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MODULE_3_NOTES: OLIC – 2020-21
Module-3
Structure
Signal Generators:
3.0 Course Objective
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Waveform Generator with voltage control of frequency
3.3 Wein bridge oscillator
3.4 Phase shift (Quadrature phase ) oscillator
Comparators and Converters
3.5 Comparator
3.6 Applications of Comparator
3.7 Astable Multivibrator
3.8 Monostable Multivibrator
3.9 Voltage to current Converter
3.10 Current to voltage Converter
3.11 Course Outcome
3.12 Further Readings
3.0 Course Objective

 To use the linear ICs for specific applications.
 To understand the concept and various types of converters
Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 1

MODULE_3_NOTES: OLIC –2020-21
3.1 Introduction
The op amp in many situations required to generate the signals within the system itself. Such
signals have various waveforms such as square, staircase, triangular, pulse etc. The various op
amp circuits used for generating such signals are called signal generators or waveform
generators. Waveform generators produce a time dependent signals of prescribed characteristics
such as frequency, amplitude and shape.
3.2 Triangular / rectangular wave generator
Triangular wave is a periodic, non-sinusoidal waveform with a triangular shape. People often get
confused between triangle and saw tooth waves. The most important feature of a triangular wave
is that it has equal rise and fall times while a saw tooth wave has un-equal rise and fall times.
The applications of triangular wave include sampling circuits, thyristor firing circuits, frequency
generator circuits, tone generator circuits etc. There are many methods for generating triangular
wave one method is using op amps. This circuit is based on the fact that a square wave on
integration gives a triangular wave.
Fig 3.1: Basic Diagram of triangular waveform from square wave

The circuit uses an op amp based square wave generator for producing the square wave and an
op amp based integrator for integrating the square wave. The circuit diagram is shown in the
figure below.

 Circuit Diagram
Fig 3.2 Circuit Diagram of triangular wave generator

3.3 Square wave generator
The square wave generator is based on a uA741 op amp (IC1). Resistor R1 and capacitor C1
determines the frequency of the square wave. Resistor R2 and R3 forms a voltage divider setup
which feedbacks a fixed fraction of the output to the non-inverting input of the IC.
Initially, when power is not applied the voltage across the capacitor C1 is 0. When the power
supply is switched ON, the C1 starts charging through the resistor R1 and the output of the op
amp will be high (+Vcc). A fraction of this high voltage is fed back to the non- inverting pin by
the resistor network R2, R3. When the voltage across the charging capacitor is increased to a
point the the voltage at the inverting pin is higher than the non-inverting pin, the output of the op
amp swings to negative saturation (-Vcc). The capacitor quickly discharges through R1 and starts
charging in the negative direction again through R1. Now a fraction of the negative high output
(-Vcc) is fed back to the non-inverting pin by the feedback network R2, R3. When the voltage
across the capacitor has become so negative that the voltage at the inverting pin is less than the
voltage at the non-inverting pin, the output of the op amp swings back to the positive saturation.
Now the capacitor discharges trough R1 and starts charging in positive direction. This cycle is
repeated over time and the result is a square wave swinging between +Vcc and -Vcc at the output
of the op amp.
If the values of R2 and R3 are made equal, then the frequency of the square wave can be
expressed using the following equation:

F=1 / (2.1976 R1C1)

3.3.1 Integrator.
Next part of the triangular wave generator is the op amp integrator. Instead of using a simple
passive RC integrator, an active integrator based on op amp is used here. The op amp IC used in
this stage is also uA741 (IC2). Resistor R5 in conjunction with R4 sets the gain of the integrator
and resistor R5 in conjunction with C2 sets the bandwidth. The square wave signal is applied to
the inverting input of the op amp through the input resistor R4. The op amp integrator part of the
circuit is shown in the figure below.
Fig 3.3 Circuit diagram of Integrator circuit

