Module 1

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OLIC Notes Module 1
MODULE 1
Structure
Operational amplifiers:
1. Introduction, Block diagram representation of a typical Op-amp,
1.1 Schematic symbol,
1.2 Characteristics of an Op-amp,
1.3 Ideal op-amp,
1.4 Equivalent circuit,
1.5 Ideal voltage transfer curve,
1.6 Open loop configuration, Differential amplifier, Inverting & non – inverting amplifier,
1.7 Op-amp with negative feedback
1.8 Voltage series feedback amplifier gain, Input resistance, Output resistance,
1.9 Voltage shunt feedback amplifier- gain, Input resistance, Output resistance.
General Linear Applications:
1.10 D.C. & A.C amplifiers,
1.11 Peaking amplifier, Summing, Scaling & averaging amplifier, Inverting and non-inverting
configuration, Differential configuration,
1.12 Instrumentation amplifier
Objectives
1.To study the fundamentals of Op-amp
2. To study the performance parameters: DC and AC of an Op-amp
3.To study the Amplifier performance parameters of op-amp
4.To study the linear applications of an Op-amp
1. Introduction, Block diagram representation of a typical Op-amp
1.1 The operation amplifier:
An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier consisting of one or more differential
(OPAMP) amplifiers and followed by a level translator and an output stage. An operational amplifier
is available as a single integrated circuit package.
Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 1
OLIC Notes Module 1
The block diagram of OPAMP is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: Block diagram of OPAMP
The input stage is a dual input balanced output differential amplifier. This stage provides most of the
voltage gain of the amplifier and also establishes the input resistance of the OPAMP. The
intermediate stage of OPAMP is another differential amplifier which is driven by the output of the
first stage. This is usually dual input unbalanced output.
Because direct coupling is used, the dc voltage level at the output of intermediate stage is well above
ground potential. Therefore level shifting circuit is used to shift the dc level at the output downward to
zero with respect to ground. The output stage is generally a push pull complementary amplifier. The
output stage increases the output voltage swing and raises the current supplying capability of the
OPAMP. It also provides low output resistance.
1.2 Level Translator:
Because of the direct coupling the dc level at the emitter

rises from stages to stage. This increase in dc level tends to
shift the operating point of the succeeding stages and
therefore limits the output voltage swing and may even
distort the output signal.
To shift the output dc level to zero, level translator circuits

are used. An emitter follower with voltage divider is the
simplest form of level translator as shown in Fig. 2.
Thus a dc voltage at the base of Q produces 0V dc at the

output. It is decided by R1 and R2. Instead of voltage divider
emitter follower either with diode current bias or current Fig. 2:Level Translator
mirror bias as shown in
OLIC Notes Module 1
Fig. 3 may be used to get better results.
Fig. 3: Improved Design of LT
Fig. 4, shows a complete OPAMP circuit having input different amplifiers with balanced output,
intermediate stage with unbalanced output, level shifter and an output amplifier.
OLIC Notes Module 1
1.2.1 Example-1:
For the cascaded differential amplifier shown in Fig. 5, determine:
 The collector current and collector to emitter voltage for each transistor.
 The overall voltage gain.
 The input resistance.
 The output resistance.
Assume that for the transistors used hFE = 100 and VBE = 0.715V
Fig. 5
Solution:
(a). To determine the collector current and collector to emitter voltage of transistors Q1 and Q2, we
assume that the inverting and non-inverting inputs are grounded. The collector currents (IC ≈ IE) in
Q1 and Q2 are obtained as below:
That is, IC1 = IC2 =0.988 mA.
Now, we can calculate the voltage between collector and emitter for Q1 and Q2 using the collector
current as follows:
VC1 = VCC = -RC1 IC1 = 10 – (2.2kΩ) (0.988 mA) = 7.83 V = VC2
Since the voltage at the emitter of Q1 and Q2 is -0.715 V,
VCE1 = VCE2 = VC1 -VE1 = 7.83 + 0715 = 8.545 V
OLIC Notes Module 1
Next, we will determine the collector current in Q3 and Q4 by writing the Kirchhoff's voltage equation
for the base emitter loop of the transistor Q3:
VCC – RC2 IC2 = VBE3 - R'E IC3 - RE2 (2 IE3) + VBE= 0

10 – (2.2kΩ) (0.988mA) - 0.715 - (100) (IE3) – (30kΩ) IE3 + 10=0
10 - 2.17 - 0.715 + 10 - (30.1kΩ) IE3 = 0
Hence the voltage at the collector of Q3 and Q4 is
VC3 = VC4= VCC – RC3 IC3 = 10 – (1.2kΩ) (0.569 mA)
= 9.32 V
Therefore,
VCE3 = VVCE4 = VC3 – VE3 = 9.32 – 7.12 = 2.2 V
Thus, for Q1 and Q2:

