MODULE – 5

BIOMASS GASIFICATION
Biomass gasification is a mature technology pathway that uses a controlled process involving
heat, steam, and oxygen to convert biomass to hydrogen and other products, without
combustion
Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil-based carbonaceous materials at high
temperatures (>700°C), without combustion, with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or
steam into carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide.
The carbon monoxide then reacts with water to form carbon dioxide and more hydrogen via a
water-gas shift reaction.
Adsorbers or special membranes can separate the hydrogen from this gas stream.
Biomass with a moisture content of 10% to 20% is typically recommended to produce
syngas with a high heating value. (Syngas, or synthesis gas, is a mixture of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide, in various ratios)
BIOETHANOL
The principle fuel used as a petrol substitute for road transport vehicles is bioethanol.
Bioethanol fuel is mainly produced by the sugar fermentation process, although it can also be
manufactured by the chemical process of reacting ethylene with steam.
The main sources of sugar required to produce ethanol come from fuel or energy crops.These
crops are grown specifically for energy use and include corn, maize and wheat crops, waste
straw, willow and popular trees, sawdust, reed canary grass, cord grasses, Jerusalem
artichoke, miscanthus and sorghum plants.
Ethanol or ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) is a clear colourless liquid, it is biodegradable, low in
toxicity and causes little environmental pollution if spilt.
Ethanol burns to produce carbon dioxide and water.
Ethanol is a high octane fuel and has replaced lead as an octane enhancer in petrol.
By blending ethanol with gasoline we can also oxygenate the fuel mixture so it burns more
completely and reduces polluting emissions.
Benefits
It comes from a renewable resource i.e. crops and not from a finite resource.
Another benefit over fossil fuels is the greenhouse gas emissions.
In addition, by using bioethanol in older engines can help reduce the amount of carbon
monoxide produced by the vehicle thus improving air quality.
Another advantage of bioethanol is the ease with which it can be easily integrated into the
existing road transport fuel system.
Production
Ethanol can be produced from biomass by the hydrolysis and sugar fermentation processes.
Biomass wastes contain a complex mixture of carbohydrate polymers from the plant cell
walls known as cellulose, hemi cellulose and lignin. In order to produce sugars from the
biomass, the biomass is pre-treated with acids or enzymes in order to reduce the size of the
feedstock and to open up the plant structure. The cellulose and the hemi cellulose portions are
broken down (hydrolysed) by enzymes or dilute acids into sucrose sugar that is then
fermented into ethanol. The lignin which is also present in the biomass is normally used as a
fuel for the ethanol production plants boilers. There are three principle methods of extracting
sugars from biomass. These are concentrated acid hydrolysis, dilute acid hydrolysis and
enzymatic hydrolysis
BIODIESEL
Biodiesel is an alternative clean-burning renewable fuel similar to conventional diesel. It is
produced using animal fats, vegetable oils, and waste cooking oil. Due to its biodegradable
nature, it is used as a replacement for fossil diesel fuel. It can also be mixed with petroleum
diesel fuel in any proportion.
Features:- 1) Biodegradable and Renewable Fuel. 2) Safer to use and has low toxicity
compared to fossil diesel fuel. 3) Lower exhaust emission rate than normal diesel fuel. 4) As
per ASTM D 6751 quality parameters, the quality of diesel is analyzed. 5) Using biodiesel
doesn’t require any diesel engine modification.
Production:- Biodiesel is produced from tallow, vegetable oil or animal fat, and waste oils. •
There are three stages of this transformation of oil and fats to biodiesel. a) Transesterification
of the oil in which it is base-catalyzed. b) The direct acid-catalyzed transesterification c)
Finally conversion of oil to fatty acid and then the formation of biodiesel.
Benefits:- 1. Biodiesel and biodiesel blends are used in almost all diesel engines and vehicles.
2. It is a carbon-neutral liquid, which means that the combustion of biodiesel never produces
the net output of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide like other mineral diesel. 3. In 2007,
British Royal Train ran its train with 100% biodiesel fuel. 4. Used as heating oil – In many
commercial & domestic boilers, biodiesel is also used as heating fuel.
BIOGAS PRODUCTION FROM WASTE BIOMASS
Biogas is a mixture of gases that are produced as a result of the breakdown of organic
matter,occuring in the absence of oxygen i.e. in anaerobic condition. Biogas can be produced
from raw materials like plant material, agricultural waste, manure. The raw material used for
biogas production is crushed and made into smaller pieces. Then water is added to it to
convert it into a slurry for ease of digestion of the materials. Biogas production is mediated
by microorganisms such as-methanogens. Certain microorganisms need slight warmer
conditions for their action hence it is heated to about 37 degrees.The slurry will be acted by
the microorganisms in a large biogas tank.It takes 3 weeks for anaerobic digestion of slurry.
After the production of biogas, purification is done to remove the impurities and carbon
dioxide.
Production of biogas by anaerobic process involves 4 steps. • They include- hydrolysis,
acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis.
 In Hydrolysis, organics materials contains mainly carbohydrate mainly in the form of
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. These have very complex structure which is not suitable
for absorption. So, these matters are converted into simple soluble materials by the action of
cellulolytic or hydrolytic bacteria. Concentration of bacteria in the organic materials,
temperature and pH controls the rate of hydrolysis. pH between 6 to 7 and temperature
between 30-40 degree Celsius is good for bacteria to work.
In acidogenesis, these simpler components are converted into organic acids.
The acetogenesis involves the production of acetic acid by using the oxygen present and
creates an anaerobic condition for methane production.
In methanogenesis, methanogens are involved in the production of methane gas and carbon
dioxide. Methanogenic bacteria turns the acid into methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen,
nitrogen and oxygen. The methane content is 60%. It has high calorific value and are also
very good for combustion and producing energy.
• The typical composition of biogas is Methane –
CH4 (55 - 65 %)
Carbon dioxide CO2 (30-40%)
H2 , H2S , N2 (< 10%)