Assume the positive side of the square wave is first applied to the integrator. By virtue capacitor
C2 offers very low resistance to this sudden shoot in the input and C2 behaves something like a
short circuit. The feedback resistor R5 connected in parallel to C2 can be put aside because R5
has almost zero resistance at the moment. A serious amount of current flows through the input
resistor R4 and the capacitor C2 bypasses all these current. As a result the inverting input
terminal (tagged A) of the op amp behaves like a virtual ground because all the current flowing
into it is drained by the capacitor C2. The gain of the entire circuit (Xc2/R4) will be very low and
the entire voltage gain of the circuit will be close the zero.
After this initial “kick” the capacitor starts charging and it creates an opposition to the input
current flowing through the input resistor R4. The negative feedback compels the op amp to
produce a voltage at its out so that it maintains the virual ground at the inverting input. Since the
capacitor is charging its impedance Xc keeps increasing and the gain Xc2/R4 also keeps
increasing. This results in a ramp at the output of the op amp that increases in a rate proportional
to the RC time constant (T=R4C2) and this ramp increases in amplitude until the capacitor is

fully charged. When the input to the integrator (square wave) falls to the negative peak the
capacitor quickly discharges through the input resistor R4 and starts charging in the opposite
polarity. Now the conditions are reversed and the output of the op amp will be a ramp that is
going to the negative side at a rate proportional to the R4R2 time constant. This cycle is repeated
and the result will be a triangular waveform at the output of the op amp integrator.
3.4 Phase Shift Oscillator
RC phase shift oscillator is a sinusoidal oscillator used to produce sustained well shaped sine
wave oscillations. It is used for different applications such as local oscillator for synchronous
receivers, musical instruments, study purposes etc. The main part of an RC phase shift oscillator
is an op amp inverting amplifier with its output fed back into its input using a regenerative
feedback RC filter network, hence the name RC phase shift oscillator.
By varying the capacitor, the frequency of oscillations can be varied. The feedback RC network
has a phase shift of 60 degrees each, hence total phase shift provided by the three RC network is
180 degrees. The op amp is connected as inverting amplifier hence the total phase shift around
the loop will be 360 degrees. This condition is essential for sustained oscillations.
Fig 3.4: Circuit Diagram of RC phase shift Network

Fig 3.5: Oscillator Output Gain and Phase Shift waveform
It can be seen that at very low frequencies the phase angle between the input and output signals
is “Positive” (Phase Advanced), while at very high frequencies the phase angle becomes
“Negative” (Phase Delay). In the middle of these two points the circuit is at its resonant
frequency, (ƒr) with the two signals being “in-phase” or 0o. We can therefore define this resonant
frequency point with the following expression.
3.4.1 Working of RC Phase shift oscillator

 The feedback network offers 180 degrees phase shift at the oscillation frequency and the
op amp is configured as an Inverting amplifier, it also provide 180 degrees phase shift.
Hence to total phase shift around the loop is 360=0degrees, it is essential for sustained
oscillations.

 At the oscillation frequency each of the resistor capacitor filter produces a phase shift of
60° so the whole filter circuit produces a phase shift of 180°.
 The energy storage capacity of capacitor in this circuit produces a noise voltage which is
similar to a small sine wave, it is then amplified using op amp inverting amplifier.
 By taking feedback, the output sine wave also attenuates 1/29 times while passing
through the RC network, so the gain of inverting amplifier should be 29 in order to keep
loop gain as unity.
 The unity loop gain and 360 degree phase shift are essential for the sustained oscillation.
 RC Oscillators are stable and provide a well shaped sine wave output with the frequency
being proportional to 1/RC and therefore, a wider frequency range is possible when using
a variable capacitor.
 However, RC Oscillators are restricted to frequency applications because at high
frequency the reactance offered by the capacitor is very low so it acts as a short circuit.
 Number of RC stages help improve the frequency stability. The total phase shift
introduced by the feedback network is 180 degrees, if we are using N RC stages each RC
section provide 180/N degree phase shift.
 When 2 RC sections are cascaded, the frequency stability is low. For 3 sections cascaded
the phase change rate is high so there is improved frequency stability. However for 4 RC
sections there is an good phase change rate resulting in the most stable oscillator
configuration. But 4 RC sections increases cost and makes circuit complexity.
 Hence phase shift oscillators make use of 3 RC sections in which each section provides a
phase shift of 60 degree. The latter is generally used in high precision applications where
cost is not much regarded and only accuracy plays a major role.

