.

30 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING


For Your Ears Only
Sound advice on speech privacy
By Sean D. Browne
T
he term ‘speech privacy’ refers to how well a conversation
is overheard and understood by an unintended listener.
The need to prevent sound from intruding into adjacent
spaces in both closed and open-plan settings is a concern in
various buildings.
In healthcare settings, for example, patients can be exposed
to situations in which they overhear conversations about
other patients. In other instances, they risk having their
own private information communicated in an environment
where it can be heard by others. Examples include examination,
consultation, treatment, patient, and meeting rooms, along
with physicians’ private offices.
Research shows such scenarios are likely to impact patients’
trust and their ability to discuss their health problems freely with
physicians, which can then have serious implications on their
care.1 As a result, it is critical private conversations with or about
a patient are not overheard.
Excessive sound in today’s healthcare facilities can also disrupt
patient recuperation. Excessive noise in corridors and nurses’
stations can increase patient stress, or have a negative impact on
comfort and recovery.2
All photos courtesy Armstrong Commercial Ceiling Systems
The school classroom is another space where speech privacy is
paramount, but for different reasons. According to the Acoustical
Society of America (ASA),3 students only hear an average of 75
per cent of the spoken word in a classroom with poor acoustics.
(While this is a U.S. study, similar results would be expected for
Canada.) One reason for this is the level of background noise
intruding into their classroom from corridors and adjacent
classrooms, as well as mechanical equipment above the ceiling.
High levels of background noise can mask speech, reducing
the students’ ability to not only hear, but also understand their
teacher. Moreover, teachers must speak louder to overcome
the background noise, causing vocal fatigue. Sound-absorptive
materials can reduce some of the background noise in the
room. However, the best way to reduce it is to keep sound from
intruding into the classroom in the first place.
In office buildings, employees have long considered
intrusion of unwanted noise as one of the leading sources of
workplace dissatisfaction. Over the years, study after study
by the Centre for the Built Environment (CBE) points to
noise as a major cause of reduced effectiveness, higher stress,
and declining job satisfaction.4
SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 31

