CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.2 Background Information
Mechanical Engineering is a discipline of engineering that applies the principles of physics and
material science for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It is a
branch of engineering that involves the production and usage of heat and mechanical power for the
design, production and operation of machines and tools. It is one of the oldest and broadest disciplines.
The engineering field requires an understanding of core concepts including mechanics, kinematics,
thermodynamics, material science, structural analysis and electricity. Mechanical engineers use these
core principles along with tools like computer aided engineering and product lifecycle management to
design and analyze manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and machinery, heating and cooling
systems, transport systems, aircraft, watercraft, robotics, medical devices, and others.
The industrial attachment program fulfils part of the requirement in pursuing the degree of Bachelor
in Engineering (Mechanical Engineering) in LADOKE AKINTOLA UNIVERSITY OF
TECHNOLOGY, OGBOMOSO, OYO STATE. This report serves to summarize the activities and
experiences gained with PSALMTECH MECHANICAL SERVICES.

1.2 HISTORY OF SIWES

The government’s decree No. 47 of 8th Oct, 1971 as amended in 1990, highlighted the capacity
building of human resources in industry, commerce and government through training and retraining
of workers in order to effectively provide the much needed high quality goods and services in a
dynamic economy as ours (Jemerigbo, 2003). This decree led to the establishment of Industrial
Training Fund (ITF) in 1973/1974.
The growing concern among our industrialists hat graduates our our institutions of higher learning,
lack adequate practical background studies preparatory for employment in industries, led to the
formation of Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) by ITF in 1993/1994()Information
and Guideline for SIWES, 2002). ITF has as one of the key functions, to work as cooperative entity
with industry and commerce where students in institutions of higher learning can undertake mid-career
work experience attachment in industries which are compatible with student’s area of study (Okorie
2002, in Asikadi 2003). The Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skill training
program designed to expose and prepare students on Engineering, Technology, Agriculture,

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 Environmental, Science, Medical Science, Pure and Applied Sciences for the industrial work situation
which they are likely to meet after graduation. Duration of SIWES is four(4) months in Polytechnics
at the end of ND I, four(4) months in College of Education at the end of NCE II and six (6) months in
the Universities at the end of 300 or 400 or 500 levels depending on discipline (Information and
Guideline for SIWES, 2002).

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

• Provide an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire industrial skills and
experience in their approved courses;
• Prepare students for the industrial works situation which they are likely to meet after graduation;
• Expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and machinery not available
in their institutions;
• Provide students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge in real work situation thereby bridging
the gap between theories and practices;
• Enlist and strengthen employer’s involvement in industry and commerce (Information and Guideline
for SIWES, 2002).

1.4 BODIES INVOLVED IN THE MANAGEMENT OF SIWES

The bodies involved are: Federal Government, Industrial Training Funds (ITF),
Other supervising agencies are: National University Commission (NUC), National Board for
Technical Education (NBTE), and National Council for College of Education (NCCE).
The functions of these agencies above include among others to;
• Ensure adequate funding of the scheme;
• Establish SIWES and accredit SIWES unit in the approved institutions;
• Formulate polices and guidelines for participating bodies and institutions as well as appointing SIWES
coordinators and supporting staffs;
• Supervise students at their places of attachment and sign their log-book and ITF forms;
• Vet and process student’s log-book and forward same to ITF Area Office;
• Ensure payment of allowances for all students and supervisors.
The success of SIWES therefore depends on the efficiency of the Ministries, ITF, Institutions,
Employers of labor and the general public involved in articulation and management of the program.

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 1.5 HISTORY OF THE ORGANISATION ATTACHED
Psalmtech Mechanical Engineering Services (RC 2944444) is one of the Nigeria’s leading engineering
workshops that offers services in automobile, generator works, motorcycle works, vulcanizer works,
maintenance and servicing of engineering equipments. It works with public and private sector partners
to enhance good engineering development and generate wealth from waste.
Psalmtech Mechanical Engineering Services was founded in 1984 and is located in Ogbomoso, Oyo
state, Nigeria.
The SMES workshop sits on about 2 Plots of land and comprises of various sectors.
Automobile Sector
Generator Sector
Part selling Sector.
Mission
“To give our customers the best of our services with good quality within the time frame so as to
distinguish ourselves as an efficient, innovative and quality organization.”
The various units in the department placed and their functions.
Unit 1 - Buses and Cars
This is the unit where repair, diagnose, service and maintenance of buses and cars are done using
equipment and machines.
Unit 2 – Motorcycle and Generator
Here, Motor bike, bicycles, scooters, and generators are diagnosed, serviced, repaired and maintained.
Unit 3 – Automotive
This is the unit where auto repair, diagnose, service and maintenance of automobile cars using several
equipment and machine.
1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE COMPANY

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 CEO

ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT TECHNICAL UNIT

MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL
MANAGER SECRETARY
TECHNICIANS TECHNICIANS

APPRENTICES

I.T STUDENTS

1.6.1 ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT

The administrative department is the engine room of the firm , they carry out the day to day task of
running an managing the firm, they are responsible for purchases, payment of staff salaries, cash
handling, receipt of payment from customers and other administrative activities.

1.1 TECHNICAL UNIT

This is the department that virtually runs the firm, this is the department under which I was attached
during the industrial training. The department is manned by qualified technicians and are responsible
for carrying out auto repairs and maintenance and also make recommendations to the administrative
unit on issues like tools to be bought, goods to be stocked and other sundry issues on the prevailing
technical atmosphere.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WORK DONE DURING THE PERIOD OF

ATTACHMENT

2.2 SAFETY
My first one week at PSALMTECH MECHANICAL SERVICE was based mainly on orientation,
mostly about personal safety because it is the most important step to undergo to help reduce the rate
of accident as low as reasonably practicable in any engineering facility/workshop. To ensure safety,
various laws, regulations, decree acts, etc. have therefore be instituted to bring about safety and health
of those who may be affected by their operations.
The responsibility of safety in any work activity rests on both the employers and employees who owe
it as a duty to carry out their work in such a way as not to constitute a safety hazard to themselves and
the general public.
As on other engineering sites the following general rules governing safety when strictly adhered to in
the automobile workshop.

2.2.1 GENERAL RULES GOVERNING SAFETY IN THE WORKSHOP

Below are a few of the safety rules in the workshop
• When In the workshop consider above all things the safety of other workers, yourself and the facilities
you are using;
• Use care and common sense at all times as no set of regulations can be all embarrassing enough to
cover all contingency;
• You must have a clear understanding of a tool, equipment, machine, etc. before it;
• Leave equipment in a safe condition after using the equipment;
• Report any accident or unsafe condition immediately;
• Familiarize yourself with the position and the person responsible for first aid;
• Familiarize yourself with the position of fire extinguishers and hoses
• Move about the workshop at moderate speeds, look where you are going, use authorized pathways
only and walk slowly while carrying loads;
• Avoid unnecessary walking about, side by side in pairs or conversing as you move about the workshop
except when absolutely necessary;

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• Warehouse cloth or overalls and safety shoes must always be worn while working in the workshop to
protect, preserve your body and clothes;
• In the events of fire, the nearest available exit should be used, also alternative exit could be used in
case the usual ones are crowded or unavailable;
• No smoking cigarette in the workshop and careful use of flames, furnaces and any other hot equipment
should be adopted.

2.2.2 AUTO REPAIR TECHNICIANS SHOP SAFETY

• Follow these steps when handling hot automotive parts that have been removed from vehicles:
Ø Pick up the part using gloves, heat resistant pads or dry rags.
Ø Place hot parts such as loose pipes, mufflers and shocks in metal containers that are labeled
"Hot Metal Parts Only".
• Wear safety glasses when working in the shop area.
• Use a flexible exhaust hose to vent engine exhaust to the outside when the shop bay doors are closed.
• Remove dust and shavings from drum lathes with a dust pan and broom or vacuum cleaner on a daily
or job by job basis. Do not use your bare hands.
• Dump gasoline and other liquid chemical waste into containers labeled "Flammable Waste" from
containers labeled "Flammable".
• When lifting batteries or other heavy objects from the engine compartment of a vehicle, use the
following procedures:
Ø Grasp the object by lifting with both hands.
Ø Keep the object close to body, with elbows close to body.
Ø Turn body using feet, not twisting at waist.
Ø Move the object to work bench and lower onto bench. Use arms to lower and do not bend at
waist..
• Drape a shop rag over the radiator cap before venting or removing the cap from the radiator.
• Wear gloves, safety goggles and a rubber apron when working in the battery charging area.
• Direct engine hand tools away from rotating fan blades when the engine is running.
• Before "running" the vehicle for an engine analysis, engage the parking brake and use wheel blocks
to "chock" the wheels of the vehicle.

