Architectural Draughting Form Three

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Architectural Draughting
DO NOT DUPLICATE
for Technical Secondary Schools

Student’s Book - Form Three
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Tanzania Institute of Education
Architectural III LANGUAGE.indd 1 07/11/2022 11:02

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©Tanzania Institute of Education
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Published 2022
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ISBN: 978-9987-09-475-2
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P. O Box 35094
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Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
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Mobile number: +255 735 041168/+255 735 041170

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E-Mail: director.general@tie.go.tz
Website: www.tie.go.tz
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval
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system, or transmitted in any form or by any means whether electronic, mechanical,

photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the
Tanzania Institute of Education.
Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) ii Architectural Draughting

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DOTable
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Abbreviations and Acronyms..............................................................................vi

Acknowledgements..............................................................................................vii
Preface...................................................................................................................viii
Chapter One: Residential house development..................................................1
The concept of residential house................................................................1
Types of residential houses.........................................................................2
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Main areas in a residential house ...............................................................4
Requirements for designing a residential house.........................................8
Principles of design....................................................................................9
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Principles of designing a residential house.................................................11
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Chapter summary........................................................................................12
Revision exercise 1.....................................................................................12
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Chapter Two: Site and floor plans......................................................................13
Site plan......................................................................................................13
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Floor plan....................................................................................................15
Chapter summary........................................................................................19
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Chapter Three: Foundation and foundation plan............................................21

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The concept of foundation..........................................................................21

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Types of foundations..................................................................................22
Foundation plan..........................................................................................28
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Steps in drawing a strip foundation plan ...................................................29

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Chapter summary........................................................................................35
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Chapter Four: Roof.............................................................................................38

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The concept of roofs...................................................................................38

Roof components........................................................................................39
Types of roofs.............................................................................................41
Architectural Draughting iii Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

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Roof plan....................................................................................................43
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Chapter summary........................................................................................48
Chapter Five: Sections.........................................................................................51
The concept of sections..............................................................................51
Uses of sections..........................................................................................52
Cross section ..............................................................................................53
Steps of drawing sections...........................................................................60
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Chapter summary........................................................................................63
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Chapter Six: Elevations.......................................................................................67
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The concept of elevation.............................................................................67
Uses of elevation drawing..........................................................................68
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Elevation naming........................................................................................68
Chapter summary........................................................................................73
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Chapter Seven: Doors..........................................................................................76
The concept of doors..................................................................................76
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Types of doors............................................................................................76
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Common components of a door..................................................................76

Conventional symbols of standard doors....................................................77
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Drawing of a door ......................................................................................78

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Chapter summary........................................................................................87
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Chapter Eight: Windows.....................................................................................89
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The concept of windows.............................................................................89

Types of windows.......................................................................................89
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Components of a window...........................................................................92
Design requirements for windows..............................................................93
Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) iv Architectural Draughting

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Conventional symbols
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windows............................................................93
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Standard dimensions of windows...............................................................94
Dimensioning and labelling of windows....................................................94
Drawing window details.............................................................................95
Chapter summary........................................................................................97
Chapter Nine: Stairs and ramps.........................................................................99
The concept of stairs and ramps.................................................................99
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Stairs...........................................................................................................99
Development of stair and staircase drawings.............................................109
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Ramps.........................................................................................................116
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Chapter summary........................................................................................118
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Chapter Ten: Electrical supply and distribution..............................................120
The concept of electrical supply and distribution.......................................120
Electrical distribution.................................................................................122
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Conventional electrical symbols.................................................................123
Drawing an electrical installation layout plan............................................125
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Chapter summary........................................................................................130
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Revision exercise 10...................................................................................130

Chapter Eleven: Heating and cooling................................................................131
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The concept of heating and cooling for buildings......................................131

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Fireplace.....................................................................................................131
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Air conditioning systems............................................................................136

Chapter summary........................................................................................143
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Revision exercise 11...................................................................................144

Glossary................................................................................................................146
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Bibliography.........................................................................................................150
Index......................................................................................................................151
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Abbreviations and Acronyms
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2D Two Dimension
3D Three Dimension
AC Air Condition
ARU Ardhi University
ATC Arusha Technical College
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BTU British Thermal Unit
DIT Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology
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DPC Damp Proof Course
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DPM Damp Proof Membrane
MUST Mbeya University of Science and Technology
NGL Natural Ground Level

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NIT National Institute of Transport
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PVC Polyvinyl chloride
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T Tread
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T&G Tongue and Groove

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TBA Tanzania Buildings Agency

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TIE Tanzania Institute of Education

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UDSM University of Dar es Salaam
VETA Vocational Education Training Authority

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WC Water Closet
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WI Water Institute
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Acknowledgements
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Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the contributions

of all the organisations and individuals who participated in the designing and
developing this textbook. In particular, TIE wishes to thank the Dar es Salaam
Institute of Technology (DIT), University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM), National
Institute of Transport (NIT), Mbeya University of Science and Technology (MUST),
Arusha Technical College (ATC), Water Institute (WI), Vocational Education
Training Authority – Dodoma (VETA Dodoma), Ardhi University (ARU), Tanzania
Buildings Agency (TBA) and technical secondary schools. Besides, the following
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categories of individuals are acknowledged:
Writers: Arch. Anderson Allan (DIT), Eng. Paul Humphrey (ATC), Eng.
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George Kitange (ATC), Arch. Lameck Godfrey (MUST) and Mr
Nicolaus Mathias (VETA Dodoma).
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Editors: Arch. Dr Buberwa Tibesigwa (MUST), Mr Abdallah Khama
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(ARU), Dr Benitho Lyakwipa (UDSM) and Mr Diocles Kyoba
(NIT) language.
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Designer: Mr Sultan Tamba
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Illustrator: Mr Sultan Tamba

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Coordinator: Arch. Anderson Allan (DIT)

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Likewise, the Institute would like to thank the Ministry of Education, Science and
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Technology for facilitating the writing and printing of this textbook.

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Dr Aneth A. Komba
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Director General
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Preface
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This textbook, Architectural Draughting for Technical Secondary Schools, is

written specifically for Form Three students in the United Republic of Tanzania. It is
written in accordance with the 2019 Architectural Draughting Syllabus for Technical
Secondary Schools, Form I-IV, issued by the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology.
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The book consists of eleven chapters, namely Residential house development,
Site and floor plans, Foundation and foundation plan, Roof, Sections, Elevations,
Doors, Windows, Stairs and ramps, Electrical supply and distribution, and Heating
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and cooling. Each chapter contains illustrations, activities and exercises. You
are encouraged to do all the activities and exercises as well as other assignments
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that your teacher will provide. Doing so will enable you to develop the intended
competencies.
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Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) viii Architectural Draughting

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Chapter
Residential house development
One
Introduction
Human beings are the most intelligent creatures who create suitable
environment for different purposes. For example, a building
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is invented as protection against extreme weather and provide
privacy or security. Buildings can be used for residence, office,
religious activities, warehouse, manufacturing among others. In
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this chapter, you will learn about the concept residential house,
types of residential houses, main areas in a residential house,
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requirements for designing a residential house and principles of
design. The competencies developed will enable you to draw and
interpret drawings related to residential buildings.
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The concept of residential house
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A residential house is a building which is intended specifically for living or dwelling
of individuals or households. It can include garage or reading space where in most
cases the area for sleeping is more than half of its floor area. Figure 1.1 shows a 3D of
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a residential house and Figure 1.2 shows layout of a residential house. A residential
building can either be individual houses, lodging, dormitories, apartments and hotel.
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Figure 1.1: A three-dimensional (3D) view of a residential house
Architectural Draughting 1 Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)
Architectural III LANGUAGE.indd 1 Line of symmetry 07/11/2022 11:02

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DO NOT DUPLICATETypes of residential
houses
There are four basic types
of residential houses,
namely detached houses,
semi-detached houses,
row houses and flat houses.
Detached houses
These are stand-alone
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houses which are
sometimes referred to as
a single-family house as
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Figure 1.2: Interior view of the main areas in a residential house shown in Figure 1.3.
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Figure 1.3: A detached residential house

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Semi-detached houses
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These are two joined houses. They are houses that are joined to another house on
one side by a shared wall as show in Figure 1.4.
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Figure 1.4: A semi-detached residential house
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Row houses
These are group of houses arranged in a row that share one or both side walls as
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shown in Figure 1.5.
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Figure 1.5: Row residential houses in Michenzani Zanzibar

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Flat house
This is a housing unit that is self-contained but is part of a large building with
several units as shown in Figure 1.6.

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Figure 1.6: Wakulima House in Dar es Salaam

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The word flat house and apartment are materials used in building them.
sometimes used interchangeably. In 2. Categorise the type of houses.
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another context, types of residential 3. Write a report and present it in the

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house can be expressed in terms of their class for discussion.

location such as a farm house or in terms Main areas in a residential house
of materials such as a wooden house.
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A residential house may contain

Project 1.1 bedroom(s), living room(s), dining,
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1. In groups, visit your neighbourhood kitchen, toilet, bathroom and store areas.
around the school and identify types Also may include lobbies, staircase,
of residential houses found in terms elevators and verandas as shown in
of structure as well as types of Figure 1.7.

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LOBBY
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Figure 1.7: A floor plan of a residential house showing the main spaces
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Bedrooms or sleeping spaces A bedroom must have sufficient space to

A bedroom is a private space usually accommodate a bed, cabinet and other
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used for sleeping. When designing a accessories as shown in Figure 1.8. The
residential house, one must be aware of standard size of a bedroom should not be
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the types of bedrooms and the number less than 9 m2 for adults and not less than
of bedrooms required to accommodate 5.5 m2 for children. Bedrooms should
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the intended occupants. There are three be positioned where there is adequate
basic types of bedrooms based on the ventilation and privacy to the users. The
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family unit: a master bedroom, children’s bedroom should be located in favour

bedrooms and a guest bedroom. of sunlight during morning hours and
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adequate lighting throughout the day.

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Figure 1.8: A bedroom with furniture
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Living room or sitting area a good home living environment. Living
room spaces may differ in size and shape
A living room is a room in a residential
house used for the common social
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from one house to another. Living room
should have sufficient space or size to
gathering of the family. It is sometimes accommodate furniture such as sofa or
referred to as a sitting room or a lounge.
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chairs and other facilities required as
In designing living rooms, one must shown in Figure 1.9.
understand users’ preferences to produce
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Figure 1.9: A living room with furniture

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Living room should be DO
a comfortable, of users and their goods or furniture
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attractive place, and should be well- through, around and between buildings
lighted and ventilated for sitting of or rooms. Common areas include
family members and visitors. Sometimes entrances, verandas, lobbies, foyers,
corridors, stairs and ramps. Every room
it is used as a reception or dining area. It
in a building has two kind of spaces that
should be located in such a way that, it is
connected to the main entry and dining are circulation and functional areas. In
place. The standard size for a living designing residential houses, circulation
room may range from 12 m2 to 20 m2. areas may take about 30% of the total
However, it may vary according to the built up floor area. It is advised that
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requirements of the occupants. circulation areas should be clear from
Common areas and circulation areas obstruction for safety reasons as shown
A residential house design should include in Figure 1.10.
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circulation areas to allow movement
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Figure 1.10: Floor plan of a residential house showing circulation spaces

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Wet areas land, and number of rooms. Client
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These are spaces within a house preferences can lead to other selection
which accommodate sanitary fixtures, like roof type, shape of the building, the
appliances and fittings. These areas are size of the rooms, and other functional
contacted continuously with water and rooms like prayer room, office, and
include kitchen, bathroom or washroom, study room.
toilet and laundry. Land or Plot size
Kitchen: is a room or part of a room Residential houses are constructed on
used for cooking and food preparation in land, so the designed house must fit on
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a house usually fitted with cooker, dish the intended piece of land. Moreover,
washer and worktop. it should have sufficient space for
Bathroom or washroom: is a part of accommodating circulation and other
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a room in a residential building, that services based on intended purpose or
contains either a bathtub or a shower (or requirements.
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both). Number, size and functions of rooms
Toilet: is a room used for privately It is essential to be aware of the number
accessing the sanitation fixture (toilet)
for urination and defecation. The
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of rooms before you start designing a
residential house. The number of rooms
optimal size of the bathroom and toilet depends on the requirements of the users
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may be determined by the sanitary ware or household size. Knowledge on the
and its arrangements. However the relation between rooms is important to
minimum size should be large enough be known before establishing functional
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to accommodate the intended fixtures, requirements in line with standard size of

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circulation and the requirements of the rooms. The size of a room is determined
client. by its proposed function and furniture to
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Project 1.2 be fitted in.

Nature of the site
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In groups, select one residential house

in your school neighbourhood, identify A designer has to make a choice of
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wet areas and mention items available in suitable design of the building structure
those areas. Compare your notes. to suit the available site. The nature of
the site can be categorised in the form
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Requirements for designing a

residential house of site terrain (topography), vegetation,
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natural and man-made features and soil

When designing a residential house, condition (sand, clay).
there are several factors to be considered.
These include plot size, nature of the

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Principles of design to understand, regardless of the user’s
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experience, knowledge and language
Principles of design are a set of rules that
skills. For example, male and female
guide the designers. The fundamental
signs on the location of the designed
principles include universal and aesthetic
toilets.
design.
Principles of universal building design Perceptible information
The design communicates necessary
Universal building design is an approach
information effectively to the user,
of design that incorporates building
regardless of ambient conditions or the
elements and its environment which
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user’s sensory abilities.
is easy for a user to access, understand
and use regardless of their age, size and Tolerance for error
ability. In designing residential houses,
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The design should minimise hazards and
it is recommended to adhere to the the adverse consequences of accidental
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principles of universal design. These or unintended actions. For example,
principles provide friendly environment installation of handrail or balustrades to
for all people regardless of their age and a stair to minimize accidents.
disabilities. Therefore, in case of toilets,
the size of room, door, floor finish and
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Low physical effort
fittings should be friendly to all people.The design should be able to be used
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Principles of universal design include: efficiently and comfortably. For example,
the use of door handles instead of knobs
Equitable use reduces required efforts to operate the
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The design should be useful and door.

marketable to the users with diverse
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abilities without discrimination. For Size and space for approach and use
example; presence of a ramp and The appropriate size and space should be
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staircase in entry way make the building provided for approach and use regardless
accessible to people of all abilities. of the user’s body size, posture, or
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mobility. For example, kitchen worktops

Flexibility in use
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and high level wall cabinets should

The design should accommodate allow the user to reach various items in
varieties of individual preferences and the cabinet.
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facilities. For example, a European

Principles of aesthetics
(sitting) toilet can be used by elders or
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anyone who prefers it. When designing a residential

house, it should functionally fit the
Simple and intuitive use user requirements including to fit
The use of the design should be easy

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economically owner’s budget,
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introduces the principles that guide in creating an aesthetically appealing residential
house. There are several important design principles of aesthetics such as repetition,
proportions, balance, symmetry, and colours which are supported by elements of
designs such as colour, shape, texture and pattern.
Repetition
Repeating elements such as colours, patterns, shapes or texture can help to unify a
space and create a consistent visual experience as shown in Figure 1.11.
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Figure 1.11: Colour or texture in a dining room and kitchen
Balance
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Balance is an even distribution of weight leading to steadiness or evenness in the

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design. A balanced design creates equality and symmetry.

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Symmetry
Symmetry is the reflection of the shared forms, shapes, or angles across a central
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line or point called the axis. It involves invisible lines of symmetry (axis). Line
of symmetry is the imaginary line that divides a shape exactly in half as shown in
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Figure 1.12. It helps to bind various elements of a building together into a single or
unified entity. It is commonly used to create a sense of rational order and calm logic,
and aesthetic of the building.

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Line of symmetry
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Figure 1.12: Symmetry of the building and its line of symmetry(axis)
Proportion
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Proportion usually goes hand in hand with scale, but is subtly different. Where
scale describes the comparison of objects to one another, proportion is more about
the relations of one element or part to another to a referred general object. Getting
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proportion right is tricky and is quite often chalked up to someone who has an ‘eye
for design’ that results in a feeling of visual comfort.
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Principles of designing a residential house

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The principles of designing a house not only go beyond the arrangement of the
space and aesthetics but also considering the effect on its surroundings and the
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environment as well as its accessibility.

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Activity 1.1: Sketching a floor plan of a residential house

Requirements: Plain papers, pencil, eraser and ruler
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Procedure
1. Identify all functional and spatial requirements for a residential house.
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2. By using a plain paper, a pencil, and a ruler, prepare or establish by using

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proportion a sketch of the appropriate two bedroom residential house

according to the specified standards.
3. Use an eraser to rub or clean where lines of the sketch have not been drawn
properly.

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Chapter summary DO NOT DUPLICATE
1. A residential house is a building which provides a living environment to
human being.
2. Individual residential houses can be categorized into four basic types
which are detached house, semi-detached house, row houses and flat
houses.
3. When designing a residential house there are factors which should be
taken on board; they include land or plot size, number and function or
type of rooms, roof types and nature of the land or plot.
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4. There are universal principles guiding design to accommodate people
with various disabilities.
5. A residential house may contain the following areas: sleeping, living,
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common areas and wet areas.
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6. A room is a part or division of a building enclosed by walls, floor, and
ceiling. The size of the room depends on its intended function.
Revision exercise 1
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1. Explain the basic requirements of designing a residential house.
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2. Describe the appropriate size and space of parts of residential house for
accommodating people with various disabilities.
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3. Produce a sketch of a residential house floor plan by applying the basic

design principles.
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4. As an expert in the architecture, design a house for your friend who has
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just graduated from the university.

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5. You are invited to a staff room by the head of a school to present a topic
on residential house development. As an expert in this field, give an
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explanation on basic types of residential houses.
6. Distinguish principles of design and elements of design.