Reducing the level
of speech intrusion As the studies also indicate, many of the acoustical
from adjacent complaints relate to speech privacy—overhearing
classrooms improves an unwanted conversation or simply feeling
students’ ability to
hear and to one is being overheard.5 Moreover, overheard
understand their conversations can lead to unintentional breaches
teacher. of confidentiality in sensitive work areas. Keeping
private conversations private is thus a key concern
in conference rooms, executive offices, and other
similar spaces in an office environment.
Additionally, the recently completed 2013 U.S.
Workplace Survey conducted by Gensler indicates
organizations offering ‘balanced’ workplace
options that enable collaboration in open
spaces without sacrificing the ability to focus in
concentration areas are seen as more innovative
and have higher-performing employees.6
As this type of workplace emerges, it will
become increasingly important to attain speech
privacy not only in traditional closed spaces,
but also in focus or concentration areas in open
spaces. The challenge in areas such as these will be
to balance the need for privacy with the need for a
dynamic teaming environment in one space.
Speech privacy levels
The degree of speech privacy attained in a particular
space is indicated by its Privacy Index (PI). It is
expressed as a percentage, taking into account the
acoustical performance of everything in the space,
including ceiling, walls, floorcovering, furniture, and
background noise level. The higher the percentage,
the better the speech privacy.
32 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
The Privacy Index is an especially important
acoustical performance indicator in closed spaces.
Unfortunately, PI ratings for many closed spaces often
indicate less than confidential speech privacy, even
with doors closed. One reason is the walls in most
closed spaces stop at the ceiling plane. They do not
continue to the deck above.
Additionally, the rooms are generally not designed
for dealing with raised voice levels, which is often
the situation when dealing with elderly patients in
healthcare facilities and students in classrooms.
The recognized levels of speech privacy—as
defined by ASTM E1130, Standard Test Method for
Objective Measurement of Speech Privacy in Open Plan
Spaces Using Articulation Index, are broken down as
‘confidential,’ ‘normal or non-intrusive,’ ‘marginal or
poor,’ and ‘no privacy.’
Confidential (PI rating of 95 to 100 per cent)
Conversations within a space may be partially
overheard, but definitely not understood beyond the
confines of the space. Nearby occupants may hear
muffled sounds, though the meaning of spoken words
is not intelligible, and they are not distracted from
what they are doing.
Normal or non-intrusive (80 to 95 per cent)
Conversations can be partially overheard, and some
words or phrases may be intelligible. Nearby occupants
may hear some of the conversation, but the loudness
of speech is not distracting—people can generally
continue what they are doing.
Non-intrusive speech privacy is a common
goal for open-plan environments. However, it is
generally inadequate in functional environments
with closed plans such as medical facilities, law firms,
financial service organizations, or human resource
departments, where confidential privacy levels are
generally required.
Marginal or poor (60 to 80 per cent)
Most conversations can be overheard and are likely
intelligible. Nearby occupants can understand most
words and sentences, and the loudness of speech can
be distracting for them.
No privacy (60 per cent or less)
All conversations can be clearly overheard and are
fully intelligible. Nearby occupants can understand all
words and sentences, and the loudness of speech can
be a constant distraction.
Acoustical parameters
To attain a specific level of speech privacy for a space,
it is also important to be familiar with several of the
acoustical performance parameters influencing it.
NRC
The noise reduction co-efficient (NRC) indicates a
ceiling’s ability to absorb sound from all angles. It is
expressed as a number between 0.00 and 1.00, and
indicates the average percentage of sound it absorbs.
An NRC of 0.6 means a ceiling absorbs 60 per cent of
the sound striking it. The higher the number, the better
the ceiling acts as a sound-absorber. A ceiling with an
NRC less than 0.5 is considered low-performance, one
with an NRC greater than 0.7 is high-performance.
CAC
Ceiling attenuation class (CAC) is the acoustical
ceiling performance parameter most associated with
speech privacy. It indicates a ceiling’s ability to block
sound in one space from passing up into the plenum
and transmitting back down into an adjacent space
that shares the same plenum.
CAC is an important consideration between
adjacent closed spaces, as well as between adjacent
closed and open spaces, and in open spaces where
collaboration or teaming areas and focus or privacy
areas are needed. It is measured according to ASTM
E1414, Standard Test Method for Airborne Sound
Attenuation Between Rooms Sharing a Common
Ceiling Plenum.
The higher the number, the better the ceiling acts
as a barrier to sound intrusion between the spaces.
A ceiling with a CAC less than 25 is considered low-
performance, one with a CAC greater than 35 is
high-performance.
The right combination of NRC and CAC values
represents the best approach to ceiling selection
tailored to the needs of the space. When examining
NRC and CAC values, specifiers should base ceiling
selection on Underwriters Laboratories (UL)-
classified acoustical performance parameters.
A UL label on a carton certifies the ceiling panels
have been tested by an independent third party on
a continuing basis to ensure the panels’ performance
meets or exceeds published values.
STC
Sound transmission class (STC) indicates a wall’s
ability to block sound transmission into an adjacent
space. The higher the number, the better the
Keeping private conversations private is critical in executive offices, conference
rooms, and other closed spaces in an office environment.
construction acts as a barrier to sound transmission.
A wall system with an STC less than 35 is considered
low-performance, one with an STC greater than 55
is high-performance.
Balanced acoustical design in closed spaces
The audibility of speech between adjacent closed
spaces is not a problem until it becomes intelligible.
As a result, the main function of ceilings in closed
spaces is to limit the transmission of sound between
adjacent spaces, especially when the spaces share a
common ceiling plenum.
Speech privacy in closed spaces can be achieved,
even at raised voice levels, using balanced acoustical
design with attention to the right combination of
acoustical values. One of the most effective—and
often least costly—methods for achieving speech
privacy, balanced acoustical design consists of three
key techniques:
• a bsorbing sound within a space with high-
performance acoustical ceilings that prevent
sound from building up and intruding into an
adjacent space;
• blocking sound transmission between spaces with
a combination of high-performance ceilings and
effective partition wall design; and
• c overing the remaining sound with an evenly
distributed electronic sound masking system that
can be adjusted to meet the desired privacy level.
For speech privacy, one can specify a mineral fibre
acoustical ceiling installed continuously across the
ceiling plane, and combines high ceiling attenuation
(i.e. CAC 35 or higher) with moderate sound
absorption (i.e. NRC 0.6 to 0.7).
SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 33

