HPGD2103 GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA TEACHING

SEPTEMBER 2023

HPGD2103

GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

NO. MATRIKULASI : CGS02915426

NO. KAD PENGENALAN : 920728-13-5664
NO. TELEFON : 016-3168092
E-MEL : harwany1992@oum.edu.my
PUSAT PEMBELAJARAN : KUCHING

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Part 1
Question 1 (1)

Title: Behaviorist Counseling and Effective Child Behavior Management: An

Operant Conditioning Approach

Introduction

Behaviorist counseling is a well-established technique that places a strong emphasis on

observable behaviors and the principles of learning. In this essay, we explore behaviorist
counseling, focusing on operant conditioning principles, to guide parents in managing
their child's behavior effectively. The application of operant conditioning in addressing
specific behaviors, such as completing homework, proves to be a powerful tool for
parents.

Thesis Statement

This essay contends that behaviorist counseling, grounded in operant conditioning, equips
parents with valuable tools to guide their children's behavior effectively. By
understanding and applying positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and
extinction, parents can foster positive and lasting changes in their child's behavior,
specifically in the context of completing homework.

Operant Conditioning Theory

Operant conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, is a cornerstone of behaviorism that

centers on modifying behavior through rewards and consequences. The four main
principles of operant conditioning - positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
positive punishment, and negative punishment - serve as the foundation for effective
behavior management.

Positive reinforcement involves rewarding a behavior with something pleasant or desired,

which increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again. For example, praising a
child for completing their homework can be a positive reinforcement.

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Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to strengthen a behavior.

For instance, allowing a child to avoid a chore once they have finished their homework
can serve as negative reinforcement.

Positive punishment entails adding an aversive stimulus to decrease an undesirable

behavior. An example would be assigning an extra task if a child procrastinates on their
homework.

Negative punishment involves taking away something desirable as a consequence of

unwanted behavior, thereby reducing the likelihood of that behavior recurring. Removing
a privilege, such as screen time, due to incomplete homework, is an instance of negative
punishment.

Incomplete Homework as Maladaptive Behavior

Incomplete homework can stem from various factors, such as a lack of motivation, poor
time management, or a perception that homework is overwhelming. It can lead to
academic difficulties and strained parent-child relationships. Behaviorist counseling,
particularly rooted in operant conditioning, provides a framework for addressing this
behavior. According to Marzano et. al (2009), Operant conditioning has been shown to
effectively modify student behavior in the desired direction.

Positive Reinforcement

As a counselor, I recommend that parents employ positive reinforcement to motivate

their child to complete homework promptly. According to Sidin (2021), positive
reinforcement involves rewarding a behavior with something pleasant or desired, which
increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again. This approach is rooted in well-
established psychological principles.

Researchers, such as G. S. Ching (2012), have extensively examined the effectiveness of

positive reinforcement in promoting desirable behaviors in children. To effectively utilize
positive reinforcement, parents should consider the following steps:

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1. Motivating children with enjoyable rewards: Children are more likely to

complete their homework when it's associated with enjoyable rewards. These
rewards should genuinely excite and engage the child. Allowing them to select
rewards that align with their interests is an important part of the selection process.
According to G.S. Ching (2012), Reward is defined as an action or attitude to
respect, in order to ensure that students successfully participate and perform well.
2. Timeliness of Rewards: Rewards should be delivered in a timely manner.
Immediately acknowledge a child's efforts after he or she completes their
homework and provide the reward that was agreed upon. Positive outcomes
reinforce the desired behavior immediately following the behavior.
3. Consistency in Rewards: Consistency is crucial in reinforcing behavior over
time. By ensuring that your child is rewarded for good behavior every time they
display the desired behavior, you create a reliable incentive structure. This
predictability reinforces the expectation that completing homework leads to
rewards.
4. Building Self-Confidence: Regular positive reinforcement encourages good
behavior but also fosters self-confidence. By experiencing success repeatedly, the
child becomes competent and accomplished. By doing so, they boost their self-
esteem and are motivated to continue working hard.
5. Teaching the Value of Hard Work and Consistency: Beyond motivating
homework completion, positive reinforcement teaches your child the broader life
lessons of hard work and consistency. In the future, they will have a strong work
ethic because they realize that diligent efforts yield positive results. This aligns
with the findings of Skinner (1963), who emphasized that operant conditioning
principles like positive reinforcement help individuals understand the relationship
between effort and success.
6. Appreciating the Value of Hard Work: Through regular reinforcement, your
child comes to appreciate the value of hard work. Their dedication and
commitment are rewarded in tangible ways, reinforcing the idea that studying is
worth the effort.

