PART I

MODULE 5
ANATOMY OF PLANTS
VEGETATIVE PLANT ORGANS

BIO 112B 1
ALIGNMENT TO: INTRODUCTION
CO1: Elaborate all aspects of plant including
cytology, morpho-anatomy, physiology,
This module will be tackling various plant organs. Organ system of
taxonomy, and ecology.
CO2: Relate the course to more advanced and plants is divided into two: (1) Vegetative and (2) reproductive
specialized courses. structures. Your knowledge in the previous modules is essential in
CO4: Relate knowledge on physiological and
understanding the topics and contents of this module.
developmental processes of plants on the
program taken.
TOPIC OUTLINE
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the module, you will be able to: The following topics will be presented and learned in this module:
1. Familiarize with the various structures of each
plant organs; 1. Vegetative Structures
2. Explain articulately the different processes of - The Roots
plant reproduction. - The Stems
TEXTBOOK/REFERENCES - The Leaves
1. Mauseth, j.d. 2009. Botany: an introduction to 2. Reproductive structures
plant biology. 2nd ed. Jones and bartlett - The flower and pollination
publishers.
- The fruit
2. Bidlack, J.E. & S.H. Jansky. 2014. Stern’s
Introductory Plant Bioology, 13th ed. Mc.Graw- - The seed
Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY
10121.
ASSESSMENT
ACTIVITIES:
Examination 30%
Digital Portfolio 25%
1. Digital portfolio of plant organs. Creative Presentation 30%
2. Video presentation
Pretest and Post-test 15%

Laboratory Exam 25%

CHERIE C. MANGAOANG, PhD
EMAIL: ccmangaoang@usm.edu.ph
Practical Examination 50%
PHONE: 0936-385-5388 Laboratory Reports 25%
OFFFICE ADDRESS:
Department of Biological Sciences
College of Science and Mathematics
DURATION (WEEK) – 3RD WEEK
University of Southern Mindanao
One week (minimum of three hours/week)
Kabacan, Cotabato

Instruction:
Reviewers:
Angelo R. Agduma, PhD cand.
Florence Roy Salvańa, PhD cand.
1. You have to answer the pretest and submit your answer (in any
means).
2. After going through with the content, you will be taking a posttest.
3. You are required to submit the activities for this module.
4. You will be submitting a digital portfolio of the plant organs.
5. A video presentation on the integration of various organs for growth,
survival and perpetuation of plant species will be done. Your
facilitator will group you composing of 6 members per group.
6. Your facilitator will have the discretion on the time of submission of
your outputs.
7. You can’t proceed with the next module unless you are done with
this module.

READING ASSIGNMENT:
Chapters 5,6 & 7– Stern’s Introductory Plant Biology

BIO 112B 2
TOPIC 1 ROOTS

DID YOU KNOW?

We know very little about roots because they are hidden in soil and we cannot easily see
when they are active or dormant, or even if they have died.
Root organization is similar to shoot organization: Roots have an epidermis, cortex,
phloem, and xylem and pith (monocots).
Certain cells in the tips of roots have dense starch grains that sink to the bottom of the
cells; this leads the cells on their way down.
Some plants (mangroves) that grow along seashores have roots that grow upward,
providing submerged roots with oxygen.

FUNCTION

One of the main functions of most roots is for anchorage. Roots anchor trees firmly on soil,
usually through an extensive branching network. Firm anchoring provides stability and is
therefore important for all plants. Stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits can be properly
oriented to the sun, pollinators, or fruit distributors, respectively. Without proper root
attachment, trees and shrubs could not remain upright, and epiphytes would be blown
from their sites in the tree canopy

Figure 1. A. Growing root of days old seedling, B. Portion of a root tip showing numerous
root hairs for water absorption. © www.macmillanhighered.com

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Roots also functions for absorption of water and mineral, mostly through “feeder” roots
found in the upper meter of the soil. Although roots, like leaves, have an absorptive
function, two organs have totally different shapes. Sunlight always comes from above, but
water and minerals are distributed on all sides of a root. Its cylindrical shape allows all sides
to have the same absorptive capacity.