Physician-patient confidentiality is a key concern in
many healthcare spaces including examination rooms.
It may be necessary to supplement the ceiling
system by providing closure/seal components to
stop sound leaks around ceiling penetrations. It is
especially important to control sound leaks around
return air grills and light fixtures.
In terms of blocking noise, an effective
combination of wall construction and ceiling must
be specified. When space relocation is not an issue,
a floor-to-slab fixed stud wall construction with
a minimum STC 40 rating should be used. When
relocation is problematic, either fixed stud walls or
relocatable walls of floor-to-ceiling height with an
STC 40 rating or higher and a ceiling with a minimum
CAC 35 rating can be included.
All components of the wall system should be
engineered for STC performance and for the
removal of problematic sound leaks around doors,
wall system joints, and seals at the ceiling and floor
interface. Construction of the wall is critical since any
crack in it or in the wall joints will allow sound to
intrude into the adjoining space.
34 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
An acoustical ceiling with a CAC of 35 or higher
is best in closed spaces to block sound from
transmitting into an adjoining office, corridor,
or open-plan area. It will also block sound from
the adjacent space from intruding into the closed
space, improving the acoustic environment of the
closed space.
Ceiling panels offering a combination of a high
CAC and a high NRC provide the best solution for
both keeping noise levels down and conversations
private in either closed or open-plan spaces.
Achieving the full privacy potential of closed-
plan spaces may also require the use of electronic
sound masking. If so, co-ordinated performance
between the sound masking and ceiling/wall
system is essential. Each component must be
engineered to ensure the design of the sound
masking system complements the architectural
performance over the key speech frequency
range. The result will provide the appropriate
level of speech privacy with the minimum level of
masking sound.
A case study
Attaining speech privacy depends on good
acoustical design and proper material selection.
In this regard, the proper choice of a ceiling can
serve to both limit the sound intrusion between
spaces and affect the quality of sound within a
space. It is a key element in creating an acoustical
environment that can maintain speech privacy.
Marshall Erdman & Associates, an architectural
firm known for healthcare facility planning,
design, and construction, has long prided itself
on protecting patient privacy by reducing sound
transmission between rooms. One of the methods
it used was a suspended acoustical ceiling in
combination with rigid fibreglass insulation
boards installed vertically as a plenum barrier
between the top of a ceiling-height wall and the
deck above. The panels in the acoustical ceiling had
an NRC of 0.50 and a CAC of 33.
To improve patient privacy, the firm was
looking for new ways to reduce sound intrusion
levels between spaces even further while reducing
construction costs. Installing the rigid insulation
was extremely labour-intensive, so the firm desired
a method that would provide the privacy level
required while saving significant time and money.
Consequently, as part of the design of a Palos
Hills, Ill., orthopedic clinic, the firm decided to
forego its traditional design and explore a new
approach that eliminated the fibreglass plenum
barrier and used a high-performance acoustical
ceiling panel with ‘combination acoustics’—an
NRC of 0.70 and CAC of 40.
Research showed it worked. Acoustical studies
indicated a ‘confidential’ Privacy Index level
was much more likely to be achieved in more
circumstances than with the previous design.
Moreover, the installed cost of the CAC 40
ceiling with no plenum treatment compared to a
traditional ceiling with fibreglass board plenum
treatment was at least 40 per cent lower, based on
the number of plenum walls removed.