ICQ = 0.988 mA
VCEQ = 8.545 V
and for Q3 and Q4:
ICQ = 0.569 mA
VCEQ = 2.2 V
[Note that the output terminal (VC4) is at 9.32 V and not at zero volts.]
(b). First, we calculate the ac emitter resistance r'e of each stage and then its voltage gain.
The first stage is a dual input, balanced output differential amplifier, therefore, its voltage gain is
Where
Ri2 = input resistance of the second stage
The second stage is dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier with swamping resistor R'E,
the voltage gain of which is
OLIC Notes Module 1 2020-21
Hence the overall voltage gain is
Ad= (Ad1) (Ad2) = (80.78) (4.17) = 336.85
Thus we can obtain a higher voltage gain by cascading differential amplifier stages.
(c).The input resistance of the cascaded differential amplifier is the same as the input resistance of the
first stage, that is
Ri = 2βac(re1) = (200) (25.3) = 5.06 kΩ
(d). The output resistance of the cascaded differential amplifier is the same as the output resistance of
the last stage. Hence,
RO = RC = 1.2 kΩ
1.2.2 Example-2:
For the circuit show in Fig. 6, it is given that β =100, VBE =0715V. Determine
 The dc conditions for each state

 The overall voltage gain
 The maximum peak to peak output voltage swing.
Fig. 6
Solution:
(a). The base currents of transistors are neglected and VBE drops of all transistors are assumed same.
OLIC Notes Module 1
From the dc equivalent circuit,
and
b) The overall voltage gain of the amplifier can be obtained as below:
Therefore, voltage gain of second stage
The input impedance of second stage is
The effective load resistance for first stage is
Therefore, the voltage gain of first stage is
The overall voltge gain is AV = AV1 AV2
OLIC Notes Module 1
(c). The maximum peak to peak output voltage swing = Vopp = 2 (VC7 - VE7)
= 2 x (5.52 - 3.325)
= 4.39 V
1.2.3 Schematic symbol of Op-amp
We know now that an Operational amplifiers is a very high gain DC differential amplifier that uses
one or more external feedback networks to control its response and characteristics. We can connect
external resistors or capacitors to the op-amp in a number of different ways to form basic “building
Block” circuits such as, Inverting, Non-Inverting, Voltage Follower, Summing, Differential,
Integrator and Differentiator type amplifiers.
Fig7: Op-amp Symbol

An “ideal” or perfect operational amplifier is a device with certain special characteristics such as
infinite open-loop gain Ao, infinite input resistance Rin, zero output resistance Rout, infinite
bandwidth 0 to ∞ and zero offset (the output is exactly zero when the input is zero).
There are a very large number of operational amplifier IC’s available to suit every possible
application from standard bipolar, precision, high-speed, low-noise, high-voltage, etc, in either
standard configuration or with internal Junction FET transistors.
Operational amplifiers are available in IC packages of either single, dual or quad op-amps within one
single device. The most commonly available and used of all operational amplifiers in basic electronic
kits and projects is the industry standard µA-741.
Fig8: Op-amp Pin description
In the next tutorial about Operational Amplifiers, we will use negative feedback connected around the
op-amp to produce a standard closed-loop amplifier circuit called an Inverting Amplifier circuit that
produces an output signal which is 180o “out-of-phase” with the input.
3. Characteristics of an Op-amp
The various important parameters of OPAMP are follows:
OLIC Notes Module 1
1.Input Offset Voltage:
Input offset voltage is defined as the

voltage that must be applied between
the two input terminals of an OPAMP
to null or zero the output Fig. 2, shows
that two dc voltages are applied to
input terminals to make the output
zero.
Vio = Vdc1 – Vdc2 Fig. 2
Vdc1 and Vdc2 are dc voltages and RS\

