University College Birmingham

BA(HONS) Early Childhood Studies Dissertation Online

To investigate teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of positive

reinforcement on children’s learning in a KS2 setting

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Introduction

The aim of this research is to investigate teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of positive
reinforcement on children’s learning in a KS2 setting. The reason for me to choose this topic
is as an undergraduate training to become a primary school teacher it will be interesting to
compare the correlation between teacher’s perceptions of positive reinforcement and the
challenges that it may bring to them in an everyday classroom environment. Furthermore, this
study will depict the successes and challenges that teachers may face when using positive
reinforcement strategies, behavior management techniques and praise in the classroom as
well as its effectiveness.

Moreover, this research will allow me to gain an in-depth understanding of teachers’

perceptions and the effectiveness of positive reinforcement used within a KS2 setting.
Furthermore, it will enable me to analyse how using positive behavior strategies and reward
systems such as praise, or social modelling can help motivate and encourage young children
in becoming successful young learners. Additionally, it will also allow me to gain an in-depth
knowledge on what methods and strategies are put into place by teachers to ensure that they
maintain the children’s concertation and positive behavior.

This research will consist of primary research being questionnaires. The reason for choosing
primary research for my dissertation is that primary research is an excellent way to receive
direct information from the teachers as they will be given an opportunity to answer questions
based on their first-hand experiences. Thus, emphasising that primary research can be seen as
being more valuable than secondary research for my dissertation as this is a more direct
approach in retrieving information.

Furthermore, doing primary research in a primary school KS2 setting will mean that the
information collected will be current and up to date thus emphasizing that the data will be
unique. The reason for choosing this literature to study is simply because behavior
management can be seen as an ongoing complex and everyday learning tool for teachers
(Parsonson, 2012). It is the process of supporting children in making positive choices in
promoting their learning. This means that even if some teachers come with a wealth of
experience, according to Warnes and Knowler 2022) one size does not fit all. Therefore,
suggesting that having one behavior policy in a school for example will not determine that a
class teacher can use or follow this policy for all 30 children. This is because children are

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individuals and come with different individual needs. Although it is very important to follow
an inclusive practice, leadership in schools must understand the pressure that such policies
can have on teachers and understand that these policies may need to be altered or reviewed as
circumstances arise or new information is given by parents/carers regarding their child in
need (Warne and Knowler 2022).

Leadership in the majority of schools in England often provides their staff with CPD’s or
Twilight evenings. This suggests that teachers are given numerous opportunities to train and
learn techniques and strategies from their seniors and outside agencies to learn to control
behavior and learn management techniques. This means that if teachers use these methods
correctly then it can bring many positive experiences for them such as improving their
relationship with their students in the classroom thus promoting the effectiveness of positive
reinforcement on children’s learning in the classroom.

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 Aim

To investigate teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of positive reinforcement on

children’s learning in a KS2 setting.

Objectives

The findings of this research will improve our knowledge of positive behavior interventions
and how instructors feel about using them in the classroom. This research is important
because it asks teachers what they think about the best ways to handle challenging students in
academia have been found to work with children who have been particularly difficult to
manage. The following objectives will be investigated:-

1. To carry out a literature review to investigate the effectiveness of positive reinforcement in a

classroom.
2. To hand out several questionnaires to teachers of KS2 school setting and to be able to
critically assess the impact of positive reinforcements being used in a class and on their
learning.
3. Analyse the findings from the questionnaire to identify patterns related to teachers’
perceptions of the effectiveness of positive reinforcement on children’s learning in a KS2
setting.
4. Conclude the factors that are regarded effective when using positive reinforcement in the
context of this research.

Rationale

This study aims to investigate teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of positive

reinforcement on children’s learning in a KS2 setting because Burnett (2010) demonstrates
that teachers are the most powerful tool in the classroom and are the main proponent
as an allied force to harnessing and cultivating a positive, learning environment
allowing children to flourish in the classroom (Burnett 2010). Positive reinforcement
when used correctly enables students to feel empowered by making them feel
important. Positive reinforcement allows students to feel encouraged and motivated to

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do well and maintain their positive behavior and their learning accordingly
(Henderlong and Lepper 2002). Furthermore, Burnett (2010) supports this by stating that
management of the classroom is the responsibility of the teachers in charge. The ability to
effectively manage a classroom is essential for educators (Burnett, 2010). To keep things
running smoothly, a classroom needs teachers who are liked and respected by their students
(Burnett, 2010). The effective administration of a classroom depends on cultivating an
environment that encourages positive relationships between teachers and children
(Henderlong & Lepper, 2002). If teachers want to connect with their students in a classroom,
teachers must be able to express themselves clearly (Hira, 2012).

Reward System

In order to encourage behaviour improvement within the classroom, a system of positive

behaviour rewards is utilised. Students are more likely to recall the rules of the classroom and
appropriate etiquette thanks to the rewards. These rewards are typically positive activities
(such as leisure time), events (such as a holiday party), and goods (such as a gift) (candy,
toys, etc.). It is not necessary for a system that promotes appropriate behaviour to constantly
involve material rewards such as candies.