Acoustics plus esthetics

It is important to note that regardless of the space,
esthetics do not have to be compromised when
using a high-performance acoustical ceiling. Many
of today’s highest-performing acoustical ceiling
panels feature a popular smooth, fine-textured
surface visual.
Additional options range from large panels
more in scale with larger-sized spaces to panels
with a unique edge detail that produces a 6.4-mm
(¼-in.) reveal, minimizing visible grid and creating
a ceiling plane more monolithic in appearance
than ordinary suspended ceilings.
Panels are also available with a tegular or reveal
edge to create a shadow line that helps camouflage
the suspension system. In addition to their
esthetic appeal, tegular ceiling panels provide
better acoustical performance than square lay-in
panels because there is less leakage at the interface
between the panel and the grid.
Beyond traditional suspended ceilings,
acoustical clouds or canopies can add enhanced
acoustics in closed spaces such as conference and
board rooms and in open spaces where focus and
concentration are required. These free-floating
ceilings provide esthetic appeal along with spot
acoustics in the space below them, and can be
customized to the needs of the occupants based on
the desired outcome.
Conclusion
The ability to isolate sound in these spaces
through balanced acoustical design not only
helps achieve speech privacy, but also increases
speech intelligibility in an adjacent space by
reducing the amount of noise intruding into it.
The main function of the ceiling in closed spaces is to limit the transmission
of sound between adjacent spaces, especially when the spaces share a
common plenum.
Adequate sound isolation also results in greater
overall acoustic comfort and a reduction in noise-
produced annoyance.
Notes
1
For more, see Anjali Joseph’s 2006 article for the
Center for Health Design, “The Role of the Physical
and Social Environment in Promoting Health, Safety,
and Effectiveness in the Healthcare Workplace.” Visit
www.healthdesign.org/chd/research/role-physical-
and-social-environment-promoting-health-safety-
and-effectiveness-healthca.
2
See Joseph and Roger Ulrich’s 2007 article, “Sound
Control for Improved Outcomes in Healthcare
Settings.” Visit www.healthdesign.org/sites/default/
files/Sound%20Control.pdf.
3 This comes from “Classroom Acoustics: A Resource
for Creating Learning Environments with Desirable
Listening Conditions,” a 2000 publication of ASA’s
Technical Committee on Architectural Acoustics.
4
Visit www.cbe.berkeley.edu/research/acoustic_poe.htm.
5
Visit www.cbe.berkeley.edu/research/acoustics.htm.
6
Visit www.gensler.com/uploads/documents/2013_
US_Workplace_Survey_07_15_2013.pdf.

SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 35

 Strategies for
Sound Masking

Part Five
Selecting the right ceiling for an office

BY CHRIS MARSHALL

Chris Marshall is the director of architectural sales for

Rockfon’s stone wool acoustic ceiling assemblies. He
has worked with specifiers, designers, installers, and
manufacturers of stone wool products for more than a
decade. Based in Toronto, Marshall earned a bachelor’s
degree from the University of Windsor (Ontario) and an
MBA from Western Michigan University in Kalamazoo.
He studied global supply chain management at Northwestern University’s
Kellogg School of Management (Evanston, Illinois), participated in the Ivey
Leadership Program through the University of Western Ontario’s Richard
Ivey School of Business (London, Ont.), and was a student at Ontario’s
York University’s Schulich School of Business in the executive program
for sales leadership and management. Marshall can be reached via e-mail
at chris.marshall@rockfon.com.