Design
Frequency of oscillation (F):
Gain of the Op Amp inverting amplifier (G):
3.5 Wein bridge oscillator
Oscillators are circuits that produce periodic waveforms without any input signal. They generally
use some form of active devices like transistors or OPAMPs as amplifiers with feedback network
consisting of passive devices such as resistors, capacitors, or inductors.
The Wien bridge oscillator is one of the simplest oscillators. Fig.2 shows the basic Wien bridge
circuit configuration. OPAMP is used as the amplifying device and the Wien Bridge is used as
the feedback element.
Fig 3.6 Circuit Diagram of Wein bridge oscillator

The OPAMP is used in non inverting mode that provides a phase shift of 00 . One can expect that
the phase shift introduced by the feedback network also to be equal to 00 at the frequency of
oscillations. The frequency of oscillations is,
3.5.1 Working of Wein bridge oscillator
 The feedback signal in this oscillator circuit is connected to the non-inverting input
terminal so that the op-amp works as a non-inverting amplifier.
 The condition of zero phase shift around the circuit is achieved by balancing the bridge,
zero phase shift is essential for sustained oscillations.
 The frequency of oscillation is the resonant frequency of the balanced bridge and is given
by the expression fo = 1/2πRC
 At resonant frequency ( ƒo), the inverting and non-inverting input voltages will be equal
and “in-phase” so that the negative feedback signal will be cancelled out by the positive
feedback causing the circuit to oscillate.
 From the analysis of the circuit, it can be seen that the feedback factor β= 1/3 at the
frequency of oscillation. Therefore for sustained oscillation, the amplifier must have a
gain of 3 so that the loop gain becomes unity.
 For an inverting amplifier the gain is set by the feedback resistor network Rf and Ri and
is given as the ratio -Rf/Ri.
3.5.2 Design
The required frequency of oscillation fo=1kHz
f0 = 1/(2πRC)
Take C=0.01µF, then R=1.6kΩ (Use 1.5kΩ standard)
Gain of the amplifier section is given by,
G =[ 1 + Rf/Ri] = 3
The feedback network provides gain of 1/3. Hence, the amplifier gain in inverting mode should
be slightly greater than 3.
3.6 Comparator
The comparator is an electronic decision making circuit that makes use of an operational
amplifier very high gain in its open-loop state, that is, there is no feedback resistor.

Fig 3.7: a)Basic Comparator Circuit and b) Hytersis of comparator circuit
The Op-amp comparator compares one analogue voltage level with another analogue voltage
level, or some preset reference voltage, VREF and produces an output signal based on this voltage
comparison. In other words, the op-amp voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two
voltage inputs and determines which is the largest of the two.
The operational amplifier can be used with negative feedback to control the magnitude of its
output signal in the linear region performing a variety of different functions. We have also seen
that the standard operational amplifier is characterised by its open-loop gain AO and that its
output voltage is given by the expression: VOUT = AO(V+ – V-) where V+ and V- correspond to
the voltages at the non-inverting and the inverting terminals respectively.
Voltage comparators on the other hand, either use positive feedback or no feedback at all (open-
loop mode) to switch its output between two saturated states, because in the open-loop mode the
amplifiers voltage gain is basically equal to AVO. Then due to this high open loop gain, the
output from the comparator swings either fully to its positive supply rail, +Vcc or fully to its
negative supply rail, -Vcc on the application of varying input signal which passes some preset
threshold value.
The open-loop op-amp comparator is an analogue circuit that operates in its non-linear region as
changes in the two analogue inputs, V+ and V- causes it to behave like a digital bistable device
as triggering causes it to have two possible output states, +Vcc or -Vcc. Hence, the voltage
comparator is essentially a 1-bit analogue to digital converter, as the input signal is analogue but
the output behaves digitally.
Consider the basic op-amp voltage comparator circuit below.

