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    Rudy Sauban
    11 views588 pages
    This document provides an outline for a review course on Philippine social realities and the social environment. It is divided into five parts that cover: 1) basic concepts of social welfare, social realities, and social problems; 2) perspectives for analyzing social realities; 3) international commitments and conventions influencing Philippine social realities; 4) factors affecting Philippine realities; and 5) current events and issues affecting the country and world.

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    Sw Reviewer

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    This document provides an outline for a review course on Philippine social realities and the social environment. It is divided into five parts that cover: 1) basic concepts of social welfare, social realities, and social problems; 2) perspectives for analyzing social realities; 3) international commitments and conventions influencing Philippine social realities; 4) factors affecting Philippine realities; and 5) current events and issues affecting the country and world.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    11 views588 pages

    SW Reviewer

    Uploaded by

    Rudy Sauban
    This document provides an outline for a review course on Philippine social realities and the social environment. It is divided into five parts that cover: 1) basic concepts of social welfare, social realities, and social problems; 2) perspectives for analyzing social realities; 3) international commitments and conventions influencing Philippine social realities; 4) factors affecting Philippine realities; and 5) current events and issues affecting the country and world.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 588

    PHILI

    PPI
    NE
    SOCI
    ALREALITI
    ES
    ANDSOCIAL
    ENVI
    RONMENT

    Rev
    iewer
    :
    Ms.Mar
    iaGemmaP.Dal
    ena,
    RSW

    1
    Rev
    iewCour
    seOut
    li
    ne

    Par
    tI: Basi
    cConcepts:Soci
    alWel
    far
    e,Soci
    alReal
    it
    iesand
    Soci
    alPr
    oblems

    Par
    tII
    : Per
    spect
    ivesi
    nAnal
    yzi
    ngSoci
    alReal
    it
    ies

    Par
    tII
    I: I
    nternati
    onalCommitmentsandConvent
    ionsI
    n
    f
    luencingPhil
    ippi
    neSoci
    alReal
    it
    ies

    Par
    tIV: Fact
    orsAf
    fect
    ingPhi
    li
    ppi
    neReal
    it
    ies

    Par
    tV: ThePhil
    ippi
    neReal
    it
    iesandCur
    rentEv
    ent
    sandI
    ssues
    Aff
    ect
    ingtheCount
    ryandtheWorld

    PARTI
    Basi
    cConcept
    s:Soci
    alWel
    far
    e,Soci
    alReal
    it
    iesandSoci
    alPr
    obl
    ems

    2
    Soci
    alWor
    k

    SocialWorkistheprofessi
    onwhichisprimaril
    yconcer nedwi thorgani
    zedsocial
    ser
    viceactivi
    tyai
    medatf aci
    li
    tati
    ngandstr
    engtheningbasi csocialrelat
    ionshi
    psandthe
    mutualadjustmentbet
    weeni ndivi
    dual
    sandtheirsocialenvir
    onmentf orthegoodofthe
    i
    ndivi
    dualandofsoci etybyt heuseofsoci alwor kmet hods.( R.A.No.4373,anAct
    Regulat
    ingthePract
    iceofSocialWorkandtheOper ati
    onofSoci al WorkAgencies,
    1965)

    Soci
    alWor kisthe pr
    ofessi
    on which is concerned wi
    th man’
    s adjustmentt o hi
    s
    envi
    ronment
    ;aper
    son(orgroups)inr
    elat
    iont oaperson’
    s(ort
    hei
    rsocialsituat
    ion)
    .Thi
    s
    i
    sreferr
    edtoasaper
    son’ssocialf
    unct
    ioning.(Thel
    maLee-Mendoza,
    Soci alWelfar
    eand
    Soci
    alWork)

    Soci
    alWel
    far
    e

    Soci
    alwel
    fareasanor gani
    zedfunct
    ionisregar
    dedasabodyofactiv
    iti
    es
    designedtoenabl
    eindi
    vi
    dual
    s,f
    ami l
    i
    es,
    groupsandcommunit
    iest
    ocopewi
    tht
    hesocial
    problemsofchangi
    ngcondi
    ti
    ons.

    Socialwel
    farehasaf ur
    therfunctionwithinthebroadareaofacount r
    y’ssocial
    devel
    opment .Int
    hislargersense,socialwelfar
    eshoul dpl
    ayamaj orrol
    eincontri
    but
    ing
    totheeffectiv
    emobi l
    izati
    onanddepl oy mentofhumanandmat eri
    alresour
    cesoft he
    countr
    ytodealsuccessf ul
    lyandef fecti
    v el
    ywi t
    ht hesocialr
    equirementsofchange,
    ther
    ebypartici
    pat
    ingandcont ri
    buti
    nginnat i
    on-
    buil
    ding.

    Soci
    alwel
    far
    eencompassest
    hewell
    -beingofallt
    hemembersofhumansoci
    ety
    ,
    i
    ncl
    udi
    ngthei
    rphysi
    cal
    ,ment
    al,
    emoti
    onal
    ,social,
    economicandspi
    ri
    tual
    wel
    l-
    bei
    ng.

    Socialwel f
    are are pr
    ev entive and developmentali nterv
    entions thatseek t o
    supportt hemi nimum basi crequi r
    ement soft hepoor,par ti
    cularlythepoor estoft he
    poor,andr educer i
    sksassoci atedwi thunempl oyment,r esettl
    ement ,mar ginali
    zation,
    i
    llness,disabili
    ty,old age and l oss off amilycare.Soci alwel far
    e and assi stance
    programsusual l
    ycompr isedi
    rectassi stanceintheform ofcashori n-kindt ransfersto
    thepoor estandmar ginali
    zedgr oups,aswel lassocialser vi
    cesi ncludingf amilyand
    communi ty support
    ,al t
    ernat
    ive car e and refer
    ralservices.( The Phi l
    ippines Soci al
    Protecti
    onFr amewor kandSt r
    at egy:AnOv ervi
    ewbyUnder secr etaryFl
    or i
    taR.Vi ll
    arof
    DSWD)

    Soci
    alSer
    vices

    Socialservi
    cesref
    ertotheprogr
    ams,ser
    vicesandotheract
    ivi
    ti
    esprov
    ided
    undervar
    iousauspi
    ces,t
    oconcr
    etel
    yanswert
    heneedsandprobl
    emsoft hemembers
    ofsoci
    ety
    .

    Soci
    alwelfar
    e woul d be a meani
    ngl
    ess t
    erm unl
    ess ther
    ei s concr
    ete
    demonstrat
    ionofi
    ts“concer
    nforthewel
    l
    -bei
    ngofhumansoci
    etyt
    hroughact
    ualsoci
    al
    ser
    vices.
    ”

    SocialServi
    cesrefert
    ot hev ari
    etyofpr ograms,pr ojectsandactivit
    iesmade
    avai
    l
    ablebypubl i
    corpri
    vateagenciestoindiv
    idualsandfami l
    iesneedingassistance.
    Soci
    alwelfareservi
    cesareacti
    onsorpr ocedurest hatcoverthebasicwel l
    -beingofthe
    i
    ndivi
    dualsandthesociety
    .Theymaybepr ovi
    dedasaci t
    izenshipri
    ght,ornegotiat
    edin
    themarket,andmanagedbygov ernmentsandi nsti
    tuti
    onsorpr ivat
    eactors.

    Soci
    alReal
    it
    y

    3
    Soci
    alreal
    it
    yisaf actofl i
    fepecul iart o apart
    icul
    arsociet
    y;specif
    ical
    l
    ya
    phenomenon,suchassocialclass,reli
    gion,etc.,asexper
    iencedbyapar ti
    cul
    arsocial
    group.Real
    i
    tyasconceiv
    edbyapar t
    icularsocietyorsoci
    algroup,dependentontheir
    customsandbeli
    efs.(
    Oxf
    ordDictionary)

    Thesearet
    heat
    ti
    tudes,bel
    i
    efsandopi
    nionst
    hatar
    ehel
    dbyt
    hemember
    sofa
    soci
    etyoragroup.
    (
    Psychol
    ogyDi
    cti
    onar
    y)

    SocialReali
    tyisdist
    inctfr
    om biologicalreali
    tyorindivi
    dualcognit
    ivereal
    i
    ty,
    r
    epr
    esenti
    ngasi tdoesaphenomenol ogi
    callevelcreat
    edthroughsociali
    nter
    acti
    onand
    t
    her
    ebytranscendi
    ngindi
    vi
    dual mot
    ivesandact ons.(
    i Wiki
    pedia)

    Real
    i
    tyi
    sasoci
    alconst
    ruct
    .Iti
    stheconcept
    ,ideaorbel
    i
    efaboutwhat
    ’sr
    eal
    .

    HowREALI
    TYi
    ssoci
    all
    yconst
    ruct
    ed?
    I
    nt heprocess,meani
    ngisembeddedinsociety.Knowl
    edgeandpeople'
    sconcept
    ions
    (andbel
    iefs)ofwhatreal
    i
    tyi
    sbecomeembeddedi ntheinst
    it
    uti
    onalf
    abri
    cofsociety
    .
    Reali
    tyi
    stherefor
    esai
    dtobesoci
    all
    yconst
    ructed.

    Soci
    alPr
    obl
    ems

    Whati
    saSOCI
    ALPROBLEM?Al
    thoughsoci
    alpr
    obl
    emst
    akemanyf
    orms,t
    heyshar
    ed
    t
    wo import
    antel
    ements: (a)an Object
    iveSoci
    alCondi
    ti
    on and (
    b)t
    heSubj
    ect
    ive
    I
    nter
    pret
    ati
    onoft
    hatsoci
    alcondi
    ti
    on.

    TheObj
    ect
    iveEl
    ement
    sofSoci
    alPr
    obl
    ems
    Theexi
    stenceofasocialcondi
    ti
    on.Iti
    sourawarenessoft
    hatsoci
    alcondi
    ti
    on
    t
    hroughl
    if
    eexperi
    encesandt
    hroughreport
    sinthemedi
    a.

    Forexampl e,
    •Weseet hehomel ess
    •Wewi tnessbatteredwomeni nhospi
    tal
    emergencyr
    ooms
    •Weencount eredchi l
    dreninthestr
    eet
    sscav
    engingforf
    ood
    •Wer eadaboutempl oyeeslosi
    ngjobs
    •Wehear daboutt hewari nMar awi

    TheSubj
    ect
    iveEl
    ement
    sofSoci
    alPr
    obl
    ems
    Thebeli
    efthataparti
    cul
    arsoci
    alcondi
    ti
    oni
    shar
    mfult
    osoci
    etyort
    oasegment
    ofsoci
    etyandt
    hatitshoul
    dandcanbechanged.

    Weknowcr ime,drugaddict
    ion,
    pov er
    ty,
    disast
    ers,
    pol
    l
    uti
    onexi
    st.Howev
    er,t
    hesear
    enot
    consideredsocialproblemsunl essasegmentofsoci et
    ybeliev
    esthesecondi
    ti
    ons
    di
    mi nishthequali
    tyofhumanl i
    fe.

    Var
    iabi
    l
    ityi
    nDef
    ini
    ti
    onsofSoci
    alPr
    obl
    em
    Forexampl e:Somev iew t
    heav ail
    abil
    it
    yofabortionasasocialprobl
    em,whi l
    e
    othersv i
    ew r est
    ri
    ctionsonabor ti
    onasasoci alpr
    oblem. Anotherexample:Some
    i
    ndividualsv i
    ewhomosexual sasasoci alprobl
    em whil
    eot her
    svi
    ewshomophobi aasa
    socialproblem.Var i
    ati
    onsinwhatisconsideredasocialprobl
    em ar
    eduetodiffer
    ences
    i
    nv alues,beli
    efsandl i
    fe’
    sexper
    iences.

    Whati
    saSOCI
    ALPROBLEM?Bycombi
    ningt
    heobj
    ect
    iveandsubj
    ect
    iveel
    ement
    s,we
    arr
    iveatthi
    sdefi
    nit
    ion:SOCIALPROBLEM i sasocialcondi
    ti
    onthatasegmentof
    soci
    etyvi
    ewsasharmfultomember
    sofsocietyandi
    nneedofremedy.Thedef
    init
    ionof
    SocialPr
    obl
    em wil
    lv ar
    ywithi
    nsociet
    y,acrosssoci
    eti
    esandacrosshistor
    icalti
    me
    peri
    od.

    4
    Cat
    egor
    iesofSoci
    alWel
    far
    e

    1.Soci alsecuri
    tyreferstothewholesetofcompulsorymeasuresinst
    itutedtoprotect
    theindivi
    dualandhi sf amil
    yagainsttheconsequencesofunav oi
    dabl
    ei nter
    rupt
    ionor
    seri
    ous di minuti
    on oft he earned i
    ncome disposablefort he maintenance ofa
    reasonable standard ofl i
    vi
    ng (e.
    g.compulsory employ
    erliabil
    it
    y with orwi thout
    i
    nsurance, pr
    ov i
    dentfundsandsociali
    nsur
    ance).

    2.Per sonalsocialservicesrefertoser vicefuncti


    onswhi chhavemaj orbeari
    ngupon
    personalpr obl
    ems,i ndivi
    dualsituat
    ionsofst ress,helpi
    ng peoplei n need and t he
    provi
    sionofdi r
    ectservi
    cesi ncoll
    aborationwithwor ker
    sfrom governmentandv oluntary
    agencies ( e.g.programs f orcounsel ing,therapy and rehabi
    li
    tati
    on,pr ogr
    ams f or
    provi
    dingaccess, informationandadv ice,inst
    it
    uti
    onalservi
    ces,chil
    dprotecti
    veser v
    ices,
    andpr ogramsf orthet r
    eatmentofdev iants).

    3.Publi
    cassist
    ancer ef
    erstomateri
    al/
    concreteai
    ds/supportprovi
    ded,usual
    l
    ybyt
    he
    gover
    nmentagencies,to people who have no i
    ncome ormeans ofsuppor tfor
    themsel
    vesandthei
    rfamil
    ies(
    e.g.l
    ossofempl oy
    ment,natur
    aldisast
    ers)
    .

    5
    PartI
    I
    Per
    spect
    ivesi
    nAnal
    yzi
    ngSoci
    alReal
    it
    ies

    1.Funct
    ional
    ist
    /St
    ruct
    ural
    Funct
    ional
    ist(
    orSt
    ruct
    uralFunct
    ional
    ism)

    St
    ructuralf
    unctional
    i
    stper specti
    vev i
    ewssoci etyascomposedofi nt
    erconnected
    partsthattogetherseekstohar monizesocietyi
    nor dertomaint
    ainequi
    li
    bri
    um (stat
    eof
    balance).
    Struct
    ural f
    uncti
    onalism,orsi
    mpl yfunct
    ionali
    sm,is"aframeworkforbui
    l
    dingtheorythat
    seessociet yasacompl exsystem whosepar tswor ktoget
    hertopromotesoli
    dari
    tyand
    stabil
    i
    ty".

    Struct
    uralFuncti
    onalAppr oach f
    ocuses on any st
    ruct
    ure'
    s soci
    alf
    uncti
    on.These
    functi
    ons ar
    et he consequences f
    ort he oper
    ati
    on ofsoci
    etyas a whol
    e. Social
    functi
    onshave3component s:

    1.Mani festf unctions-Ther ecogni zedandi nt


    endedconsequencesofanysoci al
    patternar eitsmani festf unct ions.[ Consci ousmot i
    vati
    on/ mot ives]e.g.Mani fest
    funct i
    onofEducat i
    oni ncl udepr epar i
    ngf oracar eerbyget ti
    nggoodgr ades,
    graduat i
    onandf i
    ndinggoodj ob, etc.
    2.Latentf unct i
    ons -Lat entf unct i
    ons ar et he unrecogni zed and uni ntended
    consequencesofanysoci alpat tern.[ Objecti
    veconsequences/ f
    unct i
    ons]e. g.
    l
    atentf unct i
    ons ofEducat ion i nclude meet i
    ng new peopl e,par ticipat
    ing i n
    extracurricularact i
    vi
    t i
    est aki ngschool tr
    ipsormay bef i
    ndingaspouse.
     Theconceptofl at entf unctionext endst heobser ver'sat tentionBEYOND
    thequest ionofwhet herornott hebehav i
    orattainsi tsav owedpur pose.
     Soci ologicalobser versar el essl ikelyto exami net hecol lat eral
    /latent
    funct ionsoft hebehav i
    or.
    3.Dysf unction–Soci alpat tern' sundesi r
    ableconsequencesf ortheoper at i
    onoft he
    societyar econsi dereddy sfunct ion.[ Fail
    uret oachiev emani festf unct i
    on]e. g.
    Dysf unctionofeducat ioni ncl udesnotget t
    inggoodgr ade, notget ti
    ngaj obet c.
     Funct ionalanal yst st endt of ocusont hest at
    icsofsoci alstruct ureandt o
    negl ectthest udyofst r
    uct uralchange
     Conceptofdy sfunct ioni mpl iest heconceptofst rain,st r
    essandt ensi on
    ont hest ructurall ev elofasoci alsystem.Soi tpr ov i
    dest heanal yti
    cal
    appr oacht othest udyofdy nami csandchange.

    Instr
    uct
    uralfunct
    ionali
    sm,cul
    turalconsensusexi
    stsandl
    eadst
    osoci
    alor
    der
    ;nat
    ural
    stat
    eofsociet
    y,balanceandharmony.

    I
    nv iewingsocietyasasetofi nter
    rel
    atedpart
    s,struct
    uralfunct
    ionali
    stsar guet
    hat
    pr
    oposedsol uti
    onstosocialproblemsmayl eadtoothersocialpr
    oblems.Forexampl e,
    ur
    banr enewalproj
    ect
    sdisplacer esi
    dentsandbr eakupcommuni tycohesion.Racial
    i
    mbal anceinschoolsleadtof orcedintegr
    ati
    on,whichinturngeneratedv i
    olenceand
    i
    ncreasedhostil
    it
    ybetweenraces.

    Str
    uctural
    -Functional isttheoriesofsoci alpr
    oblems:
     Soci alpat hology–soci alproblemsresultfrom “ sickness”i
    nsoci ety.
     Soci aldisor gani zati
    on–r apidsocialchangedi sr uptsnormsi nsoci et
    y(i.
    e.when
    normsbecomeweak,uncl ear,orarei nconf l
    ictwi t
    heachot her ,soci
    etyisina
    stateofanomi eornor mlessness.
     Apar tofsoci etyisf uncti
    onal i
    fitcontr
    ibutestost abil
    it
    y.
     Apar tisdy sfunct ional i
    fitcausesdisrupti
    onori nstabil
    it
    y.
    Inthe st ructural-
    funct ionalistper specti
    ve,individual s are social
    ized by soci et
    y’s
    i
    nsti
    tuti
    ons;soci ali
    zat ioni sthepr ocessbywhi chsoci alcont r
    olisexerted;peopleneed
    soci
    etyandi tsinstitut i
    ons.

    Causesofsoci
    alproblemsaccordingtostr
    uct
    ural
    -f
    uncti
    onal
    i
    stper
    specti
    ve:r
    api
    dsocial
    change;soci
    aldisorgani
    zati
    on thatdisr
    uptsthe har
    monyand balance;i
    nadequat
    e
    soci
    ali
    zat
    ionand/
    orweaki nsti
    tut
    ions.

    6
    Pr
    obl
    em:e.
    g.dysf
    uncti
    onal(
    unemployed/
    under
    employed)peopl
    eduet
    oinabi
    l
    ityt
    ocope
    wi
    thi
    ndust
    ri
    ali
    zat
    ion,
    moderni
    zat
    ionandglobal
    i
    zat
    ion.

    Soci
    alpolicy
    /solut
    ionsaccordi
    ng to st
    ruct
    ural
    -f
    unct
    ional
    istperspect
    ive:r
    epai
    rweak
    i
    nsti
    tut
    ions;assurepropersoci
    ali
    zat
    ion;cul
    ti
    vat
    east rongcoll
    ecti
    vesenseofrightor
    wrong.

    Sol
    uti
    on:e.g.Trainmorepeopl
    etoarri
    veata“ f
    it”tothedemandsofgl
    obal
    i
    zat
    ionand
    i
    ndust
    rial
    i
    zation;Trai
    npeopl
    eonli
    feski
    ll
    s;soci
    alprotect
    ion.

    Cri
    ti
    cisms t o a str
    uctur
    al-
    functi
    onal
    istper
    specti
    ve:i
    tis cal
    led as the “sunshi
    ne
    soci
    ology”;support
    st hemaintenanceofthestat
    usquo;needstoask“ funct
    ionalf
    or
    whom? ”does notdealwi thissues ofpowerand confl
    i
    ct;incor
    rect
    lyassumes a
    consensus.

    Someoft heknownstruct
    ural-
    funct
    ional
    i
    sm theor
    ist
    sincl
    udeTal
    cot
    tPar
    sons,Her
    ber
    t
    Spencer
    ,
    Emil
    eDurkhei
    m, Rober
    tMerton,amongother
    s.

    Inordert
    o gai
    nmor eknowledgeoft
    hedi
    ff
    erentst
    ruct
    ural
    -f
    unct
    ional
    i
    sm t
    heor
    ist
    s,
    checkont
    hefol
    lowi
    ngli
    nks:

    Emi l
    eDur kheim:
    http:
    //prezi.
    com/ 1fwl
    17q1l
    bv6/emil
    e-dur
    kheim-and-
    the-
    theor
    y-of
    -st
    ruct
    ural
    -
    functi
    onalism/ ?webgl=0
    https:
    //study.com/academy/l
    esson/emil
    e-dur
    kheims-t
    heori
    es-
    funct
    ional
    ism-anomi
    e-
    and-divi
    sion-of-
    labor.
    html

    Funct
    ional
    i
    sm:
    htt
    ps:
    //www.y
    out
    ube.
    com/
    wat
    ch?
    v=5j
    OZqVnQmdY

    2.Conf
    li
    ctt
    heor
    y

    The conf l
    i
    ctt heoryvi
    ews soci
    etyas composed ofcl asses /gr
    oups who hav e
    opposinginter
    ests.
    I
    tv i
    ews societyas composed ofgroups and int
    erest
    s compet i
    ng forpowerand
    resources.Theconf li
    ctper
    spect
    iveexpl
    ainsvari
    ousaspect sofoursoci alwor
    ldby
    l
    ookingatwhi chgroupshavepowerandbenefi
    tfr
    om aparti
    cularsoci
    alarrangement.

    Theconfl
    icttheoryvi
    ewssocietyasmar kedbypowerst r
    uggl
    esov erscar
    ce
    resour
    ces;i
    nequi
    tiesresul
    tinconf
    li
    ct;soci
    alchangei
    sinev
    itabl
    e;thenat
    uralst
    ateof
    societ
    yisi
    mbalance.

    Theconfl
    i
    cttheoryposi
    tsthatpeopleareinher
    entl
    ygoodbutar
    ecorrupt
    edby
    soci
    etyandit
    seconomi cstr
    uct
    ure;i
    nsti
    tut
    ionsarecontr
    oll
    edbygr
    oupwithpower;and
    “or
    der”i
    spartofthei
    ll
    usion.
    Conf
    li
    ctTheor
    iesofSoci
    alPr
    obl
    ems
    Therearet
    wogener alty
    pesofconfli
    cttheori
    esofsocialproblems:
    1.Mar xi
    stConf l
    i
    ctTheori
    esf ocusonsoci alconf l
    i
    ctt hatresul
    tsf
    rom economic
    i
    nequal
    it
    ies.
    2.Non- Mar
    xistConf l
    i
    ctTheor ies focus on socialconf l
    ictthatresul
    tsf r
    om
    competi
    ngvaluesandint
    erestsamongsoci al
    gr oups.

    Mar
    xistConf
    li
    ctTheor
    ies

    Theorigi
    nsoft heconfl
    i
    ctper spect
    ivecanbet racedtotheworksofKarlMarx.
    Marx suggested thatallsocieti
    es go through st
    ages ofeconomi c devel
    opment.
    I
    ndust
    rial
    izat
    ionleadst ot
    wocl asses:the“haves”orbourgeoi
    sie,ort
    heownersofthe
    meansofpr oducti
    on;andt he“havenot s”ortheproletari
    atortheworkerswhoearn

    7
    wagesorthosewhodependonl yontheirlabor.Thebour
    geoi
    sieuset
    hei
    rpowert
    o
    cont
    rol
    thei
    nsti
    tut
    ionsofsoci
    etyt
    othei
    radvantage.

    Themai nthesi
    softheMarxi
    stperspecti
    ve:themeansofproducti
    onasapr oductof
    hsi
    tor
    icalpr
    ocessdet
    ermi
    nesthesocialr
    eali
    ti
    es–hist
    ori
    cal
    mat er
    ial
    det
    ermi
    nism.

    AccordingtoMar xi
    stt
    heor
    y,socialprobl
    emsr esultfr
    om cl
    assi
    nequal
    ityinher
    entina
    capi
    tali
    sticsyst
    em.Marxi
    stconfli
    cttheor
    iesal
    sof ocusonthepr
    oblem ofali
    enati
    on,or
    powerlessnessandmeani
    nglessnessinpeopl
    e’
    sl i
    ves.

    Non-
    Mar
    xistConf
    li
    ctTheor
    ies
    Ral
    fDahr
    endor
    fisnonMar xistConf
    li
    ctTheor
    ist
    .Forhi
    m,soci
    etyi
    scomposedof
    gr
    oupswit
    hopposi
    ngideasori
    nterest.

    AnonMar xistConfl
    icttheoryisconcer nedwi t
    hconfli
    ctthatariseswhengr oupshav e
    opposi
    ngv aluesandi nter
    ests.Fori nstance,antiabort
    ionact i
    vistsval
    uet helif
    eof
    unborn embr yos;pro-choi
    ce act ivi
    stsv al
    ue the ri
    ghtofwomen t o contr
    olt hei
    r
    repr
    oducti
    vedeci si
    ons.Thesev aluepositi
    onsrefl
    ectdif
    ferentsubjecti
    vei
    nter
    pretat
    ions
    ofwhatconst it
    utesasocialproblem.

    Causesofsoci alproblemsaccordi
    ng t
    o conf
    li
    cttheor
    yper spect
    ive:i
    nequali
    ty;t
    he
    dominanceofgroupsofpeopleoverot
    hergr
    oupsofpeopl
    e;oppressi
    onandexploit
    ati
    on;
    competit
    ionbet
    weengr oups.

    Probl
    em:e.g.gl
    obali
    zati
    oni
    ncr
    easedthegapbetweent
    he“
    haves”andt
    he“
    havenot
    s”;
    theri
    chbecomericherandt
    hepoorbecomepoor
    er.

    Soci
    alpol
    icy
    /solut
    ionsaccordi
    ngtoconfl
    i
    cttheoryperspect
    ive:mi
    nimi
    zecompet
    it
    ion;
    cr
    eateanequit
    ablesyst
    em fort
    hedist
    ri
    but
    ionofresour
    ces.

    Sol
    uti
    on:e.g.toradi
    cal
    l
    ychanget
    heeconomi
    cbaseofsoci
    etyt
    hroughnat
    ional
    i
    st
    i
    ndust
    rial
    i
    zati
    on.

    Cri
    ti
    cismstoaconf l
    icttheor
    yperspect
    ive:Utopi
    anmodel ;Marxi
    stst
    ateshav efai
    led;
    deniesexi
    stenceofcooperat
    ionandequitabl
    eexchange;cannotexpl
    aincohesionand
    harmony.

    Someoft
    heknownconf
    li
    ctt
    heor
    ist
    sincl
    udeKar
    lMar
    xandRal
    fDahr
    endor
    f.

    I
    n ordert
    o gai
    n mor
    e knowl
    edge oft
    he di
    ff
    erentconf
    li
    ctt
    heor
    ist
    s,checkon t
    he
    f
    oll
    owingl
    i
    nks:

    Ral
    fDahr endorfConfl
    i
    ctTheor
    y:
    ht
    tp:/
    /www. for
    schungsnet
    zwerk.
    at/
    downl
    oadpub/I
    IASS-
    vol
    ume6-
    number
    3-ar
    ti
    cle7.
    pdf
    Confl
    ictTheory:
    ht
    tps://
    www. youtube.
    com/wat
    ch?v=d_
    c2p0Y7mgU
    Marxi
    sm:
    ht
    tps://
    www. youtube.
    com/wat
    ch?v=W0GFSUu5UzA

    3.Sy
    mbol
    icI
    nter
    act
    ioni
    st(
    orSy
    mbol
    ici
    nter
    act
    ioni
    sm)

    Thesymboli
    ci nt
    eracti
    oni
    sm viewssoci
    etyasanetworkofint
    erlocki
    ngr
    oles;social
    orderi
    sconst
    ructedthroughint
    eracti
    onasindi
    vi
    dual
    s,t
    hroughsharedmeani
    ng, making
    senseoutoft
    heirsocialworl
    d.

    I
    tposit
    sthatsoci
    alreal
    it
    iesar
    eproductsofsoci
    ali
    nter
    acti
    onandthatsocialinteract
    ion
    i
    sladenwit
    hmeani ngsanddefi
    nit
    ions.I
    ndi
    vi
    duali
    denti
    tyi
    sshapedbysocialinteracti
    on.

    8
    Thesymboli
    cinteracti
    onisttheor
    yf urt
    hersuggeststhathumansarei
    nter
    pret
    iveand
    i
    nter
    acti
    ve;t
    heyareconst ant
    lychangingasthei
    r“soci
    albei
    ngs”emer
    geandaremolded
    bychangi
    ngcir
    cumst ances.

    Symbol i
    cinteracti
    oni
    sm isasoci alpsychologi caltheorydevel
    opedf rom thewor kof
    Charles
    HortonCool eyandGeor geHerbertMeadi nt heear l
    ypartofthetwentiethcentury(t he
    actualnameoft hetheorycomesf r
    om Her ber tBlumer,oneofMead' sst udents).
    Accor dingtot hi
    stheor
    y,peopl
    ei nhabitawor l
    dt hati
    si nl
    argepartsoci
    allyconstructed.
    In par ti
    cular,the meaning of obj ect
    s,ev ent s,and behaviors comes f rom t he
    i
    nterpr etat
    ionpeoplegiv
    ethem, andinterpr
    etationsv aryfr
    om onegroupt oanother.

    Symboli
    cInteracti
    onism,f ormulatedbyBlumer(1969)istheprocessofi nt
    eractionin
    thefor
    mationofmeani ngsf orindi
    vi
    dual
    s.Theinspir
    ati
    onforthist heor
    ycamef r
    om
    Dewey(1981) ,whichbel iev
    edt hathumanbeingsar ebestunderstoodinapr acti
    cal
    ,
    i
    nter
    acti
    verelati
    ont otheirenvir
    onment.

    Cooley,inhi stheor
    yofa" lookingglasssel f
    ,"arguedt hatthewaywet hi
    nkabout
    ourselv
    esi sparti
    cular
    lyaptt obear eflect
    ionofot herpeople'
    sappr ai
    sals(ormor e
    accuratel
    y,ourimaginingofot herpeople'sapprai
    sals)andt hatourself
    -concept
    sar e
    buil
    tupi nt hei
    ntimategroupst hathecal l
    ed"pri
    mar ygroups."Meademphasi zedthat
    humanbei ngsdonotr eactdir
    ectlytoevents;theyactbasedont hei
    rint
    erpret
    ati
    onof
    themeani ngofevents.

    Thewor dsweuset odescr i


    beourbehav i
    orandt hebehav iorofothersarepart
    icul
    arly
    i
    mpor tant,accordi
    ngt othistheor
    y.Thenewpr ost i
    tut
    elearnst odenigr
    atethe"square"
    world and admi repeopl ewhosel if
    estyl
    ereflects"ther acketli
    fe.
    "( Heyl
    ) Anot her
    exampl eistherapistwhoi nsi
    stst
    hatsomewomen( hit
    chhi ker
    sforexample)cannotbe
    consideredvict
    ims, becausetheyare"aski
    ngforit.
    "(Scul
    lyandMar oll
    is)
    .

    Symbol i
    cinteracti
    oni
    stsemphasizethatdev i
    ants,l
    ikepeoplewhoar emoreconformist,
    l
    iveinawor l
    dt hati
    ssocial
    lyconst
    ructed.Certai
    nidenti
    tiesareavai
    labl
    eandother
    snot
    avai
    lable;somebehav i
    orsgetyouprestigeandr espectwhileother
    saredeprecat
    edor
    punished,andt hebehavi
    orsthatareappr ovedorpuni shedmaychangedr amaticall
    y
    overtime.

    Thet heoryconsi
    stsofthr
    eecorepri
    nci
    ples:meani
    ng,
    languageandthought
    .Thesecore
    pri
    nciplesleadtoconcl
    usi
    onsaboutthecreat
    ionofaperson’
    ssel
    fandsocial
    izat
    ioni
    nto
    alargercommuni t
    y(Gri
    ffi
    n,1997)
    .

    Meani
    ngst
    atest
    hathumansactt
    owar
    dpeopl
    eandt
    hingsaccor
    dingt
    othemeani
    ngs
    t
    hatgivetothosepeopl
    eort hings.Sy
    mboli
    cI nt
    eract
    ioni
    sm hol
    dst
    hepr
    inci
    palof
    meani
    ngtobethecent
    ral
    aspectofhumanbehavi
    or.

    Languagegi
    veshumansameansbywhi
    cht
    onegot
    iat
    emeani
    ngt
    hroughsy
    mbol
    s.
    Humansi
    dent
    if
    ymeani
    ngi
    nspeechact
    swi
    thot
    her
    s.

    Thoughtmodi
    fi
    eseach i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    ’
    sint
    erpr
    etat
    ion ofsy
    mbol
    s.Thoughti
    sa ment
    al
    conv
    ersat
    iont
    hatr
    equi
    resdi
    ff
    erentpoi
    ntsofv
    iew.

    Withtheset hreeelementstheconceptoft hesel


    fcanbef ramed.Peopleuse‘t
    hel ooking
    -gl
    assself’:theytaketherol
    eoft heother,i
    magininghowwel ooktoanotherperson.The
    sel
    fisaf unctionoflanguage,wi t
    houttalkther
    ewoul dbenosel f-
    concept.Peoplear e
    partofacommuni t
    y,whereourgener ali
    zedot heri
    st hesum totalofresponsesand
    expectati
    onst hatwepi ckupf r
    om t hepeoplearoundus.Wenat ur
    all
    ygivemor ewei ght
    tothev i
    ewsofsi gnifi
    cantother
    s.

    Thetheor
    yisusedinef
    fecti
    veeval
    uati
    onofhumani nt
    eract
    ion.Di
    ff
    erentmeani
    ngscan
    easi
    l
    yl ead to communicati
    on probl
    ems. Probl
    ems can ar i
    se ift he l
    i
    nes of
    communicat
    ionar
    enotopenandassumpt i
    onsar
    emade.

    9
    Example
    Aboy( Jeremy )andagi rl(Ki
    m)br okeupl astyear.WhenJer emyr eceivedanemai lf
    rom
    Kimt ogooutheagr eedandt heywentt oabar .Jeremyhadadi fferentkindofmeani ng
    thoughincompar i
    sonwi thKim.Jer emywentoutasf riends,wher eKi m wentoutaswi th
    themeani ngof ‘ potenti
    alboy f
    riend’.Alsoi nt hecommuni cationt hel anguagewas
    misunderstood.Kim want edt ohav ear omant i
    cnight ,whileJer emywant edtohav ea
    tal
    ki n a bar.Thi si salso caused byt he nonver balel ementofemai l
    s.The third
    miscommuni cationisundert hought .WhenJer emyr epl i
    edsof astKi mt houghtthatthey
    weregoingoutt oar omanticplace.Jer emywentoutj ustas‘ f
    riends’.Theybot husedan
    i
    nternaldi
    aloguet ointerpr
    etthesituationandt omakeaper cept i
    onoft heev eni
    ng.

    Causes ofsocialprobl
    ems accordi
    ng to symboli
    cinteract
    ioni
    sm t
    heory
    :Di f
    ferent
    i
    nter
    pret
    ationofrol
    es;l
    abel
    l
    ingofindi
    vidual
    s,groupsorbehavi
    orsasdevi
    ant;def
    ini
    tion
    ofanobjecti
    vecondi
    ti
    onasasocialpr
    oblem.

    Probl
    em:e.
    g.i
    dent
    it
    ylabel
    scausemar
    ginal
    i
    zat
    ionandoppr
    essi
    one.
    g.homosexual
    i
    tyas
    aberr
    ati
    on.

    Socialpoli
    cy/
    sol
    uti
    onsaccor
    dingt
    osy mboli
    cinter
    actioni
    stper
    spect
    ive:reducei
    mpact
    oflabeli
    ngandassoci
    atedst
    igmat
    izat
    ion;
    alt
    erdefi
    nit
    ionsofwhatisdefinedasasoci
    al
    problem.

    Sol
    uti
    on:e.g.changeper
    cept
    ionofhomosexual
    i
    tyasaberrat
    iont
    oabasi
    chumanr
    ight
    ofapersontodetermi
    neandfreel
    yexpr
    esshi
    sorhergenderi
    dent
    it
    y.
    Cri
    ti
    ci
    smst oasymboli
    cinter
    actioni
    sm t
    heor
    y:concentr
    atesonmicroi
    ssuesonly;fai
    lto
    l
    inkmicr
    oissuestomacr olevelconcer
    ns;t
    oopsy chol
    ogicali
    nit
    sapproach;assumes
    l
    abelampli
    fi
    edprobl
    em.

    Someoftheknownsymboli
    cint
    eract
    ioni
    sm theor
    istsi
    ncludeGeor
    geSi
    mmel
    ,Char
    les
    Cool
    ey,
    Geor
    geHerber
    tMead,
    Erv
    ingGoff
    man, W.I
    .Thomas, amongother
    s.

    Symboli
    cInt
    eract
    ioni
    sm:
    ht
    tps:
    //www.yout
    ube.com/
    wat
    ch?
    v=j
    FQII
    M8IRZU
    ht
    tps:
    //www.yout
    ube.com/
    wat
    ch?
    v=8Yj
    HiaZgl
    bQ

    4.Phenomenol
    ogi
    cal
    /Const
    ruct
    ivi
    st(
    Const
    ruct
    ivi
    sm)

    The phenomenol ogical


    /Constr
    ucti
    vist perspecti
    ver egards r
    eali
    ti
    es as social
    ly
    construct
    ed.
    Societyisahumanpr oduct.Soci
    etyisanobj ect
    ivereali
    ty.Manisasoci alproduct
    (Ber
    gerand
    Luckmann) .Phenomenological
    /Constr
    ucti
    vistperspecti
    veisbasedont hepremisethat
    real
    ityconsist
    sofobj ectsandev entsast heyar epercei
    vedorunder st
    oodinhuman
    consciousnessandnotofany thi
    ngindependentofhumanconsci ousness.

    Thephenomenologi
    cal/
    Constructi
    vi
    stperspecti
    veishel pfuli
    nparadi
    gm analy
    sis.
    Paradigm isthe‘ent
    ir
    econstel
    lat
    ionofbel i
    efs,val
    ues,techniquesandsoonshar edby
    themember sofagivencommunity.
    ”(ThomasKuhn) .“
    Par adi
    gmsshapeandar eshaped
    byvalues,knowledgeandbeli
    efsaboutthenat ur
    eofourwor l
    ds.”(JoeSchri
    ver
    )

    Awor l
    dv iew whi chisembeddedi nbot hconsciousandunconsciousst ateof
    human beings and i nstit
    uti
    onal
    ized wit
    hint he socialenvir
    onmentt hrough mor es,
    cust
    oms, t
    radit
    ions,socialcontr
    ol,l
    aws,etc.andtakenf orgr
    antedasnatur
    al andfactual
    .
    Basi
    cal
    ly,aconst r
    ucti
    v i
    stperspecti
    veprovidesthel enstocri
    ti
    call
    yassessthediffer
    ent
    ways ofpr obl
    em assessmentand wel fare programs.Construct
    ivi
    sm i s pr
    imar i
    ly
    employedi
    npar adigm analysi
    s.

    Par
    adi
    gm anal
    ysi
    sisahelpf
    ulprocessforbecomingmoreawar
    e,constr
    uct
    ivel
    y
    cr
    it
    ical
    ,andanal
    yti
    cali
    nourint
    eracti
    onsinsi
    deandout sidet
    hefor
    malcontextofour

    10
    education—i nourwor kandi nouri nt erper
    sonalrel ati
    onshi
    ps. Putsi mply,paradi gm
    analysi
    si slearning to“ thi
    nkparadigm. ”Iti
    sapr ocessofcont i
    nuallyaskingquest i
    ons
    aboutwhatt hei nf
    or mat i
    on,bothspokenandunspoken,t hatwesendandr ecei v
    e
    ref
    lectsaboutourownandot hers’vi
    ewsoft hewor ldandi t
    speopl e,especiall
    ypeopl e
    dif
    ferentf rom our selves.I tis a pr ocess ofcont inual
    ly“ t
    hinki
    ng aboutt hinking.”
    Paradigm anal ysi
    sr equires us to cont i
    nually and cr i
    ti
    cally evaluatet he many
    perspectivesweexpl oreforthei
    rconsi stencywi t
    hthecor econcernsofsoci alwor k.Iti
    s
    i
    mpor tantt orecognizet hatsuchcrit
    ical thi
    nkingast hatrequir
    edofpar adigm analy si
    sis
    ahelpful,positi
    ve,andconst r
    ucti
    vepr ocess,ratherthananegat iveordest r
    uctiveone.

    Constr
    uctivi
    sm isal earni
    ngt heoryfoundinpsy chol
    ogywhi chexpl
    ainshow
    people mightacquire knowledge and lear
    n.Ittheref
    ore has di
    rectappli
    cati
    on to
    educati
    on.Thet heorysuggeststhathumansconst r
    uctknowledgeandmeani ngf r
    om
    thei
    rexper
    iences.

    BergerandLuckmannuset het ermsext ernali


    zat i
    on,obj ecti
    vation,andr eifi
    cation
    tor efert ot hepr ocessbywhi chhumanact ivi
    tyandsoci et yat tainthechar acterof
    objectivit
    y.Ext ernali
    zationandobj ectivati
    onenabl et heact ort oconf rontthesoci al
    wor l
    dassomet hingout sideher self.
    I
    nstitutionsappearext ernalt othei ndividual,ashi st
    oricalandobj ecti
    vef acili
    ti
    es.
    Theyconf rontt hei ndividualasundeni ablef acts.Rei fi
    cati
    oni s“ anext remest ep”i n
    processofobj ectivati
    on.I nr eifi
    cation,“ t
    her ealrelationshipbet weenmanandhi swor l
    d
    i
    sr ev ersedi nconsci ousness.Man,t hepr oducerofawor ld,isappr ehendedasi ts
    product ,andhumanact ivi
    tyasanepi phenomenonofnon- humanpr ocess.”Thati s,
    rei
    ficationi st heappr ehensi onofhumanphenomenaasi ft heywer e“ non-humanor
    possibl ysupr ahuman”t hi ngs.Fori nst
    ance,wer eifyoursoci alr olesinsuchawayt hat
    wesay ,“Ihav enochoi cei nt hemat ter
    .Ihav et oactt hisway .”Thati swhatBer gerr efers
    toas“ badf aith.”Ofcour se,hist oryisfullofexampl esoft hehor r
    endousconsequences
    thatensuef rom suchr eification.TheNaziconcent rati
    oncampsr eli
    edonguar dswho
    aresai dt ohav emer ely“ t
    akenor ders. ”Apar all
    elal socanbedr awnwi thther ecent
    exampl eoft ortureintheAbuGhr ai
    bpr ison.

    I
    nt ernalizat i
    on–i s“ thei mmedi ateappr ehensi onori nterpr etat ionofanobj ecti
    ve
    eventasexpr essi ngmeani ng, ”t hati s,thepr ocesst hr oughwhi chi ndi vidualsubj ecti
    vity
    i
    sat tai ned.
    Int
    er nal ization means t hat “ the obj ect i
    vized soci al wor ld i s r etroject ed i nto
    consci ousnessi nt hecour seofsoci al
    izat i
    on. ”Assuch,i nternal i
    zat ioni sthe“ begi nning
    point”i nt hepr ocessofbecomi ngamemberofsoci et y
    ,aswel last he“ endpoi nt”in
    i
    nst i
    tut ional ization. The t hree moment s of ext ernali
    zat ion, obj ect ivati
    on, and
    i
    nter nal i
    zat ionar enott obeunder stood“ asoccur ri
    ngi nat empor alsequence, ”but
    ratherasasi mul taneous,di alect ical process.
    Nev er theless, i
    ti sinintergener ationalt ransmi ssiont hatt hepr ocessofi nter nalizationis
    compl et e.AsBer gerandLuckmannmai ntain:onl ywi tht het ransmi ssi onoft hesoci al
    wor l
    dt oanew gener ati
    on( thati s,i nternalizationasef fectuat edi nsoci alizat i
    on)does
    the f undament alsoci aldi alect ic appeari ni tst otal i
    ty.To r epeat ,onl y wi tht he
    appear anceofanewgener at i
    oncanonepr operlyspeakofasoci al wor l
    d.Inot herwor ds,
    everyi ndiv i
    duali sbor nintoanenv ironmentwi t
    hi nwhi chsheencount er st hesi gni fi
    cant
    other swhoar ei nchar geofhersoci ali
    zation.Onedoesnotchooseone’ sownsi gni fi
    cant
    other s;r ather ,t heyar eimposedonher .I nt hepr ocessofsoci al i
    zat ion,t hest ocksof
    knowl edget hatt hei ndivi
    dualexper iencesaspr eexist i
    ngobj ect i
    v er eal ityar ei mposed
    onher .
    Thei ndi viduali st hereby“ bor ni ntonotonl yanobj ect i
    vesoci alst ruct urebutal soan
    object ivesoci al wor l
    d.”
    Ber gerandLuckmanndi f fer entiatet wot y pesofsoci alizat i
    onbasedont heext ent
    towhi chi ndi vi
    dual sar eact iveandconsci ousoft hepr ocessofi nt er nalizat i
    on.Pr imar y
    social i
    zat ion r ef erst o“ thef irstsoci alization an i ndi vi
    dualunder goesi n chi ldhood,
    through whi ch he becomes a memberofsoci et
    y.”On t he ot herhand,secondar y
    social i
    zat ionr efer stosubsequentpr ocessesofsoci ali
    zationt hati nduct“ anal ready
    social i
    zedi ndividuali ntonew sect orsoft heobj ect
    ivewor l
    doft hi ssoci et y.”Wher eas
    pri
    mar ysoci alizat i
    oni spr edef i
    nedandt akenf orgr anted,secondar ysoci ali
    zat i
    oni s
    acqui redi namor econsci ousway .Itisf ort hisr easont hatpr imar ysoci alizat i
    onhasso

    11
    muchmor eofani mpactont heindivi
    dualthansecondarysociali
    zati
    on.AsBer gerand
    Luckmannst ate:Thechil
    ddoesnoti nter
    nali
    zethewor l
    dofhissignif
    icantot
    hersasone
    ofmanypossi bleworlds.Hei nternali
    zeditast hewor l
    d,theonl yexist
    entandonl y
    conceivabl
    ewor ld,t
    hewor l
    dtoutcour t.I
    tisfort
    hisreasonthatthewor l
    dinter
    nali
    zedin
    pri
    mar ysocial
    i
    zat i
    onissomuchmor efi
    rmlyentr
    enchedinconsci ousnessthanwor l
    ds
    i
    nternali
    zedinsecondarysociali
    zati
    on.

    Furthermore,pri
    mar ysociali
    zati
    onisdisti
    nguishedbyt hef actthati tcannott ake
    placewi thoutanemot ionall
    yshar edidenti
    fi
    cationoft hechi ldrenwi thhi ssi gnifi
    cant
    others:youhav etol oveyourmot her
    ,butnoty ourteacher.Thisdi sti
    nctionbet weent he
    mor ei nt
    imat e(pri
    mar y)andl essi nti
    mate( secondary)ty pesofsoci alizati
    onr ecall
    s
    Schut z’
    smor eabst r
    actdiscussionofumwel tversusmi tweltr elat
    ions.Eacht ypeof
    relat
    ionshipi sdisti
    nguishedbyadi ff
    erentlevelofi ntersubject ivi
    tyandt ypifi
    cati
    on.
    Primar ysociali
    zati
    onandsi gni
    ficantothers(essentialto“ wer elati
    ons” )ar ef armor e
    centraltothemai ntenanceof“ i
    dentit
    y”thanaresecondar yrelationshi ps/socializati
    on

    Pr
    obl
    em:e.
    g.soci
    alconst
    ruct
    ionsofper
    sonhoodput
    sper
    sonsi
    nast
    rai
    ghtj
    acket

    Solut
    ion: e.
    g. Reconst
    ruct per
    sonhood and change expect
    ati
    ons whi
    ch ar
    e
    dehumanizi
    ng.