Various Factors Affecting the Production of Biogas

The rate of production of biogas depends on the following factors:
1.Temperature and pressure
 The process of anaerobic fermentation and methane forming bacteria works best in
the temperature range of 25°C-55°C and pressure of about (1.1-1.2) bar absolute. The
rate of gas production increases with the increase in temperature but the percentage of
methane reduces.
 It is found that temperatures 35°C-38°C are best for methane production. If the
temperatures are lower than 20°C (as in case of cold countries and in winters) the rate
of gas production falls sharply and it almost ceases at about 10°C.
 Thus, in cold climates, it is necessary to heat the digester to about 35°C.
2. Solid concentration and loading rate :
 The cow dung, water and various organic residues from agricultural waste are
supplied as feed to the digester. The proportions recommended are : b Cow
dung+solid waste 1 : 1 by weight and forming to about 10% of solid content and 90%
of water.
 The amount of feed supply per day to the digester is called loading rate. It is
dependent on the size of the plant
 The recommended loading rate is about 0.2 kg/m 3 of digester capacity. The
underloading and overloading reduces the biogas production.
  The loading of feed must be carried out every day at the same time so as to keep the
solid concentration ratio constant in the digester.
3. Retention period :
 It represents the time period for which the fermentable material remains inside the
digester. This period ranges from 35 days to 50 days depending upon the climatic
conditions and location of the digester.
 The longer retention period needs larger size digester and it allows more complete
digestion of feed.
4. pH value or Hydrogen ion concentration :
 pH value indicates the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
 pH value in the range 0-7 represents acidic solution and in the range 7-14 indicates
the alkaline solution. In the initial stages of acid forming stage of digestion, the pH
value may be around 6 or less, however during methane formation stage the pH value
higher than 7 is maintained since methane formers are sensitive to acidity.
 For above reasons the optimum pH value of digester solution between 7 to 8 is
recommended for biogas formation.
5. Nutrients concentration :
 The major nutrients required by the bacteria in the digester are N 2, P, S, C, H2, O2 to
accelerate the anaerobic digestion rate. Thus it is necessary that the major nutrients
are supplied in correct chemical form and concentrations.
 The carbon in carbohydrates supplies the energy and the nitrogen in proteins is
needed for building of growth of bacteria. C : N ratio need to be supplied in the ratio
of 30 : 1 with 2% phosphorous for maximum biological activity. Thus, for
acceleration fermentation and production of biogas nutrients like C, P, N 2 are are
needed.. Oil cakes and animal urine are found to be suitable nutrients for this purpose.
6. Toxic substances :
 The presence of ammonia, pesticides, detergents, heavy metals are considered as toxic
substance to micro-organisms since their presence reduces the fermentation rate. Also
the digested slurry if allowed to remain in digester beyond certain time, it becomes
toxic to micro-organism growth.
7. Digester size and shape :
 It is found that the biogas production per unit volume of digester is high when its
diameter to depth ratio ranges between 0.66 to 1.
8. Stirring or agitation of the content of digester :
 Since bacteria in the digester has very limited reach to their food, it is necessary that
the slurry is properly mixed and bacteria get their food supply.
 It is found that occasional mixing allows the masses that float at the top in the form of
scum allows to mix with the deposits at the bottom. It helps in improving the fermentation
process.