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Chapter Site and floor plans
Two
Introduction
An exposure to building materials and construction activities

make people think they can build their residential house without
involving experts. The house built without experts may not be
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functional, use extra construction cost, use extra running cost or
unpleasing. Architects and associated professionals are trained to
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design appropriate residential houses and produce drawings such
as site plan and floor plans. In this chapter, you will learn about
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the concept of site and floor plans. The competencies developed
will enable you to design and draw proper site and floor plans
which fit the user requirements, design standards and adhere to
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government planning regulations.
Site plan authorities to make sure the site and

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local building codes or regulations are
A site plan is a large-scaled drawing
adhered. The site plan shows all the
that shows a full extent of the site or
plot’s key features including its size,
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plot for an existing or proposed building

shape, scale, orientation and shape of
and is necessary for building permit
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the proposed building, built up area,

applications. In most cases, site plan
side margins (setbacks), plot ratio, and
drawings will be drawn after gathering
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plot coverage. It shows adjacent roads

site information. When conducting site
and their width, the north direction,
investigation, considerations should
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water supply and drainage system at

be given on the terrain of the site, its
the site level, plot number, adjacent
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climatic conditions, and development

plots, and any other outdoor features
planning conditions such as setbacks,
like landscaped area, driveway, parking,
plot ratio, and plot coverage.
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fence, and gate. Site plan also contains

It is important to ensure proper property lines, outlines the existing
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information is documented for a and proposed buildings, and distances

particular plot or site. This information is between buildings.
used by the building team and government

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While developing a site DO
plan, NOT Step 5: Draw the outline of the
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are some terminologies related to proposed building based on
development planning conditions which regulations and allowable
are required to be understood. Plot ratio setbacks as indicated in Figure
is the ratio of the total building floor 2.1. This includes any other
areas to the plot area. Plot coverage is existing building and features
the percentage of the total built up floor such as trees and water storage
areas (ground floors if more than one tank.
building is on the site) to the plot area. Step 6: Indicate all soft and hard
Setbacks are the allowable distances landscapes to a required
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from the plot boundary to the edge of the design including parking lots
building. They are categorized as front as indicated in Figure 2.1.
setback, rear or back setback, and lateral
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setbacks (sides setbacks). Step 7: Indicate position of waste water
drainage and disposal system
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Steps for developing site plan within the site. For example,
When developing a site plan, there are public sewer system, septic
steps which should be followed for its
better design.
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storm water drainage systems
as indicated in Figure 2.1.
Step 1: Identify the shape and size of
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Step. 8: Provide all dimensions of
the site by drawing it to the
the site plan as per plot size
actual dimensions of the plot
including setbacks, dimension
size to a proper scale on paper
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of the soft and hard landscape,

as indicated in Figure 2.1.
and distance between
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Step 2: Indicate the north direction permanent structures if any

on the top right side corner within the site as indicated in
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including all surveyed beacons Figure 2.1.

with their coordinates (if
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Step 9: Create a schedule of area:

applicable) at each corner of
area of the plot, ground floor
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the plot.
built up area, total floor area
Step 3: Identify and draw accessibility of the building, plot coverage
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to the site. For example, a road and plot ratio. These are plot
accessing the site. development conditions as
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Step 4: Draw layout of existing indicated in Figure 2.1.

building or structures if any.

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SETBACKS SITE ACCESS
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Figure 2.1: Site plan of a building on the plot layout
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Project 2.1 engineer, mechanical engineer, structural
Visit a town or urban planning engineer, plumbing engineer and interior
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department at a municipal or district designer. Although floor plan is a view

from above, it is often drawn as a section
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council where your school is located

and write a short report about residential cut along horizontal plane. The plan is
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project development regulations. Present typically cut at a height of about 1 m

your report in the class for discussion. from horizontal level.
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Floor plan Steps or procedures of developing a

floor plan
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A floor plan is a scaled drawing of a

building viewed from above that shows When developing a floor plan there are
horizontal measurement, furniture steps or procedures which are to be
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layout, and location of fittings and followed. These steps or procedures are:
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fixtures. A floor plan is among the basic Step 1: If it is a new building, you
drawings where other professionals or should determine the functional
stakeholders depend on to produce their and spatial requirements,
discipline information such as electrical nature of the site and the plot

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size. If the layout isDO
being
NOTcreated for wholly new site, make sure that the
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total area will fit where it is to be built (plot size) based on the development
regulations.
Step 2: Using a scale ruler, draw the outline which coordinates the functional and
spatial requirements to the proper flow of activities with their required
dimensions. For example sitting room and dining or kitchen should be
close to each other as shown in Figure 2.2.
KITCHEN
WC+SHW
2,150
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3,000 1,200 2,650 1,200 3,000
WC+SHW
BEDROOM-01
M/BEDROOM CORRIDOR
1,200
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4,200 3,850 3,000
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1,500 3,850
ENTRANCE
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4,000
VERANDAH
SITTING ROOM
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Figure 2.2: Single line sketch of the floor plan
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Step 3: Using thick lines, draw walls enclosing various room spaces considering
the lines drawn in step 2. For example, if you decide the wall thickness is
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150 mm, then each side of centre line should be 75 mm.

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Step 4: Mark the position of openings such as doors and windows considering
function of spaces and ventilation as shown in Figure 2.3.
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Step 5: Add fittings and fixtures as per space or room requirements. For example
cabinet in a kitchen and washing basin in a toilet. These and accessories
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must be placed in their specific place for better functioning of the spaces
as shown in Figure 2.3.
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Step 6: Add furniture in the floor plan. Furniture to be added include chairs,
tables, sofas and beds. These should be added basing on room function
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and furniture size must be observed as shown in Figure 2.3. For example,
sofas in a living room.
Step 7: Add exterior and interior dimensions (actual dimensions) of each element
(doors, windows, rooms/spaces).

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Step 8: Introduce grid centre
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the wall, and floor finish levels with reference
to the ground level as shown in Figure 2.3. The grids should be named or
numbered for easy communication.
Step 9: Label all the rooms or spaces with their respective names for their easy
identification as shown in Figure 2.3.
Step 10: Hatch or fill the pattern of different surfaces such as wall and floor finish
with their respective materials like masonry walls with sand-cement blocks
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Figure 2.3: Floor plan of a residential house
The drawings are presented by using drawing sheets. The sheets have margins
and title block according to the size of the sheet. The title block can be placed
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horizontally or vertically. The title block includes information like project name,
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designer’s name, client’s name, site’s address and location, drawing title, drawing’s
issuing date, designers’ names, sheet or drawing number, key plan, practice logo,
revision list, scale of drawing, and general notes about the drawing as shown in
Figure 2.4.

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Figure 2.4: Components of a title block

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Activity 2.1: Drawing a floor plan of a two-bedroom residential house

Requirements: Plain papers (A4 or A3 formats), a pencil, an eraser, straight
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edge, a scale ruler, set squares and a measuring tape

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Procedure
1. Measure the size of any nearby simple residential house using a measuring
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tape.
2. Measure the thickness of the wall along with openings.
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3. Draw the shape of a simple residential house clearly indicating all the
dimensions to a correct scale on a plain paper.
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4. Draw a floor plan of a simple residential house by clearly marking and

indicating all necessary elements with the correct dimensions including
furniture, doors, and windows.

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1. A site plan is a large scale drawing that shows a full extent of the site for
an existing or proposed development in relation to other features.
2. A site plan is a top view, bird eye view of a property that is drawn to scale.
Site plan contains the following information: property line, outline of
existing plan if any, proposed building, distance between the buildings (if
more than one) and property line or setbacks, parking spaces, driveways
and access, surrounding streets, landscape area, schedule of areas, utilities
and north direction.
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3. A floor plan is a scaled diagram of a building cut viewed from above
that provides the horizontal measurements, levels, finishes, and spatial
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relationships.
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4. A floor plan drawing is very essential when you are constructing a
house, estimation of materials and marketing of house. A proper spatial
relationship between spaces, size and circulation on a building can
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increase enjoyment to the household or users.
Revision exercise 2
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1. Design and draw a floor plan of a two bedroom residential house with
associated functional and spatial requirements. Finally, develop a site
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plan on 25 m by 15 m plot. Indicate all components associated with the

site plan and use proper title block. Assume that access road is along the
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shorter side of plot and North direction is facing the longer side (observe
scale and accuracy).
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2. Design and draw a floor plan of a residential house and its associated
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functional and spatial requirements and after that develop a site plan on
20m by 20m plot. Indicate all components associated with the site plan
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and use a proper title block. The design should include the following:
(a) One (1) Master bedroom,

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(b) Three (3) bedrooms,

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(c) Living room,
(d) Dining room,

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(e) Kitchen, DO NOT DUPLICATE
(f) Study room,
(g) Bathroom (toilet/wc and shower).
3. Given construction details for a single bedroom as follows:
(a) Brick wall of 230 mm;
(b) Floor room size of 5.5 m wide and 7 m long with a toilet/bathroom;
(c) One door of size 1000 mm wide by 2550 mm high placed on the
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longer side of the wall beginning at 2000 mm from the right outside
corner of the wall;
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(d) A bed with a size of 1500 mm wide and 1800 mm long;
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(e) Two windows of size 1500 mm wide and 1650 mm high and the
bedroom and 1000 mm wide and 800 mm high.
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To a scale of 1:50, draw the floor plan of this bedroom. Show all the necessary
materials and dimensions.
4. Assume you are working with an architectural firm and you are given a
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job to prepare preliminary sketch of a residential house. Enumerate six
steps to follow when preparing the sketch.
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Chapter Foundation and foundation plan
Three
Introduction
Buildings are seen to be standing firmly on the ground despite

their material loading and other imposed loading because of
underneath element known as foundation. The foundation acts like
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roots of a tree in transferring loading to the ground. In Chapter
Two you learnt about floor plan, which is a base for drawing
foundation plan. In this chapter, you will learn about the concept
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of foundation, types of foundation, foundation plan, and steps of
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drawing foundation plan. The competencies developed will enable
you to draw and interpret foundation drawing details which will
help you in the construction of building foundations.
The concept of
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foundation
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Foundation is the
lowest part of a
building which is
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in direct contact
with the ground.
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It provides a base
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for super-structure
and transfers
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the load of the

structure to the
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ground so that it
stands firm and
stable for its life.
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Foundation is part
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of sub-structure as
shown in Figure
3.1.
Figure 3.1: Building foundation as part of the sub-structure

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Types of foundations near to the surface. They are constructed
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Building foundation can be classified where the soil layer at shallow depth
into two groups namely shallow and (up to 1.5 m) is able to support the
deep foundations. The choice for type of structural loads. There are various types
foundation depends on the soil condition, of shallow foundations which include
the type of structure or building, the strip foundation, pad foundation, raft
structural loading of the building, foundation and strap foundation.
economic factors and time factors Strip foundation
relative to the construction period. These are types of shallow foundations
Normally, the design of foundation of
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suitable for stable subsoil and small
large buildings are done by a structural building loadings as shown in Figures
engineer. 3.2 and 3.3. They are mostly used in
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Shallow foundations low to medium rise buildings. Strip
These are the types of foundations that foundation can be made up of concrete,
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transfer the building load to the earth very blocks, stones or steel.
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solid external wall
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wide strip reinforced

reinforcement concrete foundation
Figure 3.2: Sketch of a strip foundation

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Pad foundation
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Figure 3.3: Section detail of the strip foundation
This is the a type of shallow foundation suitable for most subsoil except loose sand,
loose gravels and fill areas which is usually constructed with other types of foundations.
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This type of foundation consist of a footing (pad) and a column as shown in Figures
3.4 and 3.5. Pad foundation is often used in large and multi-storey buildings.
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Column
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Pad (Footing)
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Figure 3.4: Pad foundation

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Figure 3.5: Pad foundations under construction
Raft or mat foundation SE

These are types of shallow foundations which are used to spread the load of the
structure or building over a large base to reduce the load per unit area being imposed
on the ground. They are particularly useful where the low bearing capacity soils are
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encountered and individual column loads are heavy. It consists of a large continuous
rectangular or circular reinforced concrete slab that carry the entire load of the
superstructure and spread it over the whole area beneath the building and columns
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constructed on the concrete slab as shown in Figures 3.6 and 3.7.

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Colums
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Mat/Raft Foundation
Figure 3.6: Raft or mat foundation

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Figure 3.7: Raft or mat foundation under construction
Strap foundation
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These are types of shallow foundations which consist of two isolated footings
connected to a structural strap. The strap connects the two footings to behave as
one unit as shown in Figure 3.8. They are designed as a rigid beam. The individual
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footings are designed in such a way that their combined lines of action pass through
the resultant of the total load.
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Figure 3.8: Sketch of strap foundation

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Deep foundations foundations, which include pile and
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These type of foundations carry building shaft foundations.
loads to harder strata that are deeper Pile foundation
below the ground level. Selection of
A pile foundation is a series of columns
deep foundation depends on the type and
constructed or inserted into the ground
load from the superstructure, properties
to transmit the loads of a structure to a
of the soil, the depth of the soil layer
lower level of subsoil. It is usually used
capable of supporting the foundation
when there is unstable soil near ground
and other site constraint like depth of
level. Piles are driven into the ground by
water level and intensity of underground
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heavy piles driving machines as shown
water flow. There are two type of deep
in Figure 3.9.
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pilling cable for hoisting
rig pile lengths
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leader
braces
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helmet
power
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unit
reasonably level
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ground surface
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splicing color
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precast concrete
or steel shoe
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unit
Figure 3.9: Pile and pile driving machine

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Piles can be made of timber,
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steel. A pile foundation constitutes a pile shown in Figures 3.10 and 3.11.
and pile cap which is the slab for starting
Pile cap
Lower density soil

Pile
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Medium density soil
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High density soil
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Figure 3.10: Pile foundation
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Figure 3.11: Concrete pile foundation showing finished piles

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Shaft foundations DO NOT DUPLICATE
Procedure
These foundations are constructed by 1. By using a hoe, carefully
drilling a cylindrical hole within a deep excavate the external side
excavation and subsequently placing of the foundation wall by
concrete or another prefabricated load- removing all the soil to the
bearing unit in it as shown in Figure top level of the foundation
3.12. Their length and size can easily be footing.
tailored. Drilled shafts can be constructed 2. Establish the type of foundation
near the existing structures and under used in the construction
low overhead conditions, making them of the classroom block by
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suitable for use in numerous seismic documenting the construction
retrofit projects. material used, depth and size
of the foundation footing and
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height of the foundation wall.
3. Backfill all the excavated soil
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and compact it to the original
soil level.
Questions
1.
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In the identified type of
foundation, give reasons for
the selection of the observed
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foundation.
2. Outline the two advantages
and disadvantages of the type
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of foundation observed.
3. Describe any other
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construction structures which

require foundation similar
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to the above mentioned

foundation.
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Figure 3.12: Drilling and installing the shaft

Foundation plan
Activity 3.1: Identifying type of
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foundation used in constructing a Foundation plan is a plan view of a

classroom block. foundation structure that looks projected
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onto a horizontal plan. The plan is

Requirements: A hoe, a measuring
slightly below the top of foundation
tape, a pencil, plain papers (A4
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wall. The foundation plan is drawn based

or A3 formats), an eraser and a
on the information obtained from the
spade
floor plan. A foundation plan primarily
includes footings, foundation walls,

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columns, details of foundation
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NOT as shown in Figure 3.13. Foundation
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plan is used in building setting out together with other drawings.
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Figure 3.13: A foundation plan of a strip foundation
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Steps in drawing a strip foundation
plan
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The drawing of a foundation plan and Outside wall

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its details starts with tracing a floor plan

of the intended building and selection of
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the proper scale to represent the drawing

on a paper. The following are steps
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to be followed while drawing a strip

foundation plan.
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Step 1: Draw a solid line representing

the outside walls of the
building correctly to its
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dimensions by using a scale

ruler as shown in Figure 3.14.
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This line also represents the

outside dimensions of the Figure 3.14: Outer line of foundation wall
foundation wall (Do not write
the dimension).

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Step 2: Draw a second solidDO
line NOT
inside DUPLICATE
the first one to represent the
inside dimensions of the building
walls. The space between these
two lines should be exactly the
width of the planned foundation
walls to scale as shown in Figure
3.15.
Inside edge of footing
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Width of wall
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3.16.
Figure 3.16: A foundation wall plan showing
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the inner edge of the footing
Step 4: Offset a dotted line outside the

Inside wall SE solid line of the walls drawn in
step 2. This line represents the
outer edge and dimension of the
foundation footing. The space
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Figure 3.15: A foundation wall plan showing between it and the outside solid
the thickness of the wall line (step 2) should be according
It should be noted that, step 1 and step 2 to the planned width of the
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are to be considered for all load bearing foundation footing as shown in

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walls which require foundation, then Figure 3.17.

proper type of hatching for the wall
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material (such as stone, concrete or

masonry) should be applied.
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Outside edge of footing

Step 3: Draw a dotted line inside the
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solid line of the walls drawn in Width of footing

step 2. This line represents the
inner edge of the foundation
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footing. The space between it

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and the inside solid line (step 2) Inside edge of footing
should be according to the

planned width of the foundation
footing as shown in Figure Figure 3.17: A foundation wall plan showing

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the outer edge and width of the footing
Task 3.1
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LOBBY
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By using an appropriate scale, carefully draw a foundation plan from the floor
plan indicated in Figure 3.18. Assuming strip foundation has been used.
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Figure 3.18: Floor plan of a residential building

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Steps of dimensioning and annotating a foundation plan

After completion of steps 1-4, proceed with dimensioning and annotating the
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foundation plan.
Step 5: On either side of the drawing, add a solid line exactly as long as the longest
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wall (that is, the longest outer solid line) in Figure 3.17 as shown in Figure
3.19.

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Mark dimensions calculated in

the circles on the drawing
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Figure 3.19: Dimensioning of the foundation wall plan showing the dimension lines
Step 6: Place a mark along each line from step 5 wherever the outer wall turns or
makes a corner. Indicate the actual length of each straight section of wall
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Mark dimensions calculated in

the circles on the drawing
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Figure 3.20: Dimensioning the foundation plan showing the dimension lines.

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Step 7: Outside the linesDO
drawn in step
NOT 5 and 6, draw two more dimension lines
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exactly the same length and width of the outer dotted line. Mark these lines
to indicate the actual length of each straight section of the foundation footing
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A A
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Figure 3.21: Full dimensioning of a foundation wall plan showing the dimension lines
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Step 8: Clearly indicate the cross section of the foundation (i.e. Section A-A in Figure
3.21) and draw, put dimension, label, and annotate it to the required scale
and design by indicating each layer and its material as shown in Figure 3.22.
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Based on the assumption that, foundation wall is 230 mm thick, foundation

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footing 690 mm wide and minimal depth of 700 mm, and concrete slab,
damp proof membrane (dpm), blinding (sand), hardcore and compacted soil
are present.