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7. Relationship between parent and child: Positive reinforcement strengthens the

relationship between parent and child. By encouraging and supporting your child
instead of just enforcing rules, you foster open communication and trust.

Ultimately, positive reinforcement, when used thoughtfully, encourages children

to complete their homework and behave in a desired manner. It motivates the
child, teaches them valuable life skills, helps them develop a strong work ethic,
and builds self-confidence. The psychological principles behind reinforcement,
along with the importance of enjoyable rewards, timely feedback, and
consistency, create a nurturing environment that promotes both academic and
personal success.

Negative Reinforcement:

As a counselor, I suggest that negative consequences or punishment be used judiciously

and only as a last resort to discourage neglecting homework completion. One effective
strategy is implementing a temporary loss of privileges. Whenever a child neglects their
homework duties, the parent can temporarily revoke a privilege that the child values,
such as screen time, social outings, or a favorite toy. This approach helps children
recognize that neglecting homework results in undesirable consequences as a direct
outcome of unwanted behavior.

Consistency is key in enforcing these consequences. Children need to understand that

their actions are linked to negative outcomes to effectively deter unwanted behavior. This
method aligns with the principles of operant conditioning, as described in "Parent
Management Training: Treatment for Oppositional, Aggressive, and Antisocial Behavior
in Children and Adolescents" by Alan E. Kazdin (2005), which highlights the importance
of applying operant conditioning strategies in parenting interventions to address various
behavioral issues in children, including those related to homework completion and
chores.

It is paramount to underscore that punishments should be mild and should never involve
physical or emotional harm. The primary focus should be on teaching the child the

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consequences of their behavior, rather than instilling fear or anxiety. Additionally, the
child should be informed of why their behavior is unacceptable. The most effective form
of punishment is when a child comprehends the reason for their penalty and how they can
modify their behavior to avoid it.

As emphasized by Kazdin (2015), immediate and consistent reinforcement plays a crucial

role in shaping behavior. Delayed or inconsistent reinforcement weakens the connection
between behavior and consequences, resulting in less effective behavior change.
Therefore, it is essential for parents to consistently apply the consequences for neglecting
homework and to provide timely feedback to ensure the child grasps the correlation
between their actions and the ensuing outcomes.

Effective Communication and Learning Opportunities

Aside from the strategies mentioned earlier, effective communication and providing
opportunities for learning are vital components of addressing homework completion
neglect:

1. Open Dialogue: Maintain an open and non-confrontational line of

communication with your child regarding their homework. Encourage them to
express any concerns, frustrations, or challenges they may be experiencing with
their assignments. By understanding their perspective, you can offer more
targeted support.
2. Problem-Solving: Involve your child in problem-solving discussions related to
homework. Ask questions such as, "How can we make homework completion
more manageable?" By engaging them in the decision-making process, you
empower them to take ownership of their academic responsibilities.
3. Teaching Life Skills: Use homework completion as an opportunity to teach
valuable life skills. Explain how completing assignments on time can lead to
better academic performance and reduced stress. Show them how good time
management and organization can benefit their overall well-being and future
success.