According to Kaplan et al., it is becoming increasingly recognised as an issue in schools to

engage in disruptive behaviours such as teasing, talking out of turn, getting out of one's seat,
insulting others, violence, or vandalism (2002). Students' unique personalities, teachers' lack
of knowledge, or both have frequently been held responsible for disruptive behaviour in the
classroom (Kaplan et al., 2002). Students that are disruptive not only impede their own
learning, but also hinder the learning of their classmates (Kaplan et al., 2002). Because of
this, teachers face a significant challenge when dealing with the disruptive behaviour of
students. One common method for dealing with disobedient students is to offer them some
sort of incentive in the form of a reward or privilege. Praise and rewards have frequently
played a role in the implementation of interventions designed to address problematic
behaviours (Kaplan et al., 2002). There has been a correlation shown between the
implementation of a token economy in educational settings and an improvement in the
students' overall behaviour in those settings. In a system known as a token economy, rewards
are given out in exchange for work that has been successfully done. Tokens can be exchanged
for a wide variety of perks and incentives to reward good behaviour.

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According to the author Hall (2009), the objective of the reward paradigm is to "stop
rewarding the wrong behaviour and make the receipt of a reward dependent on the learner
demonstrating an incompatible but socially desirable reply." [Citation needed] (p. 51). If
someone performs a good job at anything, they should be rewarded with something valuable
for their efforts. As an alternative to enforcing discipline through detention or expulsion,
schools are increasingly turning to reward programmes. The purpose of the plan is to
motivate pupils to demonstrate higher levels of personal responsibility while they are in
school. Because rewarding positive behaviour is a typical method for persuading people to
modify their negative behaviours, it is important to remember this. To be engaged in a pursuit
that one is interested in because of the pursuit's own inherent value is what we mean when we
talk about being intrinsic. When we talk about "intrinsic motivation," we're referring to the
kind of motivation that comes from inside, as opposed to motivation that comes from an
anticipation of benefits from other people. Someone is doing something because they believe
it has some significance for them personally if they are intrinsically driven. If the customer is
delighted with the results of the experiment, they will likely continue to enhance their
performance over time. The inner drive to engage in some form of behaviour is known as
motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Some people believe that as people move through the
educational system, they are exposed to an increasing number of societal pressures to
participate in things that do not interest them, which can lead to a decrease in their level of
intrinsic motivation (Feuerborn, Wallace and Tyre, 2016). The likelihood that students will
continue to behave in a desired manner after being instructed that they would be rewarded for
doing so improves when the students are taught that they will be rewarded for doing so.
According to Webster et al. (2017), the use of extrinsic feedback, which refers to the
application of extraneous effects such as rewards and penalties, can be beneficial for the
maintenance of behaviour.

The usage of rewards, which are also used to encourage good behaviour and recognise
academic accomplishment, can be used to manage student behaviour in part. The use of
incentives is widespread in schools; Davis et al. (2006) discovered that 90 percent of their
elementary school children who participated in the study received prizes from their teachers.
Teachers commonly use incentives to encourage students to do well. In North Carolina's
elementary schools, Hoffman et al. (2009) surveyed instructors to learn more about their use
of incentives, how they define rewards, and their pupils' responses to them. Eighty-six of the
eighty-six teachers who participated in the study acknowledged utilising an incentive

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programme with their students. There is evidence that incentive programmes are widely used
in the classroom.

Reid and Bailey-Dempsey (1995) conducted a comparative evaluation of incentive

programmes and case management systems. Participants in the study were female students at
risk of failing their courses. The participants were separated into three groups: a control
group that received only case management and no awards; a group that received financial
incentives to improve their academic performance; and a third group that received only
financial incentives to improve their academic performance. Attendance and academic
performance were dependent factors. Students' academic performance revealed a little
improvement in the case management group, a minor decline in the incentives group, and a
substantial decline in the control group. The case management group had the fewest
absences, followed by the incentives group, and then the control group, which had the
greatest absences.

Similar to Reitman et al. (2004), Conyers et al. (2004) used tokens in a preschool context.
What sets this study distinct is the novel usage of a new token system. Conyers et al.
investigated the efficacy of response cost and differential reinforcement of other behaviours
(2004). In response cost, children who misbehave are penalised by having their tokens taken
away, but in differential reinforcement, children who behave well are rewarded with
additional tokens. The ABAB design assesses reaction costs and differential reward of other
behaviours from two distinct perspectives (A, the control condition, and B, the intervention
condition). This methodology does not include a control group in the data collection process.
Then, we will implement the plan and begin data collection Bolourian, Losh, Hamsho et al
(2022). The intervention is discontinued and new baseline data are collected. Finally, the
therapy is reintroduced, and statistics are collected once more to determine whether or not
progress has been made. First, we analysed both desired and unwanted behaviours to
establish a baseline, and then we proceeded to alternate treatments. Each preschooler began
with 15 stars next to their name on a response cost board. Each time a student produced a
disruption, they would lose a token, and if they ended the session with 12 or more tokens,
they would earn a modest reward. They would be awarded if they finished three 15-minute
sessions and earned enough stars. The following day, alternative behaviours were reinforced
differentially. All children began the intervention with zero stars next to their names; they got
one star for every 15 minutes of positive behaviour. Students who earned 12 stars received
chocolate rewards (Conyers et al. 2004). Conyers et al. (2004) demonstrated that when

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reaction cost was applied, disruptive behaviours dropped by 5%. While the initial reduction
in behaviour was smaller (23) with differential reinforcement compared to other behaviour
approaches, the effect grew larger as the intervention progressed. This study illustrates that it
is more effective in the long run to provide opportunities to earn rewards such as stars than to
take them away for undesirable behaviour. The success of the intervention varied depending
on the teacher's approach, despite the fact that both tactics utilised stars as the token.

Reid and Bailey-Dempsey and Conyers and colleagues also conducted studies of a similar
nature (1995). The findings of this study demonstrated that the incentives method had a
moderate impact on classroom performance. The results of the study suggest that monetary
incentives may not be sufficient to improve performance. The most effective use of
incentives is in conjunction with case management or other forms of support. Reid and
Bailey-Dempsey discovered that incentive programmes can enhance production somewhat,
but that for greatest benefit, they should be paired with other strategies.