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Figure 3.22: Section details of a strip foundation
Activity 3.2: Drawing the foundation plan of a classroom block

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Requirements: A3 plain papers, a pencil, an eraser, a ruler, a scale ruler, set
square and a measuring tape.
Procedure
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1. Measure the size of the classroom block by using a measuring tape and
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draw it on a plain paper.

2. Measure the thickness of the wall along any opening.
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3. Draw by using pencil, the floor plan of the classroom block indicating
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clearly all the dimensions to a correct scale.

4. Draw the foundation plan of the classroom block by clearly marking the
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foundation footing lines with the correct dimensions.

5. Draw a section of the foundation assuming it is a strip foundation with
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depth of 1000 mm.

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Exercise 3.1 DO NOT DUPLICATE
From the given floor plan of a two-bedroom residential house shown in Figure
3.23, draw the foundation plan to a proper scale.
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Figure 3.23: A two-bedroom floor plan

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Chapter summary
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1. Foundation is part of the building found below the ground to support the
building.
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2. Foundation consists of wall and footing as main component and others

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like hardcore, damp proof membrane, blinding, and slab.
3. Shallow foundation includes strip, pad, raft or mat and strap.

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4. Deep foundation includes shaft and pile foundations.

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5. Strip foundation is suitable for most stable subsoil and light weight
buildings or structures.
6. Pad foundation is suitable for most slightly stable subsoil except loose

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sand, loose gravels and
DOfillNOT
areasDUPLICATE
and usually constructed of reinforced
(steel) concrete.
7. Raft foundation is the foundation which is used to spread the load of the
structure or building over a large base/slab.
8. Pile foundation is a series of columns constructed or inserted into the

ground to transmit the loads of a building.
9. Foundation plan is the top view of the footings or foundation walls,

showing their area and their location by distances.
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10. Drawing a foundation plan starts with the floor plan by projecting all load
bearing walls to a required size.
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11. Section of the foundation indicated on the foundation plan shows the depth
sizes and names of each layer to be laid during construction procedure.
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Revision exercise 3
1.
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Describe any five functions of a foundation.
2. Describe advantages and disadvantages of a raft foundation.

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3. With the aid of sketches mention and describe types of pad foundation.
4. Pile foundation is important where the load bearing soil is deep below the
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ground. Describe with sketches four types of pile foundation.

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5. You are required to build a single storey house on a site having low
bearing capacity. Identify a suitable type of its foundation; state reason for
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its selection, and sketch the selected foundation.
6. Given a floor plan of a three-bedroom residential house as shown in Figure

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3.24, trace the floor plan and draw the foundation plan and cross section to
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scale, indicating all necessary components.

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Figure 3.24: Floor plan of a three-bedroom residential building
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Chapter
Roof
Four
Introduction
In everyday life we see buildings constructed in different places

for different purposes. All these buildings are covered at the upper
most part by an element called roof. Roof design of a building
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depends on the size of a building, materials, client’s economic
status and preference. In this chapter, you will learn about the
concept of roof, roof components, types of roofs and drawing a
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roof plan. The competencies developed will enable you to draw
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and interpret drawings related to roof drawings of a residential
building.
The concept of roofs

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A roof is the top most
covering of a building Roof
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or any structure as
shown in Figure 4.1. A
roof plan is a view from
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the top of the house that

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shows the geometry

in 2 dimension (2D).
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The roof protects the

building against adverse
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weather effects such

as rain, solar radiation,
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wind, and extreme

temperature. The roof
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should have slope to

drain rain water.
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Figure 4.1: Roof as the top most element of a building

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Roof components formed by the inclined ridge between
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two intersecting roof slopes.
There are several components and parts
of a roof including roof covering, truss, Ridge
eave, gable, flushing, hip, ridge, fascia This is the horizontal intersection at
or eave board, rafter, batterns or purlins, the apex of the two rising roof surfaces
wall plate, tie beam, collar beam, spar, inclined in opposite directions.
king post, and valley as shown in Figures Fascia or eave board
4.2 and 4.3. The roof parts are properly This is a wooden or metal board usually
tied to each other to ensure structural fixed horizontally along the lower
stability and durability. edge of a roof where it overhangs the
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Roof covering building’s outer wall.
This is the roofing material exposed to Rafter
the exterior environment. This is a sloped structural component of
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Truss a roof, typically starts from roof support
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A framework, typically consisting of (column, roof beam or wall) to the ridge
rafters, posts, and struts for supporting or hip. It is mainly made up of wood or
the roof. steel.
Eaves
This is the lower portion of a roof that
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Batterns or Purlins
These are wooden or steel structures
overhang to the exterior wall with the which are fixed on the common rafters
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function of pouring water away from or on the top to support the roofing
the exterior wall. It provides shading, materials such as tiles and sheets.
protection against driving rain and Wall plate
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enhance the aesthetics of a building. This is a wooden horizontal member

Gable built into or laid along the top of a wall
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This is the portion of front, rear or side to support and distribute the load from
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of the building enclosed by or masking the roof structure.

the end of a pitched roof. Tie beam
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Flashing This is a wooden or steel horizontal

This is a strip of impervious material, beam that connects two (2) or more
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usually made from metals like copper, rafters in a roof in any height above the
stainless or galvanized steel used to floor level to make the whole structure
stiff or stable.
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prevent water from entering openings or

between roof covering or between a roof Collar beam
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covering and parapet wall. This is a tension tie in the upper third of
Hip opposing gable rafters that is intended
This is the outer triangle shaped plane to resist rafter separation from the ridge

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beam during periods of DO
unbalanced King post
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loads. This is a vertical post from the truss apex
Spar above working in tension to support and
This is the wooden stick used as rafter in connects tie beam.
design and construction of thatched roof. Valley
It is part of the roof sometimes referred This is an elongated area often running
to as common rafters and similar to joists between two sloped surface of a pitched
but inclined rising from the eaves to the roof, which will drain water from the top
ridge to support a pitched roof covering. towards the eave where gutter is fixed.
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Figure 4.2: Components of a roof
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Figure 4.3: Section of a roof showing eaves, ridge, collar and spar

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Types of roofs Mono or single-pitched roof
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There are two main types of roof It is the simplest form of pitched roof
according to the inclination; these are with single sloping roof surface as
flat roof and pitched roof. Also roofs shown in Figure 4.5. It can also be called
can be categorized in terms of their a shed roof or a lean-to roof, if it contains
construction materials and shape. a single sloping roof surface that is not
attached to another roof surface.
Pitched roof
Pitched roof is a kind of a roof that
slopes more than 10° downwards. It
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may contain two or more parts at an
angle from a central ridge which are
opposite to each other. Section of an
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angle depends on the span of the house,
material, aesthetics, economy, weather
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condition and client preference. There
are various types of pitched roofs
including mono pitched (lean-to), gable, (a)
gambrel, mansard, hip, and barrel as

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lean-to gable
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(b)
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gambrel Figure 4.5: (a) Single-pitched roof (b)

mansard
section of a single-pitched roof
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Double-Pitched roof
This is the most widely used type of a
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pitched roof in Tanzania residential

hip buildings, whereby the number of sloping
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Barrel Roof surfaces is two (2). In other words, it is

Figure 4.4: Types of pitched roofs the combination of two mono-pitched
roofs. It can either be gable, hipped or

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a combination of the two as DO
shown in Figure
NOT 4.6. The double pitched normally has
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two sloping surfaces in the opposite direction as shown in Figure 4.7.
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Figure 4.6: Roof structure of a double -pitched roof (hip and gable on each end)
Ridge Cover
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Purlin
and cleat
Principal
Common Rafter Rafter
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Backfill Wall
Strut Plate
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King Post Wall plate

Stone
Tie Beam Template
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Figure 4.7: Section of a double pitched roof

Flat roof
In a flat roof the sloping angle required should not be less than 50 and not greater than
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100. The advantages of a flat roof include use of less quantity of roofing structural
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supports and roofing coverings. On the other side, there are disadvantages including
drainage problems if the roof is not technically constructed. Flat roofs are not energy
efficient due to limited insulation space. Figure 4.8 shows a sample of a building
with a flat roof.

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Roof plan
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Roof plan is a scaled drawing of a roof
which contains the outline of roof as seen
with bird’s eye that consists of shape,
size, position of vents and rain water
draining direction, dimensions, and
associated components.
Steps of drawing a roof plan of a

pitched roof
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Drawing a roof plan of a simple house
Figure 4.8: Flat roofed building
is as simple as drawing a floor plan. The
following are the steps used to draw a
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pitched roof plan of a residential house
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Figure 4.9: Floor plan of the residential building

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Step 1: Draw the exterior outline of floor plan of the residential house as shown in
Figure 4.10. Note: The details of floor plan are not included.
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FO

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Figure 4.10: A drawing of a building outline
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Step 2: Draw the eaves overhang of the roof plan drawn in step 1 as shown in Figure
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4.11 with red lines. For example, in a residential building the minimum roof
overhang is 600 mm from the outside of the external wall.
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Building
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outline
Roof outline
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Figure 4.11: Drawing roof outline

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Step 3: Establish 45º line on each corner from the eaves overhanging in order to
produce hip and ridge on the roof as shown in Figure 4.12.

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Roof outline
Ridge
Building outline
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Figure 4.12: 450 lines on corner of the plan to form a hip
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Step 4: Connect all hips by a line in order to form the ridge of the roof as shown in
Figure 4.13.
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Roof outline
Ridge
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Ridge
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Building
outline
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Figure 4.13: Connected hip lines to form a ridge

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Step 5: Mark position of the gutter around the rain water direction and propose
position of down pipes to be placed as shown in Figure 4.14.

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Water down pipe
Ridge cap
Building outline
Roof outline
Rainwater direction
Gutter
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Figure 4.14: Gutter and arrows indicating the direction of water run-off
Exercise 4.1
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From the given residential building floor plan in Figure 4.15, develop to scale a
gable roof plan and hipped roof plan on separate plain papers.
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LOBBY
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Activity 4.1: Drawing aDO
flat roof
NOT of aDUPLICATE
one-bedroom residential house
Requirements: Plain papers (A4 or A3 format), a pencil, an eraser, a ruler, a
scale ruler, and set square
Procedure
1. Draw a floor plan of a one-bedroom residential house with all its associated
services to standards.
2. Establish the overhang line of 600mm from the edge of each outer wall on
the floor plan of the house.
3. Connect the overhang line in order to formulate the flat roof plan and
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show the direction of rain water flow and position of rain water down
pipe.
4. Draw the elevation of the roof to a specific angle of inclination.
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Dimensioning and labelling of a roof plan
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Preparation of a detailed drawing involves providing all information for proper
interpretation. The roof details involve enlarging a component to be easily read
SE
by dimensioning and labelling it in the roof drawing. A dimension is a numerical
value expressed in appropriate units of measurement and used to define the size of
a roof part. Dimensioning provides accurate sizing of components in a roof plan.
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Appropriate labelling of roof elements should involve readable and visible letters
for easy interpretation of the drawing as shown in Figure 4.16.
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Water down pipe

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Ridge cap
600
Building outline
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Roof outline
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Rainwater direction
2,300
Gutter
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600
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600 2,500 2,500 600

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Figure 4.16: A labelled roof plan of a building

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Trace the floor plan and draw the roof plan on a plain paper for a floor plan
shown in Figure 4.17 and label it appropriately.
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Figure 4.17: Floor plan of a building

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Chapter summary
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1. A roof is the structure forming the upper or top covering of a building.

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Characteristics of a roof depend upon the purpose of the building that it

covers.
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2. A roof may be categorized into two types: a pitched roof and a flat roof,
depending upon the slope, climatic condition, aesthetic view, and number
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of sloping surfaces.
3. In drawing a roof plan, there are five basic steps which are used to draw
and produce a roof plan.

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4. Preparation of roof plan involves providing all information for proper
interpretation of the drawing.
Revision exercise 4
1. With an aid of a well-labelled drawing, explain different types of pitched

roof.
2. You visited a construction site and found the forepersons arguing between
flat and pitched roofs. As an expert, briefly analyse the two types of roofs.
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3. With the aid of a neat and well-labelled sketch, describe gable and hipped
roof types.
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4. Why flat roofs are not commonly used in Tanzania.
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5. Draw a hipped roof plan on a plain paper for a classroom block which is
7000 mm wide and 9000 mm long.
6. SE
Draw a Dutch-hipped roof plan on a plain paper for a classroom block
which is 7000 mm wide and 9000 mm long.
7. Your school asked you to advise on the type of roof to the new lecture
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theatre to be built within the school compound. What type of roof will you
advise to be designed? Give reasons for the selection.
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8. Draw a the roof plan (gable or hipped) on a plain paper for the floor plan
shown in Figure 4.18 and label it appropriately.
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Figure 4.18: A floor plan of a residential building
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Chapter
Sections
Five
Introduction
Drawings are prepared to convey technical information during

design process, construction or fabrication of components. No
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single drawing can present a comprehensive information of a
building. Sections are prepared to present information which
cannot be presented on a floor plan and elevations, such as vertical
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arrangement of building elements, components of buildings and
materials. In this chapter you, will learn about the concept of
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sections, uses of sections, cross sections and steps of drawing
sections. The competencies developed will enable you to draw,
read and interpret section drawings.
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The concept of sections
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The concept of sections lies in the drawing showing a cut through the body of a
building. A section provides clarification of the inner components of a building that
cannot be clearly described in other type of drawings. A slice cut of a loaf of bread
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can expose the detail which cannot be seen from the outside as shown in Figure 5.1.
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section
view
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section
view
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Figure 5.1: A cut through a loaf of bread into two sections

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Uses of sections imaginary vertical plane. This plane is
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Sections are scaled drawing used to usually shown in the floor plan drawing
represent material of construction, and is called section line. The plane
height and measurements of different through which the section is cut is
components of building and types of presented by a line with long and short
structural elements such as trusses and dashes as shown in Figures 5.2, 5.3 and
slab. They represent a view through the 5.4.
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Figure 5.2: Floor plan of a building with Section X-X line
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Figure 5.3: Section view (Section X-X) of a building for a floor plan in figure 5.2

Form Three
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DO NOT DUPLICATE Cross section
Typical Eaves Detail Shingles A cross section is an
Roof sheeting
imaginary view of the
Felt underlayment building as though you
Rafter had sliced vertically
Sub-fascia
down the building
Eaves drip from top with a saw
and looked into from
Fascia
the resulting view
as shown in Figure
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5.5. In Architectural
Gutter Eave draughting, cross
section are architectural
Soffit drawings that are
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Frieze board orthographic projections
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of a building structures
Brick veneer with a cut transecting
them.
Figure 5.4: Section of the roof eave
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Figure 5.5: Building plan and section on the same plane

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There are two (2) major types of cross section applied in architectural draughting;
transverse section and longitudinal section as shown in Figure 5.6.
Transverse section
Transverse section pertains to a section done on the floor plan by a cutting plane
line along the short axis of a structure as shown in section T-T in Figure 5.6. It is a
section representing a building portion as cut vertically to show its interior and often
taken at right angles to the longitudinal axis (longest side) of the building.
Longitudinal section
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Longitudinal section pertains to a section done by a cutting plane along the longest
axis of a structure and right angle with the shortest side of the building as shown in
section L-L in Figure 5.6.
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The difference between these two types of sections is that, longitudinal sections
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are usually longer than transverse sections. Longitudinal sections run through
the anterior-posterior axis while the transverse sections go between lateral ends.
The number of possible transverse sections is higher than the number of possible
SE
longitudinal sections to be made through a drawing; and longitudinal sections are at
the right-angle with the transverse section.
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Figure 5.6: Building floor plan showing longitudinal and transverse sections

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Cutting planes and viewing
DOdirections
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In preparation of section drawings,
there is a need of having a cutting plane
indicated in the floor plan and viewing
directions to be shown in the section line. Figure 5.8: Cutting plane and viewing direction
Cutting planes Marking of sections is done through a

A cutting plane is a vertical surface process known as cross-referencing in
cut by the section line in the floor plan which the upper number denotes the
drawing. This is an imaginary plane that section name on the sheet (i.e. plan
cut through the object. The cutting plane drawing) and the lower number indicates
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is represented on a floor plan drawing by the sheet or a drawing number where the
a cutting plane line. section is drawn as indicated in Figure
Cutting plane lines or section lines 5.9.
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Cutting plane line or a section line is an
imaginary thick long and dashed line that
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runs along the cutting plane as shown in
Figure 5.7.
SE Figure 5.9: Cross referencing in section
drawing
Section views
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Section views are created by cutting
through a part of a building. The view
Figure 5.7: Types of cutting plane lines
will show hidden details that cannot be
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Selection of a cutting plane and seen in floor plan, elevation or other

viewing direction
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drawings. There are many kinds of section

Selection of a cutting plane and viewing views used in architectural draughting.
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direction is dictated by the information The common sections include: a full

which is required to be shown or section, an offset section, a half section,
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proposed. The section line must have

a broken-out section, a revolved section,
letters at each end indicating the name
and an auxiliary section.
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of the section drawing and an arrow

showing the direction that the view Full section view
takes. In residential buildings, it is
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Full section view is a section view of a

advised to locate the section line where
the complete shape of the room can be building that is sliced or cut completely
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seen or where doors or windows are cut. in two sections from either end of the
Figure 5.8 shows a typical section line. object as indicated in Figure 5.10.

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Pictorial view of an object Pictorial view of a full section
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A A
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Section+ing (thin line)

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Figure 5.10: Full section view of an object

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Offset section view

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An offset section view is very similar to a full section view, except that the cutting
plane line is not straight. This type of section view is due to the reason that, important
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features do not fall in a straight line as referred to in Figure 5.11.

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A A
A A SE
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Figure 5.11: Offset section view of an object

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Half-section view or section elevation

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Half section view is a view of an object which shows one-half of the view in a
section. The half of the view appears in the section while the other half is shown
as an exterior view (elevation) as indicated in Figure 5.12. This type of section is
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commonly used where a building or element is asymmetrical.