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4. Learning from Mistakes: Encourage your child to learn from their mistakes if
they neglect their homework. Discuss what went wrong and help them identify
ways to avoid repeating the same behavior in the future. This approach enables
them to develop problem-solving skills and resilience in the face of challenges.
5. Positive Role Models: Introduce your child to positive role models who
exemplify responsible behavior regarding homework and academic
responsibilities. This could be a successful family member, a famous figure, or a
character from a book or movie. Share stories about how these role models
managed their homework effectively and achieved their goals.
6. Educational Resources: Utilize educational resources that emphasize the
importance of completing homework and excelling academically in a child-
friendly manner, such as books or videos. These resources can reinforce the
message in a way that resonates with your child and emphasizes the long-term
benefits of academic success.
7. Empathy and Understanding: Show empathy and understanding toward your
child's challenges. Homework may appear overwhelming to them when they are
juggling schoolwork with other activities. Acknowledge their feelings and
collaborate to find solutions that work for both of you.
8. Consistent Supervision: Some children may need consistent supervision and
reminders until they develop a habit of completing their homework regularly.
While promoting independence is essential, gradually reduce your involvement as
they become more responsible for their academic tasks.

Building positive homework habits takes time, and there may be challenges along the
way. Patience, flexibility, and support is key to your approach. Remember that you are
not just focusing on homework completion but also instilling in your child lifelong values
of responsibility, time management, and problem-solving. Combining these strategies
will help your child develop the skills and mindset needed to tackle their homework
effectively.

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Extinction:

Extinction is a fundamental operant conditioning principle that involves withholding

reinforcement for unwanted behavior, allowing it to "die out" over time. When it comes
to homework procrastination and avoidance, parents can apply extinction effectively by
ignoring complaints and requests for help. This often arises when a child attempts to
evade their homework responsibilities. In order to avoid homework or procrastinate,
children may use various tactics, such as complaining, seeking attention, or making
excuses. By not reinforcing these behaviors in any way, whether positive or negative,
parents can decrease their child's motivation to engage in them. This approach is
predicated on the understanding that behaviors that consistently fail to yield desired
outcomes will gradually decrease in frequency.

Patience and consistency are essential to the process of extinction. Initially, children may
intensify their efforts, hoping to elicit a reaction from their parents. The child will
eventually realize that such tactics are ineffective if parents remain steadfast and do not
respond to these behaviors. Despite extinction's effectiveness, positive reinforcement
should always be combined with it if it is to be effective. For example, completing
homework promptly. This balanced approach helps establish a clear connection between
the desired behavior and its positive consequences. The process also extinguishes
unwanted behaviors that are no longer useful.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, behaviorist counseling, particularly when rooted in operant conditioning,

equips parents with valuable tools to guide their children's behavior effectively. The
principles of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and extinction, when used
thoughtfully and consistently, can lead to positive and lasting changes in a child's
behavior. By combining these principles with effective communication, empathy, and
learning opportunities, parents can foster not only improved homework completion but
also essential life skills in their children. Behaviorist counseling, when integrated with
other therapeutic approaches and administered with care, can be a powerful tool for

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parents in nurturing a supportive and encouraging environment for their children's

positive behavioral changes.

Future Directions:

As we look to the future, it's essential to recognize that behaviorist counseling is not a
static discipline. Research in child psychology and counseling is ongoing, and innovative
techniques are continuously being developed. It is crucial for parents to stay informed
about the latest developments in behavioral counseling and adapt their parenting
strategies accordingly. Moreover, the digital age has brought new challenges and
opportunities for behaviorist counseling, including the use of technology in tracking and
motivating children's behavior. The integration of technology with traditional behaviorist
principles holds great promise in helping parents manage their children's behavior more
effectively.