Interaction happens when two or more individual’s brains and hearts work together to
exchange and process information in a way that affects both parties (Hira, 2012). Without
student-teacher dialogue, the learning process cannot advance efficiently (Hira,2012).

Teachers must have the ability to keep their classes on track while also keeping their students
interested and engaged in their learning. An integral aspect of student engagement is inciting
passion in them (Crouch & Christopher, 2014). Students that are interested in learning will
succeed in class and have a good time doing it. According to Cubukcu (2010), one's
motivation is what pushes them to take action in order to achieve their objectives. Teachers
have a significant impact on their student’s motivation, thus it's important for them to care
about this factor.

According to Hira (2012), Practitioners must be fully equipped with behavior strategies to
ensure that effective and efficient learning takes place. They also need to explore a variety of
behavior systems within the classroom to see which fits best, as one size does not fit all (Hira,
201). This further highlights that not one strategy will fit all settings and students have
different motivations. Therefore, Agyekum (2019) suggests that it is vital that teachers build
a positive relationship with the students. Furthermore, Crouch and Christopher (2014)
highlights that it is only when a student trusts their positive role model that they are able to
benefit from positive reinforcement in their classroom

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Motivation can come from inside, through what psychologists in literature call "intrinsic
motivation," or from beyond, through "extrinsic motivation." Dutton Tillery, Varjas, Meyers
and Collins (2010) portray that individuals are driven by "inherent motivations." This means
that, an individual’s motivation to study may escalate from either a genuine interest in
increasing his knowledge or a desire to lift his spirits. However, Cubukcu (2010) stresses that
things like test-taking stress, the promise of financial reward, and the hope for future travel
all serve to stimulate extrinsic drive. This means that the person feels compelled to complete
an action because of goals that must be achieved or external stimuli.

Teachers speaking words of praise, handing out token to students or students even having the
chance to engage in a pleasurable activity are all valid forms of positive reinforcement. One
sort of pedagogical strategy used to enhance classroom instruction. One definition of
instructional reinforcement is the use of a strategy to reward students for exceptional
classroom performance or effort.

Furthermore, reinforcement, in the form of student motivation can be seen as one type of
additional incentive that might be seen useful in the context of English language learning. A
reinforcement is any factor that has a beneficial influence on behaviour. In the theoretical
framework of operant conditioning, reinforcement refers to the act of increasing the
probability of a behaviour by providing a response soon after it has been performed (Cbukcu,
2010).

Reinforcement is a response or behavior that is strengthened with the addition of

something such as a praise or a direct reward (Hardy and Mcleod 2020). Positive
reinforcement allows teachers to teach new skills and to teach a replacement behavior for an
interfering behavior (Hardy and Mcleod 2020). Reinforcement may seem like a simple
strategy that all teachers use. However, it is often not used as effectively as it could be
according to Sidman (2006). When used appropriately, reinforcement can be an effective
learning tool to encourage desirable behaviors and discourage undesirable ones (Hardy and
Mcleod 2020).

Rumfolio (2017) suggests that teacher’s perspective of positive reinforcement is that

offering children a pleasant stimulus each time they issue a suitable approach
depending on the child’s needs with the intention of reinforcing this behavior has a
positive impact on the children’s learning environment (Rumfolio 2017).  

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The use of incentives in the classroom has been studied by a number of scholars. Hardy and
Mcleod (2020) highlight that verbal reinforcement is the most prevalent kind of
reinforcement in classrooms. After using reinforcement, students are motivated to learn better
and learn English. The characteristics that influence KS2 English teachers' use of
reinforcement strategies in the classroom were investigated by researchers Dutton Tillery,
Varjas, Meyers and Collins (2010). Praise was shown to be the most often used type of
reinforcement in the classroom, followed by tokens, token economies, and monetary prizes.

Methodology

Primary Research

The approach to this study will be using primary research being questionnaires. To help assist
in investigating the effectiveness of positive reinforcements in a KS2 primary setting. I will
also be using Existing research such as journal articles and Ofsted reports and data methods
will also be used for my literature.

Method

The proposed methods of collecting data for this dissertation will be through teacher
questionnaires The reason for choosing primary research for my dissertation is that primary
research is an excellent way to receive direct information from the teachers as they will have
the opportunity to write down answers to the questions based on their first-hand experiences.
Thus, emphasizing that primary research can be seen as being more valuable than secondary
research for my dissertation as it is a more direct approach. Furthermore, doing primary
research in a primary school KS2 setting will mean that the information collected will be
current and up to date thus emphasizing that the data will be unique.

Sample

Educators from elementary schools in the central valley suburbs of London comprised the

study's sample population. Both teachers and students will be considered participants in this

study. Individuals that have commonalities with this group all share elementary teaching

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positions in rural places. Convenience sampling, a non-probability sampling approach, was

used to choose participants since they were more accessible than randomly selected

participants. We used information from all 32 elementary schools in a rural school district in

London's Central Valley to maximise generalizability. Participants in the study were teachers

from grades 1-6 who took part in the survey.