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A A
A A
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(1)
Pictorial view of half section
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A
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A
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(b)
Figure 5.12: A half- section view of an object
Section linings (hatch and fill)

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Section linings are thin lines drawn within the cutting plane to indicate the type of
N
material used in construction where the cutting line bisects building elements such
as a wall, a floor, a foundation and a roof. Section lining is represented by thin, black
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or coloured lines drawn at different patterns as shown in Table 5.1.

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Table 5.1: Section lining (hatch and fill)

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Section lining Used for represent:

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Soil or earth
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Hardcore

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Section lining Used for represent:
Mass concrete
Reinforced concrete
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Brickwork
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Blockwork
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SE Stone work
Unwrot timber
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Wrot (wrought) or
planned timber
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Plywood
N
O
Sand
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Water
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Section linings are standard
DOsymbols Steps of drawing sections
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used to represent different construction Section drawings are shown as cut
material. The exact type of material used through solid elements and spaces
to produce a specific element is usually or voids within a building. There are
given as a note within the drawing sheet several steps employed to prepare
for proper identification in case the section drawings such as tracing the
section lining are not as per standards. floor plan or projecting the floor plan.
Task 5.1 Step 1: Choose appropriate location for
Draw a sketch showing section of the a section line
building for the following with their
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To create a cross section, first draw a
proper section lining. line on your floor and roof plans that
a) Hardcore. cuts through a plane where you need
b) Blinding. to show cross section details as shown
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c) Damp proof membrane. in Figures 5.13 and 5.14. Also indicate
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d) Oversite concrete. the direction of view and name of the
e) Foundation wall. section.
f) Cement screed.
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Figure 5.13: Floor plan of the building showing the cross section line

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Figure 5.14: Cross section line on a roof plan
Step 2: Draw the orthographic projection Step 3: Apply appropriate hatching

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(section) Apply appropriate hatch materials to all
Start by drawing the width of the outer cut surfaces from the foundation, floor,
envelope of your building design through walls, windows, doors and roof as shown
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a given cross section line. Use the in Figure 5.17.

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measurements on the floor plan and roof Step 4: Labelling and dimensioning of
plan drawings. Include the following the drawing
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while performing this task:

Clearly label all the materials from top
(a) Foundation footings;
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to the bottom. Additionally, provide

(b) Foundation walls; name of the section, levels and scale as
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(c) Above ground exterior walls; indicated in Figure 5.17.

(d) Ground level line;
(e) Any windows that the section Draw dimension lines indicating clearly
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cuts through; the dimension of all components in the

(f) External and partitioning walls section. These components include plinth
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(g) Windows and doors; height, level of windows or doors from

(h) Lintels and beams; floor level, the size of beams, inclination
(i) Roof. of the roof, and the height of the building.

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It is important that all elements
DO areNOT
accurately drawn to scale since the interpreter of
DUPLICATE
the drawing might use the drawing scale to determine other dimensions which were
not shown or indicated clearly.
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Figure 5.17: Building section

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Exercise 5.1
Figure 5.18 represents a floor plan of a single bedroom residential house

R
designed by Form 3 students. Trace the floor plan on a plain paper, draw its roof
plan (assume it’s a mono-pitch roof) and indicate the necessary cross section
FO
lines (One longitudinal and one transverse sections) on it. Draw the sections to
the appropriate scale. (Mark all materials with their respective cross hatching).

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LOBBY
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Figure 5.18: A floor plan of a single bedroom residential building
E
Chapter summary
N
1. A section is a drawing which shows a view of a structure as if it had been

sliced in half or cut along another imaginary plane
LI
2. A longitudinal section is a cross section of an object or building along the

N
longest axis.
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3. A transverse section is a the cross section of an object or building along the

shortest axis.
R
4. A full section view is a section view of a building that is sliced or cut

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completely into two from either end of the object.
5. An offset section view is very similar to a full section view, except that the
cutting plane line is not straight

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6. A half section view is a drawing which shows one-half of the view in a
section and the other half is shown as an exterior view or elevation
7. Section linings are thin lines drawn within the cutting plane to indicate the
type of material used in construction where the cutting plane line bisected a
building element such as wall, floor, foundation, and roof.
8. A cutting plane is an imaginary cut taken through the building, since the
building is imagined as being cut through at a desired location.
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9. Cutting-plane lines are long and short dashed thick lines terminated with
arrows for a viewing direction that run through the object or plan or
elevation.
N
10. Cross referencing is a process of marking sections on the floor plan in which
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the section number or name and the drawing number sheet are clearly shown
at the end of each viewing direction.
Revision exercise 5
SE
1. Describe the purpose of section drawing in architecture.
U
2. What guides you in selecting “the direction of sight” in producing section
drawing?
E
3. Mention the difference between an offset section and a full section.

N
4. How does a cutting plane differ from a cutting plane line?

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5. Why are different section lining patterns sometimes used in drawings?

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6. How does a drafter know where to place the cutting plane?
7. When should a revolved section be used?

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8. With the aid of sketches, describe the following types of section views:
R
(a) A broken out section view;

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(b) A revolving section view;
(c) A removed section view.

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9. Figure 5.19 represents
DO NOTa floorDUPLICATE
plan of a two bedroom residential house.
Draw the floor plan on a plain paper, develop its roof plan and indicate
necessary cross sections lines (One longitudinal and one transverse
sections) on it. Draw the sections to the proper scale and dimensions
indicating clearly all the cut planes with their construction materials (mark
all materials with their respective cross hatching).
LY
N
O
SE
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Figure 5.19: A floor plan of a two-bedroom residential building

N
10. Figure 5.20 represents a floor plan of a three-bedroom residential house

commissioned by a client for developing architectural drawings. Draw the
LI
floor plan on a plain paper; develop its roof plan and indicate necessary
cross section lines (one longitudinal and one transverse sections) on it.
N
Draw the sections to the proper scale and dimensions indicating clearly
O
all the cut planes with their construction materials (mark all materials with
their respective cross hatching).
R
FO

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Figure 5.20: A floor plan of a three-bedroom residential building.
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Chapter
Elevations
Six
Introduction
Buildings have different sides such as front, back, left and right.
One cannot see all these sides at once. Such sides as we view them
are known as elevations. In this chapter, you will learn about the
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concept of elevation and steps of drawing elevations in building
design. The competencies developed will enable you to design, use
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and interpret the elevations drawings in construction activities.
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The concept of elevation
Building elevation shows arrangements, locations, shapes, and sizes of different
building elements along vertical plane. Elevation view shows vertical finished
SE
appearance of a building and can be easily understood. They represent information
of openings sizes and shapes, external or internal surface finishes, and height of a
U
building. These drawings are made by considering an aesthetic view of the building
which will be mostly seen from outside as seen in Figure 6.1.
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N
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Figure 6.1: A building elevation

Form Three
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Uses of elevation drawing DO NOT DUPLICATE
Elevation provides information that cannot be seen in floor plan, section or roof
plan. For example, a kitchen fitted with worktops and cabinets can be shown on
the floor plan. However, no information can be provided about height of worktops,
components of worktop, overhead cabinet and drawers located beneath the worktop.
This information can only be found on elevation drawing.
Elevation drawings can be used for surveying the condition of an existing building,
creating record of a building, communicate construction information, as a part of
application for building permit and for sales or marketing.
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Elevation naming
Elevations commonly used include front elevation, back or rear elevation, right side
elevation, and left side elevation which reflect the external appearance of the house
N
after it has been completed. However other names may be used to refer the common
elevation such as North, South, East and West elevations as a result of orientation of
O
the building while in other cases elevations can be numbered. The key to elevation
is provided on the floor and roof plans for referencing. Figure 6.2 shows a floor plan
with arrows indicating the direction of view and Figure 6.3 shows names of eleva-
tions.
R EA R ELEV A TI O N
SE
U
A B C
4,000 4,000
E
1 1
2,000
2,000
N
PASSAGE KITCHEN
LEF T ELEV A TI O N ( L)
R I G H T ELEV A TI O N ( R )
2 2
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3,500
N
4,000
BEDROOM LIVING ROOM

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3A
3
1,700
1,200
VERANDAH
R
4 4
4,000 4,000
FO
A B C
KEY TO ELEVATIONS
F R O NT E L E V A T I O N ( F ) B
L R
F
Figure 6.2: Floor plan of a house indicating elevations view

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Figure 6.3: Naming of building or house elevations
Steps for drawing an
N
elevation
O
Drawing of building elevation
requires an imagination and WC PASSAGE KITCHEN
understanding of orthographic SE
projection. The floor plan of
the building provides a base
line for the development of
U
BEDROOM LIVING ROOM
the building elevation. It is
therefore recommended to
use the same scale which was
E
used in the drawing of the

VERANDAH
floor plan for easy projections,
N
comparison, and references. ROOF OUTLINE

Elevation drawing is often
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drawn on a separate sheet as

may be projected from floor
N
plan sheet as shown on Figure

6.4. It is important to ensure
O
the floor plan is properly fixed

before starting projecting the
R
elevation on a separate sheet.

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Figure 6.4: Projection of the elevation from the floor plan

Form Three
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Step 1: Selection of scale and
DOheight
NOT of the building
DUPLICATE
From a given floor plan and roof plan, establish or adopt scale of the elevation from
floor plan. Decide the height of the building or walls with reference to the floor lev-
el. Elevation drawings are drawn to scale, each element in that particular drawing
will be related proportionally to the actual measurement. Ensure the elevation fits
on the sheet.
Step 2: Draw a building envelope

Start by drawing width of an envelope of a building by projecting vertical lines from
the floor plan. Use the measurements on the floor and roof plan drawings. Decide
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base of the elevation and height of the wall as shown in Figure 6.5.
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O
SE
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Figure 6.5: Single line presenting building envelope on an elevation
Step 3: Draw windows, doors, and openings

E
Project position of windows, doors, and all openings as shown in Figure 6.6.
N
Additional information on the dimension of windows and doors can be obtained

from the window and door schedule drawing.
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N
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Figure 6.6: Drawing of windows, doors, and openings on an elevation

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Step 4: Draw the roof DO NOT DUPLICATE
Draw the roof including its overhangs, gables, and other accessories which slope
down over the wall as shown in Figure 6.6. The overhang size and angle of a pitch
should match the one indicated in the roof plan and section drawings. In case there is
an end gable wall or a shed wall, determine the highest point of the wall below your
roof by using the slope of the roof, then calculate the height of the top most point
of the roof. Determine the actual thickness of the roof including all framing such
as fascia/barge board and the roof itself and draw this onto your elevation drawing.
Step 5: Draw plinth level and any stair or steps to access ground floor, wall, roof
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material, and baluster if any
Darken the lines viewed and remove unnecessary lines by drawing vertical lines
from the floor level to the anticipated ground level at each plane corner. Also,
N
indicate wall texture, roof materials, window infills, and balusters if any as shown in
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Figure 6.7.
SE
U
E
(a) (b)
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Figure 6.7: (a) Floor height lines, (b) Material identification

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Step 6: Draw the natural ground level line
Draw a horizontal line to form a natural ground level as well as the grid line as
N

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Figure 6.8: Ground level line to form natural ground level
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Step 7: Labelling and dimensioning an elevation
Dimensioning of an elevation is mainly attributed to the vertical height dimensions.
SE
The elements which must be dimensioned are plinth height, floor to ceiling height,
overhang width, the height of the windows from floor finish, and the height of the
windows and doors.
U
Labelling of an elevation should be included where additional information is needed.
Typical notes included are wall finish material, roof covering finish material, fascia
or barge board material, flashing material, as referred in Figures 6.9.
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N
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Figure 6.9: Labelling and dimensioning of an elevation drawing

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Activity 6.1: Drawing elevations of DUPLICATE
your classroom block
Requirements: Plain papers (A4 or A3 format), a pencil, an eraser, a straight
edge, a scale ruler, set squares, T-square, and a measuring tape.
Procedure
1. Measure the size of the classroom block by using a measuring tape.
3. Using paper and pencil, draw the shape of the classroom block clearly
indicating all the dimensions to the correct scale on a plain paper.
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4. Produce the floor and roof plans of the classroom block including
dimensions.
5. Produce elevation of the classroom block.
N
Questions
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1. Explain the uses of your drawing.
2. What is the importance of your drawing in the execution of construction

SE
works?
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Activity 6.2: Drawing elevations of a workshop block
Requirements: Plain papers (A4 or A3 format), a pencil, an eraser, a straight
edge, a scale ruler, set squares and a measuring tape.
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Procedure
N
1. Measure the size of the workshop block by using a measuring tape.

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3. Draw the floor and roof plans of the workshop with dimensions.
N
4. Produce the exterior elevations of the workshop block.

5. Draw one (1) interior elevation.
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Chapter summary
R
1. Elevation is an orthographic projection drawing that shows a vertical

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surface of the building.

2. Architectural elevation is used to show the internal and external
appearance of the finished building.
3. Elevation is drawn to indicate height, finishing materials that are not seen

Form Three
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DO NOT DUPLICATE
on the floor plan or section.
4. The size and shape of windows, doors and siding or cladding are shown
on the elevation drawing.
5. The elevation drawing include outline of building, openings such as
doors and windows, roofing projections such as eaves and fascia, level
datum such as finished ground and floor levels, key dimensions such as
wall height, exterior features such as paint and finishing.
Revision exercise 6
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1. Design and draw a residential building floor plan with one master bedroom,
one bedroom, sitting, and dining rooms, a kitchen, a toilet and a bath
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room. Provide all necessary requirements and hence draw its elevations.
2. Figure 6.10 represents a floor plan of a residential building, trace it in a
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plain paper, produce its roof plan and all common elevations associated
with it (observe scale and neatness).
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Figure 6.10: Floor plan of a two-bedroom residential building

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3. Figure 6.11 represents
DOa floor
NOTplan of a residential building, trace it in a plain
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paper, produce its roof plan and all common elevations associated with it
(observe scale and neatness).
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Figure 6.11: Floor plan of a three-bedroom residential building

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Chapter
Doors
Seven
Introduction
Doors are building components that are located in interior and

exterior wall for controlling entry to and exit from the building
or room. Doors are used to separate the interior spaces for
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convenience, privacy, safety and security reasons. In this chapter,
you will learn about the concept of doors, types of doors,
components of doors, conventional symbols of standard doors and
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drawing of door. The competencies developed will enable you to
read, draw, and interpret different types of doors.
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The concept of doors and method of operation. Materials used
Doors are movable segments of the in the construction of doors include
envelope of a space made to open and
close quickly and easily whenever
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timber, polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
aluminium, plastic, glass and steel. The
passage to and from enclosed space is operation mechanism of doors include
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required. Doors are positioned in floor swinging, revolving and sliding. On that
plan and their operation affects function basis, the common types of doors used
of the enclosed space. Apart from the in residential buildings are swinging
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functional aspects of a door, it also and sliding ones. There are three types
enhances beauty, security, safety and of wooden doors by considering their
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privacy of the building. The operation construction methods which are: panel
can be swinging, revolving, folding, doors, flush doors, and batten doors.
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collapsing or sliding. Common components of a door

The door is referred to as mouthpiece A door is made up of three major
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of a building or a room because of components which are leaf, frame and

the integral role it plays in welcoming ironmongery. These components are
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people. However, a good door should made up of several parts as shown in

have the quality of providing security Figure 7.1.
Frame
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to users, strength, weather resistance for

external doors, good appearance, energy This is a piece of material that holds the
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efficiency, durability, and air tightness. door leaf and usually fixed in the opening
Types of doors in which the door can sit.
Types of doors in a residential building Mullion
can be differentiated according to This is a vertical component that
construction methods, materials used,

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separates two panels located
DO NOT in the Stile
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middle of the door between the rails. These are vertical pieces of a door, which
Jamb are an important part of the door to
This is a flat surface that runs vertically consider when specifying its hardware.
up either side of the door frame or it is Rail
a vertical part of the frame that is fixed This is a horizontal pieces of the door
to the wall. that is used for mounting hardware such
Transom as hinges and locks.
This is a section of the frame separating Leaf
the door openable leaf and the fixed/ This is an openable part of a door.
openable top. Door sweep
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Casing or architrave This is an object that seals gaps between
This is a term used to describe the trim the bottom of the door and the floor or
found around a door opening. threshold.
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(a) (b)
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Figure 7.1: Door parts: (a) A 3D image of a door and (b) Elevation of a door
Conventional symbols of standard doors

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In drawing, symbols of doors are used to mark or to represent the character of the
door. The function of conventional symbols in architectural draughting for standard
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doors is to facilitate communication among the construction team. Consequently,

conventional symbols make it easy for the construction team to interpret drawing
through symbols. Symbols can be used to depict features like doors and windows.

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Normally, a drawing is a useless
DO NOTtool without symbols. Figures 7.2 and 7.3 show
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plan symbols and elevation symbols of types of doors by their respective operation
mechanism.
Swinging door Double swinging door Revolving door
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Folding door Sliding door Pocket sliding door
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Figure 7.2: Plan symbols of different types of doors
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(a) Swinging door (b) Sliding door (c) Swinging door

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Figure 7.3: Elevation symbols of selected doors
Drawing of a door
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The drawing of door involves drawing of door plan, door elevation, and detail
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section for easy communication during construction.

Drawing of door plan
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Door plan shows the view of a door as seen from horizontal plane. It is a section cut
of the door showing frame, leaf, locking system, and opening mechanism as shown
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in Figure 7.4. However, in floor plan less details of door are presented.
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Figure 7.4: Plan of a swinging wooden door
Activity 7.1: Drawing plan of the classroom door(s)

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Requirements: Measuring tape, plain paper (A4 or A3 format), a straight edge,
a pencil and an eraser
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Procedure
1. Identify the type of door based on its (i) opening operation, and (ii)
material
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2. Measure the width of the door.

Align a measuring tape along the door from the left corner to the right
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corner or from the right corner to the left corner; then read and record
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the dimension you obtained from the tape measure. It is recommended to

measure the door in more than one location. It is important to measure the
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door by including parts of the door.