3.6.1 Op-amp Comparator Circuit
Fig 3.8: Op Amp comparator circuit and Transfer charisterstics
With reference to the op-amp comparator circuit above, lets first assume that VIN is less than the
DC voltage level at VREF, ( VIN < VREF ). As the non-inverting (positive) input of the comparator
is less than the inverting (negative) input, the output will be LOW and at the negative supply
voltage, -Vcc resulting in a negative saturation of the output.
If we now increase the input voltage, VIN so that its value is greater than the reference
voltage VREF on the inverting input, the output voltage rapidly switches HIGH towards the
positive supply voltage, +Vcc resulting in a positive saturation of the output. If we reduce again
the input voltage VIN, so that it is slightly less than the reference voltage, the op-amp’s output
switches back to its negative saturation voltage acting as a threshold detector.
Then we can see that the op-amp voltage comparator is a device whose output is dependant on
the value of the input voltage, VIN with respect to some DC voltage level as the output is HIGH
when the voltage on the non-inverting input is greater than the voltage on the inverting input, and
LOW when the non-inverting input is less than the inverting input voltage. This condition is true
regardless of whether the input signal is connected to the inverting or the non-inverting input of
the comparator.
We can also see that the value of the output voltage is completely dependent on the op-amps
power supply voltage. In theory due to the op-amps high open-loop gain the magnitude of its
output voltage could be infinite in both directions, (±∞). However practically, and for obvious
reasons it is limited by the op-amps supply rails giving VOUT = +Vcc or VOUT = -Vcc.

We said before that the basic op-amp comparator produces a positive or negative voltage output
by comparing its input voltage against some preset DC reference voltage. Generally, a resistive
voltage divider is used to set the input reference voltage of a comparator, but a battery source,
zener diode or potentiometer for a variable reference voltage can all be used as shown.
3.6.2 Comparator Reference Voltages
Fig 3.9: Op Amp comparator circuit with a reference voltage
The comparators reference voltage can be set to be anywhere between 0v and the supply voltage
but there are practical limitations on the actual voltage range depending on the op-amp
comparator being device used.
3.6.3 Positive and Negative Voltage Comparators
A basic op-amp comparator circuit can be used to detect either a positive or a negative going
input voltage depending upon which input of the operational amplifier we connect the fixed
reference voltage source and the input voltage too. In the examples above we have used the

inverting input to set the reference voltage with the input voltage connected to the non-inverting
input.
But equally we could connect the inputs of the comparator the other way around inverting the
output signal to that shown above. Then an op-amp comparator can be configured to operate in
what is called an inverting or a non-inverting configuration.
 Positive Voltage Comparator
The basic configuration for the positive voltage comparator, also known as a non-inverting
comparator circuit detects when the input signal, VIN is ABOVE or more positive than the
reference voltage, VREF producing an output at VOUT which is HIGH as shown.
Non-inverting Comparator Circuit
Fig 3.10 Positive voltage comparator Circuit
In this non-inverting configuration, the reference voltage is connected to the inverting input of
the operational amplifier with the input signal connected to the non-inverting input. To keep
things simple, we have assumed that the two resistors forming the potential divider network are
equal and: R1 = R2 = R. This will produce a fixed reference voltage which is one half that of the
supply voltage, that is Vcc/2, while the input voltage is variable from zero to the supply voltage.

When VIN is greater than VREF, the op-amp comparators output will saturate towards the positive
supply rail, Vcc. When VIN is less than VREF the op-amp comparators output will change state
and saturate at the negative supply rail, 0v as shown.
 Negative Voltage Comparator
The basic configuration for the negative voltage comparator, also known as an inverting
comparator circuit detects when the input signal, VIN is BELOW or more negative than the
reference voltage, VREF producing an output at VOUT which is HIGH as shown.
Inverting Comparator Circuit
Fig 3.11 Negative voltage comparator Circuit
In the inverting configuration, which is the opposite of the positive configuration above, the
reference voltage is connected to the non-inverting input of the operational amplifier while the
input signal is connected to the inverting input. Then when VIN is less than VREF the op-amp
comparators output will saturate towards the positive supply rail, Vcc.
Likewise the reverse is true, when VIN is greater than VREF, the op-amp comparators output will
change state and saturate towards the negative supply rail, 0v.
Then depending upon which op-amp inputs we use for the signal and the reference voltage, we
can produce an inverting or non-inverting output. We can take this idea of detecting either a
negative or positive going signal one step further by combining the two op-amp comparator
circuits above to produce a window comparator circuit.