Data Collection Method

We started by contacting the superintendent of schools in a tiny town in London's central

valley to collect the required information. The Superintendent provided written approval for

the research by drafting a letter of support. The town's principals of the public elementary

schools were contacted. The next thing to do was talk to school administration about the

project and get their approval to poll teachers. After getting the go-ahead, we asked whether

we might hand out the surveys to teachers in person during a staff meeting. So that I could

explain the informed consent process for the study and give teachers plenty of time to fill out

and turn in the surveys (ten minutes), I asked for fifteen minutes of the meeting's time. The

goal is an improved rate of return. Instructors were given 10 minutes to complete the survey

and return it in the supplied folder after a brief (5-minute) explanation of the survey's aims

and processes. I still have the questionnaires, which did not collect any identifying

information from participants. Each primary school's questionnaire was printed on a unique

colour of paper, making it easy for the researcher to keep track of which institutions filled out

which questionnaires.

Research Instrument

Why questionnaire? What type of questions? Open? Closed? Why?

Ethical Considerations

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For the sake of expanding one's knowledge and better comprehending the world and the
people who live on it, research is absolutely necessary. According to Fiske (2018), the field
of social psychology investigates the ways in which individuals influence one another (p. 4)
Researchers, scholars, and teachers gather data alongside the numerous specialisations
available in the fields of psychology and medicine in order to get a better understanding of
particular themes, challenges, or paradigms. Both inexperienced and experienced researchers
have a same goal: to provide practitioners, policymakers, and legislators with evidence and
solutions based on information obtained from study, truths revealed, and questions addressed.

Everyone who participates in psychological research is required to abide by the Ethical

Principles of Psychologists as well as the Code of Conduct (2018). The APA now has
standards, professional codes, and criteria for application thanks to the adoption of the ethical
code. On the other hand, they are not intended to serve as the basis for legal liability
(American Psychological Association, 2003, p. 29.)

Through the research the participants will be fully aware that they could withdraw their
consent at any time. The participants will understand what they are agreeing to and the
researcher will obtain informed consent from them.

The researcher will also ensure that all the data received and personal information is kept
confidential and safe. Once the questionnaires are completed I will ensure that I save an
electronic copy on my desktop which will be password protected. Any loose papers will be
shredded immediately.

Furthermore, it is important to safeguard privacy of the participants by ensuring that the

feedback from the participants stays anonymous and confidential.

Literature review

Introduction

In this chapter, there will be a critical review of relevant literature regarding teacher’s
perceptions of the effectiveness of positive reinforcement on children’s learning in a KS2
setting. This section will explore a wide range of approaches around factors that will help to
form the types of questions asked to participants in the methodology section.

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The ambition of a teacher is to ensure that all individual students are engaged in their
learning. Teachers are solely responsible to ensure that all their students are in comfort when
in the classroom. Happy and content students are successful students and when students are
feeling comfortable within their learning environment, they are more willing to achieve and
succeed. Positive reinforcement is a tool when used correctly within the classroom can result
in desirable characteristics from each student in the classroom. Nevertheless, when teachers
need to deal with behavioral issues for example, the classroom loses its momentum thus
resulting in students losing valuable learning time

Providing students with positive reinforcement in the classroom is crucial. How using these
strategies could enhance children’s academic achievement has been the subject of some
study. For example, according to the findings of Rumfola's study, students are more likely to
complete classroom tasks when they are rewarded for doing so. If students feel valued, they
are more likely to continue working as hard and strive successfully in their learning. This
suggests that praising a student's’ efforts using positive reinforcement might increase their
stamina in the classroom.

Students are more likely to feel motivated when teachers incentivize their achievement by
providing them with frequent, constructive praise. Researchers have looked at teachers'
perspectives on employing positive reinforcement in the classroom. To learn how teachers,
feel about compliments, Drysdale, Williams and Meaney (2007) conducted a study which
portrayed those educators felt that positive reinforcement was seen as the single and most
helpful aspect of their jobs. Educators also said that they find reinforcement useful because it
helps them build positive relationships with their students, it further motivates their learning,
and keeps the classroom in harmony. So, what can be said here is that positive reinforcement
is linked to both behaviour and learning. The next section focusses on learning.

Cognition and learning and metacognition

Both the 'metacognitive' executive awareness and control of thinking and learning (e.g.,
'thinking skills,' 'learning strategies,' and 'learning how to learn') as well as the development
of basic cognitive processes for the handling of information (e.g., memory, phonological
processing) are the subject of study. The metacognitive executive awareness and control of
thinking and learning is referred to as "learning how to learn". Some scholars are of the
opinion that a child's academic performance may be predicted based on the familiarity,

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degree of abstraction, and perceived purpose of the inquiries and problem-solving activities
they engage in (Laurence Lwo and Yuan, 2011).

The SEN Code of Practice identifies four areas of need, one of which is cognition and
learning. Children with physical or sensory impairments may also fall into this category, in
addition to those who have been diagnosed with a cognitive disability or an autistic spectrum
condition. It is recognised that certain children's needs are magnified by sensory, physical,
and behavioral challenges (Nikolopoulou, Akriotou and Gialamas, 2019). Children who are
identified as having difficulties in the classroom must have their complex biological,
psychological, social, and cultural backgrounds and contexts considered in order to facilitate
an effective understanding and response. It is important for teachers to have a full
background of a student at the start of the academic year and a positive relationship with
parents/carers to continue to update the class teachers of any concerns or circumstances that
may arise. If both parties adhere to following the same action plan for example for a student
with SEN needs and gain a positive relationship with each other, only then can a student be
supported holistically in the classroom.

