Architectural Draughting Form Two

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Architectural Draughting
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for Technical Secondary Schools

Student’s Book - Form Two
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Tanzania Institute of Education
Archit Draughting-2 PX - 1 day.indd 1 07/11/2022 11:16

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©Tanzania Institute of Education,
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Published 2022
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ISBN: 978-9987-09-474-5
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P. O Box 35094
Dar es Salaam
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Mobile number: +255 7355041168 / +255 735041170
Fax: +255222774420
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E-Mail: director.general@tie.go.tz
Website: www.tie.go.tz
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All rights reserved. No part of this text book may be reproduced, stored in any
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means whether electronic,
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mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written

permission of the Tanzania Institute of Education.
Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) ii Architectural Draughting II

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Table of contents
Abbreviations and acronyms.............................................................................. v

Acknowledgements............................................................................................ vii
Preface................................................................................................................viii
Chapter One: Geometrical figures..................................................................... 1
Concept of geometrical figures ................................................................. 1
Types of plane geometrical figures............................................................. 7
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Construction of geometrical figures......................................................... 16
Exercise 1.6.............................................................................................. 43
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Chapter summary...................................................................................... 43
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Chapter Two: Similar figures............................................................................ 46
Concept of similar figures......................................................................... 46
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Enlarging and reducing figures................................................................. 47
Chapter summary...................................................................................... 53
Revision exercise 2................................................................................... 53
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Chapter Three: Architectural scales and dimensions..................................... 54
The concept of dimension......................................................................... 54
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Parts of dimension.................................................................................... 55
Rules of dimensioning ............................................................................. 57
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Dimensioning systems ............................................................................. 62

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Architectural scales................................................................................... 64
Chapter summary...................................................................................... 76
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Chapter Four: Pictorial drawing...................................................................... 81

The concept of pictorial drawing.............................................................. 81
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Types of pictorial drawings...................................................................... 84

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Methods of constructing pictorial projections in isometric projection..... 86

Chapter summary...................................................................................... 93
Architectural Draughting II iii Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

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Chapter Five: Orthographic
DO projections.........................................................
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Concept of orthographic projections........................................................ 96
Principal planes ........................................................................................ 99
Types of orthographic projection in architectural draughting................ 101
Conventional symbols of first and third angle projections..................... 107
Chapter summary.................................................................................... 109
Revision exercise 5................................................................................. 109
Chapter Six: Auxiliary views.......................................................................... 113
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The concept of auxiliary views.............................................................. 113
Types of auxiliary views......................................................................... 115
Chapter summary.................................................................................... 122
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Chapter Seven: Points, lines and planes in space.......................................... 125
The concepts of points, lines and planes................................................ 125
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Determination of true angle and intersection of lines in space .............. 127
True shape of a section........................................................................... 132
Chapter summary.................................................................................... 142
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Chapter Eight: Perspective drawing.............................................................. 145
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The concept of photo taking and photography ...................................... 145

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Perspective variables.............................................................................. 150

Types of perspective .............................................................................. 156
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Chapter summary.................................................................................... 180

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Glossary............................................................................................................ 182
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Bibliography..................................................................................................... 183
Index.................................................................................................................. 184
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Abbreviations and acronyms
1-D One -Dimension
2-D Two -Dimension
3-D Three -Dimension
AGP Auxiliary Ground Plane
AIP Auxiliary Inclined Plane
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ARU Ardhi University
ATC Arusha Technical College
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CAV Central Axis of Vision
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CV Cone of Vision
DIT Dar es salaam Institute of Technology
FV Front View
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GL Ground Line
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GP Ground Plane
HL Horizon Line
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HP Horizontal Plane, Horizon Line

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ISO International Standard Organization

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MUST Mbeya University of Science and Technology

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NIT National Institute of Transport
PA Perpendicular Axis
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PP Picture Plane, Profile Plane

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PPP Principal Plane of Projection

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RF Representative Fraction
SP Station Point
Architectural Draughting II v Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

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TIE Tanzania Institute
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TL True Length
TSS True Size and Shape
US United States
UDSM University of Dar es salaam
VP Vertical Plane
VPL Vanishing Point Left
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VPR Vanishing Point Right
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Acknowledgements
Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the contributions

of all organizations and individuals who participated in the designing and developing
this textbook. In particular, TIE wishes to thank Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology
(DIT), University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM), Ardhi University (ARU), Arusha
Technical College (ATC), Mbeya University of Science and Technology (MUST)
and Technical Secondary Schools. Besides, the following categories of individuals
are also acknowledged:
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Writers: George B. Kiruwa (DIT), Eng. Dotto C. Joseph (ATC), Edwin E.
Malila (Moshi Technical Secondary School), Augustino N. Mmasy
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(JES Engineering solutions), Elisa E. Mghamba (Moshi Technical
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Secondary School)
Editors: Dr Ezekiel Z. Moshi (ARU), Arch. Amini Mtoure (ARU), and

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Edison S. Sanga (NIT) Language
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Designer: Sultan A. Tamba
Illustrators: Sultan A. Tamba and Godlove S. Kyando

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Coordinator: George B. Kiruwa (DIT)

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TIE also appreciates the participation of Technical Secondary School teachers and
students in the trial phase of the manuscript. Likewise, the Institute would like to
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thank the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology for facilitating the writing
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and printing of this textbook.

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Dr Aneth A. Komba
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Director General
Architectural Draughting II vii Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

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Preface
This textbook of Architectural Draughting for Technical Secondary Schools is

written specifically for Form Two students in the United Republic of Tanzania.
It is written in accordance with the 2019 Architectural draughting Syllabus for
Technical Secondary Schools, Forms 1-IV, issued by the Ministry of Education,
Science and Technology.
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The book consists of eight chapters, namely Geometrical figures, Similar figures,
Architectural scales dimensions, Pictorial drawing, Orthographic projection,
Auxiliary views, Points, lines and plane in space, and Perspective drawing. Each
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chapter contains illustrations, activities and exercises. You are encouraged to do
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all activities and exercises as well as other assignments that your teacher will
provide. Doing so will enable you to develop the intended competencies.
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Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) viii Architectural Draughting II

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Chapter
Geometrical figures
One
Introduction
Geometry is used in different ways including design and
construction of objects such as buildings, manufacturing
components and roads. It is concerned with properties of
space that are related with distance, shape, size and relative
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positions of objects. Geometrical objects or figures are the
basic studies in Architectural Draughting. In this chapter you
will learn about the concept of geometrical figures, types of
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plane geometrical figures and construction of geometrical
figures. The competencies developed will enable you to
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design and construct different objects related to architectural,
engineering and manufacturing products.
Concept of geometrical figures

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Geometrical figures are graphical means of communication expressed through
combination of points, lines and solid planes classified as space figures. Geometrical
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figures can be divided into two categories, namely solid geometrical figures and
plane geometrical figures.
Solid geometrical figures
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Solid geometrical figures are those figures with three dimensions (3-D) (length,
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width and depth), for example spheres, cylinders, cubes, rectangular solids, prisms,
cones and pyramids. Figure 1.1. shows some of the geometrical figures.
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Figure1.1: Solid geometrical figures
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Plane geometrical figures DO NOT DUPLICATE
Plane geometrical figures are those figures having two dimensions (Length and width).
Plane is the flat surface that extends to infinity in all direction that has infinite width
and length as shown in Figure 1.2. At this level, only plane geometrical figures are
discussed in detail.
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Figure 1.2: Plane geometrical figures
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Categories of plane geometrical
figures
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There are two categories of plane

geometrical figures, namely open
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geometrical figures and closed

geometrical figures. Figure 1.3: Open geometrical figures
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Open geometrical figures

Closed geometrical figures
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In open geometrical figures the line

segments or curves of an open figure In closed geometrical figures the line
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are not always connected. At least one segments or curves form a closed figure
end point of one side is not connected where the line segments or curves are
continuous, without breaking. They form a
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to the rest as seen in Figure 1.3.

closed shape/ figure with area and perimeter
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as seen in Figure 1.4.
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in geometry where all pictorial
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forms begin. It is represented by a
dot and named by a capital letter.
A point represents position only; it
has no length, width and it’s static
Figure 1.4: Closed geometrical figures
centralized and directionless depth.
Importance of geometrical figures in Point can be used to show segments
Architectural Draughting along the line, end of lines, crossing
of two lines or centres of a circle as
Buildings are made up of different shapes
shown in Figure 1.5.
and forms. In the process of designing,
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Line
geometric figures are used to express ideas
We can define line as one-
of how a building will look like in terms
dimensional figure formed when
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of shape and forms. Different buildings
two or more points are joined. A line
are built with different geometric shapes to
has length direction and position.
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give different appearance. The shape and
In architectural works different
appearance of building will also depend
types of lines are used to fit different
on the type of the building and its intended
functions.
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A line may be a straight, curved or
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Figure 1.5: Points

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Pillars of geometry a combination of both. Also, a line is

Principally, geometry comprises four known as path of points when in motion.
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main pillars which are points, lines, Figure 1.6 shows different types of lines.
plane and solids.
Point
This is the most fundamental element

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Straight line
Vertical line
Indefinite line
Definite length Horizontal line Curved line
Inclined or oblique
line
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.6: Lines
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Relationship between line and angle
The space on inclination between straight lines intersecting at a point is known as
angle . This means angle can be described as the opening between two-line segments
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having a common end point known as vertex as indicated in Figure 1.7.
Angles are measured in degree (°), minutes (’) and seconds (’’) and can be constructed
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by using protractor made up of transparent materials.
Types of angles SE
There are six types of angles that are most applicable in architectural drawing
namely: acute angle, right angle, obtuse
angle, reflex angle, complementary
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angle and supplementary angle.
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Acute angle
s th
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an
This is an angle measured between 0°

90
and 90°. A “V” shape is an example of

º
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an acute angle. See Figure 1.8. Figure 1.8: Acute angle

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The examples of acute angle degrees are

62°, 33°, 47°, 62°, 81°, 89° etc. Hence,
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the acute angle degree lies within the

ranges from 0° to less than 90°. Here are
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some real-life examples of acute angles.

• Watermelon when cut into small
slices.
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• Some instances of the angles

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formed between the hour’s hand

and the minute’s hand of a clock.
Figure 1.7: Angle
Example when it reads 2 o’clock

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the angle formedDO
between
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two hands is an acute angle.
• The beak of a bird when it is
open.
• The angle between legs of a
human being when walking.
• The angle formed when the Figure 1.10: Obtuse angle
mouth of a crocodile is open.
Reflex angle
Right angle This is an angle greater than 180° but
An angle which measures exactly 90° less than 360°. See Figure 1.11.
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is called a right angle. It is generally The reflex angle can be computed if the
formed when two lines are perpendicular measure of the acute angle is given, as it
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to each other. In the Figure 1.9, line AB is complementary to the acute angle on
intersects line BC at B and forms an the other side of the line. Using the reflex
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çngle AĜB C which measures 90°. angle, acute angle can be calculated.
Acute angle = 360° – Reflex angle
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Figure 1.9: Right angle

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Obtuse angle Figure 1.11: Reflex angle

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This is the angle that is greater than 90° Complementary angles

but less than 180° as seen in Figure 1.10. These are two angles whose summation
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The angle measure ranges from 90° to is 90°. In Figure 1.12, angle A+B=90°.
180°. An obtuse angle can also be found Examples of complementary angles are
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out if we have the measure of the acute 33°+57°, 49°+41°, 60°+30°, 28°+62°
angle. The Obtuse Angle = (180° − acute
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and so on.
angle).
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Figure 1.12: Complementary angles

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Supplementary angles DO NOT DUPLICATE
These are two angles whose
summation is 180°. In Figure 1.11,
angle A+B=180°
Examples of supplementary angles
are 140° +40°, 120° +60°, 125° +55° Figure 1.13: Supplementary angles
and so on.
Exercise 1.1
1. If your teacher asks you to provide the main difference between vertex and
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obtuse angles, what will be your arguments?
2. A class teacher told form two students to construct eight figures that
represent solid geometrical figures. You being among the students in that
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class draw and name those figures.
3. Write short notes on three pillars of geometrical plane figures.
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4. Identify the vertices using x-y coordinates in the following figure.
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A B
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5. Define geometrical figures.

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6. Elaborate the application of geometric figures in engineering drawings.

7. Explore the application of geometric figures in architectural drawings by
responding on the following:

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i. What are their applications?
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ii. How are they applied?
iii. Why are they important?
8. Describe different types of lines, angles and plane figures.
Plane The property of having equal sides and
When the line is extended with properties equal angles is called congruency. That
of width, length, shape, surface, means two sides are congruent to each
orientation and position it forms a plane. other and two angles opposite to the
Planes are characterized with different equal sides are congruent to each other.
types of shapes. The third, unequal side forms the base
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of the triangle and the angle which is
Types of plane geometrical figures not equal to the two congruent base
There is an endless number of angles is called an apex angle. The
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geometrical figures. However, at this altitude from the apex of an isosceles
level the five common ones which triangle bisects the base into two equal
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are triangles, quadrilaterals, circles, parts and also bisects its apex angle into
polygons and ellipses are presented. two equal angles. The altitude from the
Triangles
A triangle is a plane figure having
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apex of an isosceles triangle divides the
triangle into two congruent right-angled
three sides and angles which form the triangles. The Figure 1.15 illustrates an
isosceles triangle.
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summation of interior angles equal to
1800. In other words, a triangle is a plane
rectilinear figure having three sides as
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x x
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Figure 1.15: Isosceles triangle
Right angled triangle

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Figure 1.14: Triangle This is a triangle with one of its

There are six types of triangles. These angles equal to 90°. The sum of the
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are isosceles, right angled, equilateral, other two angles is 90°. The sides that
scalene, acute and obtuse triangles. include the right angle are known as
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the perpendicular and the base of the

Isosceles triangle triangle. The third side which is the side
This is a type of triangle that is made up opposite to the right angle will be the
of two equal sides and two equal angles. longest side and is called the hypotenuse.

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The perpendicular is also known as the DUPLICATE
DO NOT triangle. All the three angles are of
height or leg of the triangle. Figure 1.16 different measures. Yet, the different
illustrates a right triangle. measurements do not affect the sum
q
of all the interior angles of the scalene
hy
po
triangle. The sum of the three interior
ten
us angles of a scalene triangle is always
e
180°. The examples of triangles that can
perpendicular
be classified as scalene by their angle

z measures are that of 40°, 50° and 90° or
120°, 10° and 50°.
Figure 1.16: Right angled triangle
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The three sides of the right-angled
triangle are related to each other by
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Pythagoras theorem. According to this
theorem, in a right triangle, q+z=90° and
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Hypotenuse2 = Perpendicular2 + Base2.
Figure 1.18: Scalene triangle
Equilateral triangle
This is a triangle which the lengths of
all of its sides are equal and each of
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Acute triangle
An acute triangle is a triangle in which
its interior angles measures 60°. Since all three interior angles are acute; that is,
the angles of an equilateral triangle are
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its angles are less than 90°. Figure 1.19
same, it is also known as an equiangular illustrates an acute triangle.
triangle. Figure 1.17 illustrates an The sum of all the interior angles of
equilateral triangle. acute is 180º.
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Examples of triangles that can be

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classified as acute by their angle

60°
measures are that of (48º, 52º and 80º),
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(35º, 75º and 70º), (63º, 87º and 30º) and

others.
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60° 60°
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Figure 1.17: Equilateral triangle
Scalene triangle
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A scalene triangle is a triangle with three

sides of different lengths and unequal
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angles as shown in Figure 1.18. The

sides are termed as incongruent sides. Figure 1.19: Acute triangle
For example, a triangle with side lengths
of 2 cm, 3 cm, and 4 cm is a scalene

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Obtuse triangle • All sides of a square are equal
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This is a triangle whereby any one of and parallel to each other.
the three interior angles has a measure • Diagonals bisect each other
greater than 90°, that is, one of the angles perpendicularly.
in a triangle is an obtuse angle. Thus, if
one angle is obtuse or more than 90°,
then the other two angles are definitely
acute. Figure 1.20 illustrates an obtuse
triangle.
The sum of interior angles in obtuse
triangle is also 180º.
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Examples of angles that form obtuse
triangle are: (113º, 20º and 47º), (146º,
24 and 10º), (97º, 50º and 33º) and others.
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Figure 1.21:Square
Rectangle
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A rectangle is a quadrilateral with
four right angles. Thus, all the angles
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in a rectangle are equal ( 360° = 90°).
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Moreover, the opposite sides of a
rectangle are parallel and equal, and
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Figure 1.20: Obtuse triangle diagonals bisect each other. See Figure
Quadrilateral 1.22.
This is a plane figure bounded by four Properties of a rectangle

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straight lines that form four sides and • All of the angles of a rectangle
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angles. The internal angles formed add up are 90°.

to 3600. The quadrilaterals have different
• Opposite sides of a rectangle are
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special names which are square, rectangle,

parallelogram, rhombus, trapezium, equal and Parallel.
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trapezoid and kite/deltoid. • Diagonals of a rectangle bisect

Square each other.
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Square is a quadrilateral with four equal

sides and angles. It is also a regular
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quadrilateral as both its sides and angles

are equal. A square has four angles of 90°
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each. The angle between diagonal is also

90º. See Figure 1.21.
Properties of a Square
• All angles of a square are 90°. Figure 1.22: Rectangle

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Parallelogram • All sides are equal and opposite
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A parallelogram, as the name suggests, sides are parallel to each other.
is a simple quadrilateral whose opposite • Diagonals bisect each other
sides are parallel as shown in Figure perpendicularly.
1.23. Thus, it has two pairs of parallel • Sum of any two adjacent angles
sides. Moreover, the opposite angles is 180°.
in a parallelogram are equal and their
diagonals bisect each other.
Properties of a Parallelogram
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• Opposite angles are equal.
• Opposite sides are equal and
parallel.
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• Diagonals bisect each other.
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Figure 1.24: Rhombus
• Sum of any two adjacent angles
Trapezium
is 180°.
A trapezium is a quadrilateral that has
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y q only one pair of parallel sides as shown
in Figure 1.25. The parallel sides are
referred to as ‘bases’ and the other two
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sides are called ‘legs’ or lateral sides.
q y
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Figure 1.23: Parallelogram

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Rhombus
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A rhombus is a quadrilateral whose

all four sides are equal in length and
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opposite sides are parallel to each other.

See Figure 1.24. However, the angles Figure 1.25: Trapezium
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are not equal to 90°. A rhombus with

right angles would become a square. Trapezoid
Another name for rhombus is ‘diamond’ This is a quadrilateral type also having
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as it looks similar to the diamond suit in four unequal sides and angles and no
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playing cards. pair of parallel lines. Sometimes known

Properties of a Rhombus as irregular quadrilateral. See Figure
1.26.
• Opposite angles are equal.

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circle has the following parts:
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An arc
This is any length joining any two points
along the circumference of a circle as
shown in Figure 1.28. An arc is mostly
measured by the measure of the angle
whose vertex is the center of the circle
Figure 1.26: Trapezoid
and whose rays intercept the endpoints
Deltoid of the arc. Hence an arc can be anywhere
A deltoid, also called a kite, is a from 0 to 360°. An arc whose measure is
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quadrilateral in which there are two pairs less than 180 degrees is called a minor
of adjacent edges that are equal. See arc. An arc whose measure is greater
Figure 1.27.
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than 180 degrees is called a major arc. A
Properties of a deltoid semi-circle is an arc with 180°.
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Arc
• The pair of adjacent sides of a
kite are of the same length.
• The largest diagonal of a deltoid
bisects the smallest diagonal.
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• Only one pair of opposite angles
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are of the same measure.
• The diagonals of a deltoid are
Figure 1.28: An arc
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perpendicular to each other.

Centre
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This is the middle point which is

equidistant from every point on the
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circumference as shown in Figure 1.29.

Centre
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Figure 1.27: Deltoid

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Circle
This is a plane figure bounded by a
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curved line known as a circumference on Figure 1.29: Centre of a circle

which every point is equidistant from a
fixed point called center. The circle has a
round shape with no edges or corner. The

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Chord DO NOT DUPLICATE Quadrant
It is a straight line joining any two points
on the circumference of a circle and
dividing the circle into large and small
portions as shown in Figure 1.30.
Chord
Figure 1.32: Quadrant of a circle
Radius
It is a straight-line drawn from the
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center of the circle to any point on the
circumference as shown in Figure 1.33.
Figure 1.30: Chord
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Diameter
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It is a line (chord) which passes through
the centre of a circle to touch two points
on the circumference as shown in Figure
1.31.
SE Figure 1.33: Radius of a circle
Sector
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This is an area of a circle lying between
D two radial lines and an arc as shown
in Figure 1.34. The angle between the
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radial lines is less than 90°.

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Figure 1.31: Diameter of a circle

Sector
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Quadrant
This is a sector with a central angle of
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900 and usually with one of the radial

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lines oriented horizontally. That means

the area is bounded by two radii at right
Figure 1.34: Sector
angle to each other and the arc which
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cuts off as shown in figure 1.32. Segment

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This is a portion of a circle formed by a

chord and an arc segment as shown in
Figure 1.35.

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Segment All circles of different radii but with a
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common center are known as concentric
circles and circles within each other
having different centres and different
radii are called eccentric circles as shown
in Figures 1.38 (a) and (b)
Figure 1.35: Segment
Tangent
It is a straight line that touches one point
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on the circumference and make 90° with
radius at point of contact as shown in
Figure 1.36. (a) concentric circle (b) eccentric circle
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Figure: 1.38: Types of circles
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Polygon
A polygon is a plane figure bounded
by more than four straight lines, sides
Tangent
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and angles. These rectilinear plane
figures have special names according
Figure 1.36: Tangent to the number of sides formed in that
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Normal line polygon. Table 1.1 shows the names of
the polygon, number of sides and sample
It is a line drawn from a centre of a
of such a figure.
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circle to a circumference and which is

perpendicular to tangent as shown in
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Figure 1.37.
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Figure 1.37: Normal line

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Types of circles
Two or more circles can be drawn in
such a way that they are either concentric
or eccentric.

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Table 1.1: The special namesDO
of polygons
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S/no Name polygons Number of sides Figure
1. Pentagon five
2. Hexagon Six
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3. Heptagon Seven
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4. Octagon Eight
SE
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5. Nonagon Nine
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N
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6. Decagon Ten
N
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7. Undecagon Eleven
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8. Dodecagon Twelve

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Types of polygons DO NOT DUPLICATE
There are two types of polygons namely regular polygon and irregular polygon
The polygon having all equal sides and angles is known as a regular polygon and
if the sides or angles are not equal it is said to be an irregular polygon as shown in
Figure1.39.
Diameter
Diagonal
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Altitude
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(a) Regular polygon (b) Irregular polygon
Figure 1.39: Polygons
Ellipse
Ellipse is a plane figure bounded by a
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Exercise 1.2
1. By following the principles

curved line known as circumference. It of drawing, construct three
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has an oval shape as shown in Figure concentric circles of any radii.
1.40. The ellipse is the locus of all 2. Briefly explain the following
coplanar points, and the sum of distances terminologies as applied in
E
from two fixed points (foci) is constant. architectural draughting:

The longer axis of an ellipse is called
N
(a) Chord
the major axis (diameter) and the shorter (b) Eccentric circles
LI
axis is called the minor axis (diameter). (c) Tangent

(d) Segment
N
3. As a technician; help a Form

Minor axis
One student at your school to

O
differentiate between eccentric

and concentric circles by
R
constructing them using any size

of diameters.
FO
4. Form One students are arguing

Figure1.40: Ellipse on the different shapes of circles
and ellipses. As an expert in

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Architectural Draughting,
DO draw
NOT DUPLICATE
precision and the correct use of drafting
the shapes and list the two main instruments. In developing geometric
differences between them to help constructions, drafting tools must be in a
Form One student to conclude good condition. Pencils of 4H to 6H leads
their argument. are usually used for constructions that
5. Identify and name different produce very lightweight lines. These
forms of your school buildings lines need not necessarily be erased when
and other infrastructures. the construction is completed. A small
error or inaccuracy in solving geometric
Construction of geometrical figures
problem could result to a serious error
LY
Geometric figures provides the base
in the final construction. There are a
for all technical drawings. Geometric
number of basic geometric constructions
construction aims to accurately
that any draught person should be
N
develop complex geometric plains
familiar with. At the beginning a student
or geometric shapes from 2D basic
O
should follow the basic sequence in each
shapes such as triangles, squares, two
illustration to develop various geometric
dimensional ellipses and cylinders.
forms. Before we look at any particular
Geometrical figures can be constructed
using drawing instruments, computers
SE
figure, there are few line constructions
whose methods must be understood well.
or freehand. Architects, engineers and
draught person/technicians regularly Bisecting lines
U
make the task of making geometric To bisect a line means to divide it in
construction in their work, by applying half or to find its centre point. In order
the principles of plane geometry. The to bisect lines, one may use a ruler and
E
process involved in the production of compass, or use a ruler only. Procedures

N
geometric constructions requires a basic for bisecting a line by using a ruler

understanding of geometry techniques only differ from using both a ruler and
LI
of construction. Geometric construction compass.

skills can be acquired and it demands
N
O
Activity 1.1: Bisecting lines
(a) Bisecting a line segment with a ruler

R
Requirements: Drawing board/table, drawing paper, ruler and drawing

instrument box which contains a pencil, a divider, protractor,
FO
and eraser
Procedure
1. Draw line segment AB and determine its midpoint.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
2. Draw any line segment through the midpoint.
LY
N
O
The small marks on AF and FB SE and below the line are the same
Note:
show that AF and FB are equal. distance from point A.)
CD is called a bisector because it
U
bisects AB (AF = FB).
(b) Bisecting a line segment with a
compass and ruler
E
Requirements: Drawing board/

N
table, drawing paper, ruler

and drawing instrument box
LI
which contains- a pencil, a

divider, protractor, compass,
N
and eraser
O
2. Without changing the compass

Procedure width, place the compass on
1. Place the compass on one point B. Draw an arc above and
R
endpoint of the line segment below the line so that the arcs
cross the first two. (The two
FO
(point A). Draw an arc above

and below the line. (Notice that points where the arcs cross are
all the points on the arc above

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
the same distance away from where the arcs intersect. This
point A and from point B.) line segment (CD) is the bisector
of AB.
LY
N
O
3. Use a ruler to join the points
SE
Activity 1.2: Constructing a perpendicular line at a given point on a straight line
Requirements: Drawing board/table, drawing paper, a ruler and drawing

U
compass, and
eraser
Procedure
E
1. Draw the given line AB.