3.7 Applications of Comparator
 Zero Crossing detector

 Window detector
 Time marker generator
 Phase meter
3.8 Zero Crossing Detector (ZCD)
Zero crossing detector (ZCD) is a voltage comparator that switches the output between +Vsat
and –Vsat (Vsat: Saturation voltage almost equal to 14V) when the input crosses zero reference
voltage. zero crossing detection circuit is a comparator example. Inverting zero cross detector
circuit schematic using op amp 741 IC is shown below in figure 3.12 along with working, input
output wave forms
Fig 3.12 Circuit Diagram of ZCD and Waveforms of ZCD
3.8.1 Working of zero crossing detector circuit
 Working of ZCD can be easily understood with the knowledge of working of a basic op
amp comparator.
 In ZCD, one of the inputs is set as zero i.e. zero reference voltage.

 The output is driven into –Vsat when the input signal passes through zero to positive
direction.
 Conversely, when input signal passes through zero to negative direction, the output
switches to +Vsat.
3.8.2 Zero crossing detector applications

ZCD circuit can be used to check whether the op-amp is in good condition. Zero crossing
detectors can be used as frequency counters and for switching purposes in power electronics
circuits.ZCD is a basic op amp circuit.
3.9 Schmitt Trigger
A Schmitt trigger circuit is also called a regenerative comparator circuit. The circuit is designed
with a positive feedback and hence will have a regenerative action which will make the output
switch levels. Also, the use of positive voltage feedback instead of a negative feedback, aids the
feedback voltage to the input voltage, instead of opposing it. The use of a regenerative circuit is
to remove the difficulties in a zero-crossing detector circuit due to low frequency signals and
input noise voltages.
Shown below is the circuit diagram of a Schmitt trigger. It is basically an inverting comparator
circuit with a positive feedback. The purpose of the Schmitt trigger is to convert any regular or
irregular shaped input waveform into a square wave output voltage or pulse. Thus, it can also be
called a squaring circuit.

Fig 3.13: Schematic Diagram of Schmitt Trigger Circuit
As shown in the circuit diagram, a voltage divider with resistors Rdiv1 and Rdiv2 is set in the
positive feedback of the 741 IC op-amp. The same values of Rdiv1 and Rdiv2 are used to get the
resistance value Rpar = Rdiv1||Rdiv2 which is connected in series with the input voltage. Rpar is
used to minimize the offset problems. The voltage across R1 is fedback to the non-inverting
input. The input voltage Vi triggers or changes the state of output Vout every time it exceeds its
voltage levels above a certain threshold value called Upper Threshold Voltage (Vupt) and Lower
Threshold Voltage (Vlpt).
Let us assume that the inverting input voltage has a slight positive value. This will cause a
negative value in the output. This negative voltage is fedback to the non-inverting terminal (+) of
the op-amp through the voltage divider. Thus, the value of the negative voltage that is fedback to
the positive terminal becomes higher. The value of the negative voltage becomes again higher
until the circuit is driven into negative saturation (-Vsat). Now, let us assume that the inverting
input voltage has a slight negative value. This will cause a positive value in the output. This
positive voltage is fedback to the non-inverting terminal (+) of the op-amp through the voltage
divider. Thus, the value of the positive voltage that is fedback to the positive terminal becomes
higher. The value of the positive voltage becomes again higher until the circuit is driven into
positive saturation (+Vsat). This is why the circuit is also named a regenerative comparator
circuit.