3. Select the best scale due to the dimensions obtained and draw plans of the
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doors.
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Drawing door elevation

A door elevation is a vertical view of a door which shows how the hinges or locking
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systems are placed; or indicate the designated opening mechanism. For example, in
swinging doors, this is done by drawing a dotted line from the top and bottom corner
of the door on one side to the center of the door on the opposite side. The side of

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the door that has the lock is the
DOcenter-point where the two dotted lines intersect as
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900
500mm x 150mm
hardwood door frame
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40mm panel door
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2,100
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Mortice lock
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Figure 7.5: Dotted lines indicate swinging door opening mechanism

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Task 7.1
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By using a scale of 1:20, draw plan and elevation of a wooden panel door, flash
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door, and battens door. With the width size of 900 mm and height of 2100 mm.
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Exercise 7.1
1. Draw elevations of doors in Figure 7.6 to the required standards. Front door
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width is 1000 mm, other doors are 900 mm (Assume the height is 2100 mm
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and all are wooden).

2. Draw detailed plan of all doors in Figure 7.6.
3. Describe the purposes of drawing door elevation.
4. Draw elevation drawings of the three types of wooden door.

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Figure 7.6: Floor plan of residential building
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Detailed sections of doors

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Sections are drawn to represent details which cannot be seen from other drawings such
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as floor plans and elevations. Selection of a point where to cut a section depends on
which information you want to present. Door detail sections are normally presented
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in scales of 1:2 to 1:10 and their part of detailed drawings used for construction or
manufacture of components as shown in Figures 7.7, 7.8 and 7.9. The following are
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steps used to draw the detailed sections of wooden swinging doors.

Step 1: From the door plan and elevation in Figure 7.7 decide the point to provide
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more details.
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Step 2: Draw the section line, show the section views and name the section as
Step 3: Draw to a given scale by providing all details marked in step 2.
Step 4: Provide dimensions and labelling to the section.

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Figure 7.7: Plan, elevation and detail of a wooden door

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4
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Figure 7.8: Detailed Section A-A of a wooden door

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DO NOT OPENING
STRUCTURAL DUPLICATE
WIDTH
5 DOOR FRAME WIDTH 5
M10×40
Packing shims CLEAR PASSAGE WIDTH Bolt
M10 anchor
expansion fixing bolt Rubber grommet
door thickness
Steel work
HINGE DOOR LEAF WIDTH 4

variable width
M10 CSK anchor
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HORIZONTAL SECTION
expansion fixing bolt Mastic between frame and structure
(Alternative fixing) (Optional Extra)
(a)
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5
Exercise 7.2
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1. Draw horizontal and vertical
3
sections of the classroom door
to proper scale.
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2. You have been consulted by a
door manufacturer asking you
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to provide clarification on how
to fix a door to an opening.
Structural opening height
With the aid of sketches explain

Clear passage height
Door frame height
Door leaf height
your clarifications.
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Sizing of doors
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The size depends on the function of

room or space, material, technology and
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client preference. However, the standard

sizes of residential building vary from
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1800 mm to 750 mm in width and height

of 2800 mm to 2100 mm. The minimum
size of a door for human being passage
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6 Finished floor level

Vertical Section is at the height of 2100 mm and width of
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750 mm. Table 7.1 shows sizes of doors

(b)
in various location.
Figure 7.9: Steel swinging door detailed
sections (a) horizontal section and
(b) vertical section

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Table 7.1: Door sizes DO NOT DUPLICATE
Door location Width (W) in mm Height (H) in mm
Exterior 1800 - 900 2800 - 2100
Bedroom/internal 1500 - 800 2800 - 2100
Toilets/store 900 - 750 2400 - 2100
Labelling of door
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In buildings where a number of doors vary in sizes, types, materials and operation
mechanism, identification of these doors need a proper coding or labelling. Doors
coding is part of the procedures in preparing a door schedule which you will learn in
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Form 4. Doors are coded by using numeric or text values and presented in the floor
plan as shown in Figure 7.10. The details of these identifications are provided in the
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door schedule.
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Figure 7.10: Door coding in the floor plan

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Dimensions and labelling should
DO always be written on the top or bottom and left or
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right side of the drawing object. Dimension of a door should resemble that of the
floor plan. Dimension of a door should be easy to read and not confuse the object.
Normally, the dimension goes together with labelling as it describes the statement
that represents parts of the door. Figure 7.11 shows how to dimension and label door
elevation.
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Figure 7.11: Dimensioning and labelling of the door elevation

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Exercise 7.3
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1. Draw well labelled plans and elevations of one classroom and one office
door.
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2. From the information of doors labelled in Figure 7.10, draw the vertical
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section, horizontal section and elevation of each door, assuming the width
of D1 is 1200 mm, D2 is 900 mm, D3 is 800 mm, and D4 is 1000 mm.
All doors are wooden with the height of 2400 mm which is inclusive of a
fanlight.

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1. A door is a building element that provides access to the rooms or buildings.
Doors can be a swinging, folding, rotating or sliding type.
2. The minimum sizes of a door used in the residential buildings varies.

For external doors it is 1800 mm X 2100 mm to 900mm X 2100 mm;
for internal doors it is 1500 mm X 2100 mm to 800 mm X 2100 mm;
for bathroom and toilets it is 750 mm X 2100 mm to 900 X 2100 mm.
The dimension and size will change due to the purpose, function and
requirement of the house according to the client.
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3. The selection of door details to present depends on the information
required to be portrayed.
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4. Conventional symbols are widely accepted symbols or sign systems which
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enable communication of drawing, speed up preparation of drawing and
unify the drawing graphics.
Revision exercise 7 SE
1. Use suitable scale to draw the horizontal and vertical sections of the
classroom doors.
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2. With the aid of well labelled sketches, describe the conventional symbols
of the standard doors.
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3. Draw to suitable scale, a well labelled plan and elevation of the wooden
double door with the size of 1500 mm X 2100 mm (size of frame 50 mm
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X 150 mm and glass infills of 6 mm thick)

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4. Draw the detailed sections of a door in Question three (3).

5. Mention the importance of conventional symbols.
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6. You have been requested to provide advice on the size of doors to be used
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in toilet, main entry, store, bedroom and garage to your teacher’s house.
Basing on knowledge of doors that you have learnt, explain your advice.
7. A ledged, braced and battened door has the following information:
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(a) Overall width of door is 980 mm;

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(b) Overall height of the door is 2400 mm;

(c) The width of each batten is 140 mm excluding the tongue which is
10 mm deep and the battens are 20 mm thick (joined by T&G joint);

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(d) Each of the ledges
DO and braces
NOT has a size of 120 mm X 25 mm;
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(e) The ledges are terminated 15 mm off the edges of the sides of a door
and fixed 150 mm off the top and bottom edges of the door.
To a scale of 1:10, draw:
(a) The internal elevation of a door;
(b) The longitudinal section Y-Y of a door;
(c) The horizontal cross section X-X of a door.
Show all necessary dimensions.
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8. In a given residential building floor plan in Figure 7.12, draw a well
labelled detailed section, and elevation of each door, assuming the width
of D1 is 1200 mm, D2 is 900 mm, D3 is 800 mm and D4 is 1000 mm. All
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doors are wooden doors with a height of 2100 mm.
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Figure 7.12: Floor plan of a building

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Chapter
Windows
Eight
Introduction
Buildings are enclosed with walls and roofs. Without opening, they
are like an egg and no human being would enjoy the environment.
To make the building environmentally comfortable, windows are
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provided to allow passage of air, light and view of the outside
environment. In this chapter, you will learn about the concept of
windows, types of windows and components of windows. You will
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also learn about design requirement for windows, conventional
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symbols of windows, standard symbol of windows, standard
dimension of windows, dimension and labelling of windows, and
drawing of window plan and elevation. The competencies developed
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will enable you to draw, read, and interpret architectural drawing
with window element.
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The concept of windows
A window is an opening provided on a wall or roof to allow light and air into
the building and give access to the outside view. The purpose of windows can be
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extended to visual appearance and evacuation during emergency. Windows are often
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shown on the floor plans, elevations and coded for referencing in window schedule.
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Types of windows
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Windows can be classified according to the material used in their construction or

on the basis of their design. Based on materials used in construction, windows are
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classified as wooden, Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), steel, and aluminium. Types of

windows based on design are fixed windows, sliding windows, dormer windows,
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casement windows, awning or top hung windows, jalousie windows, hopper, and
pivoted windows. Table 8.1 summarises types of windows based on their design.
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Table 8.1: Type of windows DO NOT DUPLICATE
Symbols of windows
Type of
window Plan Elevation Picture
Fixed window
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Sliding
window
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Single Casement
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window
Casement
window
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Double casement
window

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Symbols of windows
Type of
window Plan Elevation Picture
Awning or top
hung window
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Jalousie
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Hopper
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window
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VERT
N
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Pivoted
window
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HOR

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Components of a window DO NOT DUPLICATE
of a window.
A window is made up of three major Lite
components which are leaf, frame and This refers to separate framed panes of
ironmongery. These components are glass.
made up of several parts as shown in
Figure 8.1. Stool
Frame The part of the window commonly
This is a piece of material that Interior casing
holds the window leaf.
Mullion or Muntin parting head head jamb
This is a vertical component
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that separates two panels parting head
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located in the middle of
the window between two
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muntin side jamb
adjoining window panes.
Jamb
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sash lock upper sash
This is a flat surface that runs
up on either side of the window stile
frame vertically or across the
width of the window at the top
horizontally.
meeting rails
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Transom
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This is a section of frame
separating the window bottom
pane
and top panes. stool
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Casing apron
This is a term used to describe exterior sill
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the trim found around a Figure 8.1: Components of window

window opening.
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Stile a wood, metal or stone that acts as a

These are vertical pieces of the window
window sill on the inside of a window.
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that are an important part to consider

Sash
when specifying window hardware.
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Sill The movable part of a window made up

This is a horizontal structure or surface of the vertical and horizontal frame that
at the bottom of a window that serves to holds the glass.
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structurally support and hold the window

in place and provide mechanism for Activity 8.1: Identifying types of
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avoiding water penetration. windows in a building

Apron Requirements: Plain papers (A4 or
This is a decorative trim installed against A3 format), a pencil, an eraser,
the wall immediately beneath the stool a straight edge, a scale ruler,

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a T-square, set squares
DO NOT light transmission, air penetration, and
and aDUPLICATE
measuring tape. moisture to the building. A consideration
Procedure to build or place a window on the wall
1. In a group, select one window should as well as minimize or maximize
in a classroom, workshop, the exposure of external surface to the
office, and a residential sun for comfortability of users.
building. Protection from dusts, smoke, insects,
and sound
2. By using measuring tape,
A window should be tight in such a way
measure the size of a window.
that it is sound proof, protects users from
3. Prepare an elevation drawing dust and smoke. Additionally, in tropical
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of selected window by using areas windows should be provided with
drawing instruments. a net to protect users from insects such as
mosquitos while allowing air circulation.
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Questions Appearance of a window
Windows form an important part of the
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1. Identify the material(s) used in
aesthetic appeal of a building when seen
the construction of the window.
from both inside or outside. Things to
2. Explain any three advantages SE
be considered when design windows
and disadvantages of the are the position within a wall, pattern
material(s) used. of window, treatment of window for
3. Which factors guide selection of decoration and shading, provision of
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window materials. curtains, and the material to be used.
4. Identify the type of the window Climatic condition
according to the design. Different climatic condition requires
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position, size and specific type of

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Design requirements for windows windows. This factor normally applies

When designing a window in a residential to weather condition of a particular area.
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building, there are important factors Location of a window is discouraged

to consider in order to make a suitable on a surface or plane where wind
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selection including: energy performance, direction is parallel to the window in

protection from dust, smoke, insects, moderate climates. In extreme climatic
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and sound. Other factors are appearance conditions (either hot or cold), the size
of a window, and response to climatic of the windows should be such that there
conditions. is least negative effect of the external
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Energy performance environment within the house.

Conventional symbols of windows
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In designing windows, proper

consideration of materials should be taken Conventional symbols are standard
into account in ensuring the heat loss from graphics used to represent some
the building, solar radiation penetration, elements in architectural drawings.
Conventional symbols can represent

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the true image of element orDO
imaginary Table 8.2: Standard dimensions of
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sign. Windows are among the elements windows
shown by using symbols as shown in Room Width (W) mm Height (H) mm
Table 8.1. The purpose of symbols is to Bedroom 1500 1500
enable communication, speed drafting Living room 1800 1500
and unify the graphics quality.
Toilet 600 900
Standard dimensions of windows
Kitchen 1000 1200
In designing windows, there are standard
dimensions which are frequently used Dimensioning and labelling of
based on the function of a given room windows
or building. But all these standard Managing a great number of windows
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dimensions may vary according to the in a building can be a challenging task.
purposes of a building, requirements of In architectural drawings, windows are
clients or function of a particular room coded according to type, function or
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or space. The common size of windows location by using numbers or letters.
in a residential building are as shown in
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These codes are provided in the floor
Table 8.2. plan and window schedule as shown in
Figure 8.2. The lesson regarding window
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schedule will be taught in Form 4.
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Figure 8.2: Window coding on the floor plan

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Drawing window detailsDO NOT DUPLICATE
Drawing a window involves drawing window plan, window elevation, and detail
section for smooth communication during construction or fabrication.
Drawing window plan
Drawing a window plan can adopt the same procedures of drawing a door plan as
elaborated in Chapter Seven. Figure 8.3 shows a plan for a timber casement window.
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Figure 8.3: Dimensioning and labelling of a window plan
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Window elevations drawing
Elevations of windows are drawn to scale, indicating the appearance and opening
mechanism. An elevation drawing depends on the floor plan of the building.
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Casement window elevation commonly show the side of hinges by a dotted line
N
from the top and bottom corner to the center of the window mullion on the opposite
side. The side of the window that has the lock is the center-point where the two
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dotted lines intersect as shown in Figure 8.4. In sliding windows, a line with arrow
direction is used to show the sliding direction.
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1,800
900 900
75 50 50 75 75 50 50 75
50 200 200 200 200 200 200 50
50
125
50mm by 100mm timber frame
200
50
200
50
200
1,800
1,800
Window lock
50
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200
50
200
50
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6mm Clear glass Lite
200
125
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50
75mm by 2000mm window sill

400
F l o o r F i ni s h Le ve l
Figure 8.4: Dimensioning and labelling of a window elevation

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Activity 8.2: Drawing elevations of a window
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Requirements:Plain papers (A4 or A3 format), a pencil, an eraser, a straight
edge, a scale ruler, a T-square, set squares and a measuring tape.
E
Procedure
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1. Prepare a floor plan drawing for a two-bedroom residential building to

proper scale and mark all the windows with their proper naming dictated
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by sizes.
2. Insert grids on the floor plan drawing.

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3. Project thin lines from the floor plan marking all corners, start and end
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lines of the window.
4. Indicate ground and plinth lines to make reference lines for vertical levels.
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5. Mark vertical dimension from plinth level to indicate vertical height of the
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window.

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6. Subdivide windowDO NOT
outline intoDUPLICATE
a desired division to form vents and panels.
7. Label all parts of the window elevations by specifying their construction

materials.
Detailed sections of a window

Sections are drawn to present detailed information which cannot be seen from other
drawings. Selection of a point where to cut section depends on which information
need to be presented. Window sections are normally presented in scales of 1:2 to
1:10 and their part of detailed drawings used are for construction or manufacturer
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of components. The same steps you learned in Chapter Seven on how to draw the
detailed sections of a door can be adopted.
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Exercise 8.1
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1. By using proper scale, draw a plan, elevations and detailed sections assuming
the type of window is casement window made up of wooden structure with
6 mm glass thickness.
SE
2. Draw a well labelled window of your classroom with its plan, section,
elevation, and detailed sections.
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3. Identify and categorize different types of windows found within your school
area, and then draw their plans.
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Chapter summary
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1. A window is a vented barrier in a wall opening to admit light, air and

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enhance the aesthetic appearance of a building.

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2. Windows are available in different types based on the materials, shape,

size, and operation mechanism.
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3. The details to be presented in window plans, sections, and elevation

depend on the scale of the drawing and amount of details needed.
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4. Conventional symbols are standard and are used to represent windows in

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a sign form in plan and elevation. The purpose of conventional symbols

is to enhance communication.

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Revision exercise 8 DO NOT DUPLICATE
1. Use a suitable scale to draw the horizontal and vertical sections of a steel
casement window.
2. Using conventional symbols, draw and label the following types of
windows with their respective plans and elevations.
(a) Dormer window.
(b) Casement window.
(c) Awning window.
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(d) Jalousie window.
(e) Hopper.
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(f) Pivoted window.
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3. Explain procedures of dimensioning and labelling of windows.
4. Draw a well labelled plan, elevation, sections and section details of a steel
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casement window with a size of 1500 mm X 2000 mm, steel frame size of
38 mm and 4 mm thick, and 6 mm thick glass.
5. Draw a well labelled plan, elevation, sections and section details of the
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wooden casement window of size 2000 mm X 1000 mm, frame size of 50
mm X 100 mm, and 6mm thick glass.
6. A wooden glass sliding window has the following information;
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(a) Overall width of window is 2000 mm;

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(b) Overall height of the window is 1650 mm;

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(c) The thickness of the glass is 6 mm.

Draw detailed plan, elevation, vertical and horizontal sections to a scale of 1:10.
N
Show all necessary dimensions and annotations.

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7. Suppose you are required to design windows for a residential building to

be constructed in urban area. Explain four common types of window that
you may advice the client for your design.
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8. Assume that, you are an architect at a certain construction company. List

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down four factors the will guide that you in designing a window.

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Chapter
Stairs and ramps
Nine
Introduction
In buildings; stairs, staircases and ramps are provided to bridge

vertical distances of multi-storey buildings. Like telecommunication
towers around our neighbourhood are provided with ladders as
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vertical bridge to enable accessibility to the equipment fixed at
high levels. In this chapter, you will learn about the concept of
stairs and ramps, their components and types of staircases. You
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will also learn about the requirements for designing and drawing
of stairs, ramps and dimensioning of stairs and ramps. The
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competencies developed will enable you to design, draw and read
stairs, staircase and ramps drawings.
The concept of stairs and ramps

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Stairs, staircase and ramps are part of vertical circulation system of buildings. Their
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primary objectives is to provide means of moving to and from different levels.
Stairs
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A stair is the structure having series of steps between flights which facilitates
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movement from lower to higher level and vice versa. A stair is designed to bridge a
vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances called steps. For safety
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and comfortability steps are sometimes provided with nosing and anti-slip strips as
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O
R
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Figure 9.1: Steps as part of stair/staircase
Staircase or stairway is a term referring to one or more flights of stairs leading

from one floor to another. The term staircase includes flights, landings, handrails,
balustrades and other associated additional parts.