represents the source resistance. Vio is
the difference of Vdc1 and Vdc2. It may
be positive or negative. For a 741C
OPAMP the maximum value of Vio is
6mV. It means a voltage ± 6 mV is
required to one of the input to reduce Fig 9:Input offset Voltage circuit
the output offset voltage to zero. The
smaller the input offset voltage the
better the differential amplifier,
because its transistors are more closely
matched.
2. Input offset Current:
The input offset current Iio is the difference between the currents into inverting and non-inverting
terminals of a balanced amplifier.
Iio = | IB1 – IB2 |
The Iio for the 741C is 200nA maximum. As the matching between two input terminals is improved,
the difference between IB1 and IB2 becomes smaller, i.e. the Iio value decreases further.For a precision
OPAMP 741C, Iio is 6 nA
3.Input Bias Current:
The input bias current IB is the average of the current entering the input terminals of a balanced
amplifier i.e.
IB = (IB1 + IB2 ) / 2
For 741C IB(max) = 700 nA and for precision 741C IB = ± 7 nA
4. Differential Input Resistance: (Ri)
Ri is the equivalent resistance that can be measured at either the inverting or non-inverting input
terminal with the other terminal grounded. For the 741C the input resistance is relatively high 2 MΩ.
For some OPAMP it may be up to 1000 G ohm.
5. Input Capacitance: (Ci)
OLIC Notes Module 1
Ci is the equivalent capacitance that can be measured at either the inverting and noninverting terminal
with the other terminal connected to ground. A typical value of Ci is 1.4 pf for the 741C.
6. Offset Voltage Adjustment Range:
741 OPAMP have offset voltage null capability. Pins 1 and 5 are marked offset null for this purpose.
It can be done by connecting 10 K ohm pot between 1 and 5 as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3
By varying the potentiometer, output offset voltage (with inputs grounded) can be reduced to zero
volts. Thus the offset voltage adjustment range is the range through which the input offset voltage can
be adjusted by varying 10 K pot. For the 741C the offset voltage adjustment range is ± 15 mV.
7. Input Voltage Range :
Input voltage range is the range of a common mode input signal for which a differential amplifier
remains linear. It is used to determine the degree of matching between the inverting and noninverting
input terminals. For the 741C, the range of the input common mode voltage is ± 13V maximum. This
means that the common mode voltage applied at both input terminals can be as high as +13V or as
low as –13V.
8. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR).
CMRR is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to the common mode voltage gain
ACM
CMRR = Ad / ACM.
For the 741C, CMRR is 90 dB typically. The higher the value of CMRR the better is the matching
between two input terminals and the smaller is the output common mode voltage.
9. Supply voltage Rejection Ratio: (SVRR)
SVRR is the ratio of the change in the input offset voltage to the corresponding change in power
supply voltages. This is expressed in m V / V or in decibels, SVRR can be defined as
OLIC Notes Module 1 2019-20
SVRR = D Vio / D V
Where D V is the change in the input supply voltage and D Vio is the corresponding change in the
offset voltage.
For the 741C, SVRR = 150 µ V / V.
For 741C, SVRR is measured for both supply magnitudes increasing or decreasing simultaneously,
with R3 £ 10K. For same OPAMPS, SVRR is separately specified as positive SVRR and negative
SVRR.
10. Large Signal Voltage Gain:
Since the OPAMP amplifies difference voltage between two input terminals, the voltage gain of the
amplifier is defined as
Because output signal amplitude is much large than the input signal the voltage gain is commonly
called large signal voltage gain. For 741C is voltage gain is 200,000 typically.
11. Output voltage Swing:
The ac output compliance PP is the maximum unclipped peak to peak output voltage that an OPAMP
can produce. Since the quiescent output is ideally zero, the ac output voltage can swing positive or
negative. This also indicates the values of positive and negative saturation voltages of the OPAMP.
The output voltage never exceeds these limits for a given supply voltages +VCC and –VEE. For a 741C
it is ± 13 V.
12. Output Resistance: (RO)
RO is the equivalent resistance that can be measured between the output terminal of the OPAMP and
the ground. It is 75 ohm for the 741C OPAMP.
Example - 1
Determine the output voltage in each of the following cases for the open loop differential amplifier
of Fig. 4:
a. vin 1 = 5 m V dc, vin 2 = -7 µVdc

b. vin 1 = 10 mV rms, vin 2= 20 mV rms
OLIC Notes Module 1
Fig. 11:Outpu resistance analysis circuit
Specifications of the OPAMP are given below:
A = 200,000, Ri = 2 M Ω , R O = 75Ω, + VCC = + 15 V, - VEE = - 15 V, and output voltage swing = ±

14V.
Solution:
(a). The output voltage of an OPAMP is given by
Remember that vo = 2.4 V dc with the assumption that the dc output voltage is zero when the input
signals are zero.
(b). The output voltage equation is valid for both ac and dc input signals. The output voltage is given
by
Thus the theoretical value of output voltage vo = -2000 V rms. However, the OPAMP saturates at ± 14
V. Therefore, the actual output waveform will be clipped as shown Fig. 5. This non-sinusoidal
waveform is unacceptable in amplifier applications.
OLIC Notes Module 1
Fig. 12:Characteristics
13. Output Short circuit Current :
In some applications, an OPAMP may drive a load resistance that is approximately zero. Even its
output impedance is 75 ohm but cannot supply large currents. Since OPAMP is low power device and
so its output current is limited. The 741C can supply a maximum short circuit output current of only
25mA.
14. Supply Current :
IS is the current drawn by the OPAMP from the supply. For the 741C OPAMP the supply current is
2.8 m A.
15. Power Consumption:
Power consumption (PC) is the amount of quiescent power (vin= 0V) that must be consumed by the
OPAMP in order to operate properly. The amount of power consumed by the 741C is 85 m W.
16. Gain Bandwidth Product:
The gain bandwidth product is the bandwidth of the OPAMP when the open loop voltage gain is
reduced to 1. From open loop gain vs frequency graph At 1 MHz shown in. Fig. 6, It can be found 1
MHz for the 741C OPAMP frequency the gain reduces to 1. The mid band voltage gain is 100, 000
and cut off frequency is 10Hz.
OLIC Notes Module 1
Fig. 13: Gain Bandwidth Product response
17. Slew Rate:
Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit of time under large
signal conditions and is expressed in volts / m secs.
To understand this, consider a charging current of a capacitor shown in Fig.
Fig. 14:
If 'i' is more, capacitor charges quickly. If 'i' is limited to Imax, then rate of change is also limited.
OLIC Notes Module 1
Slew rate indicates how rapidly the output of an OPAMP can change in response to changes in the
input frequency with input amplitude constant. The slew rate changes with change in voltage gain and
is normally specified at unity gain.
If the slope requirement is greater than the slew rate, then distortion occurs. For the 741C the slew
rate is low 0.5 V / m S. which limits its use in higher frequency applications.
18. Input Offset Voltage and Current Drift:
It is also called average temperature coefficient of input offset voltage or input offset current. The
input offset voltage drift is the ratio of the change in input offset voltage to change in temperature and
expressed in m V /° C. Input offset voltage drift = ( D Vio / D T).
Similarly, input offset current drift is the ratio of the change in input offset current to the change in
temperature. Input offset current drift = ( D Iio / D T).
For 741C,
D Vio / D T = 0.5 m V / C.
D Iio/ D T = 12 pA / C
Example - 1
A 100 PF capacitor has a maximum charging current of 150 µA. What is the slew rate?
Solution:
C = 100 PF=100 x 10-12 F