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 2.3 MAINTENANCE
Maintenance is that regular care, attention giving to an engine or machineries by which a qualified
engineer or technician to maintain or keep the kife of the machineries in normal working conditions.

2.3.1 TYPES OF MAINTENANCE

• Preventive maintenance: this is a maintenance giving to an engine or machinery to protect the life of
the machinery and also prevent it from breaking down or having down time. A typical example of a
preventive maintenance is servicing.
• Corrective maintenance: this is a maintenance carried out in an engine or machinery in other to bring
back the life of the engine or machinery. It is always carried out only when fault has been detected or
identified in that machinery. An example of corrective maintenance is overhauling.

2.4 GENERAL DESCRITION OF AUTOMOBILE

An automobile is a self-propelled vehicle that travels on four wheels used for transportation. An engine
provides the power to move the vehicle.
In general, modern automobile is a complex piece of machinery performing in a safe, economic and
efficient manner. It is comprised of a chassis and a body. The chassis is made up of a frame supporting
body, power unit, clutch or fluid coupling, transmission system, suspension system, braking system,
electrical (ignition, charging ad starting) system, accessories(air-conditioning), etc.
The power delivered by the power unit (engine) is transmitted through the clutch of fluid coupling,
transmission system and axles to wheels.
The automobile is propelled on roads due friction between the tyre and road surface. The various sub
systems are properly designed and held together for efficient functioning individually as well as a
whole unit. The automobile has its limitation as regards to the load it can carry and speed as well as
distance it can carry the load.

2.5 AUTOMOBILE ENGINE

The prime movers in almost all vehicles are either gasoline (petrol) or diesel engines. An automobile
engine is a machine that converts heat energy into mechanical energy. The heat from burning a fuel
produces power which moves the vehicle. Sometimes the engine is called the power plant. Some
specialty automobiles uses a different type of engine. The diesel engine consumes considerably less
fuel than the gasoline engine, when operated at low speeds.

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 2.5.1 CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINES

Automobile engines are classified in many several different ways as follows;

• Types of cycle; two stroke or four stroke cycles.

• Types of fuel used: Gasoline (petrol) and diesel.
• Number of cylinders: 2,3,4,5,6,8 and 12,16 cylinders.
• Arrangement of cylinder: in a row (in line), in two rows (v type), in two rows opposing each other
(flat).
• Firing order: the order in which the cylinders deliver their power strokes.
• Arrangement of valves.
• Types of cooling: liquid (usually water mixed with antifreeze) and air cooled.
• Reciprocating or rotary engines.

2.5.2 TYPES OF ENGINES USED IN AUTOMOBILE

AUTOMOBILE ENGINE

INTERNAL CO
MBUSTION EXTERNA COMBUSTION
(STEAM ENGINES
)

PISTON TYPE ROTARY TYPE SINGLE DOUBLE

ACTING ACTING

PETROL DIESEL WANKEL GAS

ENGINE ENGINE ENGINE TURBINE

TWO FOUR TWO FOUR

STROKE STROKE STROKE STROKE

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For the purpose of this report and workdoneduring the industrial training, emphasis will be on internal
combustion (piston type) only.

2.5.3 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

An internal combustion engine is an engine in which the fuel is burned directly within the working
cylinder. This creates gases of high temperature and pressure, which are permitted to expand. The
defining feature of an internal combustion engine is that useful work is performed by the expanding
hot gases acting directly to cause movement, for example by acting on pistons. Both gas and diesel
engines are examples of internal combustion engine.

2.5.3.1 PISTON OR RECIPROCATING TYPE OF AN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

A reciprocating engine, also known as piston engine, is a heat engine that uses one or more
reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion.

THERE ARE TWO KINDS OF PISTON OR RECIPROCATING ENGINES;

1 SPARK IGNITION ENGINES: in the spark ignition engines, fuel is ignited by an electric
spark at the end of compression stroke e.g. petrol engines coil battery ignition. In this type of engines,
the cylinder is filled with air-fuel mixture which is compressed to the designed compression ratio by
the movement of the piston.
2 COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES: In this type of engine, air alone is compressed in
the cylinder, after the air has been compressed to the designed pressure by the piston movement, a
charge of fuel is then sprayed into the cylinder, to mix with the already very hot air. Hence, ignition is
accomplished by the heat of combustion and it is followed by burning. The compression ignition
engine and the spark ignition engine are similar in all aspect, only that whereas only air is compressed
in compression ignition, air-fuel mixture is compressed in spark ignition.
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 The compression ignition and spark ignition engines can either be two stroke or four stroke cycle engines

Ø FOUR STROKE CYCLE ENGINE: four-stroke engine (also known as four-cycle) is an internal
combustion engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes which constitute a single
thermodynamic cycle and equivalent to two revolutions of the crankshaft. A stroke refers to the full
travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction. The four separate strokes are termed:
Ø INTAKE: this stroke of the piston begins at top dead center. The piston descends from the top of the
cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, increasing the volume of the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air
is forced by atmospheric pressure into the cylinder through the intake port.
Ø COMPRESSION: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns to the top of the
cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into the cylinder head.
Ø POWER OR EXPANSION: this is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While the piston is
close to Top Dead Centre, the compressed air–fuel mixture in a gasoline engine is ignited, by a spark
plug in gasoline engines, or which ignites due to the heat generated by compression in a diesel engine.
The resulting pressure from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture forces the piston back
down toward bottom dead centre and forces the crank to rotate.
Ø EXHAUST: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead centre while the
exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent fuel-air mixture through the exhaust valve(s).
Ø TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE: in this type of cycle, the events of operation are completed in
two stroke, equivalent to one revolution of the crankshaft. The sequence of operation are;
Ø A COMPRESSION STROKE: which starts by closing the inlet and exhaust ports, and then
compresses the cylinder content and draws fresh charge into the crankcase. As the piston approaches
TC, combustion is initiated.
Ø A POWER OR EXPANSION STROKE, similar to that in the four-stroke cycle until the piston
approaches BC, when first the exhaust ports and then the intake ports are uncovered. Most of the burnt
gases exit the cylinder in an exhaust blow down process. When the inlet ports are uncovered, the fresh
charge which has been compressed in the crankcase flows into the cylinder.

2.5.4 MAJOR SUB SYSTEMS OF AN AUTOMOBILE

The major subsystems of an automobile are;

1.0 The ignition system

2.0 The engine system;
3.0 The braking system;

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 4.0 The suspension system;
5.0 The fuel system;
6.0 The cooling, heating and air conditioner system;
The systems together with some of their major components and maintenance are described in brief.

2.5.4.1 THE IGNITION SYSTEM

The ignition system is generally used to make available, at proper time, enough voltage to cause a
spark to jump the spark plug gap for ignition of air-fuel mixture in the cylinder. The purpose of the
ignition system is to generate a very high voltage from the car’s 12 volt battery and send this to each
spark plug in turn, igniting the fuel-air mixture in the engine’s combustion chambers components of
the ignition system includes among other;
• IGNITION COIL
An ignition coil (also called a spark coil) is an induction coil in an automobile’s ignition system which
transforms the battery’s low voltage to the thousands of volts needed to create an electric spark in the
spark plug to ignite the fuel.
• SPARK PLUG
A spark plug is an electrical device that fits into the cylinder head of an internal combustion engines
and ignites compressed aerosol petrol by means of electric spark. Spark plugs have an insulated center
electrode which is connected by a heavily insulated wire to an ignition coil or magnetic circuit on the
outside, forming with a grounded terminal on the base of the plug, with a spark gap inside the cylinder.
• ALTERNATOR

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An alternator is an electromagnetic device that converts mechanical energy into alternating current
electrical energy. Alternators are used in automobiles to charge the battery and to power systems when
its engine is running.
• STARTER MOTOR

The starter is an electric motor that turns over or cranks the engine to start it. It consists of a powerful
DC (direct current) electric motor and the starter solenoid that is attached to the motor. The starter
motor is powered by the car battery. To turn over the engine the starter motor requires a very high
electric current, which means the battery has to have sufficient power

• DISTRIBUTOR

A distributor is a device in the ignition system of an internal combustion engine that routes high voltage
from the ignition coil to the spark plugs in the correct firing order.

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v BATTERY

An automobile battery is a type of electric battery that supplies electric energy to the starter motor to
cause ignition in a vehicle’s engine. The term is usually used for the main power source of an electric
vehicle. They are usually lead- acid batteries that provide a nominal 12volts potential difference by
serially connecting six cells that each produce about 2 to 2.1 volts.

MAINTENANCE OF THE IGNITION SYSTEM

Always observe the following precautions when working on the electrical system:
a. Be extremely careful when servicing engine electrical components. They are easily damaged
if improperly checked, connected or handled.
b. Never leave the ignition switched on for a long period of time when the engine is off.
c. Don’t disconnect the battery cables while the engine is running.
d. Observe the rules when jump-starting your vehicle.
e. Always disconnect the battery negative cable first, and connect it last, to reduce the risk of
accidental short-circuits.
f. Don’t charge the battery with the cables connected to the terminals.