In the exploration of behaviorist counseling, it is imperative to consider a range of

perspectives on rewards and punishment. According to G. S. Ching (2012), rewards are
defined as actions or attitudes to respect, ensuring that students successfully participate
and perform well. This aligns with the broader understanding of operant conditioning, as
originally proposed by B. F. Skinner (1939), and later expanded upon by various
scholars, including Bryan D. Matera (2010) and R. E. Slavin (1997). These perspectives
contribute to the ongoing discourse on the effectiveness and ethical considerations of
employing operant conditioning principles in behavior management strategies.

Furthermore, the work of P. S. N. Pebriani (2013) emphasizes the importance of the

implementation of rewards and punishments toward students' motivation in learning
English. Understanding the differential effects of tangible rewards and praise on intrinsic
motivation, as discussed by J. S. Carton (1996), provides valuable insights for parents
seeking to motivate their children effectively.

As we move forward, acknowledging and incorporating diverse research findings on

motivation, rewards, and punishments will be essential in refining behaviorist counseling
strategies. The insights gleaned from these studies can contribute to the evolution of

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effective and ethical approaches to shaping children's behavior, ensuring a holistic and
informed foundation for behaviorist counseling practices.

2239 words

Part 1
Question 1 (2)

Title: The Power of Self-Management in Behavior Change

Introduction
In the vast landscape of behavioral theories, counselors possess an array of strategies to
assist clients in overcoming challenges. Among the techniques of role play, assertive
practice, token economy, and self-management, I assert that self-management,
encompassing self-monitoring and self-reinforcement, emerges as the most potent and
versatile tool for facilitating behavior change. This essay aims to delve into the concept
of self-management, emphasizing its significance in fostering autonomy and empowering
individuals to make lasting, positive changes. In support of my preference for self-
management, I will provide a thorough exploration of the reasons behind this choice.

Thesis Statement
I wholeheartedly endorse self-management as the most resonant technique within the
realm of behavioral theories for several compelling reasons. Self-management, which
includes self-monitoring and self-reinforcement, empowers individuals, fosters long-
lasting behavior change, offers flexibility and individualization, develops transferable
skills, and ensures that progress continues even after counseling sessions conclude.

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Empowering Through Self-Monitoring

One compelling aspect of self-management is its focus on empowering individuals and
fostering autonomy through self-monitoring. This process enables individuals to become
more self-aware of their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, allowing them to identify
patterns, triggers, and areas for improvement. For example, an individual dealing with
anger management issues can utilize self-monitoring to gain insights into what provokes
their anger and work towards managing it effectively.
Self-monitoring serves as the foundation for change, allowing individuals to pinpoint
behaviors that require modification and establish a baseline for measuring progress.
According to Cautilli et al. (2014), "Self-monitoring allows individuals to pinpoint
behaviors that need modification and establish a baseline from which to measure
progress." This heightened self-awareness is crucial for successful behavior modification,
enabling individuals to recognize the antecedents, consequences, and emotional states
associated with their actions.

Empowering Through Self-Reinforcement

Self-reinforcement is another vital component of self-management, empowering clients
to reward themselves for desired behaviors. This technique encourages individuals to
make decisions aligned with their goals and values, taking ownership of their actions.
Self-reinforcement harnesses intrinsic motivation and reinforces the idea that individuals
have the power to influence their actions and outcomes.

What makes self-reinforcement particularly compelling is its independence from external

factors or approval from others. Clients can set their success criteria and establish
rewards that hold personal value for them. This personalized approach taps into their
individual preferences and desires, thereby increasing their commitment to behavioral
change (Kazdin, 2019).

Fostering Long-Lasting Behavior Change

Self-management techniques aim to develop skills and strategies that can be applied
throughout an individual's life. Self-monitoring allows individuals to become more aware

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of their actions and identify areas for improvement. This heightened self-awareness leads
to the ability to identify the antecedents and consequences influencing their behavior.
Moreover, by reinforcing their positive behaviors, clients are more likely to maintain
them over the long term. Long-term behavior change ensures that clients are equipped
with the tools they need to sustain their progress even after counseling has ended
(Prochaska et al., 1992).