General praise such as gifting a sticker to a child in a class may not be as rewarding to a child
with cognition and learning difficulties. This means that educators must be prepared to
understand the concept that one size does not fit all and tweak the positive reinforcement
reward system in place so that children of SEN needs can also feel praised and valued
through other means to prevent any challenging behaviour or class withdrawals. This is
because a desired reward can support children to overcome their anxiety by enabling them to
focus on the outcome rather than the process. Positive reinforcement in the form of rewards
should be seen as a motivator and not a bribe, thus when correctly used children, especially
with learning difficulties, will be excited to achieve and may stimulate them to keep them
engaged in their learning. The next theme is …

The process of education within a setting that emphasises social

constructionism

A large body of recent studies in this area adopt a social constructivist perspective on
education, which sees students as motivated to work together to solve problems, gain new
insights, and help shape the future of the classroom they attend. This viewpoint on learning
portrays students as dynamic and inquisitive learners who are driven to find solutions to

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problems, expand their understanding, and shape the future of the learning community to
which they belong. You will need to support this with a reference.

The most effective learning environments for students are those in which they get
individualised attention from experienced instructors or mentors who transfer material in a
way that encourages students to gradually internalise it in order to foster self-regulation (also
known as "scaffolding" and "directed participation"). (Alsbury, et al, 2017)

For children who have learning challenges, difficulties may have surfaced at any stage of this
process. These difficulties may have manifested themselves in areas such as motivation,
communication, peer interaction, or teacher effectiveness. 'Real' problem solving and
practical classroom activities, student choice, and self-reflection are all trademarks of the
responsive teaching practises that form the core of this method. Other hallmarks include
teacher-student engagement, classroom discourse, and practical classroom activities (Mita,
Gray and Goodell, 2015).

Methodologies, pedagogical philosophies, and individual

preferences in learning
In the field of education, models of individualities have attracted a lot of interest and
significance from members of the academic community (such as visual, auditory, and
kinaesthetic modes; multiple intelligences; etc.). Emerging case studies, such as the one done
by Lawson (2003), address the use of "mind-mapping" to assist a child with Down syndrome
in articulating his knowledge of stories; such methods of curriculum construction are
becoming an essential component of many schools' inclusion programmes. Ongoing research
is being done to determine whether or not these strategies are effective for helping children
who have learning impairments.

An encouraging indicator is the universal acknowledgment of the necessity to reject the

assumption that just one learning model can explain and guide a single educational method.
This view has been widely held for a long time. As a consequence of this, teachers will be
able to pick and choose from a number of techniques, including organised behavioural
approaches, depending on an analysis of the specific needs of each kid (O’Brennan,
Bradshaw and Furlong, 2014). According to Lawson (2003), the reading treatments that are
the most successful are those that adopt a more all-encompassing approach to teaching
reading based on their model of reading. This is because their model of reading is more

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comprehensive. According to Webster et al., (2017), reading scores are affected by both
lower and higher order reading skills.

When working with kids who have difficulty learning, the research demonstrates that a
method of teaching that is more comprehensive and includes both "direct instruction" and
"strategy instruction" is more effective than methods that are more reductionist. Evans, Weiss
and Cullinan (2012) provide evidence that supports the importance of integrating guided
problem solving and discussion with explicit instruction for students who have difficulties
learning in order to facilitate the transfer and generalisation of knowledge in fields such as
mathematics and science. These are the steps that we take to ensure that our students are
successful. So how does this relate to positive reinforcement?

Motivation

The energy that invigorates, guides, and empowers us to select the actions that will best get
us closer to our goals is referred to as motivation (Don Hamachek, 1989). According to
Brophy (2004), motivation may be described as "the intent to gain the knowledge or talents
that the activities are supposed to develop." [Citation needed] (p. 4). The inner desire to
satisfy one's wants and needs is what we mean by the term motivation (Ugah, 2008). When it
comes to accomplishing a goal or meeting an expectation, many people consider this to be
one of the most crucial factors. A inclination to create a drive to learn via involvement in
activities is what we mean when we talk about motivation. A person is said to be motivated if
they can be encouraged to take action. An individual who is motivated is one who is inspired
to accomplish something, and the drive that an individual possesses is what enables them to
finish a task.

According to Arnold, Robertson, and Cooper (1991), the three components of motivation are
direction, effort, and perseverance.  Perseverance is concerned with how long a person
continues to do something, while effort refers to how strenuously a person is working to get a
result. Direction is concerned with what a person is aiming to do. There are two types of
motivation: extrinsic and intrinsic. Intrinsic motivation comes from inside. The participation
in a task that occurs as a result of extrinsic factors, such as incentives, prizes, certifications,
verbal acclaim, fines, and criticism, is referred to as extrinsic motivation. The participation in
an activity owing to self-generated factors is the definition of what is known as intrinsic
motivation. Extrinsic motivation, in other words, refers to an external force that acts as a
driver for an individual to fulfil "external ideals and demands" (Wang & Guthrie, 2004, 165).

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According to the findings of research conducted by Davis, Winsler, and Middleton, higher
levels of the extrinsic drive were related with more frequent rewards for men, but this was not
the case for women (2006). In total, 136 first-year students took part in the research project.
We were able to identify the various types of incentives that were used as well as the methods
that were used to apply those incentives by using the Likert scale. After then, the participants'
assessments of the links between the incentives and their primary reasons for participating
were questioned (Davis et al., 2006). According to the results of this survey, seventy-five
percent of pupils were given some kind of material compensation for their academic
achievements. The examination of the collected data in this investigation revealed that one of
the most effective academic motivators is the prospect of gaining advantages in the future.
Bandura (1977) provides an explanation for why reinforcing conditions evoke strong
incentive and motivational effects. Because of their superior cognitive abilities, humans are
able to predict the outcomes of their activities, which they may then use to motivate and
guide their behaviour.