BATTERY REMOVAL AND REFITTING

NOTE: depending on the model of the car, the battery may be located in the engine compartment, in
the rear luggage compartment, or under the rear seat. i. Disconnect the battery negative cable.
ii. Detach the cable from the positive terminal. iii. Remove the battery hold-down bracket and lift out
the battery. Be careful-its heavy.
Do not tight tilt the battery to any extent while its being removed, and store it upright. iv.
While the battery is out, inspect the carrier (tray) for corrosion.

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v. If you are renewing the battery, make sure that you get one that is identical, with the same
dimensions, amperage rating, cold cranking rating, etc. vi. Refitting is the reverse of the removal.

ALTERNATOR REMOVAL, SERVICING AND REFITTING.

REMOVAL
i. Detach the battery negative cable.
ii. Detach the electrical connectors from the alternator, noting their locations for refitting. Note
that on some models, it may be necessary to remove their air cleaner assembly and air flow meter to
gain access to the alternator. iii. Loosen the alternator adjustment and pivot bolt and slip off the drive
belt. iv. Remove the adjustment and pivot bolts, and separate the alternator from the engine.

REFITTING
v. If you are renewing the alternator, take the old one with you when purchasing a new or
reconditioned unit. Make sure the new unit looks identical to the old alternator. Look at the terminals-
they should be the same in number, size and location as the terminals on the old alternator. Finally,
look at the identification numbers-they will be stamped into the housing or printed on a tag attached
to the housing. Make sure the numbers are the same on both alternator.
vi. Many new alternators do not come with a pulley fitted, so you may have to transfer the pulley
from the old unit to the new one.
vii. Refitting is the reverse of the removal viii. After the alternator is fitted, adjust the drive belt
tension. ix. Check the charging voltage to very proper operation of the alternator.

STARTER MOTOR REMOVAL, OVERHAULING AND REFITTING

Note: if the starter motor is defective, it should be renewed, or taken to an auto electrical specialist.
Overhaul of the starter motor is unlikely to be a practical proposition for the home mechanic, even if
spare parts are available. However, the solenoid can be renewed separately.

REMOVAL

i. Detach the battery negative cable.

ii. Raise the vehicle and support it securely on axle stands.
iii. Clearly label the wires from the terminals on the starter motor and solenoid, then disconnect
them. Note that on some models, it may be necessary to remove the air cleaner, coolant expansion
tank and the heater hoses to gain access t the top of the starter. Carefully label any hoses or components
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that need to be removed from the engine compartment to avoid confusion when reassembling. iv.
Unscrew the mounting bolts and detach the starter.

REFITTING

v. Refitting is the reverse of the removal.

2.5.4.2 THE ENGINE SYSTEM

The following components describe a few of the engine system;

ENGINE BLOCK

The engine or cylinder block is the portion of the engine between the cylinder head and sump (oil pan)
and the supporting structure for the entire engine. All engine parts are mounted on it or in it and this
holds the parts in alignment.

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ENGINE TOP CYLINDER

The engine top cylinder is designed and incorporated to the top or upper part of the main engine that
acts as a seal to the engine block. The top cylinder also acts as part of the combustion chamber which
the compressed air is pushed against for combustion to take place.
INTAKE MANIFOLD

The intake manifold is designed to deliver an equal amount of air-fuel mixture to each of the engine’s
cylinder. Intake manifold mounting surfaces and gaskets must be leak proof. No outside air must be
allowed to enter past any connection into the manifold runner. The entry of air upsets the air-fuel
mixture, produces a lean condition and can cause rough idle.

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CRANKSHAFT

Power from the burnt gases in the combustion chamber is delivered to the crankshaft through the
piston, piston pin an connecting rod. The crankshaft changes the reciprocating motion of the piston in
the cylinder to the rotary motion of the flywheel. His conversion of motion is executed by the use of
the offset in the crankshaft.

POPPET VALVES
Four-stroke engines, of either spark ignition or compression ignition varieties, use poppet valves to
allow air (or an air/fuel mixture) into the cylinder and exhaust gases out. A poppet valve is a valve
consisting of a hole, usually round or oval, an a tapered plug, usually a disc shape on the end of a shaft
also a called a valve stem. The shaft guides the plug portion by sliding through a valve guide. The
stem is used to push down on the valve and open it, with a spring generally used to close it when the
stem is not being pushed on. The engine normally operates the valves by pushing on the stems with
cams and cam followers. The shape and position of the cam determines the valve lift and when and
how quickly (or slowly) the valve is opened. The cams are normally placed on a fixed camshaft which
is the geared to the crankshaft, running at half crankshaft speed in a four-stroke engine.

FAN BELT PULLEY

The fan belt pulley transmits power from the crankshaft to the various auxiliary components such as
the water pump, generator, power steering and brake fluid pump and the cooling fan itself.

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EXHAUST MANIFOLD

The exhaust manifolds are generally one piece and are made of cast iron or stainless steel. Exhaust
manifold expands and contracts considerable while in operation. This can cause cracking. The exhaust
manifold is attached to the cylinder head with studs and nuts, or with bolts.

CAMSHAFT

The camshaft is an apparatus used in piston engines to operate valves. It consists of a cylindrical rod
running the length of the cylinder bank with a number oblong lobes or cams protruding from it, one
for each valve. The cams force the valves open by pressing on the valves, or on some intermediate
mechanism as they rotate. The relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of
the crankshaft is of critical importance. Since the valves control the flow of fuel intake and exhaust,
they must be opened and closed at the appropriate time during the stroke of the piston.

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PISTON

The automotive piston converts the combustion pressure to a force on the crankshaft. Th piston starts,
accelerates, and stops twice in each crankshaft revolutions. The reciprocating action of the piston
produces large inertia forces.

CONNECTING ROD

The connecting rod joins the piston the crankshaft and transfer piston reciprocating force to the
crankshaft rotation. The small end of the connecting rod reciprocates and the large and the large end
follows the crank pin rotational pattern. For this dynamic movement, the connecting rod should be as
light as possible while maintaining rigidity.

PISTON RINGS

Piston rings are comprised of compression rings, located towards the top of the piston and oil control
(scraper) rings, located below the compression ring. Its function is to seal the space between the
cylinder wall and piston preventing the escape of burning gases from the combustion chamber.

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 FLYWHEEL

The flywheel is a heavy and perfectly balanced wheel usually bolted to a flange of the rear end of the
crankshaft. Engines with many cylinders do not require as heavy a flywheel as an engine with fewer
cylinders because of power lap

Functions of the flywheel

It stores up energy to help the engine over idle strokes of the piston, i.e., suction, compression and
exhaust.

It dampens out speed fluctuations of the crankshaft due to the varying effect firing impulses during
engine cycle

MAINTENANCE OF THE ENGINE SYSTEM

INTAKE MANIFOLD – REMOVAL AND REFITTING REMOVAL

i. Allow the engine to cool completely, then relieve the fuel pressure on fuel-injection engines.
ii. Disconnect the battery negative cable.
iii. Drain the engine coolant below the level of the intake manifold. If the coolant is in good condition, it
can be saved and reused.
iv. Loosen the hose clamp and disconnect the large air inlet hose from the throttle body.
v. The upper part of the intake manifold should be removed by unscrewing the bolts and nuts. Remove
the gaskets.
vi. Disconnect the vacuum hose from the fuel pressure regulator, and disconnect the electrical connectors
from the fuel injectors.
vii. Unbolt and remove the support bracket from the bottom of the intake manifold.

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viii. Disconnect all remaining hoses and wires attached between the intake manifold/throttle body assembly
and the engine or chassis.
ix. Remove the bolts and/or nuts that attach the manifold to the cylinder head. Start at the ends and work
toward the middle, loosening each one a little at a time until they can be removed by hand. Support
the manifold while removing the fasteners so it doesn’t fall. Note: You can remove the manifold
without removing the throttle body, injectors, vacuum/thermo valves, fuel pressure regulator or
carburettor. If you’re fitting
a new manifold, transfer the components and lines to the new manifold before it is fitted on the
cylinder head.
x. Move the manifold up and down to break the gasket seal, then lift it away from the head and remove
the gasket. REFITTING
xi. Remove the old gasket, then carefully scrape all traces of sealant off the head and the manifold mating
surfaces. Be very careful not to nick or scratch the delicate aluminium mating surfaces. Gasket removal
solvents are available at motor factors, and may prove helpful. Make sure the surfaces are perfectly
clean and free of dirt and oil. xii. Check the manifold for corrosion (at the coolant passages),
cracks, warping and other damage. Cracks and warping normally show up near the gasket surface,
around the stud holes. If defects are found, have the manifold repaired (or renew it, as necessary).
xiii. When refitting the manifold, always use a new gasket. Where one side of the gasket has a graphite
surface, this must face the cylinder head.
xiv. Refit the nuts and bolts and tighten them gradually, working from the centre out to the ends.
xv. The remainder of refitting is the reverse of removal.