Flexibility and Individualization

One of the remarkable advantages of self-management techniques is their adaptability to
the unique needs and preferences of each client. Individuals can choose from various
strategies based on the specific behavior or goal they want to address. For instance,
someone struggling with time management can employ self-monitoring tools like a daily
planner or a time-tracking app to track their activities and identify areas for improvement.
Additionally, clients can customize self-reinforcement by selecting rewards that hold
personal significance and motivation for them. Self-management techniques offer
flexibility and individualization, ensuring that each client's needs are met.

Development of Transferable Skills

Another significant advantage of self-management techniques is the development of
transferable skills. Beyond the targeted behavior, clients can apply self-monitoring and
self-reinforcement to various aspects of their lives. Skills related to stress management,
communication improvement, and achieving personal goals are examples of transferable
skills that self-management equips clients with (O’Donnell & King, 2005). This
empowerment is invaluable, as it allows clients to apply the principles of self-
management in different areas, leading to comprehensive personal growth.

Continuation of Progress
Self-management techniques provide ongoing support for clients to maintain progress
even after counseling sessions have concluded. As clients internalize the skills and
strategies they have learned, they gain the ability to self-monitor and self-reinforce their
behaviors, leading to continued growth and positive changes. This self-sufficiency

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promotes self-reliance and reduces dependency on external resources. Ultimately, when

clients can independently continue their progress, behavior change efforts are more likely
to be sustained in the long run.

Conclusion
In conclusion, self-management techniques, which encompass self-monitoring and self-
reinforcement, hold immense power in facilitating behavior change. By empowering
clients, fostering autonomy, supporting long-term change, offering flexibility and
individualization, developing transferable skills, and ensuring progress continues, self-
management techniques empower clients to make positive changes on their own.
Integrating self-management into counseling approaches enables clients to take control of
their behaviors, make informed choices aligned with their goals and values, and grow and
develop sustainably. The versatile and empowering nature of self-management makes it
the technique that resonates with me the most within the realm of behavioral theories. Its
potential to bring about meaningful and lasting change in individuals is undeniable.
Therefore, as counselors, we should embrace self-management as a powerful tool to
guide our clients toward personal growth and transformation.

872 words

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Question 2: Essay

Title: The Fundamental Principles of Person-Centered Counselling: Unconditional

Positive Regard, Empathy, and Congruence

Introduction:
Person-Centered Counselling, pioneered by Carl Rogers in the 1940s, stands as a
cornerstone in therapeutic approaches. This essay seeks to delve into the essential
principles that underpin Person-Centered Therapy—unconditional positive regard,
empathy, and congruence—while providing real-life examples and examining relevant
literature. To appreciate the richness of this therapeutic model, it is crucial to understand
its historical context and evolution since Rogers' pioneering work.

Understanding the Fundamental Principles

Unconditional Positive Regard

Unconditional positive regard refers to the therapist's genuine acceptance and non-
judgmental attitude towards the client, irrespective of their behavior or experiences. The
client must be valued as an individual, no matter his or her actions, beliefs, or feelings.
When individuals experience acceptance and non-judgment, Rogers believes that they are
more likely to explore and express their true selves, which can lead to self-actualization
and personal growth. As part of the process, clients need to feel valued and understood in
a warm and accepting environment. In order to foster trust and facilitate personal growth,
this principle is crucial.

Real-life example:
In a therapeutic session, as a counselor, I once worked with a client named Siti who had a
history of substance abuse. Siti often felt judged and stigmatized by others due to her
addiction. In our counseling sessions, I practiced unconditional positive regard by
acknowledging Siti's experiences without judgment. I created a safe space for her to
express her struggles and fears. This approach allowed Siti to open up and confront the

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underlying issues contributing to her addiction. Over time, she gained self-acceptance
and self-worth, which were instrumental in her recovery journey.