36 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING

 Selecting the
Right Ceiling
Photos © John Lynch of Bochsler Creative Solutions. Photos courtesy Rockfon
By Chris Marshall
I
n the business world, how people work and
interact is constantly changing, affecting how
interior office spaces are designed and built.
Ceilings play an essential role in providing a
productive, creative environment. Architects,
designers, and specifiers who follow workplace
trends will have a greater understanding of how to
select different ceiling systems to best meet the
needs of both employers and employees.
In the early 20th century, Frank Lloyd Wright saw
the spaciousness and flexibility of an open-plan
area as a way of liberating office workers from the
confines of walled boxes. He and his contemporaries
designed uninterrupted spaces with long rows of
desks. Cubicles were later introduced, breaking
for an Office
the rows into pods and islands. The most senior
staff members were separated from the group into
private offices lining the perimeter and enjoying
the only available natural light.
Today’s employees can work from anywhere,
anytime, enabled by wireless devices, social
networking, and video conferencing tools. On any
given day, in any typical office space, many workers
are offsite, leaving their workstations unoccupied.
Consequently, the concept of ‘hot-desking’—where
multiple employees share the same workspace at
different times throughout the day or week—has
become the norm in many buildings. This has
enabled companies to increase the number of
people working in the office without having to set
SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 37
 Suspension systems define the ceiling’s visible grid. Coupled with stone wool ceiling panels, the grid can be
accentuated with a wide face, minimized with a concealed grid, or recessed for a shadow effect.
aside more space for workstations. Position and
size of office no longer always equates to rank and
seniority, increasing the learning opportunities
between colleagues.
When employees are at an office, some are more
productive and happier when they can interact freely
with each other in a creative setting. An open-plan
design can contribute to such an environment—
the office itself can assist in achieving corporate
goals, while protecting the positive elements of a
corporation’s culture.
The heightened interaction and flexibility of the
21st century workplace is reflected in the increased
use of exterior and interior glass, expansive floor
spaces, integrated lighting, and contiguous ceilings
with a monolithic appearance. Designers are
creating inspiring spaces that reflect the energy and
openness of the organization. Some take the notion
of ‘openness’even further by showcasing formerly
‘hidden’ areas, such as production areas and
meeting rooms, in aquarium-like fashion. In fact,
many companies see their office space as a way of
promoting their brand and values to visiting clients
and prospective employees.
Companies that embrace an open-plan office
design are moving beyond traditional meeting
rooms to include informal communal spaces, like
coffee bars or lounges encouraging impromptu
38 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
connections. Atriums and hallways are configured to
promote chance encounters and casual interaction.
High dividing walls are being replaced by lower
partitions, or removed completely, encouraging
employees to share ideas outside of scheduled
meetings. Within the open-plan design scheme,
some employers are designating quiet rooms when
work requires greater reflection, confidentiality, and
concentration.
Modern ceiling design
Since the 1950s, suspended or ‘drop’ ceiling
assemblies have been the preference in office
settings with functionality frequently dictating
appearance. Suspended ceilings consist of a metal
grid comprising cross-tees and main runners. The
main runners are suspended by hanger wires from
the structure above, and wall channels or angles
provide a clean look around the perimeter. Panels,
air diffusers, lights, and other components are
placed within the modular system. These conceal
the plenum—hiding the structure, suspension
system, HVAC, and other equipment, while
providing simple access for future maintenance or
renovations.
Historically, suspended ceilings’ appearance has
been synonymous with the fibrous ceiling panels
aged by their stains, broken corners, and visible,
 Since the 1950s, suspended or ‘drop’ ceiling assemblies have been the preference
in office settings with functionality frequently dictating appearance.

grey fissures. Today, acoustic ceiling panels are no

longer limited to this dated appearance.
Smooth and lightly textured surface finishes
are currently the design style of choice, giving an
impression the ceiling is lighter in texture, weight,
and colour. A bright, white finish also assists in
addressing light reflectance in office buildings.
Stone wool ceiling panels are produced from
basalt, the earth’s most abundant bedrock. It is
inherently anti-microbial and achieves Class A fire
protection, along with offering humidity, mould,
and sag resistance. They also may be specified for
impact resistance, seismic design categories, wind
loads, and other requirements. One of its most
recognized attributes, stone wool panels’ porous
Smooth and lightly textured surface finishes are a current design trend.
material provides high sound absorption without Stone wool ceiling panels’ porous material provides high sound absorption
showing deep fissures like old acoustic tiles.1 without showing deep fissures like old acoustic tiles.
Expanding modern ceiling design options,
metal ceiling panels may be combined with stone

Photos courtesy Rockfon

wool panels or, in certain applications—such as in
soffits—may be used alone. Usually, metal panels
are fabricated from either aluminum or steel.
They can be manufactured with square edges to
lay-in to a grid, or they can have reveal edges for a
more decorative look. Baked enamel and powder-
coat paints can be selected in nearly any colour,
including metallics and simulated wood grain
patterns. Metal panels can be perforated and backed
by fibrous stone wool for sound absorption or left
nonperforated when sound reflection is required.

Acoustic comfort
Designers of office work environments have to
Installed in the open-plan office, these stone wool ceiling panels provide a
design not only for the eyes, but also for the ears. high level of acoustic control, along with easily cleaned surfaces, fire safety,
The days of selecting an acoustic ceiling tile with humidity-resistant properties, and light reflectance.
moderate to high noise reduction co-efficient
(NRC) and using it throughout all spaces no longer
suffices from the perspective of people who spend
their days in these environments. In a study of what
employees found most dissatisfying about their
work environment, sound privacy was the primary
complaint for more than half of employees in open
office plans, with dissatisfaction with noise levels
making up another 25 per cent.2

SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 39

The heightened interaction and flexibility of the 21st century workplace is
reflected in the increased use of exterior and interior glass, expansive floor
spaces, integrated lighting and daylighting, and contiguous ceilings with a
monolithic appearance.
Characterized by brightness, openness and flexibility, open-plan offices with
stone wool acoustic ceilings provide an inviting workplace for employees.
Achieving acoustic comfort comes from
categorizing work functions according to desired
acoustic experiences and intentionally designing
various spaces with the appropriate acoustical
characteristics. On any given day, some people
will need to concentrate for long periods without
disturbances. Quiet rooms, like quiet cars on a
train, are needed. These rooms for either small
groups or individuals are acoustically isolated from
other areas of the office with full-height walls and
heavy doors with perimeter seals to keep noise
from breaking concentration. The ceilings are
intentionally kept low and made of highly sound-
absorptive fibrous panels of NRC 0.85 or higher.
At the same time, other people may be hosting
a client and want to keep the conversation lively
40 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
Ceilings play an essential role in providing a productive,
creative environment.
and accessible to draw in passing coworkers. In
this case, the ceiling is raised higher and perhaps
there are changes to ‘islands’ containing a mixture
of sound-absorbing fibrous panels and sound-
reflecting metal panels. In other office designs,
walls are selectively reduced in number and in
height, or become acoustically translucent. This
design approach intentionally allows some sound
to permeate out to the immediate surrounding
common areas.
Elsewhere in the office, a medium-sized group
of people may be listening to a presentation. Here,
speech intelligibility is the key acoustical criterion.
The ceiling becomes more sound reflective to
project the presenters voice out to the group.
A common mistake made by designers is to place
a highly sound-absorptive ceiling over an assembly
space where speech intelligibility is required.
In large, open areas with numerous workstations,
ceilings should maximize privacy and productivity
by being low and comprised of highly sound
absorptive fibrous ceiling panels of NRC 0.90 or
higher. This physical component is often combined
with electronic sound-masking to provide a normal
speech privacy level despite the openness resulting
from not having walls.
 The key to acoustic success in contemporary office
work environments is forethought about the numerous
acoustic experiences needed by the occupants.
Intentional acoustic design uses various materials to
provide spaces for quietness and concentration, social
interaction, and privacy and confidentiality.
There are two main architectural components
when designing an acoustic experience in a given
space: sound insulation and sound absorption. Some
ceiling panels can be specified with both properties in
one product. The front side absorbs sound from the
source room, while the back blocks sound coming
from the plenum.
Sound insulation
Sound-insulating techniques can reduce sound from Stone wool ceiling panels may be specified for their light reflection to extend
the sunlight more deeply into the workspace, which helps reduce the need
transmitting from one space to another. Full-height for electrically powered lights (and the associated energy costs).
Renovation Considerations
A s part of supporting a healthy, happy office environment,
the freedom to roam and collaborate within an open-
plan office generates a greater need for flexible layouts.
Organizations need to be able to adjust workspaces
accordingly. Sometimes referred to as ‘agile interiors,’ these
spaces can be reconfigured relatively quickly and easily.
However, any change in floor plan requires a review of the
ceiling plan to ensure the space’s acoustic performance keeps
pace with the changing needs of its occupants.
By refurbishing and improving their current office layouts,
companies can also accommodate more staff comfortably
without having to move into larger premises. This helps
keep costs down, increase operational flexibility, and meet
employee expectations. To maintain the competitiveness,
building owners who invest in renovating their existing
properties enjoy higher occupancy and rental rates with
longer-term agreements and more satisfied tenants.
In addition to preferring more modern, better quality
spaces, many tenants are sensitive to the operating costs
of offices and to achieving greater efficiency. First, there
is economic efficiency. In a typical office building, more
than half the total energy use is attributed to lighting,
heating, and cooling. Making an old building more energy-
efficient will, therefore, reduce operating costs and offer a
more comfortable climate—both of these factors can be
important incentives for occupants.
Next, there is operational efficiency. Very often, older
office spaces do not provide the level of HVAC, electrical,
and IT services required today. Moreover, some office