Roots are quite active in the production of several hormones; shoot growth and
development depend on the hormones cytokinin and gibberellin imported from the roots.
This reliance of the shoot on hormones produced by the roots is one of the means of
integrating the growth of the two systems.

HOW ROOTS DEVELOP

When a seed germinates, a tiny radicle, a part of the embryo (immature plantlet)
within it, grows out and develop into first root and usually becomes the largest root
in the system (Fig 1). The radicle may develop into a thick, tapered taproot and
numerous small lateral roots or branch roots arise from it. Lateral roots may also
produce more lateral roots, resulting in a highly ramified set of roots analogous to
the highly branched shoot system of most plant. On the other hand, most monocots
and some dicots have a mass of many similarly sized roots constituting a fibrous root
system. This arises because the radicle dies during or immediately after germination;
root primordia at the base of the radicle grow out and form the first stages of the
fibrous root system.

Figure 2. Root development.

STRUCTURE OF ROOTS

When we do close examination of developing young roots, it usually reveals four regions
or zones: (1) root cap, (2) region of cell division, (3) region of cell elongation and (4)
region of maturation (Fig 2).

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1. Root cap.

- Composed of thimble-shaped mass of parenchyma cells covering the tip of

each root.
- Protects the delicate tissue behind it as the young root tip pushes through
often angular and abrasive soil particles
- Dictyosomes of root cap cells secrete a complex polysaccharide called
mucigel, which lubricates passage of the root through the soil.
- It is also noted that root cap functions in the perception of gravity. It is known
that amyloplasts act as gravity sensors.

2. Region of cell division

- composed of an apical meristem in the center of the root tip

- has a mitotically inactive central region known as quiescent center (reserve)
- give rise to three meristematic tissues: protoderm, ground meristem (pith in
grass roots) and procambium

3. Region of elongation

- cells increase in length and become wider just behind the root cap
- cells undergo division and expansion

4. Region of maturation

- cells mature or differentiate (region of cell differentiation)

- increase the total absorptive surface of the root
- region in which many of the epidermal cells extend out as narrow trichomes
(root hairs)

Figure 3. Structure of the roots showing the different regions or zones.

(Mauseth, 2017)

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Root hairs are not separate cells; rather they are tubular extensions of specialized
epidermal cells. They form only in part of the root that is not elongating; otherwise, they
would be shorn off. y. Root hairs grow outward, greatly increasing absorption of water
and minerals.

Internal Anatomy

The internal anatomy of the root had been discussed in previous module in detail, as well
as how monocot and dicot roots differ. But briefly the basic parts of a cross-sectioned
dicot root.

1. Epidermis

- Usually single layer of protective tissue that covers the root

- does not secrete a thick, waxy cuticle, particularly in the region of root hairs
- epidermis is derived from the protoderm.

2. Cortex

- storage parenchyma cells; composed primarily of loosely arranged

parenchyma cells with large intercellular spaces
- makes up the bulk of the root
- lacks supporting collenchyma cells
- function mainly for storage
- innermost layer differentiates into a cylinder of cells called endodermis.

Endodermis
Controls the amount and kinds of minerals that enter the xylem in the
root’s interior.
Rare in stems but so universal in roots
Each cell has a special band-like region on its radial and transverse
walls called the casparian strip – contain suberin – a fatty material that
is waterproof. Casparian strip forces the water and dissolved nutrients
to pass membrane to control absorption by the root. In short, this
regulates the flow of substance.