Research conducted by Truax and Carkhuff (1967) supports the significance of this
principle, showing that therapists with higher levels of unconditional positive regard are
more effective in promoting positive client outcomes, including increased self-esteem
and decreased psychological distress. Additionally, Bohart and Tallman (1999) explore
the active role of clients in the therapeutic process and emphasize the significance of
conditions such as unconditional positive regard in facilitating self-healing.

Empathy
Empathy is another essential principle of Person-Centered Therapy. Empathy consists of
understanding and sharing the feelings, thoughts, and experiences of the client, without
losing identity. It requires a therapist to connect emotionally with the client, creating a
safe and supportive environment for them to explore their feelings. Empathy goes beyond
mere sympathy or intellectual understanding; it requires the therapist to connect
emotionally with the client. Active listening, being present, and validating a client's
emotions are all part of the process. By enhancing the client's self-awareness and self-
understanding, empathy builds a strong therapeutic alliance.

Real-life example:
By listening actively, reflecting on the feelings of the client, and validating their
emotions, the therapist demonstrates empathy. By empathizing, the therapist helps the
client feel understood, validated, and supported, fostering healing. For example, in
another counseling experience, I worked with a client named Faizal who was struggling
with anxiety and panic attacks. I practiced empathy by actively listening to Faizal's
experiences, validating his emotions, and showing genuine understanding. This
connection allowed Faizal to feel heard and supported. Together, we explored the root
causes of his anxiety, which included childhood trauma. Through our empathetic
relationship, Faizal was able to process his emotions and develop coping strategies,
ultimately leading to a significant reduction in his anxiety symptoms.

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In the literature review, an insightful study conducted by Elliott et al. (2011) revealed that
clients who perceived their therapists as empathic reported more significant reductions in
symptoms and greater overall satisfaction with their therapy experience. Additionally,
Davis (1996) delves into the social psychological aspects of empathy, providing a
broader theoretical framework for understanding its role in building connections and
fostering understanding between individuals.

Congruence:
The ability of a therapist to openly and honestly express their thoughts, feelings, and
reactions within a therapeutic relationship is called congruence. When a therapist is
congruent, he or she does not hide behind a professional persona or a façade. By openly
sharing their feelings and thoughts when appropriate and relevant, they foster a sense of
authenticity and trust in the therapeutic relationship. Trust is built, autonomy is promoted,
and open communication is encouraged when congruence is present.

Real-life example:
In counseling a young adult named Ibrahim who was struggling with identity and self-
acceptance, I practiced congruence by openly sharing my own experiences with self-
discovery and vulnerability when appropriate. This transparency allowed Ibrahim to
relate to my experiences and feel less alone in their journey. It encouraged open and
authentic communication between us. Over time, Ibrahim became more comfortable
exploring their own barriers to self-acceptance and sharing their feelings and thoughts.

Baldwin et al. (1987) found that therapists demonstrating high levels of congruence were
more effective at facilitating positive client change, as clients perceived them as genuine,
trustworthy, and committed to the therapeutic process. Baldwin et al. (1987) found that
therapists that demonstrated high levels of congruence were more effective at facilitating
positive client change. The clients perceived these therapists as more genuine,
trustworthy, and committed to the therapeutic process.

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Applications of the Principles in the Therapeutic Process:

1. Creating a Safe and Nonjudgmental Environment: These principles lay the
foundation for a safe, nonjudgmental therapeutic environment, promoting trust
and openness among clients. Clients are encouraged to explore their thoughts,
feelings, and experiences without fear of criticism.
2. Facilitating Self-Exploration and Self-Expression: In order to facilitate self-
exploration and self-expression, unconditional positive regard and empathy are
essential. It is more likely that clients will talk about their feelings and thoughts
when they feel they are being heard and understood. Their concerns can be
explored, self-awareness developed, and positive change and growth can be
achieved through this process.
3. Encouraging Personal Responsibility and Autonomy: Taking responsibility for
one's life and choices is a core principle of Person-Centered Therapy. The
therapist empowers clients to make their own decisions by empathizing with their
experiences and accepting them unconditionally. Developing self-direction and
autonomy can lead to greater self-actualization for clients.
4. Enhancing the Therapeutic Relationship: Congruence, or authenticity, fosters
trust and rapport between therapist and client and enhances the therapeutic
relationship. Genuine and transparent therapists connect with clients on a deeper
level and are perceived as trustworthy, reliable sources of support when they are
genuine and transparent. Therapeutic work is effective when there is an authentic
relationship between the client and the therapist.