spaces were not designed to be offices in the first place.
When updating an old industrial building that has been
converted into office space, alterations may be needed to
ensure that it meets current acoustic, fire, safety, and air
quality regulations.
Finally, there is organizational efficiency. The way
buildings are used evolves over time, and this is
particularly true of office spaces. To improve the value
of their assets, property developers are keen to upgrade
existing, outdated, individual cellular office spaces to more
commercially attractive open plans. Even in offices with
open-plan landscapes, the layout may no longer match the
organizational requirements.
One of the biggest and most frequent challenges in
renovation projects is achieving acoustic comfort when the
original room height is too low for a traditional suspended
ceiling. Directly mounted ceilings can be a low installation
height of just 31 mm (1.22 in.) when fixed directly to the
soffit and can still achieve good sound absorption levels.
To preserve ceiling height in office spaces, the plenum
above corridors often houses the majority of a building’s
HVAC, mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems.
However, concentrating these systems above the hallway
leaves little room for traditional ceiling hangers and
increases the noise level generated by services. Ceiling
problems that can be suspended from the wall—even across
large spans—help absorb hallway noise, reducing sound
transfer from the plenum to adjacent rooms.
In historic buildings, acoustic ceiling panels, clouds, or
baffles can be installed around architectural details such
as high windows, structural beams, pillars, and other
structural obstacles—maintaining these significant design
elements, while improving acoustic performance.
SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 41
Companies that embrace an open-
plan office design are including
informal communal spaces and
hallway configurations to promote
chance encounters and casual
interaction. Intentional acoustic
design provides spaces appropriate
for lively social interaction, as well
as for private concentration.
walls—from floor to floor—are the most common
because they are required by many standards and
guidelines. They help maintain confidentiality
and minimize disturbances from sound transfer
between adjacent spaces. Another solution is to
build the wall up to the suspended ceiling and use
high sound-insulating ceilings. Ceilings also can
be combined with sound barriers in the plenum
installed directly above partition walls to further
reduce sound transfer between enclosed spaces.
Sound absorption
Porous treatments on the surfaces within a space
absorbs sounds from people and equipment.
Absorption reduces reverberation time and noise
42 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
levels, and increases speech intelligibility. This
creates a double effect—when the noise level is low,
people talk more quietly. As a result, less noise is
transferred to the adjacent rooms.
The two main contributors to sound absorption
are high-quality fibrous ceilings and wall absorbers.
Sound absorption also has an indirect impact on
room-to-room sound insulation. Using a high-
absorbing ceiling in the source room reduces the
sound in that room, resulting in less sound being
transferred into the adjacent room.
Energy efficiency
Heating and cooling are also the primary
considerations in managing the large amounts of
natural light that define today’s open plan office
designs. Even in enclosed offices, workstations
often have walls of complete or partial glass to
allow in daylight. The less partitioned an open plan,
the further daylight may travel into the building
core. Ceiling panels may be specified for their light
reflection to extend the sunlight more deeply into
the workspace.
In a typical office building, more than half the
total energy use is attributed to the lighting, heating,
and cooling. Dimmers can be added to electrically
powered lights to take advantage of particularly
sunny days and reduce energy costs. On cloudy
days and at night, reflective surfaces and ceiling
panels assist the electric lighting in maximizing
dispersal while minimizing resources and associated
costs. Some offices also have reduced the number
The line of a ceiling impacts the perception of a space and creates focal points that may show direction,
outline an object, or divide a large space into more comfortable zones.
of light fixtures needed from every 3.7 m (12 ft) to
every 6 m (20 ft).3
Light quality and acoustic considerations are too
often overlooked in parking garages and transit
stations. For many employees, such locations
are the first and last spaces they see during their
workdays. When properly specified and installed,
the ceiling systems in these areas will mostly
go unnoticed in their goal of conveying a safe,
welcoming environment.
Design trends
Esthetically speaking, monolithic ceiling designs
are standard in open-plan spaces. These designs
combine the functionality of a ceiling suspension
system with the creative potential offered by
acoustic and metal panels in curves, clouds, mixed