    Someoftheknownphenomenol
    ogy
    /const
    ruct
    ivi
    sm t
    heor
    ist
    sincl
    udeShut
    z,Ber
    ger
    ,and
    Luckman.

    SocialConstructi
    onism:
    htt
    ps://www. youtube.
    com/watch?v=gVCkJ7jLnz0
    htt
    ps://www. youtube.
    com/watch?v=Yi8S4YkZI04
    htt
    p://
    cy nt
    hiagil
    li
    gansoci
    ology
    302.blogspot.
    com/ 2009/
    12/
    pet
    er-
    ber
    ger
    thomas-
    l
    uckman. html
    htt
    ps://www. spri
    nger.
    com/gp/book/9783319276915

    5.Soci
    alWor
    kPer
    spect
    ivei
    nAnal
    yzi
    ngSoci
    alReal
    it
    ies

    5.
    1TheEcol
    ogi
    calPer
    spect
    ive(
    Per
    soni
    nEnv
    ironment
    )

    Theecologicalperspect
    ive(orthePersoninEnv i
    ronmentperspect
    ive)vi
    ews
    soci
    alr eal
    i
    ty as an int
    eracti
    on ofhuman beings wit
    h each otherand wi t
    hthei
    r
    envi
    ronmentbothsocialandphy si
    cal
    /nat
    ural
    envi
    ronment.

    "Theecologi
    calperspect
    iveusesecologi
    calconceptsf
    rom bi
    ologyasamet aphorwith
    whichtodescri
    bet hereci
    proci
    tybetweenpersonsandthei
    renv i
    ronment
    s..
    .attenti
    onis
    onthegoodnessoff i
    tbetweenanindivi
    dualorgroupandtheplacesi
    nwhicht heyli
    ve
    outthei
    rli
    ves"
    (Sands,
    2001).

    Theecol
    ogicalper
    spect
    ivecanbetracedbackt
    obi
    ologi
    calt
    heor
    iest
    hatexpl
    ain
    howor
    ganismsadapttothei
    renvi
    ronment
    s.

    I
    n1868,Er nstHaekelvoicedthet er
    m" ecology"toref
    ert oanor ganism andit'
    s
    i
    nterdependencieswithi
    nanat uralenvi
    ronment.Themostconv enti
    onaldefinit
    ionofthe
    term" ecol
    ogy"means" theint
    erdisci
    pli
    naryscienti
    ficst
    udyoft hel i
    vi
    ngcondi t
    ionsof
    organi
    smsi ninteracti
    onwi t
    heachot herandwi t
    ht hesurr
    oundings,organicaswel las
    i
    norganic"(Naess1989, p.36).

    The mi
    dt o ear
    ly20th century
    ,served as a mil
    estone f
    orthe soci
    alwor
    k
    pr
    ofessioni
    nadopti
    ngaf amil
    ysystemsmodelt oincorpor
    atethatfami
    lymembersar
    e
    i
    nfl
    uencedequal
    lybyenvi
    ronmentalsystemswit
    hequalpower.

    Thesoci
    alworkdisci
    pli
    nehasexpandedt hi
    sper spect
    ivet
    oexplai
    nt hatan
    i
    ndi
    vi
    duali
    s"const
    ant
    lycr
    eati
    ng,rest
    ruct
    uri
    ng,andadapt
    ingtotheenvi
    ronmentasthe

    12
    envi
    ronmenti saffecti
    ngt hem"( Ungar,2002)
    .Thesy st
    emsappr oachnow addedt he
    soci
    alelement st
    ot heinteract
    iveprocess.I
    nthe1960'sand1970's,t
    hesystemstheory
    wasexpandedbasedonanecol ogi
    calapproach,br
    eaki
    ngdownt heterm"envi
    ronment"
    i
    nto socialdeter
    mi nantswi thv ar
    ied l
    evelsofpowerand infl
    uence,asdeemed by
    i
    ndivi
    dual st
    ressandneedandl evelofconnect
    edness.

    Unl i
    kemostbehav i
    oralandpsy chologi
    calt heor
    ies,ecologi
    caltheor
    iesf ocuson
    i
    nterrel
    ati
    onalt r
    ansacti
    onsbet ween systems,and st r
    esst hatal
    lexisti
    ng el ement
    s
    wit
    hinanecosy stem pl
    ayanequalr olei nmai ntaini
    ngbal anceoft hewhol e.I
    nsocial
    workpr acti
    ce,applyi
    nganecol ogi
    calappr oachcanbebestunder stoodasl ooki
    ngat
    persons,famil
    ies,cul
    tur
    es,communi t
    ies,andpol i
    ciesandt oidenti
    fyandinterveneupon
    str
    engthsandweaknessesi nthet r
    ansactionalprocessesbet weenthesesystems.

    Holist
    icthi
    nki
    ngcanprov
    ideaparadi
    gm f
    orunder
    standi
    nghow sy
    stemsand
    t
    hei
    rint
    eracti
    onscanmai
    ntai
    nanindi
    vi
    dual
    '
    sbehav
    ior
    .

    Bronf
    enbrenner(1979),suggestsfourlevel
    sofecologi
    calcomponent sasausef ul
    fr
    amewor kin underst
    anding how indi
    vi
    dualorfamil
    ypr ocesses ar
    einfl
    uenced by
    hi
    erar
    chicalenv
    ironmentalsy
    stemsinwhi cht
    heyf
    unct
    ion:

    1. Microsystem-The most basi c sy stem,r eferri


    ng to an i ndi vi
    dual'
    s most
    i
    mmedi ateenv i
    ronment( i.
    e.,theef fect sofper sonal
    it
    ychar acteristi
    csonot her
    famil
    ymember s).
    2. Mesosy stem-Amor egener ali
    zedsy st em r ef
    er r
    ingtotheinteractionalprocesses
    betweenmul t
    iplemi crosystems( i.e., effectsofspousalr elati
    onshi psonpar ent-
    chil
    di nt
    eracti
    ons) .
    3. Exosy st
    em-Set t
    ingsonamor egener al
    izedl evelwhichaf fectindirect
    ly,f
    ami ly
    i
    nteractions on t he mi cro and meso l evels( i
    .e.,the ef f
    ect s ofpar ent's
    employ mentonf amilyinteract
    ions).
    4. Macr osystem-Themostgener alized f orces,af f
    ecti
    ng indivi
    dual sand fami ly
    functi
    oning(i.
    e.,poli
    tical,cult
    ural
    ,economi c,soci al
    ).

    EcologicalPerspective:
    htt
    ps://www. youtube.com/watch?v=nUhOMx7KYFg
    Personi nEnvironment :
    htt
    ps://www. youtube.com/watch?v=3aZL6S-
    _yHE
    EcologicalSystemsTheor y:
    htt
    ps://study.
    com/ academy /
    lesson/bronf
    enbr
    enner
    s-ecol
    ogi
    cal
    -sy
    stems-
    theor
    y-of
    -
    development -
    def i
    nit
    ion-
    examples.ht
    ml

    5.
    2Sy
    stemsPer
    spect
    ive

    SystemsTheor yex plai


    nshumanbehav iorastheint
    ersect
    ionoftheinfl
    uencesof
    mul t
    ipl
    ei nterr
    elated sy stems.Ev en f
    orindi vi
    dualissues,famil
    ies,organizations,
    societi
    es,andot hersy stemsar einher
    entl
    yi nvolv
    edandmustbeconsi deredwhen
    attemptingt ounder standandassi stt
    heindi
    vidual.Accor
    dingtothi
    stheory,al
    lsy st
    ems
    arei nt
    errelatedpar tsconst it
    uti
    nganor der
    edwhol eandeachsubsy st
    em influences
    otherpartsoft hewhol e.

    Therehav ebeendozensofunof fi
    ciali
    terationsofSy stemsTheor yovert
    hepast
    fewhundr edy ears,appl
    iedtosoci et
    y,science,andmanyot herareas.Inthe20thcent
    ury
    ,
    multi
    plesci entist
    s,philosophers,andacademi csbegant o outli
    neExt ernall
    i
    nkand
    defi
    net hest ructureofSy stemsTheor yi nt heirv ar
    iousdi scipl
    ines;therearenow
    syst
    emst heor i
    esf orbiol
    ogy,cy berneti
    cs,andf orsocialwor k.Whi letheappli
    cati
    ons
    obvi
    ouslyv arydependi ngont hediscipl
    ine,allsy stemst heori
    esf oll
    ow theconceptof
    i
    nterr
    elatedpar tsinfl
    uencingoneanot heraspar tofanor deredwhol e.

    Severalpr
    omi nentt
    hinkersadvancedSyst
    emsTheor yinsoci alwor
    k.Talcott
    Parsonswasaneconomi standsoci ol
    ogi
    statHarvar
    dUniversi
    ty,whosebook“Social
    System”helpedsteertheconversat
    iononsyst
    ematicdet
    erminantsofbehavi
    or.Robert

    13
    Mertonisconsideredoneoft hef oundingfathersofmoder nsoci ologyandsi gni
    fi
    cant
    ly
    advanced Sy
    stemsTheor ythrough hispr ogressi
    vet heorieson f uncti
    onalanalysi
    s.
    Mertonalsocoinedt henowubi quitousterms“ sel
    f-
    ful
    fi
    lli
    ngpr ophecy ”and“rolemodel
    .”
    CarelGer
    mainisi nternati
    onal
    l
    yr ecognizedforherworkonexpl aininghumanbehav i
    ori
    n
    asocialenvi
    ronment .Shement oredandwor kedextensivelywithAl exGitt
    erman,who
    conti
    nuestodev el
    opSy st
    emsTheor yt
    hrought heLi
    feModel External li
    nk.

    CaseSt
    udyi
    nSyst
    emsTheor
    y

    ThePruettcasestudyprovi
    desaconcr et
    e,real-worl
    dexampleofhowSy stems
    Theoryi
    sappliedtounder
    standhowi nt
    errelat
    edf actor
    scont r
    ibut
    etounhealthyactions.
    Int
    hiscase,t
    hecl i
    entwasengagingi
    nriskybehav ior
    s( drugabuseandunprotectedsex)
    andnotattendingschool
    .Shehadnothadcont actwithherf at
    herforfi
    vey ears,and
    someofheronl ymemoriesofhi minvolvedhi m abusingdr ugsandarguingwi thher
    motherathome.

    IntheFamilySy st
    emsTheor y,i
    ndivi
    dualsmustnotbeev al
    uatedinisolati
    on,but
    i
    nt hecontextoft
    hef amily,asthefamilyoperatesasauni t
    .Oneoft hecoreconcept sof
    thi
    st heoryi sthe t r
    iangl
    e,whose mostcommon f or
    m i s a parent-parent
    -chi
    ld
    rel
    ati
    onship—aka“ twohel pingone”).Clear
    ly,t
    hecl i
    entwasmi ssi
    ngoneoft hecorners
    ofthetr
    iangleandthusoneoft hepil
    l
    arsofhealt hyemoti
    onaldevel
    opment .

    Anotherconcepti
    sthefamil
    yproj
    ecti
    onprocess,
    wher ei
    nt hecli
    entsuf
    fersfr
    om
    theemotionaldysf
    uncti
    onofthefamil
    yunit
    .Int
    hiscase,thecli
    entwi t
    nessedherfat
    her
    abusi
    ngdr ugstoself
    -medi
    cat
    e,sosheimit
    atedt
    hatbehavior,
    thinkingi
    tmighthel
    pher .

    Theful
    lcomplexi
    ti
    esofthi
    scasegobeyondthescopeofthi
    spost,
    butitserv
    es
    asanexampl eofhow asoci alworkermustunderst
    andinter
    rel
    atedsyst
    ems( e.g.
    ,
    school
    -fami
    l
    y -
    indi
    vi
    dual
    )inor
    dertoassi
    stt
    hecl
    ient
    .

    I
    ssuesAddr
    essedbySyst
    emsTheor
    y

    Syst
    emsTheor yi sused t
    o develop aholi
    sticview ofi ndiv
    idual
    swi thin an
    envi
    ronmentand is bestappli
    ed to si
    tuati
    ons where severalsy st
    ems inextricably
    connectandinf
    luenceoneanot her.I
    tcanbeempl oyedincaseswher econt extual
    underst
    andi
    ngsofbehaviorwi
    lll
    eadtothemostappropriat
    epr act
    iceinter
    vent
    ions.

    I
    nthePruet
    tcase,forexample,t
    heclient
    ’sschoolandfamil
    yenvi
    ronmentheav i
    l
    y
    i
    nfluencedherindi
    vi
    dualactions,andheracti
    onsinfl
    uencedthewayshei nter
    act
    edwi t
    h
    others atschooland int he home.The r ecommended inter
    venti
    ons thus i
    nvol
    ved
    strengt
    heningthemissingpar tofherfamil
    yuni t
    ,ref
    err
    inghertocounselingservi
    ces,
    andconnect i
    ngherwit
    hacademi csupport.

    Therearemanypr act
    iceint
    erv
    entionsavai
    labl
    et o soci
    alwor
    kersand t
    hei
    r
    appl
    i
    cati
    onsv ar
    ygreat
    lydependingont hecont
    ext,butfol
    lowingar
    eaf ew common
    i
    nter
    vent
    ionsusedaspartofSyst
    emsTheor y.

    St
    rengt
    henonepartofthesy
    stem t
    oi mpr
    ovethewhol
    e.Int
    hePruet
    tcase,the
    soci
    alworkerrecommendedfi
    ndi
    ngahealthyfat
    herf
    igur
    efort
    hecli
    ent
    ,tostr
    engthen
    themissi
    ngcomponentofthef
    amil
    ysyst
    em.

    Networ ki
    ngandr eferrals.Acr iti
    calpar tofanysoci alworker’
    sjobi st ohelpcl ients
    navigate between sy stems.Thi s of t
    en means r efer
    ri
    ng client
    st o special
    i
    st s,or
    connect i
    ngt hem withr esour cesoror ganizati
    onst hatcanhel ptheirsituati
    on.Int he
    Pruettcase, t
    hismeantr ef err
    altoacounsel orandconnect i
    ont oanaf t
    erschool t
    utor .
    Ecomaps.Anecomapi saf l
    owdi agram thathelpssomeoneunder standaf amily
    ’sand
    communi t
    y ’
    sinter
    rel
    atedpr ogressi onov ertime.Itall
    owssoci alworkersandcl i
    ent st o
    captureandor ganizethecompl exi
    tyofasy stem.
    Genogr ams.Agenogr am i sagr aphicr epresent
    ationofaf ami l
    ytree,construct
    edwi th
    symbol st hatdescribe r elat
    ionshi psand connect i
    onsbet ween an ext ended fami ly
    .

    14
    Socialworker
    stypical
    l
    yconstructt
    hem al
    ongwi
    thcli
    entsi
    nor
    dert
    obet
    terunder
    stand
    rel
    ationshi
    psandidenti
    fypat
    ternsi
    nthemedi
    cal
    hist
    ory.

    Underst
    andingandappl yi
    ngSy st
    emsTheor yisacr iti
    calpartofanysocialwor ker’
    s
    car
    eer.Oneoft hemosti mport
    antf unct i
    onsofasoci alwor kerishel
    ping cli
    ents
    navi
    gatethevari
    oussystemsthataffecttheirli
    ves,whichrequi
    resadeepunderstanding
    ofhow subsystemsarei nt
    err
    elat
    edandi nfluenceoneanot her.Thi
    spostprovi
    desan
    i
    ntr
    oductiontoSystemsTheoryandsomer ealli
    feexamplesofhowi ti
    sappli
    ed.I
    tisjust
    oneofthemanyt heor
    eti
    calapproachest hatsocialworkerswillappl
    ythr
    oughoutt hei
    r
    car
    eers.

    Syst
    emsTheory
    :
    ht
    tps:
    //www.
    youtube.
    com/
    wat
    ch?
    v=j
    Y7638w6gkI

    Si
    milar
    it
    iesofSy st
    emsPer specti
    veandEcologi
    calPer
    specti
    ve:
     Interrel
    atednessofhumanbei ngs
     Rol eofinsti
    tuti
    ons
     Interacti
    onofhumanbei ngswit
    hthei
    rsoci
    alenvi
    ronment
     Interacti
    onofhumanbei ngswit
    heachother

    Di
    ff
    erencebet
    weenSy
    stemsPer
    spect
    iveandEcol
    ogi
    calPer
    spect
    ive:

    Sy
    stemsPerspective Ecol
    ogi
    calPer spect
    ive
    - Used t o r efer t o inanimate, - Approach t o l i
    ving dy namic
    mechanicaloperations i
    nteractions
    - Emphasi sondy namici nt
    eracti
    ons
    - Focus on boundaries of - Focus on t r
    ansaction bet ween
    subsyst
    emswi thi
    n a sy stem and i
    ndividualsandtheirenv i
    ronmentat
    theequi
    li
    brium withinthesy st
    em thepoi ntwheret hei ndi
    v i
    dualand
    theenv ir
    onmentmeet

    15
    PARTII
    I
    I
    nter
    nat
    ionalCommi
    tment
    sandConv
    ent
    ionsI
    nfl
    uenci
    ngPhi
    li
    ppi
    neSoci
    alReal
    it
    ies

    TheSust
    ainabl
    eDev
    elopmentGoal
    s

    Whatar
    etheSust
    ainabl
    eDev
    elopmentGoal
    s?

    TheSustainableDevel
    opmentGoal
    s(SDGs),ot
    her
    wiseknownastheGlobalGoal
    s,ar
    ea
    uni
    versalcallt
    oacti
    ontoendpover
    ty,pr
    otectt
    hepl
    anetandensur
    ethatal
    lpeopl
    eenjoy
    peaceandpr osper
    it
    y.

    These17Goal sbui l
    dont hesuccessesoft heMill
    enni
    um DevelopmentGoal s,whil
    e
    i
    ncluding new areas such as cl i
    mate change,economici nequali
    ty,innovat
    ion,
    sustai
    nableconsumpt i
    on,peaceand justi
    ce,among otherpri
    orit
    ies.Thegoal sare
    i
    nterconnect
    ed– of t
    ent hekeyt osuccessononewi l
    linv
    olv
    et ackli
    ngissuesmor e
    commonl yassoci
    atedwithanother
    .

    TheSDGswor kint hespir


    itofpar tnershi
    pandpr agmat i
    sm t omaket herightchoices
    now t oimprovel i
    fe,inasust ainableway ,forfuturegenerations.Theypr ovidecl ear
    guideli
    nesandt argetsforallcount riestoadopti naccor dancewi ththeirownpr iori
    ties
    andt heenv i
    ronment alchall
    engesoft hewor ldatl arge.TheSDGsar eani nclusive
    agenda.Theyt ackletherootcausesofpov er
    tyanduni t
    eust ogethert
    omakeaposi tive
    changef orbot hpeopl eandpl anet.“ Povert
    yer adicat
    ioni satt hehear toft he2030
    Agenda,andsoi sthecommi tmentt oleaveno-onebehi nd,”UNDPAdmi ni
    strat
    orAchi m
    Steinersai
    d.“TheAgendaof fersauni queoppor t
    uni t
    ytoputt hewhol ewor l
    donamor e
    prosperousandsust ainabl
    edev elopmentpat h.

    The17Gl
    obal
    Goal
    s

    PHdev el
    opmentplantocomplementSDGs(Phi
    li
    ppi
    neDail
    yInqui
    rer
    ,Apri
    l18,
    2017)
    ht
    tp:
    //busi
    ness.
    inqui
    rer
    .net
    /227895/
    ph-
    dev
    elopment
    -pl
    an-
    complement-
    sdgs

    Thegov ernmenti
    swor ki
    ngonar oadmapthatwil
    lti
    eint heUnit
    edNat i
    ons’Sustainabl
    e
    Dev el
    opmentGoals(SDGs)wi ththecount
    ry’
    sownmedi um t ol
    ongterm pr
    ogr essplans.
    AccordingtoNEDA,t hegov ernmentaimstobr i
    ngdev elopmentplanni
    ngt ot henext
    l
    ev elbyconsider
    ingtheint
    er pl
    ayofeconomy ,soci
    ety,andenv i
    ronment.Thepl anned
    roadmap “ wi
    llenablethe countryto maximize t
    he cur r
    enteconomic moment um”
    prescri
    bedundert heAmBisyonNat in2040visi
    on.Launchedin2016,AmBi syonNat i
    n

    16
    2040i saimedatt ri
    pli
    ngFili
    pinos’percapitaincomet o$11,
    000i n24y ears’ti
    meby
    sustai
    ningatleast6.
    5-per
    centgrossdomest i
    cpr oductgr
    owthannuall
    y.Executiv
    eOr der
    No.5wassi gnedi nOctober2016.Itstatedt hat“by2040,t
    hePhi l
    ippi
    nesshal lbea
    prosperous,
    predominantl
    ymiddle-cl
    asssocietywherenooneispoor.”

    Programsai medatachi evingtheSDGswoul dalsobeimplementedsidebysidewi


    ththe
    Phil
    ippine Development Pl an (PDP) 2017-2022, which serves as the curr
    ent
    admi ni
    str
    ati
    on’sdev elopmentbluepri
    nt.ThePDPt arget
    s7t o8per centGDPgrowthin
    themedi um ter
    m bypur suingthe10-pointsoci
    oeconomicagendaul t
    imat
    elyai
    medat
    reducingthepovertyincidenceto14percentby2022.

    TheSendaiFr
    ameworkforDisast
    erRi
    skReduction2015-2030(
    SendaiFr
    amewor
    k)
    (ht
    tps:
    //www.
    uni
    sdr
    .or
    g/we/coordi
    nat
    e/sendai
    -f
    ramework)

    TheSendaiFr ameworkforDi sast


    erRiskReduct i
    on2015-2030(SendaiFr
    amewor k)is
    thefi
    rstmajoragreementofthepost-
    2015devel opmentagenda,wit
    hseventar
    getsand
    fourpri
    ori
    ti
    esf oracti
    on.Itwasendor sedbyt heUN Gener alAssemblyf
    oll
    owingt he
    2015ThirdUNWor l
    dConferenceonDisast
    erRiskReducti
    on( WCDRR) .

    TheSendaiFr amewor ki
    sa15- year;v oluntar
    y,non-bindingagreementwhi chr ecogni
    zes
    thattheSt atehast heprimaryr ol
    et or educedi sasterri
    skbutt hatresponsi
    bi l
    it
    yshould
    beshar edwithotherst akeholdersi ncludinglocalgov ernment,thepr i
    vatesect orand
    otherst akeholder
    s.Itai msf ort hef oll
    owingout come:Thesubst ant
    ialreductionof
    disasterriskandl ossesinl i
    ves,liveli
    hoodsandheal thandi ntheeconomi c,physi
    cal
    ,
    social
    ,cul tur
    alandenv ir
    onment alasset sofper sons,businesses,communi ti
    esand
    countries.

    TheSendaiFramewor kisthesuccessori nst


    rumentt otheHyogoFr
    ameworkf orActi
    on
    (HFA)2005-2015:Buil
    dingtheResil
    ienceofNat i
    onsandCommuni ti
    estoDisaster
    s.Iti
    s
    the outcome of st akehol
    der consultati
    ons init
    iated i
    n March 2012 and i nt
    er-
    gover
    nment alnegot
    iati
    onsheldfrom Jul
    y2014t oMar ch2015,whi
    chweresupportedby
    theUNISDRupont herequestoftheUNGener alAssembly.

    TheSev enGl obalTar gets


    (a)Subst antial
    lyr educegl obaldisastermor tali
    tyby2030,ai mi ngt olowerav erageper
    100,000gl obalmor t
    al i
    tyratesi nthedecade2020- 2030compar edt ot heper iod2005-
    2015.
    (b)Subst antial
    lyreducet henumberofaf fect
    edpeopl eglobal lyby2030, aimingt ol ower
    averagegl obalfigureper100, 000i nt hedecade2020- 2030compar edt ot heper i
    od
    2005- 2015.
    (c)Reducedi r
    ectdi sastereconomi cl ossinr el
    at i
    ont ogl obalgr ossdomest icpr oduct
    (GDP)by2030.
    (d)Subst antial
    lyreducedi sasterdamaget ocr i
    ti
    cal i
    nfrastructureanddi srupt
    ionofbasi c
    services,amongt hem heal thandeducat i
    onalf aci
    li
    ties,incl udingt hroughdev el oping
    thei
    rr esil
    ienceby2030.
    (e)Subst antial
    lyincr easet henumberofcount r
    ieswi thnat ionalandl ocaldi sast err i
    sk
    reduct i
    onst rat
    egiesby2020.
    (f)Subst antiall
    yenhance i nternat
    ionalcooper at i
    on t o dev eloping count r
    iest hr ough
    adequat e and sust ai
    nabl e suppor tt o compl ement t hei r nat i
    onal act ions f or
    i
    mpl ement ati
    onoft hisFr amewor kby2030.
    (g)Subst ant i
    all
    yi ncreaset heav ai
    labili
    tyofandaccesst omul t
    i-hazardear lywar ni
    ng
    systemsanddi sasterr i
    ski nformati
    onandassessment stot hepeopl eby2030.

    TheFourPr
    ior
    it
    iesf
    orAct
    ion

    Pri
    ori
    ty1.Understandi
    ngdisast
    erri
    sk
    Di
    sasterri
    skmanagementshoul dbebasedonanunder standi
    ngofdisast
    errisk
    i
    nallit
    sdi mensi
    onsofv ul
    nerabi
    li
    ty,capaci
    ty,exposur
    eofpersonsandassets,hazard
    char
    acter
    isti
    csandt heenv
    ironment.Suchknowl edgecanbeusedforri
    skassessment,

    17
    pr
    event
    ion,
    mit
    igat
    ion,
    prepar
    ednessandr
    esponse.

    Pr
    iori
    ty2.Strengt
    heningdisasterriskgov ernancetomanagedi sast
    errisk
    Di
    sasterriskgov er
    nance att he nat i
    onal
    ,regionaland gl
    oball evel
    sisv ery
    i
    mportantforpreventi
    on,mit
    igati
    on, preparedness,
    response,r
    ecovery,
    andr ehabi
    l
    itat
    ion.
    I
    tfost
    erscollabor
    ationandpartnership.

    Pri
    orit
    y3.Investi
    ngindisasterri
    skreduct
    ionforresil
    ience
    Publicandpri
    vateinv est
    mentindisast
    err i
    skpr ev
    enti
    onandreducti
    ont hr
    ough
    str
    ucturalandnon-st
    ructur
    almeasur esareessentialtoenhancetheeconomic,soci
    al,
    healt
    handcul tur
    alresi
    li
    enceofper sons,communi ti
    es,countr
    iesandthei
    rassets,as
    wellastheenvir
    onment.

    Priori
    ty4.Enhanci ngdi sasterpreparednessf oreffecti
    veresponseandt o“ Buil
    dBack
    Better”inrecovery,rehabili
    tati
    onandr econstr
    uct i
    on
    The growt h ofdi sasterri
    skmeans t hereis a need to st
    rengthen disast
    er
    preparednessf orresponse,t akeacti
    oni nanticipat
    ionofev ent
    s,andensur ecapaciti
    es
    areinpl aceforeffectiveresponseandr ecoveryatal ll
    evel
    s.Therecovery,rehabi
    li
    tati
    on
    andr econstructi
    onphasei sacr i
    ti
    calopportunitytobuil
    dbackbet t
    er,i
    ncludingthrough
    i
    ntegratingdisasterriskreductioni
    ntodev el
    opmentmeasur es.

    ThePar
    isAgr
    eement:Whatist
    hePar i
    sAgr eement?
    Sour
    ce:
    htt
    ps:
    //unf
    ccc.
    int
    /pr
    ocess/
    the-par
    is-agr
    eement
    /what
    -i
    s-t
    he-
    par
    is-
    agr
    eement
    -0

    AtCOP21i nParis,on12December2015,Par ti
    estotheUNFCCCr eacheda
    l
    andmar kagreementt ocombatcl i
    matechangeandt oacceler
    ateandi ntensif
    yt he
    acti
    ons and investment
    s needed f ora sustai
    nablelow carbon future.The Par i
    s
    AgreementbuildsupontheConv enti
    onand–f ort
    hef i
    rstti
    me–br i
    ngsal lnati
    onsi nt
    oa
    commoncauset oundert aketakeambiti
    ouseffortstocombatcl i
    mat echangeand
    adapttoit
    sef fect
    s,wit
    henhancedsuppor ttoassistdevel
    opi
    ngcount r
    iest odoso.As
    such,i
    tchart
    sanewcour sei nt
    heglobal
    cli
    mateeffort
    .

    ThePar i
    sAgr eement ’
    scent ralaimi st ostrengthent hegl obalr esponset ot he
    thr
    eatofcl i
    mat echangebykeepi ngagl obalt emper atureriset hiscent urywellbelow2
    degreesCelsiusabov epre-i
    ndustriallev
    elsandt opur sueef fortstol imitthetemper ature
    i
    ncrease ev en furthert o 1.5 degrees Cel sius.Addi t
    ionally,the agr eementai ms t o
    i
    ncreaset heabi li
    tyofcount ri
    est odealwi t
    ht heimpact sofcl i
    mat echange,andat
    making f i
    nance flows consi stentwi t
    hal ow GHG emi ssions and cl imate-
    resil
    ient
    pathway .Tor eacht heseambi ti
    ousgoal s,appr opriat
    emobi l
    izationandpr ovisi
    onof
    fi
    nancialresources,anew t echnologyf ramewor kandenhancedcapaci t
    y-bui
    ldi
    ngi st o
    beputi nplace,thussuppor t
    ingact i
    onbydev elopingcount riesandt hemostv ulnerable
    countri
    es,inli
    newi ththei
    rownnat i
    onalobject ives.TheAgr eemental sopr ovi
    desf oran
    enhancedt r
    anspar encyf r
    amewor kforact i
    onandsuppor t
    .

    ThePar isAgreementr equi r


    esallPar t
    iestoputforwardthei
    rbesteffor
    tsthrough
    “nat
    ionallydeterminedcont ri
    butions”(NDCs)andt ostr
    engthentheseeff
    ortsinthey ear
    s
    ahead.Thi sincludesrequir
    ement sthatallParti
    esrepor
    tregularl
    yonthei
    remi ssi
    onsand
    ontheirimpl ement ati
    onefforts.Ther ewi l
    lalsobeagl obalstocktakeevery5y earsto
    assesst hecol l
    ectiveprogresstowar dsachi evi
    ngt hepurposeoftheagreementandt o
    i
    nformf urtherindivi
    dualactionsbyPar t
    ies.

    ThePar isAgr eement,adoptedthroughDecisi


    on1/ CP.21,addr essescruci
    alar eas
    necessarytocombatcl imatechange.Someoft hekeyaspect softheAgr eementareset
    outbelow:
     Long- t
    erm t emperat
    uregoal( Art.2)– ThePar i
    sAgr eement ,i
    n seeki
    ng t o
    strengthentheglobalresponsetoclimatechange,reaff
    ir
    mst hegoalofl i
    miting
    globalt emperat
    ureincreasetowel lbelow 2degr eesCel sius,whil
    epur suing

    18
    effortst ol imi tt hei ncreaset o1. 5degr ees.
     Globalpeaki ngand' climat eneut ral i
    ty' (Ar t.4)–Toachi ev ethist emper atur egoal ,
    Par ti
    esai mt or eachgl obalpeaki ngofgr eenhousegasemi ssi ons( GHGs)as
    soonaspossi ble,r ecogni zi ngpeaki ngwi l
    lt akel ongerf ordev elopi ngcount r
    y
    Par ti
    es, soast oachi eveabal ancebet weenant hropogeni cemi ssi onsbysour ces
    andr emov alsbysi nksofGHGsi nt hesecondhal foft hecent ury .
     Mi ti
    gat ion( Ar t.4)–ThePar i
    sAgr eementest ablishesbi ndingcommi tment sby
    allPar ties t o pr epar e,communi cat e and mai nt ai n a nat ional ly det ermi ned
    cont ri
    but i
    on( NDC)andt opur suedomest icmeasur est oachi ev et hem.I tal so
    prescr ibest hatPar tiesshal lcommuni cat et hei rNDCsev er y5y ear sandpr ov ide
    i
    nf ormat ionnecessar yforcl ar i
    tyandt ranspar ency .Tosetaf irmf oundat i
    onf or
    higherambi tion,eachsuccessi v eNDCwi l
    lr epr esentapr ogr essi onbey ondt he
    prev i
    ousoneandr eflectt hehi ghestpossi bleambi tion.Dev elopedcount ries
    shoul d cont inue t ot ake t he l ead by under taki ng absol ut e economy -wi de
    reduct iont ar get s,whi l
    edev el opi ngcount riesshoul dcont inueenhanci ngt hei r
    mi ti
    gat ionef for t
    s,andar eencour agedt omov et owar deconomy -wi det arget s
    overt imei nt hel ightofdi fferentnat i
    onal circumst ances.
     Sinksandr eser voi rs( Ar t
    .5)–ThePar isAgr eemental soencour agesPar t
    iest o
    conser veandenhance,asappr opr iat e,si nksandr eser voirsofGHGsasr efer red
    toinAr ticle4, par agr aph1( d)oft heConv ent ion, i
    ncl udi ngf orest s.
     Vol unt arycooper at ion/Mar ket -andnon- mar ket -basedappr oaches ( Ar t.6)–
    ThePar isAgr eementr ecogni zest hepossi bilityofv olunt arycooper ationamong
    Par ti
    es t o al low f orhi gherambi tion and set s outpr incipl es – i ncl udi ng
    env ir
    onment al i nt egr it
    y ,t r
    anspar ency and r obust account ing – f or any
    cooper ationt hati nv olvesi nt er nat ional lyt ransf er alofmi tigat i
    onout comes.I t
    establ ishesamechani sm t ocont ribut et ot hemi tigat i
    onofGHGemi ssi onsand
    suppor tsust ai nabl e dev elopment ,and def ines a f r
    amewor kf ornon- mar ket
    appr oachest osust ainabl edev elopment .
     Adapt ation ( Ar t.7)– The Par is Agr eementest abl i
    shes a gl obalgoalon
    adapt at i
    on – ofenhanci ng adapt iv e capaci t
    y ,st rengt heni ng r esi li
    ence and
    reduci ngv ulner abilityt ocl i
    mat echangei nt hecont extoft het emper atur egoalof
    theAgr eement .Itai mst osi gni ficant lyst rengt hennat ionaladapt at i
    onef for ts,
    i
    ncl uding t hr ough suppor tand i nt ernat i
    onalcooper ati
    on.I tr ecogni zes t hat
    adapt at i
    on i sa gl obalchal l
    enge f aced byal l
    .Al lPar ti
    esshoul d engage i n
    adapt at i
    on, i
    ncl udingbyf or mul at i
    ngandi mpl ement i
    ngNat i
    onal Adapt ationPl ans,
    and shoul d submi tand per iodi cal l
    y updat e an adapt ation communi cat ion
    descr ibingt hei rpr ior i
    ti
    es,needs,pl ansandact ions.Theadapt at i
    onef fort sof
    dev elopi ngcount riesshoul dber ecogni zed
     Lossanddamage( Art.8)–ThePar i
    sAgr eementr ecogni zest hei mpor tanceof
    aver t
    ing,mi ni mi zing and addr essi ng l oss and damage associ ated wi t
    ht he
    adv erseef fect sofcl i
    mat echange,i ncl udi ngext remeweat herev ent sandsl ow
    onsetev ents, andt her oleofsust ai nabl edev elopmenti nr educi ngt her iskofl oss
    anddamage.Par ti
    esar et oenhanceunder st andi ng, act ionandsuppor t, i
    ncl udi ng
    throught heWar saw I nter nat ionalMechani sm,onacooper ativeandf aci l
    itative
    basi swi thr espectt ol ossanddamageassoci atedwi tht headv erseef fect sof
    cli
    mat echange.
     Finance,t echnol ogyandcapaci ty-bui ldingsuppor t( Ar t.9,10and11)– The
    Par i
    sAgr eementr eaf f
    irmst heobl igat i
    onsofdev elopedcount riest osuppor tt he
    effortsofdev elopi ngcount ryPar tiest obui ldcl ean,cl imat e- resilientf ut ures,
    whi lef ort hef ir
    stt i
    meencour agi ngv ol unt ar ycont ribut i
    onsbyot herPar t
    ies.
    Prov i
    si onofr esour cesshoul dal soai mt oachi eveabal ancebet weenadapt at ion
    andmi tigation.I naddi tiont or epor tingonf inanceal readypr ov ided,dev eloped
    count ryPar tiescommi tt osubmi ti ndi cat iv ei nf ormat iononf utur esuppor tev ery
    two y ear s,i ncl udi ng pr oject ed l ev elsofpubl icf inance.Theagr eemental so
    prov i
    dest hatt heFi nanci alMechani sm oft heConv ent i
    on,i ncl udi ngt heGr een
    Climat eFund( GCF) ,shal lser vet heAgr eement .I nt ernat i
    onalcooper at i
    onon
    cli
    mat e-saf et echnol ogydev elopmentandt r ansf erandbui ldingcapaci tyi nt he
    dev elopi ngwor ldar eal sost rengt hened:at echnol ogyf ramewor ki sest abl ished
    undert he Agr eementand capaci ty-bui lding act ivities wi l
    lbe st rengt hened
    through,i nteral i
    a,enhancedsuppor tforcapaci t
    ybui ldingact ionsi ndev elopi ng

    19
    countr
    y Part
    ies and appropr
    iat
    einsti
    tuti
    onalarrangements.Cli
    mat
    e change
    educati
    on,tr
    aini
    ngaswel laspublicawareness,parti
    cipat
    ionandaccessto
    i
    nformation(
    Art12)i
    sal sotobeenhancedundertheAgreement.
     Climat echangeeducat ion,t raining,publ icawar eness,publ icpar ticipationand
    publ ic access t oi nf or mat ion ( Art12)i s al so t o be enhanced undert he
    Agr eement .
     Transpar ency( Art .13) ,i mpl ement ati
    onandcompl iance( Ar t.15)– ThePar i
    s
    Agr eementr eli
    esonar obustt ranspar encyandaccount ingsy stem t opr ov i
    de
    clarity on act i
    on and suppor tby Par ti
    es,wi thf l
    exibil
    ityf ort heirdi ff
    er i
    ng
    capabi lit
    ies ofPar ties.I n addi tion t or epor ting informat ion on mi t
    igat ion,
    adapt at i
    onandsuppor t,theAgr eementr equirest hatt hei nf or mat i
    onsubmi tt
    ed
    byeachPar tyunder goesi nter nationalt echni calexper tr ev iew.TheAgr eement
    also incl udesa mechani sm t hatwi llf aci li
    tatei mpl ement at ion and pr omot e
    compl i
    ancei nanon- adv er sarial andnon- puni ti
    v emanner ,andwi l
    l r
    epor tannual ly
    tot heCMA.
     GlobalSt ockt ake( Art.14)–A“ globalst ockt ake” , t
    ot akepl acei n2023andev ery
    5y ear st hereaf t
    er ,wi llassesscol lecti
    v epr ogr esst owar dachi ev ingt hepur pose
    oft heAgr eementi nacompr ehensi veandf acilitati
    vemanner .Itwi llbebasedon
    thebestav ailablesci enceandi tslong- ter m gl obalgoal .Itsout comewi llinf orm
    Par ti
    esi nupdat ingandenhanci ngt hei ract ionsandsuppor tandenhanci ng
    i
    nt ernat i
    onal cooper at i
    ononcl imat eact ion.
     Deci sion1/ CP. 21al soset soutanumberofmeasur est oenhanceact i
    onpr iorto
    2020,i ncludingst rengt heni ngt het echni calexami nat i
    onpr ocess,enhancement
    ofpr ov i
    sion ofur gentf inance,t echnol ogy and suppor tand measur es t o
    strengt henhi gh-l
    ev elengagement .For2018af acili
    tativedi aloguei senv isaged
    tot akest ockofcol l
    ect ivepr ogr esst owar dst hel ong- t
    er m emi ssionr educt i
    on
    goalofAr t4.The deci sion al so wel comes t he ef for ts ofal lnon- Par ty
    stakehol der st oaddr essandr espondt ocl i
    mat echange,i ncl udi ngt hoseofci v
    il
    soci ety,thepr ivat esect or,f i
    nanci ali nst it
    utions,ci ti
    esandot hersubnat ional
    aut horiti
    es.These st akehol der s ar ei nv ited t o scal e up t hei ref f
    ort s and
    showcase t hem v iat he Non- Stat e Act orZone f orCl imat e Act ion pl atf orm
    (http://cli
    mat eact ion. unf ccc.int ).Par ti
    esal sor ecogni zedt heneedt ost r
    engt hen
    theknowl edge,t echnol ogi es,pr acticesandef f or
    tsofl ocalcommuni tiesand
    i
    ndi genouspeopl es, aswel last hei mpor tantr oleofpr ov i
    di ngi ncent ivest hrough
    tool ssuchasdomest icpol i
    ciesandcar bonpr icing.

    20
    PARTIV
    ThePhi
    li
    ppi
    neReal
    it
    iesandCur
    rentEv
    entsandI
    ssuesAf
    fect
    ingt
    heCount
    ryandt
    he
    Worl
    d

    1.Pov
    ert
    y

    Whi
    l
    etherei
    snoagreeddefi
    nit
    ionofpovert
    y,thefol
    lowingt
    woconceptsareoft
    enused
    t
    odefi
    nepover
    tyi
    ntheworl
    d:
     IncomePovert
    y.Thi
    shastwov ar
    iati
    ons:Absolut
    ePover
    tyandRelati
    vePovert
    y
     HumanPov ert
    yIndex(HPI)orlaterchanget oMult
    idi
    mensionalPover
    tyIndex
    (MPI
    )

    Twovar
    iat
    ionsofI
    ncomePover
    ty:

    AbsolutePov er
    ty: Thismeasuresthenumberofpeopl ewit
    hi nadequat
    ei ncomet o
    obtai
    nbasi cnecessit
    iesofl
    ife.Thecostiscalcul
    atedbypri
    cingast andar
    d“ market
    basket”ofevery
    dayconsumercommodi t
    iesneededbypeopl
    einapar t
    icul
    arcountr
    y.

    Ref
    erstoacondit
    ionwhereaper
    sondoesnothavethemini
    mum amountof
    i
    ncomeneededt omeetthemini
    mum r
    equir
    ement
    sforoneormorebasi
    cli
    vi
    ngneeds
    overanext
    endedper
    iodofti
    me.

    Relat
    ivePover
    ty:Thi
    sconceptrel
    atest
    otheinequal
    it
    iesofi
    ncomedist
    ri
    but
    ion.I
    tist
    he
    condi
    tioninwhichpeoplelacktheminimum amountofi ncomeneededinorderto
    maintaint
    heaver
    agestandar
    dofli
    vingi
    nthesociet
    yinwhichtheyl
    i
    ve.

    Undert
    hisconcept,peoplearedefi
    nedaspoorevenift
    heyhav
    eanadequate
    i
    ncomef orsur
    viv
    al,solongast hei
    rincomedoesnotal
    low t
    hem t
    oobtai
    ngoodsand
    ser
    vicesata50percentl
    evelofthesoci
    etal
    standar
    d.

    HumanPov
    ert
    yIndex( )1
    HPI

    Thisconceptisbasedont hetheor
    yt hatpovert
    yinv ol
    vesmor ethanlackof
    i
    ncome.Itmeansdenial
    ofchoicesandopportuni
    ti
    esforatolerabl
    elif
    e.
    Thus,r
    atherthanmeasuringpov ert
    ysolel
    ybyi ncome,itexami nest hemostbasic
    di
    mensionsofdepri
    vati
    on,li
    keearlydeat
    h,malnutr
    it
    ion,i
    ll
    it
    eracy,accesstoheal
    thcar
    e
    andsaf
    ewat er
    .

    Povert
    y I ncidence is t
    he pr
    opor
    ti
    on of famil
    ies/
    indivi
    dual
    s wit
    h per capita
    i
    ncome/ expenditur
    elesst
    hant
    hepercapi
    tapover
    tythreshol
    dt othet
    otalnumberof
    famil
    i
    es/indiv
    iduals.

    Pover
    tyThr
    eshol
    disthemini
    mum income/expendi
    tur
    erequi
    redf
    oraf
    ami
    l
    y/i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    tomeett
    hebasi
    cfoodandnon-
    foodrequi
    rements.

    (Not
    e:Basi
    cf ood requi
    rement
    s ar
    e cur
    rent
    ly based on 100% adequacy f
    ort
    he
    RecommendedEner
    gyand

    21
    Nutri
    entI ntake (RENI )f orpr otei
    n and ener gy equi valentto an average of2000
    kil
    ocalor
    iespercapi ta,and80%adequacyf orothernut r
    ients.Ontheot herhand,basi c
    non-foodrequirement s,indir
    ectlyest i
    mat edbyobt ai
    ningt herati
    ooff oodtot otalbasic
    expendit
    uresf rom ar eferencegr oupoff ami l
    ies,coverexpendi tureon:(1)clothingand
    footwear;(2)housing;(3)f uel
    ,light,wat er;(4)mai ntenanceandmi norrepair
    s;(5)rental
    ofoccupi ed dwelli
    ng uni ts;(6)medi calcar e;( 7)educat i
    on;(8)transportati
    on and
    communi cation;(9)non- durablef urnishings;( 10)househol d operati
    ons;and ( 11)
    personalcareandef fects.)

    _
    ___
    ___
    ___
    ___
    ___
    ___
    ___
    ___
    __
    1
    TheHumanPov er
    tyI
    ndex(HPI)wasanindicat
    ionofthestandardofli
    vinginacountr
    y,dev
    elopedbythe
    Unit
    edNati
    ons(UN)tocomplementtheHumanDev el
    opmentI ndex(HDI)andwasfir
    strepor
    tedaspartof
    theHumanDev el
    opmentReporti
    n1997.Itwasconsi der
    edt obetterr
    ef l
    ectt
    heextentofdepri
    vat
    ionin
    devel
    opedcount
    ri
    escomparedtotheHDI.I
    n2010i twassupplantedbytheUN'sMulti
    dimensi
    onalPovert
    y
    I
    ndex(MPI)
    .
    Severit
    yofPovertyi
    sthetotaloft hesquaredi ncome/expendit
    ureshort
    fall(expr
    essed
    i
    npr oport
    iontothepover
    tythreshol d)offamili
    es/i
    ndi
    v i
    dualswithincome/expendit
    ure
    bel
    owt hepovert
    ythr
    eshol
    d,dividedbyt hetotalnumberoffami l
    i
    es/i
    ndivi
    duals.
    (Note:Thi
    sisequalt
    otheFost er-Greer-
    Thorbecke(FGT)fami l
    yofmeasur eswi t
    halpha
    =2.Iti
    sapovertymeasure,whichissensi
    ti
    vetotheincome/
    expendi
    tur
    edi
    str
    ibut
    ion
    amongthepoor–thewor
    set hedist
    ri
    but
    ioni
    s,themor
    eseverepover
    tyi
    s.)

    Povert
    yGapi st
    hetot
    alincome/ expendi
    tur
    eshor tf
    all(expressedinpr
    opor
    ti
    ontothe
    pover
    tyt hreshol
    d)offamil
    ies/i
    ndivi
    dualswithincome/ expenditur
    ebel
    ow t
    hepovert
    y
    thr
    eshold,divi
    dedbyt
    hetotalnumberoff amil
    ies/
    indi
    viduals.

    I
    ncomeGapi st
    heaveragei ncomeshortf
    all
    ,expr
    essedinproport
    iontot
    hepov
    ert
    y
    t
    hreshol
    d,off
    ami
    li
    es/
    indi
    vidualswit
    hincomebelowthepov
    ert
    ythreshol
    d.
    (Notes:t
    hedi
    ffer
    encebetweentheincomegapandthepover
    tygapistheuseofnumber
    ofpoorfamil
    i
    es/indi
    vi
    dualsasdenominatorfort
    hei
    ncomegap.Forthepover
    tygap,t
    he
    tot
    alnumberoffamili
    es/
    indi
    vi
    dualsisused.)

    FoodThresholdisthemini
    mum income/expendi
    tur
    er equir
    edf oraf
    amil
    y/i
    ndivi
    dualt
    o
    meetthebasicfoodneeds,
    whichsati
    sfi
    esthenutr
    it
    ionalrequi
    rement
    sforeconomical
    l
    y
    necessar
    yandsociall
    ydesi
    rabl
    ephysi
    calact
    ivi
    ti
    es.

    Subsist
    ence I ncidence i
    st he pr
    opor
    ti
    on offami
    l
    ies/i
    ndi
    vidual
    s wi
    th percapi
    tal
    i
    ncome/ expenditurelessthanthepercapi
    tafoodt
    hreshol
    dt othetot
    alnumberof
    famil
    i
    es/indi
    viduals.