FIXED DOME TYPE BIOGAS PLANT

Also known as Janata Model.it has an economical design where the digester is combined with
a dome-shaped gas holder.
The composite unit is made of brick and cement masonry having no moving parts, thus
ensuring no wear and tear and longer work life.
When gas is produced, the pressure in the dome changes from 0 to 100 cm of water column.
It regulates gas distribution and outflow of spent slurry.
The plant consists of an underground well sort of digester made of bricks and cement having
a dome shaped roof which remains below the ground level.
At almost middle of the digester, there are two rectangular openings facing each other and
coming up to a little above the ground level, act as an inlet and outlet of the plant.
Dome shaped roof is fitted with a pipe at its top which is the gas outlet of the plant.
The biogas is collected in the restricted space of the fixed dome; hence the pressure of gas is
much higher, which is around 90 cm of water column.
The principle of gas production is same as that of KVIC model.
Substrates other than cattle dung such as municipal waste and plant residues can also be used
in Janata type plants.
This model has a higher capacity when compared with KVIC model, hence it can be used as a
community biogas plant.
This design has longer life than KVIC models

FLOATING DRUM TYPE BIOGAS PLANT

A popular model developed by Khadi Village Industries Commission(KVIC) was
standardized in 1961.
This mainly consists of a digester or pit for fermentation and a floating drum for the
collection of gas. Digester is 3.5-6.5 m in depth and 1.2 to 1.6 m in diameter.
There is a partition wall in the centre, which divides the digester vertically and submerges in
the slurry when it is full.
The digester is connected to the inlet and outlet by two pipes. Through the inlet, the dung is
mixed with water (4:5) and loaded into the digester. The fermented material will flow out
through outlet pipe. The outlet is generally connected to a compost pit.
The gas generation takes place slowly and in two stages. In the first stage, the complex,
organic substances contained in the waste are acted upon by a certain kind of bacteria, called
acid formers and broken up into small-chain simple acids. In the second stage, these acids are
acted upon by another kind of bacteria, called methane formers and produce methane and
carbon dioxide.
CONSTRUCTION
It comprises an underground cylindrical masonary digester having an inlet pipe for feeding
animal dung slurry and an outlet pipe for sludge. There is a steel dome for gas collection
which floats over the slurry. This is cylindrical concave shape. It moves up and down
depending upon and discharge of gas guided by the dome guide shaft.
A partition wall is provided in the digester to improve circulation, necessary for fermentation.
The floating gas holder builds gas pressure of about 10 cm of water column, sufficient to
supply gas up to 100 metre.Gas pressure also forces out the spent slurry through a sludge pipe