N
2. Mark the given point C.

3. With center C and any
LI
convenient radius draw

semicircle DE.
N
4. With center D and E and any

O
convenient radius draw arcs

to intersect at F.
R
5. Draw a perpendicular line from point C through intersection of arcs.

Construction of perpendicular line from a point to a line
FO
Perpendicular lines are defined as two lines that meet or intersect each other at
right angles (90°). In the construction of a perpendicular line, a point may be
located at any convenient distance.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Activity 1.3: Constructing a perpendicular line from a point to a line
Requirements: Drawing board/table, drawing paper, ruler and drawing instrument

box which contains a pencil, a divider, protractor,Pcompass, and eraser
Procedure
1. Draw a line AB and locate the

point “P” above line AB.
2. With centre P and any convenient Line AB
radius draw an arc on a line and
LY
A B
name it as CD. C D
3. Use points C and D as centre of
any convenient radius to draw
N
arcs to intersect at E below line
AB.
O
E
4. Draw a line from E towards P.
The line segment from point P to line AB is the required perpendicular line.
SE
Activity 1.4: Constructing a perpendicular line at the end of a given line.
U
compass, and eraser
E
Procedure
1. Draw a given line AB.
N
2. Extend a construction line outwards

LI
from A.
3. With centre A and any convenient
N
radius draw arc CD.

4. With centre C and D and any
O
convenient radius draw arcs to

intersect at E.
R
5. Draw line through the intersection

of arcs to point A which is the
FO
required perpendicular line.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
Activity 1.5: Constructing parallel linesDUPLICATE
compass, and eraser
Procedure
1. Draw a given line AB. Mark 1 and 3 near the end of the line and point 2
near the center.
2. With centers 1,2,3 and radius equal to the distance away from the required
LY
parallel line draw arcs.
3. Draw a line across the tops of arcs which is the required parallel line.
N
O
SE
U
A 1 2 3 E
E
N
Activity 1.6: Dividing line into equal parts

LI

compass, and eraser
N
Procedure
O
1. Draw the given line AB into a given length ( let’s say you divide it into
seven parts).
R
2. Draw inclined lines AC in any length at any convenient angle to AB.

3. Step off along AC the required number of divisions (seven parts) by wring
FO
a pair of compass.
4. Join the last number to point B.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
5. Draw the parallel lines
DOtoNOT
line 7B to other number towards A using set the
DUPLICATE
square and pencil.
6. Now the line AB is divided into the required number of equal parts.
A B
1
2
3
4
5
LY
6
7
N
C
O
Activity 1.7: Dividing lines into ratios
SE
compass, and eraser
Procedure
U
1. Draw the given line AB into the given length, (let’s say the given ratio is
2:3:4).
2. Draw inclined lines AC in any length at any convenient angle to AB.
E
3. Obtain the number of required parts, For this case, 2 + 3 + 4 = 9 parts

4. Divide the line AC into 9 required parts using a pair of compass.
N
5. Join the last number to point B.

LI
6. Draw the parallel lines to this line (9B) to other number towards A using
the set square and pencil.
N
7. Mark 2:3:4 as the required proportion.

2 3 4
O
A B
1
2
R
3
4
FO
5
6
7
8
9 C

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Construction of angles DO NOT DUPLICATE
Angles are formed by the intersection of two lines. Major kinds of angles include
right angles, acute angles and obtuse angles. There are different techniques and
procedures used in the construction of angles without means of a protractor. However,
a protractor will be used in proofing the correctness. Procedures to be applied in
constructing angles will depend on the type of the angle as described below.
Activity 1.8: Bisecting a given angle
LY
compass, and eraser
N
Procedure
1. Draw any angle ABC.
O
2. With centre B and any convenient radius, draw an arc to cut BA at D and
BC at E. AA'
3. With centre D and any
radius draw an arc.
SE F
4. With centre E at the DD'
U
same radius draw an arc
to intersect the previous
arc at F.
E
5. Join BF, which is the B CC'

B'
E
E'
bisector line.
N
LI
Activity 1.9: Constructing an angle of 90º

N
instrument box which contains a pencil, divider, protractor,

compass, and eraser
O
Procedure
1. Draw the line AB.
R
2. Locate the point C within AB near the centre line.

FO
3. With centre A and radius AC draw arc above line AB.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
4. With centre C and radius AC draw arc to cut the previous arc at D.
5. With centre D and radius AC draw
FF'
another arc to cut the previous arc
drawn on step (3) at E.
6. With centre D and E and any
convenient radius draw arcs to D
EE'
intersect at F.
D'
7. Draw line from point F to A. BAF
LY
A C BB'
is the required angle of 90°.
A' C'
Activity 1.10: Constructing an angle of 45°
N
O
compass, and eraser.
Procedure SE
1. Draw a line AB and mark point
O on it.
U
2. Draw a ray OP such that
<AOP = 90°.
E
3. Draw the bisector of <AOP.

Mark the bisector as OQ.
N
4. Hence <AOQ = 45°.

LI
Activity 1.11: Constructing an angle of 22 ½°

N

O

compass, and eraser
Procedure
R
1. Construct right angle.

FO
2. Bisect right angle to obtain 45°.

3. Bisect 45° obtain 22½°.
A C B

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Activity 1.12: ConstructingDO
an angle
NOTofDUPLICATE
60°
compass, and eraser
F
Procedure
1. Draw line AB.
2. Indicate point C at any E
point on AB.
LY
3. With center C and
any convenient radius
draw an arc to cut AB
N
A C D B
at D.
O
4. With center D and the 5. Draw the line from C through E to point
same radius draw an F.
arc to intersect the first
arc at E.
SE
6. Angle BCF is required angle of 60º.
U
Activity 1.13: Constructing an angle of 30°
E
compass, and eraser

N
Procedure
B
LI
1. Construct angle 60°.

2. Bisect 60° angle to obtain 30°.
N
O
A D C
Activity 1.14: Constructing an angle of 15º

R

FO
compass, and eraser

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Procedure
A
1. Construct 60° angle.
2. Bisect 60° angle to obtain 30°.
3. Bisect 30° obtain 15°.
B C
Exercise 1.3
LY
1. Construct the following angle 2. Write the supplement angle of:
without using a protractor. (a) 125° (b) 140° (c) 133°
(a) 7½° 3. Write the complement angle of:
N
(b) 75° (a) 50°
(c) 105° (b) 35°
O
(d) 165° (c) 63°
Construction of triangles SE
A triangle is a three-sided polygon. Among types of triangles include right angled
triangle, equilateral triangle, isosceles triangle and obtuse triangle. Triangles are
U
constructed by using various instruments including a compass and a ruler.
E
Activity 1.15: Constructing a triangle when given the lengths of three sides
N

instrument box which contains a pencil, a divider, protractor, compass, and
LI
eraser
N
Procedure C
1. Draw one side of a given length AB.

O
2. With centre of A and the radius of

length AC draw an arc.
R
3. With centre of B and the radius of

length BC draw an arc to intersect
FO
A B
the previous one at C.
4. Join AC and BC. ABC is the required triangle.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Activity 1.16: Drawing theDO NOT
triangle DUPLICATE
when given two sides and the included angle
compass, and eraser
C
C'
Procedure
1. Draw the given one side AB. D

D'
2. Draw the included angle using a

protractor to form line AC.
LY
3. By using centre A and the radius Ө
of the given side draw an arc to cut A'
A B
B'
AC at D.
N
4. Join AD and BD to obtain the required triangle.
O
Activity 1.17: Drawing the equilateral triangle when given one side
SE
instrument box which contains a pencil, a divider, compass,
and eraser
U
Procedure
1. Draw the given one side AB.

E
2. With centre A and considering the given

length as the radius of one of the remaining
N
sides draw an arc.

LI
3. With centre B and radius of one of the

remaining side, draw an arc to intersect the
N
previous arc at C.
4. Draw the line CA. Hence ABC is a required
O
triangle.
R
Activity 1.18: Constructing a triangle given perimeter and ratio of sides

FO

compass, eraser

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Procedure
1. Draw a straight line AB equal

in length of the given perimeter. E
2. Divide AB into a required ratio
of sides (3: 4: 5).
3. Mark ratios on line AB to get C D B
centre C and D. A
4. With centre C and radius CA

draw an arc above line AB.
LY
5. With centre D and radius, DB
draw an arc to intersect at E.
6. Join points E with C and D.
N
7. ECD is the required triangle.
O
Activity 1.19: Constructing a triangle when given the altitude and two base angle
SE
compass, and eraser
U
Procedure
1. Draw a line AB of convenient length.

E
2. Draw line CD parallel to AB at the distance equal to the given altitude.

N
3. Draw one base of the angle at E, the line touches CD at F.

4. Construct a line from F so that angle EFG is the other base angle of a triangle.
LI
EFG is the required triangle.

N
C F D
O
R
FO
G B
A E

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
a triangle
NOTwhen given the hypotenuse and one angle
DUPLICATE
compass, and eraser
Procedure
1. Draw the hypotenuse AB.

2. Bisect the line AB to find the centre C.
3. Construct the semi-cicle from centre C.
4. Construct the given angle BAD using a protractor.
LY
5. Join DB to complete the required triangle.
N
O
C
SE
U
Activity 1.21: Constructing an isosceles triangle when given the perimeter and
height
E

N
compass, and eraser

Procedure
LI
1. Construct a line AB equal to the given perimeter. D

N
2. Bisect line AB at C.
3. Draw perpendicular CD equal to the given
O
height.
4. Join AD and DB.
R
5. Construct angle ADE and BDF

at D equal to the base angles A
FO
E C F B
A and B respectively Given perimeter
along with line AB.
6. EDF is the required isosceles triangle.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Construction of quadrilateral
DO NOT DUPLICATE
In the construction of a quadrilateral, one should know the properties of it. It is
constructed using four straight sides. Construction of quadrilaterals can be categorised
by the length of its sides and the size of its angles. The quadrilateral family includes
squares, rectangles, rhombuses, parallelograms, trapezoid (trapezium), kites and
other regular shapes. The quadrilaterals are drawn according to the given conditions
such as included angle, diagonal and length of sides.
Activity 1.22: Constructing a square when given the length of the side
LY
N
compass, and eraser
Procedure
O
1. Draw the line AB of a given length.
2. Draw a right angle at B.
3. With centre B and the radius of
SE
the side draw an arc to cut the
perpendicular at C.
U
4. With centre A and C in turn and
a radius of the side draw arcs to
intersect at D.
E
5. Join a CD and DA to complete the

N
square.
LI
Activity 1.23: Constructing a parallelogram given the length of the two sides
and one angle
N

O
instrument box which contains a pencil, a divider, protractor, compass,

and eraser
R
Procedure
1. Draw the line AB of a given length.
FO
2. Construct the given angle AB1.

3. With centre B and radius of other side construct arc to cut B1 at C.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO
4. With centre A and radius BCNOT DUPLICATE 1
D C
construct arc to intersect at D.
5. With centre C and radius AB
construct arc to cut the previous
one at D.
6. Join AD and DC. ABDC is the
A B
required parallelogram.
Activity 1.24: Constructing a rectangle when given the length of the diagonal
LY
and one side
N
compass, and eraser
Procedure
O
1. Draw the diagonal line AB.
2. Locate the centre of line AB at O.
3. With centre O and radius OB construct a
circle on line AB.
SE
4. With centre A and the radius of the
U
given side draw an arc to cut the
circumference at C.
5. With centre B and a radius of a given
E
side draw an arc to the circumference at

D.
N
6. Join AC, CB, BD, and DA to complete the rectangle.

LI
Activity 1.25: Constructing a rhombus given the length of the diagonal and one
N
side
D
Requirements: Drawing board/table, drawing paper,
O
ruler and drawing instrument box which contains

a pencil, a divider, protractor, compass and eraser
R
Procedure A C
FO
1. Draw the given diagonal AC.

2. With centres A and C in turn and radius of side draw
arcs above the line AC to intersect at D.
B

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
3. With centre A and C in turn and radius of the side draw arcs below the line
to intersect at B.
4. Join AD, DC, CB, and BA to complete the required rhombus.
Activity 1.26: Constructing a trapezium when given the parallel and the
perpendicular distance between them, and one angle
compass, and eraser
LY
Procedure 1
D
1. Draw one of the parallels AB. C
N
2. Draw the given angle BA1.
3. With centre C radius CD draw an arc
O
to cut at D.
A B
4. Construct the parallel CD.
5. Join D to B to complete the trapezium.
SE
U
Exercise 1.4
1. Draw the following triangles:

(i) An equilateral of 75 mm side.
E
(ii) An isosceles of 70 mm base and 85 mm altitude.

N
(iii) Scalene AB = 90 mm, BC = 45 mm and AC = 60mm.

2. Construct the following as may be used in designing:
LI
(i) A rectangle of 80 mm and 120 mm.

N
(ii) A rhombus of 90 mm side and 70º.

(iii) A rectangle of 130 mm diagonal and one side 50 mm.
O
(iv) A trapezium ABCD that AB = 80 mm, CD = 110 mm, BC = 55 mm,

angle ABC = 75º.
R
Construction of polygons
FO
Regular polygons are closed plane figures consisting of edges of equal length and
vertices of equal size. The simplest regular polygon is the equilateral triangle, which
consists of three edges of equal length and three angles of 60 degrees between each

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
pair of edges. Three edges are
DO theNOT
smallest number of edges to construct a polygon
DUPLICATE
because two edges form an angle and one edge is a segment. Polygons are closed
figures. The regular polygon of four edges is the square. Five edges make up the
pentagon, and six edges make up the hexagon.
Activity 1.27: Constructing a regular hexagon within a circle when given the
length of one side
compass, and eraser
LY
E F
Procedure
1. Construct the circle of radius equal in length
N
to the length of a given side.
A B
O
2. Draw diameter AB.
3. With centre A and B in turn and radius of the
circle draw arcs above and below line AB to
cut circumference at C, D, E and F.
SE C D
4. Join points to complete the hexagon.
U
Activity 1.28: Constructing an octagon within a given circle
E

compass, and eraser D
N
Procedure 1 2
LI
1. Draw the given circle with a diameter AB and CD

perpendicular to each other. A B
N
2. Bisect each right angle to give points 1, 2, 3, and

O
4 on the circumference. 4 3
3. Join all the points to complete the octagon.
D
R
Activity 1.29: Constructing any polygon by square methods

FO

compass, and eraser

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Procedure
1. Draw line AB as a baseline of a square.
2. Bisect line AB.
3. Draw diagonal from A to cut the bisector
line.
4. Mark 4 at the point where the diagonal line 9
8
intersects with the bisector line.
7
5. With centre A and B in turn and radius AB 6
LY
draw arcs to intersect with bisector line at 6. 5
6. Bisect 4-6 to obtain point 5. 4
7. Take units 4-5, and step off to obtain points
N
7, 8 and 9.
O
8. To draw the pentagon use centre 5 and
radius 5B and draw the circle then take base
AB and step off on the circle to obtain other four sides.
SE
Note: For hexagon, radius will be 6B, heptagon 7B, octagon 8B and
repeating the procedure.
U
Activity 1.30: Constructing an octagon in a square
E

compass, and eraser
N
B C
Procedure
LI
1. Draw the given square ABCD.

2. Draw diagonals AC and BD to intersect at O.
N
3. With centre A and radius AO draw an arc to

O
touch the sides of a square. Repeat this for

centre B, C, and D.
4. Connect the points on the side of the square to
R
A D
complete the required octagon.
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
any NOT DUPLICATE
polygons in a circle by the general method
compass, and eraser
Procedure
1. Draw the given circle and locate the
horizontal diameter AB.
2. Divide the diameter AB into the same
number of equal parts as the required
LY
polygon sides.
3. With centre A and B in turn and radius AB
N
draw arcs to intersect at C.
4. Draw the line from C through 2 to touch
O
the circle at D.
5. Use line AD as one side of the polygon to step off around the circle then
SE
draw lines to connect obtained points. The darkened figure is the required
polygon.
U
Construction of circle
Activity 1.32: Finding the center of a circle
E

N
compass, and eraser B

Procedure
LI
1. Draw any two chords AB and BC. A

N
2. Bisect AB and BC to obtain the bisecting lines to O C

intersect at O.
O
3. Point O is the centre of given circle.

R
Activity 1.33: Drawing a tangent to a circle at given point on circumference

FO

compass, and eraser

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Procedure B
1. Draw a circle with centre O.
2. Indicate the given point P.
3. Extend a line from OP outwards.
A
4. With centre P and radius OP, draw an O P
arc to cut the extended line at A.
5. Bisect OA. That bisector BC is the
required tangent. C
LY
Activity 1.34: Constructing a tangent to a circle from a given point outside it
N
compass, and eraser
A
O
Procedure
1. Draw a circle with centre O.
2. Indicate the given point P outside
the circle.
3. Draw line OP and bisect it.
SE O
4. Draw a semicircle on OP to cut the P

U
circle at A.
5. Extend a line from point P through
A that is the required tangent.
E
N
Activity 1.35: Drawing a common external tangent to two equal circles

LI

compass, and eraser
N
Procedure
O
1. Draw the given two equal circles.

2. Draw a line through the centre of
R
the two circles.

3. Bisect their diameters AB
FO
and CD. The bisectors cut the

circumferences of the circles at E and F.
4. Draw a line through E and F which is the required tangent.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Construction of a common DO
internal
NOT tangent to two equal circles
DUPLICATE
Activity 1.36: Drawing a common external tangent to two equal circles
compass, and eraser
Procedure
1. Draw the given two equal circles with centers A and B.
2. Join the centers A and B.
LY
3. Bisect line AB to give point C and bisect AC at F.
4. Draw semicircle on AC cutting the circle at D.
5. With centre C and radius CD, draw an arc cutting the second circle at E.
N
6. Draw a line through D and E which is the required tangent.
O
E
SE
A B
C
U
D
E
N
Activity 1.37: Constructing a common external tangent to two unequal circles

LI

N
compass, and eraser

O
Procedure
1. Draw the given two unequal circles with centres A and B.
R
2. Join center A and B.

3. Mark OE is equal to CB.
FO
4. Using centre A and radius AE draw a circle.

5. Bisect AB.
6. Draw semicircle on AB cutting the previous circle at F.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
7. Construct a line from point
A through F to cut the
circumference of a large
circle at G.
8. Draw line BH parallel to
line AG.
9. Draw a line through G and
H which is the required
tangent.
LY
Activity 1.38: Constructing a common internal tangent to two unequal circles
N
O
compass, and eraser
Procedure
1. Draw the given two
unequal circles with
SE
F
centres A and B.
U
2. Join the centre A and B. G
3. Mark DE equal to CB.
4. With centre A and radius
E
A B
AE draw an arc. D E C
N
5. Bisect line AB.

6. Draw semicircle on AB
LI
cutting the previous arc

at F.
N
7. Draw line AF cutting the circumference of the large circle at G

O
8. Draw line BH parallel to line AG.

9. Construct a line through G and H which is the required tangent.
R
Activity 1.39: Inscribing square in a circle

FO

compass, and eraser

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE A
Procedure
1. Draw the given circle.
2. Construct a diameter AB and CD at right angles
to each other. C D
3. Draw lines AC, CB, BD, and DA to complete the

square.
B
Activity 1.40: Inscribing an equilateral triangle in a circle
LY
compass,and eraser
N
Procedure 2 3
O
1. Draw the given circle.
2. Use the radius of the circle to step it off six 4
times on the circumference.
3. Join odd numbers or even numbers
SE 1
(join every second point to complete the

U
required triangle on circumference). 6 5
Activity 1.41: Constructing inscribed circle to a given triangle

E

N

compass, and eraser.
LI
Procedure
B
N
1. Draw the given triangle ABC.

2. Bisect any two angles.
O
3. Mark O at the intersection of O

bisecting lines which now is the
R
centre of the required circle.

A C
4. Draw a perpendicular to any D
FO
side from O to obtain D.

5. With centre O and radius OD construct the required circle.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DOthe
Activity 1.42: Constructing NOT DUPLICATE
circumscribed circle to a given triangle
compass, and eraser
Procedure
2. Bisect any two sides of a triangle.
3. Mark O at the intersection of
LY
bisecting lines which now is the
centre of the required circle.
4. Use the centre O and radius OA to
N
draw the required circle which will
pass through points B and C.
O
Exercise 1.5 SE
1. Construct a regular pentagon whose circumscribed circle is 50 mm
diameter.
U
2. Inscribe a regular hexagon in a circle whose diameter is 80 mm.
3. Construct a regular hexagon whose one side has 65 mm.
4. Inscribe a regular heptagon in a circle whose radius is 35 mm.
E
N
Construction of ellipse
Activity 1.43: Constructing an ellipse by rectangle method
LI

N

compass, and eraser
O
Procedure
1. Draw the given rectangle according to the major and minor axis.
R
2. Draw axes AB and CD.

FO
3. Divide EA and AF into four equal parts.

4. Radiate lines from C to 1, 2 and 3 on AE to intersect lines 1, 2, and 3.
5. Use the intersection point to draw the curve which is the required ellipse.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
F C G
3
A B
3 2 1 E
LY
J D H
N
O
Activity 1.44: Constructing an ellipse by auxiliary circle method
SE
compass, and eraser
Procedure
U
1. Draw two concentric circles
equal in diameter to major and
minor axes.
E
2. Divide the circumference of a

N
large circle into 12 equal parts.

3. Join these points (1-12) to the
LI
centre of the circle.

4. Draw verticals from 1 – 12.
N
Draw horizontals from the

O
point where the radiating lines

cut the inner circle, to intersect
the verticals.
R
5. Now use that intersecting points to draw the required ellipse.

FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DOanNOT
Activity 1.45: Constructing ellipseDUPLICATE
by trammel method
compass, and eraser
Procedure
1. Construct two axes AB and CD.
2. Make a trammel by taking a strip of paper and marking half the major
and minor axes.
LY
3. If the trammel is moved so that point C travels along the major axis and
point A along the minor axis, the point O will trace an ellipse.
Major Axis
N
C
O
O SE
Minor Axis
A B
C
U
A
E
D
½Minor Axis Trammel
N
O C A
LI
Major Axis
N
Activity 1.46: Constructing an ellipse by foci method

O

R
compass, and eraser

Procedure
FO
1. Construct the major and minor axes AB and CD and mark the focal F1
and F2. With C as centre, a radius half the major axis draw an arc cutting
AB at foci F1 and F2.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
2. Place pins at F1, F2 and C and stretch a piece of tread tight.
3. Remove the pin at C and insert a pencil to trace the required ellipse (See
Figure (a).
Alternatively,
1. Divide F1F2 into some equal parts as shown in figure (b).
2. With F1 as centre, radius A1, A2, A3 …. draw arcs above and below
AB. With F2 as centre, radius B1, B2, B3 …. draw arcs to intersect those
struck from F1.
LY
3. Join these points of intersection with a smooth curve to obtain the
required ellipse. See Figure (b).
Pencil
Thread
N
C C
O
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A B F1 F2
F1 F2
SE
D
D Pin
U
(a) (b)
Activity 1.47: Constructing a normal and a tangent to an ellipse at a given point

E

N

LI
compass, and eraser

Procedure
N
Tan
1. With centre C and a radius of half C gent
P
the major axis draw an arc to cut
O
the major axis at F1 and F2 (F1 and

mal
F2 are called focal points).

Nor
A
R
F1 B
F2
2. Mark the given point P
is r
Ax ajo
3M
2
FO
3. Join point P and F1 and F2

4. Bisect angle F1PF2. The bisector
D
is a required normal.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
5. Draw a perpendicular line to the normal from point P which is the result
of the required tangent.
Exercise 1.6
1. Explain briefly the meaning of the two axes found in an ellipse.

2. By foci method draw the ellipse of the major axis 100 mm and minor axis
of 70 mm.
3. Draw the ellipse by a concentric circle of a major axis 105 mm and a minor
LY
axis of 85 mm.
N
Chapter
Chaptersummary
summary
1. Geometric figures are a combination of points, lines and planes classified
O
as space figures.
2. SE
Figures can be divided into two categories, namely solid geometrical
figures and plane geometrical figures.
U
3. The common plane geometrical figures are triangles, quadrilaterals,
circles, polygons and ellipses.
4. The four pillars of geometry are: points, lines, planes for discussion.
E
N
5. There are six types of angles that are most applicable in architectural
drawing, namely acute angle, right angle, obtuse angle, reflex angle,
LI
complementary angle and supplementary angle.

N
6. Geometric drawings can be constructed using free hand or drawing tools

such as computer programs.
O
7. There are standard techniques for drawing different figures which help to
R
increase the speed of drawing and unify the drawing quality.

FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Revision exercise 1
1. Construct a triangle having a perimeter of 135 mm and the ratio of its

sides is 4:2:3.
2. Draw a hexagon that has a side of 40 mm by circle methods.
3. Construct the following angles according to the instructions
(a) By using protractor (i) 235° (ii) 318° and (iii) 67°
LY
(b) Without using protractor (i) 225° (ii) 150° and (iii) 105°
4. Draw an ellipse by rectangle method having a major axis of 90 mm and
N
minor axis of 60 mm.
O
5. By using the proper tools in drawing, now perform the following
(a) Draw a plane figure ABCD given AB = 90 mm, BC = 65 mm, CD

SE
= 75 mm, AD = 45 mm and BAD = 90º then give the name of the
figure obtained.
U
(b) Inscribe a circle in an equilateral triangle ABC of one side 70 mm
long.
(c) Use auxiliary method to draw an ellipse of major axis 80 mm and

E
minor axis 40 mm respectively.

N
6. Draw the oblique line of 105 mm and divide it into seven equal parts.
LI
7. Construct the common external tangent to two unequal circles for given
large and small diameters of 40 mm and 20 mm respectively and their
N
centers are 80 mm apart.

O
8. You are given figures showing views of a house, from the concept of
geometry, draw different plain geometry that you observe.
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
LY
(a) (b)
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Chapter
Similar figures
Two
Introduction
B It is difficult to use hand to measure heights of some objects
including
E buildings,
P
long trees
O
and towers. Architects,
engineers and manufacturing experts
6 design
W objects of different
X
LY
shapes and sizes depending on the intended use.3 These objects
A C are
D drawnFin a presentation
S 18 media using
R Z 9similar
Y figures based
on their ratios of corresponding dimensions. Similar figures
N
therefore, are very useful for determining the sizes of such
E P O
objects.
O
In this chapter you will6
learn about
W the concept of similar
X
figures, enlarging and reducing of figures,3and equal areas. The
C D F S 18
SE
competencies developed will enable you to design and draw
R Z buildings,
sizes of different components like 9 Y and manufacturing
or repair products.
U
Concept of similar figures components of different sizes such as
Similar figures are geometrical classroom, office, school compounds,
E
figures having the same shapes but machines, and tools are drawn.
are proportional in size. Properties of Manufacture or repair of things are
N
similar figures are that the perimeters also done at the workshops. All those
LI
are proportional, corresponding angles activities involve the concept of enlarging

are equal and corresponding sides are and reducing different figures. Figure 2.1
N
proportional. displays the concept of similar figures.

In Architectural Draughting different
O
B
P O
R
W X
6
FO
A C D F S 18 R Z 9 Y
Figure 2.1: Similar figures

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Enlarging and reducing DO NOT DUPLICATE
figures is situated within the edge of the given
Enlarging is the process of transforming figure or object.
components of an object with the same Example 2.1
shape to a large size or shape to make Enlarging figure using outline by the
clear information and showing the
ratio of 1:2 by means of external pole
hidden details.
Draw a given figure ABCDEF. From a
Reducing is the process of transforming
pole draw radial lines passing through
components or objects with the same
each corner. Draw a line from the pole
shape to a small size to fit on a standard
at any convenient angle and divide it
sheet or to make it clearly understood
LY
into two equal parts, according to a
when producing it. In both enlarging
given ratio 1:2. join the nearest corner
and reducing of figures the angles of
B with point 1 then draw parallel line
N
the shapes remain the same. However
to 1B to obtain point B’. Draw line
the sides of the shape may increase or
B’C’ parallel to BC’ C’D’ parallel to
O
decrease significantly.
CD, E’D’parallel to ED, E’F’ parallel
to EF. A’B’C’D’E’F’A’ is the required
SE
enlarged figure.
U
(a) Enlargement (b) Reduction
Figure 2.2: Enlarging and reducing of

E
figures
N
The most common methods of

enlargement and reduction of similar
LI
figures are radial method and the direct

method which both depend mostly on the
N
ratio or proportion.
O
Enlarging and reducing figures by Pole

radial method
Example 2.2 `
R
The radial method uses starting point

for radiating lines to the object located Reducing figure using outline by ratio
FO
of 5:3, by means of central pole

outside the object or at the near centre of
the object while the direct method uses Draw a given figure. From the corner
the point of starting, the radiating line draw radial lines passing through each
corner. Divide line AB into five equal

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
parts. Join the nearest corner
DOBNOT
with DUPLICATE
Y
point 5 then draw parallel lines to 5B
A
A'
C
to obtain point D. Use new base CD to
draw parallel lines to obtain the required D'
C C'
D
figure.
A B B'
B'
1
B
2
3
X
(b)
Exercise 2.1
LY
1. Construct a similar pentagon of
a ratio of side 3:5 to a regular
pentagon of 40 mm side.
N
Example 2.3 2. Construct a similar circle of a
(a) Reduce figure using outline by ratio of radius 4:2 to a circle of
O
ratio of 3:2 from a corner radius 50 mm.
Draw a given figure ABCDE. From
corner A, draw radial lines passing Equal areas
SE
through each corner. Divide line AB into “Equal areas” is the representation of
three equal parts in a ratio of 3:2. Join
plane figures of different shapes and
the nearest corner point B with point 3.
sizes but cover the same area. In plane
U
Draw parallel lines to 3B towards A to
obtain a new base at point C' then use the geometry such figures are referred to
base to draw parallel lines to obtain the as equivalent figures. Figure 2.3 shows
required figure. different figures having the same area.
E
(b) Enlarging figure (b) using outline To get the equivalent figure of another
given figure the condition below must be
N
method by ratio 2:3

When enlarging or reducing figures met.
LI
having arcs and radii, radials must pass Area of Figure (a) = Area of Figure (b)
through the centres of arcs and points of C
tangency as seen in figure (b).
N
D
O
18 cm2
E
D'
A B
O'
R
O (a)
D C
C'
FO
A B
1 18 cm2
2
3 A B
(b)
(a)
Figure: 2.3: Different figures having the same area

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Construction of equal areas
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Activity 2.1: Drawing a triangle equal in area to a given triangle but different
base
compass, and eraser
C
Procedure
E
2. Draw the required different base AD.
LY
3. Join CD. A
4. Draw BE parallel to DC. B D
N
5. Join ED. AED is the required triangle.
O
Activity 2.2: Drawing a triangle equal in area to a given rectangle
SE
compass, and eraser
Procedure
U
E
1. Draw the given rectangle ABCD

(say given area is 6 cm x 4 cm =
E
24 cm2). D C
2. Extend one side, BC to CE equal

N
to BC.
B
A
3. Join EA. ABE is the required
LI
triangle.
N
Activity 2.3: Drawing a triangle equal in area to a given polygon

O

R
compass, and eraser D

Procedure C
FO
E
1. Draw the given polygon (ABCDE).
2. Extend line AB on both ends.
F A B G
3. Join AD and BD.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
4. Draw EF parallel to AD and CG parallel to BD.
5. Join FD and GD. FDG is a required triangle.
Activity 2.4: Drawing a parallelogram equal in area to a given triangle

compass, and eraser
C
Procedure
LY
1. Construct the given triangle ABC.
2. Draw line CD perpendicular to the G E F
base AB from apex C.
N
3. Bisect line CD.
4. Extend the bisector to the left and
O
A D B
right sides of E.
5. Draw BF parallel to AG.
6. Figure ABFG is the required parallelogram.
SE
Activity 2.5: Drawing triangle equal in area to a given circle
U
E
compass, and eraser

Procedure
N
B
1. Construct the given circle.
LI
2. Draw the diameter AB vertically and

mark the centre O. O
N
3. Divide the radius OA into seven

O
equal parts.
A C
4. Draw line AC perpendicular to AB
1
and 3 7 times OA.
R
5. Join C to B to obtain the required triangle.

FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Activity 2.6: Drawing a DO
rectangle
NOTequal in area to triangle
DUPLICATE
Requirements Drawing board/table, drawing paper, ruler and drawing
compass, and eraser
Procedure
1. Construct the given triangle ABC.
2. Draw a line perpendicular to AB
from point C to obtain point D.
3. Bisect CD to obtain E.
LY
4. Draw a parallel line to AB to
touch point E.
N
5. Draw perpendiculars at A and B
to give points F and G.
O
6. Figure ABGF is the required figure that has equal in area to triangle ABC.
SE
Activity 2.7: Drawing a square equal in area to given rectangle
U
compass, and eraser
Procedure G F
E
1. Construct the given rectangle

ABCD. D
N
2. Extend AB at E.
LI
3. With center B and radius BC draw A H B E

an arc to touch the extended line at
N
E.
4. Bisect line AE to obtain centre O.
O
5. Draw semicircle on AE using centre O and radius OA.

6. Extend BC to touch the semicircle at F. Use line BF as a length of one
R
side of the required square.

7. Use pair of compass to obtain points G and H and complete the square.
FO
Figure BFGH the required square.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Activity 2.8: Constructing aDO NOT
triangle DUPLICATE
equal in area to a given parallelogram
compass, and eraser
D C
Procedure
1. Construct the given
parallelogram ABCD.
2. Join A and C.
E A B
LY
3. Extend base line BA to
obtain point E.
4. Draw DE parallel to AC from D.
N
5. Join E to C. Figure EBC is the required triangle.
O
Activity 2.9: Constructing a triangle equal in area to any regular polygon.
SE
compass, and eraser
Procedure
U
1. Construct the regular polygon (take a hexagon as an example).
2. Draw the diagonals to intersect at centre O of the polygon.
E
3. Draw line AB with equal length to the sum of the length of all sides of
the polygon. For this example there are six number of sides therefore AB
N
is equal to six times the length of the side of a polygon.

LI
4. Join O and A and O to B.

5. ABO is the required triangle.
N
O
O
R
A B
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DOa NOT
Activity 2.10: Constructing squareDUPLICATE
equal in area to a given parallelogram
compass, and eraser
Procedure
E
1. Construct the given
parallelogram ABCD. H
J
2. Extend DA to the right.

C B
3. Draw a perpendicular line AE at F
LY
point A.
4. With centre A and radius AF D A K
G
draw an arc to cut the extension
N
of KA at G.
5. Bisect DG to get the centre radius then draw the semicircle on DG from
O
the centre.
6. The perpendicular AE cuts the semicircle at H.
7. AH is the length of the required square. SE
8. Use pair of compass to transfer measurements of AH to obtain points J
and K. Figure AHJK is the required square.
U
Chapter summary
E
1. Similar figures are geometrical figures having the same shape but
proportional in size.
N
2. Equal areas are the representation of plane figures of different shapes and
sizes but having the same area in calculations.
LI
Revision exercise 2
N
1. Draw rectangle ABCD having AB =6 cm and BC = 3.5 cm then construct

O
the triangle equal in area of the given figure.

2. Construct a square equal in area to a given rectangle ABCD of 56 cm2 and
R
length of AB = 8 cm.
3. Draw a similar pentagon of the ratio of side 2:5 to a regular pentagon of
FO
20 mm side.
4. Construct a similar pentagon of the ratio of side 5:3 to a regular pentagon
of 60 mm side.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Chapter
Architectural scales and dimensions
Three
Introduction
We use scales and dimensions in our daily life. We buy and sell
goods which are determined and packaged in either weight,
length or volume. These variable quantities are determined
LY
using scales or scaling instruments. In architectural and
engineering draughting language, it is impossible to present the
actual size of the object on the drawing paper without scaling.
N
Such objects are proportionately reduced in sizes using scales
to fit in the drawing paper. For small objects, enlargement
O
of dimensions is made to the actual size to understand their
details (e.g., in carpentry works like furniture). So scaling is
necessary. SE
In this chapter, you will learn about the concept of dimensions,
parts of dimensions, rules of dimensioning, dimensioning
U
systems, dimensioning techniques, and architectural scales.
The competencies developed will enable you to design and
construct different objects and forms using proper scales and
E
dimensions.
N
The concept of dimension

LI
shape of the object but not the size of

Dimension is a numerical value expressed the object. It is impossible to build or
N
in metric or imperial units of measurement manufacture any object unless the sizes
and it defines the size of an object and its are known.
O
orientation or angle.
Purpose of dimensions in different
Dimension is important in the preparation types of views
R
of any technical drawing. It is used to The purpose of dimensioning is to provide

FO
express thickness, width, length and a clear and complete description of an

height of various features like walls, object size for easy defining of its size.
doors and windows of the building. The Different views of the object should be
drawing without dimensions shows the measured for easy communication to the

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
manufacture so as to produce
DO the
NOTobject (a) Extends the contours of an object
DUPLICATE
with possible accuracy. to a convenient place on a drawing
for dimensioning purposes.
Importance of dimension in
(b) Shows the start and endpoint of the
Architectural draughting
dimension figure in the object.
Without dimensions, it is difficult to (c) Begins by leaving a gap of about
know the exact precision needed, even 1 mm or 2 mm from the outline
if you make a drawing to scale. It of the drawing (object) and end
also takes time to measure each line to about 1mm or 2mm beyond the
determine the size if the dimensions dimension line.
are not indicated. The basis for modern
LY
(d) Its length is governed by the
parts, dimensioning is needed for distance from the object to the
replaceable parts. However, with dimension line.
modern technology dimensions can be
N
Makes 90° to the outline surface or
used to produce standard components
recess of the view to be dimensioned.
O
and parts for multiple productions.
Projection line
Parts of dimension
In Architectural drawing, dimensions
consist of various parts for easy
SE
determination of the size of the object
U
being measured as seen in Figure 3.1.
Actual Dimension
in the Centre
E
Figure 3.2: Projection line

90
1mm
N
gap Dimension Line

LI
Projection
Line
N
O
Figure 3.1: Parts of dimension

Extension line
R
Extension line is also known as a

FO
projection line. It is a thin, solid and

continuous line that extends from a point
on the drawing to which the dimension
refers as seen in Figure 3.1. This line is
drawn such that it:

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Dimension lines DO NOT DUPLICATE 90
Dimension line is a thin, continuous and
solid line that is terminated by either
arrowheads, disc or oblique cross as seen
in Figure 3.7.
This line is drawn on a white paper in
any colour except white. It is drawn such
that it:
Figure 3.4: Actual dimension
(a) Is placed at least 10mm from the
object and spaced at least 10mm Arrowheads
LY
between consecutive or parallel Arrowheads are drawn between the
dimension lines. extension lines if possible. If space
(b) Spans the distance between pairs is limited, they may be drawn on the
N
of extension lines. outside as seen in Figure 3.5(c). The
(c) Is parallel to the outline of the length of the arrowhead is three times
O
object to be dimensioned. the width of the arrowhead.
(d) Makes 90° to the extension line as
(e) Terminates with arrowheads, slash
SE
or dot at both ends in the exact
U
point of contact with the extension
line.
E
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.5: Arrowhead
N
Leader lines
Leader lines should be inclined to the
LI
horizontal at an angle greater than 30°.

The leader line should terminate with:
N
Figure 3.3: Dimension line

(a) A dot, if they end within the outline
Actual dimension
O
of an object as shown in Figure

An actual dimension is a number that
3.6(a).
usually indicates the actual measurement
(b) An arrowhead, if they end on the
R
of an object to be measured.
outside of the object as shown in
It is placed above the dimension line or in
Figure 3.6(b) and
FO
between the dimension line and is always

(c) Without a dot or arrowhead, if they
placed at the centre of the dimension line
end on a dimension line as shown
in Figure 3.6(c)

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
(a) Termination with a dot (b) Termination with arrow head (c) Termination without a dot or arrow head
Figure 3.6: Termination of leader line
LY
Dimension termination and origin Rules of dimensioning
indication When an architectural drawing is made,
dimensioning is most important. All
N
Dimension lines should show distinct
termination in the form of arrow heads or the dimensions must be placed on the
O
oblique strokes or dots where applicable drawing and they must be readable.
an origin indication. A neat drawing can be ruined by bad/
The origin indication is drawn as a small wrong dimensioning.
open circle of approximately 3 mm in
diameter.
SE
Many rules govern the means of proper
inserting dimensions on the drawing.
In other words, the dimension lines may The qualification of a good drawing is
U
be terminated by using architectural tick/ when dimensioning is particularly neat,
slash/oblique stroke, arrow and circle / concise and consistent.
disc or dot as seen in Figure 3.7. The following are some common rules
E
to be observed when dimensioning:

(a) Projection lines should be thin and
N
extend for about 1 mm from the

LI
outline and 3 mm to 6 mm past the

dimension line.
N
(b) The dimension line should be thin

and ending with arrowheads at least
O
3 mm long and these arrowheads

must touch the projection lines.
(c) The dimension may be placed
R
between a break in the dimension

FO
line or be placed on top of the

dimension line.
Figure 3.7: Termination of a dimension line

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
(d) The dimensions shouldDO
be NOT
placed DUPLICATE
(j) When a diameter or a radius is too
so that they are read from the small to be dimensioned by any
bottom of the paper or from the of the above methods, a leader
left side of the paper. line may be used. The leader line
• The vertical dimensions are should be thin and terminate on
read from the bottom of the the detail it is pointing to with an
paper to upward. arrowhead or outline or a dot. Long
• The horizontal dimensions are leader lines should be avoided. The
read from the left side of the leader line should always meet
paper to the right of the paper. another line at an acute angle.
LY
(e) Dimension lines should be drawn (k) Do not repeat dimensions on a
outside the outline of the object drawing. It is necessary to put a
whenever possible and should be dimension only once, however
N
clear. many views are drawn. There is
(f) Overall dimensions should be an exception to this rule. If placing
O
placed outside the intermediate one dimension saves adding up
dimensions as seen in Figure 3.9.
lots of small dimensions then this
(g) Centre lines are basic to SE
is allowed.
architectural and engineering
(l) Do not dimension hidden detail,
drawings. They may be used as
unless unavoidable. It is normally
projection lines.
U
possible to dimension the same
(h) Diameters may be dimensioned in
detail on another view.
one of two ways. Either by directly
(m) Draw the dimension lines with
across the circle (not on a centre
E
a compass when dimensioning

line), or by projecting the diameter
angles; the point of the compass
to outside the outline. ‘Diameter’
N
is represented by the symbol φ should be on the point of the angle,

the arrowheads may be drawn
LI
placed in front of the dimension as

shown in Figure 3.9. either side of the dimension lines,
and the dimension may be placed
N
(i) When dimensioning a radius,

if possible, you must show the between the dimension lines or
O
centre of the diagonal. The actual outside. Whatever the angle, the
dimension for the radius may be dimension must be placed in such
shown either inside of the outline a way that it can be read from
R
but should be kept outside if either the bottom or from the left-
possible. The word radius must be hand side of the drawing.
FO
denoted by R and placed in front of

the dimension as shown in Figure
3.9.

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(n) DO NOT
If many parallel dimensions are DUPLICATE
given, it helps to avoid confusion.
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N
O
SE
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E
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N
O
R
Figure 3.9: Rules of dimensioning a drawing

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Exercise 3.1 DO NOT DUPLICATE
1. Re-draw the following figure assuming the units are in millimetres.
25 25
150º 150º
50
R 11 R 11
15
15
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15 15
100
N
2. Redraw the following figure and dimension it. Given that radius of a circle
is 12mm, the overall length BC is 120 mm and the height AB/ DC is 56
O
mm. The distance from the centre of the circle to line AB is 12 mm, and the
distance from the centre of the circle to line BC is 12 mm. The distance
between point A and point G is 40 mm and angle AGF is 140°.
SE
G E D
A
U
F
R5 R5
E
12 12
N
B 12 12 C
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Dimensioning plane, isometric and oblique figures

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Any object or surroundings or space can be one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional

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(2D) or three-dimensional (3D).

In construction of such drawings, measurements must be made along the axes either
the vertical, horizontal or inclined lines. The figures to be dimensioned may be
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plane, isometric and oblique figures.

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Plane figure dimensioning

When dimensioning a plane figure, it is important to place the dimension on the
same plane of the object being dimensioned. This method provides the best way

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of dimensioning clearly and
DOinNOT
detail. DUPLICATE
Dimension between points, lines or surfaces
are shown whenever they have necessary relationship with each other. Figure 3.12
shows plane dimensioning.
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(a) Rectangular or square figure (b) Circular and cylindrical figures
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Figure 3.12: Plane dimensioning figures in orthographic view
Isometric dimensioning
SE
When dimensioning an isometric sketch, it is important to keep dimensions away
from the object and to place the dimension on the same plane as the surface of the
object being dimensioned.
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Isometric dimensions are parallel to and aligned with a corresponding plane as seen
in Figure 3.13.
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N
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N
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R
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Figure 3.13: Isometric dimensioning

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Oblique dimensioning DO NOT DUPLICATE
Oblique dimensioning is done by
following dimensioning principles. It
is also usually best to have dimensions
read from the bottom (unidirectional).
Oblique dimensions are parallel to and
aligned with a corresponding plane. See
Figure 3.14.
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N
Figure 3.15: Aligned dimensioning
Uni-directional dimension
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In this system the dimensions and notes
are to be placed to be read from the
Figure 3.14: Oblique dimensioning

SE
bottom of the drawing. This system is
mostly used in engineering drawing.
Non-horizontal dimension lines are
Dimensioning systems interrupted, preferably in the middle for
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There are two systems of placing insertion of the dimension as show in
dimension based on the reading direction Figure 3.16.
of figures. These are aligned dimension
E
system and unidirectional dimension

N
system.
Aligned dimension
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In this system, all the dimensions are

placed such that they should be read
N
from the bottom or left-hand edge of the

O
drawing/figure. The entire dimension

should be written parallel to their
dimension lines as shown in Figure 3.15.
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Mostly this system of dimension is used

FO
in architectural and structural drawings.
Figure 3.16: Uni-directional dimensioning

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Types of dimensions part. These dimensions prevent escalating
DO NOT DUPLICATE
There are various types of dimensions. errors by maintaining accurate offsets of
The basic types of dimensioning are the features from the datum.
linear, radial, angular, ordinate, and arc
length as seen in Figure 3.17. You can
use any types of dimensions according
to the
the shape of objects or information to
requirement.
LY
N
O
SE
Figure 3.17: Types of dimensions
Linear dimensions Arc Length dimensions
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Linear dimensions can be horizontal, Arc length dimensions measure the distance
vertical, or aligned. You can create an along an arc or polyline arc segment.
aligned, horizontal, or vertical dimension. Typical uses of arc length dimensions
E
Radial dimension include measuring the travel distance

around a curve surface. See Figure 3.17.
A radial dimension measures the radius
N
or diameter of arcs and circles with an Dimensioning techniques

LI
optional centre line or centre mark. Several In Architectural Draughting dimensions

options are displayed in Figure 3.17. are categorized into two techniques. These
N
Angular dimensions are overall and detailed dimensions.