Conclusion:
Authenticity, empathy, and congruence are the core components of person-centered
counseling. As a result of these principles, a therapeutic environment characterized by
acceptance, understanding, and authenticity is created. Examples from real-life practice
illustrate how these principles foster trust, personal growth, and positive results for
clients. Furthermore, the literature reviewed supports the importance of these principles

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in enhancing the effectiveness of Person-Centered Therapy. Therapy can be meaningful

and transformative if therapists embrace and embody these principles. Humanistic
approaches such as Person-Centered Therapy are grounded in the belief that the
therapeutic relationship is essential to the healing and growth of individuals. Embracing
unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence can help therapists help clients
discover themselves, accept themselves, and make positive changes in their lives.

(1123 WORDS)

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PART 2 ONLINE PARTICIPATION

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REFERENCES

QUESTION 1
1. Sidin, S. A. (2021, March). The Application of Reward and Punishment in
Teaching Adolescents. In Ninth International Conference on Language and Arts
(ICLA 2020) (pp. 251-255). Atlantis Press.
2. Marzano, R. J., Marzano, J. S., & Pickering, D. J. (2009). Classroom management
that works. Research-based strategies for every teacher. Pearson.
3. Karsh, N., Eitam, B., Mark, I., & Higgins, E. T. (2016). Bootstrapping agency:
How control-relevant information affects motivation. Journal of experimental
psychology. General, 145(10), 1333–1350. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000212
4. Ching, G.S. (2012). Looking into the issues of rewards and punishment in
students. International Journal of Research Studies in Psychology, 1.
5. Maag, J. W. (2001). Rewarded by Punishment: Reflections on the Disuse of
Positive Reinforcement in Schools. Exceptional Children, 67(2), 173-186.
6. DeBell, C. S., & Harless, D. K. (1992). B. F. Skinner: Myth and
Misperception. Teaching of Psychology, 19(2), 68-
73. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328023top1902_1
7. Kazdin, A. E. (2005). Parent management training: Treatment for oppositional,
aggressive, and antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. Oxford
University Press.
8. Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant behavior. American Psychologist, 18(8), 503–
515. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045185
9. Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., & Norcross, J. C. (1992). In search of the
structure of change. In Springer eBooks (pp. 87–
114). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-2922-3_5
10. O’Donnell, C. L., & King, A. (2005). Skills related to stress management,
communication improvement, and achieving personal goals are examples of
transferable skills that self-management equips clients with.

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Question 2
1. Truax, C. B., & Carkhuff, R. R. (1967). Research on counselor effectiveness: A
review. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 14(4), 371-380.
2. Bohart, A. C., & Tallman, K. (1999). How Clients Make Therapy Work: The
Process of Active Self-Healing. APA Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 3(1),
33-49.
3. Davis, M. H. (1996). Empathy: A Social Psychological Approach. Social
Psychology, 2(4), 14-16.
4. Elliott, R., Bohart, A. C., Watson, J. C., & Greenberg, L. S. (2011). Empathy.
Psychotherapy, 48(1), 43-49.
5. Baldwin, M., Wampold, B., & Imel, Z. (2007). Untangling the alliance-outcome
correlation: Exploring the relative importance of therapist and patient variability
in the alliance. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(6), 842-852.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.75.6.842

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