I = 150 µA = 150 x 10-6 A
Slew rate is 1.5 V / µs.
Example - 2
An operational amplifier has a slew rate of 2 V / µs. If the peak output is 12 V, what is the power
bandwidth?
Solution:
OLIC Notes Module 1
The slew rate of an operational amplifier is
As for output free of distribution, the slews determines the maximum frequency of operation fmax for
a desired output swing.
so
So bandwidth = 26.5 kHz.
Example - 3
For the given circuit in Fig. Iin(off) = 20 nA. If Vin(off) = 0, what is the differential input voltage?. If A =
105, what does the output offset voltage equal?
Solution:
Iin(off) = 20 nA
Vin(off) = 0
(i) The differential input voltage = Iin(off) x 1k = 20 nA x 1 k = 20µ V
(ii) If A = 105 then the output offset voltage Vin(off) = 20 µ V x 105 = 2 volt
Output offset voltage = 2 volts.
Example - 4
R1 = 100Ω, Rf = 8.2 k, RC = 10 k. Assume that the amplifier is nulled at 25°C. If Vin is 20 mV peak
sine wave at 100 Hz. Calculate Er, and Vo values at 45°C for the circuit shown in Fig
OLIC Notes Module 1
Solution:
The change in temperature ΔT = 45 - 25 = 20°C.
Error voltage = 51.44 mV
Output voltage is 1640 mV peak ac signal which rides either on a +51.44 mV or -51.44 mV dc level.
Example - 5
Design an input offset voltage compensating network for the operational amplifier µA 715 for the
circuit shown in Fig. 3. Draw the complete circuit diagram.
OLIC Notes Module 1
Solution:
From data sheet we get vin = 5 mV for the operational amplifier µA 715.
V = | VCC | = | - VEE | = 15 V
Now,
If we select RC = 10Ω, the value of Rb should be

Rb = (3000) RC = 30000Ω = 304Ω
Since R > Rmax, let RS = 10 Rmax where Rmax = Ra / 4. Therefore,
If a 124Ω potentiometer is not available, we may prefer to use to the next lower value avilable, such
as 104Ω, so that the value of Rawill be larger than Rb by a factor of 10. If we select a 10 kΩ
potentiometer a s the Ra value, Rb is 12 times larger than Ra, Thus
Ra = 10 kΩ potentiometer
Rb = 30 kΩ
Rc = 10Ω.
The final circuit, which also includes the pin connections for the µA 715, shown in Fig. 4.
OLIC Notes Module 1
1. 4. The ideal OPAMP:
An ideal OPAMP would exhibit the following electrical characteristic.
1. Infinite voltage gain Ad