Angular dimensions measure the angle Overall dimension
O
between two selected geometric objects The overall dimension is the dimension
or three points. From left to right. See that shows the full length (overall size)
R
Figure 3.17. of the component being measured.

Ordinate dimensions It is shown outside the intermediate
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Ordinate dimensions measure the component dimension as seen in Figure

perpendicular distances from an origin 3.18. However, it has vital importance
point called the datum, such as a hole in a since it gives the total size of the object

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
being measured to enable theDO
architect
NOTtoDUPLICATE
decide the size of the paper and scale for
drawing production. Also the overall of the drawing provides a quick reference of
the magnitude of the component to be constructed or manufactured.
Detailed dimension
Some of the drawings need more detailed descriptions in which detailed dimensions
are required. These are the dimensions showing the specific details of a drawing by
increasing the size of the component using scale so that it can be easily readable. It
provides clear information of the drawing, easy to interpret the drawing, and helps
to give the size of the hidden details. Figure 3.18 shows the detailed dimensions.
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N
O
SE
U
E
Figure 3.18: Techniques of dimensions

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Architectural scales
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The drawings/objects are normally large in size. To fit on standard paper sizes,
scales have to be used. A scale is used in architecture and other engineering fields
N
as a tool to represent large object/drawing at a smaller size to be read and presented

O
on a paper.
Concept of architectural scales
R
Scale is a ratio of a measurement in a drawing to the actual measurement of an object.

It is a technique by which one can represent an object comfortably and precisely on
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a drawing paper. Scales enable a user to make size reductions or enlargements based
on detail needed to be seen. Buildings and building elements are always drawn to
a reduced scale which enables architects and engineers to communicate easily and
represent the actual size of building and its components. Scales are calibrated in

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such a manner that they can
DO beNOT
used toDUPLICATE
draw objects to scale by direct measurement
without any calculation.
The use of full scale sometimes may not be useful to represent the object clearly. In
such cases, enlarging the object is inevitable. Enlarging scale, say 10: 1 means one-
unit length on the object is represented by 10 units on the drawing. The designation
of a scale consists of the word SCALE, followed by the indication of its ratio as
follows; scale 1: 1 for full-size scale, scale 1: x for reducing scales (x = 10, 20.) and
scale x: 1 for enlarging scales. See Figure 3.19.
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Figure 3.19: Scales
The representative fraction (R.F) - is the ratio of the size of the element in the drawing
SE
to the size of the actual element or object. Also, RF shows instantly the ratio of the
size of a line on a drawing and its actual size. The ratio of numerator to denominator
measurements is the ratio of drawn size to actual size.
U
Examples
1. If a scale is given 1 mm = 1m, then may be constructed and then used in the
E
the R.F is mm
measurement.
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Metric Measurements
2. A drafting technician has to work 10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre ( cm)
LI
with some very large scales. He 10 centimetres (cm) = 1 decimetre (dm)

may have to find, for instance the 10 decimetre (dm) = 1 metre (m)
N
R.F for a scale of 1mm = 5km in 10 metres (m) = 1 decametre (dam)

this case the R.F will be 10 decametre (dam) = 1 hectometre (hm)
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mm 10 hectometres (hm) = 1 kilometre (km)

1 hectare = 10,000 m2
R
In architectural drawing architectural

FO
scales are calibrated to meet measurement

requirement. If the desired scale is not
available in the set of scales, then it

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1. You have been given a line with the length of 1mm = 2km. Write its
Representative Fraction (R.F).
2. You are given a representative fraction ½ and asked to produce a scale to set
out a building. Calculate the scale required.
3. Redraw the following figure in scale of 1:50 on A3 paper. All dimensions
are in metres.
5 10 3
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2
5
N
6
O
10
SE
7
15 3
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4. The figurer below is a combination of rectangles and an isosceles triangle

E
with dimensions as shown in metres. Draw the same in a scale of 1:20 on

A3 paper. All dimensions are in metres.
N
LI
2.9
N
O
0.6 0.6
0.6
1.0
1.5 0.9 1.5 0.9

0.8
R 3.1
1.2
1.2
2.1
1.3
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0.9
0.6
9.0

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Architectural scale rulerDO NOT DUPLICATE
An architectural scale ruler is among the drawing instrument that has been carefully
marked and calibrated in convenient increments for the user.
It is used to transfer the true or relative dimension of an object to the drawing
paper. There are two basic types of shapes of scale rulers namely flat scale ruler and
triangular scale ruler. Depending on the materials used to make it, a scale ruler can
be classified as wooden, plastic, stainless steel and aluminum scale rulers. Due to
the development of modern technology electronic scale rulers are also used for the
measurement of objects.
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Materials and shapes of architectural scale ruler
Wood scale ruler
This uses wood materials that are stable and durable. Popular scales used by
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architects can be flat, of 4 scales or asymmetric 3-lobed sections sometimes with
6 or 12 scales. Figure 3.20 shows wooden scale rulers with respect to their shapes.
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SE
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E
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(a) Triangular scale rulers (b) Flat scale rulers

Figure 3.20: Wooden scale rulers
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Plastic scale ruler uses materials of a diverse range of synthetic or semi-synthetic

polymers as the main ingredient. Their plasticity nature provides flexibility in
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moulding and providing various shapes of an object. Plastic scale rulers are durable
and light weight as compared to wooden scale rulers. Most of plastic scale rulers are
R
made transparent in appearance. See Figure 3.21.

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
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(a) Triangular scale rulers (b) Flat scale rulers
Figure 3.21: Plastic scale rulers
N
Aluminum scale ruler is made up of lower density materials compared to other
metals. Aluminum scale rulers are more durable than other materials but they are
O
more expensive. Figure 3.22 shows aluminium triangular and flat scale rulers.
SE
U
E
N
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(a)Triangular scale rulers (b) Flat scale rulers
Figure 3.22: Aluminium scale rulers

N
Stainless steel scale ruler

O
Steel scale rulers can be made rigid or flexible. Even though their main function is
to take accurate measurement, they can also be used as guides for laying out lines,
R
and if rigid enough, for cutting. The thinner and more flexible rulers can also be used
to measure rounded or cambered work. Figure 3.23 shows the sample of stainless
FO
scale ruler.

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millimetres (mm). The plain scale is used
DO NOT DUPLICATE
for the construction of simple scales,
that do not have many subdivisions.
It consists of a line divided into some
equal main parts and the first main part
is sub-divided into smaller parts.
When constructing any scale, the first
thing to decide is the length of the scale.
Logically, the length is a little longer than
Figure 3.23: Stainless steel scale ruler
the longest dimension on the drawing.
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Types of Architectural scale: Figure 3.24 shows a very simple scale of
There are several types of scales used 20 mm = 100 mm. The largest actual
in Architectural Draughting. The most dimension is 500 mm, so the total length
N
commonly used scales are architectural of the scale is 500/5mm or 100 mm. This
10mm is divided into 5 equal portions,
O
plain and diagonal scales.
Plain scales each portion is representing 100mm.
Plain scales read or measure up to two First 100 is then divided into 10 equal
units or a unit and its sub-division,
for example, centimetres (cm) and
SE
portions, each portion representing 10
mm. These division are marked to show
what each portion represents.
U
E
N
LI
N
Figure 3.24: Plain scale10 mm=100 mm or 1 mm=5 mm.

O
Finishing is very important when adjusting drawing scales. You would not wish
to use a badly graduated or poorly marked ruler, apply the same standards to your
R
scales. Make sure that they are marked with all the important measurements. Plain
scales are used to read dimension for two different purposes; simple scale and scale
FO
that does not have many sub-divisions.

Calibration of plain scale
Construction of plain scale contains two measurements, for example milimetre and
centimetre, metre and decimetre. When a common proportion is to be chosen and

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
ready-made scales are not available,
DO NOT thenDUPLICATE
you are required to construct a scale on
the drawing paper itself. In constructing a plain scale, the following requirements
should be identified.
(a) Representative fraction (R.F) scale.
(b) The units which have to be represented that are milimetres, centimetres or
metres.
(c) The maximum length to be measured. If the maximum length is not
provided, some suitable length can be assumed, generally it should be 15
to 20 cm.
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Activity 3.1: Constructing a plain scale of 2 cm to 1metre to read up to 6 metre
and decimetre
Requirements: Drawing board/table, compass, A3 drawing paper, pencil,
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divider and scale ruler/metric ruler
Procedure
O
1. Determine R.F scale from a given information.
RF= 2/1×100 = 1/50 =1:50
SE
2. Obtain the length of the scale as: RF x 6m = 1/50 x 6 x 100 = 12 cm
3. Draw a rectangle strip of length 12 cm and width 0.5 cm.
4. Divide the length into 6 equal parts, by geometrical method each part
U
representing 1m.
5. Mark O(zero) after the first division and continue 1,2,3 etc., to the right of
the scale.
E
6. Divide the first division into 10 equal parts (secondary divisions), each
N
representing 1 dm.
7. Mark the above division points from right to left.
LI
8. Write the units at the bottom of the scale in their respective positions.
9. Indicate RF at the bottom of the figure.
N
O
R
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Form Two
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Questions: DO NOT DUPLICATE
1. How important is this exercise in real practice?
2. What knowledge do you apply to draw the plain scale?
Activity 3.2: Constructing a scale of 3 Centimetres equals to 1 decimetre to read

up 4 decimetres and centimetres
Requirements: Drawing board/table, compass, drawing paper, pencil, divider,
and scale ruler/metric ruler
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Procedure
1. Determine R.F scale from a given information.
RF=3/(1x10)=3/10
N
2. Find the measurement in drawing
Measurement in drawing = R. F x Actual measurement
O
3. Draw a line 120 mm long and divide it into four equal parts.
4. Make the height of the scale be at any convenient height.
SE
5. Divide the first unit into 10 equal parts.
U
E
N
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Questions:
N
1. What is the difference between activity 3.1 and 3.2?

O
2. What are the learning outcomes of activity 3.2?

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Activity 3.3: Constructing a plain scale of 11/2 times full size to read up to 8
FO
centimetres in millimeters
Requirements: Drawing board/table, compass, drawing paper, pencil, divider,

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Procedure DO NOT DUPLICATE
1. Obtain the length of the scale as: RF x 8cm = 11/2 x 8 = 12 cm.
2. Draw a line of 120 mm long and divide it into 8 equal units.
3. The height of the scale can be at any convenient height.
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N
O
Example:
Construct a scale of 1:50 to read metres and decimetres and long enough to measure
6 m. Mark on it a distance of 5.5 m.
SE
1. Obtain the length of the scale as: RF x 6m = 1/50x1 x 6 x 100 = 12 cm
2. Draw a rectangle strip of length 12 cm and width 0.5 cm.
3. Divide the length into 6 equal parts, by geometrical method each part
U
representing 1m.
4. Mark O (zero) after the first division and continue 1,2,3 etc., to the right of
the scale.
E
5. Divide the first division into 10 equal parts (secondary divisions), each
representing 1 dm.
N
6. Mark the above division points from right to left.

LI
7. Write the units at the bottom of the scale in their respective positions.
N
9. Mark the distance 5.5 m as shown.

O
R
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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Question: DO NOT DUPLICATE
Summarize what you have learnt from activities 3.1-3.3
Exercise 3:3
1. By using a ruler construct a plain scale of 1/3 to read up to 4 decimetres in

cm, 20 mm to read up to 100 mm and draw a line of 54.5 mm.
2. Construct a plain scale to show kilometer and long enough to measure up to
6 km. Find RF and indicate a distance of 5 km and 4 hm on your scale.
LY
3. On a survey map the distance between two places 1 km apart is 5 cm.
Construct the scale to read 3.6 km.
4. Construct a plain scale of 1:50 to measure a distance of 7 meters. Mark a
N
distance of 3.6 metres on it.
O
5. The length of a scale with a RF of 2:3 is 20 cm. Construct this scale and
mark a distance of 16.5 cm on it.
6. Construct a scale of 2 cm to 1 decimetre to read up to 1 metre and mark on
it a length of 0.67 metre. SE
7. Construct a plain scale of RF = 1:50,000 to show kilometres and
hectometres and long enough to measure up to 7 km. Mark a distance of 5:3
U
kilometres on the scale.
8. The distance between two places 5 km apart. However, the measurement
of this distance on a map indicates 10 cm. Construct the scale to read 8 km.
E
What is the RF of this scale?

N
Diagonal scale
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A diagonal scale is an instrument that is composed of a set of parallel straight lines

which can be obliquely crossed by another set of straight lines. Diagonal scales
N
read or measure up to three units such as decimetres (dm), centimetres (cm) and
milimetres (mm). This scale is used when very small distances such as 0.1 mm are to
O
be measured accurately or when measurements are required to read up to the second

decimal. Figure 3.25 shows a diagonal scale.
R
FO

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Figure 3.25: Diagonal scale

With construction of diagonal scale, it is possible to measure with 3 units accuracy
of measurement example centimeters, milimetres and tenth of a milimetre. The
LY
following are worked examples on how to calculate and convert the diagonal scales.
Activity 3.4: Constructing a diagonal scale of centimetre to read up to 10
N
centimetres in millimetres and tenth of milimetre, measure a length
of 82.9 milimetres
O
Requirements: Drawing board/table, compass, drawing paper, pencil, divider
Procedure SE
1. Draw line 10 centimetres long and divide it into 10 equal units.
2. Divide the first unit into 10 equal units.
U
3. Erect a perpendicular AC of convenient height and divide it into 10 equal
parts. Draw horizontal lines between these units.
4. Transfer the 10 divisions of the first unit on one unit slope as shown in the
E
following figure.
N
C
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N
A
O
R
Activity 3.5: Constructing a diagonal scale of twice full length to read up to 6

centimeters in milimetres and tenth of millimeters, measure 45.8
FO
milimetres
Requirements: Drawing board/table, compass, drawing paper, pencil, divider
and scale ruler/metric ruler.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
1. Draw a line AB 12 centimetres long and divide it into 6 equal units.
3. Erect a perpendicular AC (this can be any convenient height) and divide it
into 10 equal parts. Draw horizontal lines from these units.
4. Transfer the 10 divisions of the first unit on AB to the top line and draw
diagonals of one-unit slope as shown in the following figure.
1.0
0.9
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0.8 45.8
Tenth of millimetres
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
N
0.2
0.1
10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50
O
Millimetre Centimetres
Exercise: 3.4
1. Construct a diagonal scale, 30 mm = 1mm, 4 m long to read to 10 mm.

SE
2. From the scale constructed read and draw line to show 3640 mm, 2490 mm
U
and 1260 mm.
3. Construct a scale of RF = 1:50 showing metre, decimetres and centimetres.
The scale should measure up to 6 metres.
E
Reading and application of Architectural scales

N
The architectural scales are imperial and metric scales. Imperial scales for example
4’’ = 1’-0’’ are pronounced as four inches to a foot or 21/2’’ = 1’-0’’ two and half inch
LI
to a foot. In Tanzania, metric scales are mostly used in architectural drawings.

N
Architectural metric scales are frequently used in architectural and engineering

draughting. They start with a number one followed by a large number of the tenth
O
for example 1:1000 pronounced as one to one thousand or 1:50 one to fifty. The
factors to consider when deciding the size of drawing on a drawing paper are the
overall dimension of the drawing, paper size and selection of scale.
R
Factors for selection of correct scale

FO
Scale enables to enlarge or reduce objects to fit on the drawing sheet.

The following are the factors to be considered for the selection of the correct scale.
(a) The size of the drawing paper( remember to put the drawing paper for one

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
project/object to one
DOsize)
NOT under or the space available on the drawing
DUPLICATE
paper for inclusion of the detail.
(b) The size of the drawing detail in relation to the total number of
information to be written.
(c) The need for saving time and effort in the preparation of drawing detail.
How to use an architectural scale
The scale used in architectural draughting takes four steps: first, determine the scale
used for the architectural drawing that you’re reading or creating; second, find the
corresponding scale on your ruler, third, simply begin your line at zero and draw it to
LY
the length marked on that scale and finally transfer the reading to the drawing paper,
as shown in Figure 3.26.
120m on site
N
1 on drawing=2500 on site
80m on site
O
1:2500
0
370m
20m
360
40 SE
60
SCALE RULER
350 340
80
330
100
320
120
310
U
Figure 3.26: Typical flat scale ruler with readings
E
Exercise 3.4
N
1. You have been given a plot of 100 m long by 50 m wide. Draw this plot in
A4 paper using scale of 1:400.
LI
2. Locate an area of a rectangular residential house with 10 m length by 7.5 m

N
width by using a scale of 1:50 on A4 paper.

O
Chapter summary
1. Dimension is a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of
R
measurement and used to define the size, orientation, location, form or

FO
other geometric characteristics of a part.
2. The guidelines for dimensioning are accuracy, clarity, completeness and

readability.

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
3. Parts of architectural DUPLICATE
dimensions include dimension numbers, arrow
heads, extension line/projection line, dimension line and actual dimension.
4. Dimensioning is governed by a set of rules.
5. There are two systems of placing dimension based on the reading direction
of figures which are aligned and unidirectional dimensioning system.
6. There are two types of dimensions which are overall and detail dimension.
7. Scale is a ratio of a measurement in a drawing to the actual measurement
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of a figure. Scales enable the user to make size reductions or enlargements
rapidly and accurately. Buildings and their building elements are
invariably drawn to a reduced scale to make it easier for architects and
N
engineers to communicate and present them in the actual size.
O
8. There are two types of scale which are plain and diagonal scale.
9. SE
The Plain scales read or measure up to two units or a unit and its sub-
division, for example centimetres (cm) and millimetres (mm).
10. Diagonal scales read or measure up to three units. They are used to
U
represent three units of measurements for example metres, decimetres,
centimetres also to read the accuracy to two decimals points.
E
11. Scale rulers are made of wood, plastic, aluminum and stainless steel.
N
12. Two shapes of scale rules are flat and triangular.

LI
13. Scales are calibrated to measure to the accuracy required.

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Revision exercise 3
O
Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives for question 1-6
1. What are the two systems of inserting dimensions? (Options given below)
R
(a) Directional system (b) Unidirectional system (c) Break system (d)
FO
Aligned system.

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
(i) a, b
(ii) a, c
(iii) b, d
(iv) a, d
2. When dimensioning the circle, the dimension line starts from the Centre
of the circle.
a) True
LY
b) False
3. In which system of dimensioning the figures can only be read from the
N
bottom?
O
a) Nonaligned multidirectional system
b) Parallel system
c) Aligned system
SE
d) Unidirectional system
U
4. Dimension lines should be drawn at least ________mm away from the
outlines and from each other.
E
(a) 5
N
(b) 6
LI
(c) 7
(d) 8
N
5. With the aid of diagrams differentiate between dimension line, extension

O
line and leader line.
6. Discuss the purpose of dimensioning in architectural draughting.

R
7. With illustrations, describe at least five rules of dimensioning.

FO
8. With the aid of examples, distinguish two dimensioning methods.
9. What is the purpose of a leader line?

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
10. List four important points to keep in mind when drawing a leader line.
11. At what angle is a leader line drawn when it is used to dimension a 90°
arc?
12. Describe the meaning of the following terms used in scale.
a) Draughting
b) Diagonal scale
c) Scale calibration
LY
d) Plain scale
13. Draw a line of 200 mm with full length. From the line redraw the line to
N
the following scales, 1:5, 1:2 and1:10.
O
14. Draw a line of 10 mm full length. From the full length redraw the line with
the following scales: 2:1, 5:1 and 10:1.
15.
SE
Construct a plain scale, 30 mm equals to 10 mm, 50 mm long to read to 1
mm.
U
16. Construct a diagonal scale of ¼ full size to read up to 5 decimetres in
centimetres and milimetres, then show 235 milimetres.
17. Construct a plain scale to show kilometres and hectometres when 1.5 cm
E
= 1 km. The scale should be long enough to measure up to 7 kilometres.

N
18. Construct a diagonal scale of five times full size, to read accurately up to
0.2 mm and mark a distance of 3 .65 cm on it.
LI
19. Construct a diagonal scale to read up to 0.1 mm and mark on it a distance

N
of 1.63 cm and 6.77 cm. Take the scale as 3: 1.

O
20. Draw a diagonal scale of 1 cm = 2.5km and mark on the scale a length of
26.7 km.
R
21. Construct a diagonal scale to read 2km when its RF is 1:200,000. Mark on
it a distance of 15 km to read up to 50 km.
FO
22. Draw a plain scale of metres when 1 mm represents 4 cm and mark on it

a length of 24.4 cm and 23.1 mm. What is the RF?

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23. 15cm of a vernier scale represents 1 cm. Construct a backward reading
vernier scale of RF 1:4.8 to show decimetres cm and mm. The scale
should be capable of reading up to 12 decimeters. Mark on the scale 2.69
decimetres and 5.57 decimetres.
24. (a) Which scale is commonly used by architects
(b) How scales are constructed and applied?
25. Why scales are calibrated for measurement?
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26. What are the factors to be considered when setting out size of the drawing?
27. What are the factors to be considered when selecting a certain scale
(correct scale)?
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Chapter
Pictorial drawing
Four
Introduction
Pictorial drawing is the oldest major means of communication
in drawing that shows object in three dimensions. On the other
hand pictorial drawing can be viewed and understood easily.
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In this chapter, you will learn about the concept of pictorial
drawing, types of pictorial drawings, and methods of
construction of pictorial drawings. The competencies
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developed will enable you to draw and present various types
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of pictorial drawings that are used to create pictorial images
of the building for presentation purposes.
The concept of pictorial drawing SE

Pictorial drawing or projection is a view of an object as seen by an observer who
looks at the object either in chosen direction or from a point of view. It is the
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presentation of an object in three dimensions (that is length, width, and depth).
Pictorial drawings often are more readily made and more clearly understood than
orthographic projection (front, top and side view of object).
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There are three types of pictorial drawings. These are the axonometric, oblique and
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perspective pictorial drawing as discussed below.

Axonometric projection
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Axonometric projection is an orthographic projection of a three-dimensional form

that is inclined to the picture plane in such a way that its three principal axes are
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foreshortened. In axonometric projections the projectors are parallel to each other

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and perpendicular to the picture plane. Axonometric projections can produce

isometric, dimeric or trimetric views as seen in Figure 4.1.
When the drawing is set out between 0° and 60°, this is known as axonometric
R
projection.
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(a) Isometric (b) Dimetric (c) Trimetric

Figure 4.1: Axonometric projection
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The most used axonometric projection is the isometric projection as seen in Figure
4.1 (a).
Isometric drawing is a three-dimensional drawing that is set out using 30° angles.
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It is an axonometric projection of a three-dimensional subject inclined to the picture
plane in such a way that its three principle axes make equal angles with the picture
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plane and are equally foreshortened.
Oblique drawing
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Oblique projection represents a three-dimensional form or construction by projecting
parallel lines at some convenient angle other than 90° to the picture plane. A principal
face or set of planes of the subject is usually oriented parallel to the picture plane and
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is therefore represented in accurate size, shape and proportion.
This is simpler than isometric but it does not present a realistic picture. It is a three-
dimensional drawing which is set out using 30° ,45° and 60° angles. Figure 4.2
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illustrates an oblique projection at 45°.

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N
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(b)
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(a) Figure 4.2: Oblique projection

Perspective drawing
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This is the most realistic and natural of pictorial drawing, but does not display the
real dimensions of the object, therefore, cannot be used as working drawings. All
measurements in perspective drawing are “predictable”, not measured with a ruler
as in isometric or oblique drawings.