Fig 3.14: Schmitt trigger output waveforms
When Vout = +Vsat, the voltage across Rdiv1 is called Upper Threshold Voltage (Vupt). The
input voltage, Vin must be slightly more positive than Vupt inorder to cause the output Vo to
switch from +Vsat to -Vsat. When the input voltage is less than Vupt, the output voltage Vout is
at +Vsat.
 Upper Threshold Voltage, Vupt = +Vsat (Rdiv1/[Rdiv1+Rdiv2])
When Vout = -Vsat, the voltage across Rdiv1 is called Lower Threshold Voltage (Vlpt). The
input voltage, Vin must be slightly more negaitive than Vlpt inorder to cause the output Vo to
switch from -Vsat to +Vsat. When the input voltage is less than Vlpt, the output voltage Vout is
at -Vsat.

 Lower Threshold Voltage, Vlpt = -Vsat (Rdiv1/[Rdiv1+Rdiv2])
If the value of Vupt and Vlpt are higher than the input noise voltage, the positive feedback will
eliminate the false output transitions. With the help of positive feedback and its regenerative
behaviour, the output voltage will switch fast between the positive and negative saturation
voltages.
3.10 Hysteresis Characteristics
Since a comparator circuit with a positive feedback is used, a dead band condition hysteresis can
occur in the output. When the input of the comparator has a value higher than Vupt, its output
switches from +Vsat to -Vsat and reverts back to its original state, +Vsat, when the input value
goes below Vlpt. This is shown in the figure below. The hysteresis voltage can be calculated as
the difference between the upper and lower threshold voltages.
Vhysteresis = Vupt – Vlpt
Subsituting the values of Vupt and Vlpt from the above equations:
Vhysteresis = +Vsat (Rdiv1/Rdiv1+Rdiv2) – {-Vsat (Rdiv1/Rdiv1+Rdiv2)}
Vhysteresis = (Rdiv1/Rdiv1+Rdiv2) {+Vsat – (-Vsat)}
Fig 3.15 Schmitt Trigger Input Output characteristics – Hysteresis voltage plot

3.11 Voltage to Current Converter
Op-amp is implemented to simply convert the voltage signal to corresponding current signal. The
Op-amp used for this purpose is IC LM741. This Op-amp is designed to hold the precise amount
of current by applying the voltage which is essential to sustain that current through out the
circuit. They are of two types that are explained in detail below.
3.11.1 Floating Load Voltage to Current Converter

As the name indicates, the load resistor is floating in this converter circuit. That is, the resistor
RL is not linked to ground. The voltage, V IN which is the input voltage is given to the non-
inverting input terminal. The inverting input terminal is driven by the feedback voltage which is
across the RL resistor. This feedback voltage is determined by the load current and it is in series
with the VD, which is the input difference voltage. So this circuit is also known as current series
negative feedback amplifier.
Fig 3.16: Schematic Diagram of V – I converter with floating load
For the input loop, the voltage equation is Vin = VD + VF Since A is very large, VD = 0
So, Vin = Vf Since, the input to the Op-amp, IB’ = 0 From the above equation, it is clear that the

load current depends on the input voltage and the input resistance. That is, the load current, IL α
Vin which is the input voltage. The load current is controlled by the resistor, R. Here, the
proportionality constant is 1/R. So, this converter circuit is also known as Trans-Conductance
Amplifier. Other name of this circuit is Voltage Controlled Current Source.
The type of load may be resistive, capacitive or non-linear load. The type of load has no role in
the above equation. When the load connected is capacitor then it will get charge or discharge at a
steady rate. Due to this reason, the converter circuit is used for the production of saw tooth and
triangular wave forms.
3.11.2 Ground Load Voltage to Current Converter

This converter is also known as Howland Current Converter. Here, one end of the load is always
grounded. For the circuit analysis, we have to first determine the voltage, V IN and then the
relationship or the connection between the input voltage and load current can be achieved.
Fig 3.17: Schematic Diagram of V – I converter with grounded load

For that, we apply Kirchhoff’s current law at the node V1
For a non-inverting amplifier, gain is
Here, the resistor, RP = R = R1. So,
Hence the voltage in the output will be
Thus, It is conclude from the above equation that the current IL is related to the voltage, VIN and
the resistor, R.
3.11.3 Application of Voltage to Current Converter