PISTONS/CONNECTING RODS REMOVAL

Note: Before removing the piston/connecting rod assemblies, remove the cylinder head and the
sump.
i. Use your fingernail to feel if a ridge has formed at the upper limit of ring travel (about 6 mm down
from the top of each cylinder). If carbon deposits or cylinder wear have produced ridges, they must
be completely removed with a special tool called a ridge reamer. Failure to remove the ridges before
attempting to remove the piston/connecting rod assemblies may result in piston ring breakage.
ii. After the cylinder ridges have been removed, turn the engine upside-down so the crankshaft is facing
up.

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iii. Check the connecting rods and caps for identification marks. If they aren’t plainly marked, use a
small centre-punch to make the appropriate number of indentations on each rod and cap (1, 2, 3, etc.,
depending on the cylinder they’re associated with).
iv. Loosen each of the connecting rod cap nuts/bolts a half-turn at a time until they can be removed by
hand. Remove the No 1 connecting rod cap and bearing shell. Don’t drop the bearing shell out of the
cap.
v. Where applicable, slip a short length of plastic or rubber hose over each connecting rod cap stud to
protect the crankshaft journal and cylinder wall as the piston is removed.
vi. Remove the bearing shell, and push the connecting rod/piston assembly out through the top of the
engine. Use a wooden hammer handle to push on the upper bearing surface in the connecting rod. If
resistance is felt, double-check to make sure that all of the ridge was removed from the cylinder.
vii. Repeat the procedure for the remaining cylinders.
viii. After removal, reassemble the connecting rod caps and bearing shells in their respective connecting
rods, and refit the cap nuts/bolts finger-tight. Leaving the old bearing shells in place until reassembly
will help prevent the connecting big-end bearing surfaces from being accidentally nicked or gouged.
ix. Don’t separate the pistons from the connecting rods.
INSPECTION
x. Before the inspection process can be carried out, the piston/connecting rod assemblies must be
cleaned and the original piston rings removed from the pistons.
Note: Always use new piston rings when the engine is reassembled.
xi. Using a piston ring refitting tool, carefully remove the rings from the pistons. Be careful not to nick
or gouge the pistons in the process.
xii. Scrape all traces of carbon from the top of the piston. A hand-held wire brush or a piece of fine
emery cloth can be used once the majority of the deposits have been scraped away. Do not, under
any circumstances, use a wire brush mounted in a drill motor to remove deposits from the pistons.
The piston material is soft, and may be damaged by the wire brush.
xiii. Use a piston ring groove cleaning tool to remove carbon deposits from the ring grooves. Be very
careful to remove only the carbon deposits - don’t remove any metal, and do not nick or scratch the
sides of the ring grooves.
xiv. Once the deposits have been removed, clean the piston/rod assemblies with solvent, and dry them
with compressed air (if available). Make sure the oil return holes in the back sides of the ring
grooves are clear.
xv. Carefully inspect each piston for cracks around the skirt, at the pin bosses, and at the ring lands.
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xvi. Corrosion of the piston, in the form of small pits, indicates that coolant is leaking into the
combustion chamber and/or the crankcase. Again, the cause must be corrected or the problem may
persist in the rebuilt engine.
xvii. Measure the piston ring side clearance by laying a new piston ring in each ring groove and slipping a
feeler gauge in beside it. Check the clearance at three or four locations around each groove. Be sure
to use the correct ring for each groove - they are different. If the side clearance is greater than the
Specifications, new pistons will have to be used.
xviii. If the pistons must be removed from the connecting rods for any reason, they should be taken to a
machine shop. When this is done, have the connecting rods checked for bend and twist, since most
machine shops have special equipment for this purpose. Note: Unless new pistons and/or connecting
rods must be fitted, do not dismantle the pistons and connecting rods.
xix. Check the connecting rods for cracks and other damage. Temporarily remove the rod caps, lift out
the old bearing shells, wipe the rod and cap bearing surfaces clean, and inspect them for nicks,
gouges and scratches. After checking the rods, fit new bearing shells, slip the caps into place, and
tighten the nuts finger-tight.

CRANKSHAFT - REMOVAL
Note: The crankshaft can be removed only after the engine has been removed from the vehicle. It’s
assumed that the flywheel or driveplate, vibration damper, timing chain or belt, sump, oil pump and
piston/connecting rod assemblies have already been removed. The rear main oil seal housing must
be unbolted and separated from the block before proceeding with crankshaft removal.
i. Before the crankshaft is removed, check the end float. Mount a dial indicator with the stem in line
with the crankshaft and touching the nose of the crankshaft, or one of its webs.
ii. Loosen the main bearing cap bolts a quarter turn at a time each, working from the outer ends
towards the centre, until they can be removed by hand. Note if any stud bolts are used, and make
sure they’re returned to their original locations when the crankshaft is refitted.
iii. Gently tap the caps with a soft-faced hammer, then separate them from the engine block. If
necessary, use the bolts as levers to remove the caps. Try not to drop the bearing shells if they come
out with the caps.
iv. Carefully lift the crankshaft out of the engine. It may be a good idea to have an assistant available,
since the crankshaft is quite heavy. With the bearing shells in place in the engine block and main
bearing caps, return the caps to their respective locations on the engine block, and tighten the bolts
finger-tight.

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 INSPECTION
v. Remove all burrs from the crankshaft oil holes with a stone, file or scraper.
vi. Clean the crankshaft with solvent, and dry it with compressed air (if available). Be sure to clean the
oil holes with a stiff brush, and flush them with solvent.
vii. Check the main and connecting big-end bearing journals for uneven wear, scoring, pits and cracks.
viii. Rub a copper coin across each journal several times. If a journal picks up copper from the coin, it’s
too rough and must be reground.
ix. Check the rest of the crankshaft for cracks and other damage. If necessary, have a machine shop inspect
the crankshaft.
x. If the crankshaft journals are damaged, tapered, out-of-round or worn beyond the limits given in the
Specifications, have the crankshaft reground by a machine shop. Be sure to use the correct-size bearing
shells if the crankshaft is reconditioned.
xi. Check the oil seal journals at each end of the crankshaft for wear and damage. If the seal has worn a
groove in the journal, or if it’s nicked or scratched, the new seal may leak when the engine is
reassembled. In some cases, a machine shop may be able to repair the journal by pressing on a thin
sleeve. If repair isn’t feasible, a new or different crankshaft should be fitted.
xii. Examine the main and big-end bearing Shells

ENGINE BLOCK - CLEANING

i. Remove the core plugs from the engine block. To do this, knock one side of each plug into the block
with a hammer and punch, grasp the other side by its edge with large pliers, and pull it out.
ii. Using a gasket scraper, remove all traces of gasket material from the engine block. Be very careful
not to nick or gouge the gasket sealing surfaces.
iii. Remove the main bearing caps, and separate the bearing shells from the caps and the engine block.
Tag the bearings, indicating which cylinder they were removed from and whether they were in the
cap or the block, then set them aside.
iv. Remove all of the threaded oil gallery plugs from the block. The plugs are usually very tight - they
may have to be drilled out and the holes re-tapped. Use new plugs when the engine is reassembled.
v. If the engine is extremely dirty, it should be taken to a machine shop to be steam cleaned.
vi. After the block is returned, clean all oil holes and oil galleries one more time. Brushes specifically
designed for this purpose are available at most motor factors. Flush the passages with warm water
until the water runs clear, dry the block thoroughly, and wipe all machined surfaces with a light, rust

24
 preventive oil. If you have access to compressed air, use it to speed the drying process and to blow
out all the oil holes and galleries.
vii. If the block isn’t extremely dirty or sludged up, you can do an adequate cleaning job with hot soapy
water and a stiff brush. Take plenty of time, and do a thorough job. Regardless of the cleaning
method used, be sure to clean all oil holes and galleries very thoroughly, dry the block completely,
and coat all machined surfaces with light oil. viii. The threaded holes in the block must be clean to
ensure accurate torque readings during reassembly. Run the proper-size tap into each of the holes to
remove rust, corrosion, thread sealant or sludge, and to restore damaged threads. If possible, use
compressed air to clear the holes of debris produced by this operation. Be sure also that the holes are
dry - any oil or other fluid present could cause the block to be cracked by hydraulic pressure when
the bolts are tightened. Now is a good time to clean the threads on all bolts.
ix. Refit the main bearing caps, and tighten the bolts finger-tight.
x. After coating the sealing surfaces of the new core plugs with a suitable sealant, refit them in the engine
block. Make sure they’re driven in straight and seated properly, or leakage could result. Special tools
are available for this purpose, but a large socket, with an outside diameter that will just slip into the
core plug, a 1/2-inch drive extension, and a hammer, will work just as well.
xi. Apply non-hardening sealant to the new oil gallery plugs, and thread them into the holes in the block.
Make sure they’re tightened securely.
xii. If the engine isn’t going to be reassembled right away, cover it with a large plastic bag
to keep it clean.