2. Infinite input resistance Ri, so that almost any signal source can drive it and there is
no loading of the input source.
3. Zero output resistance R O, so that output can drive an infinite number of other devices.
4. Zero output voltage when input voltage is zero.
5. Infinite bandwidth so that any frequency signal from 0 to infinite Hz can be amplified
without attenuation.
6. Infinite common mode rejection ratio so that the output common mode noise voltage
is zero.
7. Infinite slew rate, so that output voltage changes occur simultaneously with input
voltage changes.
There are practical OPAMPs that can be made to approximate some of these characters using a
negative feedback arrangement.
5. Equivalent Circuit of an OPAMP:
Fig. 5, shows an equivalent circuit of an OPAMP. v1 and v2are the two input voltage voltages. Ri is
the input impedance of OPAMP. Ad Vd is an equivalent Thevenin voltage source and R O is the
Thevenin equivalent impedance looking back into the terminal of an OPAMP.
OLIC Notes Module 1
Fig. 5
This equivalent circuit is useful in analyzing the basic operating principles of OPAMP and in
observing the effects of standard feedback arrangements
vO = Ad (v1 – v2) = Ad vd.
This equation indicates that the output voltage vO is directly proportional to the algebraic difference
between the two input voltages. In other words the OPAMP amplifies the difference between the two
input voltages. It does not amplify the input voltages themselves. The polarity of the output voltage
depends on the polarity of the difference voltage vd.
1. 6. Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve:
The graphic representation of the output equation is shown in Fig. 6 in which the output voltage vO is
plotted against differential input voltage vd, keeping gain Ad constant.
Fig. 6
The output voltage cannot exceed the positive and negative saturation voltages. These saturation
voltages are specified for given values of supply voltages. This means that the output voltage is
OLIC Notes Module 1
directly proportional to the input difference voltage only until it reaches the saturation voltages and
thereafter the output voltage remains constant.
Thus curve is called an ideal voltage transfer curve, ideal because output offset voltage is assumed to
be zero. If the curve is drawn to scale, the curve would be almost vertical because of very large values
of Ad.
1. 7. Open loop configuration, Differential amplifier, Inverting & non – inverting amplifier
1.7.1 Open loop OPAMP Configuration:
In the case of amplifiers the term open loop indicates that no connection, exists between input and
output terminals of any type. That is, the output signal is notfeedbackin any form as part of the input
signal.
In open loop configuration, The OPAMP functions as a high gain amplifier. There are three open loop
OPAMP configurations.
1.7.2 The Differential Amplifier:
Fig. 1, shows the open loop differential amplifier in which input signals vin1 and vin2 are applied to the
positive and negative input terminals.
Fig. 1
Since the OPAMP amplifies the difference the between the two input signals, this configuration is
called the differential amplifier. The OPAMP amplifies both ac and dc input signals. The source
resistance Rin1 and Rin2 are normally negligible compared to the input resistance Ri. Therefore voltage
drop across these resistances can be assumed to be zero.
Therefore
v1 = vin1 and v2 = vin2.
vo = Ad (vin1 – vin2 )
where, Ad is the open loop gain.
OLIC Notes Module 1
1.7.3 The Inverting Amplifier:
If the input is applied to only inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal is grounded then it is
called inverting amplifier.This configuration is shown in Fig. 2.
v1= 0, v2 = vin.
vo = -Ad vin
Fig. 2
The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to input 180 ° or is of
opposite polarity. Thus the input signal is amplified and inverted also.
1.7.4 The non-inverting amplifier:
In this configuration, the input voltage is applied to non-inverting terminals and inverting terminal is
ground as shown in Fig. 3.
v1 = +vin v2 = 0
vo = +Ad vin
This means that the input voltage is amplified by Ad and there is no phase reversal at the output.
Fig. 3
OLIC Notes Module 1
In all there configurations any input signal slightly greater than zero drive the output to saturation
level. This is because of very high gain. Thus when operated in open-loop, the output of the OPAMP
is either negative or positive saturation or switches between positive and negative saturation levels.
Therefore open loop op-amp is not used in linear applications.
1.8. Op-amp with negative feedback
1.8.1 Closed Loop Amplifier:
The gain of the OPAMP can be controlled if feedback is introduced in the circuit. That is, an output
signal is feedback to the input either directly or via another network. If the signal feedback is of
opposite or out phase by 180° with respect to the input signal, the feedback is called negative fedback.
An amplifier with negative feedback has a self-correcting ability of change in output voltage caused
by changes in environmental conditions. It is also known as degenerative feedback because it reduces
the output voltage and, in turn, reduces the voltage gain.
If the signal is feedback in phase with the input signal, the feedback is called positive feedback. In
positive feedback the feedback signal aids the input signal. It is also known as regenerative feedback.
Positive feedback is necessary in oscillator circuits.
The negative feedback stabilizes the gain, increases the bandwidth and changes, the input and output
resistances. Other benefits are reduced distortion and reduced offset output voltage. It also reduces the
effect of temperature and supply voltage variation on the output of an op-amp.
A closed loop amplifier can be represented by two blocks one for an OPAMP and other for a feedback
circuits. There are four following ways to connect these blocks. These connections are shown in Fig.
4.
These connections are classified according to whether the voltage or current is feedback to the input
in series or in parallel:
 Voltage – series feedback