    TotalBasic Expenditures i
    st he aggregate ofexpendi
    tures on:food;clot
    hing and
    footwear;fuel,li
    ght
    ,wat er
    ;housingmai ntenanceandot hermi norrepair
    s;rentalfor
    occupieddwel li
    ngunits;medicalcare;educati
    on;tr
    ansport
    ati
    onandcommuni cati
    ons;
    non-durabl
    ef urni
    shi
    ng;householdoperati
    onsandpersonalcareandef f
    ects.
    (
    Notes:Excludedareexpendi
    tur
    escaptur
    edbytheFIESonalcoholi
    cbever
    ages,
    tobacco,
    r
    ecr
    eation,durabl
    efurni
    tur
    eandequipmentandmiscel
    laneousexpendi
    tur
    es.
    )

    TotalFood Expendit
    uresistheact
    ualfood expendi
    tur
    esoft hefami
    l
    yduri
    ng t
    he
    ref
    erenceperi
    od,incl
    udingf
    oodit
    emsreceiv
    edasgi f
    tsandconsumedbyt
    hefamil
    y
    duri
    ngtheref
    erenceperi
    od.
    (Notes:a.Foodboughtbutnotconsumedar eexcluded.b.Consumpt i
    onofdomest i
    c
    helperaswellaspersonsemployedbyt hefamil
    yt odooddj obsaroundthehousear e
    generall
    yexcl
    udedbutmaybeaddedi ftheycannotbeaccountedforseparately.c.The
    consumpt i
    onofboardersandot herper
    sonsint hesamehouseholdnotr elatedt othe
    familyaswellasoverseascont
    ractworkersonvacati
    onduringtherefer
    enceper iodare
    excluded.
    )

    SDGGoal1:
    NoPov
    ert
    y

    22
    Thereare6Goal Target
    sforSDG1(cli
    ckthisl
    i
    nk
    htt
    p://
    www. undp.
    org/cont
    ent/
    undp/en/home/sust
    ainabl
    e-dev
    elopment
    -goal
    s/goal
    -1-
    no-
    povert
    y/t
    argets/
    )

    Pov
    ert
    yatt heGl obalLev el
     Mor et han836mi l
    lionpeopl est illli
    vei nextremepov ertyandar estrugglingto
    ful
    fi
    llt hemostbasi cneedsl i
    keheal th,educat i
    on,andaccesst owat erand
    sanitati
    on,tonameaf ew.
     Aboutonei nf i
    v eper sonsi ndev elopingr egi
    onsl i
    vesonl esst hanUS$1. 25per
    day.Theov erwhel mi ngmaj or i
    tyofpeopl eliv
    ingonl esst hanUS$1. 25adayl i
    ve
    i
    nSout hernAsi aandsub- SaharanAf r
    icaandt heyaccountf orabout70percent
    ofthegl obal totalofext remel ypoorpeopl e
     Lowermi ddlei ncomecount ries,i
    ncl udingChi na,India,Indonesi aandNi geria,
    are
    homet oabouthal foft hegl obal poor .
     Thei ssueal soaf fect sdev elopedcount ries-Ri ghtnow t herear e30mi l
    li
    on
    chil
    dr engrowi nguppoori nt hewor l
    d’sr i
    chestcount ries
     Hi ghpov er
    tyr atesar eof tenf oundi nsmal l,fr
    agileandconf li
    ct-aff
    ectedcount ri
    es
     Onei nf ourchi ldrenunderagef i
    vei nt hewor ldhasi nadequat eheightf orhisor
    herage
     Ev erydayi n2014, 42, 000peopl ehadt oabandont heirhomest oseekpr otecti
    on
    duet oconf l
    ict

    Pov
    ert
    yint hePhi l
    ippines( perPSA2015dat a)
     Thel atestoffi
    cialpov ertydataav ai
    lableisforthey ear2015aspubl i
    shedbythe
    Phil
    ippineSt at
    isticsAut hori
    ty(PSA) .
     1i n5Fi l
    ipi
    noswaspoori n2015
     21. 9mi ll
    ionFil
    ipinoswer epoorin2015
     Pov er t
    yThr eshol dofthePhi l
    ippines:In2015, aFil
    ipinoneededatleastPhp1,
    813
    onav eragemont hlytomeetbot hbasicf oodandnon- f
    oodneeds.
     ThePhi li
    ppines’ povertyinci
    dencei n2015i sat21. 6%
     ThePhi l
    i
    ppinesdi dnotmeeti tsMDGTar getofreducingpover
    tyto17.2%,wefel
    l
    shortby4. 4per centagepoi nts.

     Povertyi
    nci
    denceamongf amil
    ies:16.
    5% Fil
    i
    pinofamili
    eswerepoori n2015.
    Thiscompri
    sesat ot
    alof3.
    8mi l
    li
    onpoorFil
    ipi
    nofamil
    ies.
     TheFamilyPovert
    yThreshol
    d:in2015,afamil
    yof5neededatleastPhp9,
    064on
    averagemonthl
    ytomeetbot hbasicf
    oodandnon-foodneeds.

    23
     Thesubsistenceinci
    denceamongpopulati
    on:8.1% Fil
    i
    pinoswer enotableto
    meetthei
    rbasicfoodneedsorequi
    val
    entto8.2mi l
    l
    ionFi
    li
    pinoswerefoodpoor.
     FoodThreshold:I
    n2015,aFil
    i
    pinoneededatleastPhp1,
    266onav eragemonthl
    y
    tomeetbasicfoodneeds.

     Subsi
    stenceinci
    denceamongf amil
    i
    es:5.
    7% Fi
    l
    ipi
    nofamil
    ieswerenotableto
    meettheirbasicfoodneeds.Thi
    sisequi
    val
    entto1.3mill
    ionFi
    li
    pinof
    amili
    es
    werefoodpoor.
     Foodthreshol
    d:In2015,af amil
    yof5neededatleastPhp6,329onav er
    age
    monthlytomeetbasicf
    oodneeds.

    Pov
    ert
    yInci
    dencebyPr
    ovi
    nce–Top10Poor
    estPr
    ovi
    nces(
    2015)

    24
    Pov
    ert
    yamongt hebasi
    csectors(2015)
     Far mer
    s,f i
    shermen,chil
    dren,sel
    f-
    employ
    ed,unpai
    dfamil
    yworker
    s,andwomen
    bel
    onging to poorf amil
    ies had hi
    gherpovert
    yinci
    dence t
    han t
    he gener
    al
    popul
    ationesti
    matedat21. 6%.

    Summar
    yPov
    ert
    ySt
    ati
    sti
    csf
    or2015(
    HDR)

    Updat
    esonpov
    ert
    ydat
    ain2017

    Meanwhil
    e,basedonr ecentsurv
    ey sbytheSocialWeatherStati
    on(SWS) ,t
    here
    hasbeenaslightr
    iseinpovert
    yinthePhi l
    i
    ppinesin2017.Theself
    -r
    atingpovert
    ysurvey
    i
    ndicat
    edthat46%off amil
    iesratethemselvesaspoorin2017.Thisisaslighti
    ncrease
    fr
    om the2016surveywhichwas44%oft heFil
    ipi
    nosrat
    ingthemselv
    esaspoor .

    2.HumanDev
    elopmentI
    ndex(
    HDI
    )

    Humandev el
    opmenti sapr ocessofenlargi
    ngpeopl e'
    schoicesorthewi dening
    ofpeopl e’schoicesinli
    fe.Itmeanshav i
    ngthepr i
    vi
    leget ochooseone’slif
    edirection
    overanot herbecauseofpr eferencerathert
    hanlackofoppor tunit
    y.Knowledge,health
    andl ongevit
    y,li
    veli
    hoodandpol i
    ti
    calfr
    eedom provi
    dei tsbearer
    swi t
    hgreaterchances
    forabet terl
    if
    e.Peoplewhoar epoor,unheal
    thyandi l
    li
    terat
    esimplyhavefewerchoi ces
    i
    nl i
    fe.

    Sustai
    nablehumandev elopmenti sconcer
    nedwithwi
    deningchoi
    cesofpeopl
    e
    notonlyofthepresentgener
    ati
    on,butfuturegener
    ati
    onsaswel
    l.Assuch,
    itai
    msfort
    he
    regener
    ati
    onoftheenv i
    ronmentandnat uralr
    esour
    ces.

    Withi
    nt hi
    sframewor k,aHumanDev elopmentIndex( HDI)wasconcei vedto
    serveasmeasur eofhowwel lacount
    ryhasper f
    ormed,notonlyint er
    msofr eali
    ncome
    growth,butalsoint er
    msofsoci alindi
    cat
    orsofpeopl e’
    sabi li
    tyt oleadal ongand
    healt
    hyli
    fe,t
    oacquireknowledgeandskil
    l
    s,andt ohaveaccesstot heresour
    cesneeded
    toaffor
    dadecentst andar
    dofl i
    vi
    ng.TheHDIl ooksatthr
    eeout comesofdev el
    opment
    :

    25
    st
    ateofheal
    th,
    lev
    elofknowl
    edgeandski
    l
    l,andt
    hel
    evel
    ofr
    eal
    income.

    TheHDIisacompositei
    ndexmeasur ingtheav er
    ageachi evementinacountryin
    thr
    eebasicdimensi
    onsofhumandev el
    opment :alongandheal thyl
    ife( l
    ongev
    ity
    ),the
    acquisi
    ti
    onofknowl
    edge,andaccesst oresourcestoobt ai
    ngoodst andardofli
    vi
    ng( a
    decentstandar
    dofl i
    vi
    ng).I
    tispr emisedont hepr i
    ncipl
    et hathumandev el
    opment
    cannotbemeasuredbytheyardst
    ickofincomeal onesi nceincomei sameans,notan
    end,andther
    eisnoautomati
    cli
    nkbetweeni ncomegr owthandhumanpr ogr
    ess.

    Al
    ongandheal
    thyl
    i
    fei
    smeasur
    edbyl
    i
    feexpect
    ancyatbi
    rt
    h.St
    ateofheal
    thi
    sref
    lect
    ed
    i
    ntheli
    feexpect
    ancyindi
    cat
    or.Lif
    eexpectancymeasur esthenumberofyearsaninfant
    i
    sexpectedtoli
    vewhenborni nagiveny ear.Itbestrepresent
    sandult
    imatelyref
    lects
    i
    nfor
    mationonphy si
    calsaf
    ety,nutr
    it
    ionallevels,ef
    fi
    cacyofhealthint
    erventi
    ons,and
    ot
    herhealt
    hindi
    cat
    ors.

    Knowl
    edgel
    eveli
    smeasur
    edbymeany
    ear
    sofeducat
    ionamongt
    headul
    tpopul
    ati
    on,
    whichi stheav eragenumberofy earsofeducat i
    onr eceivedinal ifeti
    mebypeopl eaged
    25 y ear s and ol der;and access t ol ear
    ning and knowl edge byexpect ed years of
    school ing forchi l
    dren ofschool -entr
    yage,whi ch ist he totalnumberofy earsof
    school ingachi ldofschool -entryagecanexpectt oreceiveifpr evaili
    ngpatternsofage-
    specificenr olmentr atesstayt hesamet hr
    oughoutt hechi l
    d'slife. Knowl edgeandt he
    under standingofone’ snat ural,socialandcul t
    uralenv i
    ronmentgr eat
    lyincreasest he
    achiev ement st hatpeopl ecanat t
    ain.Adultlit
    eracyr at
    eandenr oll
    mentr atiosaret he
    i
    ndicat or susedt omeasur eknowl edge.Adul tli
    ter
    acyr ateshowst hepropor ti
    onoft he
    popul ation who hav e basi
    cr eading and wr i
    ti
    ng ski l
    l
    s.Enr ollmentr ati
    os show t he
    propor tionoft hepopul ati
    onwhoar ereceivi
    ngf ormaleducat ionatpr i
    mary ,secondary
    andt ertiarylevels.

    Thest
    andar
    dofl
    i
    vingi
    smeasur
    edbyGr
    ossNat
    ionalI
    ncome(
    GNI
    )percapi
    taexpr
    essed
    i
    nconst ant2011internati
    onaldoll
    arsconv er
    tedusi ngpur chasi
    ngpowerpar i
    ty(PPP)
    conversionrates.Li vel
    ihoodandi ncomepr ovi
    desf orbasicexpendit
    uresandcanbe
    usedf orfurt
    herimpr ovementinhumancapabi l
    i
    ties.Italsorefl
    ectstheextenttowhich
    peoplear eproducti
    vecont ri
    butor
    st osociet
    aldev el
    opment .Toestimateincomelevels,
    grossnat i
    onalproduct( GNP)percapitaisused.GNPmeasur esthevalueofgoodsand
    servi
    cespr oducedbyagr oupofpeopl ewi thi
    nay ear.Thet otalval
    uei sdivi
    dedby
    populati
    onsizet oarri
    veatav er
    ageincome.

    Thev al
    ueofHDIr angesf r
    om 0t o1.AnHDIv er
    ycl oseto1meanst hatthe
    count
    ry had very high val
    ues ofeach oft hr
    ee component s abov
    e.Si nce these
    componentsareat t
    empt stomeasur ethedevel
    opmentoft hehumanbei ng,ahighHDI
    meanst hatahi ghlevelofhumandev el
    opmenthasbeenachi eved.I
    nternati
    onal
    ly,a
    count
    rywi t
    hanHDIof .
    80orhi gherissai
    dtohav eahighlevelofhumandev el
    opment.
    Ontheotherendoft hepolearecountri
    eswithanHDIlowerthan50.

    HDICount
    ryGr
    oupi
    ngs
    HDICount
    ryGr
    oupi
    ngs HDIVal
    ue

    Ver
    yhi
    ghhumandev
    elopment 0.
    800andabov
    e

    Hi
    ghhumandev
    elopment 0.
    700-
    0.799

    Medi
    um humandev
    elopment 0.
    550-
    0.699

    Lowhumandev
    elopment Bel
    ow0.
    550

    The HDI ,asconstr


    ucted,also hasbeen modifi
    ed torefl
    ectthe sy
    st emati
    c
    unfav
    orable economicand socialconditi
    onsfaced bywomen.The Gender -Relat
    ed
    Devel
    opmentI ndex(GDI
    )measur est hecomparati
    vesocialwell-
    bei
    ng ofmal eand
    femalecit
    izensofacountry.I
    nt heabsenceofanygenderdispar
    it
    y,ontheotherhand,
    theHDIwoul dequalt
    heGDI.

    26
    ThePhi
    li
    ppi
    nesHDI

    ThePhi l
    ippi
    nesisr anked116th i
    nthe2015HDIbasedont helatestHuman
    DevelopmentRepor t2016:HumanDev el
    opmentf orEver
    yonewit
    ha0. 682HDIv al
    ue
    (hdr
    .undp.or
    g).Thecount r
    yisr ankedunderthosewi t
    hMedium humandev el
    opment.
    ThePhi l
    ippi
    nes’globalranki
    ngsl i
    ppedbyonenot choutof188count r
    iesfrom t
    he
    prev
    iousHDRwher ethecountrywasrankedat115th.

    Cal
    cul
    ati
    ngt
    heHumanDevel
    opmentI
    ndex

    ThePhi
    li
    ppi
    nesI
    HDI(
    Inequal
    it
    y-adj
    ust
    edHumanDevel
    opmentI
    ndex)

    TheI nequal
    it
    y-adjustedHumanDev elopmentI ndex( IHDI
    )adjustst heHuman
    DevelopmentIndex(HDI )forinequalit
    yinthedi st
    ri
    butionofeachdi mensionacr osst he
    populati
    on.TheIHDIaccount sforinequali
    ti
    esinHDIdi mensionsby“discounting”each
    dimension’
    sav er
    agev alueaccor dingtoitslevelofinequality
    .TheIHDIequal st heHDI
    whent herei
    snoi nequalityacrosspeopl ebutfall
    sbelowt heHDIasinequal i
    tyrises.In
    thi
    ssense,t heI HDImeasur est hel ev
    elofhumandev elopmentwheni nequalit
    yi s
    accountedfor.

    Duetoinequal
    i
    tyineachdimensi
    onacrossthepopul
    ati
    on,t
    hePhi
    l
    ippi
    ne’
    s2015I
    HDI
    val
    uei
    s0.556.Thi
    sregi
    ster
    sanoveral
    ll
    ossof18.
    4%from t
    heHDI
    .

    Cal
    cul
    ati
    ngt
    heI
    nequal
    i
    ty-
    adj
    ust
    edHumanDevel
    opmentI
    ndex(
    IHDI
    )

    27
    ThePhi
    li
    ppi
    nes’
    GenderDev
    elopmentI
    ndex(
    GDI
    )

    The Gender Development I ndex (GDI) measures gender inequal


    i
    ties i
    n
    achi
    evementi nthreebasicdi mensionsofhumandev el
    opment:health,measuredby
    femaleandmal eli
    feexpectancyatbi r
    th;educat
    ion,measur
    edbyf emaleandmal e
    expectedyearsofschooli
    ngf orchil
    drenandf emal
    eandmal emeany earsofschooli
    ng
    foradultsages25y ear
    sandol der;andcommandov ereconomicresources,measur
    ed
    byfemal eandmakeestimatedear nedincome.

    ThePhi l
    ippi
    nes’2015GenderDev el
    opmentI ndex( GDI )v
    aluei s1.001which
    meanst hereisgenderi nequali
    ti
    esintheachievementi nt hreebasicdi mensi
    onsof
    humandev el
    opment .TheHDIf orfemaleis0.682andmal ei s0.681.Thesegender
    i
    nequal
    iti
    esar erefl
    ectedasfoll
    ows:Thefemaleli
    feexpectancyatbirthis71.9andmale
    i
    s65.0.Femal eexpectedyearsofschool
    ingi
    s12.1andmal eis11.4.Themeany ear
    sof
    school
    i
    ngf orfemalei s9.5andmal e9.2.Theest i
    mat edgr ossnat i
    onalincomeper
    capi
    taforfemaleismuchl owerat6,845comparedtomal eswhi chi
    sat9, 917.

    Cal
    cul
    ati
    ngt
    heGenderDevel
    opmentI
    ndex(
    GDI
    )

    ThePhi
    li
    ppi
    nes’
    GenderI
    nequal
    it
    yIndex(
    GII
    )

    TheGenderI nequali
    tyIndex( GII
    )ref
    lectsgender-baseddi sadvant
    agei nthree
    dimensions–repr
    oducti
    vehealth,empower mentandt helabormar ket.I
    tshowst heloss
    i
    n pot enti
    alhuman dev el
    opment due t oi nequal
    it
    y between f emale and mal e
    achi
    evement si
    nthesedimensions.Itrangesf
    rom 0, wherewomenandmenf ar
    eequally
    ,
    to1,whereonegenderfaresaspoor lyaspossibleinal
    lmeasur eddimensions.

    ThePhi li
    ppi
    nes’GenderInequali
    tyI
    ndex(GII)val
    ueis0.
    436.Thi
    sv al
    ueisderived
    from thef ol
    lowingdimensions:maternalmortal
    i
    tyr at
    io2whi
    chis114,adolescentbi
    rth
    3
    ratewhi chi s61. 7 ,shareofseat si nthepar l
    i
    ament( % hel
    dbywomen)i s27. 1,
    populationwi thatleastsomesecondar yeducati
    on( %ages25orolder)-female:72.8
    andmal e:70.3;andthelaborfor
    cepar t
    ici
    pat
    ionrate(%ages15andolder)female:50.5
    andmal e: 78.8.

    28
    Cal
    cul
    ati
    ngt
    heGenderDevel
    opmentI
    ndex(
    GDI
    )

    ThePhi
    li
    ppi
    nes’
    Mul
    ti
    dimensi
    onalPover
    tyI
    ndex(
    MPI
    )

    TheMul ti
    dimensi
    onalPover
    tyIndex(MPI)4identi
    fi
    esmulti
    pledepri
    vat
    ionsatthe
    householdl evelineducati
    on,healt
    handst andardofl ivi
    ng.I
    tusesmi crodatafrom
    households’surveys,and–unliketheInequal
    i
    ty-adjust
    edHumanDev el
    opmentIndex–
    al
    ltheindicatorsneededtoconstr
    uctthemeasuremustcomef r
    om thesamesur vey
    .
    _______ _____
    ________
    ____ _
    ______
    __
    2
    Deat hsper100, 000l i
    vebi r
    ths
    3
    Birt
    hsper1, 000womenages15- 19
    4
    TheGl obalMultidi
    mensi onalPovert
    yIndex( MPI)wasdev elopedi n2010bytheOxf ordPov er
    ty&Human
    DevelopmentI nit
    iati
    ve( OPHI)andtheUnitedNat i
    onsDev elopmentPr ogrammeandusesdi ff
    erentfact
    orsto
    determi nepov ertybeyondi ncome-basedli
    sts.Itr
    eplacedthepr evi
    ousHumanPov ert
    yI ndex
    and4. 2% oft hepopul ati
    oni nseveremul t
    idi
    mensi onalpov erty.I
    nt ermsofcontr
    ibutionofdeprivat
    ionin
    dimensi ontoov eral
    lpov erty
    ,educati
    oncont r
    ibutesabout35. 3%,health30.
    2%andl i
    vingstandards34.5%.
    Thet ot alpopulati
    onlivi
    ngbel owincomepov ertyl
    inein2015i s25.2%.
    Eachper soninagi venhousehol discl
    assi
    fi
    edaspoorornon- poordependi
    ngont he
    weightednumberofdepr i
    vati
    onshisorherhouseholdexperi
    ences.Thesedataarethen
    aggregatedint
    ot henationalmeasureofpoverty
    .TheMPIr efl
    ectsboththepreval
    ence
    ofmul t
    idi
    mensionaldepr i
    vati
    on and i
    tsintensit
    y—the percentage ofsimult
    aneous
    depri
    vationspoorpeopleexperience.

    The 2016 Human Dev el


    opmentRepor t(HDR)presents est
    imates for102
    devel
    opingcount
    rieswithacombinedpopulati
    onof5.
    2bil
    li
    on( 72%ofthewor ldtot
    al)
    .
    About1.5bil
    l
    ionpeopleint
    hecountri
    escovered—29%oft
    heirenti
    repopul
    ation—li
    vedin
    multi
    dimensi
    onalpovert
    ybetween2005and2015.

    ThePhi l
    ippi
    nes’2015Multi
    dimensi
    onalPover
    tyIndexi
    s0.033.Thisindexval
    ue
    compri
    ses6.3% orabout6,169,
    000oft hepopul
    ati
    oninmul t
    idi
    mensionalpover
    tyand
    thei
    ntensi
    tyofdepr i
    vati
    onisat51. 9%.Ther
    ei sabout8.4% ofthepopulati
    onnear
    mult
    idi
    mensionalpover
    ty

    Cal
    cul
    ati
    ngt
    heMul
    ti
    dimensi
    onalPover
    tyI
    ndex(
    MPI
    )

    29
    Summar
    y2015HDIoft
    hePhi
    li
    ppi
    nes

    Morelinks:
    htt
    p:/
    /hdr.undp.or
    g/en/ count
    ri
    es/
    profi
    les/PHL
    htt
    p:/
    /www. ph.undp.org/cont
    ent/
    phil
    i
    ppi nes/
    en/
    home/
    li
    brar
    y/human_
    dev
    elopment
    /201
    6HumanDev el
    opment Report.
    html
    3.TheEconomy

    Popul at
    ion.Thepopul ati
    onoft hePhi l
    ippinesasofAugust1,2015was100, 981,437,
    basedont he2015CensusofPopul ation( POPCEN2015) .The2015popul ationishigher
    by8. 64mi l
    l
    ioncompar edwi ththepopul ationof92. 34mi ll
    ioni n2010,andby24. 47
    mill
    ioncompar edwitht hepopulat i
    onof76. 51mi lli
    onin2000.ThePhi li
    ppi nepopul ation
    i
    ncreasedby1. 72per centannual ly,onav erage,dur i
    ngt heper i
    od2010t o2015.By
    compar ison,therateatwhi chthecount r
    y’spopul ati
    ongrew dur ingt heper i
    od2000t o
    2010washi gherat1.90per cent
    .Oft hecount ry’
    s18admi nistrati
    ver egions, RegionI V-A
    (CALABARZON)hadt hebi ggestpopul ati
    oni n2015wi t
    h14. 41mi l
    lion,followedbyt he
    NationalCapi talRegi
    on( NCR)wi t
    h12. 88mi lli
    on,andRegi onI I
    I( Cent r
    alLuzon)wi th
    11.22mi ll
    ion.Thecombi nedpopul ati
    onoft heset hreeregi
    onsaccount edf orabout38. 1
    percentoft he Phili
    ppine popul ati
    on i n 2015.The Aut onomous Regi on in Musl i
    m
    Mindanao( ARMM)wast hefastestgr owingr egi
    onwi t
    hanav er
    ageannualpopul ation

    30
    growthr
    ate(PGR)of2. 89per
    cent
    .Thecountryhas81pr ov
    inces.Ofthesepr ovi
    nces,
    Cavit
    ewasthemostpopul ousin2015with3.
    68mi l
    li
    onpersons,foll
    owedbyBul acan
    (3.
    29mil
    li
    on)
    , andLaguna(3.
    04mill
    i
    on).Twent
    y-f
    ourotherpr
    ovincessurpassedtheone
    mill
    i
    onpopul
    ationmark.

    GrossNati
    onalProduct(
    GDP)
    .Gr
    ossDomest
    icPr
    oduct(
    GDP)f
    ort
    heFour
    thQuar
    terof
    2017is6.
    5percent.

    Gr
    ossNat
    ional
    Income(
    GNI
    ).TheGr
    ossNat
    ional
    Income(
    GNI
    )is6.
    1%.

    NetPr
    imaryIncome(
    NPI
    ).TheNetPr
    imar
    yIncomef
    rom t
    heRestoft
    heWor
    ld(
    ROW)i
    s
    4.
    1percent
    .

    Inf
    lat
    ion.They ear-
    on-
    yearheadl
    ineinf
    lat
    ionatt
    henationall
    evelf
    urt
    heraccel
    erat
    edt o
    4.3percenti
    nMar ch2018.Intheprevi
    ousmonth,i
    nfl
    ati
    onwasr ecor
    dedat3.8percent
    andinMar ch2017,3.
    1percent
    .

    Thefol
    lowingcommodi t
    ygroupsexhibi
    tedhigherannuali nf
    lat
    ionratesduring
    themont hofMar ch2018ar e:FoodandNon- Alcoholi
    cBev erages(5.9%);Alcoholi
    c
    BeveragesandTobacco( 18.6%);Housi
    ng,Water
    , El
    ectr
    ici
    ty,
    Gas, andOtherFuels(2.
    9%) ;
    Furni
    shing,HouseholdEquipmentandRout i
    neMai nt
    enanceoft heHouse( 2.
    7%);Health
    (2.
    4%) ;Communicati
    on( 0.
    3%) ;andRestaur
    antandMi scell
    aneousGoodsandSer vi
    ces
    (3.
    0%) .

    I
    twast hehighestinfl
    ati
    onr at
    esinceNovember2011,mainl
    yduet oajumpin
    costoffoodandaf asterri
    seincostofhousing.Pol
    i
    cymakershaveant
    ici
    patedaspi
    ke
    i
    ninfl
    ati
    onratefol
    l
    owi ngrecentint
    roduct
    ionofanewtax(
    TRAIN)law.
    TheTRAI NLAW:Howi ti
    mpact sthepoor?

    OnDecember19,2017,RepublicAct10963ot herwiseknownast heTaxReform


    forAccel
    erat
    ionandI ncl
    usion(TRAI
    N)wasappr ov ed.Itisthef i
    rstpackageofthe
    comprehensi
    vet axr ef
    orm progr
    am (
    CTRP)env i
    sionedbyt hepresentadmini
    str
    ati
    on,
    whichseekstocor rectanumberofdefi
    cienci
    esint hetaxsy st
    em tomakei tsimpl
    er,
    fai
    rer
    ,andmor eeff
    icient
    .

    HowTRAI
    Nhur
    tst
    hepoor
    ?
    By:JCPunongbayan
    Thebi
    ggestpr
    oblem withTRAI
    Nisthatit
    ’snotv
    erypr
    ogressi
    ve.Sure,i
    tstaxes
    r
    educet hei
    ncomesoftherichesti
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    s,l
    ikeCEOsandothertoptaxpayer
    s.Butit
    wi
    llal
    sohurtthei
    ncomesofthepoor.

    Thenew i ncomet axeswi llmatt


    erli
    tt
    let ot
    hepoor( si
    ncemanyoft hem ar e
    mi nimum wageear nersandt ax-exempttobeginwit
    h)andthoseintheinfor
    malsect or
    (l
    iket ahov endors,jeepneydr i
    vers,sar
    i-
    sar
    istoreowners)Thenew incomet axeswi l
    l
    mat terli
    tt
    letothepoor( sincemanyoft hem aremini
    mum wageearnersandtax-exempt
    tobegi nwi t
    h)andt hosei ntheinf or
    malsect
    or( l
    i
    ketahovendor
    s,jeepneydri
    vers,sari
    -
    sar i
    storeowner s)

    TRAI Nhur t
    st hepoorchi eflybecauseofi t
    shi gherexciset axesandt hefaster
    ri
    seofpr ices( orhigheri nflati
    on)itcauses.FewerVATexempt ionsandhi gherexcise
    taxeswi llpushupt hepr i
    cesoff oodandt ransportati
    on,andt hiswi l
    leatawayat
    people’st ake-homepay .Thehi gherpetrol
    eum t axeswi llspi
    llov ertot her estoft he
    economy ,from t hecost l
    iert r
    anspor tofvegetablesf r
    om f ar
    msi nBagui ot othelarger
    Mer alco/
    Zamcel cobi ll
    scomi ngt hr
    oughourdoor steps.Thehi gheri nf
    lati
    ont hatTRAI N
    wi l
    lstokewi ll,unfort
    unat ely,hurtthepoort hemost .Datashow t hatev eryonewi l
    lhurt
    from higheri nfl
    ation,butt heef f
    ectont hepoor estwi l
    lbemor et hant wicetheef f
    ecton
    ther i
    chest.

    Wi
    llt
    he(
    uncondi
    ti
    onal
    )casht
    ransf
    ersbesuf
    fi
    cient
    ?

    31
    TRAIN,ther
    efore,wil
    lhavethebi tt
    erside-
    effectofhurt
    ingtheincomesoft he
    poor.Thegovernmentwasawar eoft hisfrom t
    hev erybegi
    nning.Tocounter
    actthis,
    partofTRAIN’srevenueswi l
    lgobackt ot hepooresthousehol
    ds,asidenti
    fi
    edbyt he
    Depart
    mentofSoci alWelfar
    eandDev elopment(DSWD) .Hencethelumpsum transf
    ers
    undertheUncondit
    ionalCashTransf
    erschemewer eundert
    aken.

    TheDSWDwi lli
    mplementtheUCTschemef orthreeyearsassti
    pul
    atedinthe
    TRAI
    N.Itwillrel
    easeP2,400( P200permonth)i
    n2018andat otalofP3,
    600(P300per
    month)in 2019 and in 2020.P24 bil
    l
    ion has been earmarked f
    orthe 2018 UCT
    i
    mplementationi
    nt heFY2018GAA.

    Tenmi l
    li
    onhousehol ds/ indiv
    idualswi llreceivet heUCT.Oft hisfi
    gure,4.4mi l
    l
    ion
    arePant awidPami ly
    abenef i
    ciar i
    es.Pay mentt o1. 8mi l
    lionbenef i
    ciar i
    eswi t
    hcashcar ds
    st
    willbedonei mmedi ately( t
    arget ednotl atert han31 Januar y2018) .Ther emaini
    ng2. 6
    million Pantawi d Pami lya benef ici
    aries withoutcash car ds wi llr ecei
    v ethe grants
    throughpar t
    nercondui tsatal at erdate.Alsoi ncludedi nt he10mi ll
    ionUCTbenef i
    ciari
    es
    aret hr
    eemi l
    li
    oni ndigentseni orcitizenswhoar eal sobenef i
    ciariesofDSWD Soci al
    Pensi onPr ogram whi chi sbei ngi mpl ement edwi t
    ht hehel pofl ocalgov ernmentunits
    (LGUs)andsoci aldev elopmentof f
    ices( SDOs) .Ther emaining2. 6mi l
    li
    onhousehol ds
    willbesel ectedfrom theLi stahananorNat i
    onal Househol dTar getingSy stem (NHTS-PR)
    whi chwi l
    lgot hroughv al
    idation.Thev al
    idationpr ocessi sexpect edtol astforthree
    mont hs,withthef i
    nallisttobeoutbyMay ,andt hedist r
    ibut
    ionoft hecashgr antstobe
    donebyJune2018.

    Thehopei sthat,whenpoorf amil


    iesreceivesucht ransfer
    s,theywil
    lenjoyhi
    gher
    take-homepayi nspi t
    eofTRAI N’
    snewt axes.Butt herear emanyquest ionsaboutt hi
    s.
    Forexampl e:aret heseamount senought ot ideov ereachpoorf ami
    ly?Wi thhi
    gher
    i
    nf l
    ationr atealonei.e.spiki
    ngpr i
    cesofbasiccommodi ti
    es, t
    heP200permont hUCTwi l
    l
    notsuf ficet ohelpaugmentt hepoor ’
    sabil
    it
    yt omeetbasi cneeds.Inaddition,t
    hepoor
    areal sov ul
    nerablet other ecentsurgeofpr ofit
    eeri
    ngi nducedbyTRAI N.Manyr etai
    l
    establishment sar eal r
    eadyusi ngTRAI N asanexcuset oposthi gherpricesfortheir
    goodsandser vices.Thepoor ,unawareofi ll
    egalpr of
    iteeri
    ng,coul deasilybetaken
    advant ageof .WillP200al soprotectthem f
    rom suchpr ofi
    teering?

    4.LaborandUnempl
    oyment

    2017AnnualLaborandEmpl
    oymentSt
    atus

    Theprel
    iminaryresult
    softheAnnualLaborandEmpl oy mentEst i
    matesfor2017
    5
    basedont heav erageoft hefour(4)LFS r ounds( Januar
    y ,Apri
    l,JulyandOct ober)
    repor
    tedanannuall aborforcepar
    ti
    cipat
    ionr ateof61. 2per centoutof69. 9mi ll
    ion
    populati
    on15y ear
    sol dandov er
    .Thisisequi valenttoabout42. 8milli
    oneconomi call
    y
    acti
    vepopulati
    oncompr i
    singofeit
    herempl oyedorunempl oyedper sons.Theannual
    employmentratein2017wasest imatedat94. 3per cent;
    annualunempl oymentrat
    ewas
    5.7percent
    ;andannual under
    employmentratewas16. 1per
    cent .

    Thetotalempl oyedpersonswer eappr oximat ely40.


    3mi ll
    ionin2017.Empl oyed
    persons wer e gr ouped i nt
    ot hr
    ee broad sect ors,namel y,agricul
    tur
    e,i ndustr
    yand
    servicessect or.Thosei ntheservi
    cessectorcompr isedthelargestproportionofthe
    popul ationwhoar eempl oyed.Theseempl oyedper sonsmadeup56. 3per centofthe
    totalempl oyedi n2017.About19. 6percentwer eengagedi nt hewhol esaleandr et
    ail
    trade; r
    epairofmot orv ehicl
    esandmotorcycles.

    Workersi
    nt heagricul
    tur
    esectorcompr i
    sedt
    hesecondl argestgroupmaki
    ngup25.4
    per
    centofthetotalemployedin2017,whil
    eworkersi
    nt heindust
    rysect
    ormadeupthe
    small
    estgr
    oupr egi
    steri
    ng18.3percentoft
    het
    otalemployed.

    Ast
    ooccupat
    iongr
    oups,wor
    ker
    sint
    heel
    ement
    aryoccupat
    ionsr
    emai
    nedt
    he

    32
    l
    argestgroup maki
    ng up 26.
    1 percentoft he t
    otalemployed i
    n 2017.Managers
    compri
    sedthesecondlar
    gestoccupati
    ongr oup(16.1%),f
    oll
    owedbyservi
    ceandsales
    worker
    s(15.0%)
    ,andski
    ll
    edagr
    icul
    tural
    ,for
    estry,
    andf i
    sher
    yworker
    s(13.5%)
    .

    Empl oy edper sonsf allintoanyoft heseclassesofwor kers:(1)wageandsal ary


    workers,(2)sel f-empl oyedwor kerswi t
    houtanypai dempl oyee,(3)empl oyersi nown
    family-
    oper atedf arm orbusi ness,and( 4)unpaidf amilywor kers.Wageandsal ary
    workersar et hosewhowor kforpr i
    vatehouseholds, privat
    eestablishments,gov ernment
    andgov er
    nment -controll
    edcor por ati
    ons,andt hosewhowor kwi thpayinownf amil
    y-
    operatedf arm orbusi ness.I n2017,t hewageandsal arywor kersaccount edf or62.5
    percentoft het otalempl oy edper sonsofwhi chwor kersinprivateestabli
    shment swer e
    thelargesti npr oportion( 49.0%) ,followedbywor kersi ngovernmentandgov ernment-
    control
    ledcor por ati
    ons( 8.4%),wor kersinpr i
    vat
    ehousehol ds( 4.
    8%)andwor kerswith
    payi n own f ami l
    y-
    oper ated f arm orbusi ness( 0.
    3%) .Thesecond l argestcl assof
    workerswast hesel f-empl oyedwi thoutanypai dempl oyeemaki ngup27. 8per centof
    thetotalempl oy edi n2017.Theunpai dfamil
    ywor kersaccount edf or6.0per cent,whi
    le
    theempl oyeri nownf ami l
    y-oper atedf arm orbusi
    ness, 3.7percent.

    Empl
    oy edpersonsarecl
    assi
    fi
    edasei t
    herfull
    -t
    imeworkersorpart
    -t
    imewor kers.
    Ful
    l
    -ti
    mewor kersarethosewhoworkedfor40hour sormoreinaweek, whil
    ethosewho
    workedforl
    essthan40hour swereconsider
    edpart-
    timeworkers.Ofthet
    otalemployed
    per
    sonsin2017, 65.
    2percentwer
    efull
    -t
    imewor ker
    s,whil
    e33.8percentwerepart
    -t
    ime

    ______
    _ _
    ________
    ___
    _ ___
    5
    LFS–LaborFor ceSur vey
    Underempl oyedper sonswhowor kforl essthan40hour sinaweekar ecall
    edv i
    sibl
    yunder empl oyed
    persons.Theyaccount ed f
    or56.0 percentoft he t
    otalunderempl
    oyed i
    n 2017.Bycompar ison,t he
    underemploy edpersonswhowor kedf or40hour sormoreinaweekmadeup42. 5percent.Bysector,39.0
    percentoft heunder employedworkedi nt heagri
    cul
    turesector
    ,whil
    e34.7percentwer eintheser v i
    ces
    sector.Thoseinthei ndust
    rysect
    oraccount edf
    or26.3percent
    .

    worker
    s.Thosewhodi
    dnotr
    epor
    tforwor
    kdur
    ingt
    her
    efer
    enceweekcompr
    ised0.
    9
    per
    cent.

    Theunderemployedper sonsort hoseempl oyedpersonswhoexpressedt he


    desi
    retohaveaddit
    ionalhoursofworki nthei
    rpresentjob,ort
    ohaveaddi
    ti
    onaljob,or
    tohaveanew j obwi t
    hl ongerworkinghourswasest imatedat6.
    5mi l
    l
    ionper sons
    corr
    espondi
    ngtoanunder employmentrateof16.
    1per cent.

    In2017,theunempl oyedpersonsnumberedabout2. 4mi l


    l
    ionresul t
    ingt oan
    annualunemploymentrateof5.7percent
    .Ofthi
    snumber,76.
    1percentbel ongedt oage
    group15to34y ears.Thoseintheagegroup15to24yearscomprised46.7per centand
    thoseintheagegr oup25t o34y ear
    s,29.4per
    cent
    .Amongt heregions,IlocosRegion
    (8.
    9%),NCR ( 7.
    4%)and CALABARZON ( 7.
    0%)wer ethe regi
    ons wi t
    ht he highest
    unemploymentrates.

    Therewer emor eunemployedmal es(65.


    6%)t
    hanunempl
    oyedf
    emales(34.
    4%).
    Byeducat
    ionalatt
    ainment,31.
    8per centoft
    heunemploy
    edwerehi
    ghschoolgr
    aduat
    es,
    and19.
    6per centwerecol
    legegraduates.

    Thedecadaldat a(below)showst heunemploymentratewashighesti


    n2009at
    7.5%.Whi l
    eitist hehighestint hisdecade,itissti
    l
    llowercomparedtot heyear2004
    whent heunempl oymentr at
    er egister
    edatar ecor
    dhighof11.7%.I
    tisalsoimport
    antto
    notethatwhilethereisadownwar dtrendintheunemploymentrat
    efrom 2013to2016,
    theunempl oy
    mentr oset o5.7%i n2017.

    33
    TheLaborI
    ssues

    Unemploymentorunderempl oy
    mentisnott heonl
    yconcernwhent hewelfar
    eof
    thecountr
    y’sworkersorlaborf or
    ceisdiscussed.Laborissuesaretheotherequall
    y
    i
    mportantconcern.Amongstt hosewhoar epar tofthe ‘
    empl oy
    ed’stat
    ist
    ics,alar
    ge
    numberofthem areei
    therunderemployedorareonENDOst atus.

    ENDO( EndofCont ract)


    .ENDOr eferstothosedir
    ectl
    yemployedbyacompany
    butar e notregulari
    zed ev en i
    fthey hav e ser
    ved beyond t
    he mandated 6-
    month
    probati
    onary peri
    od.I n 2016,t he DepartmentofLaborand Empl oy
    ment( DOLE)
    i
    dentifi
    ed65,000empl oyeeswhoar ev i
    ctimsoft heso-call
    edendo(endofcont r
    act
    )
    pract
    ice.Laborunionsesti
    mat ethenumbert obeashighas1. 3mil
    l
    ion.

    Inr esponset opressurefrom thel aborgr oups,theDepar t


    mentofLaborand
    EmploymentSecr et
    aryissuedDepartmentOr derNo.174,ser i
    esof2017contai
    ningthe
    RulesImplement ingArti
    cles106t o109oft heLaborCode,asamended.Thi sissuance
    coversthe r egulat
    ions governi
    ng contracting and sub-contr
    acti
    ng.However,Labor
    groupsclaimedt hatthi
    sissuancedidnotel i
    mi nat
    econt r
    actual
    izat
    ion.Ont
    hecontrar
    y,i
    t
    ensureditscontinuedpracti
    ceandprevalence.

    Theadv ocacyandpr essur et oendcont ract


    ual
    izationconti
    nued.Recentl
    yt he
    Presidentmadeanot herpubl i
    cdecl arati
    ont hathei sgoingt osignanExecuti
    veOr der
    (EO)banningcont ractual
    izati
    on.TheEOwassupposedt obesi gnedonorbeforeLabor
    Day ,
    May1, 2018.Unfortunately
    ,mi d-Apri
    l2018, theSecretaryofLaborandEmployment
    saidthatinsteadofanEO, thepr esidentisissuingacertif
    icati
    onaspr i
    ori
    tyt
    hependi ng
    bil
    lonsecur ityoftenure,whi chmi rrorsthepr oposedEOt hepresi
    dentissupposedt o
    sign.

    TheLaborCodeoft hePhili
    ppines,
    Presi
    denti
    alDecreeNo.442,
    asamended,May
    1,1974–Adecr eeinst
    it
    utingal aborcodetherebyr
    evisi
    ngandconsoli
    dat
    ingl
    aborand
    sociallawstoaf f
    ordprotecti
    ont olabor,promoteemploy mentandhumanresour
    ces
    developmentandinsurei
    ndustrialpeacebasedonsocialj
    ust i
    ce.

    KeyConcept
    sandDef
    ini
    ti
    ons:

    Col
    lect
    iveBargai
    ningAgreement(
    CBA)-t henegot
    iat
    edcontractbet
    weenalegi
    ti
    mat e
    l
    abororgani
    zati
    onandt heemployerconcerni
    ngwages,hoursorwor kandallother
    t
    erms and conditi
    ons ofemploymentin a bargaini
    ng unit
    ,incl
    udi
    ng mandatory

    34
    pr
    ovi
    sionsf
    orgr
    iev
    anceandar
    bit
    rat
    ionmachi
    ner
    y.

    Employed-personsi
    nthelaborf
    orcewhower
    erepor
    tedei
    theratwor
    korwi
    thaj
    obor
    busi
    nessal
    thoughnotatwork:

    a.AtWor k-t hosewho di d somewor k,ev en foronehourdur i


    ng the
    ref
    erenceper i
    od.
    b.WithaJoborBusi nessbutnotatWor k-t hosewhohav eaj obor
    businessevent houghnotatwor kduri
    ngt hereferenceper
    iodbecauseof
    temporaryil
    lness/inj
    ury,v
    acationorot herleaveofabsence,badweather
    orstri
    ke/l
    abordi sput
    eorot herreasons.

    Li
    kewisepersonswhoar eexpect
    edtor
    eportf
    orwor
    kortostar
    toper
    ati
    onofafar
    m or
    busi
    nessent er
    pri
    sewi t
    hintwo weeksfr
    om thedateoftheenumerator
    'sv
    isi
    tare
    consi
    deredemployed.

    LaborForce,(Personsint he)-t hepopul ati


    on15y earsoldandov erwhocont ri
    butet o
    theproducti
    onofgoodsandser vi
    cesi nt hecount ry.I
    tincludesthosewhoar eeither
    employed orunempl oyed.Those who ar e neitherempl oyed norunempl oyed ar e
    consi
    derednotint helaborforce,e.g.personswhoar enotwor kingandarenotav ai
    lable
    forworkdur i
    ngt her efer
    enceweekandper sonswhoar enotav ai
    l
    ableandar enot
    l
    ookingforwor kbecauseofr easonsot herthant hosepr evi
    ouslymentioned.Exampl es
    arehousewives,students,
    disabledorr et
    iredpersonsandseasonal workers.

    LaborUni
    on-anyuni onorassoci ati
    onofempl oyeeswhi chexistsinwhol eori
    npartfor
    thepur
    poseofcollect i
    v ebargainingorofdeal i
    ngwi themployersconcer ningt
    ermsand
    condi
    ti
    onsofempl oyment .I
    talsocal l
    edlabororganizat
    ionandi sclassi
    fi
    ed:
    a.Or ganizedLabor-wor kersdulyrepresentedbyar ecogni
    zedorcerti
    fi
    ed
    exclusiv ebargainingagentinanappr opri
    atebargainingunit.
    b.Unor gani zedLabor-wor kersi
    nanest abli
    shmentwher etherei
    snodul y
    recogni zedorcer tif
    iedcoll
    ecti
    vebargainingagent.

    Underempl
    oyed-employedpersonswhoexpressedthedesi
    retohav
    eaddi
    ti
    onalhours
    ofwor ki
    ntheirpr
    esentjoborinanaddit
    ionaljob,ort
    ohav eanew j
    obwithlonger
    worki
    nghours.

    Unemployed-includesal lper sonswhoar e15y earsoldandov erasoft heirlastbi rthday


    andar
    er epor
    tedas:
    a.Wi t
    houtwor k,i .
    e. ,had no j ob orbusi ness dur ing the basi c sur v ey
    referenceper iod; AND,
    b.Cur rentlyavai l
    ablef orwor k, i
    .e.,wer eav ail
    ableandwi ll
    ingtot akeupwor k
    i
    npai dempl oy mentorsel f-empl oymentdur i
    ngt hebasi csurveyr ef erence
    period,and/ orwoul dbeav ailableandwi ll
    ingt otakeupwor ki npai d
    empl oymentorsel f-empl oymentwi thi
    nt woweeksaf terthei nt erview
    date; AND,
    c. Seeki ngwor k, i
    .e.,hadt akenspeci fi
    cst epst ol ookf orajoborest abl i
    sha
    busi nessdur ingt hebasi csur veyr eferenceper iod;ORnotseeki ngwor k
    duet ot hefol lowingr easons:( a)t i
    red/bel i
    evenowor kav ai
    lable,i .
    e.,the
    discour agedwor ker swhol ookedf orwor kwi thinthelastsixmont hspr ior
    tot heint er
    viewdat e;(b)awai t
    ingr esultsofpr eviousjobappl ications;( c)
    tempor aryil
    lness/ disabil
    it
    y ;(d)badweat her;and( e)wai t
    ingforr ehi r
    e/job
    recal l
    .