shapes and sizes, or flat, linear spans.
Suspension systems define the ceiling’s visible
grid. This can be accentuated with a wide face,
minimized with a concealed grid, or recessed for
a shadow effect using bolt-slot suspension with
a centre regress. Material and finish selection
contributes to the appearance. Suspension systems
usually are fabricated from:
• aluminum, for most interior applications;
• stainless steel, for more heavy-duty applications;
or
• steel with an aluminum cap option for those
applications where environmental considerations
are primary.
The suspension systems’ exposed metal face can be
finished to either match or contrast with the panels.
White, silver, and black are frequently specified.
Most manufacturers offer a broad choice of painted
colours or anodize finishes. Some include metallic
hues, laminates, and options mimicking wood
grain. Choosing a single-source supplier for metal
panels provides consistency in both the finish and
colour selection.
Along with the finish, metal panels can be specified
with or without perforations. The perforations not
only contribute to acoustical performance, but also
enhance interior designs. The diameter of the holes
can range from imperceptibly small to more than
15 mm (0.6 in.). The holes can be round or square,
and placed tightly together or far apart; they can
have lineal, diagonal, or staggered patterns. Some
manufacturers offered graduated designs where
the holes increase in dimension and decrease in
spacing. Detailed, custom patterns also can be
created for corporate logos, university mascots, and
other pixelated graphic reproductions.
Compared with metal panels, acoustic stone
wool ceiling panels are more limited in pattern
and texture, but offer a broader selection of edge
designs. Coupled with the range of suspension
systems, the edge design can help to hide the grid
with tightly fitted panels, shadow the grid with
beveled recesses, obscure the grid with panels that
seem to float under it, or emphasize the grid with
square or angled tegular edges.
SOUND MASKING | Construction Canada E-BOOK 43
Creative office designers are combining linear and curved lines, metal and acoustic panels, or different panel sizes, directions,
and colours to make small rooms seem larger or produce inventive patterns.
Current trends in acoustic ceiling panels call for
lightly textured or smooth finishes in white. Other
than a bright white, natural tones are the most
popular. Acoustic panel manufacturers usually offer
a special palette of bold, metallic, pastel, and other
hues. Custom blends may be provided to match
school colours, company décor, or specific applications
such as black panels for a theater. Colour choice can
have a strong influence on occupants’ emotions, too.
Brighter colours, whether white or sky blue, convey a
sense of energy. Paler colours tend to have a calming
effect. Yellow and green are associated with health and
well-being. Used purposefully, colourful panels can
complement signage, helping visitors find their way.
By combining different module sizes, even small
rooms may seem larger and long corridors less
distant. The line of a ceiling impacts the perception
of a space and creates focal points that may show
direction, outline an object, or divide a large space
into more comfortable zones. Horizontal lines convey
stability, grounding, and direction. Vertical lines also
communicate stability, along with pillar-like attributes
of strength and balance. Diagonal lines are perceived
as dynamic and transformational with overtones of
freedom, while curves are considered playful, organic,
and soothing.
More office building designers are combining
linear and curved lines, metal and acoustic
panels, as well as mixing sizes, directions, and
colours. Intricate floor designs can be reflected
in the ceiling design. Brickwork wall patterns can
44 Construction Canada E-BOOK | SOUND MASKING
be replicated with staggered ceiling panel sizes. The
serpentine shape of a riverbed viewed through the
window can serve as inspiration for the ceiling’s
curvilinear undulations.
Conclusion
With the proper specification, installation, and
maintenance, today’s ceiling systems can last for
decades, evolving with the open-plan office design
in order to meet the trends and functional needs for
future workplaces.
Notes
1
For more on this type of product, see the April
2014 issue of Construction Canada, which featured
the article, “Far From Conventional: Looking up
at Metro Toronto Convention Centre’s Ceiling
Renovation,” by Scott Debenham. To read it, visit
www.constructioncanada.net/far-from-conventional-
metro-toronto-convention-centres-ceiling-
renovation.
2
See the article, “Workspace Satisfaction: The Privacy-
Communication Trade-off in Open-plan Offices,” by
Jungsoo Kim, and Richard de Dear in the Journal of
Environmental Psychology (36, 2013). For more on
NRC, and metrics such as ceiling attenuation class
(CAC) and articulation class (AC), read the article
named in note 1.
3
Visit Facilitiesnet.com for the December 2010
article by Karen Kroll, “Study Links Green Buildings
and Employee Productivity.”
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