 Voltage – shunt feedback
 Current – series feedback
 Current – shunt feedback
OLIC Notes Module 1
Fig. 4
In all these circuits of Fig. 4, the signal direction is from input to output for OPAMP and output to
input for feedback circuit. Only first two, feedback in circuits are important.
1.9. voltage series feedback amplifier gain, Input resistance, Output resistance
1.9 Voltage series feedback:
It is also called non-inverting voltage feedback circuit. With this type of feedback, the input signal
drives the non-inverting input of an amplifier; a fraction of the output voltage is then fed back to the
inverting input. The op-amp is represented by its symbol including its large signal voltage gain Ad or
A, and the feedback circuit is composed of two resistors R1 and Rf. as shown in Fig. 5
Fig. 5
OLIC Notes Module 1
The feedback voltage always opposes the input voltage, (or is out of phase by 180° with respect to
input voltage), hence the feedback is said to be negative.
The closed loop voltage gain is given by
The product A and B is called loop gain. The gain loop gain is very large such that AB >> 1
This shows that overall voltage gain of the circuit equals the reciprocal of B, the feedback gain. It
means that closed loop gain is no longer dependent on the gain of the op-amp, but depends on the
feedback of the voltage divider. The feedback gain B can be precisely controlled and it is independent
of the amplifier.
Physically, what is happening in the circuit? The gain is approximately constant, even though
differential voltage gain may change. Suppose A increases for some reasons (temperature change).
Then the output voltage will try to increase. This means that more voltage isfeedbackto the inverting
input, causing vd voltage to decrease. This almost completely offset the attempted increases in output
voltage.
Similarly, if A decreases, The output voltage decreases. It reduces the feedback voltage vf and hence,
vd voltage increases. Thus the output voltage increases almost to same level.
Different Input voltage is ideally zero.
Again considering the voltage equation,
OLIC Notes Module 1
vO = Ad vd
or vd = vO / Ad
Since Ad is very large (ideally infinite)
\ vd » 0.
and v1 = v2 (ideal).
This says, that the voltage at non-inverting input terminal of an op-amp is approximately equal to that
at the inverting input terminal provided that Ad is very large. This concept is useful in the analysis of
closed loop OPAMP circuits. For example, ideal closed loop voltage again can be obtained using the
results
a) Input Resistance with Feedback:
Fig. 1, shows a voltage series feedback with the OPAMP equivalent circuit.
Fig. 1
In this circuit Ri is the input resistance (open loop) of the OPAMP and Rif is the input resistance of the
feedback amplifier. The input resistance with feedback is defined as
OLIC Notes Module 1
Since AB is much larger than 1, which means that Rif is much larger that Ri. Thus Rif approaches
infinity and therefore, this amplifier approximates an ideal voltage amplifier.
b) Output Resistance with Feedback:
Output resistance is the resistance determined looking back into the feedback amplifier from the
output terminal. To find output resistance with feedback Rf, input vin is reduced to zero, an external
voltage Vo is applied as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2
The output resistance (Rof ) is defined as
OLIC Notes Module 1
This shows that the output resistance of the voltage series feedback amplifier is ( 1 / 1+AB ) times the
output resistance Ro of the op-amp. It is very small because (1+AB) is very large. It approaches to
zero for an ideal voltage amplifier.
1.10.Voltage shunt feedback amplifier- gain, Input resistance, Output resistance.
1.10.1 Voltage shunt Feedback:
Fig. 1, shows the voltage shunt feedback amplifier using OPAMP.
Fig. 1
The input voltage drives the inverting terminal, and the amplified as well as inverted output signal is
also applied to the inverting input via the feedback resistor Rf. This arrangement forms a negative
feedback because any increase in the output signal results in a feedback signal into the inverting input
signal causing a decrease in the output signal. The non-inverting terminal is grounded. Resistor R1 is
connected in series with the source.
OLIC Notes Module 1
The closed loop voltage gain can be obtained by, writing Kirchoff's current equation at the input node
V2.
The negative sign in equation indicates that the input and output signals are out of phase by 180.
Therefore it is called inverting amplifier. The gain can be selected by selecting Rf and R1 (even < 1).
a) Inverting Input at Virtual Ground:
In the Fig. 1, shown earlier, the noninverting terminal is grounded and the- input signal is applied to
the inverting terminal via resistor R1. The difference input voltage vd is ideally zero, (vd= vO/ A) is the
voltage at the inverting terminals (v2) is approximately equal to that of the noninverting terminal (v1).
In other words, the inverting terminal voltage (v1) is approximately at ground potential. Therefore, it
is said to be at virtual ground.
OLIC Notes Module 1
General Linear Applications:
1.11 Inverting summer:
The configuration is shown in Fig. 2. With three input voltages va, vb & vc. Depending upon the value
of Rf and the input resistors Ra, Rb, Rc the circuit can be used as a summing amplifier, scaling
amplifier, or averaging amplifier.
Again, for an ideal OPAMP, v1 = v2.

The current drawn by OPAMP is
zero. Thus, applying KCL at v2 node
This means that the output voltage is

equal to the negative sum of all the
inputs times the gain of the circuit Rf/
R; hence the circuit is called a
summing amplifier. When Rf= R then Fig. 2
the output voltage is equal to the
negative sum of all inputs.
vo= -(va+ vb+ vc)
If each input voltage is amplified by a different factor in other words weighted differently at
the output, the circuit is called then scaling amplifier.
The circuit can be used as an averaging circuit, in which the output voltage is equal to the average of
all the input voltages.
In this case, Ra= Rb= Rc = R and Rf / R = 1 / n where n is the number of inputs. Here Rf / R = 1 / 3.
vo = -(va+ vb + vc) / 3
In all these applications input could be either ac or dc.
OLIC Notes Module 1
1.12 Noninverting configuration:
If the input voltages are connected to noninverting input through resistors, then the circuit can be used
as a summing or averaging amplifier through proper selection of R1, R2, R3 and Rf. as shown in Fig. 3.
To find the output voltage expression, v1 is