    Thebel
    owgraphi
    cshowst hePhi
    li
    ppi
    nes2015Wor
    kandEmpl
    oymentDat
    abasedont
    he
    2015HumanDevelopmentRepor
    t:

    Wor
    k,Empl
    oymentandVul
    ner
    abi
    l
    ity:2015HumanDevel
    opmentRepor
    t

    35
    5.Mi
    grat
    ion/
    Over
    seasEmpl
    oyment

    ThenumberofOv erseasFili
    pinoWor kers(OFWs)whowor kedabr oadatany
    ti
    mei n2016wasest i
    matedat2. 2mi l
    li
    on.Thereweremor efemalesthanmal esamong
    theOFWs,wi t
    hthefemaleOFWscompr i
    sing53.6per centofthet otalOFWs.Femal e
    OFWswer egener
    all
    yyoungerthanmal eOFWs, withmor ethantwo-thi
    rds(67.8%)oft
    he
    femaleOFWsbel ongi
    ngtot heagegr oup25t o39y ears.Incompar i
    son,mal eOFWsi n
    thi
    sagegr oupmadeup57. 4percent.MaleOFWsaged45y earsandolderaccountedfor
    23.9percentofal
    lmaleOFWswhi l
    etheirf
    emal ecounterpart
    sinthisagegroupmadeup
    13.8percent.

    Among occupati
    on groups,el
    ement
    ary occupati
    ons (
    34.
    5%)compr i
    sed the
    l
    argestgr
    oupfol
    lowedbyt hosewhoworkedasservi
    ceandsalesworker
    s( 19.
    0%),
    plant
    andmachineoperator
    sandassembl er
    s(12.
    8%),andcr af
    tandrel
    atedtradesworkers
    (11.
    6%).

    CALABARZONr eport
    edthebiggestshareofOFWswi t
    h21. 0percent,
    fol
    l
    owedby
    NationalCapi t
    alRegi on and CentralLuzon with 12.9 percentand 12. 7 percent
    ,
    respecti
    vely.Fort
    y-sev
    enper centoft hetotalOFWscamef rom theset hr
    eer egi
    ons.
    Meanwhi le,Cordi
    ll
    eraAdmi nist
    rat
    iveRegionreport
    edt heleastshareofOFWsat1. 8
    percent.

    SaudiAr abi
    a conti
    nued t o be the leadi
    ng desti
    nat
    ion ofOFWs.The t otal
    remit
    tancesentbyOFWsdur ingt heperiodApr i
    ltoSeptember2016wasest i
    matedat
    203.0bill
    i
    onpesos.Oft hetotalcashr emitt
    ancesentbyOFWs,t heremitt
    ancesentby
    elementaryoccupati
    onscompr isedt hebiggestshareat21. 9percentor31.9bil
    li
    on
    pesos,oranav erageremitt
    anceof48t housandpesosperOFW whoi sanunskill
    ed
    worker.

    Somekeyconcept
    s,l
    awsanddef
    ini
    ti
    ons:

    Ov
    erseasFi
    li
    pinos–Mi
    grantwor
    ker
    s,ot
    herFi
    l
    ipi
    nonat
    ional
    sandt
    hei
    rdependent
    s

    OverseasFil
    ipi
    noWorker/MigrantWorkerreferstoapersonwhoi st obeengaged,i
    s
    engagedorhasbeenengagedi nar emuneratedacti
    vi
    tyi
    nast ateofwhichheorsheis
    notaciti
    zenoronboardav esselnavi
    gati
    ngf orei
    gnseasotherthanagover
    nmentship
    usedformili
    tar
    yornon-commer ci
    alpurposes,oronaninstall
    ati
    onlocat
    edoffshor
    eor

    36
    onhi
    ghseas(
    Sour
    ce:
    RA10022)
    .

    REPUBLICACTNo.10022-AnActamendi ngRepubl i
    cActNo.8042,otherwi
    seknown
    ast he Mi
    grantWor ker
    sand Ov er seasFilipi
    nosActof1995,asamended,f urt
    her
    i
    mpr ovi
    ngthestandardofpr ot
    ect
    ionandpr omoti
    onoft hewelfar
    eofmi gr
    antworkers,
    thei
    rf amil
    ies and ov erseas Fi l
    ipi
    nos i n distr
    ess, and for other pur
    poses.
    (htt
    ps:
    //www.l
    awphil.
    net/
    statut
    es/repacts/
    ra2010/ra_10022_
    2010.ht
    ml)

    Pul
    lFactorsinI nternationalLaborMi grati
    onofFi l
    ipinos
     Change i ni mmi grati
    on pol i
    cies of some count ri
    es facili
    tated permanent
    mi grati
    on
     Di scov eryofoi landdev el
    opmentofoi lf
    ieldsingul fmadet heGul fregionamajor
    dest i
    nationar ea
     Thei ndust ri
    alizati
    onofsomecount ri
    esi nsout heastandeastAsi awhichmade
    them seekl aborersf r
    om dev el
    opingandl eastdev elopedregions
     I ndust r
    iali
    zationi ndev elopedcount r
    iesal lowedwoment oseekempl oyment
    out si
    de t he home hence demand f orcar egiversf rom leastdev el
    oped and
    dev elopingcount r
    iesincreased

    PushFact
    orsinI
    nternat
    ionalMigr
    ation
     Cult
    ureofmigrat
    ionduetothear chi
    pelagi
    cnatur
    eoft
    hePhi
    l
    ippi
    nes
     Lackofemploymentopportunit
    iesinthecount
    ry
     Wagediff
    erenti
    al
     Escapefr
    om domest i
    cvi
    olence
     Escapefr
    om poverty
     Seekpaymentfordebts

    Posi
    ti
    veImpactofLaborMi grati
    on
     Economi cbenef its:ThePhi l
    ippinesar et het hir
    dcount ryr ecei vingt hemost
    remittanceswor ldwide.Ri ghtaf terIndiaandChi na.Remi t
    tancesf rom those
    for
    eignwor kerstot hePhi l
    ippinesar eessent ialtothecountr y.Ithel pst osustai
    n
    thecount r
    y’sdomest i
    cconsumpt ionandgr owt h.Remi tt
    ancesr epr esent10%of
    thenat ion’
    sGDP.Ther emi t
    tancesgost raightt ofamili
    es,relatives,househol ds,
    andf riends.Sot heycani mpr ovet heirqualityofl i
    fe.Thecount ryr eceived28.4
    bil
    l
    ionofUSdol l
    ar sin2015( accordingtot heWor l
    dBank).Fi lipinosar eskill
    ed
    andt alentedpr ofessionalswhowor khar dt ogi vehopet ot heirf ami l
    iesandt o
    thePhi li
    ppineseconomy .Thecount ryispr oudt oexportitswor kfor ce.Itistot
    all
    y
    partoft hegov ernmentst rategytoboostt heeconomy .
     Enhancedstat
    us
     Contr
    ibut
    iontomacr
    o-economy.Remi
    tt
    ancesf
    rom Fi
    l
    ipi
    noMi
    grantWor
    ker
    sto
    thePhi
    l
    ippi
    nesareessenti
    altothecount
    ry.I
    thel
    pst
    osust
    aint
    hecount
    ry’
    s
    domest
    icconsumpt
    ionandgrowt
    h.
     Aut
    onomy/
    independence

    Negat
    iveImpactsofI nt
    ernationalLaborMigrat
    ion
     Psycho-socialef
    fectsonl ef
    tbehindfamil
    ymember
    s
     Depression,tr
    uancy,teenagepregnancy,et
    c.
     Disi
    ntegrati
    onoff amili
    es
     Ali
    enati
    onf rom f
    ami l
    ymember s

    6.Educat
    ion
    SDGGoal
    4:Qual
    it
    yEducat
    ion

    Thereare10GoalTar
    get
    sf orSDG4( cl
    ickthi
    sli
    nk
    htt
    p://
    www.undp.
    org/
    content/
    undp/en/home/sust
    ainabl
    e-
    devel
    opment-
    goal
    s/goal
    -4-
    quali
    ty-
    educati
    on/t
    arget
    s/)

    37
    Kto12Pr ogram
    TheKt o12Pr ogr am cover
    sKi ndergartenand12y earsofbasiceducat i
    on( si
    xy earsof
    pri
    maryeducat i
    on, f
    ouryearsofJuni orHighSchool,andt woyearsofSeniorHighSchool )
    toprov
    idesuf fi
    cienttimeformast eryofconceptsandski ll
    s,dev el
    opli
    fel
    ongl earners,
    and prepare gr aduates for t er
    tiary educat
    ion, mi ddl
    e-l
    evel skil
    l
    s dev elopment ,
    employment,and ent r
    epreneurship.The implement ati
    on oft he K to 12 pr ogr
    am
    6
    mandatedbyt he2013EnhancedBasi cEducati
    onAct( RA10533) .

    Sal
    i
    entFeat
    uresofKt
    o12
     Str
    engt heni
    ngEar l
    yChil
    dhoodEducat i
    on(UniversalKinder
    garten)
     Makingt heCur ri
    culum rel
    evanttolear
    ners(Contextuali
    zat
    ionandEnhancement)
     Ensuringintegratedandseaml esslear
    ning(Spir
    al Progr
    ession)
     Buil
    ding pr ofi
    ciency through Language (Mot her Tongue-Based Multi
    li
    ngual
    Educat i
    on)
     Gearingfort heFuture(SeniorHighSchool)
     NurturingtheHol i
    sti
    cal
    lyDev el
    opedFili
    pino(CollegeandLi vel
    ihoodReadi
    ness,
    Century
     Ski
    ll
    s)

    10Thi
    ngst
    oKnowAboutKt
    o12
    htt
    ps:
    //asset
    s.r
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    12-
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    ographi
    c-r
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    png

    Al
    ter
    nat
    iveLear
    ningSy
    stem orALS
    Whati
    sAl
    ter
    nat
    iveLear
    ningSyst
    em orALS?
    Iti
    saparall
    ellearni
    ngsystem inthePhi
    li
    ppi
    nesthatprovi
    desapr act
    icalopti
    ontothe
    exi
    sti
    ngfor
    mali nstr
    uct
    ion.Whenonedoesnothav eorcannotaccessformaleducati
    on
    i
    nschools,ALSi sanal ternat
    eorsubsti
    tut
    e.ALSi ncl
    udesbotht henon-formaland
    i
    nformal
    sourcesofknowl edgeandski
    ll
    s.

    Whyi
    sther
    eaneedf
    orAl
    ter
    nat
    iveLear
    ningSyst
    em i
    nthePhi
    l
    ippi
    nes?
    ManyFi l
    i
    pinosdonothaveachancet oattendandfi
    nishformalbasiceducation(Gr
    ades
    1-6andYear1-4)duetomanyr easons.Somedr opoutfrom schoolswhilesomedonot
    have schoolsintheircommunities.Since ev
    eryFili
    pino has a ri
    ghtt of r
    ee basi
    c
    educati
    on,theGovernmentest
    ablishesALSt oprovi
    deal lFi
    li
    pinosthechancet ohave
    accesstoandcompl et
    ebasiceducationinamodet hatfitst
    heirdist
    inctsi
    tuati
    onsand
    needs.

    ___
    ___
    _____
    ____
    __ _
    ___
    6
    ht
    tp:
    //www.of
    fici
    algazet
    te.
    gov
    .ph/
    2013/
    05/
    15/
    republ
    i
    c-act
    -no-
    10533/
    HowdoesALSwor
    k?

    Whati
    sthebasi
    sofALSi
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    oni
    nthePhi
    l
    ippi
    nes?
    The1987Phi l
    ippineConst i
    tutionpr ovi
    desfort herecogni
    ti
    onandpr omotionof
    otherformsofeducat ionothert hanf ormaleducation.Arti
    cleXI
    V,Sect
    ion2,Paragr aph
    (1)declaresthattheSt ateshallest abl i
    sh,maintai
    nandsuppor tacompl et
    e,adequat e
    andi nt
    egratedsystem ofeducationr elevanttotheneedsoft hepeopl
    eandsociety; and
    paragraph (4)concisely encour ages non- f
    ormal,informaland indi
    genous learning
    systems as wel las sel f-
    lear
    ning,i ndependentand out -
    of-
    schoolstudy pr
    ogr ams
    parti
    cularl
    ythosethatrespondtocommuni t
    yneeds.

    TheGov ernanceActforBasi
    cEducati
    onot herwi
    seknownast heRepubl
    i
    cAct
    9155stipul
    atestheestabli
    shmentoftheAlt
    ernati
    veLearni
    ngSystem (
    ALS)toprov
    ide
    out-
    of-
    schoolchil
    dren,yout
    handadul
    tspopul
    ationwithbasi
    ceducati
    on.

    Therearet wo maj orprogramson ALS t hatar ebeing implemented bythe


    DepartmentofEducation,throught heBureauofAl t
    ernat
    iveLearningSystem (BALS)
    .
    Onei stheBasi
    cLiter
    acyPr ogram andtheot herist heContinuingEducati
    onProgram –
    Accredi
    tati
    onandEqui valency( A&E).Bothpr ogramsar emodul arandf lexi
    ble.Thi
    s
    means t hat l
    ear
    ning can t ake place any t
    ime and any place,depending on the

    38
    conv
    eni
    enceandav
    ail
    abi
    l
    ityoft
    hel
    ear
    ner
    s.

    Whati sthe di
    ff
    erence bet
    ween the For
    malEducat
    ion Syst
    em and t
    he Al
    ter
    nat
    ive
    Lear
    ningSyst
    em (ALS)Non-f
    ormalEducati
    on?

    FormalEducat i
    onsy st
    em isclassroom-based,managedbytrai
    nedformalschool
    teachers.ALSNon- for
    malEducat i
    onhappensout si
    dethecl
    assr
    oom, communi ty
    -based,
    usuall
    yconduct edatcommuni t
    ylearni
    ngcent er
    s,barangaymult
    i-
    purposehall,l
    ibr
    ari
    es
    orathome,managedbyALSl earni
    ngf acil
    i
    tat
    ors,suchasmobileteacher
    s,distr
    ictALS
    Coordinators,instruct
    ionalmanagersatanagr eedschedul
    eandv enuebetweent he
    l
    earnersandf aci l
    i
    tator
    s.
    The2015Phi li
    ppinesEducat i
    onIndicators

    ThePhi
    l
    ippi
    nesEducat
    ionI
    ndi
    cat
    ors:2015HumanDevel
    opmentRepor
    t

    7.Heal
    th

    SDGGoal3:
    GoodHeal
    thandWel
    l-
    Bei
    ng

    Thereare13GoalTar
    get
    sf orSDG3( cl
    i
    ckthi
    sli
    nk
    htt
    p://
    www.undp.
    org/
    content/
    undp/en/
    home/sustainable-
    devel
    opment-
    goal
    s/goal
    -3-
    good-heal
    th-
    and-
    well
    -being/target
    s/)

    Gl
    obalFact
    sandf
    igur
    es

    Chi
    l
    dhealt
    h
     17,000fewerchildrendieeachdayt hanin1990,butmor ethansixmi l
    l
    ion
    chil
    drensti
    l
    ldiebeforet
    heirf
    if
    thbirt
    hdayeachyear
     Since2000,measlesvacci
    neshaveav er
    tednear
    ly15.
    6mill
    iondeat
    hs
     Despitedet
    erminedglobalpr
    ogress,anincr
    easi
    ngpropor
    ti
    onofchilddeat
    hsare

    39
    i
    nsub- SaharanAfri
    caandSout hernAsia.Fouroutofever
    yfi
    vedeat
    hsofchi
    l
    dren
    underagef i
    veoccurintheser egions.
     Chil
    drenbor nint
    opover t
    yar ealmosttwi ceasli
    kelytodi
    ebefor
    etheageoffi
    ve
    asthosef r
    om wealthi
    erfami l
    ies
     Chil
    drenofeducat edmot hers—evenmot herswit
    honlypri
    maryschool
    i
    ng—are
    morelikel
    ytosur vi
    vethanchildrenofmot her
    swit
    hnoeducati
    on

    Mat
    ernalheal t
    h
     Mat ernal mortali
    tyhasf allenbyal most50percentsi nce1990
     I n Easter n Asia,Nor ther n Afri
    ca and Sout hern Asia,mat ernalmor t
    ali
    tyhas
    declinedbyar oundt wo-t hirds
     Butmat er
    nalmor tal
    ityr atio– t hepr oport
    ionofmot herst hatdonotsur v
    ive
    chil
    dbi r
    thcompar edt ot hosewhodo– i ndevelopingr egionsisstil
    l14t i
    mes
    higherthani nt hedev elopedr egions
     Mor ewomenar erecei vingant enat alcare.Indevelopingr egions,ant
    enatalcare
    increasedf rom 65percenti n1990t o83percentin2012
     Onl yhal fofwomeni ndev el
    opingr egionsrecei
    vet her ecommendedamountof
    healthcar etheyneed
     Fewert eensar ehav i
    ngchi l
    dreni nmostdev el
    opingr egions,butprogresshas
    slowed.Thel argeincr easei ncont r
    aceptiveuseint he1990swasnotmat chedin
    the2000s
     Theneedf orfami l
    yplanni ngissl owlybeingmetf ormor ewomen, butdemandi s
    increasingatar apidpace

    HI
    V/AI
    DS, mal ariaandot herdi seases
     Att heend of2014,t herewer e13. 6 mi l
    lion peopl eaccessi ng ant i
    retr
    ov iral
    therapy
     NewHI Vi nfectionsi n2013wer eest imat edat2. 1mi llion,whi chwas38percent
    l
    owert hani n2001
     Att heendof2013, ther
    ewer eanest imated35mi ll
    ionpeopl elivingwi thHIV
     Att heendof2013, 240000chi ldrenwer enewl yinfect edwi thHI V
     NewHI Vi nfectionsamongchi l
    drenhav edecl inedby58percentsi nce2001
     Gl obal ly,adol escentgi rl
    sand y oung women f ace gender -based i nequaliti
    es,
    exclusi on,di scr i
    mi nati
    on and v iolence,whi ch putt hem ati ncreased r i
    skof
    acqui ringHI V
     HI Vi sthel eadingcauseofdeat hf orwomenofr epr oduct iveagewor l
    dwi de
     TB- relateddeat hsi npeopl eliv
    ingwi t
    hHI Vhav ef all
    enby36%si nce2004
     Ther ewer e250000newHI Vinf ecti
    onsamongadol escent si n2013,t wot hirds
    ofwhi chwer eamongadol escentgi rl
    s
     AI DSi snow t hel eadingcauseofdeat hamongadol escent s( aged10–19)i n
    Africaandt hesecondmostcommoncauseofdeat hamongadol escent sglobal ly
     I nmanyset t
    ings,adol escentgi rl
    s’rightt opr i
    vacyandbodi l
    yaut onomyi snot
    respect ed,asmanyr eportthatthei rf
    irstsexual experiencewasf or
    ced
     Asof2013, 2.1mi ll
    ionadol escent swer eliv
    ingwi thHI V
     Ov er6. 2mi l
    li
    onmal ari
    adeat hshav ebeenav ertedbet ween2000and2015,
    primar i
    lyofchi ldrenunderf i
    vey earsofagei nsub- Sahar anAf ri
    ca.Thegl obal
    mal ar i
    ai ncidencer atehasf all
    enbyanest i
    mat ed37percentandt hemor tality
    ratesby58percent
     Bet ween 2000 and 2013,t uber cul
    osis pr ev ention,di agnosis and t reatment
    i
    nter vent i
    onssav edanest imated37mi ll
    ionliv es.Thet uber culosismor t
    alit
    yr ate
    fel
    l by45percentandt hepr evalencer ateby41percentbet ween1990and2013

    The2015Phi
    l
    ippi
    nesHeal
    thI
    ndi
    cat
    orsaspert
    he2015HumanDev
    elopmentRepor
    t:

    ThePhi
    l
    ippi
    nesHeal
    thI
    ndi
    cat
    ors:2015HumanDevel
    opmentRepor
    t

    40
    The2017Nat
    ionalDemogr
    aphi
    candHeal
    thSur
    veyRepor
    t

    Househol
    d Dr
    inki
    ng Wat
    er.I
    mpr
    oved sour
    ces of wat
    er pr
    otect agai
    nst out
    side
    contaminat
    ionsot hatthewateri
    smorelikel
    ytobesafetodri
    nk.I
    nt hePhil
    i
    ppi
    nes,95
    percentofhousehol dsuseani mpr
    ov edsourceofdri
    nkingwater;almostal
    lurban
    households(98%)reportusi
    nganimprovedsourceofdr
    inki
    ngwatercomparedwit
    h93
    percentofrur
    alhouseholds.

    Househol
    d Sani
    tat
    ion. Thr
    ee-
    quar
    ter
    sofFi
    l
    ipi
    no househol
    ds(
    76%)use i
    mpr
    oved
    sanit
    at i
    onf aci
    li
    ti
    es,whicharedef i
    nedas non-sharedf aci
    l
    iti
    esthatpreventpeoplefr
    om
    comi ngint ocontactwithhumanwast eandthusr educet hetransmissi
    onofchol era,
    typhoid, and ot herdiseases.Twent y-f
    ourpercentofhousehol ds use unimproved
    sanit
    at i
    on;t hi
    sincludes17per centofhousehol dswi thashar edt oi
    letfaci
    li
    tyofan
    otherwiseaccept abl
    etype,3per centwit
    hanunimpr ovedfacil
    it
    y,with5percent hav i
    ng
    no facili
    ties atall.This marks an improvementsi nce 2013,when 70 per centof
    househol dsusedi mprovedsanit
    ationfaci
    li
    ti
    es.

    Phi
    l
    heal
    thCover
    age.Si
    xty
    -si
    xper
    centoft
    heFi
    l
    ipi
    nohousehol
    dpopul
    ati
    onhasanyf
    orm
    ofPhi l
    Healthinsurance:27percentaremember sthr
    ought heformal economy ,9percent
    throught heinfor
    maleconomy ,and19per centar ei
    ndigentmember .Anot her6percent
    areseni orciti
    zenmember s,4per centar
    esponsor edmember s,1per centar eli
    feti
    me
    member s,and2Per centareov erseasFil
    ipi
    nomember s.Twent y
    -fourper centoft he
    population has otherf orms on healthinsurance such as the Gov ernmentSer vice
    InsuranceSy stem (GSIS)
    ,theSocialSecur
    it
    ySy stem (
    SSS) ,orpr
    ivateinsurance.

    Ear
    lyChi
    l
    dhoodMor
    tal
    i
    ty.I
    nfantandchi
    l
    dmor
    tal
    i
    tyr
    atesar
    ebasi
    cindi
    cat
    orsofa
    country
    ’sheal
    thandsoci oeconomicsit
    uationandqual i
    tyoflif
    e(UNDP2007) .Basedon
    the2017NDHS, duringthe5y ear
    simmedi atel
    yprecedingthesurvey,
    theinf
    antmor t
    ali
    ty
    rat
    ewas21deat hsper1, 000li
    vebir
    th.Thechi l
    dmor tali
    tyrat
    ewas7deat hsper1,000
    chil
    drensurvi
    vingt oage12mont hs,whiletheov erallunder-
    5mor tal
    i
    tyratewas27
    deathsper1,000l ivebirt
    hs.Seventy-
    eightpercentofal ldeat
    hsamongchi ldr
    enunder
    age5i nthePhi l
    i
    ppinest akeplacebef oreachi l
    d’sf ir
    stbirt
    hday,with52per cent
    occurri
    ngduri
    ngt hef i
    rstmonthofli
    fe.

    Chil
    dHeal thIndicators
    Vaccinati
    onofChi l
    dren.Uni ver
    salimmuni zationofchi ldrenagainstcommonv accine-
    preventablediseasesi scruci
    altoreducinginfantandchi l
    dmor tal
    it
    y.Int hePhi
    lippines,
    rout
    ine childhood v acci
    nes protectagainstt ubercul
    osis( BCG v accine),di
    phther i
    a,
    pert
    ussis,t et
    anus( DPTv acci
    ne),poli
    o( oralpol i
    ov accine[OPV]ori nacti
    vat
    edpol i
    o
    vaccine[IPV],Haemophi lusinfl
    uenzatypeb( Hi bvaccine),hepati
    ti
    sB( HepBv accine),

    41
    andmeasl
    esmumpsandr
    ubel
    l
    a(measl
    esv
    acci
    neorMMRv
    acci
    ne,
    respect
    ivel
    y).

    Vaccinat
    ioncoverage:Chi l
    drenar e12-23 mont hsar ethey oungestcohortto have
    reachedtheagebywhi chachi ldshouldhavereceivedallbasi
    cv acci
    nati
    ons.Ov
    eral
    l,70
    percentofchil
    drenage12- 23mont hsrecei
    vedal lbasicvacci
    nat i
    ons,and61percent
    recei
    vedallage-appr
    opriatev acci
    nati
    ons.Nineper centofchildrenage12-23mont hs
    hasnotrecei
    vedanyv accinat
    ions.

    9.HI
    V-AI
    DS/
    incr
    easi
    ngcases

    ThePhi l
    i
    ppineshasr egi
    ster
    edthef astest-
    growingHI V/AIDSepidemi ci
    ntheAsi a
    -Pacif
    icinthepastsixyear swit
    ha140- percentincreaseinthenumberofnewi nfections
    accordingtot heDepart
    mentofHeal t
    handt heUni tedNat i
    ons.Att heendof2016, there
    wer e10,500Fi l
    ipi
    nosinfectedwi t
    hthehumani mmunodef i
    ciencyv i
    rus(HIV)upf rom
    4,300i n2010basedondat afrom UNAI DS.Ei ghty-
    threeper centofnew HI V cases
    occurredamongmal eswhohav esexwi t
    hmal esandt r
    ansgenderwomenwhohav esex
    withmal es.Twooutoft hreenewHI Vinfecti
    onswer eamong15t o24y ear
    -ol
    dmen, who
    haveinsuffici
    entawarenessofHI V,i
    tssympt omsandt reat
    ment .

    Knowl edgeofHIVPr event


    ion
    The2017NDHSal socapt ureddataonknowl edgeofHI Vprev
    enti
    on,awareness
    ofmodesofHI Vt r
    ansmission,andbehav i
    orsthatcanpr ev
    entthespreadofHIV.Sixty
    -
    sixprev entofwomenknow t hatconsist
    entuseofcondomsi sameansofpr event
    ing
    thespr eadofHIV.Eight
    y-f
    ourper centofwomenknowt hatli
    miti
    ngsexuali
    nter
    courseto
    onefait hf
    ul,
    uni
    nfectedpart
    nercanr educethechanceofcont r
    acti
    ngHIV.

    Compr
    ehensi
    veKnowl
    edgeaboutHI
    VPr
    event
    ionamongYoungPeopl
    e

    Comprehensi
    veknowl edgeofHI Vpreventionisdefinedasknowi ngthatbot h
    condom useandli
    miti
    ngsexual int
    ercour setooneuni nf
    ectedpartnerareHIVprev ent
    ion
    methods,knowingthataheal thy-
    lookingper soncanhav eHI V,andr ej
    ecti
    ngt hetwo
    mostcommon l ocalmi sconceptions aboutHI Vt r
    ansmission:t hatHI V can be
    tr
    ansmitt
    ed bymosqui to bit
    es and byshar i
    ng food with a person who has HI V.
    KnowledgeofhowHI Vist r
    ansmi t
    tedi scrucialtoenablingtoav oi
    dHI Vinfect
    ion.Only
    oneinfiveyoungwomen( 20%)hascompr ehensiveknowledgeofHI Vpreventi
    on.The
    propor
    ti
    onwithknowledgegener al
    l
    yi ncreaseswi t
    hageandeducat i
    on.

    10.GenderIssues and GenderBased Vi


    olence/
    Viol
    ence agai
    nstWomen (
    Global
    WomenIssues)

    ThePhi lippi
    neshasmadel eapsandgr eatprogressi nadvancinggenderequal it
    y
    andpr omot i
    ngt heempower mentofwomen.The2017Gl obalGenderGapRepor tofthe
    Wor l
    dEconomi cFor um affi
    rmst hesef acts.Thecount ryisNo.10i nt he2017Gl obal
    Rankingswi thani ndexof0. 790.Thecount ryhasconsi stentl
    ymadei ttot het op10of
    thewor ld'
    smostgender -equalsocieti
    essi nce2006.Not ably,t
    hePhi l
    ippinesi soneof
    thecount riesthatl ostit
    sgenderequal itystat usforhealthin2017,whi chr eopenedits
    gapfort hef ir
    stt i
    mesi nce2006.TheGl obalGenderGapr eportsai
    dthePhi l
    ippinesalso
    hasa" wor seningper formance"ont hewageequal ityforsimilarworkcat egor y,
    dropping
    from 7thlasty earto21stt hisyear.Butt hecount r
    y'seducat i
    onalatt
    ainmentgendergap
    remainsf ullyclosed.Ov eral
    l,t
    hePhi l
    ippinesr emains10t hmostgenderequalcount ryin
    thewor l
    d, despiteslippi
    ng3spot sf r
    om lasty ear.

    Toreiter
    ate,thePhil
    i
    ppinesisNo.10i ntheWor l
    dEconomi cForum’s2017Gl obal
    RankingsoftheGl obalGenderGap.Itjoi
    nedt hetop10with:(1)Icel
    and,(2)Norway,(3)
    Fi
    nland,(4)Rwanda,( 5)Sweden,( 6)Nicaragua,(7)Sl
    ovenia,(8)Ir
    eland,and(9)New
    Zealand.Intermsofsub- i
    ndex,thePhili
    ppi
    nesr ankedNo.25i nEconomi cPart
    ici
    pati
    on
    andOppor t
    unity,i
    trankedNo.1i neducat i
    onalattai
    nment,r
    ankedNo.36i nhealt
    hand
    survi
    val,
    andrankedNo.13i npoliti
    calempower ment.

    42
    KeyGl
    obalandRegi
    onalCommi
    tment
    stoGenderEqual
    it
    y

    TheConv entionont heEli


    minationofallFormsofDi scri
    mi nati
    onagai nstWomen.The
    1979Conv ent i
    onont heEli
    minationofAl lFormsofDi scriminati
    onAgai nstWomen
    (CEDAW)pr ovi
    desacompr ehensivef r
    amewor kt o gui
    deal lr i
    ghts-basedact i
    onf or
    genderequal i
    ty.Underthist
    reaty,genderinequali
    tyisunder stoodt obet heresul
    tof
    discr
    iminationagai nstwomen.CEDAW def inesdiscri
    minationandt her angeofsteps
    thatstatesmustt aketoeliminateit
    ,af f
    ir
    mswomen’ srightsinspeci fi
    careas,and
    makespr ov i
    sionsforrati
    fi
    cat
    ion,monitori
    ng,repor
    tingandot herprocedur almatt
    ers.

    TheBeijingPl atformf orAction.The1995Bei j


    i
    ngPl atformforAct i
    oni s“anagendafor
    women’ sempower ment”signedbyal lgovernmentst hatisseenasa“ necessaryand
    fundamentalpr e-requisi
    teforequalit
    y,developmentandpeace.“ Theplatfor
    mi ncl
    udes
    genderanal y
    sisofpr obl
    emsandoppor t
    unit
    iesin12cr i
    ti
    calareasofconcer n,andcl
    ear
    andspeci f
    icst andardsf oracti
    onst obei mplement edbygov er
    nment s,t
    heUNsy st
    em
    andcivi
    lsoci ety,incl
    uding,whereappr opri
    ate,t
    hepr ivatesector.Theplatfor
    m provi
    des
    thefir
    stgl obalcommi t
    mentt ogendermai nstreamingast hemet hodologybywhi ch
    women’ sempower mentwi l
    lbeachieved.

    UNDecl arat
    ionont heEli
    minati
    onofVi ol
    enceagainstWomen.The1993Decl aration
    ont heEliminationofVi ol
    enceagai nstWomen,t hefi
    rstinter
    nati
    onalhumanr ights
    i
    nstrumenttoexcl usi
    vel
    yandexplicit
    lyaddressvi
    olenceagai
    nstwomen, aff
    ir
    mst hatt he
    phenomenonv iolates,i
    mpairsornul l
    if
    ieswomen’shumanr i
    ghtsandt heirexerci
    seof
    fundamentalfreedoms.TheDecl arati
    onst at
    esthatgender-
    basedv iol
    encet akesmany
    dif
    ferentf
    ormsandi sexperi
    encedinar angeofcri
    sisandnon-cri
    sissett
    ings,Iti
    sdeepl y
    rootedIst
    ructural rel
    ati
    onshi
    psofi nequali
    tybet
    weenwomenandmen.

    TheI nt
    ernati
    onalConferenceonPopul ati
    onandDev el
    opment . The1994Inter
    national
    Conf erenceonPopul ati
    onandDev elopment( I
    CPD)i nCai r
    owasami l
    estonei nthe
    hi
    st oryofpopulati
    onanddev elopment,aswel lasint hehist
    oryofwomen’ sri
    ghts.ICPD
    delegat esreachedaconsensust hattheequal i
    tyandempower mentofwomeni sa
    gl
    obalpr ior
    it
    y.Thisissuewasappr oachedf rom theper specti
    veofuniversalhuman
    ri
    ght s,andasanessent i
    alsteptowardser adicati
    ngpov ert
    yandst abi
    li
    zi
    ngpopul ati
    on
    growt h.Awoman’ sabili
    tytoaccessr eproductivehealthandr i
    ghtsisacornerstoneof
    herempower mentandi scri
    ti
    caltosustai
    nabledev elopment.

    TheSust
    ainabl
    eDev
    elopmentGoal
    s(SDGs)
    .

    Endingallformsofdi scri
    mi nat
    ionagai nstwomenandgi rl
    si snotonl yabasi c
    humanr i
    ght ,butitalsocr ucialtoaccel erat
    ingsust ai
    nabledev el
    opment .Ithasbeen
    provent i
    meandagai n,thatempower i
    ngwomenandgi r
    lshasamul t
    ipli
    ereffect,and
    helpsdr i
    veupeconomi cgrowt handdev elopmentacr osst heboard.Since2000,UNDP,
    togetherwithourUNpar tnersandt her estoft heglobalcommuni ty,hasmadegender
    equalit
    ycent ralt
    oourwor k.Wehav eseenr emar kableprogresssincet hen.Mor egirl
    s
    arenow i nschoolcompar edt o15y earsago,andmostr egi
    onshav er eachedgender
    parit
    yinpr i
    mar yeducati
    on.Womennowmakeupt o41per centofpaidwor ker
    sout si
    de
    ofagr i
    cult
    ure,comparedto35per centi
    n1990.

    TheSDGsai mtobui
    ldont heseachievementstoensur et
    hatthereisanendto
    discriminat
    ionagai nstwomenandgi rl
    sev ery
    where.Therearestil
    lhugeinequali
    ti
    esi
    n
    thel abourmar ketinsomeregions,withwomensy st
    ematical
    lydeniedequalaccesst
    o
    j
    obs.Sexualv i
    olenceandexploi
    tat
    ion,theunequaldiv
    isi
    onofunpaidcareanddomest i
    c
    wor k,anddiscriminati
    oni
    npubli
    cof f
    ice,al
    lremai
    nhugebar ri
    ers.

    Aff
    ordingwomenequalr ight
    stoeconomicr
    esourcessuchasl andandproperty
    arevit
    altargetstoreali
    zi
    ngt hi
    sgoal.Soisensur
    inguniver
    salaccesst osexualand
    repr
    oducti
    vehealth.Todaytherearemorewomeninpubl i
    coff
    icethanev erbef
    ore,but
    encouragi
    ngwomenl eaderswi l
    lhelpst
    rengt
    henpoli
    ciesandl egi
    slati
    onforgreater
    genderequali
    ty.

    43
    SDGGoal5i
    sGenderEqual
    it
    y

    Thereare9Goalt
    argetsforSDG5( cli
    ckthisli
    nk
    htt
    p://
    www.undp.
    org/content
    /undp/en/home/sustai
    nabl
    e-
    devel
    opment-
    goal
    s/goal-5-
    gender-
    equalit
    y/t
    arget
    s/

    Gl
    obalFact
    sandFi
    gur
    esonGender

     Aboutt wot hir


    dsofcount ri
    esint hedevelopingregi
    onshav eachievedgender
    parityinpr i
    maryeducat ion
     I nSout her nAsia,only74gi r
    lswereenrol
    ledinprimaryschoolforevery100boy s
    i
    n1990.By2012, theenrolmentrat
    iosweret hesamef orgi
    rl
    sasf orboys
     I nsub- SaharanAf r
    ica,Oceaniaand West ernAsia,girl
    sst i
    l
    lf acebar r
    ier
    st o
    enteringbot hprimar yandsecondaryschool
     Womeni nNor thernAf ri
    caholdl essthanonei nfivepaidj obsint henon-
    agriculturalsector.Thepr oport
    ionofwomeni npaidempl oymentout si
    det he
    agriculturesectorhasi ncr
    easedfrom 35percentin1990t o41percenti n2015
     I n46count ri
    es,womennow hol dmor ethan30percentofseat sinnat i
    onal
    parli
    amenti natleastonechamber
    Vi
    olenceAgai nstWomen

    Viol
    enceagainstwomeni saper v
    asiveandwor ldwidepr oblem inalmostal l
    societi
    es.Itpermeat
    esallsocial
    ,cult
    ural
    ,economic,r
    aceandr el
    igi
    oussectors.Violence
    cant akemanyf orms,i
    ncludi
    ngphy si
    cal,
    sexual,
    emotional,economic,andpsy chological
    abuse.I tcanhav edevastat
    ingconsequencesont heshor t
    -andl ong-t
    erm healthand
    well-
    beingoft hewomenaf f
    ectedaswel lastheirover-
    allquali
    tyofl i
    fe(Hutchinsand
    Sinha,2013;2017NDHS) .

    TheRepubl i
    cActNo.9262 ort he“ Ant
    i-Viol
    enceAgai nstWomenand Thei r
    Chil
    drenActof2004”i soneofthePhi
    l
    ippinegovernment’si
    nit
    iati
    vesi
    naddr essi
    ngthe
    i
    ssueonv i
    olenceagai
    nstwomen.UnderthisAct
    ,v i
    olenceagai
    nstwomenandchi ldr
    en
    i
    sclassif
    iedasapubl i
    ccr i
    meandpenali
    zesallf
    or msofabuseandv i
    olencewithi
    nthe
    famil
    yandint i
    materel
    ati
    onshi
    ps.

    TheNDHS2017capt ureddataf orever-


    mar r
    iedwomenage15- 49whohav eev
    er
    experi
    encedemotional
    ,physical,orsexualviol
    encebyt heirhusbandorpartner
    .Onein
    fi
    ve( 20%)ofwomenhasev erexperi
    encedemot ionalvi
    olence,14percenthasever
    experi
    encedphysi
    calviol
    ence,and5per centev erexperi
    encedsexualvi
    olencebytheir
    curr
    entormostrecenthusbandorpar tner.

    Women who ar e div


    orced,separated,orwi dowed are morelikel
    yto have
    exper
    iencedallf
    ormsofv iol
    encebyt heirmostrecentpar t
    nercomparedwithwomen
    whoar emarr
    iedorli
    vi
    ngtogether:53percentofdi
    vorced,separ
    atedorwidowedwomen
    haveexperi
    encephysical
    ,sexual,oremot i
    onalvi
    olencecompar edwit
    h24per centof
    womenwhoar emarri
    edorliv
    ingtoget
    her.

    Thefi
    gur
    ebelow isani
    nfographicofspousalv
    iol
    encei
    nthePhi
    l
    ippi
    nesas
    r
    epor
    tedint
    he2017Nat
    ional
    DemographicandHeal
    thSur
    vey.

    44
    SomeKeyConcept
    s,LawsandDef
    ini
    ti
    ons

    Gendertothesocialdi
    fferencesbetweenmenandwomen.Thisincl
    udesrol
    es,status,
    expect
    ati
    ons,power,pr
    ivi
    leges,ri
    ght
    sandoppor
    tuni
    ti
    esasdef
    inedbycult
    ure,
    tradi
    tions,
    soci
    etyorrel
    i
    gionandlearnedf r
    om i
    nfancy
    .

    Perpet
    rat
    orrefer
    st oaperson,gr
    ouporinsti
    tut
    ionthatdir
    ectl
    yinf
    li
    ctsorot
    her
    wise
    suppor
    tsviol
    enceorot
    herabuseonanot
    heragai
    nsthi
    s/herwil
    l.

    Survi
    vororVi ct
    imr efer
    st oaper sonwhohasexper iencedgenderbasedv i
    olence.
    “Vi
    cti
    m”isof t
    enusedint hemedicalandlegalsect
    orswhil
    e“ sur
    viv
    or”ispref
    erredint he
    psychol
    ogicaland socialsupportsectors because i
    timpl i
    es resi
    l
    ience and av oid
    sti
    gmati
    zingtheperson.

    Violencei stheuseofact ualort hr


    eatenedf orceorpoweragai nstani ndivi
    dualor
    groups, t
    hateit
    herr esult
    sinorhasahi ghli
    kel
    ihoodofr esul
    ti
    nginphy sicalinj
    ury,death,
    psychological(emot i
    onal)har m,socialmaladjustment,depri
    vationorot hersufferi
    ng
    thatmayoccuri nt hef amil
    y ,communi t
    yandsoci et
    yatl arge.Violencei sdi rect
    ed
    specifi
    call
    y agai nst a woman because she i s a woman,or af fects women
    disproporti
    onately.I
    tincl
    udesbutnotl i
    mitedto,physi
    cal,sexualandpsy chologicalharm
    (i
    ncludinginti
    mi dati
    on,suff
    ering,coer
    cionand/ordepr i
    vati
    onoflibert
    ywi thinthefami l
    y,
    orwi t
    hinthegener alcommuni ty).

    GenderBasedVi olence(GBV)isviolencei
    nvolv
    ingmenandwomeni nwhichthewomen
    i
    susual l
    yav i
    cti
    m;i tisderi
    vedf rom unequalpowerr el
    ati
    onshipsbetweenmenand
    women.Becausegenderbasedv iolenceaf
    fectswomenandgi rl
    smor ethanboysand
    men,thet er
    mi sof t
    enusedi nter
    changeablywith“
    viol
    enceagainstwomen” .Butt
    hisis
    nottodenyt hef actthatboy sandmendoal sofaceandsuf ferfrom genderbased
    vi
    olence.

    Anyt hr
    eatenedoractualharmfulactt
    argetedatwomenandgi rl
    sormenandboy sasan
    expressi
    onofdi f
    fer
    entialpowerwhetheritisfr
    om malest ofemal
    es,femalest
    omal es
    orbet ween member soft hesamesex.Theact smaybev er
    bal
    ,physical
    ,sexual
    ,
    economi c,emoti
    onalandpsy chologi
    caloracombi nat
    ionandmayal sotakeanyother
    for
    m whet heri
    nprivat
    eorpubl i
    canddur i
    nganystageofli
    fe.

    For
    msofGenderBasedVi ol
    ence:Act ualorthr
    eatenedharmfulactsper
    pet
    rat
    edwi t
    hin
    afamil
    y/domesti
    cenvir
    onment .Typicalexamplesar ewifebatter
    y,chi
    ldmolest
    ati
    on,
    mari
    tal
    rape,i
    ncest
    ,conf
    inement,tor
    ture,ver
    balinsul
    t,bul
    l
    yingetc.

    Harassment-Anycommentorbehav i
    ourt hatisunwel come,of f
    ensive,demeaning,
    humiliati
    ng,derogatory,i
    nappropri
    ateorf ail
    st orespectt hedignit
    yofani ndiv
    idual
    .It
    canbecommi t
    tedbyoragai nstanybenef ici
    ary,partner,employee,off
    icialoranyother
    personi nvol
    vedinanywayi nthehumani tari
    anr esponse.
    Harmf ulTr adi
    ti
    onalPr acti
    ces-Cul turalorcust omaryact sthatarecar ri
    ed outby
    communi t
    iesbutwhi chinf
    li
    ctharm ontheirtargets.Typicalexamplesaref emalegenit
    al
    mut i
    lati
    on,wifeinherit
    ance,earl
    ymar r
    iage,childmar ri
    ages,childlabour,honourkil
    li
    ng,
    scari
    ficati
    on,di
    scriminator
    ydietar
    ypractices,ri
    tualkil
    li
    ngset c.

    45
    Rapeofwomenandmeni sof t
    enusedasaweaponofwar ,asafor
    m ofat
    tackonthe
    enemy,ty
    pify
    ingt
    heconquestanddegradat
    ionofitswomenorcapt uredmal
    efight
    ers.
    Itmayalsobeusedt opuni shwomenf ortransgressi
    ngsocialormoralcodes,for
    i
    nstance,
    thosepr
    ohi
    bit
    ingadult
    eryordr
    unkennessinpubli
    c.

    Women and men may al so be r aped when in poli


    ce cust
    ody or in pri
    son.
    Rape/Att
    emptedrapemayi nclude:r
    apeofanadul tfemale,r
    apeofami nor(
    maleor
    female)i
    ncl
    udingincest
    ,gangr ape(i
    ft her
    ei smorethanoneassail
    ant
    ),mari
    talrape
    (bet
    weenhusbandandwi fe)
    ,andmaler ape(somet
    imesknownassodomy )

    SexualExploi
    tat
    ionreferstoanyabuseofaposi
    ti
    onofvul
    nerabi
    l
    ity
    ,dif
    ferent
    ialpower
    ,
    ortr
    ustforsexualpurposes;t
    hisi
    ncl
    udespr
    ofi
    ti
    ngmonet
    ari
    ly,
    social
    lyofpoli
    ti
    call
    yfr
    om
    thesexualexpl
    oit
    ati
    onofanot her
    .

    SexualAbuserefer
    stotheactualorthr
    eat
    enedphy si
    calint
    rusi
    onofasexualnat
    ure,
    i
    ncludi
    nginappr
    opri
    atet
    ouchi
    ng,byfor
    ceofunderunequalorcoer
    civ
    econdi
    ti
    ons.

    SexualHarassmentisanyactofasexualnatur
    ethatisunwelcome,uni
    nvi
    tedand
    unrequest
    edandwhichmakesi
    tst
    argetuncomf
    ort
    abl
    e,of
    fended,
    demeaned,
    humil
    iat
    ed
    coercedandundi
    gni
    fied.

    SexualViol
    enceisanysexualact ,at
    tempttoobtai
    nasexualact,unwantedsexual
    commentsoradv ancesoract
    stot r
    aff
    icaper
    sonorpeoplef
    orsexualpur
    posesbyany
    personr
    egardl
    essofthei
    rrel
    ati
    onshipi
    npri
    vat
    eorinpubl
    i
    c.

    SexualandGenderBasedVi olence-“ anyactt hatresul


    tsi n,ori
    sl i
    kelytoresul
    tin,
    physical
    ,sexualorpsychol
    ogicalhar m orsufferi
    ngtowomen,i ncl
    udingthreat
    sofsuch
    acts,coerci
    onorarbit
    rarydepri
    vat i
    onofl iber
    ty,whetheroccurri
    nginpublicorinpri
    vat
    e
    l
    ife…….underst
    oodtoencompass, butnotbel i
    mi t
    edtot hefol
    lowing:

     Physi
    cal,sexualand psy chologi
    calv i
    olence occur r
    ing wi
    thi
    nt he general
    community,i
    ncl
    udingrape,sexualabuse,sexualharassmentandint
    imidat
    ionat
    work,i
    neducationali
    nst
    it
    utionsandelsewher e,tr
    aff
    icki
    nginwomenandf orced
    prost
    it
    uti
    on.
     Physi
    cal,
    sexualandpsychologi
    calvi
    olenceper pet
    rat
    edorcondonedbythestate,
    whetheri
    toccurs.

    Rel
    atedLaws

    Republ i
    cActNo.9262-AntiViolenceagainstWomenandChi ldr
    enActof2004.
    Republ i
    cActNo.9208-Ant i
    -Traffi
    ckingInPersonsActof2003
    Republ i
    cActNo.8353-Ant i
    -RapeLaw of1997i nr el
    ationt oRA8505- RapeVi ct
    im
    AssistanceandProtecti
    onActof1998
    Republ i
    cActNo.7610-Speci alProtect
    ionofChi l
    drenagai nstAbuse,Expl
    oitat
    ionand
    Discri
    mi nat
    ionActof1992
    Republ i
    cActNo.9775-Ant i
    -ChildPornographyActof2009
    Republ i
    cActNo.9995-Cr i
    meofPhot oandVi deoVoy eur
    ism Act2009
    Republ i
    cActNo.7877-Anti-
    Sexual HarassmentActof1995
    Republ i
    cActNo.9344-Juvenil
    eJust i
    ceandWel f
    areActof2006
    Republ i
    cActNo.9851-Phil
    ippineActonCr i
    mesagainstInternati
    onalHumanitari
    anLaw,
    Genoci deandothercri
    mesAgai nstHumani tyof2009
    Republ i
    cActNo.9745-Ant i
    -Tortur
    eActof2009

    11.Tr
    aff
    icki
    ngi
    nPer
    sons(
    TIP)

    Tr
    affi
    cki
    nginPersons– ref
    erst otherecrui
    tment,obtaini
    ng,hi
    ri
    ng,prov
    idi
    ng,
    of
    fer
    ing,tr
    ansport
    ati
    on,t
    ransf
    er,mai
    ntaini
    ng,harbor
    ing,orreceiptofpersonswit
    hor
    wi
    thoutthevict
    im'
    sconsentorknowledge,wi
    thi
    noracr ossnationalbor
    dersbymeans

    46
    ofthreat
    ,oruseoff orce,orotherf or
    msofcoer cion,abducti
    on,fr
    aud,decepti
    on,abuse
    ofpowerorofposi ti
    on,takingadv ant
    ageoft hev ulnerabi
    li
    tyoftheperson,or,
    thegivi
    ng
    orreceiv
    ingofpay mentsorbenef i
    tstoachievet heconsentofaper sonhav i
    ngcontrol
    overanotherpersonf orthepur poseofexploitationwhi chincl
    udesatami nimum,the
    expl
    oitat
    ionort heprostitut
    ionofot her
    sorot herf or
    msofsexualexpl oi
    tat
    ion,f
    orced
    l
    abororservices,sl
    avery,servi
    tudeortheremov al orsaleoforgans.