3. Vascular cylinder

- Lies to the inside of the endodermis. The arrangement of these tissues differs
from that in stems: Instead of forming collateral bundles containing xylem and
phloem, the xylem of almost all plants except some monocots forms a solid
mass in the center, surrounded by strands of phloem; no pith is present. In roots
of many monocots, strands of xylem and phloem are distributed in ground
tissue( Fig 5)

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 Figure 4. (A) Low-magnification view and (B) high-magnification view of a transverse section
of a eudicot root (buttercup, Ranunculus) showing the broad cortex and the small set of
vascular tissues. The xylem has three sets of protoxylem, the narrow cells at the tips of the
arms (B). The central, larger xylem cells are metaxylem. Three masses of phloem are also
present; this is a triarch root. The pericycle is the set of cells between the endodermis and the
vascular cells. (C) Low-magnification view and (D) high magnification view of a transverse
section of a monocot root (greenbrier, Smilax). The vascular tissue consists of numerous large
vessels and separate bundles of phloem. (Mauseth, 2017)

Pathway of Water

- In the uptake of water by the roots, it enters through its epidermis. It appears
that water then travels in two ways: through the cytoplasm (symplast) of root
cells –- in which it crosses the plasma membrane and then from one cell to the
other through the plasmodesmata, such transport is known as symplastic
transport. On the other hand, in the non-living (apoplast) parts of the root known
as apoplastic transport–water travels in the spaces between the cells and in the
cell walls themselves. In this manner, the water has not crossed a plasma
membrane.

- But in the inner boundary of the cortex, the endodermis, is impermeable to

water because it has suberin deposited in its cell walls in a band called
casparian strip. To enter the stele, apoplastic water must enter the symplasm

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 of the endodermal cells. From here it can pass by plasmodesmata into the cells
of the stele (Fig 4).
TOPIC 2

Figure 5. Movement of water (biology-pages.info/X/Xylem.html)

Origin and Development of Lateral Roots

- Between the vascular tissue and the endodermis are parenchyma cells that
constitute an irregular region called the pericycle. When lateral roots are
produced, they are initiated in the pericycle. It is composed of parenchyma
cells that remain meristematic. It is also involved in forming the lateral meristems
that produce the secondary growth in woody roots.
- Lateral roots arise in the pericycle, deep inside the root, unlike axillary buds in
stems, which arise in the outermost stem tissues

Figure 6. Development of Lateral Roots.

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Metamorphosed/ Specialized Roots

Plant organs, due to their unique evolutionary history through time, their specific organs
have evolved secondarily modified as a consequence of natural selection. We call these
organs (root, stem and leaves) as modified, specialized or metamorphosed because they
have assumed different structure and functions. The following are examples of specialized
roots:

1. Food-storage roots
- Roots are enlarged and store large quantities of starch and other
carbohydrates
2. Water-Storage Roots
- Plant produce huge water-storage roots such as in some member of the
Pumpkin Family (Cucurbitaceae)
- Characteristics of those that grow in arid regions or in arid areas
3. Propagative roots
- Many plants produce adventitious buds (buds appearing in places other than
stems) along the roots that grow near the surface of the ground.
- Apples, cherries, pears
4. Pneumatophores
- Extend above the water the water surface and enhance gas exchange
between atmosphere and the subsurface roots to which they are connected.
- The aerial portion of the prop root is covered with numerous air chambers—
lenticels—and its cortex is a wide aerenchyma.
- The subterranean portion of the root grows in a stagnant muck that has little or
no oxygen; it is able to respire only because the aerenchyma permits the rapid
diffusion of oxygen from the aerial lenticels to the submerged root tissues.
5. Aerial Roots
- For support (prop roots of corn), preventing loss of moisture from the root
(velamen roots of orchids),
6. Contractile rots
- Pull the plant deeper into the soil. E.g. lily bulb, hyacinth roots
- roots undergo even more contraction than prop roots do. After extending
through the soil and becoming firmly anchored, the uppermost portions begin
to contract. Because the root is firmly fixed to the soil, the stem is pulled
downward so that the base of the shoot is either kept at soil level or, in the case
of bulbs, actually buried deeper.
7. Buttress roots
- Some tropical tress growing in the soils produce huge, buttress-like roots towards
the base of the trunk, giving them great stability.
8. Parasitic roots
- For some plants that do not have chlorphyll depend on chlorophyll bearing
plants for nutrition
- They parasitize their host plants via peglike projection called haustoria (Sing.
Haustorium), which develop along the stem in contact with the host.
- The haustoria penetrate the outer tissues and establish connections with the
xylem and phloem
9. Photosynthetic root
- Aerial, green root with chlorophyll usually observed in some species of orchids