 Zener diode tester
 Low AC and DC Voltmeters
 Testing LED
 Testing Diodes

3.12 Current to Voltage Converter
A current to voltage converter will produce a voltage proportional to the given current. This
circuit is required if your measuring instrument is capable only of measuring voltages and you
need to measure the current output.
If your instrument or data acquisition module (DAQ) has a input impedance that is several orders
larger than the converting resistor, a simple resistor circuit can be used to do the conversion.
However, if the input impedance of your instrument is low compared to the converting resistor
then the following opamp circuit should be used.
Fig 3.18 Schematic diagram of I – V converter
To analyze the current to voltage converter by inspection,
 if we apply KCL to the node at V- (the inverting input) and let the input current to the
inverting input be I, then
 since the output is connected to V- through Rf, the opamp is in a negative

feedback configuration. Thus
V- = V+ = 0
 and assuming that I- is 0 and simplifying,

Vout = Ip Rf
One example of such an application is using the photodiode sensor to measure light intensity.
The output of the photodiode sensor is a current which changes proportional to the light
intensity. Another advantage of the op amp circuit is that the voltage across the photodiode
(current source) is kept constant at 0V.
3.13 Course Outcome
 Analyze the application of Linear ICs as comparators and converters.[L4]


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3.0 Course Objective

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 1

Fig 3.1: Basic Diagram of triangular waveform from square wave

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 2

Fig 3.2 Circuit Diagram of triangular wave generator

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 3

F=1 / (2.1976 R1C1)

Fig 3.3 Circuit diagram of Integrator circuit

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 4

3.4 Phase Shift Oscillator

Fig 3.4: Circuit Diagram of RC phase shift Network

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 5

Fig 3.5: Oscillator Output Gain and Phase Shift waveform

3.4.1 Working of RC Phase shift oscillator

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 6

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 7

Gain of the Op Amp inverting amplifier (G):

3.5 Wein bridge oscillator

Fig 3.6 Circuit Diagram of Wein bridge oscillator

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 8

3.5.1 Working of Wein bridge oscillator

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 9

Fig 3.7: a)Basic Comparator Circuit and b) Hytersis of comparator circuit

Consider the basic op-amp voltage comparator circuit below.

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 10

3.6.1 Op-amp Comparator Circuit

Fig 3.8: Op Amp comparator circuit and Transfer charisterstics

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 11

3.6.2 Comparator Reference Voltages

Fig 3.9: Op Amp comparator circuit with a reference voltage

3.6.3 Positive and Negative Voltage Comparators

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 12

 Positive Voltage Comparator

Non-inverting Comparator Circuit

Fig 3.10 Positive voltage comparator Circuit

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 13

 Negative Voltage Comparator

Inverting Comparator Circuit

Fig 3.11 Negative voltage comparator Circuit

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 14

3.7 Applications of Comparator

 Zero Crossing detector

3.8 Zero Crossing Detector (ZCD)

Fig 3.12 Circuit Diagram of ZCD and Waveforms of ZCD

3.8.1 Working of zero crossing detector circuit

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 15

3.8.2 Zero crossing detector applications

3.9 Schmitt Trigger

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 16

Fig 3.13: Schematic Diagram of Schmitt Trigger Circuit

Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 17

Fig 3.14: Schmitt trigger output waveforms

 Upper Threshold Voltage, Vupt = +Vsat (Rdiv1/[Rdiv1+Rdiv2])

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 Lower Threshold Voltage, Vlpt = -Vsat (Rdiv1/[Rdiv1+Rdiv2])

3.10 Hysteresis Characteristics

Vhysteresis = Vupt – Vlpt

Vhysteresis = +Vsat (Rdiv1/Rdiv1+Rdiv2) – {-Vsat (Rdiv1/Rdiv1+Rdiv2)}

Vhysteresis = (Rdiv1/Rdiv1+Rdiv2) {+Vsat – (-Vsat)}

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3.11 Voltage to Current Converter