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It is mainly used to give an
DOimpression of the object in three dimensional. See
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Figure 4.3.
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Figure 4.3: Perspective projection
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Benefits and limitations of pictorial drawing techniques
O
Pictorial drawing technique helps to provide a clear impression of the completed
product and gives a quick reference to the details for manufacturer to understand
since it shows all three sides (top side and front views) of an object. It takes short
time to draw different views of the objects.
SE
Limitations of the pictorial drawing technique are: rear view of the object cannot
be seen which means some important details could not be visible and obtained such
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as the rear view of the object. Some pictorial drawings deform the dimensions, for
example in isometric projection, isometric scale is used to deform the length, width
and height.
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Differences between oblique and isometric projection

N
There are differences between oblique and isometric projection as shown in table
4.1.
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Table 4.1: Differences between oblique and isometric projection

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Isometric projection Oblique projection

O
It uses the receding angle of

i. The receding angle is 30 degrees from
inclination of 45 degrees from
horizontal
R
horizontal
The circle appears as circle not
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ii. The circle appears as ellipse

ellipse
iii. Isometric drawing focuses on the edge The oblique drawing has focus
of an object on front side of an object

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Types of pictorial drawingsDO NOT DUPLICATE
shape is to apply box method that is to
There are three types of pictorial close the object within the imaginary box
drawings but only isometric and oblique and cut away the remaining parts from
projection are discussed in this section. the box.
Isometric projections In construction of rectangle objects, it is
The word “Isometric” originates from necessary to follow the steps below:
two Greek words; iso means equal and 1. Draw the horizontal construction
metric means measurement, which line in a given space of sheet.
means we deal with drawings of equal
measurements. Isometric projection is
an axonometric projection of a three
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dimensional object inclined to the
picture plane in such a way that its
three principal axes make equal angles 2. Set a point by drawing a line on
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with the picture plane and are equally near the centre of the line that will
foreshortened. indicate the size of rectangle.
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In isometric projection, all vertical 3. Draw a lines at 30° to the horizontal
lines of the object are drawn vertically. from the centre on both sides.
Horizontal lines are drawn at an angle
of 300 to the horizontal on each side of
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vertical lines as shown in Figure 4.4.
Circles are drawn as oval shape known as
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ellipse. The simplest method of making
isometric projection can be done quickly
with the aid of 30°-60° set square resting 4. Determine the length,width and
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on tee (T) square or straight edge. height of the line drawn.

5. Draw parallel lines of all line
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indicated to complete the required

rectangle box.
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N
O
R
Figure 4.4: Isometric view

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Construction of isometric projection

The simplest method of making isometric
projection of an object having a complicated

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4
10
1. Use a ruler, pencil and protractor 16
or a set square to draw an
isometric rectangle box of which
the length, width, and thickness
7
are 100 mm, 50 mm and 25 mm
respectively.
3
2. Construct the following figure 30º 30º
into isometric projection.
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3. Draw the following figures
using box method.
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O
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U
E
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Methods of constructing pictorial
DO NOT projections in isometric projection
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The pictorial projection has three methods for construction of isometric projection
namely; box method, offset method and isometric scale method. The common
method used in pictorial presentation is the box method.
Box method
When an object contains some non-isometric lines, the isometric drawing may be
conveniently constructed by using the box method. In this method, the object is
imagined to be enclosed in a rectangular box and both isometric and non-isometric
lines are located by their respective points of contact with the surfaces and edges of
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the box.
Procedures of using Box method in constructing pictorial projections in isometric
projections are as follow:
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1. Draw isometric box using faint lines or constructing lines by considering the size
of the figure to be drawn.
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2. Determine and mark the length, width and height of the figure.
3. Use set square of 30º to cut the box according to the required shape of the figure.
4. Determine the required figure without rubbing faint lines.
5. Dimensioning the isometric figure or drawing.
SE
Example
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Use box method to draw the following figures
90
90
E
40
50
N
50
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65
55 45
(a) 0.27.100.100 (b)

Solution
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GSPublisherVersion
GSPublisherVersion 0.27.100.100
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R
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Isometric circle
In an isometric drawing, circles appear as ellipses and arcs as elliptical arcs. See
figure below. It is necessary to align isometric circles and arcs with the appropriate
isometric plane. It is also important to locate the correct center point.

Form Two
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DOa NOT Construction of isometric cylinder
Activity 4.1: Constructing circle DUPLICATE
in
It follows the same procedures as
isometric projection
isometric circles except that the edges of
Requirements: Drawing board/table, the top and bottom isometric circles are
compass, drawing paper, pencil, joined to form a cylinder as seen in the
divider, sets quire, T- square or following figure .The two parallel side
any other straight edge. isometric planes can be used to construct
Procedure an isometric cylinder.
1. Draw the projection line at
isometric angle of 30° to the Activity 4.2: Constructing a cylinder in
horizontal on each side of vertical an isometric projection
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line.
Requirements: Drawing board/table,
2. Draw the required square ABCD
compass, drawing paper, pencil,
by taking the length of one side as
divider, sets quire, T- square or
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equal to the diameter of required
any other straight edge.
circle.
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Procedure
3. Draw diagonals to obtain the
1. Draw the overall box in isometric
centre of the square.
projection according to the
4. Bisect AB and CD to obtain EF
and bisect AD and BC to obtain
SE required dimensions given.
2. By following the procedures of
GH.
drawing isometric circle, draw
5. Join C and E and A and F.
U
circle on top of square and bottom
6. Mark 1 at the intersection of BD
square of the box.
and AF and at the intersection of
3. Join the edges of those circles to
BD and CE mark 2.
complete the required cylinder as
E
7. Use point centre 1 to draw arc FG

seen in the following figure.
and centre 2 to draw arc EH.
N
8. Use centre A to draw arc FH and

centre C to draw arc EG to
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complete the required circle as

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Form Two
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Construction of isometric cone Exercise 4.2
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Isometric box is constructed following
1. Form Two students want to study
the same procedures as isometric circles
the concept of bricks and blocks
except that the centre of the top isometric
making. As a technician draw the
plane is joined with edges of bottom
standard size of brick and block
isometric circle to form an isometric
in isometric projection.
cone as seen in the following figure.
2. A rectangular box 80 mm long, 70
mm width and 60 mm height has
Activity 4.3: Constructing a cone in
drilled through a hole of diameter
isometric projection
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50 mm which is located at
Requirements: Drawing board/table, the centre of surface (80 x70)
compass, drawing paper, pencil, mm. Draw this box in isometric
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divider, sets quire, T square or projection.
any other straight edge 3. Redraw the following figures
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in isometric and axonometry
Procedure projections.
10
1. Draw the isometric box in a given
dimension.
SE 7 20
2. Draw the circle on the bottom

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square of the box and draw the
20
centre of the top square.
15
3. Join the two edges of the circle
E
with centre on the top square to

8
complete the cone.

N
30
20
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10
N
20
O
8
15
R
20
10
10
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40
25

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Oblique projection DO NOT DUPLICATE
Oblique projection is another type of pictorial drawing used in geometrical,
architectural and engineering works. It is also based on three axes but two of these
are at right angle to each other and the third axis is 30°, 45° or 60° to the horizontal as
shown in Figure 4.5 a, b and c, but it is advisable to use an axis of 45° to distinguish
between oblique and isometric methods. In oblique projection, the front face of the
object is drawn in true shape while the adjacent sides to the main face are drawn to
common oblique angle given (see Figure 4.5 d).
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N
O
SE (d)
Figures 4.5: Oblique angles and figures
U
20
Types of oblique projection
There are two types of
15
20
oblique projection namely:
E
cavalier oblique projection

and cabinet oblique
N
projection. 30
0
10
Cavalier oblique projection-

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In this projection, one axis

is horizontal and the other is
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vertical while the third axis

is at 45° to the horizontal
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25
plane. All lines perpendicular

to the projection plane are
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projected with no change in

30
length as seen in Figure 4.6.

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45º
8
20 20 20
Figure 4.6: Cavalier oblique projection

Form Two
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- In
Cabinet oblique projectionDO this DUPLICATE
NOT
projection, one axis is horizontal and
the other is vertical while the third
axis is drawn at 30°,45° and 60° to the
horizontal line. Such drawing resembles
the actual image. The dimensions on the
horizontal and vertical axes are given
from the actual scale whereas the scale
on the inclined plane is 1/2, 2/3 or 1/3 (b) Oblique line inclined at 45º
th 30
of the actual scale. In order to achieve len
g
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t r ue
realistic outlook of the object, a reducing
15
2 of 40
3 30
scale shall be applied on the linear
15
measurement on the angled axis. Oblique
N
line can be inclined to the oblique angles 30
as follows:
O
30°
60
30°-the oblique length altered to 2/3 x
(c) Oblique line inclined at 45º
true length. Figures 4.7: Conditions of cabinet oblique
45°-the oblique length altered to 1/2 x
true length.
SE projection
60°-the oblique length altered to 1/3 x Exercise 4.3

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true length. 1. Construct the following figure
Figure 4.7 shows the types of cabinet into cavalier oblique projection.
projections according to the given
E
conditions. In construction of object

18
in cabinet oblique projection if no any

N
16
angle condition given, then the oblique

length is altered to 1/2 x true length and
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30
32
the oblique line will be at 45° to the

N
horizontal. 50
30º
14
O
50
30
R
2. Briefly describe the three types

of pictorial representations.
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3. Draw the following figure into

cabinet oblique projection given
the angle of inclination is 60°..
(a) Oblique line inclined at 60°

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in horizontal axis according to
45
the given dimension of the width
40 and then draw the perpendicular
line at the end of the width as
seen in Figure (b).
30
3. Complete the rectangle by

drawing the parallel line of each
line drawn in stage (ii) as seen in
15
Figure (c).
60
15
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15
Advantages and disadvantages of

oblique method 45° 45°
N
The advantages of oblique drawing are: (a) (b)
(a) (b)
the front face gives the true shape of the
O
figure. This projection is closer to real
object, lack of perspective for shortening
sides makes comparisons of size easier.
The disadvantages of this projection are:
SE 45°
(c)
difficult in inserting dimensions and it Note: If the figure contains the
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does not show the hidden face. complicated faces add those parts
Construction of object in oblique before the final sketch.
projection
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Activity 4.4: Drawing a rectangle object

N
in oblique projection
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divider, sets quire, T square or
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any other straight edge.

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Procedure
1. Draw the three oblique axes (two

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axes are 90° to each other and 45°

to the horizontal) as seen in figure
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(a).
2. Mark the width of the rectangle

Form Two
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Draw the following figures into cabinet oblique projection.
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(a) (b)
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Circle and cone in oblique projection
O
When constructing the circle, cylinder and cone in oblique projection the shape
of circle on front face will remain as it is. But if the shape of circle appears on the
SE
face of receding face, the shape of the circle will appear as ellipse as in isometric
projection.
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Activity 4.5: Drawing cylinder in oblique projection
Requirements: Drawing board/table, 25
E
divider, sets quire, T square or any Ø25

other straight edge.
N
25
Procedure
75
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1. Draw the box in a given dimension,

N
the front face will be square.

2. Find the centre O on the front face.
O
Ø25
25
3. Apply the same principle to find the 45º

centre on the back square.
25
R
4. Draw the circles on both squares.

5. Draw parallel lines on the edge of circles to complete the cylinder.
FO

Form Two
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Chapter
Chaptersummary
summary DO NOT DUPLICATE
1. Pictorial drawing is the presentation in which multiple sides of the object
can be seen at once in three dimension.
2. Types of pictorial drawings are axonometric, oblique and perspective

drawings.
3. Axonometric projection is classified into three main types namely:

isometric, dimetric and trimetric projections.
4. There are three methods for construction of isometric projection. These
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include box method, off set method and isometric scale method.
5. There are two types of oblique projection namely: cavalier oblique
N
projection and cabinet oblique projection.
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Revision exercise 4
1. A square prism with base side 50 mm, height 65 mm is placed centrally

SE
on a rectangular slab of sides 100 mm x 700 mm and thickness 20 mm.
Draw the isometric projection of the combination.
U
2. A cube of 40 mm is placed centrally on the top of cylinder block of radius
36 mm and height of 32 mm. Draw the isometric projection of that solid.
3. Draw the following figure (a) and (b) in isometric projections.
E
20
N
0
10
LI 80
N
50
35
O
45
40
60
R
45
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(a) Solid block-1 (b) Solid block-2

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4. Construct the followingDO NOT
figures DUPLICATE
in oblique projection.
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(a) Solid block-1
N
18 24 18
O
60
25
SE
12
50
U
15
36 12
45º
12
60
E
(b) Solid block-2

60 35 25
N
15
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90
N
40
O
12
30
65
R
45º
FO
120
(c) Solid block-3

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5. Assume you are a site foreman of a certain construction project make a
well dimensioned oblique projection drawing of a standard block for the
material supplier.
6. Construct the cube that has 55 mm each side, use a protractor or set square
to set angles of 45 degrees.
7. Construct the cone having diameter of 45 mm and 67 mm height while the
base is laid on receding line.
8. Draw axonometric projection of a cylinder block of radius 40 mm and
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height of 30 mm.
9. Construct the following figures in isometric projection using box method.
N
O
SE
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E
N
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N
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R
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Chapter
Orthographic projections
Five
Introduction
Orthographic projection is the resolution to the major problem

that a draught person has to resolve on how to draw, with
sufficient clarity, a three-dimensional object onto a two-
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dimensional plane. In this chapter, you will learn about
the concept of orthographic projections, principal planes,
types of orthographic projection in architectural draughting
N
and conventional symbols. The competencies developed
will enable you to apply different orthographic projection
O
techniques to draw, read and interprete drawing information
orthographically.
Concept of orthographic projections

SE From Figure 5.1, the imaginary
Orthographic projection is a means of representing glass box is folded. The
U
three-dimension objects in two dimensions. The imaginary glass box with
projection lines are at right angles to the projection its images is opened so that
plane. In short the views on these planes define horizontal and vertical/profile
E
the object completely. See Figure 5.1. planes are opened into the
frontal plane as seen in Figure
N
5.2(a). Then the faces are

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separated from the glass box

to be arranged to produce the
N
three views of projections as

O
shown in Figure 5.2(b).

R
FO
Figure 5.1: Orthographic projection by glass box method

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N
(a) Opening views (b) Final view
Figure 5.2: Arrangement of views in orthographic projection
O
Terminologies used in orthographic projection
The point of sight
SE
This is the real or imaginary position of the eye of the observer when viewing the
object. For orthographic projection, the point of sight is considered to be at an
infinite distance from the object.
U
Lines of sight
Lines of sight or visual rays are all lines joining the eye of point of sight with points
E
on the object. In orthographic projection the lines of sight for any view are parallel
N
to one another and perpendicular to the plane of projection.

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Plane of projection
N
It is the plane onto which the object is projected. As the lines of sight must be
perpendicular to the planes in orthographic projection, it is necessary to have
O
different planes for each point of sight.
Projection lines
R
Projection lines or projectors are extensions of lines that assist in two-dimension

FO
drawing. You can use projection lines to help to create new geometry. See Figure
5.3.

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N
Figure 5.3: Orthographic projection terminologies
O
Purpose of drawing orthographic projections in architectural draughting
SE
This orthographic projection method helps to clarify different views of the object
when viewed from different location.
Architects, engineers, product designers, planners and others use the form of drawing
U
to produce an accurate presentation of the final product. For examples, furniture,
computers, cellphones and cars are subjected to having an orthographic plan drawn
out of them.
E
Importance of orthographic projection

N
Architects, engineers and product manufacturers, have always used graphic

LI
language to conceptualize and construct their ideas using draughtmen or technicians

and providing instructions to building contractors or manufacturers. Orthographic
N
drawing is one of the graphic presentation of objects of construction and manufacture

which is used to describe the details of all views of the object, like front, rear, side or
O
top views. It provides accurate dimensions of the objects by using draughting lines.
It enables the reader of the drawing to understand how each part of the object fits and
R
how the final product should look like. This helps to eliminate any misinterpretation
which can be seen in isometric presentations.
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Exercise 5.1
1. Draw the front, top and side

view of the figure below.
Assuming A to be the front view.
30
60
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Figure 5.4 : Basic planes of projection
80
80 A
Projection views of principal planes
N
90
There are six orthographic projection
O
2. Draw the views of the following views used in technical drawing but
figure assuming either side to be there are mainly three projection views,
the front view. the others are just the flip side of those
SE
three views. The six views are front,
back, top, bottom, right and left views.
The commonly used views are front, top
U
and side (right /left) views.
Figure 5.5 shows the three principal

E
views in orthographic projection.

N
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Principal planes
There are three planes perpendicular
N
to each other, which are the basis of

O
multi-view projection. These are:

Horizontal projection plane, Frontal/
Vertical projection plane and Side/Profile
R
projection plane. The position of these

planes is shown in Figure 5.4.
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N
Figure 5.5 : Three principal views
Principal planes are arranged in four rooms in x-y plane known as quadrants
O
which include first quadrant, second quadrant, third quadrant and fourth quadrant,
respectively following anticlockwise pattern. The division of the space is done by
SE
two planes commonly known as vertical plane and horizontal plane bisecting each
other. The line of intersection of these two planes is called reference line or xy line.
Figure 5.6 shows a quadrants of projection.
U
E
N
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N
O
Figure 5.6: Quadrants of projection

R
Exercise 5.2 horizontal, profile, inclined or

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oblique planes.
1. Label the following figures
(a) and (b) and identify type
for each surface as vertical,

Form Two
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and third angle projection.
First angle projection
When an object is assumed to be placed
in the first quadrant it is known as first
angle projection system. In this case,
the observer is placed in front of the
(a) (b)
vertical plane, the object will appear
to be between the observer and the
Rules for drawing orthographic projection plane. In Figure 5.7 the three
projections views of a simple object on the three
principal planes of projection (PPP) are
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1. Place the object in its normal position
or in the position which is to be used. shown pictorially. Then to represent all
2. Place the object so that its faces will the views in one plane, the horizontal
plane (HP) and the profile plane (PP) are
N
be parallel to the principal planes of
projection. rotated to the vertical plane as shown in
O
3. Turn the object so that its most Figure. 5.8 (a).
important or most descriptive face is The views are then drawn in their true
parallel to the vertical plane. shape as shown in Figure.5.8 (b). Note
4. Select the views that will show the
highest number of visible lines.
SE
that the views are arranged in such a
way that the top view is always directly
Types of orthographic projection in below the front view and the left side
U
architectural draughting view is direct to the left of the front view
Basically, orthographic projections as shown in Table 5.1.
produce six views including front view, Note:
The position of the first quadrant may
E
back view, top view, bottom view, right

side view and left side view. These be at the top left or top right quadrant
N
views affect the way we see the object at moving in anticlockwise direction. The
different angles. For this level, only two projections will adjust accordingly with
LI
types of orthographic projections are the front view placed on the first and
discussed, namely first angle projection third quadrant for first and third angle
N
projections, respectively.
Table 5.1: Position of quadrants in first angle projection
O
Quadrants Position of views in quadrants

R
First Side Front

Second
Quadrant Quadrant view view
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Plan
Third Fourth view
Quadrant Quadrant

Form Two
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Top Activity 5.1: Constructing first angle
DO NOT DUPLICATE
projection
table, paper set square, rule
and drawing instrument box
PP
P
P consisting of a compass, pencil,
FP
Front side rubber and protractor
H
Left side
P
P
Procedure
1. Draw construction lines to create
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Figure 5.7 : First angle projection
XY plane as shown in figure (a ).
N
P
PP
O
P
FP
FRONT VIEW LEFT SIDE
VIEW x
PP
H
TOP VIEW
(b) True shapes of

SE
(a) HP and PP are rotated (a)
to the vertical plane the object found
2. Draw a 45 line from the front
º
U
Figure 5.8: Projection planes unfolded elevation in third quadrant as
Note: shown in figure (b).
E
When the side view is viewed from left

hand side then the projection will be
y
N
located on the right side of front view.

Procedures for drawing first angle
LI
projection
x
N
Consider the isometric drawing below to

construct first angle projection.
O
45°
R
FO
(b)
F
3. Draw the front elevation in first
quadrant as shown in figure (c).

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y 6. Darken the lines defining each view
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as seen in figure (f).
y
x
Side view Front view
45° x
45°
LY
(c) Top view
4. Project lines from the front
N
elevation to construct the plan as
(f)
seen in figure (d).
O
Questions:
y
1. Why did you bisect the third
quadrant by 45°?
SE
2. Where can you use this procedure
in the draughting practice?
x 3. How did you use the equipment
U
45° given?
Third angle projection
When an object is placed in the third
E
(d) quadrant it is known as third angle

N
projection system. The projection plane

elevation and plan to construct the is placed between the observer and
LI
0.100
end elevation as seen in figure (e). the object. Therefore, in the projection
process, it is necessary to assume that
y
N
the plane of projection is transparent.

Here again, the projection lines are
O
perpendicular to the projection planes.

Figure 5.9 illustrates the method of
x getting the third angle projections of an
R
x
object. After developing different views
45° of the object in different projection
FO
planes, all the projection planes are

opened up to the frontal projection plane
as illustrated in Figure 5.10 (a) and (b).
(e)

ersion 0.50.100.100

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
TOP
Note that, in the third angle projection
DO NOT DUPLICATE
HT S
IDE system, the plan or top view is placed
RIG
directly above the front view and the
right-side view is placed directly to the
H
P
P
right of the front view. This relative

PP
P arrangement of the views is the one
that differentiates multi-view drawings
FP
P FR
ON
whether they are prepared by the third
angle projection system or the first angle
T
Figure 5.9 : Third angle projection projection system.
LY
The procedures for drawing third angle
projection are similar to that of first angle
projection except that the position of the
N
front elevation is changed thus, the front
O
elevation is placed in the third quadrant.
In third angle projection, the views are
arranged in such a way that the top view
TOP VIEW
FRONT VIEW RIGHT SIDE VIEW

SE
is always directly above the front view
and the left side view is direct to the right
(a) HP and PP are (b) true shapes
of the front view as shown in Table 5.2.
U
rotated to the of the object
vertical plane found
Figure 5.10 : Projection planes unfolded
E
Table 5.2: Position of quadrants in third angle projection

N
Quadrants Position of views in quadrants

LI
N
Second First Plan

Quadrant Quadrant view
O
Third Fourth Front Side

Quadrant Quadrant view view
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Procedures for drawingDO
third
NOTangle
DUPLICATE y
projection
Consider Figure below
45°
x
LY
(b)
3. Draw the front elevation in third
N
Activity 5.2: Constructing third angle quadrant as shown in Figure (c).
projection y
O

table, drawing paper set square,
ruler, and drawing instrument box
consisting of a compass, pencil,
SE 45°
x
rubber and protractor
U
Procedure
1. Draw construction lines to create

E
(c)
XY plane as shown in Figure (a)
N
y elevation to construct the plan as

LI
seen in Figure (d).
y
N
x
O
45°
x
R
(a)
FO
2. Draw a 45 line from the front

º
herVersion 0.50.100.100
elevation in the first quadrant as GSPublisherVersion 0.50.100.100
shown in Figure (b). (d)

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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elevation and plan to construct the y
end elevation as seen in Figure (d)
.
y
45°
Top view
x
45° Sideview Front view

x
LY
(f)
Questions:
N
1. With the aid of sketches differentiate
between first angle projection and
O
third angle projection.
(e) GSPublisherVersion 0.50.100.100
6. Darken the lines defining each

view as seen in Figure (f).
SE
Table 5.3: Differences between first and third angle projection
U
S/N First angle projection Third angle projection
E
The object is placed in the first The object is placed in the third
1
quadrant. quadrant.
N
The object is placed between the The plane of projection is placed

2
LI
plane of projection and observer. between the object and observer.

The plane of projection is
3 Projection is opaque.
N
transparent.
Front view is at the top of the Front view is at the bottom of the
O
4
horizontal axis. horizontal axis.
Top view at the bottom of the Top view at the top of the horizontal
R
5
horizontal axis. axis.
FO
Right view is at the left side of Right view is at the right side of
6
vertical axis. vertical axis.
Left view is at the right side of Left view is at the left side of
7
vertical axis. vertical axis.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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S/N First angle projection Third angle projection
It is widely used in United

It is widely used in United States,
8 Kingdom, also known as British
also known as the American system.
system.
Exercise 5.3 Conventional symbols of first and

third angle projections
1. Draw three views of the following
objects using both first angle and International Standard Organization ISO
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third angle projection systems. uses figures (a) and (b) as symbol for first
The arrows show the front view and third angle projection, respectively.
direction of objects. They should be shown on a drawing and
N
located preferably in the low right corner
O
of the drawing adjacent to the title block.
(a) (b)
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
(a) First angle projection (b) Third angle projection

Figure 5.11: Projection symbols
O
First angle projection is widely used in India, Canada and Europe while third angle
projection is widely used in United States and Australia.
R
The use of conventional symbol for first and third angle projection in architectural
FO
draughting is to present the methods of projections used in formulation of the

presented view as seen in Figure 5.12.