Intrinsic Motivation

In a series of three tests, individuals were observed while they worked on puzzles in their
spare time. The first thing that needed to be done was to get data from a control group that
didn't get any rewards. The children who participated in the comparison group were given a
coupon worth one dollar as a monetary reward for each problem that they successfully
resolved. The next piece of information conveyed to the students was that there would be no
opportunity for positive reinforcement upon successful completion of the secondary baseline
phase. Through all three trials, both the composition of the control group and the amount of
time its members spent on the puzzles outside of class remained same. When incentives were
provided, the experimental group worked on the task for a significantly longer period of time.
Boniecki and Moore conducted research to investigate the consequences of implementing a
token economy as a way to encourage more student participation in the classroom (2003).
When the research project was first initiated, there was no such thing as a token economy or
incentive programme. We were able to assemble some important baseline data by keeping an
eye on and recording the activities of the participants. The degree to which each of the 63
pupils in the class participated in the activity served as the dependent variable. During the last
11 courses of the semester, the instructor used a token system that allowed students to trade
in tokens for extra credit at the end of each day. This system was in place for the entire

17
semester. After putting in place the token system, we were able to evaluate the level of
involvement from the target demographic we had in mind (Boniecki & Moore, 2003).

It was demonstrated that the introduction of the token economy led to a significant increase in
the amount of activity, both targeted and untargeted. During the intervention, more than twice
as many kids raised their hands in response to a question than had previously done so.
Boniecki and Moore (2003) conducted an experiment in which they withdrew token rewards
to determine the effect this would have on the participants' intrinsic motivation. As a result,
they measured how interested the participants were in the experiment. The fact that there was
neither an increase nor a decrease in participation rates is suggestive of the fact that the
extrinsic rewards utilised in this study had no effect whatsoever on the participants' natural
willingness to take part.

Motives may be broken down into two basic categories: internal and extrinsic (Vallerand
1997). According to Ryan and Deci (2000), the concept of extrinsic motivation is defined as
"a construct that applies whenever an activity is done to attain some separable outcome,"
while the concept of intrinsic motivation is defined as "the doing of an activity for its inherent
satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence" (p. 56). (p. 60). Learners' freedom
of choice (self-directed learning), their perceived interests and delight in learning, and their
perceived competence and learning autonomy can all contribute to the maintenance or growth
of intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation assessments include: (Ryan and Deci 2000).
Intrinsic motivation is a positive characteristic that improves self-regulated learning and
decreases the stress associated with learning, despite the fact that it is not always related with
learning results (Van Seters et al., 2012; Winne, 1995). (Baker 2004). Extrinsic motivation,
on the other hand, is linked more to external regulation, introjection, identification, and
integration (Ryan and Deci, 2000). However, there was no correlation found between
extrinsic motivation and self-regulated learning (Baker 2004). Within the context of a self-
paced, independent learning environment, the purpose of the present study was to evaluate
students' intentions towards the use of mobile technology for the acquisition of foreign
languages. As a direct result of this, intrinsic motivation in language learning was chosen to
be a candidate for the component that has the capacity to impact the behavioral intention of
language students.

In addition to the distinctions that can be made between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation,
Stockwell and Hubbard (2013) argued that two distinct types of motivation may affect the

18
engagement of learners when it comes to the adoption of technology for language learning:
intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. the inherent interest in the technology, which
motivates learners to research the probable benefits of the technology in language acquisition,
and the motivation to learn a language, which encourages learners to embrace a technology in
order to speed up their language learning (Ushioda 2013).

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivating students to enhance their compliant classroom behaviours and decrease their
disruptive classroom behaviours allows teachers to dedicate more time to instruction and
extracurricular activities. Even if the use of extrinsic motivators has a positive influence on
individuals and motivates them to reach a goal, the benefits of using these types of motivators
are only temporary. On the other hand, it is plausible to say that extrinsic motivators might
provide individuals with joy and satisfaction upon the successful completion of a work. For
instance, a student who has a strong distaste for a certain project could push themselves to do
admirably in order to achieve an acceptable grade. It has been hypothesised that the inherent
motivation of students is diminished when they are given material benefits (Meece,
Anderson, & Anderson, 2006). The contention here is that students are less motivated when
they receive benefits from the outside. On the other hand, there are other academics who
contend that students cannot cultivate their intrinsic motivation without the assistance of
extrinsic rewards (Cameron & Pierce, 2002). According to Zirpoli (2008), the use of extrinsic
rewards in the classroom does not have a detrimental impact on the growth of pupils' intrinsic
motivation. It is essential to emphasise that the ultimate outcome cannot be anything that
provides external advantages. Students who are lacking in interest and enthusiasm for their
academic pursuits might benefit tremendously from the utilisation of extrinsic motivation as a
starting point. The socioeconomic position of the students is another factor that plays a role in
the students' lack of motivation. It's possible that factors like violence, stress, and poverty are
lowering people's motivation (Kohn, 1993). The use of extracurricular activities and
competitions as motivational tools for students can be of assistance in resolving these
challenges.

A kind of reinforcement that has been shown to improve the academic performance of
students who have an intrinsic drive to learn is known as extrinsic motivation. Motivating
students that have less internal drive can be very effective via extrinsic incentives. A further
benefit of using extrinsic motivation is that it assists in the formation of healthy study

19
routines. For instance, rather of causing a disturbance, they participate in the activities that
are offered in the classroom.

Teaching Strategies and Achievement

An important part of this research is looking at how SEN affects the relationship between
classroom instruction and student development. There are fundamental theoretical
distinctions in how each group views the process of education. Different schools of thought
such as psychoanalytic or humanistic disagree on how much student participation is
necessary for efficient learning, which is one reason why behaviorist teaching approaches
such as positive reinforcement are often debated in constructivist classrooms. These
approaches are often regarded as being focused on external rather than intrinsic motivation.