BIO 112B 9
 A B C D

E F G

Figure 7. Specialized Roots. A. contractile. B-C. Support. D,

Pneumatophore. E. Buttress. F-G. Storage

TOPIC 2 STEM

Stem and shoot are sometimes used interchangeably, but technically the stem is the axis,
whereas the shoot is the stem and its appendages including leaves, flowers, or buds. Stems
are linear structures with attached leaves that provide support and transport of water and
nutrients to the other plant parts. Most stems grow upward, helping to raise plants
structures, such as leaves, off the ground. Some plants also use their stems for
photosynthesis or for food and water storage.

The following are identified functions of stem

• Produces & support appendages of plant (leaves, flowers, fruits)

• Transport water and solutes between roots and leaves.
• Stems in some plants are photosynthetic.
• Produce & store materials necessary for life (e.g., water, starch, sugar).
• In some plants, stems have become adapted for specialized functions.
•
External Form of a Woody Twig

A woody twig is consists of an axis with attached leaves and follows certain arrangement-
phyllotaxy. The point at which leaves are attached is called the node and the region
between two successive nodes is the internode. Leaf is usually attached to the twig by a
petiole. The angle between a petiole and the stem is known as the axil and the axillary
bud is located in an axil. Terminal bud is located at twig tip. Paired appendages (stipules)
can also be found at the base of a leaf and this often remains throughout leaf life span
(Fig. 8).

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 Figure 8. Parts of a woody twig.

Note: Internal structures of the stem were presented in the previous module.

Metamorphosed/ Specialized Stems

Stems may be of various forms to serve different functions, such as food or water storage,
for subterranean or aerial anchoring devices, for asexual reproduction, for protection, for
photosynthesis, and for additional (Fig. 9)

1. Flattened meristematic stem – commonly observed at the tip of onion bulbs where
the roots are attached.

2. Corm - A solid, bulb-like, underground stem without fleshy scales forms a corm. It
has greatly shortened internodes. Examples are the food-storage, reproductive
corms of Colocasia (gabi/taro) and Musa (banana)

3. Pseudobulb - Many orchids grow on branches or trunks of other plants (epiphytes).

These plants develop a fleshy stem internode with water storage parenchyma.
Other orchids, in contrast, are terrestrial (grow in the soil).

4. Rhizome - Found near or below the soil surface, a rhizome is an underground stem
that produces scalelike leaves and adventitious roots at the nodes. Rhizomes are
found in Iris, Equisetum, and Irish potatoes.

5. Stolon - A lateral stem, “runner”, from the base of a plant develops internodes, and
where the apex touches the soil, a new plant with shoots and adventitious roots
forms at a node. Strawberry and strawberry begonia form stolons.

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 6. Succulent Green stem/cladophyll - Fleshy water storage stems of parenchyma are
found in the spurge and cactus families. In prickly pear cacti, nodes bear leaves
that have been reduced to spines. These stems also contain chlorophyll for
photosynthesis.

7. Tuber - Tubers are swollen, underground good storage stems arising at the tips of
rhizomes. They bear buds or” eyes” at the nodes on the potato tuber. These “eyes”
develop into potato sprouts (shoots) when the potato starts to grow.