Form Two
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Front view Side view
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
Figure 5.12 : Application of symbols in architectural drawing

N
Importance of using conventional symbols in architectural drawing

LI
The main importance of convention symbol for both first and third angle projection
in Architectural draughting is to facilitate communication that will help the reader/
N
draughting person to interprete the view of the object or building without confusion
O
since the naming of the view related to position differs from first angle projection
and third angle projection.
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Chapter summary DO NOT DUPLICATE
1. Orthographic projection is a means of representing objects in two
dimensions.
2. There are three Principal planes which are horizontal projection plane,
Frontal/vertical projection plane and side/Profile projection plane.
3. There are two types of orthographic projection; these are first angle
projection and third angle projection.
4. When the object is placed in the first quadrant the projection is known as
LY
first angle projection system.
5. When the object is placed in the third quadrant the projection is known as
N
third angle projection system.
O
6. In first angle projection views are arranged in such a way that the top
view is always directed below the front view and the left side view is
directly to the right of the front view.
7.
SE
In third angle projection the views are arranged in such a way that the
top view is always directed above the front view and the left side view is
directly to the right of the front view.
U
Revision exercise 5
E
1. Define the following terms as applied in architectural drawing:

N
(a) Principal planes and Orthographic projection

LI
(b) First angle projection

(c) Third angle projection
N
2. Draw three views of the objects shown in the following figures using both
O
first angle and third angle projection systems.

R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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LY
F
N
(a) Solid block-1 (b) Solid block-2
O
3. The following figure shows a machine block drawn in isometric projection.
Using Third angle projection and full size scale draw the three views given
that the front elevation is oriented looking from arrow F.
SE 20
10
U
10
E
N
30
LI
40
20
N
O
30
30
20
R
4. The following figure shows three views of a component made in Mbeya

FO
Municipal in first angle projection. Use the views to draw a pictorial drawing
in isometric projection. Do not rub construction lines.

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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40
20
25 25
LY
N
O
40 20 40
5. Draw the three views of the object shown in the following figure using both
SE
first angle and third angle projection systems. Choose either side to be the front
elevation.
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT
6. By using freehand drawing, DUPLICATE
produce multiple views of the objects in figures
(a) and (b) given below using third angle projection techniques. Select either
side as front elevation.
40 40
40
LY
40
40
N
20
40 (a) (b)
O
20
7. By use of drawing tools, draw the three views (front view, top view, side
SE
view) of the given isometric view in first angle projection. Select one side as
front elevation.
U
E
N
LI
N
8. Stairs at the police station entrance has three steps having a riser 150 mm and
275 mm going. If the stair width is 1200 mm, draw the following:
O
(a) Isometric view of a stair.

(b) Three view using first angle projection.
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Chapter
Auxiliary views
Six
Introduction
For practical reasons, it is necessary to be aware with the

true size and shape description of the surfaces for accurate
LY
construction or manufacturing of objects. In this chapter, you
will learn about the concept of auxiliary views and types of
auxiliary views. The competencies developed will enable you
N
to read and draw auxiliary views of different irregular objects.
O
The concept of auxiliary views
An auxiliary view is an orthographic view taken in such a way that the lines of sight
SE
are not parallel to the principal projection planes (frontal, horizontal or profile).
There is infinite number of possible auxiliary views of any given object.
When an object has a slanted or inclined surface, it is usually not possible to show
the inclined surface in an orthographic drawing without distortion. To present a more
U
accurate description of any inclined surface, an extra view, known as an auxiliary
view, is normally required. An auxiliary view is a view that helps to show the slanted
part of the object in its reality. It projects the object so that the true size and shape of
E
the surface (or surfaces) can be seen. Figure 6.1 shows the auxiliary projection view.
N
LI
N
Auxiliary
O
Projection
R
FO
.
Figure 6.1: Auxiliary view

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Importance of auxiliary view
DOin NOT
architectural draughting
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Auxiliary views are used to describe the true geometric shape of an inclined surface.
Normally auxiliary views are projected from an existing principal view to determine
the true size of an inclined surface of an object.
Uses of auxiliary view
Auxiliary views are used to find true length of an inclined or oblique line, true size
and shape (TSS) of an inclined or oblique face, edge view of oblique face, point
view of inclined or oblique line and true size and shape of features on inclined or
oblique faces.
LY
Method for preparation of auxiliary view
In order to prepare the auxiliary view, one needs to first prepare the orthographic
projection. While drawing orthographic projection, lines of the object which are
N
parallel to principal or vertical plane are represented better. Those lines which are
O
inclined to the principal plane do not show the actual length. In this case, the drawing
is prepared by placing the plane parallel to the inclined surface. Such a plane is
called Auxiliary Plane. The drawing made on this plane is called Auxiliary View.
SE
U
E
N
Top view
LI
N
O
D,C
R
Front view Side view

Figure 6.1:Method of auxiliary views
FO
The view in inclined lines shows the actual length and perpendiculars are erected
with the inclined lines to obtain its actual length. The width and other details are
collected from the remaining views. The detail for the inclined surface is given
in the auxiliary view and the other parts in the principal plane are not considered.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Auxiliary views help make
DO certain
NOTdetails clearer or when showing the true shape
DUPLICATE
of surfaces that are not perpendicular or parallel to the major planes. However, it is
possible to add an auxiliary view to a drawing of even a simple object. The types of
auxiliary view are formed when drawing an auxiliary projection.
Types of auxiliary views

Normally an auxiliary plane will make angles with two principal planes which will
be different from 90° but it will still make 90°. The auxiliary view will be named
after the third plane view is made. In this chapter we will discuss on three types of
auxiliary views, namely front, top, and side auxiliary views.
LY
The front auxiliary view
In the front auxiliary view, the auxiliary view is projected from the front view of
a three views (orthographic drawing), while in the top and side types of auxiliary
N
drawings, the auxiliary views are projected from the top and side views. Figure 6.2
O
shows the front auxiliary view of a simple object with an inclined surface.
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
Figure 6.2: Inclined surface in front auxiliary view

O
Note that, the projection lines are perpendicular to the slanted surface of the front
view, and that only the slanted surface of the object is shown in the auxiliary view.
R
The rest of the object is ignored. However, for explanation portions of the adjacent
surfaces are sometimes shown. Note that the slanted surfaces of the top and side
FO
views are shortened because of distortion, whereas the surface of the auxiliary view
is actual size. To sketch an auxiliary view, you begin with orthographic views of the
object and add projection lines perpendicular to the slanted surface, then adding a

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
reference line AB at any suitable
DO distance from the view with the slanted surface as
NOT DUPLICATE
LY
N
O
SE
Figure 6.3: Reference line in the front auxiliary view
Next, the distance CB on the auxiliary view is made the same length as the related
distance in one of the orthographic views; in this example it’s the side view. This
U
completes the auxiliary view as seen in Figure 6.4.
A B
E
A
N
D
D C
LI
B
N
C
D,A D A
O
C,B C B
R
Figure 6.4: Formation of front auxiliary view

FO
The top auxiliary view

A top or plan auxiliary view is developed in the same way as an orthographic front
view, except that the top view is projected from the reference line. Whether the

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
auxiliary view is to be projected
DO NOT from DUPLICATE
the front, top, or side view the resulting view
will depend on the position of the object on which surface of the object is inclined.
In this example, the top view is inclined. Therefore, the auxiliary view must be
projected from the plan view as seen in Figure 6.5. Observe how the angled surfaces
shown in the front and side views are not shown in actual length.
C,B
Auxiliary view
C
D,A
LY
B
D
N
A
D C D C
O
A B SE A
Figure 6.5: Top auxiliary view
B
The side auxiliary view

U
Side view auxiliaries are drawn in the same way as orthographic front and top view.
Again, where the auxiliary view is to be projected depends upon the position of the
object on which surface of the object is inclined as shown in Figure 6.6. In this case,
E
the side view is inclined, therefore, the auxiliary view must be projected from the
side view.
N
LI
C B
C
N
D A D
O
B
R
C B B,C
A
FO
A,D
D A
Figure 6.6: Side auxiliary view

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Activity 6.1: Drawing an auxiliary 3. Draw projectors from the reference
projection of an isometric line AB perpendicular to the
object inclined surface. Make sure these
From the given views of the object projectors are perpendicular to the
in the following figures (top, front inclined edge and the reference
and side views) draw two adjacent line as shown in the following
figure.
principal views to show the inclined
surface as an edge.
LY
N
O
Projectors
Requirements: Drawing board/Table, 4. Using a compass or dividers,

SE
drawing paper, scale ruler/metric transfer distances from reference
ruler set square, and drawing line CD to the various points
instrument box which contains in the side view as shown in the
U
pencil, a divider, protractor following figure.
compass, and eraser
Procedures
E
1. Draw a reference line AB parallel A

N
B
Depth measurements
to the edge of an inclined plane C B
from reference line
2. Draw a vertical axis CD between
LI
the two principal plane views. Use

line AB and CD to locate points in
A
Depth measurements
N
transferred from
B
the auxiliary view. side view

C
O
5. Darken all objects outlines of

R
the primary view and erase all

projections and lines of reference.
FO
The complete primary view shows

the true shape of the inclined
surface as shown in the following
figure.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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auxiliary
LY
Figure 6.7: Irregular object
Exercise 6.1 Activity 6.2: Drawing an auxiliary
N
Take a building block, cut it as it is projection of irregular
O
shown in the figure below. Draw its object
three basic principal planes (top, front Requirements: Drawing board/
and side) and auxiliary view. SE
Table, drawing paper, scale
ruler/metric ruler set square,
and Drawing instrument box
which contains pencil, divider,
U
protractor compass and eraser.
Procedure
E
1. Draw two views of the object, one

showing the profile of auxiliary
N
surface and other showing the

top and depth characteristics as
LI
shown in the following figure.

Other features in Auxiliary view Indicate the direction from which
N
An object with inclined planes become the auxiliary is to be taken.

more complex. In this perception,
O
auxiliary views provide an alternative

way of presenting objects in their true
size and shape.
R
Auxiliary view of an irregular object

FO
The steps to follow when drawing an

auxiliary projection of an irregular object
can be illustrated from the irregular
shape as seen in Figure 6.7.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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RP
RP
LY
2. Establish a reference plane 4. Draw projection lines from the
N
(RP) in the back of the object in front view perpendicular to the
convenience to show a line on reference line, as shown in the
O
both top and auxiliary view as figure that follows. Transfer the
seen in the figure that follows. measurements of the various
SE
necessary points of the top view to
the corresponding features of the
auxiliary view with the dividers or
by measurement.
U
E
N
LI
N
3. Draw the auxiliary reference line

parallel to the inclined surface of
O
the front view. Make sure it is

located far enough from the front
view to allow enough space for
R
the auxiliary view as seen in the

FO
following figure.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Circular Features in Auxiliary
DO NOT ViewDUPLICATE
Circular features in auxiliary view or
projection appear elliptical and not circular
RF
F
R Major axis
3. By using compass, draw the
LY
perimeter of the circle in the side
(a) Front view (b) Side view view to be divided into equal
Figure 6.8: Circular view slices or equally spacing points.
N
The most common method used to draw Truncate is divided in 12 equally
the true shape of the curved surfaces is spaced points and 30° apart.
O
the plotting series of points on the line. Divide the circumference of the
circle (360°) in 12 equal spaces
More points are plotted on the line and
(360°/12 = 30°) as seen in the
the accuracy of the curve or circular
feature will be to make the easiest
SE
figure that follows. Project the
points to the edge line on the front
way to explain the method of auxiliary
view.
U
projection of a truncated cylinder. 11 11
1 2
1,2
3 4 1,4
Activity 6.3: Illustrating the projection 5 6 5,6
E
of an ellipse 7 8
7,8
9,10
9
Requirements: Drawing board, 12 10
N
12
compass, A4 drawing paper, F

1
LI
pencil, divider, protractor and

scale ruler/metric ruler
N
Procedure
4. Project the points at right angles
O
1. Draw the front and side view of

the truncated cylinder. toward the center and pass the
center line of the auxiliary view
2. Draw Center line (F/1) of auxiliary
R
as seen in the following figure.

view in parallel to the edge line as
Transfer the widths at the center
FO
shown in the following figure.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
line and individual pointsDO NOT DUPLICATE
are taken Chapter summary
from the side view to auxiliary
1. An auxiliary view is a type of
view.
projection used to determine
11
1 2
11
the drawing in its true size
1,2
3 4 1,4 and shape of inclined and
5 6
oblique surfaces of objects.
5,6
7,8
7 8 9,10
9
12 10 12
2. Prior to preparation of
2
F 11 4
1
6 auxiliary view, orthographic
projections are prepared which
LY
1 8
3
represent three dimensional
10
5
R AXIS
12
objects in two dimensions.
Minor axis
7
9
N
STEP 4
3. Normally only the stated view
O
is shown in auxiliary view
5. After all the widths are transferred
while the rest are ignored.
from the front view to the
auxiliary view; connect the points
of intersection obtained as seen
SE
4. There are three types of
auxiliary views which are:
in the following figure to give the top, front and side auxiliary
preferred elliptical shape.
U
view.
11 11
1 2
3 4 1,2 5. Auxiliary view is projected
1,4
from existing principal view.
E
5 6 5,6
7,8
7 8
N
9,10
9
12 10 12
1 F11
2
4 Revision exercise 6
LI
1 8 1. Choose the correct answer for

question 1, items i-iv.
3 10
N
5
12
7
9
i. The lines used when creating
O
STEP 5 the auxiliary view of an object

should appear as ………….
in the finished view.
R
a. construction line
FO
()
b. reference line
c. object lines

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
d. reference axis d. none of the above
ii. When adding dimension to 2. Draw an auxiliary view for the

the auxiliary view it will be given figure from the direction
necessary to use ……………. of arrow A.
tool.
a. the aligned dimension
b. the unaligned ()
dimension
LY
c. the linear dimension
N
d. the angle dimensions
O
iii. For the _____________
type of auxiliary views, the
projection into a plane must
be perpendicular to one of the
principal planes of projection
SE
3. Draw an auxiliary view for
the given figure from the
view. direction of arrow P.
U
a. secondary
b. revolved
E
()
c. primary
N
d. successive
LI
iv. A partial auxiliary view

N
usually shows features on the

…………. for inclined line
O
and except any projection of

the other planes.
R
a. center lines 4. With acquired knowledge of

() projections in architectural
FO
b. hidden lines draughting, why is it so

important to construct auxiliary
c. plane view projections?

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
5. Differentiate between 8. Describe the methods of
orthographic view projection preparing auxiliary views.
and auxiliary view projection
and show how they are related. 9. What is reverse construction as
applied in auxiliary views?
6. Mention types of auxiliary
views and their purposes.
7. Why auxiliary view is projected

from existing principal view?
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Chapter
Points, lines and planes in space
Seven
Introduction
Points, lines and planes are prime generators of form or shape
Y
and civil works. In this chapter, you will learn about the concepts
A
A'
of points, lines and planes in space, the determination of true
LY
angle and intersection of lines in space. The competencies
developed will enable you to construct a basic primary element
of geometry through points, lines planes and volume. Without
N
B'
points, lines and planes no object can be drawn.

B
O
X
The concepts of points, lines and B

planes
Point, lines and planes are important
SE
elements for generating a solid
foundation for understanding geometry. A
U
It is the basic principle of architectural C
draughting that is concerned with the
individual shape of the objects, spatial Figure 7. 1: Points in a space
E
relationships among various objects Line

N
and properties of surrounding space.

They are the elements of the design that A line is a mark of a pen or pencil leaves
LI
can be used in geometry and graphic as it moves across a receptive surface.

communication. Also, they can be used It can be straight or curved, without
N
to determine a true dimension of an breadth or thickness. A line (straight line)

object in space and its materials. can be thought of as a connected set of
O
infinite points. It extends infinitely far in

Point two opposite directions as seen in Figure
R
A point is the most fundamental element 7.2. A line has length, zero width, and
in geometry. It is represented by a dot zero height with direction and position
FO
and named by a capital letter. A point properties. A line may also be named by
represents position of an object in space one small letter. The uses of lines have
as seen in figure 7.1. been discussed in Chapter One.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
represented by a parallelogram that is
DO NOT DUPLICATE
shaded as seen in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7. 2: Lines in a space

Figure 7.3: Plane in space
Plane
A plane is named by using three or four
LY
A plane can be considered as an endless
points that are in the plane as shown in
set of points connected together to
Figure 7.4 (a) or single capital letter at a
form a flat infinite surface. A plane has
corner of the plane as shown in Figure
N
endless length, width, and zero height. A
7.4 (b). The word plane is written with
coordinate plane where we graph points
O
the letter not to confuse with a point.
in algebra is an example of a geometric
plane. Even though geometric planes
do not have edges to them, when they
are drawn, they have an outline so that
SE
we can see them. Usually, they are
U
E
Lº
E
N
ºA
N
LI
(a) Naming using points (b) Naming using letter

Figure 7.4: Ways of naming planes
N
The primary planes include circle, square and triangle. Figure 7.5 shows primary
planes.
O
R
FO
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.5: Primary planes in a space

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO and
Determination of true angle NOT DUPLICATE
intersection of lines in space
There are two methods used for finding the true line and angle of a line namely; the
auxiliary method and the rotation method.
Auxiliary method
The true length (TL) of a segment is the distance between its end-points. Finding the
true length of a segment is a basic problem in descriptive geometry.
A line segment in an orthographic projection can be simply projected at its end
points in the view to join the projected end points to form a segment. In two adjacent
LY
views, the end points of the segment lie on projection lines.
Activity 7.1: Finding the true length of a line AB and its true angle to the
horizontal plane XY, given the elevation and plan
N
Requirements: Drawing board/table, drawing paper, scale ruler/metric ruler
O
set square and drawing instrument box which contains a
pencil, divider, protractor, compass and eraser
Procedure
1. Draw the given elevation AB and XY plane.
SE
2. Draw the perpendiculars to XY connecting A to A' and B to B'.
U
3. Mark A'C equal to the distance from the XY line to A.
4. Mark B'D equal to the distance from the XY line to B.
5. CD is the true length of the line. The angle between A'B' and CD
E
produced is the true angle.

N
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X
N
B
A
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R
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Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Activity 7.2: Finding the true
DOlength
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a line and its true angle to the vertical
plane given the elevation and the plan
Procedure
1. Draw the given line AB and XY plane.
2. Draw perpendiculars to XY to A' and B'.
3. Mark AC equal to the distance from XY line to A.
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4. Mark BD equal to the distance from XY line to B'.
5. CD is the true length of the line. The angle between AB and CD
extended is the true angle.
N
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E
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A'
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B'
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Activity 7.3: Drawing the elevation of the line, given the plan and the true
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inclination to the HP.

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1. Draw the given plan AB.
2. Erect a perpendicular to AB at A and B respectively.
3. Draw the angle ABC equal to the given angle to the H.P.
4. Draw perpendicular projectors to XY from A and B.
5. Mark XY to A' equal to AC. A'B', is the required elevation.
A'
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X B' Y
B
N
A
O
C
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Activity 7.4: Drawing the plan of a line, given the elevation and true length
U
E
Procedure
1. Draw the given line elevation AB.
N
2. Construct a perpendicular to AB at B.
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3. With center A and radius equal to the given length of the line draw an arc
to cut perpendicular at C.
N
4. Mark XY to B' equal to BC and A'B' is the required plan.

O
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Form Two
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Determination of true angle
DO of lines
NOTinDUPLICATE
space, intersection of lines in space by
the rotation method
Activity 7.5: Drawing the elevation and plan of a line, given its true length and
distance of its ends from the plane
Procedure
1. Let the true length of the line be 75 mm. One end of the line is 6 mm in
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front of VP. and 40 mm above HP., the other end of line 35 mm from the
V.P and 15 mm above the HP.
2. Draw a perpendicular projection line to XY and mark A 25 mm below the
N
XY and A' 10 mm above it.
O
3. Draw a line parallel to XY, 6 mm below it. With center A and a radius of
75 mm draw an arc to cut the parallel line at C
4. Draw a line parallel to XY from A'.
5. Draw a line 40 mm above XY and parallel to it.
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6. Draw a vertical projector from C to touch the parallel from A' and D
7. With center A' and radius A'D draw an arc to cut the parallel line at B'.
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A'B' is the elevation of the line.
8. Drop a vertical projector from B', to cut the parallel at B. AB is the plan
of the line.
E
N
B'
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m
75m
N
A' D
X Y
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C
B
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A
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Form Two
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Activity 7.6: DrawingDO
the elevation and plan of a line, given its true length and
NOT DUPLICATE
distance of its ends from the plane
set square, and drawing instrument box which contains a
Procedure
To construct the plan of the line AB given the distance of one end of the line
from the XY line in the plan given the true length of the line and the elevation.
See the following figure.
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1. Draw XY line.
2. Draw the true length of the line AB.
3. At any convinient angle to the true length, draw a line “a b” of a given
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distance from its ends and the plane.
4. From b draw a line parallel to the XY line.
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5. With center radius equal to the true length of the line AB, draw an arc to
cut the parallel line at C.
SE
6. From a1 (given), draw a line parallel to XY to meet a line drawn from C
perpendicular to XY at D.
7. With center a, radius equal to “a” D draw an arc to meet a line drawn
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from b perpendicular to XY in b.
“a b” is the plan of the line.
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N
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N
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Form Two
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1. A line AB 45 mm long is parallel to a vertical plane and inclined at 300 to a
horizontal plane. The end of A is 20 mm above the horizontal plane (H.P.)
and 15 mm in front of Vertical plane. Draw the projections of the line and
find its traces.
2. Draw the projections of a straight-line CD 55 mm long, parallel to
horizontal plane and inclined at 35° to Vertical plane. The end C is 15 mm
above horizontal plane and 20° mm in front of V.P. Find its traces.
True shape of a section
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Section planes are generally perpendicular planes. They may be perpendicular to
one of the reference planes either perpendicular, parallel or inclined to the other
plane. They are usually described by their traces. The projection of a section on
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a plane parallel to the section plane will show the true shape of the section. The
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following are conditions to observe before starting drawing.
1. When the section plane is parallel the horizontal plane (HP) or the ground, the
true shape of the section will be seen in the sectional top view.
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2. When the section plane is perpendicular to both the reference planes, the
sectional side view will show the true shape of the section.
U
3. When the section plane is parallel to the Vertical Plane (VP), the true shape
will be visible in the sectional front view.
4. When the section plane is inclined, the section has to be projected on an
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auxiliary plane parallel to the section plane to obtain its true shape.
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General procedures of finding true sections, cones and pyramids

It is generally required to show the true shape of adjacent cutting plane as in the
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following figure below. The following are the procedures for finding true sections,
cones and pyramids.
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(a) Draw the projectors at right angles to the cutting plane from the edges of
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the cut surface, or suitable points on it.
(b) Draw the center line parallel to the cutting plane at right angles to the
R
projectors.
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(c) To transfer the true width of the surface from the center line on the plan
or end elevation to appropriate projectors, working from the center line
on the true shape.