    Child Traf
    fi
    cki
    ng -"Ther ecr
    uit
    ment,tr
    ansport
    ati
    on,transf
    er,harbor
    ing,adoption or
    recei
    ptofachildforthepurposeofexpl
    oit
    ati
    onorwhent headopti
    oni si
    nducedbyany
    form ofconsi
    derat
    ionforexpl
    oit
    ati
    vepur
    posesshallal
    sobeconsideredas't
    raf
    fickingin
    persons'even i
    fi tdoesnoti nvol
    veanyoft hemeanssetf or
    thint heprecedi ng
    paragraph.
    ”

    Thet
    hreeel
    ement
    sofTI
    P:Act
    ,Means,
    andPur
    pose.

    10Acts(Whatthehumantraf
    fi
    cker
    sdo?
    ):Recr
    uit
    ,Tr
    anspor
    t,Tr
    ansf
    er,
    Har
    bor
    ,Recei
    ve,
    Obtai
    n,
    Hi
    re,Prov
    ide,
    Offer
    ,Mai
    ntai
    n

    Means(
    Howt
    heydoi
    t?)
    :

    Non- vi
    olentMeans:Fr aud,Deception,Abuse ofposi ti
    on ofv ul
    nerabi
    l
    ity
    ,Givi
    ng or
    receivi
    ngpay mentsorbenefi
    ts
    ViolentMeans: Thr
    eat,
    Force,Otherformsofcoer ci
    on,Abducti
    on
    Purpose( Whyt heydoit?
    ):
     SEXUALEXPLOI TATION: Pr
    ost i
    tut
    ion,Por
    nography,SexTour
    ism.
     LABOR EXPLOI TATION:For ced labor,Slaver
    y,Debt bondage,I nv
    olunt
    ary
    Servi
    tude
     ORGANEXPLOI TATION: Remov alorsale

    Act
    sofTr
    aff
    icki
    ngi
    nper
    sons

    1.Recr uit
    , transpor t,t
    ransfer,etc.underpretextofemployment
    ,tr
    aini
    ng,
    appr
    ent
    iceshi
    p
    2.Int
    roduceormat chf ormarriaget oforei
    gners
    3.Offerorcont r
    actmar r
    iage
    4.Sext our ism forsexual expl
    oi t
    ation
    5.Mai ntainorhi reforsexual exploitat
    ion
    6.Adopt ionwi th&wi thoutanyconsi derati
    on
    7.Saleorr emov alofor gans
    8.Armedact i
    vi
    ties
    9.Forcedl abor, sl
    av ery,debtbondage, Involunt
    aryser
    vit
    ude
    10.Sell
    ingachi l
    df orpur posesofexpl oitat
    ion
    11.Organi zing,di r
    ectingot her
    st ocommi tsactsofTIP

    Whati
    sChi
    ldTr
    aff
    icki
    ng?

    Chil
    dTraffi
    cki
    ng-" Therecr
    uit
    ment ,transportat
    ion,t
    ransf
    er,har
    bori
    ng,adopti
    on
    orreceiptofachildforthepurposeofex ploitati
    onorwhent headopti
    onisinducedby
    any form ofconsi derat
    ion f
    orexploit
    ative pur poses shallal
    so be consider
    ed as
    '
    traff
    ickinginpersons'evenifitdoesnoti nv ol
    veanyoft hemeanssetf orthinthe
    precedingparagr
    aph.”

    I
    nChi
    l
    dTr
    aff
    icki
    ng,
    ther
    ear
    eonl
    ytwoel
    ement
    s:ACTSandPURPOSE

    Acts:Recr
    uit
    ,Obt
    ain,Hi
    re,Pr
    ovi
    de,Of
    fer
    ,Tr
    anspor
    t,Tr
    ansf
    er,Mai
    ntai
    n,Har
    bor
    ,Recei
    ve,
    Adopt

    47
    Pur
    pose:

     Sexual
    traf
    ficking
     Labort
    raff
    icking(chi
    l
    dsol
    dier
    s,dr
    ugcour
    ier
    s)
     Organtr
    aff
    icking

    Memor
    andum Ci
    rcul
    arNo.20,Ser
    iesof2015:GUI
    DELI
    NESI
    NTHEI MPLEMENTATI
    ON
    OFTHERECOVERYANDREI NTEGRATIONPROGRAM FORTRAFFI
    CKEDPERSONS

    TheDepart
    mentbeingtheco-chai
    rpersonoftheInt
    er-AgencyCouncilAgai
    nst
    Traf
    fi
    cking(I
    ACAT)andl eadagencyinsoci alpr
    otect
    ionaimst o cont
    ri
    butetot he
    countr
    y’sgoalt
    oachiev
    et heTier1r ankingast at
    usascribedt ocountr
    ieswhose
    government
    sfull
    ycomplywiththemi ni
    mum standar
    dssetbyt heSecti
    on8oft he
    Traf
    fi
    ckedVict
    imsAct.Hence,i
    nordertoachi
    evetheTier1cat
    egory
    ,theDepar
    tment
    has impl
    emented t
    he Recover
    yand Reintegr
    ati
    on Pr
    ogram forTraff
    icked Per
    sons
    (RRPTP)toscal
    euptheprogr
    amsandser v
    icesanddel
    iv
    erbett
    erint
    erv
    entionst
    ov i
    cti
    m-
    surv
    ivor
    softraf
    fi
    cki
    ngatvari
    ouslev
    els.

    Furt
    her ,DSWDhasoper atedr esidentialcaref aci
    lit
    iesf orwomenandgi rl
    swho
    havebeenv i
    ct i
    msofabuse.Howev er ,the2015USTI Pr eportf oundt hesef acil
    iti
    es
    i
    nadequatet oaddr essthespeci fi
    cneedsoft raffi
    ckingv icti
    ms,andatt i
    mesl acked
    spacednecessar ytoaccommodat eani nfluxofv icti
    ms.I nthisr egard,t
    her eisaneedt o
    upgradeshelterort heexist
    ingDSWDr esidentialcaref acili
    ti
    est hatcatertotrafficked
    vi
    cti
    ms,pr ovi
    decapaci t
    ybui l
    dingt oal lf r
    ontli
    neser vi
    cepr ovidersinmanagi ngand
    handli
    ng vict
    im- sur vi
    vor
    s oft raff
    icking i n person,as wel las i nt
    ensify advocacy
    campaign toi ncrease people’
    s awar eness on i ssue oft raffi
    cking and strengt hen
    communi t
    ypar ticipati
    ontopreventthem f rom becomi ngv ictimsofhumant raff
    icking.

    Scopeofpr
    obl
    em oft
    raf
    fi
    cki
    ngi
    nper
    sonsi
    nthePhi
    li
    ppi
    nes

    Soci
    alReal
    it
    yandVul
    ner
    abi
    li
    ti
    es:

     Sourcingofwomenandchi l
    drenf rom I
    ndigenousPeopl escommuni t
    ies;
     “Emergent ”r eali
    tyofchi ldreninr e-set
    tlementsi t
    esbr oughtaboutbydisast
    ers
    andar medconf li
    cts;internall
    ydi spl
    acedper sonsbei ngv i
    cti
    mizedinexchange
    forfood;
     Growing“ Cot tageIndust ry”inurbanpoorandr ur
    al ar
    eas;
     Inf
    luence, availabil
    i
    ty,andeaseofaccesst osocial mediaplatfor
    ms;
     Changi ngsoci alnormsandpat terns:Ri
    skBehav ior;
     Economi cmot i
    vati
    ons( domest icandov erseas);
     Fil
    ipi
    nasbei ngt raff
    ickedt oot hercount ri
    esforcommer cialsexworkandlabor
    exploi
    tation;
     Highpr evalenceofcommer cialsexwor kintouri
    stareas.

    GapsandChal
    lenges:

     Vict
    im Pr
    ocessi
    ngCenter
    ;insti
    tut
    ional
    i
    zat
    ionandimpl
    ement
    ati
    onofprogr
    ams;
    Lackofdataanddat aanalysi
    st oguidedevel
    opmentofpol
    ici
    es,pr
    ogr
    ams,

    48
    servi
    ces;
     DutyBearers:
     Lackofmanpower ;fastturn-over
    ;Lackofenhancedcompetency;
     Stakehol
    ders:Lackofknowl edgeandexper ti
    se
     Communi ty
    : Lackofawar eness;i
    nsuffi
    cientaccesst
    oinf
    ormati
    on
     Localgover
    nmentuni ts:
    Lackofawar eness;needsempowerment.

    Cul
    tur
    alper
    spect
    iveoft
    raf
    fi
    cki
    ngi
    nper
    sons

     Commer cialsexworkremai
    nsataboo
     Socialst
    igma
     Lack ofacknowl edgementon tr
    affi
    cked per
    sons wher
    evi
    cti
    ms ar
    e mal
    es
    (
    minorsandadult
    s),LGBTI
    ,PWDs,IDPs
    Or
    gani
    zati
    onalResponse

    I
    ACATCounciliscomposedofdif
    fer
    entgover
    nment(11)andnon-
    gov
    ernment
    agenci
    es(3)t
    hati
    staskedtoov
    erseeandmonit
    ort
    hestri
    cti
    mplement
    ati
    onoft
    helaw.

    Pur
    suanttoit
    sRev i
    sedI mplementi
    ngRulesandRegul
    ati
    on,I
    ACATi
    smandat
    ed
    t
    odev
    elopanti
    -t
    raf
    fi
    ckingpoli
    cies,
    pr ogr
    ams,andser
    vices.

    SomeTI
    PSt
    ati
    sti
    cs

    I
    ACAT1343ACTI
    ONLI
    NE
    Br
    eakdownofRecei
    vedRepor
    ts
    Years NumberofCal
    ls NumberofRepor
    ts NumberofVi
    cti
    ms
    2011 7.177 69 64
    2012 7.762 127 95
    2013 4.265 67 60
    2014 4.221 75 72
    2015 2.863 82 108
    2016 3.731 74 64
    2017 2,
    152 32 42
    TOTAL 32,171 526 505

    Recov
    eryandRei
    ntegr
    ati
    onPr
    ogr
    am f
    orTr
    aff
    ickedPer
    sons
    Year
    s No.ofTIPCasesSer v
    ed
    2011 1,
    011
    2012 1,
    036
    2013 1,
    979
    2014 2,
    060
    2015 2,
    096
    2016 1,
    713
    2017 809(Januar
    y-June2017)

    Gai
    nsorPr
    ogr
    essi
    nPr
    osecut
    ionofTI
    PCases

    297Convict
    ions:
     93%SexTr aff
    icki
    ng( 7%Cy
    berTr
    aff
    icki
    ng)
     7%Labort r
    affi
    cki
    ng
    317Traf
    fi
    cker sconvi
    cted:
     8For eigner
    s
     4Gov ernmentoffi
    cial
    s

    49
     Pr
    otocol
    onBl
    ackl
    ist
    ingofRecr
    uit
    mentAgenci
    es,I
    ll
    egalRecr
    uit
    ers
     Pr
    otocol
    onI
    denti
    fyi
    ngandConductofOper
    ati
    onsagainstPr
    ior
    it
    yTar
    get
    s

    CYCONVI CTI
    ONS
    December2005–June2017
    No.ofPersons
    Year
    s No.ofConv
    ict
    ions
    Convict
    ed
    2005 7 6
    2006 0 0
    2007 3 4
    2008 5 4
    2009 10 11
    2010 17 15
    2011 23 30
    2012 26 32
    2013 26 36( -
    1)
    2014 59 62
    2015 54 52
    2016 44 53
    2017(
    Jan–June) 23 14( -
    1)
    TOTAL 297 317

    12.I
    ndi
    genousPeopl
    esI
    ssuesandAncest
    ral
    Domai
    n

    RA8371-I
    ndi
    genousPeopl
    esRi
    ght
    sAct(
    IPRALaw)of1997

    WHATI
    STHEI
    PRA?

    I
    sa compr ehensi
    vel aw t
    hatincl
    udesnotonlyt her
    ightsofI Psov erthei
    r
    ancest
    raldomainbuttotheirri
    ght
    stosocialj
    ust
    iceandhumanright
    s,self
    -gov
    ernance
    andempower ment
    ,andcultural
    int
    egr
    it
    y.

    Thi
    sisi
    nresponset
    othei
    rcul
    tur
    es,t
    radi
    ti
    onsandi
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsat
    tachedt
    othe
    l
    and.

    Itisi nresponsetot hei


    rbel i
    efandpr acti
    cet hatl andist heirwor shiparea
    (r
    eli
    gion),t
    heiri
    nstit
    uti
    onoflearning(educati
    on),t
    heirareaofgov er
    nance( polit
    icsand
    government)theirl
    ivel
    i
    hoodandmar ketplace(economy )
    ,theirmedi calcenter(healt
    h),
    shel
    ter(defenseandsecuri
    ty)
    ,identi
    ty(per
    sonali
    tyandchar acter
    ),andt hei
    rhistory.

    Spiri
    toft heLaw:“ Anacttor ecogni
    ze,protectandpromot
    ether i
    ghtsofindigenous
    cult
    uralcommuni t
    ies/
    indi
    genouspeople,cr
    eat i
    ngaNati
    onalCommissionofIndigenous
    People,establ
    ishi
    ngimplementingmechani sms,appr
    opri
    ati
    ngfundst her
    efor
    ,andf or
    otherpurposes”

    LegalBases
    a.Mandat es of t he 1987 Phi li
    ppine Consti
    tuti
    on;( St
    ate Poli
    cies under t
    he
    Consti
    tuti
    on)
     Sect i
    on22, ArticleI
    I;Therecogniti
    on&pr omotionofI Ps
     Sect i
    on5, Art
    icl eXII
    ;Thepr otecti
    onoftherightsofI CCstotheirancestr
    all
    ands
    toensuretheireconomi c,socialandcult
    uralwell
    -being.
     Sect i
    on6,Ar ticleXII
    I,therecogni t
    ionofpri
    orr i
    ghts,homest eadright
    sofsmal l
    set
    tl
    er,andr i
    ght sofICCst otheirancest
    rall
    and.
     Sect i
    on17, ArticleXI
    VTher ecogniti
    on,r
    espectandpr otect
    ionofther i
    ght
    sofIPs

    50
    topreserveanddev el
    opthei
    rcultures,t
    raditi
    onsandinst
    it
    uti
    onspar
    ti
    cul
    arl
    yin
    thef
    or mulat
    ionofnati
    onalpl
    ansandpol i
    cies.
    b.Inter
    nat i
    onalTreat
    iesandConventi
    on,notablyILOConv
    enti
    on169
    c. UNDr aftDeclar
    ati
    onontheRightsofIndi
    genousPeoples

    Whoar
    ecov
    eredbyI
    PRA?

    IPRA appl
    iestoallIndi
    genousPeoplesoft hePhil
    i
    ppineswho,accordi
    ngt o
    avai
    labledataasof2007numbert oabout14.2Mil
    l
    ioncomprisi
    ngroughl
    y16%oft he
    country
    ’s popul
    ati
    on.Theyar e scat
    ter
    ed overseven (
    7)ethnogr
    aphicregi
    ons and
    compr i
    sedofabout110ethni
    cgroups.

    I
    ndi
    genousCul t
    ural Communi ti
    es/I ndigenousPeopl es( ICCs/ I
    Ps)
     Ref ert oagr oupofpeopl eorhomogenoussoci etiesident i
    fiedbysel f
    -ascripti
    on
    andascr ipti
    onbyot hers,
     Whohav econt inuousl yli
    v edasor ganizedcommuni t
    yoncommunal l
    ybounded
    anddef inedt erritory ,
     Andwhohav e,undercl aimsofowner shipsi ncet i
    mei mmemor i
    al,occupi ed,
    possessedandut i
    lizedsucht err
    itori
    es,shar ingcommonbondsofl anguage,
    customs, t
    raditi
    onsandot herdi sti
    nctivecult uraltraits,
     Or ,who hav e,t hrough r esist
    ancet o pol i
    tical,soci aland cul t
    urali nroadsof
    colonizati
    on, non- indigenous r eli
    gions and cul t
    ures, became hi stori
    cally
    dif
    ferentiatedf rom t hemaj ori
    tyofFi l
    ipinos.
     I CCs/ I
    Psshal ll i
    kewi sei ncludepeopl eswho ar er egar ded asi ndigenouson
    accountoft heirdescentf rom thepopul at
    ionswhi chinhabi tedthecount r
    y,atthe
    ti
    meofconquestorcol onizati
    on,oratt het i
    meofi nroadsofnon- indigenous
    rel
    igionsandcul tur es, ortheest abli
    shmentofpr esentst ateboundar ies,
     Whor etainsomeoral loft heirownsoci al,economi c,cultur
    alandpol it
    ical
    i
    nst i
    tuti
    ons
     Butwhomayhav ebeendi splacedf rom t hei rtraditi
    onaldomai nsorwhomay
    haver esettl
    edout sidet heirancestraldomai ns.

    Est
    imatedIPPopulat
    ion
    Tot
    alEsti
    matedIPPopulat
    ion:
    14,
    184,
    645
     Luzon4,822,
    779(34%)
     Visayas425,
    540(3%)
     Mindanao8,936,
    326(63%)

    Pr
    oport
    ionofIPPopul
    ati
    ont
    oNat i
    onal
    Popul
    ati
    on:
    16%
    NumberofEthnol
    i
    ngui
    sti
    cGroups:110

    WhatdoesI
    PRAr
    ecogni
    zeandt
    her
    ight
    sthati
    tguar
    ant
    ees?

    4Basi
    cofRi ghtsofICCs/IPs:
     Ri ghtstoAncestralDomainsandLands(mgakarapat ansalupaingninuno)
     Ri ghttoSelf-
    Gov er
    nanceandEmpower ment(karapatansasar i
    lingpamamahala
    atkapangyari
    han)
     Ri ghtto SocialJusticeand Human Right
    s( katarungang panl i
    punan atmga
    karapatangpantao)
     Ri ghttoCult
    uralInt
    egrit
    y(kar
    apat
    ansakabuoangpangkal inangan)

    Ri
    ghtst
    oAncest ralDomai ns/Lands
     Allar
    easgener allybel ongingtoICCs/ I
    Pscompr isi
    ngofl ands,inl
    andwat er
    s,
    coast
    al areas,andnat ural r
    esour
    cest her
    ein;
     Held undera cl aim ofowner shi
    p,occupi ed orpossessed byI CCs/I
    Ps,by
    themselvesort hrought hei
    rancestors,communal l
    yorindivi
    duallysi
    ncet i
    me
    i
    mmemor ial,continuouslytopresent
    ;
     Necessaryt oensur etheireconomic,socialandcul
    tural
    welfar
    e.(Sec.3[
    a],
    IPRA)

    51
    TheConceptofNat i
    veTit
    le
     Pre-conquestri
    ght
    st ol andanddomai nswhich,asfarbackasmemoryreaches,
    havebeenhel dunderacl ai
    m ofprivat
    eownershipbyICCs/I
    Ps,hav
    eneverbeen
    publiclandsandar et husi ndi
    sputabl
    ypresumedt ohav ebeenheldt
    hatway
    sincebeforetheSpanishconquest .(
    Sec.3[l
    ],I
    PRA)
     ExceptiontotheRegalianDoct r
    ine.

    Regali
    anDoct ri
    ne
    Al
    llandsoft hepubl i
    cdomai n,water
    s,mi nerals,coal
    ,pet
    rol
    eum,andot her
    mineraloil
    s,al
    lforcesofpotenti
    alenergy
    ,fi
    sher
    ies,forestsorti
    mber
    ,wil
    dli
    fe,f
    lor
    aand
    fauna,andothernatur
    alresour
    cesareownedbyt heSt ate.

    Nativ
    eTitl
    eDoctri
    ne
    The Stat
    e,subj ect t
    o t he pr
    ovisi
    ons of t his Consti
    tut
    ion and nat i
    onal
    devel
    opmentpolici
    esand pr ograms,shallprotectther i
    ghtsofi ndigenouscult
    ural
    communi t
    iest
    otheirancestr
    allandstoensuretheireconomic,soci
    al,andcult
    uralwel
    l-
    bei
    ng.

    TheCongr
    essmaypr ov
    idef
    ort heappli
    cabil
    i
    tyofcustomar
    yl awsgover
    ning
    pr
    oper
    tyri
    ght
    sorr
    elat
    ionsi
    ndet
    ermi
    ningtheownershi
    pandext
    entofancest
    ral
    domain.

    Responsi
    bil
    it
    iesofI
    Psov
    ert
    hei
    rAncest
    ral
    Domai
    n

     Maint
    ainecologi
    calbal
    ance–topreser
    ve,
    restor
    eandmai nt
    ainbal
    anceecol
    ogy
    i
    ntheancestraldomainbypr
    otect
    ingthefl
    oraandfauna,water
    shedareasand
    ot
    herreser
    ves.

     Restoredenudedf orest
    s–t oacti
    vel
    yinit
    iat
    e,under
    takeandpar
    ti
    cipat
    ei nthe
    ref
    orestati
    onofdenudedar easandotherdevelopmentpr
    ogramsandpr oj
    ects
    subjecttojustandr
    easonabl
    eremunerat
    ion.

     Obser vel
    aws-t oobser
    veandcomplywi
    tht
    heprov
    isi
    onsofI
    PRAandt
    her
    ules
    andregul
    ati
    onsfori
    tsef
    fect
    ivei
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    on.
    13.Teenagepregnancy

    Theissueofadolescentferti
    l
    ityisimport
    antf orbot
    hhealt
    handsoci alreasons.
    Chil
    drenbor
    nt overyyoungmot hersareatr i
    skofsicknessanddeath.Teenagemot hers
    aremoreli
    kelytoexperi
    enceadv er
    sepr egnancyoutcomesandtobeconst rainedint hei
    r
    abil
    i
    tytopur
    sueeducat i
    onalopportunit
    iesthanyoungwomenwhodel aychildbearing.

    Theper centageofwomenage15- 19whohav ehadabi rt


    horwer epregnantwith
    thei
    rfir
    stchil
    datt hetimeoft hesur v
    ey( 2017NDHS)i shigh.Ov er
    all
    ,9percentof
    womenage15- 19hav ebegunchil
    dbeari
    ng:7per centhavehadalivebirt
    hand2per cent
    werepregnantatt het i
    meoft heint
    ervi
    ew.Thepr oporti
    onofteenagerswhohav ebegun
    chil
    dbeari
    ngrisesr apidl
    ywi t
    hage,f r
    om 1per centatage15t o22per centatage19.
    Ruralt
    eenagersst artchi
    ldbeari
    ngsli
    ghtl
    yearli
    erthanurbanteenagers.

    Earl
    ypregnancyandmot her
    hoodvari
    esbyeducati
    on,
    wealt
    hquinti
    l
    e,andregi
    on.
    Iti
    smorecommonamongy oungadultwomenage15t o24withlesseducat
    ionthan
    amongthosewi t
    hhighereducati
    on(44percentforwomenwit
    helementaryeducati
    on
    ver
    sus21percentforwomenwi t
    hcoll
    egeeducati
    on).

    TheUN Popul ationFundsay sthePhili


    ppinesi stheonlycount r
    yint heAsi
    a-
    Pacifi
    cregionwheret her ateoft eenpregnanci
    esr oseov erthelasttwodecades.A
    st
    udysay st eenpregnancies,highy out
    hunempl oy mentandt heslow declineofthe
    overal
    lfert
    il
    it
    yrateint hePhi l
    i
    ppinesmaydepr i
    vet hecountryofthef ast
    ereconomic
    growththatusual
    l
    ycomesf r
    om hav i
    ngmor eworking-agepeopl
    ethany oungerandol
    der

    52
    dependent
    s.UNFPAcountr
    yrepr
    esentat
    iveKl
    ausBecksaidt
    hatFi
    li
    pinogi
    rl
    saged15to
    19makeup10per centoft
    hepopulat
    ionof100mil
    li
    on,andoneoutof10ofthem hav
    e
    al
    readygiv
    enbir
    th.

    14.Cl
    imat
    eChangeandDi
    sast
    ers

    Di
    sast
    erRi
    sks:TheWor
    ldRi
    skI
    ndex

    Dur
    ingtheper i
    odoft heHFADecade( 2005-
    2015)alone,disaster
    scausedno
    l
    essthan$1.4tri
    ll
    ionoftotaldamages,1.7bil
    li
    onpeopl
    eaffectedand. 7mill
    i
    onpeople
    ki
    l
    led.Thecostli
    estdamageonr ecordforthedecadeisduringthe2011Japant ri
    ple
    di
    saster(
    Eart
    hquake-Tsunami-Nucl
    earDisast
    er)
    .

    ThePhili
    ppinesi
    snumber3amongthetop10countr
    ieswithmostdi
    sasterswi
    th
    about$16bi l
    l
    ionofdamages.Meanwhil
    e,Chi
    nahasthemostnumberofdi saster
    sbut
    USaccount sforthemostdamageatUS$443bil
    li
    on.Japanisfarbehi
    ndinnumberof
    di
    sasters,
    butitseconomicl
    ossi
    salmostasbi
    gasthatofChina.

    The2017Worl
    dRiskIndex
    Thi
    sishowatr
    isktheworl
    dist
    odi
    sast
    ersandcl
    i
    mat
    echangei
    mpact
    sseebel
    owf
    igur
    e.

    53
    TheRi skMapwasgener atedbyusingthesecomponentsofrisk.Ri
    skisafuncti
    onof
    exposuretonat
    uralhazar
    ds( theNaturalHazar
    dsSphere)andv ul
    ner
    abil
    it
    y(thesoci
    etal
    sphere)
    .Vul
    nerabi
    li
    tyi
    sf ur
    thercalcul
    atedusi
    ngthecombinat i
    onofsuscept
    ibi
    li
    ty,
    copingcapacit
    iesandadapti
    vecapacit
    ies.

    Count
    ri
    eswi
    thcompar
    abl
    eexposur
    elev
    elscanf
    acedi
    ff
    erentdegr
    eesofdi
    sast
    err
    isks

    54
    TheWor l
    dRiskIndexusesadanger -
    exposur
    evaluetoshowt hepercentagei
    fa
    nat
    ion’
    s populat
    ion,as an annualaver
    age,t hatcoul
    d potent
    ial
    l
    ybe subj ect
    ed t
    o
    ear
    thquakes,
    typhoons,
    droughtsandfl
    oodingand/orbeaff
    ectedbysealevelri
    seofone
    meter.

    Butthisdoesnotnecessar il
    ymean t hatcount r
    iesthatare highlyexposed
    automat i
    call
    yexhi
    bitahighdisasterri
    sk.Bywayofexampl e:NewZealandandHai tiar
    e
    bothhi ghl
    yexposed,butt heWor l
    dRi skI
    ndexi ndicat
    esal ow di
    sasterriskforNew
    Zealandand,howev erhi
    ghdi sasterri
    skforHai ti
    .Ther easonforthisist hesecond
    factorassessed–thev ul
    nerabil
    it
    yofacount r
    y.
    Vulnerabil
    it
    yisaman- madedr i
    verofdisast
    errisks

    Whetherthoseper sonsexposedtohazar dsult


    imat el
    ybecomev i
    ctimsofdisasterinthe
    wakeofext r
    emenat ur
    aleventsdependsgr eatlyont heirlevelofv ul
    nerabil
    it
    y.The
    vul
    nerabil
    it
    yofacount ryisdetermi nedbyt hesoci et
    alf act
    orst hatinf
    luencewhata
    popul
    ationcanorcannotdoi nr esponset onaturaldisaster.Ifnatur
    aldisastersstr
    ike
    vul
    nerablesociet
    iesthenthedisasterriskisconsiderablygreater.

    IntheWor l
    dRiskIndex,vulnerabili
    tyiscalculatedusing3component s:suscepti
    bil
    ity
    ,
    l
    ackofcopi ng capaci
    ti
    esand l ackofadopt i
    ve capaci
    ties.These component sar e
    themselves deri
    ved fr
    om a ser ies ofbasi ci ndi
    cators such as forexampl e:t he
    percentageofapopulati
    ont hatisunder nouri
    shedandt heliter
    acyrat
    e–f actor
    st hatare
    notaf actofnat
    urebutratherinpar ttheresul
    tofpol i
    ti
    calactiv
    ity
    .

     Suscepti
    bilit
    y( i
    ndicator
    s):
    o Publ i
    ci nfra–shar eoft hepopulationwithoutaccesstoimpr ov
    edsani tati
    on
    ori
    mpr ov edwat ersour ce
    o Housi ng–shar eoft hepopul ationlivi
    nginslums;pr oport
    ionofsemi -
    soli
    d
    andfragiledwel l
    ings
    o Pov erty–ext remepov ertypopulati
    onlivi
    ngwithUS$1. 25perdayorl ess.
     Lackofcopi ngcapaci ti
    es( indicat
    ors):
    o Gov ernmentandaut hor iti
    es–cor rupti
    onpercepti
    onsindex;goodgov ernance
    o Medi calser vi
    ces–numberofphy sici
    ansper10, 000inhabi
    tants;numberof

    55
    hospi
    tal
    bedsper10,
    000i
    nhabi
    tant
    s
    o Cover
    age–insur
    ance

     Lackofadaptiv
    ecapaciti
    es( i
    ndicators):
    o Educat i
    on–adultl
    iteracyrate;combi nedgrossschoolenr
    oll
    ment
    o Env ir
    onmentalst
    atus/ecosystem pr otecti
    on–wat erresources;bi
    odiv
    ersi
    ty
    andenvir
    onmentalprotecti
    on;forestmanagement ;agr
    icul
    tur
    al management
    o I nv
    estment–publi
    cheal thexpenditure;li
    feexpect
    ancyatbir
    th

    Soundprepar
    ednesscanreducet
    hedi
    sast
    err
    iskf
    orhi
    ghl
    yexposedcount
    ri
    esbut
    cannotel
    imi
    natei
    tcompl
    etel
    y

    Countrieswithlow orver ylow vulner


    abil
    ityarewel lprotect
    edagai nstextr
    eme
    natur alev ents.The drivi
    ng forces behind this are,robusti nfr
    astr
    ucture,a steady
    nutritionalbasisandaf uncti
    oninghealthsy st
    em, amongot hers.Howev er,i
    facountryis
    asheav i
    lyexposedt oextremenat ur
    alhazar dse.g.Japan,t henev ent hev er
    ybest
    prev entati
    vemeasur escannev ercompl etel
    yav ertdisaster.Forinstance,theJapan
    2011ear t
    hquaket hatcauset heFukushi manucl eardisasterandt sunamit hatkil
    led
    15,894per sons.Thedi r
    ectf i
    nancialdamagei sest i
    mat edt obeabout$199bi ll
    ion
    dollars.Thet otaleconomiccostr eachedupt o$235bi ll
    ion,asest i
    matedbyWor l
    dBank
    maki ngi tthecostli
    estnatur
    aldisasterinwor l
    dhistory.

    Thepoorar
    edi
    spr
    opor
    ti
    onat
    elyaf
    fect
    edbydi
    sast
    ers–andar
    emor
    eli
    kel
    ytodi
    easa
    resul
    t

    Forpersonsl i
    vi
    ngi nstructur
    all
    yunsounddwel l
    i
    ngsorear ni
    nglowincomes,the
    oddsofov er
    comi nganat uraldisasteraremuchl ower.Indevel
    opingcountri
    es,nat
    ural
    di
    sastersoft
    enr esultinext r
    eme,l i
    fe-t
    hreateni
    ngcondi t
    ionsandt hedestr
    ucti
    onofa
    person’
    smeansofsur v
    ival
    .I
    nhi ghlydevelopedcountri
    esont heotherhand,economic
    l
    ossesaremor epr onounced,withdamaget oinf
    rast
    ructur
    eamaj orfact
    or.

    Thi
    si si
    ll
    ustr
    atedclear
    lybyacompari
    sonbetweenChileandNepal :Between1996and
    2016,Chil
    ewashi tbyseveneart
    hquakes,r
    esul
    tingi
    nt hedeathsof600per sonsand
    damageof30. 3bil
    li
    onUSdollar
    s.Nepalwasstruckbyt hr
    eeearthquakesinthesame
    peri
    od,withal ossof9,000humanlivesbuteconomicl ossesofonly5.1bi l
    li
    onUS
    doll
    ars.

    56
    -For2017, Wor ldRiskIndexshowst hestr
    ongneedforaction…NOW andNOTLATER!
    rd
    -Phi l
    ippinesi nranked3 i ntheworl
    dwi t
    hthehighestexposur e-foll
    owi
    ngPacif
    ic
    i
    slandcount ri
    esVanuat uandTonga
    -WhilePhi l
    ippinesisnotr ankedint
    hetop15countr
    ieswitht hehi
    ghestvul
    ner
    abi
    l
    ity
    ,
    r
    d
    -Phil
    ippinesi sranked3 i ntheworl
    dwiththehi
    ghestdisasterri
    sk.

    ThePhi
    li
    ppi
    nesDi
    sast
    erRi
    skPr
    ofi
    le

    ThePhili
    ppineshassuf fer
    edfrom anumberofdeadlytyphoons,ear
    thquakes,
    volcanoerupti
    onsandot hernatur
    aldi
    sast
    ers.Thi
    sisduetoit
    slocati
    onalongtheRing
    ofFire,ortyphoonbel t–al argePaci
    ficOceanregi
    onwheremanyofEar th’
    svolcani
    c
    erupti
    onsandear thquakesoccur.

     Locat edinthePaci f
    icRingofFi r
    e
     Iti
    sal sosituatedneartwotect onicplatestri
    ggeri
    ngear t
    hquakes.
     Ithas23Vol canoes,21ofwhi chhav ehi st
    ori
    calerupti
    onsand5ofwhi charever
    y
    activ
    e.
     TyphoonBel t-Theeast er
    nseaboar doft hecount r
    yf acesthePacifi
    cOcean
    withoutmuchel seint hewayt ot aket hef or
    ceofst ormsbef oretheymake
    l
    andf all
    .
     Ithast hewar mestoceant emper aturesint hewor l
    d.Itisdubbedast hewarm
    pool aroundI ndonesi
    aandt hePhi l
    ippines.
     ThePhi l
    ippinesisi nfactthecount r
    ymostexposedt ot ropi
    calst
    ormsinthe

    57
    worl
    d.
     Thewarm equatori
    alwaterspowerstor
    ms;about20t
    yphoonsay
    ear
    .Of
    tenon
    aver
    age,5arestr
    ongst orms.
     In2017,
    forexample:
    o Paolo-16thtoenterthecount
    ry(
    Oct
    )
    st
    o Urduja–21
    o Vinta–22nd( Dec)

    Thehumanandeconomi ccostf r
    om tr
    opi
    calst
    ormsinthePhili
    ppinesfrom 1990
    to2012showst heincreasingtrend.Hence,YebSano,t
    hePhil
    i
    ppines’leadnegotiat
    orat
    theUNCl i
    mat eChangeCommi ssion(COP19)sai
    d“Wemustst opcal l
    ingtheseev ents
    “nat
    ural
    ”disasters.Becauset hi
    si snotanymoreonl
    ytri
    gger
    edbynat urebutthesoci etal
    sphereorforceswhi chi ncreasev ulner
    abi
    li
    ti
    esoverti
    meisasi gnifi
    cantfactorint he
    equati
    on.

    Republ
    icAct10121-anactst r
    engtheningthePhili
    ppinedisasterriskreducti
    on
    and managementsy st
    em,pr ovi
    ding fort he nat
    ionaldisasterr i
    sk reduction and
    managementfr
    amewor kandi nst
    it
    uti
    onali
    zingt henati
    onaldisasterri
    skr eductionand
    managementpl
    an,appropr
    iat
    ingfundsther
    ef or
    eandf orot
    herpur poses.

    58
    TheNat
    ionalDi
    sast
    erRi
    skReduct
    ionandManagementFr
    amewor
    k

    TheFourThemat
    icAr
    eas

    BASI
    CCONCEPTSANDTERMI
    NOLOGI
    ES

    Disast
    er-aseri
    ousdisrupti
    onoft hefunct
    ioni
    ngofacommuni t
    yorasoci et
    ycausi
    ng
    widespr
    eadhuman,material
    ,economicorenvir
    onment
    all
    osseswhichexceedtheabi
    l
    ity
    oftheaff
    ect
    edcommuni tyorsociet
    ytocopeusingi
    tsownresour
    ces.

    Cl
    assi
    fi
    cat
    ionofDi
    sast
    ers

    I
    nter
    msofspeedofonset :
     Rapi
    donsetdisaster(orcatacl
    ysmicdi
    saster
    s)
     Sl
    owonsetdisaster(orlong-t
    erm/cont
    inui
    ngdisast
    ers)

    Rapi
    donsetdi
    sast
    eri
    sadi
    sast
    ert
    hati
    str
    igger
    edbyi
    nst
    ant
    aneousshockandar
    ri
    ves
    rapi
    dly.
    Examples ofthisincl
    ude ear
    thquakes whi
    ch occurwit
    h no warni
    ng.Cyclones or
    hurri
    canesortyphoonsar
    ri
    vewi t
    haf ew day
    swar ni
    ngi
    sanotherexampl
    e.Floodscan
    alsoarr
    ivever
    yfast.

    Sl
    ow onsetdi
    sast
    eri
    sadi
    sast
    ert
    hatst
    andsf
    ormanyday
    s,mont
    hsorev
    eny
    ear
    s.I
    t
    causescumul at
    ivei
    mpactsoverti
    me.Dr oughti saclassicexampleandsowithcl
    imate
    change,env
    ironmentaldegr
    adati
    on,pestinfest
    ati
    on,deserti
    fi
    cati
    on,andf
    aminearevery
    slowonsetev ent
    sbutar econsi
    dereddisaster
    sduet ot hedamageanddi sr
    upti
    onthat
    theymayorindeedalreadydocreat
    e.

    59
    I
    nter
    msofCause:
     Nat
    uraldi
    saster
    s
     Man-madedisast
    ers

    “
    Nat
    uraldi
    sast
    ers"r
    efer
    stot
    hosedi
    sast
    erst
    hatar
    etr
    igger
    edbynat
    uralphenomena.
    Thesephenomena(
    suchasear
    thquakes,
    cycl
    ones,
    floods,
    etc.
    )ar
    eknownt
    echni
    cal
    l
    yas
    nat
    uralhazar
    ds.

    “
    Man-
    madedi
    sast
    ers"usual
    l
    yref
    erst
    odi
    sast
    ersr
    esul
    ti
    ngf
    rom man-
    madehazar
    ds.
    Man- madedisaster
    scanbedivi
    dedi
    ntothr
    eecategories:ar
    medconfl
    i
    ct,t
    echnol
    ogi
    cal
    disaster
    s,anddisast
    erst
    hatar
    enotcausedbynaturalhazar
    dsbutt
    hatoccuri
    nhuman
    settl
    ements

    Adisasteri
    saf uncti
    onoftheriskprocess.I
    tresul
    tsf
    rom t
    hecombi
    nati
    onofhazar
    ds,
    condi
    ti
    onsofv ul
    nerabil
    i
    tyandinsuf
    fi
    cientcapaci
    tyormeasur
    estor
    educethepot
    enti
    al
    negat
    iveconsequencesofri
    sk.

    Hazard-apotent
    ial
    lydamagingphysi
    calevent
    ,phenomenonorhumanacti
    vi
    tythatmay
    causethelossofl i
    feorinjur
    y,pr
    opertydamage,socialandeconomi
    cdisrupti
    onor
    envi
    ronmental
    degradat
    ion.

    Vulnerabi
    li
    ty -t he condit
    ions deter
    mined by physical
    , soci
    al, economic, and
    envir
    onment alf
    act
    orsorprocesses,whi
    chincr
    easethesuscept
    ibi
    li
    tyofacommuni t
    yto
    theimpactofhazards.Thedegreeofpot
    enti
    aldamagetoanelementorasy stem atri
    sk.

    Capacit
    y – a combinat
    ion ofallthe st
    rengt
    hs and r
    esources avai
    labl
    e wit
    hina
    communi t
    y,soci
    etyoror
    gani
    zati
    onthatcanreducethel
    evelofrisk,ort
    heeffect
    sofa
    di
    saster
    .

    Risk-thepr obabil
    it
    yofharmf ulconsequences,orexpectedl
    osses(deat
    hs,inj
    uries,
    proper
    ty,l
    ivel
    ihoods,economicactivi
    tydisr
    uptedorenv i
    ronmentdamaged)resulti
    ng
    fr
    om int
    eracti
    onsbetweennaturalorhuman-i
    nducedhazardsandvul
    ner
    ablecondit
    ions.

    Itis potent
    iall
    oss (human and f i
    nanci
    al)
    .Iti
    s descr
    ibed by adv
    erse
    consequencesandthepr
    obabi
    l
    ityofoccur
    rence

    Exposure-referstothenumber,t
    ypes,qual
    i
    ties,andmonetar
    yval
    uesofvar
    ioustypes
    ofpropert
    yori nfr
    ast
    ruct
    ureandli
    fethatmaybesubj ectt
    oanundesir
    abl
    eorinjur
    ious
    hazardevent
    .

    Exposur
    ecanbet
    empor
    alandspat
    ial
    ,di
    rectandi
    ndi
    rect

    Exposur
    eismer
    elyaquant
    if
    icat
    ionofwhati
    satr
    iski
    nthei
    dent
    if
    iedhazar
    dzone.

    Mit
    igat
    ion-struct
    uralandnon-str
    uct
    uralmeasuresundert
    akentoli
    mittheadv
    erse
    i
    mpactofnat
    uralhazards,
    env
    ironment
    aldegr
    adati
    onandtechnol
    ogi
    cal
    hazards

    Thel
    esseni
    ngorl
    i
    mit
    ati
    onoft
    headv
    ersei
    mpact
    sofhazar
    dsandr
    elat
    eddi
    sast
    ers

    Pr
    event
    ion-t
    heout
    ri
    ghtav
    oidanceofadv
    ersei
    mpact
    sofhazar
    dsandr
    elat
    eddi
    sast
    ers

    Prepar
    edness-acti
    vit
    iesandmeasurestakeninadvancetoensureeff
    ecti
    veresponse
    totheimpactofhazards,i
    ncl
    udi
    ngtheissuanceofti
    melyandef f
    ect
    iveearl
    ywar ni
    ngs
    andthetemporar
    yevacuati
    onofpeopl
    eandpr oper
    tyf
    rom t
    hreat
    enedlocat
    ions.

    Response-t hepr
    ovi
    sionofassi
    stanceorint
    ervent
    iondur i
    ngori mmedi
    atel
    yaf
    tera
    di
    sastertomeetthelifepr
    eserv
    ationandbasicsubsistenceneedsofthosepeopl
    e
    af
    fected.I
    tcanbeofanimmedi
    ate,shor
    t-
    ter
    m,orprot
    racteddurat
    ion.

    Recov
    ery-deci
    sionsandact
    ionst
    akenaf
    teradi
    sast
    erwi
    thav
    iew t
    orest
    ori
    ngor

    60
    i
    mpr ov
    ing the pre-
    disast
    er li
    vi
    ng condi
    ti
    ons of t
    he str
    icken communi
    ty,whi
    l
    e
    encour
    agingandfaci
    li
    tati
    ngnecessar
    yadj
    ust
    mentst
    oreducedisast
    erri
    sk.

    EarlyWarning-t hesetofcapacit
    iesneededtogenerateanddi
    sseminatetimel
    yand
    meaningfulwarninginf
    ormati
    ont oenabl
    ei ndi
    vi
    dual
    s,communit
    iesandor gani
    zati
    ons
    threat
    enedbyahazar dtoprepareandt oactappropri
    atel
    yandinsuffi
    cientti
    met o
    reducethepossibil
    i
    tyofhar
    m orloss

    DisasterRiskManagement-t hesystemat
    icprocessofusingadminist
    rat
    ivedeci
    sions,
    organizat
    ion,operat
    ionalskil
    l
    sandcapaci ti
    est oimplementpoli
    cies,str
    ategi
    esand
    copingcapaci t
    iesoft hesocietyandcommuni ti
    estol essentheimpactsofnat ural
    hazardsandt hepossibil
    i
    tyofdisast
    ers.

    Emer gency Management-t he organi


    zat
    ion and managementofr esources and
    responsibi
    l
    iti
    esforaddressingallaspect
    sofemer genci
    es,i
    npart
    icul
    arpreparedness,
    responseandi ni
    ti
    alr
    ecoverysteps.

    Resil
    ience-theabili
    tyofasy st
    em,communityorsociet
    yexposedtohazar
    dstoresi
    st,
    absorb,accommodat et oandr ecov
    erfr
    om t heeff
    ectsofahazar dinat i
    melyand
    eff
    ici
    entmanner ,incl
    udingthroughthepreserv
    ati
    onandr est
    orat
    ionofitsessent
    ial
    basicstruct
    uresandfuncti
    ons.

    DisasterRiskReduct i
    on-t heconceptualfr
    amewor kofel ementsconsi
    der edwiththe
    possibil
    it
    iestomini
    mi zevulner
    abil
    it
    iesanddisasterri
    sksthroughoutasociety,t
    oavoid
    (prev
    ent i
    on)ortolimit(mit
    igati
    onandpr eparedness)theadverseimpactsofhazards,
    withi
    nt hebroadcontextofsustai
    nabledevel
    opment .

    Under
    lyi
    ngCausesofDi sast ers
     GeographicalExposur e
     Poverty
     Envir
    onment alDegr adation
     LackofI nfor
    mationandawar eness
     Transit
    ioninCultural Pract
    ices
     DevelopmentOppor tuniti
    es
     RapidUr bani
    zati
    on
     PopulationGrowth
     WarandCi vi
    lStr
    ife

    Cl
    imat
    eChange

    Cli
    mateChangei st hechangei
    ncli
    matethatcanbei dent
    if
    iedbychangesi
    nthemean
    and/orvar
    iabil
    it
    yofi tsproper
    ti
    esandthatpersist
    sf oranextendedperi
    odt y
    pical
    l
    y
    decadesorlonger,
    whetherduetonat
    ural
    vari
    abil
    i
    tyorasar esul
    tofhumanacti
    vi
    ty.

    Globalwarmingist
    herapi
    drisei
    nglobalt
    emper
    atur
    ebroughtaboutbyt
    heincr
    easeof
    greenhousegasesint
    heat mospher
    e.Theri
    seinglobalt
    emperatur
    ecausescli
    mate
    change.

    Whyt
    her
    eisGl
    obalWar
    ming?

    1.Gr
    eenhouseGases

    Carbon Di
    oxi
    de isr el
    eased natur
    all
    yint he at
    mospher
    ethr
    ough vol
    cani
    c
    erupt
    ionsandanimalrespi
    rati
    onbutal sorel
    easedthr
    oughhumanact
    ivi
    ti
    essuchas
    defor
    estat
    ionandbur
    ningoffossi
    lfuel
    setc.

    Methaneisproducedbothnatural
    lyandthr
    oughhumanacti
    vi
    ti
    es.Mostl
    ycomes
    f
    rom t
    hedecomposi t
    ionofor
    ganicmat t
    ersinl
    andfi
    ll
    sandi
    nagr
    icul
    tur
    e.Anot
    hersour
    ce
    i
    sfr
    om thedigest
    ionofcows,goatsetc.

    61
    Nit
    rousOxi deisheav i
    lyproducedint heagr
    icul
    tur
    esect or
    ,specifi
    cal
    lyi
    nthe
    pr
    oductionanduseoff ert
    il
    izer
    s.Iti
    salsoproducedwhenburni
    ngoff ossi
    lfuel
    s.
    Chl
    orofl
    uorocarbon -thesear eman- madecompoundspr oduced forindust
    ri
    aluse,
    mainl
    yinrefri
    gerantsandaircondit
    ioner
    s.