ENGINE BLOCK - INSPECTION

• Before the block is inspected, it should be cleaned.
• Visually check the block for cracks, rust and corrosion. Look for stripped threads in the threaded holes.
It’s also a good idea to have the block checked for hidden cracks by a machine shop that has the special
equipment to do this type of work. If defects are found, have the block repaired, if possible; otherwise,
a new block will be required.
• Check the cylinder bores for scuffing and scoring.
• Measure the diameter of each cylinder at the top (just under the wear ridge area), centre and bottom
of the cylinder bore, parallel to the crankshaft axis.
• Next, measure each cylinder’s diameter at the same three locations across the
• crankshaft axis.
• If the required precision measuring tools aren’t available, the piston-to-cylinder clearances can be
obtained, though not quite as accurately, using feeler gauges.

25
• To check the clearance, select a feeler gauge, and slip it into the cylinder along with the matching
piston. The piston must be
• positioned exactly as it normally would be. The feeler gauge must be between the piston and cylinder
on one of the thrust faces (90° to the gudgeon pin bore).
• The piston should slip through the cylinder (with the feeler gauge in place) with moderate pressure.
• If it falls through or slides through easily, the clearance is excessive, and a new piston will be required.
If the piston binds at the lower end of the cylinder and is loose
• toward the top, the cylinder is tapered. If tight spots are encountered as the piston/feeler gauge is
rotated in the cylinder, the cylinder is out-of round.
• Repeat the procedure for the remaining pistons and cylinders.
• If the cylinder walls are badly scuffed or scored, or if they’re out-of-round or tapered beyond the limits
given in the Specifications, have the engine block rebored and honed at a machine shop. If a rebore is
done, oversize pistons and rings will be required.
• If the cylinders are in reasonably good condition and not worn to the outside of the limits, and if the
piston-to-cylinder clearances can be maintained properly, then they don’t have to be rebored.
•
2.5.4.3 THE BRAKING SYSTEM
The braking system in an automobile is used to retard the vehicle in order to either come to a stop or
control the speed in the shortest possible distance whenever required.
The main components that aid the braking of an automobile car among others are;

BRAKE PEDALS

The brake pedal is a simple lever. It is attached at one point to the framework of the automobile, a rod
extends from a point along its length to the master cylinder. It is used to control the brakes from the
operator’s foot.

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BRAKE DISC

The brake disc is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel. A brake disc , usually made
of cast iron or ceramics, is connected to the wheel hub or the axle. The brake disc is sandwiched
between two pistons and friction pads. When the brakes are applied, the pistons clamp the friction
pads against the two side faces to the disc.

MASTER CYLINDER

The master cylinder converts foot-pedal force to hydraulic pressure within the fluid system by means
of the cylinder and piston.

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BRAKE CALIPER

The brake caliper is the assembly which houses the brake pads and pistons. The pistons are usually
made of plastic, aluminum or chrome-plated steel.

BRAKE PADS

The brake pads are designed for high friction with brake pad material embedded in the disc in the
process of bedding while wearing evenly. The brake pads must usually be replaced regularly
(depending on pad material), and some are equipped with a mechanism that alerts drivers that
replacement is needed.

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 ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM (ABS)

The anti-lock braking system is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels on a motor vehicle
to maintain tractive contact with the road surface according to the driver’s input while braking,
preventing the wheel from locking up (ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled skidding.

MAINTENANCE OF THE BRAKING SYSTEM

BRAKE PAD RENEWAL
Brake pad must be renewed on both front wheels and rear wheels at the same time.
This procedure of renewal applies to both front brake disc and back brake disc.
i. Remove the cap from the brake fluid reservoir and siphon off about two-thirds of the fluid from the
reservoir. Failure to do this may result in the reservoir overflowing when the caliper pistons are pressed
back into their bores.
ii. Loosen the wheel bolts, raise the front or rear of the vehicle and support it securely on axle stand.
iii. Remove the front or rear wheels, as applicable. Work on one brake assembly at a time.
iv. Unscrew the caliper mount bolts. Hold the guide pins when loosening the caliper mount bolts.
v. Unplug the electrical connector for the brake pad wear sensors.

29
vi. Remove the plugs for the brake caliper mounting bolts, then remove the bolts.
vii. Prise off the anti-rattle spring. Depress the piston with a C-clamp.
viii. Remove the caliper and inner brake pads.
ix. Hang the caliper out of the way with a piece of wire.
x. Unclip the inner brake pad from the piston.
xi. Remove the outer brake pads, to fit the new pads, reverse the removal procedure.
xii. After the job is completed, depress the brake peal a few times, to bring the pads into contact with the
discs and avoid heavy braking as far as possible for the first hundred miles or so until the new pads
have bedded in.

CALIPER REMOVAL, OVERHAUL AND REFITTING

i. Loosen the wheel bolts, raise the front or rear of the vehicle and place it securely on axle stands.
Remove the wheel.
ii. If you are removing the caliper for access to other components, it isn’t necessary to detach the brake
line. if you are removing the caliper for overhaul, disconnect the brake line from the caliper, for
preference using a split ring (brake) spanner to protect the fitting. Plug the line, to keep contaminants
out of the brake system and to prevent losing brake fluid unnecessarily.
iii. Unplug the electrical connector for the brake pad wear sensor.
iv. Remove the plugs for the brake caliper mounting bolts, then remove the bolts.
v. Prise off the anti-rattle spring.
vi. Press the piston with a C-clamp.
vii. Remove the caliper and inner brake pads.
OVERHAUL
• On all calipers, remove the circlips for the dust seal, then remove the dust boot. Before you
remove the piston, place a block of wood between the piston and caliper to prevent damages
as it is removed.
• To remove the piston from the caliper, apply compressed air to the brake fluid hose connection
on the caliper body.
• Inspect the mating surface of the piston and caliper bore wall. If there is any scoring, pitting or
bright areas, renew the caliper completely.

30
 • If these components are in good condition, remove the piston seal from the caliper bore using
a wooden or plastic tool. Metal tools may damage the cylinder boe.
• Remove the caliper guide pins or bolts and remove the rubber dust boots.
• Wash all the components using methylated spirit or brake system cleaner.
• Using the correct overhaul kit for the vehicle. Reassemble the caliper as follows.
• Dip the new rubber seal in clean brake fluid and refit in the lower groove in the caliper bore,
making sure it isn’t twist.
• Coat the walls of the caliper bore and the piston with clean brake fluid and refit the piston at
the same time. Do not force the piston into the bore, but make sure that it is squarely in place,
then apply firm pressure to refit. Fit the new rubber dust boot and the retaining ring.
• Lubricate the sliding surfaces o the guide pins or bolts with silicone-based grease and push
them into the caliper. Refit the dust boots
• Refit the caliper by reversing the removal procedure.
• If the brake hose was disconnected from the caliper, bleed the brake system.

BRAKE DISC - INSPECTION, REMOVAL AND REFITTING

Note: This procedure applies to both the front and rear brake discs. Brake discs should always be
renewed or refinished in pairs (both front or both rear discs) even if only one is damaged or
defective.
INSPECTION
i. Loosen the wheel bolts, raise the vehicle and support it securely on axle stands.
ii. Remove the wheel, and refit three bolts to hold the disc in place. If the rear brake disc is being
worked on, release the handbrake.
iii. Remove the brake caliper as outlined caliper removal above. It is not necessary to disconnect the
brake hose. After removing the caliper, suspend it out of the way with a piece of wire. Remove the
caliper mounting bracket.
iv. Inspect the disc surface for scoring, cracks or other damage. Light scratches and shallow grooves are
normal after use, and are not usually detrimental to brake operation, but deep scoring requires disc
removal and renewal, if a disc is cracked it must be renewed.
REMOVAL
i. Remove the caliper as outlined in the caliper removal.
ii. Remove the brake disc retaining screw. and remove the disc from the hub.

31
 REFITTING
iii. Ensure that the disc is completely clean before refitting. If penetrating oil was used to remove the disc,
make sure that no trace of this is present. Place the disc on the hub, and refit the disc retaining screw.
Tighten the screw securely.
iv. Refit the caliper mounting bracket (if removed), brake pads and caliper.
v. Refit the wheel, then lower the vehicle to the ground. Depress the brake pedal a few times to bring the
brake pads into contact with the disc.
vi. Adjust the handbrake shoes, if necessary.
vii. Check the operation of the brakes carefully before returning the vehicle to normal service.
Note : All four rear brake shoes must b renewed at the same time, but to avoid mixing up parts, work on
only one brake assembly at a time. Some rear brake components are different for left and right-hand
sides, so don’t mix them up.