Form Two
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Activity 7.7: DrawingDO
the true
NOT shape of cone cut by plane XX parallel to its
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axis from the plane
Requirements: Drawing board/Table, drawing paper, scale ruler/metric ruler
set square, and Drawing instrument box which contains a
pencil, divider, protractor, compass, and eraser
Procedure
1. Draw the three views lightly in full and cutting plane in elevation and plan
2. Introduce traces on the plan and mark the position of these traces on the
base of other views.
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3. Join them to the apex in each case.
4. The intersection of XX with these traces will give the points 1, 2, 3 on the
elevation.
N
5. Draw the horizontal projectors from these points to the end elevation and
O
where projector 1 intersect OO, projector 2 intersect trace 2, and projector
3 trace will give the points on the required shape.
6. SE
Point 4 is marked direct from OO in the end elevation, using the
perpendicular distance of 4 from OO in the plan.
7. If the points in the end elevation are too widely spaced, further traces can
U
be introduced as 2a in the plan, providing such traces are accurately marked
in other views. Horizontal projectors will then give the correct position of
these point on true shape. See the following figure.
E
O
N
x 1
1
2 2
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2
2’ 2’ 2’
3 63
3 3
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13 mm
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4
x
4
63
3
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2’
2
1
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2
2’
3

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Example 1 Step 4: Darken the lower portion of the
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A cone with: base a 80 mm diameter cone in the front view as is left out after
and axis 85 mm long is resting on its removing the top portion.
base on HP. It is cut by a section plane Step 5: Draw projectors from cutting
perpendicular to the VP., inclined at 45º plane towards top view.
to the HP and cutting the axis at a point Draw projections from a', b', c', d', e' on
42 mm from the apex. Draw the front line o1 and h', i, j', k' l' on line o7 to
view, sectional top view, sectional side intersect at points a, b, c, d, e and h, i,
view and true shape of the section. j, k, l, respectively. Since there is no
Data given: possibility of intersection of f' and g'
Object: cone with lines o4 and o10; therefore, point f'
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Object positioning: its base resting on is projected on o'1' and in turn on line o1.
the HP This point is then shifted with centre o as
Base dimensions: 80 mm diameter shown in the following figure.
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Height: 85 mm Step 6: Draw sectional top view.
Angle cutting plane: 45° All left the projection point from the
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Step 1: Draw top view. cutting plane are joined with smooth curve.
Since the cone is resting on HP with base This section is hatched using 2H pencil.
equally inclined, the top view will be
a circle equally inclined with XY line.
SE
The remaining portion of the solid, i.e,
1,2,3,…,.12 is then darkened using
Draw the top view below the horizontal smooth curve. Now the view a-b-c-……
...l is known as sectional top view. The
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XY line. Divide it into 12 equal parts
(you can divide it into 8 equal parts). hatch lines should make 45o or 135o with
Label them as 1, 2,……….12. Introduce XY line.
projectors on the plan (top view) and Step 7: Draw the side view.
E
mark the position of these projectors on To draw side view, X1Y1 is drawn
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the XY line as a base points. Name the perpendicular to XY line at a suitable

positions as 1',2'………12'. distance. Projectors from the front view
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Step 2: Draw the front view. and top view of the cone is drawn. The
Locate the apex o' which is at a distance projectors from the top view are drawn
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of 85 mm from XY line along the horizontally towards the line X1Y1 and
projector from o. Now, join the extreme then rotated as shown.
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base points 1', 2'……..12' with o'. Step 8: Draw sectional side view.
Step 3: Draw a section plane 40 mm Join a''-b''-c''-d''……….l'' with smooth
below the apex at 450. curve and hatch it using parallel lines
R
Since the cutting plane is perpendicular with uniform gap of 3-5 mm at an angle
to VP; it will look like a line in the front of 45° or 135° with XY line. Darken the
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view. Note that the cutting plane line lower portion of the cone using smooth
is thick at the end and thin in between. curve as shown. This figure is known as
Name the intersection points as sectional side view.
a', b',c' …….l'. Step 9: Draw projectors perpendicular

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
to the cutting plane line inDO
the front
NOT view as shown. Mark point a1 on projector from
DUPLICATE
a’ in taking distance of point a from XY line. Similarly, mark points b1, 31, 41 ……..
and l1. You can also use a pair of compasses to transfer the dimensions.
Step 10: Draw true shape of the section.
Join a1 -b1 -c1 -d1………l1 with smooth and hatch it using thin lines. This section is
known as true shape. Finally, dimension the figure and name it.
LY
N
O
SE
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Example 2: 3. Project points where generators
A cone of a diameter of 50 mm and are getting cut on top view and
axis 70 mm long is standing on its base side view as shown.
E
on the HP (Horizontal Plane). It is cut 4. Join those points in sequence and

by a section plane 450 inclined to HP
N
show section lines in it.

through base end of end generator. Draw 5. Make the remaining part of the
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projections, sectional views and true solid dark.

shape of the section. 6. Draw X1Y1 parallel to section
N
Data given: plane.

Object: cone 7. Draw projectors on it from cut
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Object positioning: resting on its base points.

on the HP 8. Mark distances of points of
Base dimension: 50 mm diameter sectioned part on the top view, on
R
Height: 70 mm above generators from X1Y1 and

Angle of cutting plane: 45° join in sequence.
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Steps: 9. Draw section lines in it. The

1. Draw the views of standing cone. shape formed is the true shape of
2. Locate section plane in front view the section.
as described. 10. Finally name the sections.

Form Two
C TI
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SE
PE
O
F
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A Y1 o' SECTIONAL S.V o"
SH
E N
AN IO
E
RU
PL CT
T
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X1
X Y
a’ h’ b’ e’ g’ f’ d’ e’ g" h" f" a" e" b" d" c"
g
h f
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a e
b d
N
c
SECTIONAL T.V
Example 3: A square pyramid, base Height: 65 mm
O
40 mm side and axis 65 mm long, has ӨCP (angle of cutting plane): 45°
its base on the HP and all the edges of Position of CP: Bisect the axis (32.5 mm
the base equally inclined to the VP. It above the XY line)
is cut by a section plane, perpendicular
to the VP, inclined at 45º to the HP and
SE
Step 1: Draw top view.
bisecting the axis. Draw its sectional topSince the pyramid is resting on HP with
U
view, sectional side view and true shape base equally inclined, the top view will
of the section. be a square equally inclined with XY line.
Draw the top view below the horizontal
Data given
E
XY line with 2H pencil. Label it as a, b,

Object: square pyramid c and d. Introduce projectors on the plan
N
Object positioning: All the edges of the (top view) and mark the position of these
base equally inclined to the V.P. Resting projectors on the XY line as a base points.
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on its base on the H.P Name the positions as a’, b’, c’ and d’.
Base: 40 mm
N
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Form Two
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Step 2: Draw the front view.
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Locate the apex o' which is at a distance of 65 mm from XY line along the projector from O.
Now, join the extreme base points a' and c' with o'. Since when viewed from bottom,
b is clearly visible; therefore o'-b' will be a thick line.
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N
O
Step 3: Draw a section plane.
SE
Since the cutting plane is perpendicular to VP; it will look like a line in the front
U
view. The section plane passes through mid-point of the axis. So, locate the mid-
point of line o'-b'. Now draw a chain line at 45o passing through mid-point of axis.
Name the intersection points as 1', 2', 3' and 4'.
E
N
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N
O
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Form Two
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Step 4: Darken the lower portion
DO of the pyramid
NOT in the front view as is left out
DUPLICATE
after removing the top portion.
LY
N
O
Step 5: Draw projectors from cutting plane towards top view.
SE
Draw projections from 1' and 3' on lines oa and oc to intersect at point 1 & 3.
Since there is no possibility of intersection of 2' and 4' with lines ob and od; therefore,
point 2' is projected on o'1' and in turn on line oa. This point is then shifted with
U
centre o as shown.
o’
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3’
N
2’ 4’
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1’
b’ d’
N
X Y
a’ 45º c’
O
a o c
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Step 6: Draw sectional top view.

All of the projections points obtained from the cutting plane are joined with straight

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
lines (1-2-3-4). This section
DOisNOT
hatched i.e., thin equidistant lines are drawn. The
DUPLICATE
remaining portion of the solid is then darkened using thick lines (a-1,2-b, 3-c & 4-d).
Now the view 1-2-3-4 is known sectional top view. The hatch lines should make 45o
or 135o with XY line.
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N
O
Step 7: Draw the side view.
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To draw side view, X1Y1 is drawn perpendicular to XY line at a suitable distance.
U
Projectors from the front view and top view of the pyramid is drawn. The projectors
from the top view are drawn horizontally towards the line X1Y1 and then rotated
about point P as shown below.
E
N
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N
O
R
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Step 8: Draw sectional side view.

Join 1"-2"-3"- 4" with thick lines and hatch it using parallel lines with uniform gap of 3-5

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
mm at an angle of 45o or 1350DO
withNOT
XY line. Darken the lower portion of the pyramid
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using thick lines as shown. This figure is known as sectional side view.
LY
N
O
Step 9: Draw projectors perpendicular to the cutting plane line in the front view as shown.
SE
Mark point 11 on projector from 1’ in taking distance of point 1 from XY line. Similarly, mark
points 21 , 31 and 41. You can also use a pair of compasses to transfer the dimensions.
U
E
N
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N
O
R
Step 10: Draw true shape of the section

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1. Join 11 -21 -31 -41 with thick lines and hatch it using thin lines. This section is
known as true shape. Finally, dimension the figure and name it.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
LY
N
O
Example 4: The following figure shows a hexagonal pyramid, base 40 mm side and
axis 75 mm long is resting on its base on the HP, with two edges of the base parallel
to the VP. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at 45 degrees
SE
to the HP, intersecting the axis at a point 30 mm above the base. Draw the front view,
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sectional top view, sectional side view and true shape of the section.
51
Solution
41
61
E
X1
Y1
3
1
71 o’ o"
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4
2
1
75 4"
3’5
1
1
e 3" 5"
N
2’6 2" 6"

X1 30
O
1’7 10"
X a Y
b f d e’ d’ b" 1" a" 7" f"
c" d" e"
c
R
b
2
3
FO
1
a 4 d
7
5
6
f e
Y1

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Example 5: A cylinder of DO
40 mm diameter,
NOT 60 mm height and having its axis
DUPLICATE
vertical, is cut by a section plane perpendicular to the V.P., inclined at 45º to the H.P
and intersecting the axis 30 mm above the base as seen in following figure. Draw
its front view, sectional top view, sectional side view and true shape of the section.
Solution
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N
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E
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Chapter summary
1. Points, lines and planes are primary generators of geometry. They are the
LI
elements of the design which can be used in geometry and construction.

2. A point represents a position of an object in space.
N
3. A line is a continuous extent of a point which can be straight or curved.

Lines have no width and no height.
O
4. A plane is an extension of lines. The primary planes are circle, square and
triangle. Planes have length, width and no height.
R
5. There are two methods used for finding the true line and angle of a line
namely; auxiliary method and rotation method.
FO
6. Section planes are generally perpendicular planes. They may be

perpendicular to one of the reference planes and either perpendicular,
parallel or inclined to the other planes.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Revision exercise 7
1. A line AB, 70 mm long, is inclined at 45° to the HP. and its top view
makes 60° with the VP. The end A is in the HP. and 12 mm in front of the
Vertical Plane (VP). Construct its front view and find its real inclination
with the V.P.
2. The top view of a 75 mm long line CD measures 50 mm. C is 50 mm in
front of the VP and 15 mm below the HP. D is 15 mm in front of the VP
and is above the HP. Draw the FV of CD and find its inclinations with the
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VP and HP. Show also its traces.
3. A cylinder of 55 mm in diameter and 65 mm long, has its axis parallel to
both the HP and the VP. It is cut by a vertical section plane inclined at 30º
N
to the VP so that axis is cut at a point 25 mm from one of its ends and both
the bases of the cylinder are partly cut. Draw its sectional front view and
O
the true shape of the section.
4. A cone of base diameter of 60 mm and axis of 70 mm long is resting on
SE
its base on horizontal plane (HP). It is cut by an Auxiliary Inclined Plane
(AIP) so that the true shape of the section is an isosceles triangle having
a 50 mm base. Draw the plan, the elevation and the true shape of the
U
section.
5. A hexagonal pyramid, base 30 mm side and axis 65 mm long is resting
on its base on the HP, with two edges of the base parallel to the VP. It is
E
cut by a section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at 45º to the HP,

N
intersecting the axis at a point 25 mm above the base. Draw the front view,
sectional top view, sectional side view and true shape of the section.
LI
6. A cone with the base of 45 mm diameter and axis of 55 mm long is resting

N
on the HP on its base. It is cut by a section plane, perpendicular to both

the HP and the VP. and 6 mm away from the axis. Draw its front view, top
O
view and sectional side view.

7. A line with 7 cm long, is inclined at 45° to the HP and its view makes 60°
R
with the VP. End A is in the HP and 12 cm in front of the vertical plane
(VP). Construct its front view and find its real inclination with the VP.
FO
8. A heptagonal pyramid, base 80 mm wide and axis 65 mm long is resting

on its base on the HP with two edges of the base parallel to the V.P. It is
cut by a section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at 45° to the HP

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
intersecting the axis at a point 30 mm above the base. Draw the front
view, sectional top view, sectional side view and true shape of the section.
9. The top view of an 80 mm long line WX measures 60 mm Y is 60 mm in
front of the VP and 20 mm below the HP. Z is 20 mm in front of the VP
and is above the HP. Draw the front view of WX and find its inclination
with V.P and HP. Show its traces as well.
10. A cone of with base 50 mm diameter and axis of 55 mm long is resting on
the HP on its base. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to both the HP
and the VP and 8 mm away from the axis. Draw its front view, top view
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and sectional side view.
11. A cone with base diameter of 45 mm and axis height of 65 mm rests on
N
the ground at a point of its base circle such that the axis of the cone is
inclined at 35° to the HP and 25° to the VP. Draw its front view, top view
O
and sectional side view.
SE
U
E
N
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N
O
R
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Form Two
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Chapter
Perspective drawing
Eight
Introduction
In architectural and engineering practice, one has to build

or construct various objects such as buildings and associated
components. It is often desired to show how the objects would
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appear when constructed. In this chapter, you will learn about
the concept of photo taking and photography, perspective
variables and types of perspectives. The competencies
N
developed will enable you to prepare perspective drawings for
presentations of design ideas.
O
The concept of photo taking and photography
SE
Photography is the art of creating images by action of light with a camera, via
a digital sensor of film. A camera is an electronic device that can be self, built-in
smartphone or computer. It can take pictures, audio and video. Sometimes a camera
has an external lens to improve the quality of the image. A lens is used to focus the
U
light reflected or emitted from the objects into a real image on the light-sensitive
surface inside a camera during a timed exposure as seen in Figure 8.1.
E
Flash
Mode Dial
N
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Main Dial
N
Shutter
Button
O
R
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Lens
Figure 8.1: The camera with its parts

Form Two
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Photo taking is the processDO
of taking pictures by using a camera. Nowadays,
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photographs can be taken by using smart phones depending on the purpose of
photographs. Some of the smartphones with digital cameras have front camera
and back camera used for taking self-portrait photo (selfie) as shown in Figure 8.2.
Cameras take all details and can be black and white, grayscale or colored.
LY
N
Figure 8.2: Photo taking using smartphones
O
Perspective projection concept
Perspective drawings are generally produced by architects and have attained great
SE
importance in the construction industry. Architects use the perspective technique to
create the linear illusion of depth, that results to a perspective drawing.
U
E
N
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N
O
R
Figure 8.3: Street perspective view
Perspective is a technique for depicting three-dimensional volumes and spatial

FO
relationships in two dimensions, as if from the view-point of an observer. Perspective

is also a view of an object that is most equivalent to the pictures as seen by the eye.
Perspective views can be created by using camera, computer programs, drawing
instrument

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or freehand sketching. ItDO
is often
NOT used to generate realistic images of buildings
DUPLICATE
that can be interior or exterior with their context. The basic information needed to
construct a perspective image is the eye level and the vanishing points as shown in
Figure 8.3. The eye level is an imaginary line drawn horizontally at the height of a
viewer’s eye that establishes the position of the horizon. Vanishing points locate the
convergence points of lines moving away from the observer.
Perspective projection is the view of an object as it is seen by the observer when
viewed from a fixed position relative to the object. In perspective projection, the
eye is assumed to be situated at a definite position relative to the object, and the
projectors or sightlines radiate from a central point that represents a single eye of the
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observer. The picture plane is placed in between the object and the eye. Visual rays
from the eye to the object pierce the picture plane and form an image on it, known as
N
the perspective view. The perspective view formed depends on the relative position
of the object, picture plane and point of sight. See Figure 8.4.
O
SE
VP 1 VP 2
U
Figure 8.4: Building in perspective projection

E
Perspective projection portrays a three-dimensional form or construction by

projecting all of its points to a picture plane (PP) by straight lines that converge
N
at a fixed point representing a single eye of the observer. While we normally see
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through both eyes (binocular vision), perspective projection assumes the view of a
three-dimensional subject or scene through a single eye, which we call the station
N
point (SP). Unlike the parallel projectors in orthographic and oblique projections,
the projectors or sightlines in perspective projection emanate from this station point.
O
There are two principal pictorial characteristics of perspective drawings: convergence

of parallel lines and reduced object size with distance, i.e., objects appear smaller
R
the further they are from the observer. See Figure 8.5.
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A
A A
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N
Figure 8.5: Pictorial characteristics of perspective drawings
The image or perspective obtained will depend on the relative position of the object,
O
picture plane and point of sight.
A perspective involves four main elements that are:
1. The observer’s eye/station point
2. The object being viewed
SE
3. The plane of projection (picture plane)
U
4. The projection lines
General terms used in perspective
E
There are various terms that are used in perspective. The following are various terms
used in obtaining the perspective view.
N
A Ground Plane (GP) Is a horizontal plane on which the object is assumed to be

LI
situated.
N
Station Point (SP) - Is a point where the eye of the observer is located while viewing
the object.
O
Picture Plane (PP) - Is a vertical transparent plane located between the station point
and perspective of an object. It is a plane on which the perspective of an object is
R
formed.
Horizontal Plane (HP) - It is an imaginary horizontal plane at the level of station
FO
point that is observer’s eye . This plane is above the ground plane and perpendicular
to the picture plane.
Auxiliary Ground Plane (AGP) - Is the horizontal plane which is placed parallel

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
and above the horizon plane.
DOThe top view
NOT of the object is projected on this plane.
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Ground Line (GL) - Is a line of intersection of the picture plane with the ground
plane.
Horizon Line (HL) - Is a line of intersection of the horizon plane with the picture
plane. It is parallel to the ground line.
Central Plane (CP) - Is an imaginary vertical plane which passes through the station
point and Centre of vision.
Perpendicular Axis (PA) - Is a line which is drawn through the station point and
perpendicular to the picture plane. It is also called line of vision or line of sight.
LY
Centre of Vision (CV) - Is a point in which the perpendicular axis pierces the picture
plane and is on the horizon line.
Vanishing Point (VP) - It is a point whereby mutually parallel lines of the two
N
dimensional perspective projection appear to converge when viewed in three
O
dimension space. The vanishing point is a key element of art works. It helps
architects, engineers and artists to create drawings, paints and photographs that have
a three dimensioned illusion. SE
Figure 8.4 shows the terms used in perspective projection.
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 8.4: Terms used in perspective elevation

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LY
N
O
Figure 8.5: Terms used in perspective (section)
SE
Perspective variables
The observer’s point of view determines the pictorial effect of a perspective drawing.
U
As this viewpoint changes as the observer moves up or down, to the left or right,
forward or back the extent and emphasis of what the observer sees also change. In
E
order to achieve the desired view in perspective, we should understand how to adjust
the following variables that will affect the final image. These variables are height of
N
the station point (eye level), distance from the picture plane to the object, distance
LI
from station point to the object and angle of view/object to the picture plane.
Angle of view
N
The orientation of the central axis of vision (CAV) and the picture plane (PP) relative
to an object determines which faces of the object are visible and the degree to which
O
they are foreshortened in perspective. Figure 8.6 shows angle of view.

R
FO

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N
O
SE
Figure 8.6: Angle of view in relation to the visible face of object
U
• The more a plane is rotated away from PP, the more it is foreshortened in
perspective.
• The more frontal the plane is, the less it is foreshortened.
E
• When a plane becomes parallel to PP, its true shape is revealed.

N
Location of the picture plane

The location of the picture plane (PP) relative to an object affects only the final
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size of the perspective image. The closer the PP is to the station point (SP), the
smaller the perspective image. The farther away the PP is, the larger the image.
N
Assuming all other variables remain constant, the perspective images are identical
O
in all respects except size. Figure 8.7 shows the location of the picture plane.
R
FO

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N
O
SE
U
Figure 8.7: Location of picture plane
E
Note: When the picture plane coincides with the object, perspective of the object
N
will be of its same size.

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Height of the station point (eye level)

On the picture plane, eye level and the horizon are the same.
N
Thus, if an object is below the horizon line, the top side of the object will be visible.
O
Figure 8.8 shows the height of the station point with respect to the horizon.
The height of the station point (SP) relative to an object determines whether it is
seen from above, below, or within its own height.
R
For a normal eye-level perspective, SP is at the standing height of a person.

FO
As SP moves up or down, the horizon line (HL) moves up or down with it.

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LY
N
O
SE
U
Figure 8.8: Height of the station point
A horizontal plane at the level of SP appears as a horizontal line.

E
We see the tops of horizontal surfaces that are below the level of SP and the undersides
of horizontal planes that are above.
N
Even if not actually visible in a perspective view, the horizon line should always
LI
be drawn lightly across the drawing surface to serve as a level line of reference for
the entire composition. Figure 8.9 shows the view of the object with respect to the
N
horizon line.
O
R
FO

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N
O
SE
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Figure 8.9: View of the object with respect to the horizon line
Distance from the station point to the object

E
As the observer’s SP moves farther away from the object, the vanishing points for
the object move farther apart, horizontal lines flatten out, and perspective depth is
N
compressed.
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As the observer’s SP moves forward, the vanishing points for the object move closer
together, horizontal angles become more acute, and perspective depth is exaggerated.
N
Figure 8.10 shows the variation of the distance from the station point to the object.
In theory, a perspective drawing presents a true picture of an object only when the
O
eye of the viewer is located at the assumed station point (SP) of the perspective.
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FO

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N
O
Figure 8.10: Distance from the station point to the object
How to obtain a perspective view SE

Perspective projection can be obtained by using two methods namely; the visual ray
method and the vanishing point method.
U
Visual ray method
The visual ray method or projection method is based on the definition of a perspective.
It involves in finding the piercing point of the visual ray with the picture plane. This
E
method is very simple to understand and particularly useful for simple objects. On
N
this method, the perspective of an object is obtained by using the top and side views
or top and front views.
LI
Visual ray method is normally used when visual rays from the object to the station
point have been drawn at the top and front views. The vertical projectors of the
N
points where this line pierces the vertical plane are the perspective of the object. The
remaining visible corners of the object have been found in the same manner and then
O
connected in the proper sequence to make the perspective.

Top and side views: In this method as in the preceding one, it is necessary to draw
R
the top and side views of the object and of the point of sight all in proper relationship
to the reference planes.
FO
Vanishing point method

This method consists of finding the perspective of an object. In practice, the point at
which the visual ray from the eye to that infinitely distant vanishing point pierces the

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picture plane is referred to asDO
the vanishing point. One of the points is the vanishing
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point for any series of parallel lines. The other is the piercing point of the lines on
the object that extend until they intersect the picture plane. The piercing point and
the vanishing point determine the perspective of an infinite line.
Here, the vanishing of straight lines is made in addition to the top view of the visual
rays. In addition to a top view, a front view or a side view of the object is also
required to determine the heights. This method is comparatively simple than the
visual ray method.
Types of perspective
Perspective drawings are classified according to the number of vanishing points
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required in drawing the perspective which in turn depends upon the position of the
object with respect to the picture plane. There are three main types of perspective
drawings namely one point, two point and three point perspectives. At this level,
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only the first two types will be discussed.
O
One point perspective drawing
When one face of the object is parallel to the picture plane and the other perpendicular
to it, the resulting picture is called parallel or one-point perspective as shown in
SE
Figure 8.11. The term one- point perspective refers to the fact that such perspectives
have only one principal vanishing point. The parallel or one-point perspective is
used for the representation of interiors of buildings and machine parts.
U
In one-point perspective, one horizontal axis is perpendicular to the picture plane
while the other horizontal axis and the vertical axis are parallel with the picture
plane. In Figure 8.11(a), lines appear to converge from the obsever/station point
E
towards the vanishing point.

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LI
N
O
R
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(a) Elevation (b) Plan

Figure 8.11: One-point/parallel perspective

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Construction of one–point
DO perspective using vanishing point method
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Example
Use vanishing point method to draw one point perspective
45
25
LY
N
Solution
O
SE
Top view
PP
U
70
E
S HL
N
35
LI
VP
N
30
O
95
55
GL
FO

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Top view
PP
70
S HL
LY
35
VP
N
30
O
95
55
GL
Side view SE
Front view
U
Top view
PP
E
N
70
LI
S HL
N
35
VP
O
30
R
95
55
FO
GL

Form Two
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Activity 8.1: ConstructingDO NOT DUPLICATE
perspective
using Vanishing point
method
Use the figure below to draw one
point perspective.
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4. Complete the front face of the
perspective drawing on ground
line, showing its true shape
N
and size by drawing projectors
set square, piece of paper and
from top and side (front) view
drawing instrument box consisting
O
corners to get the various
of a pencil, eraser, protractor,
width and height information
compass, divider and a ruler.
of the object respectively. If no
Procedure
1. Start the drawing by
SE side (front) view is shown on
GL take the height information
establishing the three edge
of various features from the
view lines, that is PP, HL and
U
orthographic side or front view
GL at any convenient distance
of the object.
depending on the faces of the
object required to be shown
E
on the perspective drawing as

N
2. Draw the top view with its front

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face in contact with the picture

plane (as a usual practice) or at
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some distance above it.