Furthermore, one may argue that there are real-world connections between academic
achievement, interest in one's studies, and classroom participation (Alter, Walker and
Landers, 2013). Example: in most contemporary educational programmes, students are
encouraged to take an active role in the process of goal-setting and progress-monitoring,
which has been found to boost students' feeling of agency over their own education. A
classroom designed to promote students' active involvement in learning as a whole and would
likely make use of a wide range of teaching strategies, each of which is best suited to a
certain stage of the educational process. If teachers take the time to assess each student's
unique needs, they may then choose from a wide range of methods to meet those needs
(O’Brennan, Bradshaw and Furlong, 2014). Lawson (2003) has found that a more
comprehensive philosophy of reading and instruction is necessary for reading interventions to
be successful. In all these areas, the need for children to develop intrinsic motivation is
crucial because positive reinforcement that focuses on external motivation is not likely to
sustain motivation long term.

Evidence from both research and experience reveals that a simplified theory-to-practice
model does not fully account for how teachers really accomplish their jobs given the
complexities of social and organisational relationships inherent in the many settings in which
they do so.

Additionally, we are aware of how local circumstances impact the understanding,

modification, and use of techniques. Since these issues are complex by definition, it is argued
that research pointing to "promising methodologies" cannot practically prescribe simple

20
solutions. The opposite is true; research findings may guide and inspire teachers to rethink
and attempt new approaches. This does not argue for a "anything goes" mentality in the
classroom. Instead, we agree with detractors (e.g. Alter, Walker and Landers, 2013) who
contend that the theoretical models giving rise to different instructional approaches and
procedures may not be as divergent as initially imagined.

Pedagogy is influenced by a number of theoretical frameworks and schools of thought. The

present point of contention isn't over whether technique is more superior but rather how to
effectively use the learnings from the several models under discussion and where the place of
positive reinforcement fits within this. Research on methods that have been proved to
improve students' academic and social results is not hard to come by; what is less evident is
how the same benefits may be reached when the therapies are used locally by teachers in
schools. We know a lot more about effective practices than we do about how to impact their
long-term adoption and sustain instructors in new ways of thinking about teaching and
learning, and this is in line with the historical context of developing evidence-based teaching
techniques and interventions for children with SEN.

The introduction of techniques that need intensive one-on-one instruction has been proved to
be unrealistic in practice. Another factor contributing to their widespread use is the widely
held idea that students with certain characteristics cannot be taught well in traditional
classroom settings. However, research portrays that a more inclusive demonstration that
schools have adapted lesson plans and organised support services in ways that make group
instruction more tailored to each student's unique needs.

Because they can have both direct and indirect impacts on a student's behaviour, the use of
reinforcement and feedback is an important component of the learning process. If used
appropriately, positive reinforcement may have a beneficial impact on students' attitudes,
levels of commitment, and perceptions of themselves. On the other hand, negative
information has a tendency to have the opposite effect (Matheson and Shriver, 2005).

When a child exhibits the desired behaviour, positive reinforcement may be used to reward
them by giving them with a stimulating experience that gives them pleasure whenever they
perform the desired action. According to O'Connor and McCartney (2007), this type of
feedback encourages students to behave in a desirable manner by leaving them feeling
encouraged, curious, and inspired to carry on with the task they are currently engaged in. The

21
students' perceptions of themselves might be indirectly influenced by positive reinforcement
as well. To put it another way, youngsters who are given the right amounts of positive
reinforcement grow up to have intellectual confidence. On the other hand, it is crucial to bear
in mind that good comments might potentially have a negative influence on the growth of the
kid. This takes happen when it is used without purpose, to an extreme degree, or when it is
not appreciated by the recipient.

Teachers have been proven to incorporate student-specific demands into larger, group-based
lessons. For classrooms with a high number of students who require special accommodations,
this is especially important to remember. Teaching is not a mechanical or rule-bound
profession, but rather one that requires the application of professional judgement and
discretion.

Bolourian, Losh, Hamsho et al., (2022) stresses that rather than sticking to a set technique,
teachers should engage in a process of "tinkering." That is to say, people learn via a lot of
trial and error, ideally with the help of their knowledge of other theories and the guiding ideas
behind their own choices. Thompsom and Webber (2010) research demonstrates that teaching
strategies are interpreted, adapted, and implemented differently across geographic locations.
The same may be said for the use of positive reinforcement. They found that instructors
might be encouraged to critically examine current practices and experiment with new ones
when presented with research-based data. Their studies centered on educators' knowledge of,
and engagement with, strategies deemed useful for fostering an inclusive classroom
environment.

Research portrays those educators found to have a good awareness of inclusive practices,
however. there is a large gap between this knowledge and its actual use in the classroom.
Teachers may be hindered in their effectiveness due to lack of resources and restrictions
imposed by subject-specific and school-wide rules (such as classroom layout) (e.g. ICT,
teaching assistants, etc.). Therefore, the context in which any experimental approaches are
being implemented must be taken into account. Overall, it has been argued in this literature
review that positive reinforcement is useful to maintain classroom behaviour and to support
learning. However positive reinforcement may also be limited due to its focus on external
motivation. It is necessary for educators to adapt and tailor their use of positive reinforcement
when supporting the learning of children with and without special education al needs so that
children do not become solely dependent on it.