1.0 THE SUSPENSION SYSTEM AND STERING SYSTEM

The steering system allows the driver to control the direction of the vehicle travel. This is made
possible by linkage that connects the steering wheel to the steerable wheels and tires. The steering
system may either be power or Manual. When the only energy source for the steering system is the
force the driver applies to the wheel, the vehicle has manual steering. Power steering uses a hydraulic
pump or electric motor to assist the driver’s effort. Most vehicles have power steering to make parking
easier. The basic operation is the same for the manual and power steering. As the driver turns the
steering wheel, the movement carried to the seeing gear increases the mechanical advantage and
changes the rotary motion of the steering wheel into straight line or linear motion. The linear motion
acts through steering linkage or tie rods attached to the steering knuckle arms. The steering knuckles
then pivot inward or outward on ball joins. This moves the wheels and tires to the left or right for
steering.

The designer automobile suspension system are a compromise between softness in ridding and
handling ability, depending upon the manufacturers objective.A properly designed suspension also
produces minimum wear on the tyres and other part of the suspension system.

32
 The functions of the suspension system among others are ;

• Satisfactorily absorb large and small road impact to protect the vehicle occupant from shocks
• Maintain an even keel for the vehicle body when travelling over rough ground or when cornering, to
minimize pitch and roll
• Reduce the unsprung mass (that is the part of the total mass which is not suspended) to a minimum to
allow the wheels to follow the contour of the road surface more closely and
• Reduce the impact stress on the various mechanisms of the vehicle
The suspension system is located between d wheel axles and the vehicle body of frame. The wheels
of a vehicle are either mounted conventionally on a spring-suspended axles or suspended
independently on spring.
The following describes a few of the component of the suspension and steering system.

SPRING
The main objective of a spring is to support the weight of the vehicle and its load, and absorb road
shocks. The springs keeps the wheels bouncing up and down after the pass through bumps or holes.
TYPES OF SPRINGS
There are four types of springs used in automotive suspension system
I. Coil spring
II. Leaf spring
III. Torsion spring

IV. Air spring

I. COIL OR HELCAL SPRING

33
 The coil spring is made of a length of round spring steel rod wound into a coil, some coil springs are
made from a tapered rod. As the spring is comprised, its resistance to further compression increases.
The coil spring often find application with independent suspension.

II. AIR SPRING

The air spring is a rubber cylinder or air bag filled with compressed air. A plastic piston on the lower
control arm moves up and down with the lower control arm. This causes the compressed air to provide
spring action. If the load of the vehicle changes, a valve at the top of the air bag opens to add or release
air. An air compressor connected to the valves keeps the air springs inflated.

SHOCK ABSORBER

A shock absorber is a tubular hydraulic device placed near each wheel to control of dampen spring
oscillations. One end of the shock absorber attaches to the vehicle body of frame. The other end

34
attaches to a moving suspension part such as the axle housing or control arm. Movement of the spring
then causes the shock absorber to lengthen and shortened. The main purpose of the shock absorber is
to dampen spring oscillation and not to support the weight of the vehicle, nor does it affect the vehicle
height.

STABILIZER BAR/LINK

A stabilizer bar or link helps control body roll when cornering or driving on rough or uneven surfaces.
It usually connects between the two lower arms. It has no effect while the vehicle is travelling straight
ahead on a smooth surface.

POWER STEERING

Power steering also known as power assisted steering (PAS) helps drivers steer by augmenting steering
effort to the steering wheel. Hydraulic or electric actuators add controlled energy to the steering system

35
 mechanism, so the driver needs to provide only modest effort regardless of conditions. Power steering
helps considerably when a vehicle is stopped or moving slowly. Also, power steering provides some
feedbacks of forces acting on the front wheels to give an ongoing sense on how the wheels are
interacting with the road.

v MAINTENANCE OF THE SUSPENSION SYSTEM

The maintenance of some of the parts above is described as follows;

v STRUT OR SHOCK ABSORBER/COIL SPRING – REMOVAL ,RENEWAL AND

REFITTING

REMOVAL
Note: Although strut assemblies don’t always fail or wear out simultaneously, renew both left and right
struts at the same time, to prevent handling peculiarities or abnormal ride quality.
i. Loosen but do not remove the front wheel bolts.
ii. Raise the front of the vehicle and support it on axle stands.
iii. Remove the front wheel.
iv. Detach all brake hoses and electrical wires attached to the strut housing.
v. If you’re removing the left strut, disconnect the electrical connector for the brake pad wear sensor.
vi. Remove the brake disc and remove the brake splash shield
vii. Disconnect the anti-roll bar link from the strut housing.
viii. Disconnect the bolts that attach the steering arm to the strut housing .
ix. Pull out the lower end of the strut housing far enough to clear the end of the control arm or the steering
arm.
x. Support the weight of the strut and remove the three mounting nuts at the top of the strut, located
inside the engine compartment and remove the strut.
xi. Remove the strut assembly. If a new shock absorber is being fitted.
RENEWAL
• Prise the protective cap off the damper rod self-locking nut. Loosen the nut with a spanner while
holding the damper rod stationary with another spanner or an Allen key.
• Remove the nut, the strut bearing, the insulator and the large washer. Check the bearing for smooth
operation. If it doesn’t turn

36
 • Smoothly, renew it. Check the rubber insulator for cracking and general deterioration.
• If there is any separation of the rubber, renew the insulator.
• Lift off the spring retainer and the rubber ring at the top of the spring.
• Check the rubber ring for cracking and hardness. Renew it if necessary.
• Carefully lift the compressed spring from the assembly and set it in a safe place, such as a steel
cabinet. Never place your head near the end of the spring.
• Slide the protective tube and rubber bumper off the damper rod. If either is damaged or worn,
renew it.
• If you’re working on a front strut, loosen and remove the threaded collar and pull the old strut
cartridge from the strut housing. Pour the old oil from the strut housing.

REFITTING
Refitting is the reverse of removal.
When you’re done, drive the vehicle to a dealer service department or qualified garage and have the
wheel alignment checked, and if necessary, adjusted.

FRONT HUB AND WHEEL BEARING ASSEMBLY -REMOVAL AND REFITTING

Note: Removing the front hub/bearing assembly renders it unfit for re-use. A new assembly will be required
for refitting.
REMOVAL
i. Loosen the wheel bolts, then raise the front of the vehicle, and support it securely on axle stands.
Remove the wheel bolts and the wheel.
ii. Using a hammer and chisel, remove the dust cap from the centre of the wheel hub. iii. Unstake
the hub nut .
iv. Refit the wheel and lower the vehicle to the ground. Loosen, but do not remove, the hub nut.
v. Raise the front of the vehicle, support it securely on axle stands, and remove the front wheel again.
vi. Remove the front brake caliper and mounting bracket. There is no need to disconnect the brake hose.
Hang the caliper out of the way with a piece of wire.
vii. Remove the brake disc .
viii. Remove the hub nut, and pull the hub and bearing assembly off the stub axle. You may
have to tap it off if it’s stuck.

37
 REFITTING
i. Fit a new dust shield.
ii. Push the new hub and bearing onto the stub axle. If it’s necessary to use force, press or drive only
against the bearing inner race.
iii. Fit a new hub nut, and tighten it finger tight at this stage.
iv. Refit the brake disc, its countersunk retaining screw, and the brake caliper.
v. Refit the wheel and lower the vehicle to the ground.
vi. Tighten the hub nut. Again, make sure you do this with the vehicle on the ground, not up on axle
stands.
vii. Lower the vehicle to the ground. Run the engine and again turn the wheels from lock to- lock several
more times Recheck the fluid level. Position the wheels straight-ahead.

POWER STEERING SYSTEM - BLEEDING

i. This procedure will only be necessary when any part of the hydraulic system has been disconnected.
ii. Remove the fluid reservoir filler cap, and top-up with the specified fluid to the maximum level mark.
iii. With the engine stopped, slowly move the steering from lock-to-lock several times to purge out the
trapped air, then top-up the level in the fluid reservoir. Repeat this procedure until the fluid level in
the reservoir does not drop any further.
iv. Start the engine, then slowly move the steering from lock-to-lock several times to purge out any
remaining air in the system. Repeat this procedure until bubbles cease to appear in the fluid
reservoir.
v. If, when turning the steering, an abnormal noise is heard from the fluid lines, it indicates that there is
still air in the system, further bleeding is necessary.
vi. Once all traces of air have been removed from the power steering hydraulic system, turn the engine
off and allow the system to cool. Once cool, check that fluid level is up to the maximum mark on the
power steering fluid reservoir, topping-up if necessary.