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Components of stairs DO NOT DUPLICATE
There are several functional elements and components in stairs and staircases design
as illustrated in Figures 9.2 and 9.3.
Step: Comprises short horizontal and vertical surfaces for the foot to ease ascent
from one level to another. It consists of an horizontal element called tread and a
vertical element called riser.
Tread (T): This is the upper horizontal part of the step that is stepped on when
moving along the staircase.
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Riser (R): This is the vertical portion of the step between steps. This allows vertical
ascend or descent from one level to another level.
N
Flight: This is a series of steps between the floor and landing.
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Landing: This is a horizontal platform between two flights. It serves as a rest between
flights and as a means to turn a stair.
SE
Nosing: It is part of tread that goes beyond the riser surface.
Handrail: This is a rail fixed parallel above the pitch line at the sides of a stair.
U
Baluster: This is a vertical or horizontal members which support a handrail.
E
Balustrade: It is a combination of a handrail and balusters.

N
Newel post: This is a vertical component which supports a handrail, or an upper end
of an outer string.
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Stringer or string: It is a sloping structural member that supports the treads. It runs
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along the slope of stair.

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Headroom: This is the clear distance between the slope line adjoining the tread to
the underneath or soffit of the above floor.
R
Soffit: This is the area under the surface of a stair.

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N
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Figure 9.2: A staircase showing components
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Figure 9.3: Stair showing staircase headroom

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Types of stairs
Type of a stair depends on its shape, material and mode of construction. In choosing
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the type of stair to be used, its functionality and aesthetic factors should be considered.
Stairs can be made up of different materials such as concrete, plastic, steel or timber
materials. There are six basic types of stairs: straight flight, quarter-turn, dog legged,
bifurcated or split, curved, and spiral.

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Straight flight stair DO NOT DUPLICATE
A straight flight stair has a single straight flight like a ladder and connects two
levels or floors in a building as shown in Figures 9.4 and 9.5. This may consists a
flight with one or more landings in between to allow resting according to the design
requirements. This type of stairs is constructed when a long and narrow space is
available to accommodate it. It is common and the oldest type of stair.
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(a)
N
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Landing
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(b)
Figure 9.4: Straight flight staircase (a) without landing and (b) with landing
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P2 P2
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N
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P1 P1
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Figure 9.5: Straight flight stair with and without landing in 3D view

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There are number of advantages
DO NOTand disadvantages
DUPLICATE associated with this type of stair. This
stair is easy to build. Due to its simplicity, different materials are used in constructing
it and it is affordable or cheaper compared to other types of stairs.
Despite the above advantages, there are also some disadvantages associated with this
type of stair like lack of privacy since no barrier between floors, fall from the top of
stair can result to serious injuries and its uncomfortable for children and older people.
Quarter turn stair
Quarter-turn stair is a stair type which changes the direction of the flight at right
angles either to the left or to the right as shown in Figure 9.6. At the quarter turn or
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change of direction, a quarter space landing or winders may be introduced. This type
of stair is also called L-shaped stair.
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P4
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P3
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P2
E
P1
(a) (b)
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Figure 9.6: Quarter turn stairs (a) with quarter space landing (b) with winders
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Winders are triangular steps that are narrower on one side than the other, they change
the direction of the staircase.
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Advantages of a quarter turn stair include: providing visual barrier between floors
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hence add some privacy and it is safer as the central landing reduces the number of
treads. However, it is disadvantageous as it requires support at the landing and its
construction is a bit difficult compared to straight stairs. The handrails and balustrades
R
for this type of stair requires more skills in construction.

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Dog legged stair

Dog legged stair has the direction of its flight turned by 180˚ as illustrated in Figure
9.7. It is also known as U-shaped stair. It may either be a half turn type or an open well

Form Three
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type. In dog-legged stairs, the
DOflights
NOT areDUPLICATE
in opposite directions to each other and
there is no space provided between them in a plan while in an open well staircase,
there is a well or opening between the flights and it may be used to accommodate
services such as lift. Open well type stairs are useful where available space is enough
to accommodate this stair shape.

II-Flight
Landing Landing
Landing
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N
Open Open
well
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well
I-Flight II-Flight
I-Flight III-Flight
(a)
SE (b)
Figure 9.7: Dog legged stairs (a) A dog legged staircase (b) An open well staircase
U
Bifurcated stair or split stair
Bifurcated stair is type of stair which has a wider flight at the bottom and splits
E
into two narrow flights. One flight turns to the left and the other to the right, at the
N
landing as shown in Figure 9.8. There is a wide flight at the start and is divided into
two narrow flights at the mid-landing. The two narrow flights lead to the same level
LI
of the floor. Such types of stairs are generally designed in public buildings to allow
large movement of people.
N
O
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N
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Curved stairs.
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Figure 9.8: Bifurcated stair with two turning at the landing
Curved stairs, often referred to as helical stair lead upstairs in a curved manner as
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shown in Figure 9.9. It has two rolled stringers with treads attached between them
for wooden and steel stair while for the concrete material they are in monolithic
E
shape.
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Figure 9.9: Curved staircase

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Spiral stair DO NOT DUPLICATE
A spiral stair is a curved stair with a set of steps winding up around a fixed central
post or column support. It usually has a very compact design and tends to use a
smaller space. The steps in the spiral stair are anchored around a central pole as
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N
O
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E
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O
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Figure 9.10: Spiral staircase with a supporting post

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Requirements for designing and drawing stairs

In design of staircase and stairs, the following requirements can be taken into
consideration:

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(a) Stairs should beDO
located
NOT onDUPLICATE
an easily accessed locations of the building.
Sufficient light and proper ventilation should be ensured in the staircase
for easy and safe movement between floors.
(b) A minimum of 2000 mm of clear headroom is required above the pitch
line.
(c) The width of stair depends upon the purpose or use and importance of the
building.
(d) A stair should have a tread and riser which is comfortable for ease of
movements. The relationship between riser (R) and tread (T) can be
shown as 2R+T=550 mm to 720 mm. Note that, the preferred riser for
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staircase is the one which is less than 175 mm.
(c) The angle of inclination (angle of pitch) between the horizontal floor and
stairs should have a maximum pitch of 40° and minimum pitch of 250 as
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illustrated in Figure 9.11. It should be noted that, the angle beyond 400 is
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a ladder not a stair.
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E
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Horizontal
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Figure 9.11: Angle of inclination (angle of pitch) of a staircase

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(f) Handrails on stairs and landings should have a minimum height of 900
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mm for safety of users.

(g) Balustrades must be provided in the open well stairs to avoid the danger
of accidents. No openings between balusters should allow the passage of
R
a 100 mm – 150 mm sphere as in Figure 9.12.

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DO36”NOT DUPLICATE
31”
36”
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3
N
O
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Figure 9.12: Balusters recommended spacing
(h) The minimum length of a landing should be equal to the width of the
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flight.
General procedures/steps of stair and staircase design
Stair and staircase are structural elements where structural calculations are involved.
E
You need to consult a structural engineer for advice. Always ensure the structure is
stable for safety reasons. The following are steps to be taken while designing a stair.
N
Step 1: Select suitable building material to be used for stair/staircase.

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Step 2: Select the type of a stair or staircase suitable for the building or function
of an area.
N
Step 3: Establish the height between floors to be connected by a stair and determine
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the dimensions of risers, tread and flight width.

Step 4: Calculate the number of treads (T) and risers (R) as per the given riser
height and tread depth.
R
;
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Step 5: Produce basic drawings
DO NOT and detailed
DUPLICATEannotated drawings of stair or staircase
using appropriate scale.
Development of stair and staircase drawings
Staircase and stair drawings are developed to ensure smooth communication of

information. Development of staircase and stair may involve drawings such as plan,
section, detailing and annotation, and dimensioning of the staircase. Despite having
different construction materials, the approaches for drawing the staircase are the
same whether it is concrete, wooden or steel.
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Drawing plan and section of the stair/staircase
In drawing a staircase plan and section you need to decide the type of stair, location,
and size. Identifying the number of steps, length and width of stair and staircase
N
and use appropriate scale to produce plan and section drawings should be taken into
consideration.
O
Wooden stair or staircase and its drawings (a plan and section for a straight
flight stair)
SE
A wooden stair is a type of stair which uses wooden materials as its main structure
(stringer, treads and riser).
U
Drawing a plan of the wooden staircase
There are several steps to be taken on board while drawing plan of a wooden staircase.
Step 1: Draw lines indicating all the number of treads, risers, and width of the stair
E
or staircase flight with their respective dimensions as well as the balustrades

N
or handrail thickness as shown in Figure 9.13. Assume a residential house

height of 3000 mm, riser height of 150 mm, tread depth of 300 mm and
LI
the width of stair 1200 mm. Then; R=20 and T=19.

N
Length
O
Width
R
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Tread Stringer
Figure 9.13: Lines representing tread and stringer in a plan of a staircase

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If there is nosing (assume a standard
DO NOT dimension of 25 mm), draw another line with
DUPLICATE
25 mm and dot the other as shown Figure 9.14.
Tread Nosing Line
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Figure 9.14: Representation of nosing in a plan of a staircase
Step 2: Introduce a line with an arrow at the centre of the staircase plan to indicate
N
the ‘UP’ direction as shown in Figure 9.15. This will show the start point
of the staircase (first step with a small circle mark) in the lower level or
O
floor to the end point of the staircase (the last step) at the upper level and
number the steps.
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U
E
Thread
N
Figure 9.15: Upward arrow (UP) and numbering on the staircase plan
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Step 3: Introduce lines showing plan of balustrades and handrail as shown in Figure
9.16.
N
O
R
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Tread Balustrade/handrail
Figure 9.16: Balustrades and handrail of a staircase

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Step 4: Introduce cutline since the plans are assumed to be horizontal cut at a height
DO NOT DUPLICATE
of 1 m and use dashed line for all stair line above the cutline as shown in
Figure 9.17.
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Figure 9.17: Introduction of cutline above the horizontal cut height
Drawing of section of the wooden staircase
N
There are several steps which need to be taken on board while drawing section of a
O
wooden staircase.
Step 1: On the staircase plan above, draw a section line with a viewing direction
(X4-X4) as shown in Figure 9.18. SE
U
E
N
Figure 9.18: Presentation of section line on a staircase plan

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Step 2: Draw the section you cut from the stair or staircase plan in Figure 9.18
above to scale showing the treads, risers, baluster, flight height, and run or
N
length as illustrated in Figure 9.19.

O
R
FO

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Figure 9.19: Section X4-X4 of a staircase
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Staircase detail drawing, dimensioning and labelling
O
Preparation of a detailed drawing, dimensioning and labelling involves providing
necessary information needed for intended use of drawing. The details are in large
part of big scale drawing. SE
The staircase details involve naming, providing descriptions, enlarging a component
for full details, and creating a cross reference of the drawing as shown in Figure
U
9.20.
Name of the detail
E
N
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N
Drawing no. where the detail is available
Figure 9.20: Cross referencing in stair or staircase

O
In the given staircase plan and section drawings in Figures 9.18 and 9.19 respectively,
there are details which can be produced by adding more information which are not
R
shown on the floor plan and section. This can be achieved by enlarging some parts
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to provide more information. Note that, only necessary details and information are
provided to avoid overcrowding the drawing.
Detailed plan and section of a straight staircase
There are several steps which need to be taken while drawing detailed plan and

Form Three
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section of a wooden staircase.
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Step 1: Provide all dimensions of the staircase including the length of the flight,
the treads depth and number of steps or treads, lines showing the stringer
thickness, and a handrail on the plan as in Figure 9.21. This plan is the final
plan of the stair or staircase.
5,700
300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300
X4 X4
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1,200
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
N
Wooden stringer
WOODEN STRINGER 50mm wooden handrail
50MM WOODEN HANDRAIL
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Figure 9.21: Staircase detailed plan
Step 2: Draw a section X4-X4 showing a handrail, balusters, risers, newel posts
SE
and their dimensions, and materials for construction. In this step, cross
referencing is well indicated in the section by providing circles in areas
where more details are required for construction purposes as referred in
U
Figure 9.22.
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N
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N
O
R
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Figure 9.22: A detailed section drawing of a stair or staircase.

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Step. 3: Provide details of DO
all the indicated
NOT areas in the section drawing such as
DUPLICATE
details of the tread, riser, and stringer as shown in Figures 9.23 and 9.24.
30mm thick wooden riser

300
150
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N
O
30mmX250mm wooden stringer
30mm wooden tread SE

Figure 9.23: A detailed tread-riser drawing of wooden staircase
splayed nosing rounded nosing

U
tread tread
E
riser riser
N
housing joint rebate joint

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tread
N
riser
O
string
square nosing
R
150 x 25 rough
brackets
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100 x 75 carriage
piece on centre line
of stairs
Figure 9.24: Detailed drawing string, riser, and tread of the wooden staircase

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Task 9.2 DO NOT DUPLICATE
With the aid of the above provided staircase section in Figure 9.22, produce
details D-02 (connection of the baluster post with tread), D-03 (connection of
the baluster post with handrail) and D-04 (newel post details with its balusters).
Concrete stair and its drawings (plan and section for straight flight staircase)
Concrete staircase is a type of staircase which is made up of concrete. The design
of stair should be stable to carry its own weight and intended weight of users. The
quantity of reinforcement or concrete grade should be provided by the structural
engineer.
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Exercise 9.1
N
Assume the height to the next level (floor) in a residential house is 3600 mm and
the width of concrete stair is 1500 mm. Design a U-shaped staircase and produce
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necessary details of a staircase plan, a section, a tread, a riser, balustrades, and
nosing on separate plain papers to scale.
Ramps
SE
A ramp is an inclined platform, which is used for movement from lower to upper
level (s). It is another method of providing a platform of ascending and descending
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between landings or floors of a building. It has a sloping surface that can be used as
an alternative to stairs. It is mostly convenient for vertical circulation using wheel
chairs as shown in Figure 9.25.
E
N
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(a) (b)
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Figure 9.25: (a) Ramp access to the building (b)Wheel chair user ascending on a ramp

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Ramp design DO NOT DUPLICATE
Designing a ramp involves identification of its gradient, slope or steepness, the
angular relationship between its rise (vertical height), and its horizontal projection
or length often expressed as a ratio. The rise may be set at a unit of one, for example,
a slope of 1:15 means that as each dimensional unit of height rises or falls, the
dimensional unit of length runs out by 15 units. A ramp that has a steep slope will
prove to be difficult for people to use and could even be unsafe, whilst the one with
a shallow slope can require excessive length.
Factors to consider in designing ramps include appropriate steepness, length and
width, a distance between landings, type of users and the mode of assistance they are
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likely to require, surface materials, approach and access into the ramp, and position
of handrails or balusters. The gradient of a ramp and its ‘going’ (horizontal distance)
N
between landings must be in accordance with Table 9.1.
O
SE
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Figure 9.26: Plan of a ramp showing an upward point where the two lines meet.
E
Table 9. 1: Gradients of ramps

N
Maximum going of a ramp Maximum gradient Maximum rise

LI
10m 1:20 500 mm

9m 1:19 473 mm
N
8m 1:18 444 mm
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7m 1:17 411 mm
6m 1:16 375 mm
R
5m 1:15 333 mm
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4m 1:14 285 mm
3m 1:13 230 mm
2m 1:12 166 mm

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Drawing and dimensioning
DOofNOT
rampDUPLICATE
Drawing and dimensioning of a ramp takes the same procedures which are used
in drawing staircase in which well labelled plan, sections, and details of various
components are produced as shown in Figures 9.26 and 9.27.
LY
N
O
(a)
SE
U
E
(b)
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(c)
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Figure 9.27: A U-shaped concrete ramp(a) plan (b) section (c) elevation
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Form Three
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Assume the height from the ground level to the ground floor level in a residential
house is 1000 mm and the width of concrete ramp is 1200 mm. Design a U-shaped
ramp and produce details of the ramp plan, section and baluster/balustrades on
separate plain papers to scale.
Chapter summary
1. A stair is a series of steps or flights of steps facilitating a movement from
lower to higher level and vice versa.
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2. A staircase is a term applied to a stair together with the part of the building,
which encloses it.
3. A step is a short horizontal surface for the foot to ease ascent from one
N
level to another.
O
4. A staircase has various components including a tread, a riser, a flight,
a landing, a nosing, a handrail, a baluster, a balustrade, a newel post, a
stringer or string, a headroom, a run, and a soffit.
SE
5. Staircases are building components which are shown on the floor plan,
elevation, and section drawings.
U
6. Staircase is categorized according to its shape into six basic types: a
straight flight staircase, a quarter turn staircase, a dog legged staircase, a
bifurcated staircase, a spiral staircase, and a curved staircase.
E
7. The relation between the number of Riser (R) and number of Tread (T) is
T=R-1.
N
8. A ramp is an inclined platform that facilitates vertical movement.

LI
9. Factors which must be considered in designing ramps include the

appropriate steepness, length and width, the distance between landings
N
and the mode of assistance they are likely to require, surface materials,
approach and access to the ramp, the position of handrails, and balusters.
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Revision exercise 9
R
1. Draw a plan and section of a U-Shaped stair by providing all the necessary
details on the listed types of staircase. Assume the height to the next level
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(floor) in a residential house is 3300 mm and the width of staircase to

is1200 mm.