8. Vine - are stems with long internodes and may have one of various types of climbing
devices such as tendrils opposite leaves at a node as in grape, modified stipule
tendrils (w) as in green briar, disc-tipped tendrils (t) as in Virginia Creeper,
adventitious roots as in philodendron and ivy (q), twining leaf tips as in gloriosa lily,
and twining lea petioles as in clematis, or the entire vine may twine as in wood rose.

Figure 9. Metamorphosed and specialized stem.

TOPIC 3 LEAVES

The term” leaf” usually calls to mind foliage leaves- commonly the large, flat, green
structures involved in photosynthesis. The leaf is a plant’s solar panel that captures the sun’s
energy. However, natural selection has resulted in numerous types of leaves that are
selectively advantageous because they provide protection (bud scales, spines), support
(tendrils), storage (fleshy leaves of bulbs), and even nutrient procurement (trapping and
digesting insect).

The most obvious function of foliage leaves is photosynthesis, but there a number of
limitations on leaves. They must not lose excessive amounts of water, won’t allow entry of
pathogens, can’t be too nutritious and delicious to animals, they must not be such

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effective sails and lastly must be cheap. If leaf fails in any of these aspects, the plant dies
and the leaf’s photosynthesis has been useless.

At maturity, most leaves have a stalk-petiole and a flattened blade or lamina. Stipules- pair
of leaf-like, scale-like or thorn-like appendages, are sometime present at the base of the
petiole. Leaves that lack petiole are said to be sessile (Fig. 9).

Figure10. External Anatomy of a simple Leaf

A leaf blade may be either simple or compound. A simple leaf has a blade of just one part,
whereas a compound leaf has a blade divided into several individual parts (Fig. 11). A
compound leaf has many small blades (leaflets), each attached by a petiolule to an
extension of the petiole, the rachis. Leaves may be palmately compound, with all leaflets
attached at the same point, or pinnately compound, with leaflets attached individually
along the rachis. There are three guidelines to distinguish a simple leaf from a pinnately
compound leaf: (a) Leaflets never bear buds in the axils of their petiolules; (b) The tip of the
rachis never has a terminal bud; (c) Leaflets are always arranged in two rows, never in a
spiral, whorled, or decussate phyllotaxy.

There are several advantages associated with compound leaves:

(a) Leaflets can flex in the wind (or water), minimizing wind resistance and preventing
tearing.
(b) Increased turbulence around leaflets can increase heat removal and CO 2
uptake.
(c) Pests/disease may spread less quickly.

Figure 11. Parts of a compound leaf: a. pinnately compound; b. palmately compound.

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Leaves also vary in shape. Despite possibilities for variation within a species, leaf shape is a
valuable tool for plant identification: Overall shape, including leaf base and apex, is
important, as is the margin. The margin may be entire (smooth), toothed, lobed, or
otherwise modified (Fig 12). The veins of leaves are bundles of vascular tissues. Eudicot veins
occur in a netted pattern or reticulate venation while monocot leaves tend to be long and
strap shaped and have parallel venation.

Figure 12. Some examples of leaf shapes.

Leaf Arrangements (Phyllotaxy)

Leaves are attached to stems at regions called nodes, with the stem regions between
nodes known as internodes. The arrangement of leaves on a stem (phyllotaxy) occurs in
one of three ways:

a. Alternate – leaves are attached alternately or in a spiral along a stem, with one leaf
per node.
b. Opposite – two leaves may be attached at each node, providing an opposite
arrangement.
c. Whorled – three or more leaves occur at a node

Internal Anatomy

1. Epidermis
- A transparent protective layer of cells which completely covered the flattened
surfaces of leaves both in the upper and lower surfaces. It contains a coating
of cutin and usually also wax on their outer walls.
- The lower surface of the leaves (in some plants, the upper surface as well) are
dotted with tiny pores-stomata, which not only allow entry of carbon dioxide
gas but also play a role in the diffusion out of oxygen produced during
photosynthesis. In most leaves, the number of stomata is much greater in the
lower than in the upper epidermis in order to reduce water loss (due to sunlight
heating the upper leaf surface) and prevent fungal spores from penetrating.