    2.Aer
    osol
    s.War
    mst
    heai
    rbecauseofhumanact
    ivi
    ti
    esf
    rom i
    ndust
    ri
    alandagr
    icul
    tur
    al
    pr
    ocesses,
    biomassbur
    ning,
    exhaustemi
    ssi
    onsf
    rom t
    ranspor
    tet
    c.

    3.Land-
    useChange.Cut
    ti
    ngdownf
    orest
    stocr
    eat
    efar
    mlandshav
    eledt
    ochangesi
    n
    t
    heamountofsunl
    i
    ghtr
    efl
    ect
    edf
    rom t
    hegr
    oundbacki
    ntospace.

    El
    ement
    sofChange

    1.Temper at ure.The gl obalaverage surface airtemperat


    ureis estimated t
    o
    i
    ncr easebet ween1. 4ºCand5.8º Cby2100.
    2.Precipit
    at i
    on.Gl obally,i
    tisexpected thatwat ervaporand precipit
    ati
    onwill
    i
    ncr easeal ongwi t
    ht hewarming.
    3.Mel ti
    ngoft heIceCaps.Athi ghlat
    itudesi ntheNor t
    her
    nHemi sphere,snow
    cov erandsea- iceextentwil
    lconti
    nuetodecrease.
    4.SeaLev elRise.Increaseingl
    obalmeanseal evelasaresul
    tofanincreaseint
    he
    volumeofwat erintheworld’
    soceans.

    Cl
    imat
    eChangeAdapt
    ati
    on

    Cli
    mateChangeAdapt at
    ionisanadj
    ust
    mentinnaturalandhumansystemsi n
    responsetoactualorexpect
    edclimat
    esti
    mul
    iorthei
    ref
    fect
    s,whichmoder
    atesharm or
    exploi
    tsbenef
    itopportuni
    ti
    es.

    Cl
    imat echangeadaptationhelpsindiv
    idual
    s,communiti
    es,organi
    zati
    onsand
    naturalsy st
    emst odealwitht hoseconsequencesofclimatechangethatcannotbe
    avoided.I tinv
    olvestaki
    ngpr acti
    calact
    ionstomanager i
    sksfrom cli
    matei mpacts,
    protectcommuni ti
    esandstrengthenther esi
    li
    enceoftheeconomy .Adaptati
    oncan
    i
    nv olv
    egr adualtr
    ansfor
    mati
    onwi thmanysmal lst
    epsoverti
    me,ormajortr
    ansfor
    mation
    withrapidchange.

    Adaptat
    ionisasharedresponsi
    bil
    it
    y .Governmentsatalll
    evels,busi
    nessesand
    househol
    dseachhav ecomplementaryrolest oplay.Indi
    vi
    dualsandbusi nesseswil
    l
    oft
    enbebestpl acedt
    omakeadapt at
    iondecisionsthatreduceclimater i
    skstothei
    r
    asset
    sandl i
    vel
    ihoods.

    Adaptat
    ionmeansant i
    cipat
    ingtheadv erseeff
    ect
    sofcli
    matechangeandt aki
    ng
    appropriat
    e action t
    o pr ev
    entormi nimize the damage t
    heycan cause,ort aki
    ng
    advantageofoppor tunit
    iesthatmayar i
    se.Ithasbeenshownt hatwellpl
    anned,earl
    y
    adaptationacti
    onsav esmoneyandl i
    veslater
    .

    Examplesofadapt at i
    onmeasur
    esi nclude:usingscarcewaterresour
    cesmor e
    eff
    ici
    ent l
    y;adaptingbuil
    dingcodest ofuturecl i
    mateconditi
    onsandext remeweat her
    events;buildi
    ngf looddefenses andraisingt helevelsofdykes;devel
    opingdrought-
    tol
    erantcr ops;choosingtreespeci
    esandf or
    estrypracti
    ceslessvulner
    abletostorms
    andfires;andsettingasi
    del andcor
    ri
    dor
    st ohelpspeci esmigr
    ate.

    Cl
    imat
    eChangeMi
    ti
    gati
    on
    Cl
    i
    mateChangeMiti
    gat
    ioni
    saboutr
    educi
    ngt
    her
    eleaseofgr
    eenhousegas

    62
    emi ssionsthatarewar mingourpl anet
    .Itconsistsofacti
    onst oli
    mi tt
    hemagni tudeor
    rate of l ong-
    ter
    m cl imate change.Cl i
    mat e change mi t
    igat
    ion generall
    yi nvol
    ves
    reductions in human ( anthropogeni
    c) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs).
    Mitigationmayalsobeachi evedbyincr
    easingthecapacityofcarbonsinks,e.
    g.,
    through
    reforestati
    on.Mitigat
    ionpol ici
    escansubst antial
    lyreducet herisksassociat
    edwi th
    human- i
    nducedglobalwar ming.

    Cli
    mat eChangeMi ti
    gationrefer
    st oef for
    tst or educeorpr eventemissionof
    greenhousegases.Miti
    gat
    ioncanmeanusi ngnewt echnologiesandrenewabl
    eener gies,
    makingol derequipmentmoreener gyefficient,orchangi ngmanagementpr acticesor
    consumerbehav ior.I
    tcanbeascompl exasapl anf oranew ci tyorasasi mpl eas
    i
    mpr ovementstoacookst ovedesign.Effor t
    sunder wayar oundthewor l
    drangef rom
    hi
    gh-techsubwaysy st
    emst obicycl
    i
    ngpat hsandwal kways.

    I
    mpact
    sofCl
    imat
    eChange

     Dest ructi
    onoft heecosy st em
     Growi ngunpr edi ctabili
    tyandi ntensi
    tyofr ainandt yphoon/Ext r
    emeweat her
    patternse. g.supert yphoons–l ossofl i
    v es,propertyandr esources
     Extremef l
    oodi ngandst or m surges
     Acidificat
    ionofoceansl eadst odest r
    uct i
    onofseal ivingcr eatures– lossof
    biodiversit
    y
     Risi
    ngseal evelswhi chmayaf f
    ectsmal l isl
    andf ormat i
    onsl ikethePhi l
    ippi
    nes
     Increasei nout br eaksofdi seases-I ncreasei nmosqui to-biteorpar asi
    te-
    rel
    ated
    ail
    ment sandai rqual it
    y-respiratorydiseases
     Decr easeinagr iculturalout put–hunger ,threatstof oodsecur i
    ty
     Higherdemandf orirri
    gation; Decreaseinordest ructionofcr opy i
    elds
     Erosionofbeaches-Lossofsur f
    acewat er
     Lossofhabi t
    atandspeci es
     Decr easeinwat ersuppl y

    15.Vi
    olentExt
    remi
    sm

    TheCont
    ext

    Inrecenty ears,thewor l
    dhaswi t
    nessedanew wav eofv iol
    entextremism that
    hastakenthel i
    vesofmanyi nnocentpeopleofdiff
    erentfaiths,races,andnat i
    onalit
    ies.
    Sincethebeginningoft he21stcenturytherehasbeenmor et hanani ne-
    foldincreasein
    thenumberofdeat hsfrom vi
    olentextr
    emi sm andt
    errori
    sm, from 3,329in200-to32, 685
    i
    n 2014.Al lthese act i
    ons wer ei nspir
    ed by ideologies v aryi
    ng from r eli
    gious
    fundamentali
    sm tosepar ati
    sm, xenophobiaandradi
    calnationalism.

    Radi
    cali
    zati
    on,ani mport
    antprecursort
    ov i
    olentextr
    emism,i
    salsoont heri
    se
    globally
    .Radical
    izati
    on i
    mpacts diff
    erentage cat
    egories (
    alt
    hough y
    outh are more
    i
    nv ol
    v edthanothers),di
    ffer
    entfai
    ths,theeducat
    edaswel lasthenon-educat
    ed,the
    empl oyedandtheunempl oyed,
    menaswel laswomen( alt
    houghmoremenar einvol
    ved
    thanwomen) .

    Violentext
    remism i snotanew phenomenonandi snotassoci at
    edonlywi th
    radi
    calrel
    igiousbel
    ief
    s.1. 5mi l
    li
    onCambodi answer ekill
    edasar esul
    tofPolPot ’
    sand
    his KhmerRouge’ s brut al
    ,radicalpol i
    cies t
    o pur i
    fyt he country and est
    abli
    sh a
    communi stpeasantsociety.Theor i
    ginof
    WorldWarI IwasNazism,av i
    olenttotal
    it
    ari
    ani deol
    ogyt hatcrossednat i
    onalborders
    andtookt heliv
    esofmi l
    lionsofci vi
    l
    iansaroundt hewor l
    d.Ethnicall
    ymot i
    vat
    edv i
    olence
    –ev enbet weencommuni t
    iespracti
    cingt hesamer el
    igi
    on–hascl aimedmi l
    l
    ionsof
    l
    ives(e.g.mostr ecenti nRwandaandBur undi).Butnew t odayar ef ourimpor t
    ant
    devel
    opment
    s.

    a.Thegl
    obal
    i
    zat
    ionofv
    iol
    entext
    remi
    sm ort
    hecr
    oss-
    bor
    dernat
    ureofa

    63
    group’ sr each,includingt heirspanofr ecrui
    tmentandoper ations,whi ch
    canbesub- regional,r
    egional andf orsomegr oupsev engl obal.
    b.Theabi li
    tytousemoder ncommuni cat i
    ont echnology ( socialmedi ai n
    particul ar) in additi
    on t ot hemor et radit
    ionalnet works( univ
    ersiti
    es,
    reli
    giouscommuni ti
    es,soci algroups)ideologicall
    yt oseducegr oupsand
    i
    ndiv idual sinto carrying outact sofv i
    olentext remism acr osswi dely
    disper sedt err
    it
    or i
    es.
    c. The l ev elofunpr edictabili
    tyofv i
    olentext remistat tacks,due t ot he
    random sel ecti
    onoft argets( f
    rom agi rl
    s’schoolt oaconcer t,acl i
    nic,or
    anof ficepar t
    y)andt hef actt hatanumberofv i
    olentext remistscommi t
    i
    nadv ancet odiewhi l
    eper petr
    atingtheirrandom killi
    ngs.
    d.Anunpr ecedent edaccesst olethalweapons i ncludingdev icest hatcan
    i
    nf l
    ictmassdest ructi
    on.

    Viol
    entextr emism offer
    scr i
    ti
    calchall
    engesatt henati
    onal
    ,r egi
    onalandgl obal
    l
    evels,r endering inadequate many oft he tradi
    tionaltools ofv i
    olence preventi
    on,
    peacebui l
    dinganddemocr ati
    cgov er
    nance.Itr
    equirespol i
    cymakersandpr acti
    tioner
    sto
    appreciatet heuniquenat ur
    eoft heseideol
    ogies,manyoft hem seekingthewhol esale
    destructi
    onofci vi
    cor derasopposedt oit
    sreform orev enrest
    ruct
    uring.

    Thegrowthofviol
    entextremism ar
    oundt heworld,andtheatt
    endantr
    isksto
    devel
    opment,have been linked to a set of wider phenomena t
    hat i
    nv aryi
    ng
    combinati
    onsj
    oint
    lyf
    aci
    lit
    atethespreadofvi
    olentext
    remism.

    Therootcausesofviol
    entextr
    emi sm arecompl ex,multi
    facetedandintertwined,
    andr el
    atetothest r
    uctur
    alenvir
    onmenti nwhi chradical
    izati
    onandpossi bl
    yv iolent
    extr
    emism canstar
    ttotakehold.Vi
    olentextremism istheproductofhi st
    ori
    cal,poli
    tical
    ,
    economicandsocialcir
    cumstances,incl
    udingthei mpactofr egionalandglobalpower
    poli
    ti
    cs.

    The f
    ollowi
    ng ei
    ghtdr
    iver
    sthatcan l
    ead t
    oradi
    calbehav
    iorand r
    esul
    tinv
    iol
    ent
    ext
    remistact
    ion:

    (
    1)Ther oleandi mpactofgl obal pol
    it
    ics;
    (
    2)Economi cexclusionandlimi t
    edoppor tunit
    iesf orupwardmobili
    ty;
    (
    3)Polit
    ical excl
    usionandshr inkingcivi
    cspace;
    (
    4)Inequality,i
    njust
    ice,corr
    upt i
    onandt hev i
    olationofhumanr ight
    s;
    (
    5)Disenchant mentwi thsocio-economi candpol i
    tical
    syst
    ems;
    (
    6)Rejectionofgr owingdiversit
    yi nsociety;
    (
    7)Weakst atecapaci t
    yandf ail
    ingsecur i
    ty;
    and
    (
    8)A changi ng gl obal cult
    ure and banal ization of viol
    ence in medi
    a and
    entertainment .

    Inadditi
    ont othese,peopl egetpulledi ntoradi
    calandul ti
    mat el
    yv i
    olentmov ement s
    thr
    oughwel l-
    consideredmani pulat
    ionandaccompany ingsoci ali
    zati
    onpr ocesses( v i
    a
    media,schools,fami l
    y,reli
    giousandcul turalorganizations)andenabl edbyper sonal,
    emotionalorpsy chologicalfactorssuchasal ienat i
    on,sear chforident i
    ty,asenseof
    i
    njusti
    ce,l
    ossofaf amil
    ymember ,previ
    ousmi str
    eat mentori mpri
    sonment ,et
    c.).Also
    whensoci al
    izati
    onpr ocesst hataimt of ostersoci alcohesionf ail
    ,indi
    v i
    dualsbecome
    morev ul
    nerableandmaygetat t
    ractedtomor eradicalandv iolentbel
    iefsandat ti
    tudes.

    Scholar
    lyanalysesoft hemanneri nwhi chi ndivi
    dual sandgr oupsar eco-optedinto
    violentextremism hav epoi ntedt othr eebr oadphases: i nit
    ialal i
    enat i
    on f rom the
    processesandi nsti
    tut i
    onst hatconf eri dent
    ityoraut horit
    yi nagi vensoci et
    yandt he
    efforttoseekadi fferenti denti
    ty;subsequentr adicalizati
    on,andt hent r
    ansit
    ionfrom
    radicali
    zat
    iont otheconductof( oft
    enmass)vi olence. Notal lali
    enatedgr oupsor
    i
    ndi vi
    dualsadoptr adicalat t
    it
    udesandi deologies,andnotal lradicalstravelaninevit
    able
    patht ov i
    olentextremi sm.Cr uci
    alfort hepr event i
    onofext remi stv i
    olenceist husan
    under st
    andingofthef actorsleadi
    ngf rom eachphaset ot henext.

    1. Al
    ienat
    ion. Al
    i
    enat
    ioncanemer
    gef
    rom aper
    sist
    entpat
    ter
    nofexcl
    usi
    on,

    64
    humi li
    ation,sel ect i
    v emi st reat ment ,andpr ejudi cet owar dspar t
    iculargr oups
    ori ndi vidualsbyacommuni ty ,t hest ateandi tsi nst itut i
    ons,ort hewi der
    soci ety.Unequalaccess–orr ecour set o–essent ialser vicesandt her uleof
    l
    awbypar ti
    cul armi nor i
    tiesorgr oupscoul dal sobeacr iticalf act or.Al i
    enat i
    on
    mayemer gef rom per cept ionsofgr ossi nadequacyatt hei ndiv i
    dualorgr oup
    l
    ev elr esul ti
    ngf rom t hei nabi lityt odealwi thwi despr eadorsuddensoci alor
    demogr aphic change.I nt hisf i
    rstphase,r elat i
    ons bet ween a par ticul
    ar
    i
    ndi vidualorgr oupandt hewi derst r
    uct ur esoff ami l
    y,soci etyandt hest ate
    become char acter ized bywi thdr awal ,anomi e,gr iev ances and decr easi ng
    political oreconomi cpar ticipat ion.
    2. Radi calizat i
    on.Asf rustrat ionandgr i
    ev ancesgr ow,i ndi v i
    dual sandgr oups
    begi nt osear chf oror gani zat ionsori deol ogi est hatcanei therhel ptochannel
    thosef rust r
    at i
    onsorcanbl amet hem onext er nalact or s.Radi cal i
    zat i
    onmay
    thus emer ge f r om t he i nadequacy of wi der sy st ems f or di alogue,
    communi cati
    onandmedi at i
    onamonggr oups,t heabsenceofi nclusi onand
    tolerancewi t
    hi nt hesoci al andpol i
    t i
    cal env i
    ronmentofapar ticularcommuni ty,
    ani nabi litytocont ainpr ov ocat eur sandr adi cal izingagent s,andt heabsence
    ofv iableal t
    er nat i
    v esf orgenui neempower menti nbot ht heper sonalandt he
    publ ic spher es.The weakeni ng oft he i nst it
    ut ions oft he f ami lyand t he
    communi tyasi nst rument sofsoci alcont rolpl atesar ol ei nt hi spr ocess.
    Radi calr ecruitersf ocust hei rat tent i
    on on v ul ner abl e al i
    enat ed gr oupsi n
    soci ety;andmani pulatet hei rf eel ingsoff rust rat i
    onandanger .Non- v iol
    ent
    radicalbehav ior–especi allyi funder t
    akenpur posi velywi t
    ht heobj ect i
    v eof
    refor mingsy st emsorgener atingi nnov ation–canbeanassett osoci et yand
    promot eposi tiv echange.Vi olentext remi sm emer geswhenr adi calbehav i
    or
    startst omakeuseofv i
    olenceast hemeansofexpr essi on.
    3. Adher encet oVi ol ence. Thef i
    nalphasei swhatsepar atesr adical sf r
    om
    violentext r
    emi sts.Radi cal schoosepeacef ulcont est at ion oradv ocacyt o
    accompl isht hei robj ectives;v iol entext r
    emi st sar et hosewhohav echosen
    violence as a means f ori mposi ng t hei rwor ld-view on soci et y.Vi ol ence
    gradual lymov esf rom bei ngi nst rument alt obecomi ngsy mbol ic.Ri tual i
    zed
    mur der ,suchaspr act i
    cedbyI SIS,al -Shabaabort heKuKl uxKl an,becomesa
    meansf orbr andi ngandf orpr ov idi ngcol lect i
    v ei nspi rat ion.Thi st hirdphasei n
    asenseal sor epr esent st hef ailur eofsy st emsf orear l
    ywar ningandr esponse
    withr egar dt o emer ging i nci dent s and si gns t owar ds ext reme v iolence.
    Inabi l
    ityt ocont ai nt hei mmedi at er aw mat erialsf orv iol ence–i ncludi ngt he
    mov ementofi lli
    citweaponsandper sons–andt hei nadequacyofessent ial
    secur i
    tyser vicesal sohel pt ocr eat eanenv i
    r onmentenabl ingact sofv iol
    ent
    extremi sm.

    65
    FI
    LIPI
    NO
    PERSONALITI
    ES

    Revi
    ewer
    :
    Ms.Jowi
    maReyes

    66
    Rev
    iewCour
    seOut
    li
    ne

    Int roduct iont oPer sonalityTheory


     Psy chody nami cTheor ies
     Fr eud: Psy choanal ysis
     Adl er: I
    ndi v i
    dual Psy chology
     Jung: Anal ytical Psy chology
     Klein: Obj ectRel at i
    onsTheor y
     Hor ney :Psy choanal yt
    icSocialTheory
     Fr omm: Humani sti
    cPsy choanaly
    sis
     Sul li
    van: Interper sonal Theor y
     Erikson: Post -Freudi anTheor yLear ni
    ngTheori
    es
     Skinner : Behav ior alAnalysis
     Bandur a: Soci al Cogni t
    iveTheory
     Rot terand Mi schel :Cogni t
    ive Social Lear
    ning Theory
    Disposi tional Theor i
    es
     Cat tel andEy senck: TraitandFactorTheori
    es
     All
    por t:Psy chol ogy oft he Indiv
    idualHumanist
    ic/
    Exi
    stenti
    al
    Theor ies
     Kelly:Psy chol ogyofPer sonalConst r
    ucts
     Roger s: Per sonCent eredTheor y
     Masl ow: Hol istic-Dynami cTheory
     May :Exist ential Psy chology

    67
    TheFourCl
    assi
    fi
    cat
    ionsofTheor
    iesofPer
    sonal
    it
    y

    1.Psy chody namicTheories


    Psychody namictheori
    esf ocusont hei nnerwor ki
    ngsofper sonali
    ty,especiall
    y
    i
    nternalconfl
    ictsandst ruggl
    es.SigmundFr eud,f at
    herofpsy choanalysis,wasakey
    fi
    gureinthi
    sf i
    eld.Forhim,personali
    tywasady nami csystem di
    rectedbyt heconfli
    cting
    desi
    resofthei nsti
    nct
    -basedid,therati
    onalego, andtheideali
    sti
    candj udgment alsuper-
    ego.Inabusi nesscontext,psychodynamictheor iesareofl i
    mitedapplicati
    onbecause
    theyplacet oo much emphasi son sexualand aggr essiv
    ei nsti
    nctsand ar ehi ghly
    subj
    ectiv
    e.Theyr emaininfl
    uenti
    aldespitei
    nfrequentuse.

    2.Tr ai
    ts-basedTheor ies
    Tr ai
    ts-
    based t heor i
    esofper sonalit
    yf ocuson st abl
    equal i
    ti
    est hataper son
    showsi nmostsi tuat
    ions.Ther ear ehundr edsofpossi bletraits,suchassoci abil
    i
    ty,
    orderl
    i
    ness,i ntell
    i
    gence,shy ness,sensi t
    ivi
    ty,rebel
    l
    iousness,cr eati
    vit
    yandobst i
    nacy.
    Howev er,mostt raitscanbet racedbackt o35basi ct r
    ait
    s,16sour cetrait
    s,ort hefi
    v e
    core OCEAN t rai
    ts:openness,consci enti
    ousness,extroversion,agr eeableness and
    neuroti
    cism.Becauset heor i
    esbasedont rai
    tsmodel sareobj ectiveandgr oundedi n
    resear
    ch,t heyhav emul tiplepracti
    calappl i
    cati
    onsandar eof tenusedast hebasisf or
    psychologicaltestsinbusi nesssett
    ings.

    3.Soci alLearningTheor ies


    Sociallearningt heor i
    esf ocusonl earni
    ngandnur t
    uringi ncontrasttotraits-
    basedt heories,whichst ressher edit
    yandnat ure.Humanexper ience- -nothumannat ur e
    --isconsi deredt hepr i
    mar ycauseofper sonalitygrowt handdev elopment.Aswel ear n,
    weal t
    ert hewayweper ceiveourenv ir
    onmentandt hewaywei nterpretincomingsti
    mul i
    ,
    whi chinfluencest hewaywei nteractorbehav e.Sociallearningt akest heconceptast ep
    further,intr
    oducingt hei deat hatwel earnthroughouri nteractionswi thsociety
    .Societ y
    play samuchl ar
    gerr ol
    ei nt hewaywet hinkaboutour selvesandt hewor l
    dandhowwe
    i
    nt eractorbehav einthel argercont extofsoci ety.Sociallearningt heoriesareofint
    erest
    i
    nbusi nessbecauset heydealwi t
    ht helearningpr ocessandt heef fectofincenti
    vesand
    disincent i
    vesonbehav i
    ormodi f
    icati
    on.

    4.Per sonalGr owt handHumani sm


    Theor i
    esinspiredbysel f-
    growt handhumani sm st ressthepr ivateandsubj ecti
    v e
    experience.Per sonalityisconsideredanexpr essionoft heneedf orper sonalgr owth.
    Dif
    ferentper sonali
    ties ar e mani f
    estati
    ons of di ffer
    ing st ages and pat hs int he
    i
    ndividual'
    squestt of ulf
    illhi
    si nnatecapabili
    ties.Masl ow'shi erarchyofneedsi sa
    parti
    cularl
    yi nf
    luenti
    almodeli nthisareaandoneoft hemul ti
    plehumani sttoolsthatcan
    beusedi nthedev elopmentofpat hsf orper
    sonal ,aswel laspr ofessional,dev el
    opment .
    Maslow' st heorysuggest st hatpeopl ehavebasi cneedsf orsurv i
    v al--food,shel t
    er,
    safety--t hatmustbemetbef orehi gherorderneeds,suchassel f-
    esteenandsel f-
    actuali
    zation,canbef ulf
    il
    led.

    I
    NTRODUCTI
    ONOFPERSONALI
    TYTHEORY

    Ov
    erv
    iewofPer
    sonal
    i
    tyTheor
    yPer
    sonal
    i
    tyt
    heor
    ist
    s:

    68
    (1)Makecont roll
    edobser v
    ationsofhumanbehav iorand( 2)speculateont he
    meani ngoft hoseobser vati
    ons.Dif
    ferencesintheori
    esar eduet omor ethandiff
    erences
    i
    nt ermi nology;theyst em fr
    om diff
    erencesamongt heori
    stsonbasi cissuesconcerning
    thenat ureofhumani ty.WhatIsPersonalit
    y?Thet erm per
    sonalityhassev er
    aldefi
    nit
    ions.
    Inev erydayl anguage,t hewor dpersonalit
    yreferstoone' ssocialski ll
    s,chari
    sma,and
    popular i
    ty.Howev er
    ,scienti
    stsuset hetermt omeanmor ethanaper son'
    spersona,or
    publi
    ci mage.To t hem,per sonali
    tyi s a patt
    ern ofr elat
    ively permanentt rai
    ts or
    characteristi
    cst hatgi vesomeconsi st
    encyt oaper son'
    sbehav i
    or.WhatI saTheor y?
    Theor i
    esar et oolsusedbysci ent
    iststogenerateresearchandor gani zeobservat
    ions.

    Theor yDef inedAt heor yisasetofr elatedassumpt ionst hatal l


    owssci entiststo
    use logicaldeduct i
    ver easoning t of ormulatet est abl
    e hy potheses.Theor yand I t
    s
    Relati
    vesThet er mt heor yisof t enusedi ncorrect l
    yt oi mpl ysomet hingot herthana
    scienti
    ficconcept .Al thought heor yhassomer elationshipwi thphi losophy ,speculation,
    hypothesis,andt axonomy ,i
    ti snott hesameasanyoft hese.Phi l
    osophy -t
    hel ov eof
    wisdom- isabr oadert ermt hant heor y,butoneofi t
    sbr anchesepi stemol ogy-rel
    atest o
    thenatur eofknowl edge, andt heor iesar eusedbysci entistsint hepur suitofknowl edge.
    Theoriesr elyonspecul at i
    on,butspecul ati
    oni nt heabsenceofcont rol
    ledobser vat i
    ons
    andempi ricalresear chi sessent i
    all
    ywor thless.Hy pothesi s,oreducat edguess,i sa
    narrowert er
    m t hant heor y.A si nglet heorymaygener atehundr edsofhy potheses.
    Taxonomymeansacl assi f
    icationsy stem,andt heor i
    esof tenr el yonsomesor tof
    classi
    ficati
    onofdat a.Howev er,taxonomi esdonotgener atehy potheses.WhyDi f fer
    ent
    Theories?Psy chol ogistsandot hersci ent i
    stsgener ateav ar
    iet yoft heoriesbecauset hey
    hav ediff
    erentli
    feexper iencesanddi ff
    er entway sofl ookingatt hesamedat a.

    Theor i
    sts'Per sonal
    it
    iesandThei rTheor iesofPer sonalit
    yBecauseper sonali
    ty
    theories flow f rom an i ndivi
    dualt heorist's per sonali
    ty,some psy chologist
    s hav e
    proposed t he psy chology of sci ence,a di scipli
    ne t hat Theor i
    es Of Per sonali
    ty
    Summar izedst udi est heper sonalchar act eri
    sticsoft heor ist
    s.mot ives,whichper mit
    varyi
    ngexpl anationsf orthesameobser v
    at ions.WhatMakesaTheor yUseful?Ausef ul
    theorymust( 1)gener ateresearch-bot hdescr iptiveresear chandhy pothesi
    st esti
    ng,(2)
    bef alsif
    iable;thati s,researchf i
    ndi ngsshoul dbeabl et oei t
    hersuppor tofr ef
    utethe
    theory,(3)or gani zedat aintoani ntell
    igi
    blef r
    amewor kandi ntegrat
    enew i nformati
    on
    i
    ntoi tsstructure;( 4)guideact i
    on,orpr ovidet hepr actit
    ionerwi thar oadmapf ormaking
    day-to-day deci sions;( 5)be i nternally consi stentand hav e a setofoper at
    ional
    defi
    ni t
    ions;and( 6)bepar si
    moni ous, orassi mpleaspossi bl e.

    BiographyofSi gmundFr eudBor nint heCzechRepubl ici n1856,Si gmundFr eud


    spentmostofhi sl if
    einVi enna.I nhispr acticeasapsy chiat ri
    st, hewasmor ei nterested
    i
    nl ear ningaboutt heunconsci ousmot iv
    esofpat ientsthani ncur i
    ngneur oses.Ear l
    yin
    hispr of essionalcar eer,Fr eudbel i
    ev edt hathy steriawasar esultofbei ngseduced
    duringchi l
    dhoodbyasexual lymat ur eperson,of tenapar entorot herr elativ
    e.I n1897,
    howev er,heabandonedhi sseduct iont heor yandr epl
    acedi twi thhi snot i
    onoft he
    Oedi puscompl ex,aconceptt hatr emainedt hecent erofhi spsy choanal yt
    ict heor y.
    Dimensi ons f ora ConceptofHumani t
    y Per sonalit
    yt heor i
    st s hav e had di f
    ferent
    concept i
    onsofhumannat ure,andt heaut hor sli
    stsi xdimensi onsf orcompar ingt hese
    concept i
    ons.Thesedi mensi onsi ncl udedet erminism v er susf reechoi ce,pessi mism
    versus opt imism, causal it
    y v ersus t eleology, consci ous v er sus unconsci ous
    determi nant s ofbehav ior,bi ologicalv ersus soci alinfluences on per sonal i
    ty,and
    uniqueness v ersus si milarit
    ies among peopl e.Resear ch i n Per sonal i
    t y Theor yI n
    resear ching human behav i
    or,per sonalit
    yt heorists often use v ari
    ous measur i
    ng
    procedur es,andt hesepr ocedur esmustbebot hreliabl
    eandv alid.Rel i
    abili
    tyref er
    st oa
    measur ing i nstrument 's consi stency wher eas v ali
    dit
    yr eferst oi t
    s accur acy or
    trut
    hf ulness.

    PSYCHODYNAMI
    CTHEORI
    ESFREUD:PSYCHOANALYSI
    S

    Overv
    iew ofFreud'
    s Psy
    choanal
    yti
    c Theor
    y Si
    gmund Fr
    eud'
    s psy
    choanal
    ysi
    s has
    endur
    edbecauseit
    :

    69
    1.Postulat
    edtheprimacyofsexandaggr essi
    on-twouni
    versall
    ypopularthemes,
    2.Attr
    actedagr oupoff ollowerswhowerededicat
    edtospr eadi
    ngpsy choanal
    yti
    c
    doctrine, and
    3.Advancedt henotionofunconsci ousLevelsofMentalLi f
    eFreudsaw ment al
    funct
    ioning as operating on thr
    ee l
    evels:unconsci
    ous,pr econscious,and
    conscious.

    Unconsci
    ous.Theunconsci
    ousi
    ncl
    udesdr
    ivesandi
    nst
    inct
    sthatar
    ebey
    ondawar
    eness
    butthatmot i
    vatemosthumanbehav iors.Unconsciousdri
    vescanbecomeconsci ous
    onlyindisguisedordi stor
    tedf orm,suchasdr eam images,sli
    psoft hetongue,or
    neurot
    icsympt oms.Unconsciouspr ocessesorigi
    nat efr
    om t
    wosources:
    1.Repr ession,ort
    heblockingoutofanxi ety-
    fi
    ll
    edexperi
    encesand
    2.phy l
    ogenet i
    cendowment ,orinherit
    edexperiencest
    hatli
    ebeyondanindivi
    dual'
    s
    per
    sonal experience.

    Pr
    econsci
    ous.Thepr
    econsci
    ouscont
    ainsi
    magest
    hatar
    enoti
    nawar
    enessbutt
    hatcan
    become conscious eitherquit
    e easil
    yorwi th some lev elofdiff
    icul
    ty.Consci
    ous
    Consciousnessplaysar el
    ati
    vel
    ymi norroleinFreudiant heory
    .Consciousideasst
    em
    from ei
    therthepercept
    ionofexter
    nalsti
    muli(ourperceptualconsci
    oussy st
    em)orfr
    om
    theunconsciousandpreconsci
    ousaf t
    ertheyhaveev adedcensorshi
    p.

    Theori
    esofPer sonal
    ity
    Summar izedProv i
    ncesoftheMi ndFr
    eudconceptual
    izedthreeregi
    onsoft he
    mind:t
    hei d,
    theego, andt hesuper
    ego.TheI
    dTheid,whi
    chi scompletel
    yunconscious,
    ser
    vest hepleasureprinci
    pleandcontai
    nsourbasi
    cinsti
    ncts.Itoperat
    esthroughthe
    pri
    maryprocess.

    TheEgoTheego,orsecondar
    yprocess,
    isgov
    er nedbyt
    hereali
    typrinci
    pleandi
    s
    r
    esponsi
    blef
    orr
    econci
    l
    ingtheunreal
    i
    sti
    cdemandsoft heidandthesuperego.

    The Superego The super


    ego,which ser
    ves t
    he i
    deal
    isti
    c pri
    nciple,has t
    wo
    subsystems- t
    heconscienceandtheego-
    ideal
    .Theconsci
    enceresul
    tsfrom punishment
    fori
    mpr operbehavi
    orwhereastheegoi
    dealst
    emsf r
    om rewar
    dsf orsocial
    lyaccept
    able
    behavior.

    Dy nami csofPer sonalityDy nami csofper sonal i


    t yr eferst ot hosef orcest hat
    mot i
    vatepeopl e.Instinct sFreudgr oupedal lhumandr i
    v esorur gesundert wopr i
    mar y
    i
    nstincts-sex( Erosort hel i
    feinst i
    nct)andaggr essi
    on( thedeat hordest ructivei nstinct).
    Theai m oft hesexuali nsti
    ncti spl easur e,whi chcanbegai nedt hrought heer ogenous
    zones,especi al
    lythemout h,anus,andgeni t
    als.Theobj ectoft hesexuali nst i
    ncti sany
    personort hingt hatbr ingssexualpl easur e.Al linfant spossesspr i
    mar ynar ci
    ssi sm,or
    self
    -center edness,butt hesecondar ynar cissism ofadol escenceandadul thoodi snot
    universal
    .Bot hsadi sm ( receivi
    ngsexualpl easur ef rom i nfl
    icti
    ngpai nonanot her )and
    masochi sm ( receivi
    ngsexualpl easur efr om pai nfulexper i
    ences)sat isfybot hsexualand
    aggressivedr ives.Thedest r
    uctivei nstinctai mst or eturnaper sont oani nor gani cst ate,
    butitisor di nar i
    lydi
    r ectedagai nstot herpeopl eandi scal l
    edaggr ession.Anxi et yFr eud
    beli
    evedonl yt heegof eel sanxiet y,
    butt hei d,super ego, andout si
    dewor l
    dcaneachbea
    sourceofanxi ety.Neur oti
    canxi etyst emsf rom t heego' sr elat
    ionwi tht hei d;mor al
    anxiet
    yi ssi mi lartogui ltandr esultsf rom t heego' sr elationwi t hthesuper ego;and
    real
    isticanxi et y,whichi ssi milart of ear,i sproducedbyt heego' sr elati
    onwi t
    ht her eal
    world.

    Def
    enseMechani
    smsAccor
    dingt
    oFr
    eud,def
    ensemechani
    smsoper
    atet
    opr
    otectt
    he
    egoagainstthepainofanxiety
    .
    1. Repressioni
    nvol
    vesf orci
    ngunwant
    ed,anxi
    ety
    -loadedexper
    iencesi
    nto
    the unconsci
    ous. I
    ti s the most basi c of all defense
    mechanismsbecausei tisan acti
    veprocessi neachoft he
    others.
    2. UndoingandIsolati
    on.Undoingist
    heego'sattempttodoawaywi thunpleasant

    70
    exper iencesandt heirconsequences, usuall
    ybymeansofr epet i
    ti
    ouscer emoni al
    actions.
    3. Isolat ion,i ncont r
    ast ,ismar kedbyobsessi vet hought sandi nvolvest heego' s
    attemptt oi solateanexper iencebysur roundingi twi thabl acked- outr egi onof
    i
    nsensi bili
    ty.
    4. React ion For mat i
    on i s mar ked by t he repression ofone i mpul se and t he
    ostent atiousexpr essionofi tsexactopposi t
    e.
    5. Displ acementt akespl acewhenpeopl er edir
    ectt heirunwant edur gesont oother
    object sorpeopl ei nor dertodi sguiset heor i
    ginal i
    mpul se.
    6. Fixat ionsdevel opwhenpsy chicener gyisblockedatonest ageofdev elopment ,
    maki ngpsy chol ogical changedi fficult.
    7. Regr essi onsoccurwheneveraper sonr evert
    st oear li
    er,mor einfant i
    lemodesof
    behav ior.
    8. Proj ect i
    on i sseei ngi not her st hoseunaccept ablef eelingsorbehav iorst hat
    actual l
    yr esidei none' sownunconsci ous.Whencar riedt oext reme,pr ojecti
    on
    canbecomepar anoi a, whi
    chi schar acteri
    zedbydel usionsofper secut ion.
    9. Introject ionst akepl acewhenpeopl eincorporateposi ti
    vequal i
    tiesofanot her
    personi ntot heirownegot or educef eeli
    ngsofi nferiori
    ty.
    10.Subl imat ionsi nv olvet heelevat i
    onoft hesexual instinct'
    sai mt oa
    higherl evel,whi chper mitspeopl et omakecont ri
    but ionst o
    soci et yandcul ture.

    St
    agesofDev
    elopmentFr
    eudsawpsy chosexualdev
    elopmentaspr
    oceedi
    ngf
    rom
    bi
    rt
    htomatur
    it
    ythroughf
    ourover
    lappi
    ngst ages.

    I
    nfant
    il
    ePer
    iod

    Theinf
    ant i
    lestageencompassest hefirst4t o5y earsofl if
    eandi sdi
    videdinto
    thr
    eesubphases:or al
    ,anal,andphal l
    ic.Duringt heor alphase,ani nfanti spr i
    maril
    y
    mot i
    vatedtoreceivepl easuret hrought hemout h.Dur ingt hesecondy earofl i
    fe,achi l
    d
    goest hroughananalphase.I fpar entsar etoopuni tivedur ingt heanalphase,t hechi l
    d
    maybecomean analchar acter,wi t
    ht heanalt r
    iad ofor der l
    i
    ness,st ingi
    ness,and
    obsti
    nacy .Dur
    ingt hephal l
    icphase,boy sandgi rl
    sbegi nt ohav edi ff
    eringpsy chosexual
    development.Att histi
    me, boy sandgi r
    lsexper i
    encet heOedi puscompl exinwhi chthey
    have sexualfeelings f orone par entand host i
    lef eel i
    ngs f ort he ot her.The mal e
    castr
    at i
    oncompl ex ,whi chtakest hef orm ofcast rationanxi ety,breaksupt hemal e
    Oedipuscompl exandr esul
    tsi nawel l-f
    ormedmal esuper ego.Forgi rls,howev er
    ,the
    castr
    at i
    oncompl ex,int heform ofpeni senv y,precedest hef emal eOedi puscompl ex,a
    sit
    uationthatleadst oonl yagr adualandi ncompl eteshat t
    eringoft hef emaleOedi pus
    compl exandaweaker ,mor eflexibl
    ef emalesuper ego.

    LatencyPer iodFreudbel i
    ev edt hatpsy chosexualdev elopmentgoest hr ougha
    l
    atencyst age-from aboutage5unt ilpuberty-i
    nwhi chthesexuali nsti
    ncti spar ti
    all
    y
    suppressed.Geni talPeriodThegeni t
    alperiodbegi nswi thpuber ty,whenadol escents
    experi
    encear eawakeni ngoft hegeni talaim ofEr os.Thet er m" geni
    talper i
    od"shoul d
    notbeconf usedwi th"phalli
    cper iod."Mat uri
    tyFr eudhi ntedatast ageofpsy chol ogi
    cal
    mat ur
    ityinwhi cht heegowoul dbei ncont roloft hei dandsuper egoandi nwhi ch
    consciousness woul d play a mor ei mportant r ol ein behav i
    or.Appl ications of
    Psychoanal yt
    icTheor yFreuder ectedhi stheoryont hedr eams,f r
    eeassoci ations,slips
    oft het ongue,andneur oticsy mpt omsofhi spat ientsdur i
    ngt herapy.Butheal so
    gatheredinformationf r
    om hi story,li
    teratur
    e,andwor ksofar t.Freud'
    sEar l
    yTher apeut i
    c
    TechniqueDur i
    ngt he1890s,Fr eudusedanaggr essi vetherapeutictechniquei nwhi ch
    hest r
    onglysuggest edtopat ientst hattheyhadbeensexual lyseducedaschi ldren.He
    l
    aterdr oppedt hist echniqueandabandonedhi sbel i
    efthatmostpat i
    entshadbeen
    seduceddur i
    ngchildhood.

    Fr
    eud'
    sLaterTher
    apeut
    icTechni
    queBeginni
    nginthel
    ate1890s,Freudadopt
    ed
    amuchmorepassivet
    ypeofpsychot
    herapy
    ,onethatr
    eli
    edheavi
    l
    yonf reeassoci
    ati
    on,

    71
    dream i nterpretation,andt ransference.ThegoalofFr eud'
    sl aterpsy chot her
    apywast o
    uncov er r epressed memor i
    es,and t he t herapi
    stuses dr eam anal ysis and free
    associ ati
    ont odoso.Wi thfreeassoci ati
    on, patient
    sar erequiredt osaywhat evercomes
    tomi nd, nomat terhowi rrel
    ev antordistasteful.Successfult
    her apyr estsont hepat i
    ent'
    s
    transferenceofchi ldhoodsexualoraggr essivefeeli
    ngsont ot het herapistandaway
    from sy mpt om f ormat ion.Pat i
    ents'resistancet o changecanbeseenaspr ogress
    becausei tindicatest hatt herapyhasadv ancedbey ondsuper ficialconver sati
    on.thelong
    term,maxi mi zegr ati
    fication,andhav ethel eastamountofdi stortionDr eam Anal y
    sisIn
    i
    nt er
    pret i
    ngdr eams,Fr euddi ff
    erenti
    atedt hemani f
    estcont ent( consciousdescr i
    pti
    on)
    from thel atentcont ent( theunconsci ousmeani ng)
    .

    Near l
    yal ldreamsar ewi sh- fulfil
    lment s, althought hewi shi susual l
    yunconsci ous
    andcanbeknownonl yt hroughdr eam i nter pr etation.Toi nter pretdr eams,Fr eudused
    bothdr eam sy mbol sandt hedr eamer '
    sassoci ati
    onst ot hedr eam cont ent .Cr i
    tiqueof
    FreudFr eudr egar dedhi msel fasasci entist, butmanycr it
    icsconsi derhi smet hodst obe
    outdated,unsci ent i
    fic,andper meat edwi thgenderbi as.Ont hesi xcr iteriaofausef ul
    theory,psy choanal ysisisr atedhi ghoni t
    sabi li
    tyt ogener ater esear ch,v er yl ow oni ts
    opennesst of alsifi
    cat i
    on,andav er ageonor gani zingdat a,gui dingact ion,andbei ng
    parsimoni ous.Because i tl acks oper ationaldef i
    nit i
    ons,i tr at es l ow on i nt ernal
    consistency .Freudi anSl ipsFr eudbel ievedt hatpar apr axes,orsocal ledFr eudi ansl ips,
    arenotchanceacci dentsbutr ev ealaper son' st r
    uebutunconsci ousi ntent ions.Rel at ed
    Resear chFr eudiant heoryhasgener atedal ar geamountofr el atedr esear ch,i ncludi ng
    studiesondef ensemechani smsandor alfixat ion.Def enseMechani smsGeor geVal l
    iant
    hasaddedt ot hel istofFr eudiandef ensemechani smsandhasf oundev idencet hat
    someoft hem ar eneur otic( react ionf or mat i
    on,i deal izat i
    on,andundoi ng) ,somear e
    i
    mmat ureandmal adapt ive( project ion, i
    solat ion, deni al, displacement ,anddi ssoci at i
    on) ,
    andsomear emat ur eandadapt ive( subl i
    mat i
    on,suppr ession,humor ,andal t
    ruism) .
    Valli
    antf oundt hatneur ot icdef ensemechani smsar esuccessf ulov ert heshor tt er m;
    i
    mmat uredef ensesar eunsuccessf ulandhav et hehi ghestdegr eeofdi stor tion; wher eas
    mat ureandadapt ivedef ensesar esuccessf ulov erOr alFi xationSomer ecentr esear ch
    hasf oundt hataggr essioni shi gheri npeopl ewhobi tet hei rfingernai lst hani tisinnon-
    nailbit
    ers,especi allyinwomen.Ot herr esear chf oundt hatpeopl ewhoar eor allyfixat ed
    tendt oseet heirpar entsmor enegat i
    velyt handi dpeopl ewhower elessor al l
    yf i
    xat ed.
    ConceptofHumani tyFr eud' sconceptofhumani tywasdet ermi ni sti
    candpessi mi stic.
    Heemphasi zed causal ityov ert eleol ogy ,unconsci ousdet er mi nantsov erconsci ous
    processes,andbi ologyov ercul tur e,buthet ookami ddl eposi ti
    onont hedi mensi onof
    uniquenessv ersussi milar i
    tiesamongpeopl e.

    ADLER:I
    NDI
    VIDUALPSYCHOLOGY

    Ov ervi
    ew ofAdl er'
    sI ndividualPsy chol ogy An or i
    ginalmemberofFr eud's
    psy choanal yti
    cgr oup,Al fredAdl erbr okef rom t hatgr oupandadv ocat edat heoryof
    personal i
    tythatwasnear lydi amet ri
    callyopposedt othatofFr eud.Wher easFr eud'sv iew
    ofhumani tywaspessi mi sticandr ootedinbi ology ,Adler'sv i
    ewwasopt i
    mi sti
    c, ideali
    st i
    c,
    andr oot edi nfami lyexper i
    ences.Bi ographyofAl fredAdl erAl fr
    edAdl erwasbor ni n
    1870i nat ownnearVi enna,asecondsonofmi ddle-classJewi shpar ents.Li keFr eud,
    Adlerwasaphy sician, andi n1902, hebecameachar t
    ermemberofFr eud' sorgani zation.
    Howev er,personalandpr ofessionaldi f
    ferencesbet weent het womenl edt oAdl er'
    s
    depar tur efrom theVi ennaPsy choanal y t
    icSoci etyin1911.Adl ersoonf oundedhi sown
    group,t heSoci etyf orI ndividualPsy chology .Adl er'
    sst rengt hswer ehi sener geti
    cor al
    present ati
    onsandhi si nsight f
    ulabi l
    i
    tyt ounder standf amilydy nami cs.Hewasnota
    gift
    edwr it
    er,alimi tationt hatmayhav epr ev entedi ndiv i
    dualpsy chol ogyf r
    om at t
    aining
    wor ldr ecognit
    ion equalt o Fr eud'spsy choanal ysis.I ntroduction to Adl eri
    an Theor y
    AlthoughAdl er
    'si ndiv idualpsy chol ogyi sbot hcompl exandcompr ehensi ve,i t
    smai n
    tenet scanbest atedi nsi mpl ef orm.St ri
    vingf orSuccessorSuper iorit
    yThesol edy nami c
    forcebehi ndpeopl e'sact i
    onsi st hest ri
    v i
    ngf orsuccessorsuper iorit
    y.TheFi nalGoal
    Thef inalgoalofei thersuccessorsuper iorityt owardwhi chal lpeopl est riv eunif i
    es
    personal i
    tyandmakesal lbehav iormeani ngful.TheSt r
    ivi
    ngFor ceasCompensat ion
    Becausepeopl ear ebor nwi thsmal l
    ,inferiorbodi es,t heyf eelinferiorandat t
    emptt o
    over comet hesef eelingst hrought heirnat uraltendencyt omov etowar dcompl et i
    on.The
    stri
    v i
    ngf orcecant akeoneoft wocour ses:per sonalgai n( superiority)orcommuni ty

    72
    benefi
    t(success)
    .Stri
    vingforPersonalSuper i
    ori
    tyPsychologi
    call
    yunhealthyi
    ndi
    vidual
    s
    str
    iveforpersonalsuperiori
    tywithli
    tt
    leconcer nf orot
    herpeopl e.Al
    thoughtheymay
    appearto bei nt
    erestedi notherpeopl e,thei
    rbasi cmot i
    vat
    ioni spersonalbenefi
    t.
    Str
    ivi
    ngforSuccessI ncontrast,
    psychological
    lyhealt
    hypeoplestriv
    eforthesuccessof
    al
    lhumani t
    y,butt
    heydosowi thoutl
    osingt hei
    rpersonali
    denti
    ty.