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2. In drawing balustrades there are various material which are used. With the
aid of their detailed drawing, describe any four materials which are used
in balustrades.
3. Draw and detail an L-shaped concrete ramp with 1000 mm concrete wall
as baluster and the width of 1000 mm. Consider the upper level at 4500
mm.
4. Explain the appropriate use of the following type of staircase:
(a) Split stairs;
(b) quarter turn stairs;
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(c) Dog legged stairs;
(d) Straight flight stairs.
5. A client is complaining about the unused space below the quarter turn
N
staircase. With the aid of sketches advise the client on the possible use of
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this space (Assume the height to the next level is 3000 mm).
6. Suppose a client asks you to explain to him the two functions of stairs,
how will you respond?
7.
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Ramps are important elements of a building. Explain why.
U
E
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N
O
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Chapter Electrical supply and distribution
Ten
Introduction
Buildings are constructed to be used during the day and night.

During the day, natural means may be used to provide comfortable
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environment to habitants such as daylight. However, at night or
when natural light is not adequate there is a need to use other
sources of energy to provide comfort. One of the sources of energy
N
is electricity. Electrical energy is mostly used in buildings because
of its multi-purpose functions such as lighting, food preservation,
O
cooling or heating, cooking and charging equipment. In this
chapter, you will learn about the concept of electrical supply and
SE
distribution, conventional symbols for electrical installation and
drawing an electrical installation layout plan. The competencies
developed will enable you to design, draw, and interpret drawings
related to electrical supply and distribution in a residential
U
building.
E
The concept of electrical supply and distribution

N
Electricity is a form of energy that is carried by wires and is used to provide power
for machines, lighting, equipment or appliances. Electrical supply is a process of
LI
transferring electricity from the generating sources such as power plants to consumers
(buildings) through different stages which tend to lower voltage to fit the consumer.
N
It is distributed to various parts of the building using wires as per the codes and
accessories as shown in Figure 10.1. Electrical distribution in a residential house
O
is generally termed as electrical installation. Electrical distribution in a building

consists of lighting, switches, sockets, cooker control, and similar outlets. Such
R
fittings are collectively known as accessories. In the building, electrical distribution

starts from the distribution board as shown in Figure 10.2.
FO

Form Three
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Wire type Color code (IEC)
AC 3-Phase (L1)
AC 3-Phase (L2)
AC 3-Phase (L3)
Neutral (N)
Protective Earth
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(PE) Ground (GND)
Single Phase (L)
(1-wire line)
N
(a) (b)
Figure 10.1: (a) PVC conduit pipes (b) electrical wires
O
Meter Unit
Distribution Board
SE
Circuit breaker
U
E
N
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N
O
Distribution in the building

Supply
Figure 10.2: Building electrical supply and distribution system
R
Electrical installation (also referred as to electrical wiring) is a process of installing

FO
cables and associated devices such as sockets, light fittings, distribution boards and
switches in a building.
In ensuring appliances and lights are powered, there are accessories that are fixed

Form Three
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to a point where electricity is
DO terminated. These accessories include switches and
NOT DUPLICATE
switch sockets, double pole switches (DP switches), and light holders.
Electrical distribution
Factors to consider during design of electrical systems or distribution for a residential
house include function of a room, equipment to be used, and their power consumption.
In areas such as living rooms and bedrooms, the amount of power required is
moderate, enabling switches and switch sockets to light the room and operate
appliances respectively as shown in Table 10.1. In bathrooms which are always wet,
consideration should be taken during electrical installation by fixing switches and
sockets in appropriate areas as well as including water proof switches and switch
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sockets. However, in the kitchen more power is used compared to any other room of
a residential house as it may contain equipment like electric cooker, oven and
microwaves. Corridors which are long require a well-organized lighting system to
N
avoid shadows. In lighting system design, if the corridor is more than 3000 mm
long, the installation of ‘two ways’ switching system can be used to control the
O
lights from both ends of the corridor or room. Furthermore, sockets and switches
should be positioned at an appropriate location for effective utilization considering
SE
human ergonomics and safety as shown in Figure 10.3. Ergonomics concerns the
designing and arranging of things people use for efficient and safe interaction in
daily living.
U
Table 10.1: Electrical requirement for a residential building
S/N Room name Outlet
1 Bedroom Light, sockets and fan
E
2 Sitting room Light, sockets, fan, TV and AC

N
3 Kitchen Light, sockets and cooker

4 Toilet Light and sockets
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N
O
R
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Figure 10.3: Positioning of switches and sockets

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Conventional electrical symbols
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Symbols for electrical supply are standard signs used to show the function or
interconnections of the circuit graphically. Electrical symbols are used in developing
electrical wiring drawings. The symbols show location of control point(s) and the type
of electrical devices required at those locations. The legend of symbols are frequently
drawn on the first page of electrical drawing. Electrical distribution drawings use
standard symbols to represent various circuit elements such as switches, bulbs, electric
outlets, and circuit breakers as shown in Table 10.2.
Table 10.2: The list of standard conventional symbol for electrical installation
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Symbols Element Uses Illustration
N
Distribution of
Distribution
electricity to
Board (DB)
O
sub-circuits and
appliances
1 gang one
SE
Single switch
way switch operation for one
light
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1 gang two Two switches
way switch operation for one
E
light
N
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Single switch
2 gang one
operation for two
way switch
N
lights
O
Two switches opera-

2 gang two
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tion for two different

way switch
lights
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Form Three
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Symbols DO NOT DUPLICATE
Element Uses Illustration
It controls a circuit
that needs complete
Double Pole
isolation from the
(DP) switch
supply for safe
maintenance
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It protects an
Circuit electrical circuit
N
breaker from damage caused
by excess current
O
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Light lamp Provision of light
U
E
Water heater
N
Heating of water
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It protects personnel
and electrical
N
systems from shock

or damage by
O
Earth rod
providing a direct
path for electric
R
currents to flow to
the earth
FO

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Symbols DOElement
NOT DUPLICATE
Uses Illustration
Single socket
Connection of
outlet
appliances
Single switch Connection of

socket outlet appliances
LY
Twin socket Connection of
outlet appliances
N
Twin switch
O
Connection of
socket outlet
appliances
SE
Intermediate
Intermediate operation of light
switch on a long corridor/
U
hallway
E
N
Ceiling fan Cooling of room/

space
LI
N
O
Cooker switch Connection of

socket cooker
R
FO
Drawing an electrical installation layout plan

The electrical installation layout consist of symbols and lines that represent or

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
describe circuits and electrical
DOsystems. An electrical plan drawing describes the
NOT DUPLICATE
position of all electrical accessories and wiring. The electrical installation layout
drawings normally start from architectural floor plan drawing with less details. The
electrical drawings are used in electrical installation works, application of power
connection and quantification of installation materials.
The following are steps for designing electrical installation layout.
Step 1: Adopt an architectural floor plan of a single bedroom residential building

LY
N
O
LOBBY
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
Figure 10.4: A floor plan of a residential building

FO
Step 2: Carefully identify and establish electrical requirements for each room or
space as shown in Table 10.3.

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Table 10.3: Electrical
DO requirement for each room
NOT DUPLICATE
Requirements
Space
Lighting Outlet
Bedroom Light 1 Twin switch socket 1
Living room Light 1 Twin switch socket 1
WC Light 1
Passage Light 1 Single switch socket 1
Kitchen Light 1 Cooker switch and 2
LY
twin switch socket
Veranda Light 1 Single switch socket 1
Exterior Light 4
N
Step 3: Draw diagonal lines in each room or space to locate the centre point for
O
placing lights as shown in Figure 10.5.
A
4,000
B
SE 4,000
C
1 1
U
2,000
2,000
LOBBY
WC PASSAGE KITCHEN
E
2 2
N
3,500
LI
4,000
BEDROOM LIVING ROOM

N
3A
O
3
1,700
1,200
VERANDAH
4 4
R
4,000 4,000
FO
A B C
Figure 10.5: Diagonal lines for marking points to place lights.
Step 4: Draw the conventional symbols for the lights in each room or space as
illustrated in Figure 10.6.

Form Three
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LOBBY LOBBY
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N
O
Figure 10.6: Light symbols in each room/space.
Step 5: SE
Mark and draw the type of switches, switch sockets, and by using
conventional symbols make sure the position marked for switch placement
is easily seen and accessible as shown in Figure 10.7.
U
E
N
LOBBY
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N
O
R
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Figure 10.7: Electrical distribution layout plan
Step 6: Provide details of the drawing such as size, voltage, rating and capacity of
lights, switches and switch sockets outlets as shown in Table 10.4.

Form Three
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Table 10.4: Specification
DOofNOT
electrical fittings as per drawing in Figure 10.8.
DUPLICATE
Symbol Description Quantity
10W LED light (ceiling mounted) 6
10W LED light (wall mounted) 4
10A 1 gang 1 way switch 5
10A 1 gang 2 way switch 4
LY
13A twin switch socket 4
13A single switch socket 2
N
Distribution board 1
O
Task 10.1
SE
Use the floor plan shown in Figure 10.8, trace it and produce electrical installation
drawing.
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 10.8: Floor plan of a two-bedroom residential building

Form Three
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1. Electrical power in a building is used for cooling, cooking or lighting.
2. Electrical supply is a process of transferring electricity from generating

sources such as power plants to consumers (buildings).
3. Distribution of electricity can be concealed or surface. Concealed system

use conduit pipes for protecting wires.
4. The system includes accessories such as sockets, lights and switches.
LY
5. Factors to consider during design of electrical distribution for residential
building include function of a room, equipment to be used and their power
ratings.
N
6. Electrical symbols are standard signs used to show electrical wiring and
O
accessories on the floor plan.
7. Design of electric wiring starts from architectural floor plan.
Revision exercise 10
SE
1. What are the contents of the electrical distribution layout plan?
U
2. Explain why symbols are used in electrical drawings?
3. Draw an electrical layout plan of a two bedroom residential house (Design
E
your own floor plan).

N
4. Differentiate the uses of Distribution Board (DB) and Double Pole (DP)
switch in electrical distribution.
LI
5. Assume you are a foreperson at a certain construction site. Explain to a

layman the following electrical distribution terms:
N
(a) One way switch;

O
(b) Two way switch;

(c) Ceiling fan and fan speed control unit.
R
6. Form two students want to learn electrical supply and distribution. As a

FO
competent student in that field, help them to:

(a) Understand the term earthing and its function.
(b) Understand the standard colour codes of electrical wires.

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Chapter
Heating and cooling
Eleven
Introduction
Buildings are structures created to be used in different seasons of

the year and different climatic conditions. Reason for construction
LY
of buildings is to create comfortable environment with respect
to season or weather. However, in some seasons and weather,
temperature in buildings drops or increases beyond comfortable
N
levels. In case temperatures are beyond comfortable values, the
buildings are either heated or cooled by mechanical means to
O
the comfortable value. In this chapter, you will learn about the
concept of heating and cooling in buildings, fireplaces and air
SE
conditioning. The competencies developed will enable you to draw
a wood burning fireplace and simple air conditioning system in
residential buildings.
U
The concept of heating and cooling for buildings
The goal of mechanical heating and cooling systems in a building design is to
improve an environment for comfortability of users. The task of a designer is to
E
decide appropriate mechanism for heating or cooling, depending on the available

N
energy source, economy or user preference. The oldest technology of heating a

building used firewood. Due to the technological changes, other sources of energy
LI
are used such as electricity and gas. However, architectural features for building
heating system including fireplaces and chimneys can be provided for the purpose
N
of heating.
O
Fireplace
A fireplace is a heating structure made of bricks, stones, concrete or metal usually
constructed inside or outside the building containing fire for heating purposes as
R
indicated in Figure 11.1. Technology of fireplaces varies according to the type of fuel
FO
they burn, heat efficiency and design. In designing fireplaces there are several factors
to be taken into consideration, these include the volume of space; source of energy
and user preference. Location of fireplaces for residential houses is recommended
to be in common areas where all members of the family can have equal privilege to
enjoy the service. Such areas may include living rooms and family rooms.

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N
O
SE
U
Figure 11.1: Wood burning masonry fireplace
E
Types of fireplaces
N
Fireplaces are basically classified according to source of heat, mounting type, styles
(design), and materials. The types of fireplaces according to source of heat are
LI
wooden, gas, electric, and ethanol. The types of fireplaces according to mounting
types are free standing fireplace, wall mounting fireplace, traditional open fireplace,
N
two sided fireplaces, hanging fireplace, table top fireplace, and built in fireplace
insert.
O
Fireplaces according to design or styles are contemporary fireplace, traditional

fireplace, and modern fireplace. Type of fireplaces according to materials are stone
R
fireplace, concrete fireplace, brick fireplace, and metal fireplace. This part will
focus on the masonry wood burning (traditional) fireplaces which suit the needs of
FO
residential houses as shown in Figure 11.2.

Form Three
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Figure 11.2: Masonry (open) fireplace
N
Masonry (Open) wood burning fireplace design
Open fireplaces are open-flame fireboxes with no glass panel. When designing a
O
traditional fireplace there are general requirements and regulations to be followed.
The footing (foundation) under all masonry or concrete fireplace must rest on
SE
compacted granular fill. The size of the footing will be determined by the size of the
fire place. All fire places must be provided with an outside air source for combustion
of fuel. The clearance of fireplace to combustible framing must obey the rules of
U
interior wall framing of 100 mm of clearance from a fireplace while exterior wall
framing must have at least 50 mm. A fireplace must have at least 152 mm thick brick
around the side and at least 127 mm on the floor vertically as shown in Figure 11.3.
The fire floor of the fireplace referred as a hearth must extend out beyond the face of
E
the fireplace at least 500 mm horizontally and 200 mm on either sides.

N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 11.3: Simple plan of a masonry (open) fireplace

Form Three
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Techniques of drawing elevations
DO NOT and section of an open fireplace
DUPLICATE
An open fireplace is sometimes considered as a furniture, used very often by family
members for heating spaces. Fireplaces are among the elements shown in floor
plans, elevations and sections. Additional details need to be provided for fireplace.
When drawing an open or tradition fireplace, the following steps can be used:
Step 1: Draw a plan of an open fireplace as shown in Figure 11.4 by ensuring prop-
er wall thickness and all components in place.
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
Figure 11.4: Plan of an open fireplace

LI
Step 2: Follow the procedure used to draw orthographic projections to produce ele-
vations and sections needed.
N
Below is an example for typical orthographic drawings for an open fireplace as

O

R
FO

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
1500 DO NOT DUPLICATE 300
120
65
1040
140
20 40
30
115 205
1275
760 55
1275
650
85
LY
90
125
1560 (b)
60
N
395
(a)
(b)
890
O
760
90
SE
40
270
395
300
U
1500
1560
(c)
Figure 11.5: Detailed open fireplace drawings (a) front elevation, (b) side elevation, and (c) plan
E
N
Details of fireplaces around chimney stacks and roof intersection

Chimney stack is part of a chimney above the roof of a building. Normally, it is
LI
a long vertical pipe or channel to exhaust combustion gases into air as shown in
Figure 11.6. This height disperses pollutant over a wider area in order to minimize
N
their impact. The design of connection between a chimney and a roof should have
O
enough details in order to avoid leakage possibilities. The following are some of
the parts of chimney stack: chimney cap which is used to protect the top of the flue;
chimney crown which covers the top of chimney structure surrounding the flue;
R
chimney chase which covers and seals the top of the chimney and protects the top
of the flue; and top sealing damper which prevents conditioned air from going up
FO
the flue.

Form Three
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Cap
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Opening
Crown
Flashing
Roof line
Flue
Masonry
LY
Flue Tile liners
N
O
Smoke Chamber
Mantel
Damper
Throat
SE Smoke shelf
Lintel
U
Firebox
Ach Pit Cover Cleanout Door
Hearth
Ash Pit
E
Foundation
N
Figure 11.6: Parts of a fireplace

LI
Air conditioning systems

N
The use of Air Conditioner (AC) for providing comfort by controlling the indoor
O
environment has become a normal practice in modern residential houses. The main
function of the air conditioner is to maintain suitable humidity in all parts of the
R
building, supply a constant and adequate ventilation and provide heat during cold
season and cooling during summer. An air conditioned room must be air tight for
FO
efficient and durability of air condition devices.

Common terms in air condition systems
An air condition is an electrical appliance made up of various parts:

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Refrigerant DO NOT DUPLICATE
Is a special fluid used in cooling and freezing technology. It operates on a closed loop
and carries heat from inside the building to the outside. This fluid changes states from
liquid to vapor at convenient temperatures for the refrigeration cycle.
Compressor
Is used to pressurize the refrigerant, thus raising its temperature.
Condenser coil
It is in the outdoor air conditioning component that receives high pressure and high
LY
temperature refrigerant from the compressor. Condenser coils are designed to facilitate
heat transfer to the outdoor air.
Expansion valve
N
Is a thermostatic expansion valve that allows hot air to dissipate into the air by
O
depressurizing the refrigerant and cools it down, allowing refrigerant to change from
a liquid to a vapor or gas in the evaporator, hence controls the amount of refrigerant.
Evaporator coils SE
These are copper tubes which receive the depressurized liquid (refrigerant) from the
expansion valve. When the indoor air unit blows over the cold coils, the heat from
U
inside the home gets absorbed. These parts are contained within the air condition
indoor and outdoor units which are connected together with an insulated copper pipe
and powered by electricity.
E
Types of air conditioning systems

N
A deciding factor of air conditioning type can be size of the room, occupancy, health,
indoor environmental parameters and budget threshold. In attaining different desired
LI
objectives, air conditioning system is divided into several types. The most common
types of air conditioning system are window air conditioners, portable air conditioners,
N
wall hung spilt or multi head split systems, and ducted air conditioners.
O
Window air conditioners

These are very common choice for moderating temperature in small rooms. They are
R
designed to fit into the window of a room. They can be taken away when shifting to
another house.
FO
Portable air conditioners

These are relatively easy to move when compared to other units.

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Wall hung split or multi head
DOsplit
NOT air conditioners
DUPLICATE
These are referred to as split systems because they consist of two units; one kept
inside and the other outside the building as shown in Figure 11.7.
Ducted air conditioning
This is also known as central air conditioning. It is most efficient in many conditions
as it involves a large compressor outside of the building and an internal evaporative
unit and ducts that bring conditioned air to various rooms through vents.
LY
N
O
SE
(a) (b)
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Figure 11.7: Split unit air condition(a) the wall hung indoor unit and (b) the outdoor unit
Symbols and signs of air conditions

E
These are conventional symbols and signs which are used to represent components of
air condition systems in a drawing for easy communication among the project team
N
as shown in Figure 11.8. The legend and symbols used in air condition drawings is
LI
usually located on the first page of drawing set.