required. Applying superposition theorem, the
voltage v1 at the noninverting terminal is given
by
Hence the output voltage is
Fig. 3
This shows that the output is equal to the average of all input voltages times the gain of the circuit (1+
Rf / R1), hence the name averaging amplifier.
If (1+Rf/ R1) is made equal to 3 then the output voltage becomes sum of all three input voltages.
vo = v a + vb+ vc
Hence, the circuit is called summing amplifier.
Example - 1
Find the gain of VO / Vi of the circuit of Fig. 4.
Solution:
Current entering at the inveting terminal .
Applying KCL to node 1,
OLIC Notes Module 1
Applying KCL to node 2,
Thus the gain A = -8 V / VO
Example - 2
Find a relationship between VO and V1 through V6 in the circuit of Fig. 5.
Fig. 5
Solution:
Let's consider of V1 (singly) by shorting the others i.e. the circuit then looks like as shown in Fig. 6.
OLIC Notes Module 1
The current flowing through the resistor R

into the i/e.
The current when passes through R, output an

operational value of
Let as now consider the case of V2 with other

Fig. 6
inputs shorted, circuit looks like as shown
in Fig. 7.
Now VO is given by
same thing to V4 and V6
net output V" = V2 + V4 + V6 (3)

From (2) & (3)
V' + V" = (V2 + V4 + V6 ) - (V1 + V3 + V5)

So VO = V2 + V4 + V6 - V1 - V3 - V5. Fig. 7
Example - 3
1. Show that the circuit of Fig. 8 has A = VO / Vi = - K (R2 / R1) with K = 1 + R4 / R2 +

R4 / R3, and Ri = R1.
2. Specify resistance not larger than 100 K to achieve A = -200 V / V and Ri = 100 K.
OLIC Notes Module 1
Fig. 8
Solution:
1.13 Differential Amplifier:
The basic differential amplifier is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1
OLIC Notes Module 1
Since there are two inputs superposition theorem can be used to find the output voltage. When Vb= 0,
then the circuit becomes inverting amplifier, hence the output due to Va only is
Vo(a) = -(Rf / R1) Va
Similarly when, Va = 0, the configuration is a inverting amplifier having a voltage divided network at
the noninverting input
Example - 1
Find vout and iout for the circuit shown in Fig. 2. The input voltage is sinusoidal with amplitude of 0.5
V.
Fig. 2
Solution:
We begin by writing the KCL equations at both the + and – terminals of the op-amp.
For the negative terminal,
OLIC Notes Module 1
Therefore,
15 v- = vout
For the positive terminal,
This yields two equations in three unknowns, vout, v+ and v-. The third equation is the relationship
between v+ and v- for the ideal OPAMP,
v+ = v-
Solving these equations, we find
vout = 10 vin = 5 sinωt V
Since 2 kΩ resistor forms the load of the op-amp, then the current iout is given by
Example - 2
For the different amplifier shown in Fig. 3, verify that
Fig. 3
OLIC Notes Module 1
Solution:
Since the differential input voltage of OPAMP is negligible, therefore,
v1= vx
and v2 = vy
The input impedance of OPAMP is very large and, therefore, the input current of OPAMP is
negligible.
Thus
And
From equation (E-1)
or
From equation (E-2)
or
The OPAMP3 is working as differential amplifier, therefore,
OLIC Notes Module 1
a) Integrator:
A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of the input voltage waveform is called
integrator. Fig. 4, shows an integrator circuit using OPAMP.
Fig. 4
Here, the feedback element is a capacitor. The current drawn by OPAMP is zero and also the V2 is
virtually grounded.
Therefore, i1 = if and v2 = v1 = 0
OLIC Notes Module 1
Integrating both sides with respect to time from 0 to t, we get
The output voltage is directly proportional to the negative integral of the input voltage and inversely
proportional to the time constant RC.
If the input is a sine wave the output will be cosine wave. If the input is a square wave, the output will
be a triangular wave. For accurate integration, the time period of the input signal T must be longer
than or equal to RC.
Fig. 5, shows the output of integrator for square and sinusoidal inputs.
Fig. 5
Example - 3
Prove that the network shown in Fig. 6 is a non-inverting integrator with .
OLIC Notes Module 1
Solution:
The voltage at point A is vO / 2 and it is also the

