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Biologists traditionally classify all living organisms into two major groups: prokaryotes and eukaryotes
prokaryote unicellular organism with relatively simple cell structure-
.eukaryote compartmentalized cell structure divided by intracellular membrane. may be unicellular or multicellular-
Type of eukaryote chromosomes: Metacentric - submetacentric - Acrocentric – Telocentric
Centromere is constricted region of chromosome where the kinetochore forms and spindle microtubules attach
.Telomeres are the stable ends of chromosomes
.Chromosome consists of a single chromatid
.There are two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis fundamental process for life. when refer to cell division they mean mitosis, process of making new body -
.cell
.Meiosis creates egg and sperm cells-
.Mitosis (somatic): one cell (mother) divides to produce two new cells (daughters) genetically identical to itself
.In context of cell cycle, mitosis part of division proces in which DNA of cell nucleus split in 2 equal set of chromosom
.Consists of five morphologically distinct phases: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
.Each phase involves characteristic steps in the process of chromosome alignment and separation
.Prior to mitosis, each chromosome makes exact duplicate of itself. The chromosomes then thicken and coil
.In early prophase centrioles, which have divided, form asters and move apart. nuclear membran begin to disintegrat
.In late prophase centrioles and asters are at opposite poles. nucleolus and nuclear membrane complet disappear
.In metaphase the doubled chromosomes, their centromeres attached to spindle fibres, line up at mid-cell
.In early anaphase the centromeres split. Half the chromosomes move to one pole, half to the other pole
.In late anaphase chromosome have almost reached their respective poles. cell membrane begin to pinch at centre
.In telophase cell membrane completes constriction. Nuclear membrane form around separated chromosomes
At mitosis completion, there are two cells with the same structures and number of chromosomes as the parent cell
.Meiosis used for just one purpose in human body, production of gametes: sex cells or sperm eggs
.goal is to make daughter cells with exactly half as many chromosomes as the starting cell
.Meiosis in humans is a division process that takes us from diploid cell to haploid cells
diploid cell with two sets of chromosomes-
- .haploid cell with a single set of chromosomes
.In humans, the haploid cells made in meiosis are sperm and eggs
when sperm and egg join in fertilization, the two haploid set of chromosome form complete diploid set: new genome
.Meiosis functions to reduce number of chromosomes to one half
.Each daughter cell that is produced will have one half as many chromosomes as the parent cell
.Meiosis is part of sexual process because gametes (sperm,egg) have one half chromosome as diploid (2N) individuals
.meiosis I: number of cell doubled but number of chromosomes not. this result in 1/2 as many chromosomes per cell
Meiosis I: prophase I (2N), metaphase I (2N), anaphase I (N+N), telophase I (N+N)
.Prophase I: Event that occur during prophase of mitosis also occur during prophase I of meiosis-
.chromosomes coil up, nuclear membrane begin to disintegrate, centrosomes begin moving apart
.The two chromosomes may exchange fragments by process called crossing over
when chromosome partially separate in late prophase, until they separate during anaphase resulting in:
.chromosome that are mixtures of the original two chromosomes
.Metaphase I: Bivalents (tetrads) become aligned in center of cell and attached to spindle fibers-
.Independent assortment refers to the random arrangement of pairs of chromosomes
.Anaphase I: begins when homologous chromosomes separate-
.Telophase I: the nuclear envelope reforms and nucleoli reappear-
.meiosis II: like mitosis; number of chromosomes does not get reduced
Meiosis II: prophase II (N+N), metaphase II (N+N), anaphase II (N+N+N+N), telophase II (N+N+N+N)
.Prophase II: chromosome coil up, nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate, centrosomes begin moving apart -
.Metaphase II: Spindle fibers form and sister chromatids align to equator of cell-
.Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate-
.Telophase II & Cytokinesis II: chromatids reach poles, uncoil into thin threadlike chromatin-
.The nuclear membrane reforms from 2 diploid (2n) cells into 4 haploid (n) Daughter cells
The concept of pangenesis, which proposed specific particles, later called gemmules, carry information from •
.various part of body to reproductive organ, from where they are passed to embryo at moment of conception
.Germ plasm (Keimplasma) biological concept developed in 19th century by German biologist August Weismann •
.It states that heritable information transmitted only by germ cell in gonads (ovaries, testes), not by somatic cells