    Subj ecti
    vePer cept i
    onsPeopl e'ssubj ect i
    veview ofthewor ld-
    notreali
    tyshapes
    theirbehav ior.Fict i
    onalism Fict
    ionsar epeopl e'sexpectat
    ionsoft hefuture.Adlerhel d
    thatf i
    ctionsgui debehav i
    or,becausepeopl eactasi ft
    hesef ict
    ionsaret rue.Adl er
    emphasi zedt eleol ogyov ercausalit
    y,orexpl anat i
    onsofbehav iorintermsoff uturegoal s
    ratherthanpastcauses.Or ganInfer
    iorit
    iesAdl erbeli
    evedthatal lhumansar e" blessed"
    with organ i nferioriti
    es,whi ch sti
    mul at
    esubj ecti
    vef eel
    i
    ngsofi nfer
    iori
    tyand mov e
    peopl etowar dper fecti
    onorcompl eti
    on.Uni tyandSel f
    -ConsistencyofPer sonalit
    yAdl er
    believedt hatallbehav iorsaredirectedtowar dasi nglepurpose.Whenseeni nt helight
    oft hatsol epur pose,seemi nglycont r
    adictorybehav i
    orscanbeseenasoper at i
    ngi na
    selfconsistentmanner .Or ganDialectPeopl eof tenuseaphy sicaldisordertoexpr ess
    styleoflife,acondi ti
    onAdl ercall
    edor gandi alect.

    ConsciousandUnconsci ousConsci ousandunconsci ouspr ocessesar euni fied


    andoper atet oachi eveasi nglegoal.Thepar tofourgoalt hatwedonotcl ear ly
    under stoodi sunconsci ous;t hepar tofourgoalt hatwef ai
    lt of ull
    ycompr ehendi s
    consci ous.SocialInterestHumanbehav i
    orhasv aluet otheex t
    entt hatitismot iv
    atedby
    social i
    nterest,t
    hati s,afeel i
    ngofonenesswi thallofhumani ty.Or i
    ginsofSoci alInterest
    Althoughsoci alinterestexi stsaspot enti
    ali
    tyinallpeopl e,i
    tmustbef osteredinasoci al
    env i
    ronment .Adl erbel i
    evedt hatthepar ent-
    chil
    dr elati
    onshi pcanbesost r
    ongt hati t
    negat estheef fectsofher edity.ImportanceofSoci alInterestAccor di
    ngt oAdl er,soci al
    i
    nteresti s" t
    hesol ecr it
    erionofhumanv al
    ues,"andt hewor thinessofal lone'sact i
    ons
    mustbe seen byt his standar d.Wi thoutsociali nterest,soci eties could notexi st;
    i
    ndi vi
    dualsi nant i
    quitycoul d nothav esur vi
    ved wi thoutcooper at i
    ng withot her st o
    protectt hemsel vesf rom danger .Event oday,ani nfant '
    shel plessnesspr edi
    sposesi t
    towar danur t
    uringper son.St y l
    eofLifeThemannerofaper son'sst ri
    vingiscal l
    edst y l
    e
    oflif
    e, apat t
    ernt hatisrelativelywellsetby4or5y earsofage.

    Howev er,Adl erbel ievedt hatheal thyi ndiv i


    dual sar emar kedbyf l
    exibl ebehav ior
    andt hatt heyhav esomel imi tedabi litytochanget heirst yl
    eofl i
    fe.Cr eati
    vePowerSt yle
    ofl i
    fei s par tially a pr oductofher edi ty and env ironment -the bui l
    ding bl ocks of
    personal i
    ty-butul ti
    mat elyst y
    leofl ifeisshapedbypeopl e'scr eativ epower ,t hati s,by
    thei
    rabi li
    tyt of reel ychooseacour seofact i
    on.Abnor malDev elopmentCr eat ivepower
    i
    snotl imi tedt oheal thypeopl e; unhealthyi ndividual sal socr eatet hei rownper sonal i
    ties.
    Thus,eachofusi sf reet ochooseei therausef ulorausel essst y l
    eofl ife.Gener al
    Descr i
    ption The mosti mpor tantf actori n abnor maldev el
    opmenti slackofsoci al
    i
    nterest.Inaddi tion, peopl ewi thausel essst yl
    eofl ifet endt o(1)sett hei
    rgoal st oohi gh,
    (2)hav eadogmat icst yleofl i
    fe,and( 3)l i
    v eint hei rownpr i
    vatewor ld.Exter nalFact or s
    i
    nMal adj ustmentAdl erl istedt hreef act orst hatr elatet oabnor maldev el opment :( 1)
    exagger ated phy sicaldef ici
    enci es,whi ch do notby t hemsel ves cause abnor mal
    development ,butwhi chmaycont ri
    but et oi tbygener atingsubj ectiv eandexagger ated
    feel
    ingsofi nferior i
    ty;( 2)apamper edst yleofl ife,whi chcont ribut est oanov erri
    ding
    dri
    vet o est ablish aper manentpar asiticr elationshi p wi tht hemot heroramot her
    substit
    ut e;and( 3)anegl ect edst yleofl if
    e,whi chl eadst odi strustofot herpeopl e.
    Safeguar ding Tendenci esBot h nor maland neur oticpeopl ecr eat esy mpt omsasa
    meansofpr ot ectingt hei rfragi leself-esteem.Thesesaf eguar dingt endenci esmai ntai
    na
    neuroticst y
    leofl ifeandpr ot ectaper sonf rom publ i
    cdi sgrace.Thet hr eepr inci
    pal
    safeguar dingt endenci esar e( 1)excuses,whi chal low peopl et opr eservet hei rinfl
    ated
    senseofper sonal wor th; (
    2)aggr ession, whichmayt aket hef orm ofdepr eciat ingot hers'
    accompl i
    shment s,accusi ngot her sofbei ngr esponsi blef orone' sownf ailures,orsel f-
    accusation;and( 3)wi thdr awal ,whi chcanbeexpr essedbypsy chological lymov ing
    backwar d,st andi ngst ill
    ,hesi tating,orconst r
    uct i
    ngobst acles.Mascul i
    nePr ot estBot h
    menandwomensomet imesov eremphasi zet hedesi rabi li
    tyofbei ngmanl y,acondi t
    ion
    Adlercal l
    edt hemascul inepr otest .

    73
    Thef requent l
    yfoundi nferiorstat usofwomeni snotbasedonphy siologybuton
    hist
    or icaldev elopment sandsoci allearning.Appl icationsofI ndivi
    dualPsy chologyAdl er
    appliedt hepr inciplesofindivi
    dualpsy chologyt ofami l
    yconst el
    lati
    on,earlyrecollecti
    ons,
    dreams, andpsy chotherapy.Fami lyConst ellati
    onAdl erbeli
    evedt hatpeopl e'
    sper cept i
    on
    ofhowt heyf i
    ti ntothei
    rf amil
    yi sr elat
    edt ot hei
    rst y
    leofl i
    fe.Hecl ai
    medt hatfirstbor ns
    arelikel ytohav est r
    ongf eel
    ingsofpowerandsuper ior
    it
    y,tobeov erprotecti
    ve,andt o
    havemor et hant hei
    rshar eofanxi ety.Second- bornchi l
    drenar el i
    kelytohav est rong
    sociali nter
    est ,prov i
    dedt heydonotgett rappedt ryi
    ngt oov ercomet heiroldersi bling.
    Youngestchi l
    dr enar eli
    kelyt obepamper edandt ol ackindependence,wher easonl y
    chil
    dr enhav esomeoft hechar act eri
    sticsofbot htheol destandt hey oungestchi l
    d.
    Earl
    yRecol lect i
    onsAmor ereli
    abl emet hodofdet er
    mi ni
    ngst yleoflifeist oaskpeopl e
    forthei rearl
    iestr ecoll
    ecti
    ons.

    Adlerbel i
    ev edt hatear lymemor i
    esar et empl at esonwhi chpeopl epr ojectt heir
    currentst y
    leofl ife.Theser ecol l
    ect ionsneednotbeaccur ateaccount sofear lyev ent s;
    theyhav epsy chol ogi cali mpor tancebecauset heyr eflectaper son'scur rentv iewoft he
    wor l
    d.Dr eamsAdl erbel iev edt hatdr eamscanpr ovidecl uest osol vingf uturepr obl ems.
    Howev er,dr eamsar edi sgui sedt odecei vet hedr eamerandusual lymustbei nterpr eted
    by anot herper son.Psy chot her apy The goalofAdl erian t herapy i st o cr eat ea
    rel
    at i
    onshi pbet weent her apistandpat i
    entt hatfost erssoci al inter est.Toensur et hatt he
    patient '
    ssoci ali nter estwi llev ent uallygener alizet oot herr elationships,t het her api st
    adopt s bot h a mat ernaland a pat ernalr ole.Rel ated Resear ch Al though f ami ly
    const ell
    at i
    onandbi rthor derhav ebeenwi delyr esear ched,at opicmor eper ti
    nentt o
    Adleriant heor yisear lyrecol lections.Resear chshowst hatear l
    yr ecol l
    ectionsar er elated
    toanumberofper sonalt raits,suchasdepr essi on,al cohol ism,cr iminalbehav i
    or ,and
    successi ncounsel ing.Ot herr esear chhasshownt hatachangei nst yleofl i
    femaybe
    capabl eofpr oduci ngachangei near lyrecol l
    ections.
    Stil
    lot herr esear ch suggest st hatmade- up ear lyr ecol lecti
    ons may be as
    meani ngf ulasact ualones.Cr iti
    queofAdl erI ndiv i
    dualpsy chol ogyr ateshi ghoni ts
    abil
    ityt ogener at er esear ch,or gani zedat a,andgui det hepr actiti
    oner .I trecei v esa
    moder ater ati
    ngonpar si mony ,butbecausei tlacksoper ationaldef i
    niti
    ons,i tr atesl ow
    oni nternalconsi st ency.I tal sor at esl ow onf alsif
    icat ionbecausemanyofi tsr elated
    resear chf indingscanbeexpl ai nedbyot hertheor ies.ConceptofHumani tyAdl ersaw
    peopleasf orwar dmov ing,soci alani mal swhoar emot i
    vat edbygoal st heyset( bot h
    consci ouslyandunconsci ousl y)f ort hef uture.Peopl ear eultimat elyresponsi blefort heir
    ownuni quest y l
    eofl i
    fe.Thus, Adl er'stheor yrateshi ghonf ree- choi ce,soci alinfluences,
    anduni queness;v er yhi ghonopt imi sm andt eleology ;andav erageonunconsci ous
    i
    nf l
    uences.

    JUNG:ANALYTI
    CALPSYCHOLOGY

    Ov er vi
    ew ofJung' sAnal yticalPsy chol ogyCar lJungbel i
    ev edt hatpeopl ear e
    extremelycompl ex beings who possess a v arietyofopposi ng qual i
    ties,such as
    i
    ntroversionandext raversion,mascul inityandf emi ninity,andr ati
    onalandi rr
    ational
    dri
    ves.Bi ogr aphyofCar lJungCar lJungwasbor ni nSwi tzerl
    andi n1875,t heol dest
    surviv
    ingchi ldofanideal i
    st i
    cPr otest antmi nisterandhi swi f
    e.Jung' sear lyexper ience
    withparent s( whower equi teopposi teofeachot her )probablyinfluencedhi sownt heor y
    ofper sonal ity.Soonaf terr eceivinghi smedi caldegr eehebecameacquai ntedwi t
    h
    Freud'swr itingsandev entual l
    ywi thFr eudhi msel f.Notl ongaf t
    erhet rav
    el edwi t
    hFr eud
    totheUni tedSt at
    es,Jungbecamedi senchant edwi thFr eud'spansexualt heor ies,br oke
    withFreud, andbeganhi sownappr oacht otheor yandt her apy,whichhecal l
    edanal ytical
    psychology .From acrit
    icalmi dlif
    ecr isis, duri
    ngwhi chhenear lylostcont actwi threal it
    y,
    Jungemer gedt obecomeoneoft hel eadingt hinker soft he20t hcent ury .Hedi edi n
    1961atage85.Lev el
    soft hePsy cheJungsawt hehumanpsy cheasbei ngdi videdi nto
    aconsci ousandanunconsci ousl ev el,wi tht hel atterfur t
    hersubdi v i
    dedi ntoaper sonal
    andacol lectiveunconsci ous.Consci ousI magessensedbyt heegoar esai dt obe
    conscious.Theego t husr epresent st heconsci oussi deofper sonali
    ty ,and i nt he
    psychologi cally maturei ndivi
    dual ,t he ego i s secondar yt o t he sel f.Per sonal
    Unconsci ousTheunconsci ousr efer st ot hosepsy chici magesnotsensedbyt heego.

    74
    Someunconsci ouspr ocessesf low f rom ourper sonalexper i
    ences,butot her sst em
    Page8 of52 ASLagnadaI II/090213 Theor i
    esOfPer sonal itySummar ized f rom our
    ancest ors'exper ienceswi thuni v er salt hemes.Jungdi v i
    dedt heunconsci ousi nt ot he
    per sonalunconsci ous,whi chcont ainst hecompl exes( emot ional l
    yt onedgr oupsof
    relat edi deas)andt hecol lect iveunconsci ous,ori deast hatar ebey ondourper sonal
    exper iences and t hator iginat ef rom t he r epeat ed exper iences ofourancest or s.
    Col lect iveUnconsci ousCol lect iveunconsci ousi magesar enoti nher itedi deas, butr ather
    theyr ef ert oouri nnat et endencyt or eacti napar ti
    cul arwaywhenev erourper sonal
    exper iences st imul ate an i nher i
    ted pr edi sposi t i
    on t owar d act i
    on.Cont ent s oft he
    collect iv eunconsci ousar ecal l
    edar chet y pes.Ar chet ypesJungbel i
    ev edt hatar chet ypes
    originat et hr ought her epeat edexper iencesofourancest or sandt hatt heyar eexpr essed
    i
    ncer tai nt ypesofdr eams,f ant asi es,del usi ons,andhal luci nat ions.Sev er alar chet ypes
    acqui ret hei rownper sonal ity ,andJungi dent i
    fiedt hesebyname.Onei st heper sona- the
    sideofourper sonal i
    t yt hatweshowt oot her s.Anot heri st heshadow- thedar ksi deof
    per sonal ity .Tor eachf ullpsy chol ogi calmat urity ,Jungbel iev ed,wemustf irstr eal izeor
    acceptourshadow.Asecondhur dl ei nachi ev ingmat ur ityi sf orment oacceptt heir
    anima,orf emi ni ne si de,and f orwomen t o embr ace t hei rani mus,ormascul i
    ne
    disposi tion.Ot herar chet y pesi ncl udet hegr eatmot her( t hear chet ypeofnour ishment
    anddest ruct ion) ;thewi seol dman( thear chet ypeofwi sdom andmeani ng) ;andt heher o,
    (thei magewehav eofaconquer orwhov anqui shesev il
    , butwhohasasi ngl ef at alf l
    aw) .
    Themostcompr ehensi vear chet ypei st hesel f;t hati s,t hei magewehav eoff ulfill
    ment ,
    compl etion, orper fect ion.Theul timat ei npsy chol ogi calmat ur ityi ssel freal i
    zat ion, whi ch
    i
    ssy mbol izedbyt hemandal a, orper fectgeomet ricf igur e.Dy nami csofPer sonal ityJung
    believ edt hatt hedy nami cpr inci plest hatappl yt ophy sicalener gyal soappl yt opsy chi c
    ener gy .These f or ces i ncl ude causal i
    tyand t eleol ogyas wel las pr ogr essi on and
    regr essi on.Causal ityand Tel eol ogyJung accept ed a mi ddl eposi tion bet ween t he
    philosophi cali ssuesofcausal ityandt eleol ogy .I not herwor ds,humansar emot ivated
    bot hbyt hei rpastexper iencesandbyt hei rexpect at ionsoft hef utur e.Pr ogr essi onand
    Regr essi onToachi ev esel f-real i
    zat i
    on,peopl emustadaptt obot ht hei rext ernaland
    i
    nt er nalwor lds.Pr ogr essi oni nv ol vesadapt ationt ot heout sidewor l
    dandt hef orwar d
    fl
    owofpsy chi cener gy ,wher easr egr essi onr efer st oadapt at iont ot hei nnerwor l
    dand
    thebackwar df lowofpsy chi cener gy .Jungbel i
    ev edt hatt hebackwar dst epi sessent i
    al
    toaper son' sf or war dmov ementt owar dsel freal izat i
    on.Psy chol ogi calTy pesEi ghtbasi c
    psy chol ogi calt ypes emer ge f rom t he uni on oft wo at ti
    tudes and f ourf unct i
    ons.
    At t
    itudesAt t i
    tudesar epr edi sposi tionst oactorr eacti nachar act erist icmanner .The
    twobasi cat t i
    t udesar ei nt rov er sion, whi chr ef erst opeopl e'ssubj ect i
    v eper cept i
    ons, and
    extr av ersi on,whi chi ndi cat esanor ient at iont owar dt heobj ect ivewor ld.Ext rav er tsar e
    i
    nf luencedmor ebyt her ealwor ldt hanbyt hei rsubj ect iveper cept ion, wher easi ntr over ts
    relyont hei ri ndi v i
    dual i
    zedv iew oft hings.I nt rov er tsandext rav ertsof t enmi strustand
    mi sunder st and one anot her . Funct ions The t wo at titudes or ext rov ersi on and
    i
    nt rov er sioncancombi newi thf ourbasi cf unct ionst of orm ei ghtgener alper sonal ity
    types.Thef ourf unct ionsar e( 1)t hi nki ng,orr ecogni zingt hemeani ngofst i
    mul i
    ;( 2)
    feeling,orpl aci ngav al ueonsomet hi ng;( 3)sensat ion,ort aki ngi nsensor yst i
    mul i
    ;and
    (4)i ntui tion, orper cei v i
    ngel ement ar ydat at hatar ebey ondourawar eness.Jungr ef erred
    tot hi nki ngandf eel ingasr at ionalf unct ionsandt osensat ioni rrationalf unct ions.and
    i
    nt uitionasDev elopmentofPer sonal ityNear lyuni queamongper sonal ityt heor ist swas
    Jung' semphasi sont hesecondhal fofl ife.Jungsawmi ddl eandol dageast imeswhen
    peopl emayacqui r et heabi lityt oat tai nsel f-real izat ion.St agesofDev el opmentJung
    divideddev el opmenti ntof ourbr oadst ages:
    1.Chi ldhood, whi chl ast sf r om bi rthunt il adol escence;
    2.y out h,t heper iodf rom puber tyunt i
    lmi ddl el ife,whi chi sat imef orext rav erted
    dev el opmentandf orbei nggr oundedt ot her ealwor ldofschool ing,occupat ion,
    cour tshi p, mar ri
    age, andf ami ly;
    3.mi ddl el ife, whi chi sat i
    mef r om about35or40unt i
    lol dagewhenpeopl eshoul d
    beadopt ingani ntrov er t
    edat titude; and
    4.Ol dage, whi chi sat imef orpsy chol ogi calr ebi rth, sel freal izat i
    on, andpr epar at i
    on
    fordeat h

    Sel
    f-
    Real
    izat
    ion

    75
    Self-r
    eali
    zation,or i ndivi
    duation,i nvolves a psy chol
    ogicalr ebirt
    h and an
    i
    ntegration ofv ari
    ouspar tsoft hepsy chei nt
    o a unified orwhol ei ndi
    vidual.Self-
    reali
    zati
    onr epresentsthehi ghestlev elofhumandev el opment .Jung' sMet hodsof
    Investi
    gationJung used t hewor d associ at
    iont est,dreams,and act iveimagi nati
    on
    duringthepr ocessofpsy chot herapy,andal lthesemet hodscont ributedt ohi
    st heoryof
    personalit
    y .Wor dAssoci ationTestJungusedt hewordassoci ationtestear l
    yi nhis
    careert ouncov ercompl exesembeddedi nt heper sonalunconsci ous.Thet echnique
    requir
    esapat ienttouttert hef ir
    stwor dt hatcomest omi ndaf t
    ert heexami nerreadsa
    sti
    mul uswor d.Unusual responsesi ndicateacompl ex.

    Dream AnalysisJungbelievedt hatdreamsmayhav ebothacauseandapur pose


    andt huscanbeusef ulinexpl ai
    ningpastev entsandi nmaki ngdeci sionsaboutt he
    futur
    e." Bigdreams"and" t
    ypi
    caldr eams,"bot hofwhi chcomef rom t hecol l
    ecti
    ve
    unconscious,hav emeani ngsthatl iebey ondt heexperiencesofasi ngleindiv
    idual
    .
    ActiveImaginati
    onJungal sousedact iveimaginationtoar r
    iveatcoll
    ecti
    v eimages.This
    techniquerequir
    est hepat ientt
    oconcent r
    ateonasi ngl
    ei mageunt i
    lthatimagebegi ns
    toappeari nadi fferentform.Ev entuall
    y,thepat i
    entshouldseef igurest hatrepr
    esent
    archetypesandot hercoll
    ect i
    veunconsci ousimages.

    Psychother apyThegoalofJungi ant herapyist ohelpneuroticpat ient sbecome


    heal t
    hyandt omov eheal thypeoplei nthedirectionofself-
    real
    izati
    on.Jungwasecl ecti
    c
    i
    nhi schoiceoft herapeut ictechniquesandt reat edoldpeoplediff
    erentlythant hey oung.
    Relat edResear chAl thoughJungi anpsy chologyhasnotgener atedlar gev olumesof
    resear ch,somei nvest igatorshaveusedt heMy ers-
    Bri
    ggsTy peIndicatort oexami net he
    i
    deaofpsy chologicalt ypes.Somer esear
    chsuggest sthatextr
    avertsandi ntrover tshav e
    differentpr ef
    erencesi nt hei
    rchoi ceofpar t
    ner s.Otherresearchershav er epor tedt hat
    personal i
    tyt ypei sr elatedt oacademi cper formanceandsuccess.Cr iti
    queofJung
    AlthoughJungconsi der edhi mselfasci entist,manyofhi swr it
    ingshav emor eofa
    philosophicalt hanapsy chologi
    calf l
    avor.Asasci enti
    fi
    ctheory,itratesav erageoni ts
    abilit
    yt ogener ater esear ch,butv erylow oni tsabil
    it
    yt owithstandf alsification.I tis
    aboutav erageoni tsabi l
    itytoorgani zeknowl edgebutl owoneachoft heot hercr iteri
    a
    ofausef ultheor y.

    ConceptofHumani tyJungsawpeopl easext r


    emelycompl exbeingswhoar ea
    productofbot hconsciousandunconsci ousper sonalexper i
    ences.Howev er,peoplear e
    al
    somot i
    vatedbyi nheri
    tedremnant st
    hatspr ingf r
    om t hecoll
    ecti
    veexperiencesoft hei
    r
    earl
    yancest ors.BecauseJungi antheor yisapsy chologyofopposites,itr eceivesa
    moder aterating on the issues off ree willv ersus determini
    sm,opt imism v ersus
    pessimism, andcausalit
    yv ersustel
    eology.Itratesv eryhighonunconsciousi nfluences,
    l
    owonuni queness, andl
    owonsoci ali
    nfluences.

    KLEI
    N:OBJECTRELATI
    ONSTHEORY

    Overv
    iewofObj ectRelat
    ionsTheor y .Manyper sonal i
    tytheori
    stshav eaccept ed
    someofFr eud'
    sbasi cassumpt ionswhi l
    er ejecti
    ngot her s.Oneappr oacht oextending
    psychoanalyti
    ctheoryhasbeent heobjectr elati
    onst heoriesofMel ani
    eKlei nandot hers.
    UnlikeJungandAdl er,whocamet or ej
    ectFr eud'sideas,Kl eintriedtov ali
    dateFr eud's
    theori
    es.Inessence, Klei
    nextendedFr eud'sdev el
    opment alstagesdownwar dt othef i
    rst
    4t o6mont hsafterbirth.Bi
    ographyofMel anieKl ei
    nMel anieKl ei
    nwasbor ninVi ennai n
    1892,t heyoungestoff ourchil
    dren.Shehadnei theraPh. D.noranM. D.degr eebut
    becameananal ystbybei ngpsy choanalyzed.Asananal yst,shespeci al
    i
    zedi nwor ki
    ng
    withy oungchil
    dren.In1927,shemov edt oLondonwher eshepr acti
    cedunt ilherdeat h
    i
    n1960.

    I
    ntroducti
    on to ObjectRelati
    onsTheor yObj ectr elat
    ionstheorydiff
    ersf r
    om
    Fr
    eudiantheoryinatleastthreeways:
    1.Itplacesmor eemphasi soninterpersonalrel
    ati
    onshi ps,
    2.Itstressestheinfant'
    srel
    ati
    onshipwi ththemot herratherthant
    hefather,and
    3.Itsuggestst hatpeoplearemot i
    vatedprimaril
    yf orhumancont actrat
    herthanfor

    76
    sexual pl
    easure.Theter
    m objectinobjectrel
    ati
    onstheoryrefer
    st oanyper sonor
    partofaper sonthati
    nfant
    sintroject
    ,ortakeintot
    heirpsychicstruct
    ureandt hen
    l
    aterpr ojectontootherpeople.Psy chicLif
    eoft heI nfantKleinbelievedthat
    i
    nfantsbegi nli
    fewithaninherit
    edpr edi
    spositi
    ontoreducet heanxietythatthey
    experienceasaconsequenceoft heclashbetweenthel i
    feinst
    inctandt hedeath
    i
    nstinct.

    Fant asiesKl einassumedt hatver yyounginfant


    spossessanact iv
    e,unconsci ous
    fantasyl i
    fe.Thei rmostbasi cfantasiesar eimagesoft he"good"breastandt he"bad"
    breast.Obj ectsKl ei
    nagr eedwi t
    hFr eudt hatdri
    veshav eanobj ect
    ,butshewasmor e
    l
    ikelytoemphasi zet hechild'
    sr el
    ationshipwiththeseobj ects(parents'face,hands,
    breast,peni s,et
    c.),whichshesawashav ingalif
    eoft hei
    rownwi thi
    nt hechild'
    sfantasy
    world.Posi t i
    onsI ntheirattemptst or educetheconf li
    ctproducedbygoodandbad
    i
    mages,i nfantsor ganizetheirexperienceintoposit
    ions,orway sofdeal ingwi t
    hbot h
    i
    nternalandext ernalobject
    s.

    Par
    anoi
    d-Schi
    zoi
    dPosi
    ti
    on

    Thestr
    uggl esthatinfantsexper i
    encewi tht hegoodbr eastandt hebadbr east
    l
    eadt ot woseparateandopposi ngfeeli
    ngs:adesi r
    et oharborthebreastandadesi r
    et o
    bit
    eordest r
    oyit.Tot oler
    atetheset wof eeli
    ngs,theegospl i
    tsit
    selfbyretai
    ningpart
    sof
    i
    tslifeanddeat hi nsti
    nctswhi l
    epr ojecti
    ngot herpartsont othebr east
    .Itthenhasa
    rel
    ationshi
    pwi t
    ht heidealbreastandt heper secutorybreast.Tocont r
    olthissi
    tuati
    on,
    i
    nfant sadoptthepar anoidschizoidposi t
    ion,whichi sat endencytoseet heworldas
    havingbothdestructiv
    eandomni pot
    entqual i
    ti
    es.

    Depr
    essi
    vePosi
    ti
    on

    Klei
    nmeantt heanxietythatinfant
    sexperiencear ound6mont hsofageov er
    l
    osi ngtheirmotherandyet,atthesamet ime,wantingt odestr
    oyher.Thedepressi
    v e
    posi t
    ionisresol
    vedwheninf ant
    sf antasi
    zethattheyhav emadeupf orthei
    rprevi
    ous
    transgressi
    onsagainstt
    hei
    rmot herandal soreal
    izet hatthei
    rmotherwil
    lnotabandon
    them.

    Psychi
    cDef
    enseMechani
    sms

    According to Klei
    n,chi ldren adoptv ar
    ious psy chi
    c defense mechanisms t o
    prot
    ecttheiregoagai nstanxietyar ousedbyt heirowndest r
    ucti
    vefantasi
    es.Int
    roject
    ion
    Klei
    ndefinedintrojecti
    onast hef ant asyoftakingi nt
    oone' sownbodyt heimagest hat
    onehasofanext ernalobject,especi al
    lythemot her'
    sbr east
    .Infantsusuall
    yintroj
    ect
    goodobjectsasapr otect
    ionagai nstanxiety,buttheyal sointr
    ojectbadobjectsinorder
    togaincontrolofthem.

    Pr
    oject
    ion

    Thef antasythatone'
    sownf eeli
    ngsandimpulsesr
    esidewit
    hinanotherpersonis
    cal
    ledpr oject i
    on.Childr
    enpr oj
    ectbot hgoodandbadi mages,especial
    l
    yont ot heir
    parents.Splitti
    ngInfantstol
    erat
    egoodandbadaspect softhemselv
    esandofext ernal
    object
    sbyspl it
    ti
    ng,orment all
    ykeepingapart,i
    ncompati
    bleimages.Spli
    tti
    ngcanbe
    benefi
    cialtobot hchil
    drenandadults,becauseital
    lowsthem t
    olikethemselveswhi l
    e
    sti
    l
    l r
    ecogni zingsomeunl i
    kablequal
    iti
    es.

    Pr
    oject
    iveI
    dent
    if
    icat
    ion

    Pr
    oject i
    veidenti
    fi
    cati
    onisthepsy chi
    cdef ensemechani sm wherebyinfant
    ssplit
    of
    funaccept ablepar t
    soft hemselves,projectthem ont oanot herobject
    ,andf inal
    l
    y
    i
    ntroj
    ectthem i nanal t
    eredform.Inter
    nali
    zationsAf terint
    rojecti
    ngexternalobj
    ects,
    i
    nfantsor
    gani zethem intoapsychol
    ogicall
    ymeani ngfulfr
    amewor k,apr
    ocessthatKlei
    n

    77
    cal
    l
    edi
    nter
    nal
    i
    zat
    ion.

    EgoInter
    nali
    zat
    ionsareaidedbyt heear lyego'sabi
    li
    tytofeelanxiet
    y,touse
    defensemechani sms,andtoform obj
    ectr
    el at
    ionsinbothfant
    asyandr eal
    it
    y.However
    ,
    aunifiedegoemer gesonlyaft
    erfi
    rstspl
    it
    tingitsel
    fintotwopart
    s:t
    hoset hatdealwi
    th
    theli
    feinsti
    nctandthosethatr
    elat
    etothedeat hinst
    inct.
    Super
    ego

    Kl
    einbelievedt hatthesuper egoemer gedmuchear l
    ierthanFreudhadhel d.To
    her,thesuperegopr ecededr atherthanfoll
    owedt heOedipuscomplex.Kl einal sosaw
    thesuper egoasbei ngqui t
    ehar shandcr uel.OedipusCompl exKlei
    nbel ievedt hatthe
    Oedipuscompl exbegi nsduringt hefir
    stfew mont hsofl if
    e,thenreachesi tszeni t
    h
    duri
    ngt hegenitalst age,atabout3or4y earsofage,ort hesamet i
    met hatFr eudhad
    suggestedi tbegan.Kl einalsohel dthatmuchoft heOedipuscompl exi sbasedon
    chi
    ldren'sfeart hatt heirparentswi l
    lseekr evengeagainstthem fort heirfant asyof
    empt yi
    ngt hepar ent'
    sbody .Forheal t
    hydev el
    opmentdur i
    ngt heOedipaly ears,childr
    en
    shouldretainposi t
    ivefeeli
    ngsf oreachparent.

    Accor dingt oKl ein, t


    hel itt
    leboyadopt sa" femi nine"posi t
    ionv eryear l
    yi nli
    feand
    hasnof earofbei ngcast r
    at edaspuni shmentf orhi ssexualf eeli
    ngsf orhi smot her.
    Later,hepr oject shisdest ruct i
    vedr iveont ohi sf at
    her ,whom hef ear swi l
    lbiteor
    castratehi m.Themal eOedi puscompl exi sr esol vedwhent heboyest ablishesgood
    rel
    ationswi t
    hbot hpar ent s.Thel it
    tlegi rlalsoadopt sa" feminine"posi t
    iont owar dbot h
    parentsqui teear lyinlife.Shehasaposi ti
    vef eelingf orbot hhermot her '
    sbr eastandher
    fat
    her '
    speni s,whi chshebel iev eswi llfeedherwi thbabi es.Somet i
    mest hegi rldevelops
    hostil
    ityt owardhermot her,whom shef ear swi llret ali
    ateagai nstherandr obherofher
    babies, butinmostcases, t
    hef emal eOedi puscompl exi sresolvedwi thoutanyj ealousy
    towar dt hemot her.Lat erVi ewsonObj ectRel ati
    onsAnumberofot hert heor i
    stshav e
    expanded and al ter
    ed Kl ein'st heor yofobj ectr elati
    ons.Not able among t hem ar e
    Mar garetMahl er ,OttoKer nber g,Hei nzKohut , andJohnBowl by .Mar garetMahl er'
    sVi ew
    Mahl er,anat i
    veofHungar ywhopr act icedpsy choanal ysisinbot hViennaandNewYor k,
    developedhert heoryofobj ectr elationsf rom car efulobser vationsofi nfantsast hey
    bondedwi t
    hthei rmot her sdur i
    ngt heirf i
    rst3y earsofl i
    fe.

    I
    nthei
    rpr
    ogresstowar
    dachiev i
    ngasenseofi denti
    ty,chi
    ldrenpassthr
    oughaseriesof
    t
    hreemaj
    ordevel
    opmentalstages.
    1.Fi r
    stisnormalautism,whichcoversthef i
    rst3to4weeksofl i
    fe,ati
    me
    wheninfant
    ssat i
    sfythei
    rneedswithi
    nt heall-
    powerf
    ulprot
    ect
    iveorbi
    tof
    thei
    rmother'
    scare.

    2.Secondisnor
    malsymbiosi
    s,wheninf
    antsbehav
    easi
    ftheyandt
    hei
    r
    motherwasanomni
    pot
    ent,symbi
    oti
    cuni
    t.

    3.Thi
    rdissepar
    ati
    on-indi
    viduat
    ion,
    from about4monthsunt
    ilabout3y ears,
    ati
    mewhenchi l
    drenarebecomi ngpsychologi
    cal
    l
    yseparatedfrom their
    mothersandachi
    ev i
    ngindivi
    duat
    ion,orasenseofper
    sonalident
    ity
    .

    HeinzKohut '
    sVi ew Kohutwasa nat ive ofVi enna who spentmostofhi s
    professi onallifeint heUni ted St ates.Mor et hananyoft heot herobj ectr elati
    ons
    theorists,Kohutemphasi zedt hedev elopmentoft hesel f.Incaringf ort heirphy sicaland
    psychol ogicalneeds,adul tst reati nfantsasi ft heyhadasenseofsel f
    .Thepar ents'
    behav iorsandat tit
    udesev entual l
    yhel pchi ldrenfor m asenseofsel fthatgi vesuni tyand
    consist encyt otheirexperi
    ences.Ot toKer nberg'sVi ewKer nberg, anat iveofVi ennawho
    hasspentmostofhi sprofessi onalcar eeri ntheUni tedSt ates,bel ievest hatthekeyt o
    under standingper sonalit
    yist hemot her-chil
    dr elationship.Chi ldrenwhoexper iencea
    healthyr elati
    onshipwi ththeirmot herdev elopani ntegratedego,apuni t
    ivesuper ego,a
    stablesel fconcept,andsat i
    sfy i
    ngi nter personalr elati
    ons.I ncont rast ,
    chi l
    drenwhohav e
    poorr elationswi ththeirmotherwi llhav edi ffi
    cultyintegr ati
    ngt heiregoandmaysuf fer
    from somef orm ofpsychopat hologydur ingadul thood.

    78
    JohnBowl
    by'
    sAt
    tachmentTheor
    y

    Bowl by,anativeofEngland,recei
    vedt r
    aininginchil
    dpsychi
    atr
    yfrom Melani
    eKlei
    n.By
    studyinghumanandot herprimateinfants,Bowlbyobser
    vedthreestagesofsepar
    ati
    on
    anxiety:
    1.Pr ot
    est,
    2.Apat hyanddespair,and
    3.Emot ionaldet
    achmentf rom people,incl
    udi
    ngthepri
    marycaregiv
    er.

    Chi ldren who r each t he t hir


    d st age lack war mth and emot i
    on int heirlater
    rel
    ationshi ps.Psychother apyThegoalofKl einiant herapywast or educedepr essive
    anxietiesandper secutor yfearsandt ol essent hehar shnessofi nternali
    zedobjects.To
    dot his,Kl ei
    nencour agedpat i
    ent stor eexperienceear l
    yf antasiesandpoi nt
    edoutt he
    diff
    erences bet ween consci ous and unconsci ous wi shes.Rel ated Research Some
    researchonat tachmentt heoryhasf oundt hatchi l
    dr enwi t
    hsecur eattachmenthav e
    bothbet teratt
    entionandbet termemor ythandochi l
    drenwi t hinsecureat t
    achment .
    Otherr esearchsuggest st hatsecur elyat t
    achedy oungchi ldrengr ow upt obecome
    adolescent swhof eelcomf ortablei nf ri
    endshi pgr oupst hatal l
    ow new member st o
    easil
    ybecomepar toft hosegr oups.St il
    lotherst udieshav eshownt hat8-and9- year
    -old
    chil
    drenwho wer esecur elyat tacheddur i
    ngi nfancypr oducedf ami l
    ydr awingst hat
    refl
    ectt hatsecuri
    ty.

    Cr
    iti
    queofObj ectRel ationsTheor yObj ectrelati
    onst heor yshareswi thFr eudian
    theory an i nabi l
    it
    yt o be ei t
    herf alsifi
    ed orv erif
    ied through empi ricalr esearch.
    Nev er
    theless, somecl i
    niciansr egardt het heor yasbei ngausef ulguidetoact ionandas
    possessingsubst ant i
    alint er
    nalconsi stency.Howev er
    ,thet heor ymustber atedlowon
    parsimonyandal sol ow oni tsabi l
    i
    t ytoor gani zeknowl edgeandt ogener ateresearch.
    ConceptofHumani tyObj ectr el
    ationst heor i
    st sseeper sonalit
    yasbei ngapr oductoft he
    earlymot her-childrelati
    onshi p,andt hust heyst r
    essdet ermi nism ov erfreechoi ce.The
    power f
    uli nfluence ofear l
    y childhood al so gi ves these t heor i
    es a l ow r at
    ing on
    uniqueness,av eryhighr ati
    ngonsoci ali nfluences,andhi ghr ati
    ngsoncausal ityand
    unconsciousf orces.Kleinandot herobj ectr elati
    onst heori
    stsr at eaverageonopt imism
    versuspessi mi sm.needsf oraffectionandcausepeopl etoov erv al
    uelove.

    HORNEY:PSYCHOANALYTI
    CSOCI
    ALTHEORY

    Over
    view of Hor ney's Psy choanal
    y t
    ic Soci al Theory Kar en Hor ney '
    s
    psychoanalyt
    icsocialt heoryassumest hatsoci alandcul tur
    alconditions,especi all
    y
    duri
    ngchi l
    dhood,hav eapower f
    uleff
    ectonl aterpersonalit
    y.Li
    keMel anieKl ein,Hor ney
    acceptedmanyofFr eud'sobservati
    ons,butsheobj ectedt omostofhi si nterpretat
    ions,
    i
    ncludinghisnot i
    onsonf emininepsychology.BiographyofKar enHor neyKar enHor ney ,
    whowasbor ni nGermanyi n1885,wasoneoft hef i
    rstwomeni nthatcount r
    yadmi tted
    tomedi calschool.There,shebecameacquai ntedwi t
    hFr eudi
    antheoryandev ent
    ual l
    y
    becameapsy choanaly
    standapsy chiatr
    ist
    .I nhermi d-
    40s,Horneyl ef tGer manyt o
    sett
    leintheUni tedStates,fi
    rstinChicagoandt heninNewYor k.Shesoonabandoned
    ort
    hodoxpsy choanalysi
    si nfavorofamor esociall
    yor i
    entedtheory
    -onet hathadamor e
    posit
    iveviewoff emini
    nedev elopment.Shediedi n1952atage67.

    Int
    roducti
    ont oPsychoanaly
    ticSocialTheor yAlt
    houghHor ney'
    swr iti
    ngsdeal
    mostlywithneurosesandneuroticpersonali
    ti
    es,hertheori
    esalsoappropri
    atesuggest
    mucht hatisappr opr
    iat
    et onormaldev elopment .Sheagreedwi t
    hFr eudt hatearly
    chi
    ldhoodtraumasar eimport
    ant,butshepl acedfarmor eemphasisonsoci alfact
    ors.
    Horney and Freud Compared Horney crit
    icized Fr
    eudian t
    heory on atleastt hr
    ee
    accounts:

    1.I
    tsr
    igi
    dit
    ytowar
    dnewi
    deas,

    79
    2.I
    tsskewedv
    iewoff
    emininepsy
    chology,and
    3.I
    tsover
    emphasi
    sonbi
    ologyandthepleasur
    epr
    inci
    ple.

    TheI mpactofCul tureHor neyi nsistedt hatmoder ncul t


    ur ei st oocompet it
    iveand
    thatcompet itionl eadst ohost i
    lit
    yandf eel i
    ngsofi solation.Thesecondi ti
    onsl eadt o
    exagger atedTheI mpor tanceofChi l
    dhoodExper i
    encesNeur ot icconf l
    ictst emsl argel y
    from chi l
    dhoodt raumas,mostofwhi char etracedt oal ackofgenui nel ove.Chi ldren
    whodonotr ecei vegenui neaf fectionf eelt hreatenedandadoptr igi dbehav i
    oralpat terns
    i
    nanat temptt ogai nlove.Basi cHost i
    li
    tyandBasi cAnxi etyAl lchi l
    drenneedf eeli
    ngsof
    safet yandsecur ity,butt hesecanbegai nedonl ybyl ov ef rom par ents.Unf or t
    unat ely,
    parent sof tennegl ect,domi nate, r
    eject,orov eri
    ndul get hei rchildr en, conditionst hatl ead
    tot hechi l
    d'sf eel i
    ngsofbasi chost ili
    tytowar dpar ents.I fchi ldr enr epressf eeli
    ngsof
    basic host il
    i
    ty ,t hey wi l
    ldev elop feelings ofi nsecur ity and a per vasi ve sense of
    appr ehensi oncal ledbasi canxi ety.Peopl ecanpr ot ectt hemsel v esf rom basi canxi ety
    throughanumberofpr otectivedev i
    ces,incl uding( 1)af fect i
    on,( 2)submi ssiveness,( 3)
    power ,prestige,orpossessi on,and( 4)wi thdrawal .Nor malpeopl ehav et hef lexi
    bilityt o
    useanyoral l oftheseappr oaches, butneur oti
    csar ecompel ledt or elyrigi
    dl yononl yone.
    Compul siveDr i
    vesNeur oti
    csar ef requent lyt r
    appedi nav iciousci r
    clei nwhi cht heir
    compul siveneedt oreducebasi canxi etyl eadst oav arietyofsel fdefeat i
    ngbehav iors;
    thesebehav ior st henpr oducemor ebasi canxi ety,andt hecy clecont i
    nues.Neur otic
    Needs

    Hor
    neyidenti
    fi
    ed10cat egori
    esofneur oti
    cneedst hatmar
    kneur
    oti
    csi
    nthei
    rat
    temptt
    o
    r
    educebasicanxi ety.Thesei ncludeneeds:
    1.Foraf fectionandappr oval,
    2.Forapower f
    ul partner
    3.Tor estrictone' sl i
    fewithinnarr
    owbor ders,
    4.Forpower ,
    5.Toexpl oitother s,
    6.Forsoci alrecogni ti
    onorpr esti
    ge,
    7.Forper sonal admi rati
    on,
    8.Forambi t
    ionandper sonal achi
    evement ,
    9.Forsel f-suffi
    ciencyandi ndependence,and
    10.Forperfect i
    onandunassai l
    abil
    it
    y.

    Neurot
    icTr
    endsLat
    er,Horneygroupedthese10neurot
    icneedsint
    othreebasi
    cneur
    oti
    c
    tr
    ends,whi
    chapplytobot hnormalandneur ot
    icindi
    vi
    dualsinthei
    rattempttosol
    ve
    basi
    cconfl
    i
    ct.Thet
    hreeneurot
    ictendsare
    (1)Movi
    ngt owar dpeople,inwhichcompl iantpeopl eprotectthemsel
    vesagai
    nst
    feel
    i
    ngsofhel plessnessbyat t
    achingthemsel vest ootherpeople;
    (2)Moving agai nstpeopl e,in which aggr essive people prot
    ectthemsel
    ves
    agai
    nstperceivedhost i
    li
    tyofothersbyexpl oit
    ingot her
    s;and
    (3)Movingawayf rom people,inwhi chdet achedpeopl epr ot
    ectthemsel
    ves
    agai
    nstfeel
    ingsofi solat
    ionbyappear i
    ngar rogantandal oof.

    I
    ntr
    apsychi
    cConf
    li
    cts

    Peopl
    eal soexper i
    enceinneri ntr
    apsy chi
    cconf
    li
    ctsthatbecomebeli
    efsy st
    em
    andtakeonal i
    feseparatefrom theinterpersonalcr
    eat
    edthem.tensi
    onsorpartofthei
    r
    ofthei
    rown, confl
    ictsthatTheI deali
    zedSel f-I
    magePeopl
    ewhodonotr ecei
    veloveand
    aff
    ecti
    ondur ingchildhoodar ebl ockedi nt hei
    ratt
    empttoacquireastabl
    esenseof
    i
    dentit
    y.Feeling alienated fr
    om sel f,they creat
    e an ideal
    i
    zed sel
    f-
    image,oran
    ext
    ravagant
    lypositiv
    epi ctur
    eoft hemsel v
    es.

    Hor
    neyr
    ecogni
    zedthreeaspect
    soft heideal
    i
    zedself
    -i
    mage:
    1.Theneur ot
    icsear
    chf orgloryoracompr ehensi
    vedriv
    et owardactual
    i
    zingt
    he
    i
    deal
    self
    ;
    2.Neuroti
    cclai
    ms,orabeliefthatt
    heyareenti
    tl
    edtospecial
    pri
    vil
    eges;
    and
    3.Neuroti
    cpr i
    deoraf al
    sepr idebasednotonr eal
    i
    tybutonadi stort
    edand

    80
    i
    deal
    i
    zedview ofsel
    f.Sel
    f-
    Hatr
    edNeur
    oti
    csdisl
    i
    ket
    hemsel
    vesbecauser
    eal
    i
    ty
    al
    waysf
    all
    sshortoft
    heiri
    deal
    i
    zedvi
    ewofsel
    f.

    Ther
    efore,theylearnself
    -hatr
    ed,whichcanbeexpr
    essedas:
    1.Relentlessdemandsont heself,
    2.Mer cil
    esssel f
    -accusati
    on,
    3.Self-
    cont empt,
    4.Self-
    frustrati
    on,
    5.Self-
    tormentorsel f-
    tort
    ure,and
    6.Self-
    dest ruct
    iveacti
    onsandi mpulses.

    Femi ninePsy chologyHor neybel i


    evedt hatpsy chologicaldi
    fferencesbetweenmen
    andwomenar enotduet oanat omybutt ocul t
    ureandsoci alexpectati
    ons.Herviewof
    theOedi puscompl exdi ff
    eredmar kedlyfrom Freud'sint hatsheinsistedthatanysexual
    attr
    actionorhost il
    it
    yofchi l
    dt opar entwoul dbet her esultoflearningandnotbiology.
    Psychot herapyThegoalofHor ney'spsy chotherapywast ohelppat i
    entsgrow t
    owar d
    self
    -reali
    zation,giv
    eupt heirideali
    zedsel f-i
    mage,r eli
    nqui shtheirneuroti
    csearchf or
    glory,and change sel f
    -hatred to self-acceptance.Hor neybel i
    eved thatsuccessful
    therapyisbui l
    tonself-analysisandsel f-
    understnding.