2.5.4.5 FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM

The fuel supply system is designed to provide adequate supply of fuel under sufficient pressure for all
operating conditions of an internal combustion engine.

38
The fuel injection method of supplying fuel is a method or system for metering fuel into an internal
combustion engine. The fuel is then burned in air to produce heat, which is in turn converted to
mechanical work by the engine. In modern automotive applications, fuel injection is typically only
one of several important tasks performed by an engine management system.
Some of the various components of the fuel supply system re described below;

FUEL PUMP

The fuel pump is located on the engine and pulls fuel from the tank to the carburetor under low pressure
or to the fuel injection system under high pressure.

FUEL FILTERS

A fuel system has several filters. The primary one is generally a screen or sock located in the fuel tank.
The second one is either an in line type of a carburetor inlet type.

FUEL TANK
The fuel tank is made up of sheet metal, fiber glass or plastic. It has two main openings. Fuel is pumped
through one opening and out through the other opening.

39
INTAKE MANIFOLD

The intake manifold is designed to deliver an equal amount of air-fuel mixture to each of the engine’s
cylinder. Intake manifold mounting surfaces and gaskets must be leak proof. No outside air must be
allowed to enter past any connection into the manifold runner. The entry of air upsets the air-fuel
mixture, produces a lean condition and can cause rough idle.

NOZZLES OR FUEL INJECTORS

Fuel injectors, or fuel-injection valves, are fluid-control valves. They are either open or closed. The
fuel pump sends fuel under constant pressure to the injectors. On the system each cylinder receives
fuel from its own injector. This is a port injection system. At the proper time for fuel delivery, the
electronic control module (ECM) trms on each injector. This opens the valve in the end of the injector.
The pressurized fuel then sprays out into the air entering the cylinder.

40
 Fuel delivery continues as long as the valve is open. The time is computed and controlled by the ECM.
When the proper amount of fuel has sprayed out, the ECM turns off the injector. The valve closes and
fuel delivery stops.

AIR FILTER OR CLEANER

The functions of the air cleaner are as follow;
• Filters dirt and abrasives from the engine intake air
• Acts as a flame arrestor in case of engine backfire
• Serves as an air silencer
• Is often used to control intake air temperature.

MAINTENANCE OF FUEL SYSTEM

FUEL INJECTORS - CHECK AND RENEWAL CHECK-IN-VEHICLE CHECK

i. Check for a clicking sound at each of the injectors while the engine is idling.
ii. The injectors should make a steady clicking sound if they are operating properly.
iii. Increase the engine speed above 3500 rpm. The frequency of the clicking sound should rise with
engine speed.
iv. If an injector isn’t functioning (not clicking), purchase a special injector test light and connect it to the
injector electrical connector. Start the engine and make sure the light flashes. If it does, the injector is
receiving the proper voltage, so the injector itself must be faulty.
v. Unplug each injector connector, and check the resistance of the injector. Renew any that do not give
the correct resistance reading.
RENEWAL
vi. Unplug the main electrical connector for the fuel injector wiring harness. Remove the intake
manifold.
vii. Detach the fuel hoses from the fuel rail, and remove the fuel rail mounting bolt.
viii. Lift the fuel rail/injector assembly from the intake manifold.
ix. Unplug the electrical connectors from the fuel injectors. Detach the injectors from the fuel rail.
x. Refitting is the reverse of removal. Be sure to renew all O-rings. Coat the O-rings with a light film of
engine oil to prevent damage during refitting. Pressurize the fuel system (refit the fuel pump fuse
and switch on the ignition) and check for leaks before starting the engine.

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 FUEL TANK - REMOVAL AND REFITTING
Warning: Fuel is extremely flammable, so take extra precautions when you work on any part of the
fuel system. Don’t smoke, or allow open flames or bare light bulbs, near the work area.
Also, don’t work in a garage where a natural gas-type appliance with a pilot light is present. When
you perform any kind of work on the fuel system, wear safety glasses, and have a fire extinguisher
on hand. If you spill any fuel on your skin, clean it off immediately with soap and water.
Note: To avoid draining large amounts of fuel, make sure the fuel tank is nearly empty (if possible)
before beginning this procedure.
REMOVAL
i. Remove the fuel tank filler cap to relieve fuel tank pressure.
ii. On fuel injection CARS, depressurize the fuel system.
iii. Detach the battery negative cable.
iv. Remove the tank drain plug and drain the fuel into an approved fuel container. If no drain plug is
fitted, it should be possible to siphon the fuel out (not by mouth), otherwise the fuel will have to be
drained during the removal operation.
v. Unplug the fuel pump/sender unit electrical connector (as applicable) and detach the fuel feed, return
and vapour hoses. Where applicable, remove the rear seat cushion for access.
vi. Remove the fuel tank shield.
vii. Detach the fuel filler neck and breather hoses.
viii. Raise and support the vehicle. On some models, it will also be necessary to remove the exhaust system
and propeller shaft.
ix. Support the tank with a trolley jack. Position a block of wood between the jack head and the fuel tank
to protect the tank.
x. Remove the mounting bolts at the corners of the fuel tank, and unbolt the retaining straps (see
illustrations). Pivot the straps down until they’re hanging out of the way.
xi. Lower the tank just enough so you can see the top, and make sure you have detached everything.
Finish lowering the tank, and remove it from the vehicle.
xii. Refitting is the reverse of removal.

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 FUEL TANK CLEANING AND REPAIR
xiii. All repairs to the fuel tank or filler neck should be carried out by a professional who has experience
in this critical and potentially dangerous work. Even after cleaning and flushing of the fuel system,
explosive fumes can remain and ignite during repair of the tank.
xiv. If the fuel tank is removed from the vehicle, it should not be placed in an area where sparks or open
flames could ignite the fumes coming out of the tank. Be especially careful inside garages where a
natural gas-type appliance is located, because the pilot light could cause an explosion.

2.5.4.8 THE COOLING AND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

In the process of combustion and friction between the various moving parts of the engine, substantial
amounts of heat is generated which needs to be dissipated in order to maintain safe temperatures for
engine and various systems to work properly. Broadly speaking, the automobile may neither be air
cooled or water cooled. In the case of an air cooled engine, the engine is mounted such that air passes
through it when automobile is in motion. The passing over of the engine block ensures it cooling.
However, this type of cooling is effective only for smaller engines like those used in scooters of
motorbikes. Bigger engines are generally water cooled. In this system, water is circulated through a
water jacket in the engine block with the aid of a pump. The water while it passes through the engine
block carries with it the heat of combustion. This heat is then dissipated through a radiator placed in
front of the vehicle.
Automobile air conditioning (also called A/C) systems cool the occupants of a vehicle in hot
weather.

Some of the basic components of the cooling and ac system are discussed below;

RADIATOR

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In automobiles with an internal combustion engine, a radiator is connected to channels running through
the engine and cylinder head
, through which is pumped a liquid. This liquid is typically mixture of water and ethylene glycol (a.k.a
antifreeze). The fluid moves in a closed system from the radiator to the engine, where it conducts heat
away from the engine parts and carries the heat primarily to the radiator. The radiator is typically
mounted behind the vehicle’s grille, with cold air driven through the radiator to cool the engine.
Between the engine and the radiator lies the thermostat, a temperature operated valve. It remains
closed, restricting coolant flow, until the engine reaches the thermostat’s activation temperature. This
arrangement allows the engine temperature to be maintained in the ideal operating range.
COMPRESSOR

A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.
Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the
fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas.
Liquids are relatively incompressible; while some can be compressed, the main action of a pump is
to pressurize and transport liquids.

EVAPORATOR
An evaporator is a device used to turn the liquid form of a chemical into its gaseous form. The liquid
is evaporated, or vaporized, into a gas. An evaporator is used in an air-conditioning system to allow
a compressed cooling chemical, such as R-22 (Freon) or R-410A, to evaporate from liquid to gas
while absorbing heat in the process

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 v CONDENSER

In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used to condense a substance from
its gaseous to its liquid state, typically by cooling it. In so doing, the latent heat is given up by the
substance, and will transfer to the condenser coolant.

EXPANSION VALVE
AN expansion valve is a component in refrigeration and air conditioning systems that controls the
amount of refrigerant flow into the evaporator thereby controlling the superheating at the outlet of
the evaporator.

MAINTENANCE OF THE COOLING SYSTEM

RADIATOR - REMOVAL AND REFITTING
Warning: Wait until the engine is completely cool before beginning this procedure.
Note: If the radiator is being removed because it is leaking, note that minor leaks can often be
repaired without removing the radiator, using a radiator sealant.
REMOVAL
i. Disconnect the battery negative cable.
ii. Drain the cooling system. If the coolant is relatively new, or in good condition, save it and re-use it.
iii. Loosen the hose clamps, then detach the hoses from the radiator.
iv. Disconnect the reservoir hose from the radiator filler neck.
v. If the vehicle has automatic transmission, disconnect the fluid cooler lines from the radiator. Use a
drip tray to catch spilled fluid. Plug the fluid cooler lines and fittings.