Hydrogen Fuel
Hydrogen is a clean fuel that, when consumed in a fuel cell, produces only water. Hydrogen
can be produced from a variety of domestic resources, such as natural gas, nuclear power,
biomass, and renewable power like solar and wind. These qualities make it an attractive fuel
option for transportation and electricity generation applications. It can be used in cars, in
houses, for portable power, and in many more applications.
Hydrogen fuel can be produced through several methods
THERMAL PROCESSES
Thermal processes for hydrogen production typically involve steam reforming, a high
temperature process in which steam reacts with a hydrocarbon fuel to produce hydrogen.
Many hydrocarbon fuels can be reformed to produce hydrogen, including natural gas, diesel,
renewable liquid fuels, gasified coal, or gasified biomass. Today, about 95% of all hydrogen
is produced from steam reforming of natural gas.
SOLAR-DRIVEN PROCESSES
Solar-driven processes use light as the agent for hydrogen production.There are a few solar-
driven processes, including photobiological, photoelectrochemical, and solar
thermochemical. Photobiological processes use the natural photosynthetic activity of bacteria
and green algae to produce hydrogen.Photoelectrochemical processes use specialized
semiconductors to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen. Solar thermochemical hydrogen
production uses concentrated solar power to drive water splitting reactions often along with
other species such as metal oxides.
BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Biological processes use microbes such as bacteria and microalgae and can produce hydrogen
through biological reactions. In microbial biomass conversion, the microbes break down
organic matter like biomass or wastewater to produce hydrogen, while in photobiological
processes the microbes use sunlight as the energy source.
ELECTROLYTIC PROCESSES
Water can be separated into oxygen and hydrogen through a process called
electrolysis.Electrolytic processes take place in an electrolyzer, which functions much like a
fuel cell in reverse—instead of using the energy of a hydrogen molecule, like a fuel cell does,
an electrolyzer creates hydrogen from water molecules.
ECONOMIC ANALYISIS
Initial costs in accounting refer to the expenses incurred by a business in the process of
starting up or initializing a new project, product, or service.

A fixed cost is constant, independent of the output or activity level. The annual cost of
property taxes for a production facility is a fixed cost, independent of the production level
and number of employees.
A variable cost does depend on the output or activity level. The raw material cost for a
production facility is a variable cost because it varies directly with the level of production.
The total cost to provide a product or service over some period of time or production volume
is the total fixed cost plus the total variable cost, where:
Total variable cost = (Variable cost per unit) (Total number of units)
The breakeven point is the output level at which total revenue is equal to total cost. It can be
calculated as follows:
BEP = FC/(SP - VC) where
BEP = breakeven point
FC = fixed costs
SP = selling price per unit
VC = variable cost per unit
A recurring cost is one that occurs at regular intervals and is anticipated. The cost to provide
electricity to a production facility is a recurring cost.
A nonrecurring cost is one that occurs at irregular intervals and is not generally anticipated.
The cost to replace a company vehicle damaged beyond repair in an accident is a non
recurring cost.
Original cost is the total price associated with the purchase of an asset. The original cost of
an asset takes into consideration all of the items that can be attributed to its purchase and to
putting the asset to use. These costs include the purchase price and such factors as
commissions, transportation, appraisals, warranties and installation and testing. Original cost
can be used to value an asset type, including equipment, real estate and security instruments.
Annual cost means the sum of running costs and periodic costs or replacement costs paid in a
certain year.
Life Cycle Cost
Life Cycle Cost (LCC) is the total cost of an item during its lifetime. It is the sum of all costs
– both recurring and non-recurring – over the life of a product
Life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) is used to analyze the life cycle cost of a project. It takes
into account all costs, from the cost of construction, cost of fuel or repairs to the cost imposed
by emissions from the project. The analysis takes into account all known and projected costs.
Costs such as the social cost from pollution are difficult to quantify and therefore the LCCA
is not exact.
The LCCA of a project allows firms to compare different projects to determine which is the
cheapest in the long term.
Payback time
Payback Period is the number of years it takes to recover the initial cash outlay invested in a
particular project. Payback period refers to the amount of time it takes to recover the cost of
an investment. People and corporations mainly invest their money to get paid back, which is
why the payback period is so important. The shorter payback an investment has, the more
attractive it becomes.
 Payback period derivation