3. If enough space is available
O
and required, draw the front or

side view on one extreme end
of ground line to a convenient
R
left or right direction. 5. Establish the station point at a

distance greater than or equal
FO
to twice the overall width of

the object from picture plane
to the left or right direction of
front face as required. So that

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corners of the perspective
the cone of vision DO NOT DUPLICATE
becomes
drawing.
less than 30°.
10. Connect the intersection
6. Locate the vanishing point
points so obtained at step 9
on horizon line by drawing a
to complete the perspective
projector from station point
drawing.
perpendicular to horizon line.
for a pleasant appearance of
the perspective drawing.
7. Draw visual rays from the
station point to all rear or back
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corners, if the top view is in
contact with PP or to front
and rear corners, if the top
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view doesn’t have any contact
with PP. These visual rays will
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intersect pp at various points
to establish “piercing points”
representing the back edges of
the object in the perspective
drawing.
SE
Construction of one point perspective
using visual ray method
Example 1
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A box has dimension (80x35x55) mm.
Draw one point perspective when the
station point is 70 mm away from the
E
picture plane, 85 mm above the ground

and 90 mm to the left of the axis.
N
Solutions
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N
O
8. Draw projectors from all front

corners to the vanishing point
located on HL.
R
9. Draw projectors from all

piercing points of PP obtained
FO
at step 7 vertically down ward

to intersect the corresponding
receding edges drawn at step
8 and establish all the desired

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1. Draw PP line.
2. Draw top view of object.
3. Draw GP- take 15 mm or 20 mm from the TV of the object.
4. Draw front view of the object.
5. Mark top view of the station point(s).
6. Mark front view of the station point (s’/vp) below the top view.
7. Draw vertical line passing through s and s’ (take distance from the question).
8. Draw HP passing through s’ and parallel to GP.
e
LY
f
h g
N
Top view
80
O
PP
a b
d c
SE
70
S
U
90
HL
S'
E
a'
35 b'
N
85
55
Front view
LI
GL
d' c'
N
9. Draw visual rays in TV (connecting point s and all corner points of object in
O
TV).
10. Draw visual rays in FV (connecting point s’ and all corner points of object in
FV).
R
11. Mark the points of intersection of visual rays (in TV) with PP line.
FO
12. Draw projection lines from intersection points and these lines will meet the
visual rays in FV. The meeting point will give the position of perspective. Mark
those points with capital letter where necessary.

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f
h g
Top view
80
PP
a b
d c
70
LY
S
90
HL
N
S' f'
e' a'
35 b'
g'
O
h'
85
55
Front view
GL
13. Join the points to obtain the perspective.

d' SE c'
U
e f
h g
E
Top view
80
N
PP
a b
LI
d c
N
70
O
90
HL
R
S' f'
e' a'
35 b'
FO
g'
h'
85
55
Front view
GL
d' c'

Form Two
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Example 2 DO NOT DUPLICATE
Draw one point perspective for the
drawing shown below when the station
point is 70 mm away from the picture
plane, 85 mm above the ground and 90
mm to the left of axis. Use procedures
from example1 above.
Solution
LY
Top view
PP
N
O
70
SP
SE
35
HL
U
95
GL
E
Front view
Top view
N
LI
PP
N
70
O
SP
35
R
HL
VP
FO
95
GL
Front view


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Top view
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PP
70
SP
35
LY
HL
VP
N 95
O
GL
Perspective view
4. Draw front view of the object below

Activity 8.2: Constructing perspective
using visual ray method
SE
the top view on the ground line.
5. Mark top view of the station point(s).
Use the figure below to draw one point 6. Mark FV of the station point (s’/vp)
below the top view.
U
perspective.
7. Draw vertical line passing through
s and s’ (take distance from the
question).
E
8. Draw HP passing through s’ and

N
parallel to GL.
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set square, piece of paper and drawing
N
instrument box consisting of a pencil,

eraser, protractor, compass, divider and
O
a rule.
Procedure
R
1. Draw PP line.
2. Draw top view (TV) of object just
FO
above PP line.
3. Draw GL- take 15 mm or 20 mm 9. Draw visual rays in TV (connecting
from the TV of the object. point s and all corner points of object
in TV).

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10. Draw visual rays in FV
DO(connecting to it, the resulting picture is called
NOT DUPLICATE
point s’ and all corner points of angular or two-point perspective as seen
object in FV). in Figure 8.12. There are two principal
11. Mark the points of intersection of vanishing points. In this case, the
visual rays (in TV) with PP line. required information, which is the same
as that for parallel perspective is shown
Top view in Figure 8.12. The angular or two-point
perspective is used for representing
PP buildings in architectural drawing or
large structures in civil engineering such
LY
VP HL
as bridges or dams.
N
SP
O
GL
Front view
12. Draw projection lines from
intersection points (piercing points)
SE
and these lines will meet the visual
U
rays in FV. The meeting point will
give the position of perspective.
Mark those points with capital letter
E
where necessary.
13. Join the points to get the perspective. Figure 8.12: Angular or two-point perspective
N
Top view
Construction of two-point perspective
LI
PP by vanishing point method

Example 1
N
VP HL A rectangular block (20x20x40mm)

is lying on the ground plane on one
O
of its largest faces. The vertical in on

the picture plane and the longer face
SP
R
containing that edge makes an angle of

30° with the picture plane. The station
GL
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Perspective view
Two point/angular perspective point is 60 mm infront the picture plane,

When two faces of the object are inclined 40 mm above the ground plane and lies
to the picture plane and the other parallel in a central plane which passes through

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
the centre of the block. Draw
DOtheNOT
two- DUPLICATE
vertical edge is in the picture plane
point perspective of the following cases and the longer face makes 30° with
i. Object below horizon level PP, draw the top view abcd with a in
PP and the longer face ab inclined at
ii. At horizon level
30° to PP.
iii. Above horizon level.
2. Mark the station point S, the top
Solution view, 60 mm below PP on the
i. Object below horizon level vertical line through O, the center of
top view abcd.
3. Join S with corners a, b, c and d
LY
intersecting PP at points a1, b1, c1
and d1.
4. Draw the ground line GL at any
N
convenient distance from PP and the
horizon line HL, 40 mm above GL.
O
5. Through S, draw parallel to ad and
ab cutting the PP at points v1 and v2
1. Draw a horizontal line PP which

SE
on line PP. Project v1, to V1, and v2
to V2 on HL line. Then the V1 and V2
represents the picture plane. As the are the vanishing points.
U
d,h
E
c,g Top view

a,e
N
PP
V1 a1 d1 b1 b,f c1 V2
LI
N
60
O
S
R
HL
V1 V2
FO
40
GL

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6. Draw vertical projector
DO from the front
NOT corner of top view having contact with PP
DUPLICATE
down to GL to establish a line called line of sight or true height line.
7. Draw the front view
8. Form or draw a vertical line from B to F on GL. Mark BF=20 mm.
9. Join BF to V1 and V2.
d,h
c,g Top view

a,e
PP
V1 a1 d1 b1 b,f c1 V2
LY
60
N
S
O
HL
V1 V2
B C
B
40
F
Perspective view
SE GL
F
Front view
G
10. Draw vertical lines from piercing points and obtain points A-E D- H and C-G
respectively.
U
11. Draw the front view of the rectangular block 25 mm above GL.
12. Join A and E to V2 and C and G to V1.
E
d,h
N
c,g Top view

a,e
LI
PP
V1 a1 d1 b1 b,f c1 V2
N
60
O
S
R
HL
V1 D V2
A B C
FO
C
40
H
E G
GL
F F G
Perspective view Front view

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13. Finally, join all the points
DOasNOT
shownDUPLICATE
in the following figure which gives the
required perspective view of the rectangular block.
d,h
c,g Top view

a,e
PP
V1 a1 d1 b1 b,f c1 V2
LY
70
N
S
HL
V1 D V2
O
A C B C
40
H
E G
GL
SE F
Perspective view
F
Front view
G
Object at horizon level

U
ii.
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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N
O
SE
U
E
N
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N
O
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FO

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N
O
iii. Object above horizon level
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
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N
O
SE
Example 2
U
Draw two-point perspective for the drawing shown below using VP method when
the station point is 70 mm away from the picture plane, 85 mm above the ground
and 90 mm to the left of axis.
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
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N
O
SE
U
Activity 8.3: Constructing two point perspective using vanishing point method
A rectangular block, 50 mm x 30 mm x 20 mm is lying on the ground plane

E
on one of its longest faces. A vertical edge is in contact with the picture plane
and the longer face containing that edge makes an angle of 30° with the picture
N
plane. The station point is 70 mm in front of the picture plane, 45mm above the
ground plane and lies in a central plane which passes through the center of the
LI
block. Draw the perspective view of the block.

N
Requirements: Drawing board/table, set square, drawing paper and drawing

instrument box consisting of a pencil, eraser, protractor, compass, divider and
O
a ruler.
Procedure
R
1. Draw a horizontal line PP which represents the picture plane. With the
vertical edge in contact with the picture plane and the longer face makes
FO
30° with PP, draw the top view abcd with a in PP and the longer face ab
inclined at 30° to PP.
2. Mark the station point S, the top view, 70 mm below PP on the vertical

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
line through O, the center
DO of top view
NOT abcd.
DUPLICATE
3. Join S with corners a,b,c and d intersecting PP at points a1,b1,c1 and d1.
4. Draw the ground line GL at any convenient distance from PP and the
horizon line HL, 45 mm above GL.
5. Through S, draw parallel lines to ad and ab cutting the PP at points v1 and
v2 on line PP. Project v1, to V1, and v2 to V2 on HL line. Then the V1 and V2
are the vanishing points.
6. Draw the front view of the rectangular block 20 mm above GL.
7. Form or draw a vertical line to a point E’ on GL. Mark E’A=20 mm=AE.
LY
8. Join A’E to V1 and V2.
9. Through b1 draw a vertical line to cut the line A’V2 at B’ and E’V2 at F’.
N
10. Similarly, draw vertical lines from c1 and d1 and obtain points C’-G’ and
D’- H’ respectively.
O
11. Join C’-G’ to V2 and D’ and H’ to V1. Finally, join all the points as shown
in Figure (a), which gives the required perspective view of the rectangular
block.
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Construction of two-point
DO perspective by visual visual ray method
NOT DUPLICATE
Example 1
A square block of 40 mm side is resting on its base. Two sides of the edge of a cube
are inclined at 30° to the PP and a vertical edge of a cube is on the PP. The station
point is 50 mm from the picture plane and 50 mm above the ground plane and lie.
Draw the perspective view of the cube when CP passes through the centre of the
cube.
Solutions
1. Draw the top view of the square abcd, with edge ab inclined at the 300
2. Mark s, the top view of station point
LY
3. Mark FV of the station point (s’/vp) below the top view of the station point.
4. Draw ground line GL at any convenient distance below PP and a horizontal
line HL, 30 mm above GL. Project s’, the front view on HL.
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
5. Join S with corners a,b,c and d intersecting PP at points a1,b1,c1 and d1respec-
tively.
FO
6. From a, b, c, and d project the front view a’,b’,c’ and d’ on GL. Draw lines
joining s’ with a’, b’, c’ and d’.
7. Through a, b, c, and d draw verticals to intersects a’s’, b’s’,c’s’ and d’s’ at
points A’, B’, C’and D’ respectively.

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
LY
N
O
8.
SE
Join these points to obtain the required perspective view.
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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Activity 8.4: Constructing
DO two pointDUPLICATE
NOT perspective using visual ray method
Use activity 8.3 above to draw two-point perspective

Requirements: Drawing board/table, set square, drawing paper and drawing in-
strument box consisting of a pencil, eraser, protractor, compass, divider and a ruler.
Procedure
1. Draw the top view of the square abcd, with edge ab inclined at the 30°.
2. Mark s, the top view of station point.
3. Mark FV of the station point (s’/vp) below the top view of the station
point.
4. Draw ground line GL at any convenient distance below PP and a horizontal
LY
line HL, 30 mm above GL. Project s’, the front view on HL.
5. Join S with corners a, b, c and d intersecting PP at points a1, b1, c1 and
d1respectively.
N
6. From a, b,c, and d project the front view a’, b’,c’ and d’ on GL. Draw lines
O
joining s’ with a’, b’, c’ and d’.
7. Through a, b, c, and d draw verticals to intersects a’s’, b’s’,c’s’ and d’s’ at
points A’, B’, C’ and D’ respectively.
8. SE
Join these points to obtain the required perspective view.
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Activity 8.5: Drawing the DO
perspective
NOT view of line
DUPLICATE
A straight line AB 60 mm long is parallel to and 25 mm above the ground plane and
inclined at 300 to the picture plane. The end A is 20 mm behind the picture plane. The
station point is 50 mm above the ground plane and lies in a central plane that passes
through the midpoint of AB. Draw its perspective view.
Requirements: Drawing board/table, set square, drawing paper and drawing in-
strument box consisting of a pencil, eraser, protractor, compass, divider and a ruler.
Procedure
LY
1. Draw a horizontal line PP which represents the picture plane. As AB is parallel
to GP, its top view will show its true length.
2. Therefore, draw a line ‘ab’ = 60 mm, inclined at 300 to PP and the end ‘a’, 20
N
mm above it.
3. Draw a vertical line through ‘m’, the midpoint of ab and mark the point ‘S’,
O
the top view of station point on it and a distance of 40 mm below PP.
4. Draw lines joining ‘S’ with ‘a’ and ‘b’, and intersecting PP and a1b1 respectively.
5. Draw the ground line GL at any convenient distance below PP and horizon
6.
SE
line HL, parallel to and 50 mm above GL. Project ‘S’ the front view on HL.
From ‘ab’, project the front view a’b’, parallel to and 25 mm above GL.
7. Draw lines joining S’ with a’ and b’.
U
8. Through a1 and b1, draw vertical lines to intersect the lines a’, S’ at points A’
and B’ respectively.
9. Join A’ and B’. Then A’B’ is the required perspective view of AB.
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Form Two
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Note: The perspective of AB
DOcan
NOTalso be obtained with the help of side view instead
DUPLICATE
of front view.
Differences between one-point and two-point perspective drawing
When visualizing an object, one may choose to capture it in one-point perspective
or two-point perspective depending on the intended purpose. There are differences
between one point and two-point perspective as shown in Table 8.1
Table 8.1: Difference between one-point and two-points perspective drawing

One point perspective drawing Two-point perspective drawing
Start with: horizon line, vertical line
LY
Starts with horizon line, shape
(often edge of an object)
Has one vanishing point: 1 Has two vanishing points
N
All lines are: vertical, vanishing into
All lines are vertical, horizontal,
1VP (vanishing point), vanishing into
O
vanishing into a point
2VP (vanishing point)
It is used to draw the interior view It is used to draw the exterior view of a
of a building/structure
SE
building/structure
Exercise 8.1
U
1. Draw the following figures in perspective view
E
N
LI
(a) (b)
N
2. What are the practical applications of perspective drawing?

O
3. By standing at different positions of the administration building of your

school, sketch the resulting perspective views of the building.
R
4. With the aid of simple sketch, describe two types of perspective view.
5. Draw by freehand the administration block of your school in perspective
FO
projection.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Chapter summary DO NOT DUPLICATE
1. The location of picture plane relative to the object is of great importance

for determining the size of the perspective view. In general, the picture
plane is (i) In front of the object (ii) behind the object and (iii) behind the
station point.
2. There are three types of perspective drawing but at this level only two
types are explained. These include one point/parallel and two- point/
angular perspective drawings.
LY
3. Perspective drawing is the type of pictorial projection in which projectors
are not parallel to each other and they occur at an angle to the picture plane
in such a way that they converge to a point.
N
4. Perspective drawing can be created by camera, computer programs or
drawing instruments.
O
5. Camera is an electronic device which can be self, build in smart phones or
other devices. SE
6. Camera can take image without execution.
U
Revision exercise 8
1. A point A is situated 60 mm behind picture plane and 65 mm above
ground plane. The station point is 90 mm in front of picture plane, 45 mm
E
above ground plane and lies in central plane 40 mm to the left of the point
N
A. Draw the perspective view of point A.

2. A straight line AB, 60 mm long, is parallel to and 30mm above GP and
LI
inclined at 45° to picture plane. The end A is 30 mm behind the picture

plane. The station point is 50 mm above the ground plane and 40 mm in
N
front of the picture plane. And lies in the central plane passing through
the midpoint of AB. Draw the perspective view of the line AB.
O
3. Define the following terms as applied to perspective drawing:

a) Perspective view
R
b) Line of sight
FO
4. What are the different types of perspective views?

5. Use the figures below to draw perspective views.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
.
(a) (b)
LY
6. Prepare isometric projection of the objects whose front and top views
are given in the following figures using first angle projection. Use the
N
drawing obtained to draw a perspective view.
O
SE
U
(a) Solid object-1 (b) Solid object-2

E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Glossary
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Geometry a branch of mathematics that deals with the measurement,

properties, and relationships of points, lines, angles, surfaces
and solids
Drawing the art or technique of representing an object or outlining a
figure, plan, or sketch by means of lines
Design plan or arrangement of line, form, mass, color, and space in a
pattern.
Area measure of the size of a surface region, usually expressed in
units that are the square of linear units, e.g., square feet or
LY
square meters.
Angle in mathematics, figure formed by the intersection of two straight
lines
N
Base the lower side or face of a geometric construction
Perpendicular Line or plane that meets another at right angles.
O
Hypotenuse the side in a right-angled triangle that is opposite the right angle
Diagonal line joining opposite vertices of a polygon with an even number
Drawing board
of sides. SE
large flat board on which paper or canvas can be spread for
drawing
Volume the amount of space, measured in cubic units, that an object or
U
substance occupies.
Scale ruler is a tool for measuring lengths and transferring measurements
at a fixed ratio of length.
E
Projection The process of moving an image onto a screen or other surface

for viewing.
N
Quadrant Any of the four areas into which a plane is divided by the
LI
reference axes in a Cartesian coordinate system, designated

first, second, third, and fourth, counting counterclockwise from
N
the area in which both coordinates are positive.

True section An orthographic projection of an object or structure as it will
O
appear if cut through by an intersecting plane to expose its

internal configuration
Perspective is an art or method employed to represent three-dimensional
R
space on a flat surface.

Horizon The horizontal plane perpendicular to a line through an
FO
observer’s position and his or her zenith.

Visual rays all lines joining the eye of the point of sight with points of the
object.

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Bibliography
Amanuel B., & Tolosso D. (2015). Basic Technical Drawing-Student Textbook
Grade II. Ministry of Education, Federal Democratic of Ethiopia.
Ching, F. D. K. (2015). Architectural graphics (6th Ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Ching, F. D. K. (2015). Architecture, Form, Space and Order (4th Ed.). John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
Collin, H. S., Dennis E. M. & Neil, P. (2020). Manual of Engineering Drawing: British
LY
and International Standard (5th Edition). Butterworth-Heinemann.
Ken, M. (2010). Geometric and engineering drawing (10th ed.). Routledge.
N
Mahesh, C. L. (2021). Engineering Drawing I (for Diploma in Engineering).
Heritage Publisher and Distributor Pvt.
O
Philip, A. G., Edward, J. M. & James, G. F. (2008). Architectural Drawings and
Light Construction. (8th Ed.). Pearson Education Publisher.
SE
Roop, L. & Ramakant, R. (2015). A Textbook of Engineering Drawing. I.K Interna-
tional Publishing House Pvt.
U
Ltd.
Venkata, K. R. (2008). A Textbook of Engineering Drawing. (2nd Ed.). BS Publica-
tion.
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Form Two
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOTIndex
DUPLICATE
A P
Angle 4, 5, 24, 134, 135, 150, 151 Perpendicular v, 18, 149
Arc 11, 63 Perspective 82, 83, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 155,
Architectural draughting 55, 63, 108 156, 180
Auxiliary views 113, 114, 115 Photography 145
Axonometric 81, 82, 93 Pictorial drawing viii, 81, 83, 93
C Plane 2, 7, 60, 61, 97, 114, 126, 132, 135, 143,
148
Cabinet 90
Point 3, 34, 125, 133
LY
Calibration 69
Polygon 13
Cavalier 89
Projection 55, 57, 97, 99, 102, 104, 106, 107, 113
Centre 11, 58, 78, 149
Projectors 134, 139
N
Circle 11, 92
Conventional symbols 107 Q
O
Quadrant 12, 101, 104
D
Quadrilateral 9
Deltoid 9, 11
R
Diameter 12, 15, 58
Dimension v, 54, 56, 57, 58, 61, 76, 78
E
SE
Radius 12
Rectangle 9
Reducing 47
Ellipse 15
U
Rhombus 10
Enlarging 47, 65
Equal areas 48, 53 S
Scale 64, 75, 77, 79
F
E
Side view 101, 104, 114, 117

First angle projection 101, 102, 106, 107, 109
Similar figures 46, 53
N
Front view 101, 104, 106, 114, 121

Square 9
G Station point 148
LI
Geometrical figures 1
T
Geometry 1
N
Tangent 13, 15
H Third angle projection 103, 104, 106, 107, 109,
Horizon line 149 110
O
I Top view 106, 114

Isometric 61, 82, 83, 84, 86, 88, 112 Trapezium 10
R
Trapezoid 10, 11
L
Triangle 7
Line 3, 125, 180
FO
Lines 4, 97, 126, 142 V

Vanishing point 149, 155, 159
O
Visual rays 147
Oblique 62, 82, 83, 89, 90
Orthographic projection viii, 96, 98, 109

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for Technical Secondary Schools

Tanzania Institute of Education

Archit Draughting-2 PX - 1 day.indd 1 07/11/2022 11:16

mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) ii Architectural Draughting II

Archit Draughting-2 PX - 1 day.indd 2 07/11/2022 11:16

Abbreviations and acronyms.............................................................................. v

Dimensioning systems ............................................................................. 62

Revision exercise 3................................................................................... 77

Chapter Four: Pictorial drawing...................................................................... 81

Types of pictorial drawings...................................................................... 84

Methods of constructing pictorial projections in isometric projection..... 86

Architectural Draughting II iii Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

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The concept of photo taking and photography ...................................... 145

Perspective variables.............................................................................. 150

Chapter summary.................................................................................... 180

Revision exercise 8................................................................................. 180

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) iv Architectural Draughting II

Archit Draughting-2 PX - 1 day.indd 4 07/11/2022 11:16

1-D One -Dimension

2-D Two -Dimension

3-D Three -Dimension

AGP Auxiliary Ground Plane

AIP Auxiliary Inclined Plane

ATC Arusha Technical College

DIT Dar es salaam Institute of Technology

HP Horizontal Plane, Horizon Line

ISO International Standard Organization

MUST Mbeya University of Science and Technology

NIT National Institute of Transport

PP Picture Plane, Profile Plane

PPP Principal Plane of Projection

Architectural Draughting II v Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

Archit Draughting-2 PX - 1 day.indd 5 07/11/2022 11:16

TSS True Size and Shape

UDSM University of Dar es salaam

VPL Vanishing Point Left

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) vi Architectural Draughting II

Archit Draughting-2 PX - 1 day.indd 6 07/11/2022 11:16

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the contributions

Editors: Dr Ezekiel Z. Moshi (ARU), Arch. Amini Mtoure (ARU), and

Illustrators: Sultan A. Tamba and Godlove S. Kyando

Coordinator: George B. Kiruwa (DIT)

and printing of this textbook.

Architectural Draughting II vii Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

Archit Draughting-2 PX - 1 day.indd 7 07/11/2022 11:16

This textbook of Architectural Draughting for Technical Secondary Schools is

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) viii Architectural Draughting II

Archit Draughting-2 PX - 1 day.indd 8 07/11/2022 11:16

Concept of geometrical figures

Figure1.1: Solid geometrical figures

Architectural Draughting II 1 Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

Archit Draughting-2 PX - 1 day.indd 1 07/11/2022 11:16

There are two categories of plane

geometrical figures and closed

Open geometrical figures

In open geometrical figures the line

to the rest as seen in Figure 1.3.

as seen in Figure 1.4.

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) 2 Architectural Draughting II