45
vi. Disconnect the coolant sensors located on the radiator. The thermostatically- controlled switches for
high- and low-speed operation of the auxiliary fan are located in the radiator tanks, in various locations
depending on engine and model.
vii. Remove the radiator mounting bolt(s). The mountings are either on the top or sides of the Radiator.
viii. Carefully lift out the radiator from the bottom mountings, taking care not to damage the cooling
fins. Don’t spill coolant on the vehicle, or scratch the paint.
ix. With the radiator removed, it can be inspected for leaks and damage. If it needs repair, have a
specialist perform the work, as special techniques are required.
x. Flies and dirt can be removed from the radiator with compressed air and a soft brush.
xi. Don’t bend the cooling fins as this is done.
xii. Check the radiator mountings for deterioration, and renew if necessary .
REFITTING
• Refitting is the reverse of the removal procedure.
• After refitting, fill the cooling system with the proper mixture of antifreeze and water.
• Start the engine and check for leaks. Allow the engine to reach normal operating temperature,
indicated by the upper radiator hose becoming hot. Recheck the coolant level, and add more if
required.
• If you’re working on an automatic transmission model, check and add transmission fluid as
needed.

AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM - PRECAUTIONS AND MAINTENANCE PRECAUTIONS

Warning: The air conditioning system is under high pressure.
DO NOT loosen any hose or line fittings, or remove any components, until after the system has been
discharged. Air conditioning refrigerant should be properly discharged by a qualified refrigeration
engineer. The refrigerant used in the system must not be allowed into contact with your skin or eyes,
or there is a risk of frostbite. Should the refrigerant come into contact with a naked flame, a
poisonous gas will be produced. Smoking in the presence of refrigerant is therefore highly
dangerous, particularly if refrigerant vapour is inhaled through a lighted cigarette. The refrigerant is
heavier than air, and it may cause suffocation if discharged in an enclosed space such as a domestic
garage. Finally, uncontrolled release of the refrigerant causes environmental damage, by contributing
to the “greenhouse effect”.

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 MAINTENANCE
i. The following maintenance checks should be performed on a regular basis to ensure
the air conditioner continues to operate at peak efficiency:
a. Check the drivebelt. If it’s worn or deteriorated, renew it (see Chapter 1).
b. Check the system hoses. Look for cracks, bubbles, hard spots and deterioration. Inspect the hoses and
all fittings for oil bubbles and seepage. If there’s any evidence of wear, damage or leaks, have new
hose(s) fitted.
c. Inspect the condenser fins for leaves, flies and other debris. Use a “fin comb” or compressed air to
clean the condenser.
d. Make sure the system has the correct refrigerant charge, as described below.
ii. It’s a good idea to operate the system for about 10 minutes at least once a month,
particularly during the winter. Long-term non-use can cause hardening, and subsequent failure, of the
seals.
iii. The most common cause of poor cooling is simply a low system refrigerant charge. If
a noticeable loss of cool air output occurs, the following quick check may help you determine if the
refrigerant level is low.
iv. Warm the engine up to normal operating temperature.
v. Set the air conditioning temperature selector at the coldest setting, and put the
blower at the highest setting. Open the doors (to make sure the air conditioning system doesn’t switch
off as soon as it cools the passenger compartment).
vi. With the compressor engaged – the compressor clutch will make an audible click,
and the centre of the clutch will rotate – feel the tube located adjacent to the right front frame rail, near
the radiator.
vii. If a significant temperature drop is noticed, the refrigerant level is probably OK.
viii. If the inlet line has frost accumulation, or feels cooler than the receiver-drier surface,
the refrigerant charge is low. Recharging the system should be carried out by a qualified refrigeration
engineer.

AIR CONDITIONING COMPRESSOR - REMOVAL AND REFITTING

REMOVAL
i. Have the air conditioning system discharged (see Warning above).

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ii. Disconnect the battery negative cable.
iii. Disconnect the compressor clutch wiring harness.
iv. Remove the drivebelt.
v. Disconnect the refrigerant lines from the rear of the compressor. Plug the open fittings to prevent entry
of dirt and moisture.
vi. Unbolt the compressor from the mounting bracket, and lift it up and out of the vehicle.

REFITTING

vii. If a new compressor is being fitted, follow any instructions supplied with the compressor regarding
the draining of excess oil prior to fitting.
viii. The clutch may have to be transferred to the new compressor.
ix. Refitting is the reverse of removal. All O-rings should be replaced with new ones specifically made
for use in air conditioning systems. Lubricate them with refrigerant oil when fitting.
x. Have the system evacuated, recharged and leak-tested by the qualified engineer who discharged it.

AIR CONDITIONING CONDENSER - REMOVAL AND REFITTING REMOVAL

i. Have the air conditioning system Discharged.
ii. Remove the radiator.
iii. Remove the radiator grille.
iv. Unbolt the auxiliary fan from the air conditioning condenser mounting brackets.
v. Disconnect the refrigerant lines from the condenser.
vi. Remove the mounting bolts from the condenser brackets.
vii. Lift the condenser out of the vehicle, and plug the lines to keep dirt and moisture out.
viii. If the original condenser is being refitted, store it with the line fittings uppermost, to prevent

oil from draining out.

REFITTING

Refit the components in the reverse order of removal. Be sure the rubber pads are in place under the
condenser.
Have the system evacuated, recharged and leak-tested by the qualified engineer who discharged it.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

The period of the industrial training was very enlightening, but not without challenges.

The following are some of the challenges encountered during the period of the raining:

v I wasn’t giving an in-depth training because I was seen as a temporary staff.

v I had limited access to some of the relevant materials, manuals and equipments because I wasn’t a full
time staff of the company.
v Transportation cost and traffic jam experienced on my way to work every working day.

3.2 RELEVANCE OF THE SIWES PROGRAM

The relevance of SIWES can never be over-emphasized.

• The industrial training enhances a formal relationship between trainee and the members of
staff/management of the company, the student’s attitude to work is monitored closely and may be given
job opportunity in the company after graduation.
• Provides an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire industrial skills and
experience in their approved courses;
• Prepare students for the industrial works situation which they are likely to meet after graduation;
• Expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and machinery not available
in their institutions;
• Provide students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge in real work situation thereby bridging
the gap between theories and practices;

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 CONCLUSION

The SIWES program was indeed educative and industrious to me because I had the opportunity to
blend some of the theories I learnt in school with the practical work done in the industry, it has giving
me an in-depth understanding of mechanical engineering (Automotive engineering).

The program also, needs some improvements to effectively and efficiently achieve the purpose why it
was set up.

4.2 GENERAL APPRAISAL OF THE PROGRAM

4.2.1 WAYS OF IMPROVING THE PROGRAM
• Comprehensive list of all the students to participate yearly in the program should be compiled and
made available to the SIWES unit at least six months before the training.
• SIWES should take charge of posting students to the various companies relevant to their course of
study.
• Companies/establishments should be responsible for students transportation and welfare of the
students posted to them and also, stipends should be giving to students as a way of encouragement to
enable them put in their best to the work.
• A weekly report of the students should be sent to their various SIWES units for effective monitoring
and the students should be supervised regularly by their institutions.
• All companies/establishments should endeavor to provide the necessary equipment/facilities for use
by the students attached to them.

4.2.2 ADVICE FOR THE FUTURE PARTICIPANTS

• Future participants should endeavor to search for placement in time.
• The should be made to understand the training is a course and not an avenue for money making.
• They should also note that the program is to expose them to practical skill.
• The program should serve as breeding ground for what they should expect after graduation.
• Finally, the program should be taken serious as one can carry it over due to poor performance.

4.2.3 ADVICE FOR SIWES MANAGEMENT

• SIWES managers should ensure that students attend the orientation prior to the training.
• They should assist students in getting industrial placements.
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• They should ensure that the students are properly supervised and well taken care of in their place of
attachment.
• The managers of SIWES should endeavor to pay the students their dues allowance early enough to
assist their financial requirements.

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 REFERENCE

i. Bruce, J.B (1970) Workshop Processes, Practices and Materials, Edward Anorld (Publishers) LTD.
ii. Brain, Marshall (5th April, 2000). ‘’How Car Engines Work’’
iii. Ellingner, Hertbert E. (1974). Automotive Engines iv.
iv. J.B. Heywood, ‘’Principle of Internal Combustion Engine’’
v. james d. Halderman (4th edition), Automotive Technology. vi.
vi. Cranaswick, Marc (2011). The Cars of American Motors: an illustrated history.
McFarland. p.80

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