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 - Leaf epidermis is often hairy and trichomes affect leaf biology in numerous
ways: (a) provide shade on the upper surface of the leaf; (b) prevent rapid air
movement, slowing water loss from stomata; (c) make walking or chewing
difficult for insects; (d) glandular trichomes secrete powerful stinging
compounds that deter even large animals.
- In Monocots, motor epidermal cells called bulliform cells are found. These cells
are responsible for the rolling of leaves especially where the leaf is subjected to
high irradiance.

2. Mesophyll
- The ground tissues interior to the leaf epidermis are collectively called
mesophyll. Along the upper surface of most leaves is a layer of cells, the
palisade parenchyma (also called palisade mesophyll), which is the main
photosynthetic tissue of most plants. Palisade cells are separated slightly so that
each cell has most of its surface exposed to the intercellular spaces.
- In the lower portion of the leaf is the spongy mesophyll—open, loose
aerenchyma that permits carbon dioxide to diffuse rapidly away from stomata
into all parts of the leaf’s interior
- Monocot leaves usually do not have the mesophyll differentiated into palisade
and spongy layers. In some, bulliform cells on either side of the main central vein
is present. Under dry conditions, the bulliform cells partly collapse, causing the
leaf blade to fold or roll. This folding or rolling of leaves reduces transpiration.

3. Veins or Vascular Tissues

- Various sizes
- Scattered throughout the mesophyll.
- Consist of xylem and phloem tissues surrounded by the bundle sheath
- Gives the leaf its skeleton
- Between the palisade parenchyma and spongy mesophyll. In eudicot leaf
usually has one large midrib (or midvein). Lateral veins emerge that branch into
narrow minor veins.

Figure 13. Internal structure of the leaves.

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Metamorphosed/ Specialized Leaves

Leaves have evolved to allow plants to thrive in a wide range of ecological niches thus we
can notice variability on leaf structure. Further, leaf structure will also tell us the type of
environment a plant has evolved to inhabit.

1. Storage leaves
- Leaves that are modified for water retention
- Thick and fleshy
- Survive in desert habitats.
- The mesophyll contains very few air spaces.
- Mesophyll more transparent so photosynthesis may occur deeper in the leaf.

2. Tendrils
- Tendrils are modified leaves whose cells can sense contact with objects and
coil around objects and use them for support
- Grow indefinitely
- Do not photosynthesize

3. Bud scales
- Bud scales are small modified leaves that form a tight layer around the stem
tip.
- Protect dormant buds in the winter.
- Have short or absent petioles.
- Are often very waxy and tough, some hairy.
- May have a thin, corky bark layer.

4. Spines
- For protection
- Modified leaves of axillary buds
- Leaves of many cacti and other desert plants
- Reduction in leaf surface correspondingly reduces water loss from plants

5. Reproductive leaves
- Tiny plantlets are produced along leaf margins
E.g. Kalanchoe

6. Bracts
- Found at the bases of flowers or flower stalks
- To attract pollinators, e.g. Poinsettia

7. Insect-trapping Leaves
- Plants growing in habitats poor in nitrates and ammonia, evolved insect traps.
Captured insects are digested as a source of nitrogen.
- The leaf appears highly modified, but is actually similar to many foliage leaves
except the lamina is tubular and secretes a watery digestive fluid and the
epidermis is absorptive.
- Trap leaves can be classified as either active traps that move during capture.
E.g. Drosera (sundew), Dionaea muscipula (Venus’ flytrap)
- Passive traps incapable of movement. E.g. Nepenthes (pitcher plant)

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 A B C

D E F G

Figure 14. Specialized leaves. A. storage. B. Spines. C. Bud scales. D-F. Insect
trapping

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