22
 Findings and Analysis

This research was carried out with the intention of shedding light on the perspectives and

experiences of primary school instructors about the use of incentive programmes. The

following five research questions will serve as the primary focus of the survey instrument:

Typical incentives for student achievement in the classroom might include the following

examples: How frequently do teachers make use of reward and incentive programmes with

their students? What are some of the reasons why teachers use reward systems in the

classroom? What do you think the teachers think about the impact that financial incentives

have on the innate drive that their pupils possess? We are interested in hearing from teachers

on the results that they have seen from using incentives in the classroom. The following data,

which was obtained from the study stated previously and provides more insight into the

problems discussed previously,

An earlier research was conducted, and the results of that study indicated the frequent

methods of reinforcement used by educators. In the study with several techniques that was

carried out by Hoffman et al. (2009), all of the teachers reported making use of tangible

awards, while the great majority also reported making use of verbal incentives. One hundred

percent of the lecturers polled claimed that they make regular use of verbal praise, and 92%

of the lecturers stated that they make frequent use of physical encouragement.

According to studies conducted by Page and Edwards (1978) and Hoffman et al. (2009),

more than half of all teachers use incentives in the form of awards in the classroom. These

incentives might take the form of additional time to complete tasks or special privileges. On

the other hand, more than seventy-five percent of those who participated in a research study

admitted to taking advantage of privileged classroom opportunities. Only 6% of professors

23
consistently give additional credit to pupils as a form of positive reinforcement for their

efforts, according to research conducted by Bonecki and Moore (2003). Separate analyses

were performed on the results obtained from kindergarten through grade three and from high

school (4-6). We looked at how each organisation took care of its members financially and

analysed how they did it. The number of teachers who reported using additional credit,

physical incentives, classroom privileges, vocal praise to students, and verbal praise to

parents was much higher among elementary school teachers than among secondary school

teachers. Every member of both groups who took part in the study stated that the only form of

reward they received was verbal praise.

Within the context of this study, students were questioned on the frequency with which they

were encouraged both monetarily and verbally by their teachers. Verbal praise is used often,

but not quite as frequently as warnings and guided compliance, according to the findings of

Ritz and colleagues (2014). The results of this study indicated that every participant, without

exception, made frequent use of verbal praise. The majority, 59%, also often used physical

awards in their competitions. Ninety percent of the primary school pupils who took part in the

survey that Davis et al. (2006) carried out reported having received prizes for their high levels

of success. Although the teachers who took part in the study all admitted to using some kind

of incentive scheme, they varied in the degree to which they did so rather than just picking

their preferred choice. In the absence of a more appropriate expression, let's simply say "I

don't like incentive schemes."

Page and Edwards (1978) developed a variety of incentive system implementations, such as

the independent group-oriented contingency and the interdependent group-oriented

contingency. Students were expected to continue working and did not get any reward if they

did not complete their projects and meet the criteria in accordance with the autonomous

24
group oriented contingency model. Students who did complete their projects and meet the

criteria were awarded free time. In contrast to the previous model, which demanded that

every student have a star next to their name before they could have any free time, the new

model, which was based on a group-oriented approach, only required one student to have a

star next to their name for them to be eligible for free time. This was in contrast to the

previous model, which required all students to have stars next to their names. The research

conducted by Page and Edwards found that the vast majority of instructors favour a strategy

that combines traditional and modern methods. We wanted to find out the opinions of the

students on the usage of rewards and incentives in the classroom, therefore we conducted this

poll. According to the findings of Page and Edwards, more than half of the participants in this

survey said that they used a hybrid strategy in which they presented tangible rewards to both

individual students and the entire class. This conclusion is in line with what was discovered

by Page and Edwards (1978). The remaining members of the research population were split

fairly evenly between the two methods. The research conducted by Ritz and colleagues

(2014) found that both approaches are useful in reducing disruptive behaviour.

Conclusion and Recommendations

In the last section of the chapter, a summary was presented of the most noteworthy results
based on the research questions, as well as their relevance to the current empirical literature,
their implications for social work practise, their limitations, and their suggestions for
additional study. Every participant said that they used a tangible incentive in the classroom at
least once every day, with more than half of them doing so frequently. According to the
research, the vast majority of participants disperse incentives in a manner that is both
personally and collectively driven. In addition, the overwhelming majority of respondents
believe that it is a good idea to use awards as a technique of increasing the interest level of
kids, reducing unwanted behaviours, and improving the academic achievement of the
students. According to the figures, the great majority of teachers either disagreed with or had

25
no opinion about the contention that providing monetary rewards to students lowers the level
of intrinsic drive possessed by such students. Finally, responders debunked the arguments
that incentive programmes are ineffectual and that monetary prizes excite students more than
verbal praise does. According to them, students are enthusiastic about both of them in equal
measure. The use of incentive systems in elementary schools is simply the tip of the iceberg
when it comes to our knowledge of how and why teachers use them.

While this study does give valuable insight into the how and why primary school teachers are
employing incentive systems, further research is necessary to properly know the treatments
that are really being implemented in order to fully understand the treatments that are being
implemented. It is strongly suggested that future studies make use of qualitative methods in
order to generate replies that are of a higher quality. In addition, there is a need for additional
data in order to evaluate the efficacy of the tactics that are currently being used by educators
in primary schools. According to the existing body of literature, there is a pressing need for
more study on the classroom interventions that are already in use as well as the opinions of
teachers on these interventions. Future researchers who conduct studies that are comparable
should be aware of the time constraints that are involved with disseminating surveys. They
should also be prepared to think imaginatively about various strategies for disseminating
surveys that will not have to conform to time constraints that are as severe.

26
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