N
O
R
FO

Form Three
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LY
N
O
SE
U
Copper pipe Drainage pipe
E
Figure 11.8: Symbols of an air condition system

Design considerations for air condition
N
When deciding an air condition size for a specific place, there are factors to be
considered which are coupled by capacity of an air condition expressed in British
LI
Thermal Unit (BTU). BTU is the amount of heat required to raise temperature of one
pound (0.45kg) of water by one degree Fahrenheit. These factors include the room
N
temperature required due to its uses, humidity of the air and anticipated humidity to
O
be attained, purity of air to be supplied and air motion to be properly positioned. In

the process of heating or cooling a room, air condition device tends to give out water
due to the condensation process and it requires a proper drainage. Air conditioners
R
are powered by electricity, therefore the design of electricity must provide power
outlet for the air conditioner.
FO
Below are steps to be taken for drawing a simple air conditioning system for a
residential building.

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Step 1: Design and draw a floor
DO plan
NOTof DUPLICATE
a simple single bedroom residential build-
ing or adopt the architectural floor plan with associated spaces as shown in
Figure 11.9. Carefully identify and establish capacity requirements for each
room or space as shown in Table 11.1. As a rule of thumb, an air condition-
er needs 20 Btu for each 0.1 m2 of living space. The location of indoor unit
depends on flow of air, distance to external unit and the room function.
LY
LOBBY
N
O
SE
U
E
Figure 11.9: A residential building floor plan

N
Table 11.1: Air-condition requirement to each room/space

LI
Requirement for each space

Space Requirements
N
Bedroom 1 unit of AC of 12000BTU/hr

O
Living room 1 unit of AC of 12000BTU/hr

R
Step 2: Identify convenient points to locate indoor and outdoor units as shown in
Figure 11.10.
FO

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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LOBBY
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N
O
SE
U
Figure 11.10: Identification of points to locate AC units.
Step 3: Draw conventional symbols for the AC units at each room/space including
E
the copper pipes shown in red and drainage pipe in blue lines to make them
visible as illustrated in Figure 11.11.
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Form Three
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LOBBY
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N
O
SE
U
Figure 11.11: Air condition symbols and piping at each room/space.
E
Task 11.1
N
Visit a building at your school or as selected by your teacher; identify and draw
the type of air condition system installed in the building or propose a system for
LI
the building you visited if it has no AC system.

N
O
R
FO

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
1. From the given floor plan of a residential building in Figure 11.12, design
the air condition installation system.
LY
N
O
SE
U
Figure 11.12: Floor plan of a residential building.

E
2. Explain why air conditioned room need to be air tight.

N
3. Why fireplaces are not widely used in recent house construction?

LI
Chapter summary
N
1. A fireplace is a structure made of bricks, stones or metal usually

O
constructed inside or outside the building containing fire for warming up

purposes.
R
2. The size of a fireplace depends on type of fuel, size of room to be heated,

aesthetic, and client preference.
FO
3. A chimney stack is part of a chimney that is above the building roof used
to exhaust combustion gases into air.
4. The main function of air condition is to maintain suitable humidity in the

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
building; supply a constant air ventilation; and provide heat for heating of
rooms during cold season or cooling during warm season.
5. There are various types of air conditioning systems including window air
conditioners, portable air conditioners, wall hung split or multi head split
air conditioners, and ducted air conditioning.
6. Decision on the size of air condition includes room temperature required
according to its uses, humidity of the air and anticipated humidity to be
attained, purity of air to be supplied, and air motion.
7. Conventional symbols of AC are used in drawing air condition systems
LY
on floor plan.
Revision exercise 11
N
1. Explain the requirements for fireplaces governing an open or traditional
O
fireplace design.
2. Describe the techniques of drawing elevation, plan and section of an open
3.
fire place. SE
Describe the types of fireplaces with the aid of well labelled sketches.
4. Explain the main functions of air conditioning in residential houses.
U
5. Draw a floor plan of a residential house and show the installation of air
conditioning.
6. Draw sketches to represent split unit air condition, portable air condition,
E
and window air condition.

N
7. Why are fireplaces preferred in common areas such as sitting room?

8. Assume you are a draughtperson working with a School Company to
LI
construct fireplace for a certain client. Before starting construction, the

client wants to know the following from fireplace design:
N
(a) Materials to be used for hearth construction;

O
(b) The minimum overall width and length including the hearth;
(c) The minimum size of firebox;
R
(d) The next opening to the fire box.

9. The layout plan in Figure 11.13 represents a fireplace opening attached to
FO
an external wall. To a scale of 1:20, draw the isometric projection of the

fireplace (with part of external wall) if all are built up to a height of 800
mm above the floor level. Dimensions should be shown clearly.

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
LY
Figure 11.13: Layout plan of a fireplace opening
N
10. From the given floor plan of a residential building in Figure 11.14, design
an air condition installation system.
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Glossary
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Air condition a system of providing comfort by controlling the temperature
of the indoor environment mechanically.
Balance the even distribution of weight leading to steadiness or
evenness in the design.
Baluster a vertical or horizontal members which support a handrail.
Balustrade a framework made from combination of hand rail and
balusters.
LY
Bedroom a private space where human being usually sleep or use as a
relaxing space.
Chimney a vertical channel or pipe above a fireplace or furnace
N
through which smoke can exhaust through into the air.
O
Chimney stack a part of chimney above the roof of a building.
Circulation area an area that allows the movement within buildings or rooms.
SE
Conventional symbols a standard sign used in drawing that represent different
things such as fittings, fixtures or accessory.
Cross section an imaginary view that is created when you cut through an
U
object. This view shows actual components through the cut
plane.
E
Cutting plane an imaginary location of cutting represented by the section

line in the floor plan and elevation drawing.
N
Cutting plane line this is a thick dashed line that runs along with the cutting
LI
plane used to show imaginary.

Deep foundation a foundation that carries building loads to more deeper level
N
away from the ground level.

O
Dimension a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of

measurement and used to define the size, location,
orientation, form or other geometric characteristics.
R
Door a barrier at the entrance of the buildings or rooms for

FO
privacy, safety, security and access.

Electric supply a process of transferring electricity from generating source
such as power plants to consumers.

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Electricity a DO
formNOT
of energy that is carried by wires and is used for
DUPLICATE
providing power for machines, equipment or appliances.
Elevation an orthographic projection of the exterior (or sometimes the
interior) faces of a building representing a two-dimension
drawing of the building’s façades.
Fireplace a structure made of bricks, stones or metal usually
constructed inside or outside the building containing fire for
warming up purposes.
Flight a continuous series of steps without any break between
LY
landings or landing and floor.
Floor plan a scaled drawing of a room or building viewed from above
N
that provides view of dimension lines, measurements,
levels, finishes and spatial relationships.
O
Foundation a lowest part of a building which is in direct contact with the
ground. It provides a base for super-structure and transfers
SE
the load of the structure to the ground so that it stands firm
and stable for its life.
Foundation plan a top view of the area below ground level which contains
U
foundation walls and footings.
Full section view a section view of a building that is sliced or cut completely
into two sections from either ends of the object
E
Handrail a rail fixed parallel above the pitch line at the sides of a stair.
N
Headroom a clear distance between the slope line adjoining the tread to
LI
the underneath or soffit of the above floor.

Landing a horizontal platform between two flights which serves as
N
a resting point between flights or a turning point for non-

linear stairs.
O
Living room a room in a residential house used for the common social
gathering of the family including visitors.
R
Longitudinal section a section cut along the longest axis of a structure and is right
FO
angled with the shortest side of the building

Newel a vertical post which supports handrail, or upper end of an
outer string.

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Nosing an edge
DOpart
NOTof the tread that extends from the riser beneath.
DUPLICATE
Pad foundation a type of shallow foundation suitable for stable subsoil.
Pile foundation a deep foundation made up of a series of columns
constructed or inserted into the ground to transmit the loads
of a structure to a lower level of subsoil.
Plot ratio a ratio of the total building floors areas to the plot area.
Plot coverage is the percentage of the total built up floor areas (ground
floors if more than one building is on site) to the plot area.
LY
Raft or Mat foundation a type of shallow foundation which is used to spread the
load of the structure or building over a large base to reduce
the load per unit area being imposed on the ground.
N
Ramp an inclined platform, which is used for movement from
O
lower to upper level (s).
Residential house a building which is intended specifically for living or
dwelling human being. SE
Riser a vertical portion of the step between steps which allows
for the vertical ascending or descending from one level to
U
another level.
Roof a top most part of a building or structure, including all
materials necessary to cover or enclose walls.
E
Roof plan a scaled drawing which shows the top view of building and
N
contains dimensions of its structure, vent, drainage, slopes

and valleys
LI
Section drawing is the one that shows a vertical cut, typically along a primary
axis of an object or building.
N
Section lining are hatches or fill drawn by thin lines which show cut plane
O
and indicate the type of material used such as a wall, a floor,

a foundation and a roof.
R
Section views views created by cutting into or through a part of a building,

an object or an element.
FO
Setbacks are the allowable distances from the plot boundary to the
edge of the building.

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
Site plan a DO
largeNOT
- scaled drawing that shows a full extent of the site
DUPLICATE
or plot including an existing and proposed building.
Shallow foundation a type of foundations that transfer the building load to the
earth very near to the surface.
Soffit an area under the surface of a stair. It is sometimes referred
as the waist.
Stair a series of steps or flights of steps for passage from one
level to another into and within the building.
Staircase a term applied to a stair together with the part of the building,
LY
which encloses it including a complete assembly of flights,
landings and balustrades in a single stair.
N
Step a short horizontal surface for the foot to easily ascend from
one level to another.
O
Strap foundation a type of shallow foundation which consists of two isolated
footings connected with a structural strap.
Stringer or string
SE
a structural member that supports the treads.
Strip foundation a type of shallow foundation which is suitable for most
U
subsoil and small building structures.
Symmetry a reflection of the shared forms, shapes, or angles across a
central line or point called the axis.
E
Title block standard of drawings in a sheet that contains basic

N
information drawing, such as a project name, a designer’s

name, a client’s name, a site address and location, a drawing
LI
title, a drawing issuing date, a designers’ names, a sheet or

drawing number, a key plan, a firm logo, a revision list, a
N
scale of drawing and general notes about the drawing.

O
Transverse section a section cut on the floor plan by a cutting plane line along
the short axis of a structure or building.
Tread a part of the step that is stepped on when moving along the
R
staircase.
FO
Window a vented barrier provided in a wall opening to allow light

and air into the building and give access to the outside view.

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DOBibliography
NOT DUPLICATE
Ching, F. D. K., (2014), Building Structures Illustrated (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Chudley, R., Greeno R., & Kovac, K. (2020). Building Construction Handbook,
(12th ed.). Oxfordshire: Routledge.
David, M. (2007). Architectural Acoustics Engineering (2nd ed). Plantation, FL: J
LY
Ross Publishing Inc.
Edward A., & Patrick R. (2016). Architectural Detailing: Function-Constructibility
N
–Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Jefteris, A., Madsen, D. A., & Madsen D. P. (2011). Architectural Drafting and De-
sign (6th ed.). New York: Delmar Thomson Learning.
SE
Littlefield D. (Ed.). (2008). Metric Handbook Planning and Design Data (3rd ed).
Oxford: Architectural Press.
U
Neufert E. & Neufert P. (2000), Architects Data (3rd ed.). New York: Blackwell
sciences.
E
Paul, L. & David J. (2016). Manual of Section of Architectural. New York: Prince-
N
ton Architectural Press.

LI
Rigby, B. (2005). Design of Electrical Services for Buildings (4th ed.). London: Spon
N
Press.
Standard window size. (2021). Retrieved on July 17, 2021, from http://www.civi-
O
concepts.com/blog/standard-room-size
R
Watson D., Crosbie M. J., Callender J, H. (1997). Time Saver for Standards for Ar-
FO
chitectural Design Data (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT Index
DUPLICATE
A Expansion valve 137

Air Conditioner 136 F
Apron 92 Fireplace 131, 134, 147
B Flat roof 42
Balance 10, 146 Flight 100, 147
Baluster 100, 146 Floor plan 7, 15, 17, 31, 37, 43, 46, 48,
Balustrade 100, 110, 111, 146 52, 60, 68, 74, 75, 81, 88, 129, 143,
LY
Bathroom 8, 20 145, 147
Bedroom 6, 85, 94, 122, 127, 140, 146 Foundation viii, 21, 28, 29, 30, 35, 36,
N
Bifurcated stair 104, 105 60, 61, 136, 147
C foundation plan viii, 21, 28, 29, 31, 32,
O
34, 35, 36
Casing 77, 92
Frame 76, 92
Compressor 137
Condenser Coil 137
Corridors 122
H SE
Handrail 100, 147
Headroom 100, 147
U
Cross section 53, 61, 146
J
Curved stairs 105
Jamb 77, 92
Cutting planes 55
K
E
D
Kitchen 8, 19, 94, 122, 127
N
Deep foundations 26
L
Dog legged stair 103
LI
Landing 92, 100, 102, 117, 118, 147

Door 77, 78, 81, 85, 136, 146
Leaf 77
Door sweep 77
N
Living room 6, 19, 94, 127, 140, 147

E
O
Longitudinal section 54, 147

Electrical distribution 120, 122, 123,
128 M
R
Electrical supply viii, 120, 130 mat foundation 24, 25

Electricity 120, 147 Mullion or Muntin 92
FO
Elevation 67, 68, 69, 70, 73, 77, 78, 90, N

147 Newel post 100
Evaporator Coil 137 Nosing 100, 110, 148

Form Three
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
P DO NOT DUPLICATE
Staircase 99, 109, 112, 113, 119, 149
Pad foundation 23, 35, 148 Stairs viii, 99, 101, 107
Pile foundation 26, 27, 36, 148 Step 14, 15, 16, 17, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 43,
Pitched roof 41 44, 45, 60, 61, 70, 71, 72, 81, 100,
Plot coverage 14, 148 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 126,
127, 128, 134, 140, 141, 149
Plot ratio 14, 148
Stile 77, 92
Proportion 11
Straight flight stairs 119
Q
Strap foundation 25, 149
LY
Quarter turn stair 103
Stringer or string 100, 149
R
Strip foundation 22, 35, 149
Raft foundation 36
N
Symbols 77, 90, 123, 138, 139
Rail 77, 116
Symmetry 10, 11, 149
O
Ramps 116, 119
T
Refrigerant 137
title block 17, 18, 19
Repetition 10
Residential house viii, 1, 12, 148
SE
Toilet 8, 94, 122
Transom 77, 92
Riser 100, 119, 148
Transverse section 54, 149
U
Roof viii, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45,
46, 47, 61, 136, 148 Tread 100, 109, 110, 111, 119, 149
Roof components 39, 40 W

E
Roof plan 43, 148 Window 94, 97, 137, 149

N
S
Section 23, 33, 34, 36, 40, 41, 42, 51, 52,
LI
53, 55, 56, 58, 60, 63, 64, 83, 112,

148, 150
N
Section lining 58, 148

O
Section views 55, 148

Shaft foundations 28
R
Shallow foundations 22
Sill 92
FO
Site plan 13, 15, 19, 149

Soffit 100, 149
Spiral stair 106

Architectural Draughting Form Three

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for Technical Secondary Schools

Tanzania Institute of Education

Architectural III LANGUAGE.indd 1 07/11/2022 11:02

Mobile number: +255 735 041168/+255 735 041170

system, or transmitted in any form or by any means whether electronic, mechanical,

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) ii Architectural Draughting

Architectural III LANGUAGE.indd 2 07/11/2022 11:02

Abbreviations and Acronyms..............................................................................vi

Chapter Three: Foundation and foundation plan............................................21

The concept of foundation..........................................................................21

Steps in drawing a strip foundation plan ...................................................29

Chapter Four: Roof.............................................................................................38

The concept of roofs...................................................................................38

Architectural Draughting iii Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

Architectural III LANGUAGE.indd 3 07/11/2022 11:02

Common components of a door..................................................................76

Drawing of a door ......................................................................................78

Revision exercise 7.....................................................................................87

The concept of windows.............................................................................89

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) iv Architectural Draughting

Architectural III LANGUAGE.indd 4 07/11/2022 11:02

Revision exercise 10...................................................................................130

The concept of heating and cooling for buildings......................................131

Air conditioning systems............................................................................136

Revision exercise 11...................................................................................144

Architectural Draughting v Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

Architectural III LANGUAGE.indd 5 07/11/2022 11:02

ARU Ardhi University

ATC Arusha Technical College

DIT Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology

MUST Mbeya University of Science and Technology

NGL Natural Ground Level

T&G Tongue and Groove

TBA Tanzania Buildings Agency

TIE Tanzania Institute of Education

UDSM University of Dar es Salaam

VETA Vocational Education Training Authority

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) vi Architectural Draughting

Architectural III LANGUAGE.indd 6 07/11/2022 11:02

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the contributions

Illustrator: Mr Sultan Tamba

Coordinator: Arch. Anderson Allan (DIT)

Technology for facilitating the writing and printing of this textbook.

Architectural Draughting vii Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

Architectural III LANGUAGE.indd 7 07/11/2022 11:02

This textbook, Architectural Draughting for Technical Secondary Schools, is

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) viii Architectural Draughting

Architectural III LANGUAGE.indd 8 07/11/2022 11:02

Figure 1.1: A three-dimensional (3D) view of a residential house

Architectural Draughting 1 Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

Architectural III LANGUAGE.indd 1 Line of symmetry 07/11/2022 11:02

Figure 1.3: A detached residential house

Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) 2 Architectural Draughting

Architectural III LANGUAGE.indd 2 07/11/2022 11:02

Figure 1.5: Row residential houses in Michenzani Zanzibar

Architectural Draughting 3 Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE)

Architectural III LANGUAGE.indd 3 07/11/2022 11:02

Figure 1.6: Wakulima House in Dar es Salaam

another context, types of residential 3. Write a report and present it in the

house can be expressed in terms of their class for discussion.

A residential house may contain