voltage at point B because different input voltage is
negligible.
vB = VO / 2
Therefore, applying Node current equation at point B,
1. 14 . Instrumentation amplifier
Instrumentation amplifier is a kind of differential amplifier with additional input buffer stages. The
addition of input buffer stages makes it easy to match (impedance matching) the amplifier with the
preceding stage. Instrumentation are commonly used in industrial test and measurement application.
The instrumentation amplifier also has some useful features like low offset voltage, high CMRR
(Common mode rejection ratio), high input resistance, high gain etc. The circuit diagram of a typical
instrumentation amplifier using opamp is shown below.
OLIC Notes Module 1
Fig: Instrumentation amplifier
A circuit providing an output based on the difference between two inputs (times a scale factor) is
given in the above Figure. In the circuit diagram, opamp labelled A1 and A2 are the input buffers.
Anyway the gain of these buffer stages are not unity because of the presence of R1 and Rg. Op amp
labelled A3 is wired as a standard differential amplifier. R3 connected from the output of A3 to its
non inverting input is the feedback resistor. R2 is the input resistor. The voltage gain of the
instrumentation amplifier can be expressed by using the equation below.
Voltage gain (Av) = Vo/(V2-V1) = (1 + 2R1/Rg ) x R3/R2
If need a setup for varying the gain, replace Rg with a suitable potentiometer. Instrumentation
amplifiers are generally used in situations where high sensitivity, accuracy and stability are required.
Instrumentation amplifiers can be also made using two op amps, but they are rarely used and the
common practice is to make it using three op amps like what is shown here. The only advantages of
making an instrumentation amplifier using 2 op amps are low cost and improved CMRR.
A high gain accuracy can be achieved by using precision metal film resistors for all the resistances.
Because of large negative feedback employed, the amplifier has good linearity, typically about 0.01%
for a gain less than 10. The output impedance is also low, being in the range of milli-ohms. The input
bias current of the instrumentation amplifier is determined by the op-amps A1 and A2.
A simplified instrumentation amplifier design is shown below. Here the resistances labelled R1 are
shorted and Rg is removed. This results in a full series negative feedback path and the gain of A1 and
A2 will be unity. The removal of R1 and Rg simplifies the equation to Av = R3/R2.
OLIC Notes Module 1
Fig: Practical instrumentation amplifier using opamp.
A practical instrumentation amplifier circuit designed based on uA 741 op amp is shown below. The
amplifier operates from +/-12V DC and has a gain 10.If you need a variable gain, then replace Rg
with a 5K POT. Instead of using uA741 you can use any opamp but the power supply voltage must be
changed according to the op amp. A single LM324 op amp Ic is a good choice. Out of the four
opamps inside the LM324, three can be used for IC1, IC2, IC3 and the remaining one can be left
alone. This reduces the PCB size a lot and makes the circuit compact. Supply voltage for LM324 can
be up to +/-16V DC.
OLIC Notes Module 1
An instrumentation amplifier is a differential amplifier optimized for high input impedance and high
CMRR. An instrumentation amplifier is typically used in applications in which a small differential
voltage and a large common mode voltage are the inputs.
Outcomes
At the end of the Module, the student will be able to
1. Interpret the characteristics of ideal and practical op-amp.[L2]

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1.To study the fundamentals of Op-amp

2. To study the performance parameters: DC and AC of an Op-amp

3.To study the Amplifier performance parameters of op-amp

4.To study the linear applications of an Op-amp

1. Introduction, Block diagram representation of a typical Op-amp

1.1 The operation amplifier:

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 1

The block diagram of OPAMP is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Block diagram of OPAMP

1.2 Level Translator:

Because of the direct coupling the dc level at the emitter

To shift the output dc level to zero, level translator circuits

Thus a dc voltage at the base of Q produces 0V dc at the

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 2

Fig. 3 may be used to get better results.

Fig. 3: Improved Design of LT

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 3

For the cascaded differential amplifier shown in Fig. 5, determine:

That is, IC1 = IC2 =0.988 mA.

VC1 = VCC = -RC1 IC1 = 10 – (2.2kΩ) (0.988 mA) = 7.83 V = VC2

Since the voltage at the emitter of Q1 and Q2 is -0.715 V,

VCE1 = VCE2 = VC1 -VE1 = 7.83 + 0715 = 8.545 V

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 4

VCC – RC2 IC2 = VBE3 - R'E IC3 - RE2 (2 IE3) + VBE= 0

Hence the voltage at the collector of Q3 and Q4 is

VC3 = VC4= VCC – RC3 IC3 = 10 – (1.2kΩ) (0.569 mA)

VCE3 = VVCE4 = VC3 – VE3 = 9.32 – 7.12 = 2.2 V

Thus, for Q1 and Q2:

Ri2 = input resistance of the second stage

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 5

Hence the overall voltage gain is

Ad= (Ad1) (Ad2) = (80.78) (4.17) = 336.85

Ri = 2βac(re1) = (200) (25.3) = 5.06 kΩ

 The dc conditions for each state

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 6

From the dc equivalent circuit,

b) The overall voltage gain of the amplifier can be obtained as below:

Therefore, voltage gain of second stage

The input impedance of second stage is

The effective load resistance for first stage is

Therefore, the voltage gain of first stage is

The overall voltge gain is AV = AV1 AV2

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 7

1.2.3 Schematic symbol of Op-amp

Fig7: Op-amp Symbol

Fig8: Op-amp Pin description

The various important parameters of OPAMP are follows:

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 8

1.Input Offset Voltage:

Input offset voltage is defined as the

Vio = Vdc1 – Vdc2 Fig. 2

Vdc1 and Vdc2 are dc voltages and RS\

2. Input offset Current:

Iio = | IB1 – IB2 |

3.Input Bias Current:

For 741C IB(max) = 700 nA and for precision 741C IB = ± 7 nA

4. Differential Input Resistance: (Ri)

5. Input Capacitance: (Ci)

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 9

6. Offset Voltage Adjustment Range:

7. Input Voltage Range :