    Rel at
    ed Resear ch Hor ney '
    s concept s of mor bid dependency and
    hy percompet i
    ti
    venesshav ebot hst imul
    atedsomer ecentresearch.Mor bidDependency
    Thecur r
    entconceptofcodependency ,whi chi sbasedonHor ney 'snot i
    onofmor bid
    dependency ,haspr oducedr esear chshowi ngt hatpeopl ewithneur ot i
    cneedst omov e
    towar dotherswi l
    lgot ogr eatl engthstowi nt heappr ovalofot herpeopl e.Ast udyby
    Ly onandGr eenberg( 1991)f oundt hatwomenwi thanal coholi
    cpar ent,comparedwi th
    womenwi t
    houtanal cohol i
    cpar ent,weremuchmor enur t
    urantt owar daper sont hey
    per ceived as expl oitati
    vet han t oward a per son t hey per ceived as nur tur
    ing.
    Hy per competit
    ivenessHor ney '
    si deaofmov i
    ngagai nstpeopler elatest otheconceptof
    hy percompet i
    ti
    veness, at opict hathasr eceivedsomer ecentresear chinterest
    .Someof
    thisr esearchindicatest hat ,althoughhy percompet i
    tiv
    enessi sanegat ivepersonalit
    y
    trait,somet y
    pesofcompet i
    tivenesscanbeposi tive.Otherresear chhasf oundt hat
    hy percompet i
    ti
    ve Eur opean Amer ican women f r
    equent l
    yhav e some t y
    pe ofeat ing
    disor der.

    Crit
    ique ofHor ney Al though Horney painted a v i
    vid portr
    ayaloft he neur oti
    c
    personali
    ty,hertheoryr atesv eryl
    owi ngeneratingresearchandl owoni t
    sabi l
    i
    tytobe
    fal
    sifi
    ed,toor gani
    zedat a,andt oserveasausef ulguidetoact i
    on.Hertheoryisr ated
    aboutav erageoni nt er
    nalconsi stencyandpar simony.ConceptofHumani t
    yHor ney '
    s
    conceptofhumani tyisr atedv er
    yhighonsoci alfactor
    s,highonf reechoi
    ce,optimi sm,
    andunconsci ousinfluences, andaboutaverageoncausal ityversustel
    eol
    ogyandont he
    uni
    quenessoft heindivi
    dual .

    FROMM’
    SHUMANI
    STI
    CPSYCHOANALYSI
    S

    Overview ofFr omm' s Humani sti


    c Psy choanal ysis Erich Fromm' s humani sti
    c
    psy choanalysisl ooks atpeopl ef rom t he per spective ofpsy chology,history,and
    ant hropology.I nfl
    uencedbyFr eudandHor ney ,Fr omm dev elopedamor ecult ur
    all
    y
    orient edtheor ythanFr eud'sandamuchbr oadert heorythanHor ney '
    s.Biographyof
    ErichFr omm Er i
    chFr omm wasbor ni nGermanyi n1900,t heonl ychi l
    dofor t
    hodox
    Jewi shparents.At hought fulyoungman, Fromm wasi nfluencedbyt hebibl
    e, Fr
    eud, and
    Mar x,aswel lasbysoci al
    istideology.Afterreceiv i
    nghi sPh. D.,Fromm beganst udy i
    ng
    psy choanalysisandbecameananal ystbybeinganal yzedbyHannsSachs,ast udentof
    Freud.I n1934, Fromm mov edtot heUni t
    edSt atesandbeganapsy choanalyti
    cpr acti
    ce
    i
    nNew Yor k,wher eheal sor esumedhi sfri
    endshi pwi thKar enHor ney,whom hehad
    knowni nGer many .Muchofhi sl at
    ery earswer espenti nMexi coandSwi t
    zerland.He
    diedi n1980.Fr omm' sBasi cAssumpt i
    onsFromm bel i
    evedt hathumanshav ebeent orn
    awayf r
    om theirpr ehistor i
    cunionwi thnatureandl eftwithnopower f
    ulinsti
    nctstoadapt

    81
    t
    oachangi ngwor l
    d.Butbecausehumanshaveacqui
    redtheabi
    l
    ityt
    oreason,t
    heycan
    t
    hinkaboutthei
    risol
    atedcondi
    ti
    on-
    asit
    uati
    onFromm cal
    ledt
    hehumandil
    emma.

    HumanNeedsAccor dingt oFromm,ourhumandi lemmacannotbesol vedby


    sati
    sfyi
    ngourani malneeds.Itcanonl ybeaddr essedbyf ulf
    il
    li
    ngouruni quelyhuman
    needs,anaccompl i
    shmentt hatmov esust owar dar eunionwi t
    ht henat uralwor ld.
    Fromm identi
    fi
    edf i
    veofthesedi st
    inct
    ivel
    yhumanorexi stenti
    alneeds.RelatednessFi rst
    i
    sr el
    atedness,whichcantaket hef or
    m of(1)submi ssi
    on,(2)power,and( 3)lov e.Love,
    ortheabili
    tytounitewit
    hanot herwhi l
    eretai
    ningone'sowni ndiv
    idual
    ityandi ntegrit
    y,is
    theonlyrel
    atednessneedthatcansol veourbasichumandi l
    emma.

    TranscendenceBei ngt hrowni nt


    ot hewor l
    dwi t
    houtt heirconsent ,humanshav e
    totranscendt heirnaturebydest royingorcr eat i
    ngpeopl eort hings.Humanscandest roy
    throughmal ignantaggr ession, orkil
    lingforreasonsot hert hansur v i
    val
    ,butt heycanal so
    createandcar eaboutt heircreations.Root ednessRoot ednessi st heneedt oest abl
    ish
    rootsandt of eelathomeagai ni nt hewor ld.Pr oductively,r
    oot ednessenabl esust o
    growbey ondt hesecur ityofourmot herandest abl
    ishtieswi tht heout si
    dewor l
    d.Wi th
    thenonpr oduct i
    vestrat egy,webecomef i
    xat edandaf raidtomov ebey ondt hesecur it
    y
    andsaf etyofourmot heroramot hersubst itute.SenseofI dent it
    yThef ourthhuman
    needi sforasenseofi dent it
    y,oranawar enessofour selvesasasepar ateper son.The
    driveforasenseofi dent i
    tyisexpr essednonpr oducti
    velyasconf ormit
    yt oagr oupand
    productiv
    elyasi ndivi
    dual it
    y .FrameofOr i
    ent ationByf rameofor ientati
    on, Fromm meant
    ar oadmaporconsi stentphi l
    osophybywhi chwef i
    ndourwayt hrought hewor ld.This
    needi sexpressednonpr oduct i
    velyasast ri
    v ingf orir
    rationalgoal sandpr oducti
    v el
    yas
    mov ementt owar drational goals.

    TheBur denofFr eedom Ast heonl yani malpossessi ngsel f-


    awar eness,humansar e
    whatFr omm cal ledt he" fr
    eaksoft heuni ver se."Hi storical l
    y,aspeopl egai nedmor e
    politicalf reedom,t heybegant oexper i
    encemor ei solationf rom ot her sandf rom t he
    wor ldandt of eelf reef rom t hesecur it
    yofaper manentpl acei nt hewor ld.Asar esult,
    freedom becomesabur den,andpeopl eexper iencebasi canxi ety ,oraf eeli
    ngofbei ng
    alonei nt hewor ld.Mechani smsofEscapeTor educet hef ri
    ght eni ngsenseofi solation
    andal oneness, peopl emayadoptoneoft hreemechani smsofescape:
    1.Aut horitariani sm, orthet endencyt ogi veupone' si ndependenceandt ouni t
    ewi th
    apower ful par tner ;
    2.Dest ruct i
    veness,anescapemechani sm ai medatdoi ngawaywi thot herpeopl e
    orthings; and
    3.Conf ormi t
    y ,orsur r
    ender ingofone' si ndi vidualityinor dert omeett hewi shesof
    other s.
    Posi ti
    veFr eedom Thehumandi l
    emmacanonl ybesol v edt hroughposi ti
    vef reedom,
    whi chi st hespont aneousact i
    vit
    yoft hewhol e,i ntegrat edper sonal ity,andwhi chi s
    achi ev edwhenaper sonbecomesr euni tedwi thot hers.Char act erOr i
    ent ati
    onsPeopl e
    relatet ot hewor ldbyacqui ringandusi ngt hings( assimi lat i
    on)andbyr el
    atingt osel f
    andot hers( soci alizat i
    on) ,andt heycandosoei thernonpr oduct ivelyorpr oduct ively
    .
    Nonpr oduct i
    v eOr ient ati
    onsFr omm i dent i
    fi
    edf ournonpr oduct i
    v est r ategiest hatf ailto
    mov epeopl ecl osert oposi t
    iv efreedom andsel f-reali
    zat ion.Peopl ewi t
    har ecept ive
    orient ationbel ievet hatt hesour ceofal lgoodl iesout sidet hemsel vesandt hatt heonl y
    wayt heycanr elat et ot hewor l
    di st or eceiv et hi ngs,i ncl udingl ov e,knowl edge,and
    mat er ialobj ect s.Peopl ewi thanexpl oi
    tativeor ient ati
    onal sobel iev et hatt hesour ceof
    goodl iesout sidet hemsel ves,butt heyaggr essi v elyt akewhatt heywantr athert han
    passi v elyrecei v i
    ngi t.Hoar dingchar act erst r
    yt osav ewhatt heyhav eal r
    eadyobt ained,
    i
    ncl udi ngt hei ropi nions,f eelings,andmat er ialpossessi ons.Peopl ewi t
    hamar keting
    orient ationseet hemsel v esascommodi ti
    esandv aluet hemsel vesagai nstthecr i
    terion
    oft hei rabilit
    yt osel l t
    hemsel ves.

    Theyhav efewerpositiv
    equal i
    ti
    est hant heotheror ientat
    ionsbecausetheyare
    essenti
    all
    yempt y.The Producti
    ve Orientat
    ion Psychologicall
    yhealt
    hypeople work
    towardpositi
    vefr
    eedom throughproductivework,love,andr easoni
    ng.Product
    ivel
    ove
    necessi
    tatesapassi
    onat
    el oveofalll
    if
    eandi scall
    edbi ophi
    lia.

    82
    Personal
    i
    tyDi sordersUnheal t
    hypeopl ehav enonproductiveway sofwor ki
    ng,reasoning,
    andespeciall
    yloving.Fromm r ecogni
    zedt hreemajorper sonalit
    ydisor der
    s:
    1.Necr ophili
    aort heloveofdeat handt hehatr
    edofal lhumani ty;
    2.Mal ignantnar cissi
    sm,orabel iefthatevery t
    hingbel ongingt oone'ssel fisof
    gr
    eatv al
    ue and any t
    hing belonging t
    o ot hersis wor thless;and incestuous
    symbiosis,oranext remedependenceonone' smot herormot hersur
    rogate.

    Psychot
    her
    apy

    ThegoalofFr omm' spsy chot herapywast owor kt owar dsatisfacti


    onoft hebasi c
    humanneedsofr elatedness,t ranscendence,r oot edness,asenseofi denti
    ty,anda
    frame of or i
    ent ati
    on. The t her api
    st t ri
    es t o accompl i
    sh t his through shar ed
    communi cationi nwhi cht het her apistissi mpl yahumanbei ngratherthanasci ent
    ist.
    Fromm' sMet hodsofI nvestigati
    onFr omm' sper sonal i
    tyt heor yrestsondat ahegat hered
    from a v ar
    iety of sour ces,i ncluding psy chot herapy ,cul t
    uralant hropology ,and
    psychohi stor
    y .Soci alChar acteri naMexi canVi ll
    ageFr omm andhi sassoci atesspent
    severaly earsi nvestigati
    ngsoci alchar acteri nai sol atedf armingv i
    ll
    agei nMexi coand
    found ev i
    dence of al lthe char act
    er or ientations exceptt he mar keti
    ng one.A
    Psychohi stori
    calSt udyofHi t
    lerFr omm appl iedt het echni quesofpsy chohistoryt othe
    studyofsev eralhi stori
    calpeopl e,i ncludingAdol fHi tler
    t heper sonFr omm r egar dedas
    thewor ld'smostconspi cuousexampl eofsomeonewi tht hesy ndromeofdecay ,thatis,
    necrophilia,mal i
    gnantnar cissism, andi ncestuoussy mbi osi s.

    RelatedResear chFr omm' st heoryr anksneart hebot t


    om ofper sonalit
    ytheor ies
    withr egardt ost imulat i
    ngr esearch.Recent l
    y,ShaunSaunder sandDonMunr ohav e
    developed t he Saunder s ConsumerOr i
    ent ati
    on Index ( SCOI )t o measur e Fromm' s
    mar keti
    ngchar acter.Todat e,muchoft heirwor khasconsi stedi nestabli
    shingt he
    vali
    dityoft hisi nstr
    ument .Ingener al
    ,Saunder shasf oundthatpeopl ewi t
    hast rong
    consumeror ientati
    ont endt opl acel owv al ueonf reedom,i nnerhar mony ,equali
    ty,sel f
    -
    respect,andcommuni ty.Crit
    iqueofFr omm Thest rengthofFr omm' stheoryishisl ucid
    writi
    ngsonabr oadr angeofhumani ssues.Asasci enti
    fi
    ct heory,howev er,Fromm' s
    theoryratesv erylowoni tsabil
    itytogener ateresear chandt olendi tselft
    of al
    sifi
    cat i
    on;
    i
    tr atesl ow onusef ulnesst ot hepr actiti
    oner ,i
    nt er
    nalconsi stency,andpar simony .
    Becausei tisqui tebr oadi nscope,Fr omm' st heoryr ateshighonor gani
    zingexi sti
    ng
    knowl edge.ConceptofHumani tyFr omm bel ievedt hathumanswer e" f
    reaksoft he
    universe"becauset heyl ackedst rongani mali nsti
    nctswhi lepossessi ngtheabi l
    ityt o
    reason.I n brief,hisv iew isr ated av erage on f ree choice,opt i
    mism,unconsci ous
    i
    nf l
    uences, anduni queness; lowoncausal ity ;
    andhi ghonsoci al infl
    uences.

    SULLI
    VAN:I
    NTERPERSONALTHEORY

    Ov ervi
    ew ofSul li
    van'sInter personalTheor yAl t
    houghSul li
    v anhadal onelyand
    i
    sol atedchi l
    dhood, heev olvedat heor yofper sonal i
    tythatemphasi zedt hei mportanceof
    i
    nt erpersonalr el
    at i
    ons.Hei nsistedt hatper sonal it
    yi sshapedal mostent irel
    ybyt he
    relati
    onshi pswehav ewi thotherpeopl e.Sul li
    v an'sprincipalcont ri
    but i
    ont oper sonalit
    y
    theor ywashi sconcept i
    onofdev elopment alst ages.Bi ographyofHar rySt ackSul li
    van
    Har rySt ackSul l
    i
    v an,t hef i
    rstAmer icant odev elopacompr ehensi veper sonalit
    yt heory,
    wasbor ni n asmal lf arming communi t
    yi n upst ateNew Yor ki n 1892.A soci all
    y
    i
    mmat ure and i sol ated chi l
    d,Sul l
    ivan nev ertheless f ormed one cl ose interpersonal
    relati
    onshi pwithaboyf iv
    ey earsol dert hanhi msel f.Inhi sinterpersonalt heory,Sulli
    van
    believedt hatsuchar elati
    onshiphast hepowert otransf or
    m ani mmat urepr eadolescent
    i
    nt oapsy chological l
    yheal thyindi vi
    dual .Sixy ear safterbecomi ngaphy sician,andwi t
    h
    no t raining in psy chiatry,Sulli
    v an gai ned a posi ti
    on atSt .Elizabeth's Hospi talin
    Washi ngton, D.C.,asapsy chiatr
    ist.Ther e,hisabi l
    it
    ytowor kwi thschi zophrenicpat i
    ents
    wonhi m ar eputationasat herapeut icwi zard.Howev er, despiteachi evi
    ngmuchr espect
    from ani nfl
    uentialgr oupofassoci ates,Sullivanhadf ew closei nterpersonalr el
    at i
    ons
    wi t
    hanyofhi speer s.Hedi edal onei nPar i
    sin1949, atage56.

    83
    TensionsSul l
    ivanconcept ualizedper sonalityasanener gysystem,wi thener gy
    existi
    ngei therast ension( potenti
    al i
    tyf oract i
    on)orasener gytransformations( the
    actionsthemsel v es).Hef urt
    herdi vi
    dedt ensionsi ntoneedsandanxi ety.NeedsNeeds
    canr elat
    eei thert othegener alwell-beingofaper sonort ospecifi
    czones,suchast he
    mout horgeni t
    als.Gener alneedscanbeei therphy siol
    ogical,
    suchasf oodoroxy gen,or
    theycanbei nterpersonal ,
    suchast ender nessandi nti
    macy .Anxi
    etyUnlikeneeds- which
    areconj unctiveandcal lforspeci f
    icact i
    onst or educet hemanxietyisdisjuncti
    v eand
    callsfornoconsi stentact i
    onsf oritsr eli
    ef.Allinfantslearntobeanxi oust hr
    ought he
    empat hicrelati
    onshi pthattheyhav ewi t
    ht hei
    rmot heri
    ngone.Sul l
    i
    vancal l
    edanxi etythe
    chiefdisrupti
    v eforceininterpersonal relati
    ons.Acompl eteabsenceofanxi etyandot her
    tensionsiscal l
    edeuphor i
    a.

    Dynami smsSul l
    ivanusedt het erm dy nami sm t orefert oat y picalpat ternof
    behav i
    or.Dy namismsmayr elateei thert ospeci f
    iczonesoft hebodyort ot ensions.
    Malev ol
    enceThedi sjunct i
    vedy nami sm ofev i
    landhat rediscal l
    edmal ev olence, defined
    bySul li
    vanasaf eelingofl iv
    ingamongone' senemi es.Thosechi ldrenwhobecome
    malev ol
    enthav emuchdi ff
    icul
    t ygivingandr eceivingtender nessorbei ngi nti
    mat ewi th
    otherpeopl e.Intimacy The conj unct i
    ve dy nami sm mar ked by a cl ose per sonal
    rel
    ati
    onshi pbet weent wopeopl eofequalst at usiscal ledintimacy .Intimacyf acili
    tates
    i
    nterpersonaldev el
    opmentwhi l
    e decr easi
    ng bot h anxiety and l onel i
    ness.LustI n
    contrasttobot hmal ev olenceandi ntimacy ,l
    usti sanisol at
    ingdy nami sm.Thati s,lustis
    aself-centeredneedt hatcanbesat isfi
    edint heabsenceofani nti
    mat ei nter
    per sonal
    rel
    ati
    onshi p.Inotherwor ds,althoughi nti
    macypr esupposest endernessorl ove,l ustis
    basedsol elyonsexual gratifi
    cat i
    onandr equiresnoot herper sonf oritssat isfaction.

    Self-System t hemosti ncl


    usiveofal ldynamismsi st hesel f
    -system,ort hat
    patternofbehav i
    or sthatpr otectsusagai nstanxietyandmai ntainsouri nt
    erpersonal
    secur i
    ty.Thesel f
    -system i saconj unct
    ivedy namism,butbecausei t
    spr imar yjobi sto
    protectt hesel ffr
    om anxi ety
    ,ittendstost i
    fl
    eper sonalit
    ychange.Exper i
    encest hatare
    i
    nconsi stentwi t
    hoursel f-
    system threatenoursecur it
    yandnecessi tateouruseof
    secur i
    ty oper ati
    ons,whi ch consistofbehav i
    ors designed tor educe i nt
    erpersonal
    tensions.One such secur i
    ty operati
    on i s dissoci
    ation,whi ch includes al lt hose
    exper i
    encest hatwebl ockf rom awar eness.Anot heri sselectiveinattention,whi ch
    i
    nv olvesbl ockingonl ycer t
    ainexper i
    encesf rom awar eness.Per sonif
    icationsSul li
    van
    believed t hatpeopl e acqui r
    e cer t
    ainimages ofsel fand ot herst hroughoutt he
    dev el
    opment al st ages, and he r efer
    red t o t hese subj ective per cepti
    ons as
    personificati
    ons.

    Bad-
    Mot
    her
    ,Good-
    Mot
    her

    Thebad- motherper sonifi


    cationgrowsoutofi nfants'experi
    enceswi t
    hani pple
    thatdoes notsat i
    sfyt heirhungerneeds.Al li nfants exper i
    ence the bad- mother
    per soni
    ficat
    ion,ev ent hought hei
    rr ealmot her smaybel ovingandnur t
    uring.Lat er,
    i
    nf ants acquire a good- mot herper soni
    ficati
    on as t heybecome mat ure enough t o
    recognizet het enderandcooper ativebehav i
    oroft heirmot heringone.St il
    llater,these
    twoper sonif
    icationscombi net of orm acompl exandcont r
    asti
    ngi mageoft her eal
    mot her
    .MePer sonif
    icat i
    onsDur i
    ngi nf
    ancy,childrenacqui rethree"me"per sonificati
    ons:
    1.Thebad- me,whi chgr owsf rom experiencesofpuni shmentanddi sapprov al,
    2.Thegood- me, whi chresultsfrom experienceswi t
    hr ewardandappr oval,and
    3.Thenot -me,whi chal lowsaper sont o dissoci at
    eorsel ecti
    velyi nattendt he
    experiencesrel atedtoanxi ety.

    EideticPer sonif
    icati
    onsOneofSul l
    ivan'smosti nterestingobser vati
    onswast hat
    peopl eof tencr eateimagi naryt r
    ait
    st hatt heypr oj
    ectont oot hers.Includedi nthese
    eideticper sonifi
    cati
    onsar et heimaginar yplaymatest hatpreschool-agedchi ldr
    enoften
    have.Thesei maginaryf r
    iendsenabl echi l
    drent ohaveasaf e,secur erelati
    onshipwith
    anot herper son,ev ent hought hatpersoni si magi
    nar y
    .Lev el
    sofCogni t
    ionSulli
    van
    recogni zedt hr
    eel evelsofcogni ti
    on,orway sofper ceivi
    ngt hings-
    prototaxic,parat
    axic,
    andsy ntaxic.PrototaxicLev elExperi
    encest hatareimpossi bletoputi ntowor dsort o
    communi catet o others are called prototaxic.Newbor ni nfants experience images

    84
    most
    lyonaprot
    otaxi
    clevel
    ,butadul
    ts,t
    oo,f
    requentl
    yhav
    epr
    ever
    balexper
    iencest
    hat
    ar
    emomentar
    yandincapabl
    eofbeingcommunicated.

    Chi
    l
    dhood

    Thest aget hatlastsf rom thebegi nningofsy ntaxi


    clanguageunt iltheneedf or
    play mat es ofequalst atus is called chi ldhood.The chi ld'
    s pr i
    mar yi nterper
    sonal
    relationshipcont inuest obewi t
    ht hemot her,whoi snow di f
    ferent i
    atedf rom ot her
    per sonswhonur t
    urethechi l
    d.ParataxicLev elExper i
    encesthatarepr elogicalandnear ly
    i
    mpossi bletoaccur at
    elycommuni catet oot hersarecal l
    edparataxic.Includedi nthese
    areer roneousassumpt ionsaboutcauseandef fect,whichSul l
    ivant ermedpar ataxic
    distor t
    ions.Juv enil
    eEr aThej uv
    enilest agebegi nswi ththeneedf orpeer sofequal
    stat usandcont i
    nuesunt i
    lt hechil
    ddev elopsaneedf oraninti
    mat er elat
    ionshipwi tha
    chum.Att hi
    st ime,chi ldrenshoul dl ear nhow t ocompet e,tocompr omi se,andt o
    cooper ate.

    Theset hreeabili
    ti
    es,aswel lasanor ientat
    iont owar dl i
    v i
    ng,helpachi lddev el
    op
    i
    nt i
    macy ,t he chiefdy nami sm oft he nextdev elopment alst age.Sy nt
    axic Lev el
    Experiencest hatcanbeaccur atel
    ycommuni catedtoot her sar ecalledsy nt
    axic.Childr
    en
    becomecapabl eofsy ntaxiclanguageatabout12t o18mont hsofagewhenwor ds
    begint o hav ethe same meani ng f orthem t hatt hey do f orot hers.St ages of
    Dev el
    opmentSul l
    ivansawi nterpersonaldevelopmentast akingpl aceov ersevenst ages,
    from infancyt omat ureadulthood.Per sonali
    tychangescant akepl aceatanyt i
    mebut
    aremor el i
    kelytooccurdur i
    ngt ransiti
    onsbet weenst ages.I nfancyTheper iodfrom birt
    h
    untiltheemer genceofsy ntaxi clanguagei scalled infancy ,at i
    mewhent hechi l
    d
    receiv
    est endernessf r
    om t hemot heringonewhi leal sol ear ni
    nganxi et
    yt hroughan
    empat hiclinkagewi t
    hthemot her.

    Anxietymayi ncreaset ot hepointoft error,butsucht errori scont rol


    ledbyt he
    built-
    inpr otect i
    onsofapat hyandsomnol entdet achmentt hatallow t hebabyt ogot o
    sleep.Dur i
    ngi nfancychi ldrenuseaut i
    sticlanguage, whicht akespl aceonapr ototaxicor
    par at
    axicl ev el.Pr eadolescencePer hapst hemostcr ucialstagei spr eadol escence,
    becausemi stakesmadeear liercanbecor recteddur i
    ngpr eadol escence,buter ror s
    made dur ing pr eadol escence ar e near lyi mpossi bl
    et o ov er come i nl ater life.
    Preadol escencespanst hetimef r
    om t heneedf orasi nglebestf r
    iendunt ilpuber ty.
    Chi l
    dren who do notl earni nti
    macydur ing pr eadolescence hav e added di ffi
    culti
    es
    relati
    ngt opot enti
    alsexualpar tnersduringl at
    erst ages.Ear lyAdol escenceWi thpuber ty
    comest hel ustdy nami sm andt hebeginningofear l
    yadol escence.Dev el
    opmentdur ing
    thisst agei sor dinaril
    ymar kedbyacoexi st enceofi nti
    macywi thasi nglef ri
    endoft he
    samegenderandsexuali nterestinmanyper sonsoft heopposi tegender .Howev er,if
    childrenhav enopr eexistingcapaci t
    yforint imacy ,theymayconf usel ustwi t
    hl oveand
    dev el
    opsexual relati
    onshi psthataredev oi
    doft ruei nti
    macy .
    Lat
    eAdol
    escence

    Chr onologi
    call
    y,lateadolescencemayst artatanytimeaf teraboutage16,but
    psychologi cal
    ly,i
    tbeginswhenaper soni sabletofeelbothint
    imacyandl ustt
    owardthe
    sameper son.Lat eadol escencei scharacter
    izedbyast ablepat t
    ernofsexualactiv
    ity
    andt hegr owthoft hesy nt
    axicmode, asy oungpeoplelear
    nhowt oliv
    eintheadul
    twor ld.
    AdulthoodLat eadolescencef lowsintoadul t
    hood,at imewhenaper sonestabl
    i
    shesa
    stablerelationshipwit
    hasi gnifi
    cantotherpersonanddev elopsaconsi st
    entpat
    ternof
    vi
    ewi ngt hewor l
    d.Psy chologi
    calDisordersSul l
    i
    vanbel i
    evedt hatdisor
    deredbehavior
    hasani nterpersonalor i
    gin,andcanonl ybeunder stoodwi t
    hr ef
    erencetoaper son's
    socialenv i
    ronment .

    PsychotherapySul li
    v anpioneeredt henotionoft het herapistasapar t
    ici
    pant
    observer,who est abl
    ishes an i nter
    personalrelati
    onshi
    p wi tht he pat i
    ent.He was
    pri
    mar i
    lyconcer nedwi thunder st
    andingpat i
    entsandhel pingt hem dev elopfor
    esight
    ,
    i
    mpr oveinterpersonalrelations,andrestorethei
    rabili
    tytooper atemost l
    yonasy nt
    axic
    l
    evel.RelatedResear chInr ecentyears,anumberofr esearchershav estudiedthei
    mpact
    oftwo-personr el
    ationships, i
    nvolv
    ingboththerapyandnon- therapyencount er
    s.

    85
    Ther
    api
    st-
    Pat
    ientRel
    ati
    onshi
    ps

    Hans St rupp,Wi l
    liam Henr y
    ,and associ ates atVander bi
    ltdev eloped t he
    Struct uralAnal ysi sofSoci alBehav i
    or,aninstrumentf orst udyi
    ngt hedy nami csbetween
    ther apistandpat ient
    .Thi sgr oupofr esearcher sf oundt hatpat ient
    st endedt ohav e
    relativelyst ablebehav iorst hatwer econsi stentwi t
    ht hewayt heirther api ststreated
    them.Lat er,t hese r esear chersr eported therapi sts'pr ofessionalt r
    aini ng was l ess
    i
    mpor t
    antt osuccessf ul t
    her apythant hetherapists' owndev elopment alhist or y.I
    nti
    mat e
    Rel ati
    onshi pswi thFr iendsEl i
    zabet hYaughnand St ephenNowi ckist udi ed inti
    mat e
    i
    nt erper sonalr elat i
    onshi psi nsame- genderdy adsandf oundt hatwomen- butnotmen-
    hadcompl ement ar yi
    nt erpersonalst yl
    eswi tht heircl osewomenf ri
    ends.Al so,women
    wer emor elikelyt hanment oengagei nawi dev ar i
    etyofact i
    vit
    ieswi tht heirinti
    mat e
    fri
    end, afindingt hatsuggest sthatwomendev elopdeepersamegenderf riendshi pst han
    domen.I magi nar yFri
    endsOt herresearchershav est udiedSul l
    ivan'snotionofi maginary
    play mat esandhav ef
    oundt hatchil
    drenwhohav eident ifi
    ableeideticplay mat estendt o
    bemor esoci alized,lessaggr essive,mor ei ntell
    igent ,andt ohav eabet t ersenseof
    humort hanchi ldr enwhodonotr eporthavingani magi naryplaymat e.

    Cr i
    ti
    que of Sul l
    ivan Despi te Sul li
    van's insights into t he impor t
    ance of
    i
    nter
    per sonalrel
    ations,histheoryofper sonal i
    tyandhi sapproacht opsy chotherapyhav e
    l
    ostpopul ari
    tyinrecenty ears.Insummar y ,hi
    st heoryratesv erylowinf al
    sifi
    ability
    ,low
    i
    nitsabi l
    it
    yt ogenerateresear ch,andav eragei nit
    scapaci tytoor gani
    zeknowl edgeand
    toguideact i
    on.Inaddi ti
    on,itisonl yaveragei nsel f-
    consistencyandl owi npar simony.
    ConceptofHumani t
    yBecauseSul l
    ivansawhumanper sonal i
    tyasbeingl argel
    yf ormed
    fr
    om interpersonalrel
    ations,histheor yratesv eryhighonsoci alinfl
    uencesandv erylow
    onbiologicalones.I naddi t
    ion,itrateshighonunconsci ousdet erminants,aver ageon
    fr
    eechoi ce,opti
    mism, andcausal ity,
    andl owonuni queness.

    ERI
    KSON:POST-
    FREUDI
    ANTHEORY

    Over vi
    ew ofEr i
    kson'sPost -FreudianTheor yEr iksonpost ulatedei ghtst agesof
    psychosoci aldev el
    opmentt hroughwhi chpeopl eprogr ess.Althoughhedi ffer
    edf r
    om
    Freudinhisemphasi sont heegoandonsoci alinf
    luences, histheoryisanext ension,not
    arepudiati
    on, ofFreudianpsy choanalysi
    s.Page21of52ASLagnadaI II
    /090213Theor i
    es
    OfPer sonal i
    tySummar izedBi ographyofEr ikEriksonWhenEr i
    kEr iksonwasbor nin
    Germanyi n1902hi snamewasEr i
    kSal omonsen.Af terhismot hermar r
    iedTheodor
    Hombur ger ,Erikeventual l
    ytookhi sstep-father '
    sname.Atage18hel efthomet opur sue
    thelif
    eofawander i
    ngar t
    istandt osearchf orself-i
    dent it
    y.Hegav eupt hatlifetot each
    youngchi ldreni nVi enna,wher ehemetAnnaFr eud.St il
    lsearchingf orhi sper sonal
    i
    dent i
    ty,hewaspsy choanal yzed byMs.Fr eud,an exper i
    encet hatal l
    owed hi m to
    becomea psy choanalyst.I n mid-li
    fe,Er ikHombur germov ed t ot heUni ted St ates,
    changedhi snamet oEr ikson,andt ookaposi ti
    onatt heHar vardMedi calSchool .Later,
    het aughtatYal e,t
    heUni versit
    yofCal if
    orniaatBer keley ,andsev eralotheruni versi
    ties.
    Hedi edin1994, amont hshor tofhis92ndbi rthday.

    TheEgoi nPost -
    FreudianPsy chologyOneofEr ikson'schi efcont ri
    butionsto
    per sonali
    tytheorywashi semphasi sonegor atherthani df unctions.Accor dingto
    Erikson, t
    heegoi sthecent erofper sonal i
    tyandi sresponsi bleforauni fi
    edsenseofsel f.
    Itconsi stsofthreeint er
    relat
    edf acet s:t
    hebodyego,t heegoi deal,andegoi denti
    ty.
    Soci ety'
    sInfl
    uenceTheegodev elopswi t
    hinagi vensoci etyandi sinf l
    uencedbychi ld-
    rear i
    ng practi
    ces and ot hercul tur alcust oms.Al lcultures and nat ions develop a
    pseudospeci es,oraf icti
    onalnot iont hattheyar esuper iort oot hercul t
    ures.Epigenetic
    PrincipleTheego dev el
    opsaccor ding tot heepi geneti
    cpr i
    nci pl
    e;t hatis,itgr ows
    accor ding to a genet i
    call
    y est abl ished r ate and i naf i
    xed sequence.St ages of
    Psy chosocialDev el
    opmentEachoft heei ghtst agesofdev elopmenti smar kedbya
    conf li
    ctbetweenasy ntonic(harmoni ous)el ementandady stonic(di sr
    upti
    ve)el ement,
    whi chpr oducesabasi cstrengthoregoqual ity
    .Al so,fr
    om adol escenceon,eachst age

    86
    i
    scharacteri
    zedbyani dent
    it
    ycrisi
    sort urni
    ngpoi nt,
    whichmaypr oduceeitheradapti
    ve
    ormaladapti
    veadjust
    ment .I
    nfancyErikson'sviewofi nf
    ancy(t
    hef i
    rstyearoflif
    e)was
    si
    mil
    artoFr eud'
    sconceptoftheor alstage,exceptthatEri
    ksonexpandedt henotionof
    i
    ncor
    porationbeyondthemout htoincl
    udesenseor ganssuchastheey esandears.

    Thepsy chosexualmodeofi nfancyi soralsensory, whichischar acteri


    zedbybot h
    recei
    v i
    ngandaccept ing.Thepsy chosoci alcri
    sisofi nfancyi sbasi ctrustversusbasic
    mistrust.From thecr i
    sisbetweenbasi ct r
    ustandbasi cmi st
    rustemer geshope,t he
    basicstrengthofi nfancy.I
    nfantswhodonotdev elophoper etreatf r
    om t hewor l
    d,and
    thi
    swi thdrawalist hecor epathologyofi nfancy .Earl
    yChi l
    dhoodThesecondt othi
    rd
    yearofl i
    feisear l
    ychi l
    dhood,aper iodt hatcompar est oFr eud'sanalst age,buti tal
    so
    i
    ncludesmast eryofot herbodyf unctionssuchaswal king,ur i
    nating,andhol ding.The
    psychosexualmodeofear l
    ychil
    dhoodi sanal -
    urethral-
    muscul ar,andchi ldrenofthisage
    behav ebothimpul si
    v el
    yandcompul sively.Thepsy chosoci alcrisisofear l
    ychildhoodis
    autonomyv er
    susshameanddoubt .Thepsy chosoci alcrisi
    sbet weenaut onomyont he
    onehandandshameanddoubtont heot herpr oduceswi l
    l,thebasi cst r
    engthofear l
    y
    chil
    dhood.

    Thecor epat hologyofear l


    ychi l
    dhoodi scompul sion.PlayAgeFr om aboutt he
    thi
    rdt ot hef i
    ft
    hy ear,chi l
    drenexper i
    encet hepl ayage,aper i
    odt hatpar allelsFreud'
    s
    phall
    icphase.Unl ikeFr eud,howev er,Eri
    ksonsaw t heOedi puscompl exasanear l
    y
    model ofl i
    fel
    ongpl ayfulnessandadr amapl ayedouti nchi l
    dren'smi ndsast heyattempt
    tounder standthebasi cf actsoflif
    e.Thepr imar ypsy chosexualmodeoft hepl ayageis
    genit
    allocomot or,meani ngt hatchil
    drenhav ebothani nterestingeni talactivi
    tyandan
    i
    ncreasingabi li
    tytomov ear ound.Thepsy chosocialcr i
    sisoft hepl ayagei sini
    ti
    ati
    ve
    ver
    susgui lt
    .Theconf lictbetweeni nit
    iati
    veandgui lthelpschi l
    drent oactwi thpurpose
    andt osetgoal s.Buti fchildrenhavet oolit
    tlepur pose,theydev elopi nhibit
    ion,thecore
    pathologyoft heplayage.

    SchoolAgeTheper iodf rom about6t o12or13y earsofagei scall


    edt heschool
    age,atimeofpsy chosexuall atency ,butiti
    salsoat i
    meofpsy chosocialgrowt hbeyond
    thefamily
    .Becausesexualdev elopmenti slat
    entduringtheschoolage, chil
    drencanuse
    thei
    renergiestolearnthecust omsoft hei
    rcultur
    e,incl
    udingbothf ormalandi nfor
    mal
    educati
    on.Thepsy chosocial crisisofthisageisindustr
    yv er
    susinferi
    orit
    y.Childrenneed
    tolearntowor khard,butt heyal somustdev elopsomesenseofi nferi
    ori
    ty.From the
    confl
    ictofindust
    ryandi nferior i
    tyemer gescompet ence,thebasi cstrengthofschool
    agechildr
    en.Lackofindust ryleadst oi ner
    ti
    a,thecorepathologyofthisstage.

    Adol
    escence

    Adolescencebegi nswi thpuber t


    yandi smar kedbyaper son'sstruggl etof ind
    egoi denti
    ty.Itisat i
    meofpsy chosexualgrowth,buti tisalsoaper i
    odofpsy chosoci al
    l
    atency .Thepsy chosexualmodeofadol escencei spuber tyorgeni talmat uration.The
    psychosoci alcrisi
    sofadol escencei sident
    ityversusi denti
    tyconfusion.Psy chol ogically
    healt
    hyi ndividualsemer gef r
    om adol escencewi thasenseofwhot heyar eandwhat
    theybel i
    eve;butsomei denti
    tyconf usionisnormal .Theconf l
    ictbet weeni dent i
    tyand
    i
    dent i
    tyconf usionproducesf ideli
    ty,orfai
    thinsomei deologicalvi
    ewoft hef uture.Lack
    ofbel i
    efinone' sownsel fhoodr esult
    sinrolerepudiation,oraninabili
    tyt obringt ogether
    one'sv ar
    ioussel f-
    images.

    YoungAdul
    thood

    Youngadul thoodbegi nswiththeacqui si


    tionofi nti
    macyataboutage18and
    endswi ththedev elopmentofgener ati
    vit
    yataboutage30.Thepsy chosexualmodeof
    youngadul t
    hoodi sgeni tali
    ty,whi
    chi sexpressedasmut ualtrustbetweenpar t
    nersina
    stablesexualrelationship.Itspsychosocialcr
    isi
    sisi nt
    imacyv ersusisol
    ation.Inti
    macyis
    theabi l
    it
    ytof useone' si denti
    tywiththatofanot herwithoutf earoflosingit;whereas
    i
    solationisthefearofl osingone'sidenti
    tyinanintimaterelati
    onship.Thecr i
    sisbetween
    i
    nt i
    macyandi solat ionr esultsinthecapaci tytol ove.Thecor epathologyofy oung
    adulthoodisexcl usi vi
    ty,orinabil
    it
    yt olove.Adult
    hoodTheper iodfrom about31t o60

    87
    yearsofagei sadult
    hood,ati
    mewhenpeopl emakesi gni
    f i
    cantcont r
    ibuti
    onstosociety.
    Thepsy chosexualmodeofadult
    hoodisprocreat
    ivi
    ty,
    orthecar i
    ngf orone'schi
    ldr
    en,the
    chil
    drenofothers,andthemater
    ialpr
    oductsofone'ssociety.Thepsy chosoci
    alcri
    sisof
    adult
    hoodi sgenerati
    vi
    tyver
    susstagnat
    ion,andthesuccessf ulresoluti
    onofthiscrisi
    s
    resul
    tsincare.

    Er
    iksonsaw car east akingcar eoft heper sonsandpr oductsthatonehas
    l
    earnedt ocar ef or
    .Thecor epat hol
    ogyofadul t
    hoodi sr ejectivit
    y,orther ej
    ecti
    onof
    cert
    ainindividualsorgr oupsthatonei sunwi ll
    i
    ngt otakecar eof .OldAgeThef i
    nalstage
    ofdevelopmenti soldage, fr
    om aboutage60unt i
    ldeath.Thepsy chosexualmodeofol d
    ageisgener al
    izedsensual it
    y;thatis,takingpleasureinav arietyofsensat i
    onsandan
    appreciat
    ionoft hetraditi
    onallif
    estyl
    eofpeopl eoft heothergender .Thepsy chosocial
    cri
    sisofol dagei sthest r
    ugglebet weeni nt
    egrit
    y( t
    hemai ntenanceofego- i
    denti
    ty)and
    despair(t
    hesur r
    enderofhope) .Thest rugglebetweeni ntegri
    tyanddespai rmaypr oduce
    wisdom (thebasi cst r
    engthofol dage), butitmayal soleadt odi sdain(acorepathology
    markedbyf eeli
    ngsofbei ngf i
    nishedorhel pl
    ess).

    Er i
    kson' s Methods ofI nv estigati
    on Er i
    kson r eli
    ed most ly on ant hr opology ,
    psy chohi st or y,and pl ay const ruction t o expl ain and descr ibe human per sonal i
    ty.
    Ant hropol ogi calSt udi
    esEr i
    kson' st womosti mpor tantant hropol ogicalst udieswer eof
    theSi ouxofSout hDakot aandt heYur okt ribeofnor t
    her nCal if
    or nia.Bot hst udies
    demonst rat edhi snotiont hatcul tureandhi stor yhel pshapeper sonal it
    y .Psychohi story
    Erikson combi ned themet hodsofpsy choanal y sisand hi storicalr esearch t o st udy
    sev eralper sonal i
    ti
    es,mostnot ablyGandhiandLut her .Inbot hcases,t hecent ralfigure
    exper ienced an i denti
    t ycrisist hatpr oduced a basi c strengt hr athert han a cor e
    pat hology . Pl ay Const ruction Er ikson'st echni que of pl ay const ructi
    on became
    cont rov ersialwhen he f ound t hat10-t o 12- year-old boy s used t oy sto const ruct
    elongat edobj ectsandt opr oducet hemesofr i
    singandf alli
    ng.Incont rast,girl
    sar r
    anged
    toysi nl ow and peacef ulscenes.Er i
    kson concl uded t hatanat omi caldi ff
    erences
    bet weent hesexespl ayar ol einper sonalit
    ydev el
    opment .Rel at edResear chEr i
    kson's
    theor yhasgener atedamoder atelylargebodyofr esear ch,mustofi tinv estigat i
    ngt he
    conceptofi dent i
    ty.Inaddi ti
    on,somer esearcher shav el ookedatEr i
    kson' sconceptof
    gener at iv
    ity .I dentityin Ear lyAdul thood A l ongi t
    udi nalst udybyJenni ferPal s and
    Rav ennaHel sonf oundt hati dentityest abli
    shedi near lyadul thoodi sassoci atedwi th
    stablemar riageandhi ghl ev elsofcr eati
    vit
    y .Addi t
    ionalr esear chbyHel sonandPal s
    foundt hatwomenwhohadsol idident i
    tyandhi ghcr eati
    v epot entialatage21wer e
    mor elikelyt hanot herwoment ohav ehadachal lengi ngandcr eat iv
    ewor kexper ienceat
    age52.

    Gener
    ati
    vi
    tyi
    nMi
    dli
    fePeopl
    e

    Highi ngener ati


    v i
    tyshoul dhav eal if
    est
    ylemar kedbycr eati
    ngandpassi ngon
    knowl edge,v alues, andi dealstoay oungergener ati
    on, andshoul dbenef i
    tfr
    om apat ter
    n
    ofhelpingy oungerpeopl e.Resear chbyDanMcAdamsandcol l
    eaguesf oundt hatadul t
    s
    atmi dli
    fewhocont ributedt ot hewel l
    -beingofy oungpeopl ehadacl earsenseofwho
    theywer eandwhatl i
    fehadt oof f
    ert hem.Ot herr esearchf oundt hatpeopl ehi ghin
    generativi
    tyar et ypicall
    yconcer nedwi t
    ht hewell-
    beingofot her s.Cr i
    ti
    queofEr ikson
    AlthoughEr ikson' swor ki salogi calextensi onofFreud' spsychoanal ysis,i
    tof f
    ersanew
    wayofl ookingathumandev elopment .Asausef ultheor y,i
    trateshi ghoni tsabi lit
    yto
    generater esear ch,andaboutav erageoni tsabil
    it
    ytobef al
    sifi
    ed, toorganizeknowl edge,
    andt ogui det hepr act i
    tioner.Itr ateshighoni nt
    ernalconsi st
    encyandaboutav erageon
    parsimony .ConceptofHumani tyEr i
    ksonsawhumansasbasi callysocialanimal swho
    hav elimitedf reechoi ceandwhoar emot i
    vat
    edbypastexper iences,whi chmaybe
    eit
    herconsci ousorunconsci ous.I naddi t
    ion,Eri
    ksoni sratedhighonbot hopt i
    mism and
    uniquenessofi ndiv i
    dual s.

    LEARNI
    NGTHEORI
    ESSKI
    NNER:BEHAVI
    ORALANALYSI
    S

    88
    Over v
    iew ofSki nner '
    sBehav i
    oralAnal y sisUnl ikeanyt heor ydi scussedt ot his
    point,t her adicalbehav iorism ofB.F.Ski nnerav oidsspecul at
    ionsabouthy pothet i
    cal
    const ructsandconcent ratesal mostexcl usiv
    el yonobser vabl
    ebehav ior.Besi desbei nga
    radicalbehav iori
    st,Ski nnerwasal soadet ermi nistandanenv i
    ronment alist;thati s,he
    rej
    ect ed thenot i
    on off reewi l
    l,and heemphasi zed t hepr i
    macyofenv i
    ronment al
    i
    nf l
    uences on behav i
    or .Bi ogr aphy ofB.F.Ski nnerB.F.Ski nnerwas bor ni n
    Susquehanna,Pennsy l
    v aniai n1904,t heol deroft wobr others.Whi leincol l
    ege,Ski nner
    want edt obeawr iter,butaf terhav ingl i
    tt
    lesuccessi nt hisendeav or,het urnedt o
    psychol ogy .Af terear ning a Ph. D.f rom Har vard,he t aughtatt he Uni versit
    ies of
    Minnesot aandI ndianabef or er eturni
    ngt oHar v ard,wher eher emai nedunt ilhisdeat hin
    1990.Pr ecursorst oSki nner '
    sSci enti
    fi
    cBehav i
    or i
    sm Moder nlearningt heor yhasr oot sin
    thewor kofEdwar dL.Thor ndikeandhi sexper iment swi t
    hani malsdur i
    ngt hel astpar tof
    the19t hcent ury.Thor ndi ke'slawofef fectst atedt hatr esponsesf ollowedbyasat i
    sf i
    er
    tendt obel earned, aconceptt hatant i
    ci patedSki nner'suseofposi ti
    ver einforcementt o
    shapebehav ior.Ski nnerwasev enmor einfluencedbyJohnWat son,whoar guedt hat
    psychol ogymustdealwi t
    ht hecont r
    olandpr edictionofbehav i
    orandt hatbehav ior-not
    i
    ntrospect ion, consci ousness, ort hemi nd- isthebasi cdat aofsci entifi
    cpsy chol ogy.

    Scienti
    fi
    cBehav iori
    sm Skinnerbelieved thathuman behav ior,l
    ike anyot her
    naturalphenomena, issubjecttothelawsofsci ence,andt hatpsychologi
    stsshouldnot
    att
    ributeinnermot i
    vati
    onstoit.Alt
    houghher eject
    edinternalstates(t
    houghts, emoti
    ons,
    desires,etc.
    )asbeingout si
    det hereal
    m ofscience,Skinnerdidnotdenyt heirexist
    ence.
    Hesi mplyinsist
    edt hattheyshoul dnotbeusedt oexpl ainbehav i
    or.Philosophyof
    Sci
    enceSki nnerbeli
    evedthat,becausethepur poseofsci enceistopr edi
    ctandcont rol
    ,
    psychologistsshouldbeconcer nedwithdeterminingthecondi ti
    onsunderwhi chhuman
    behav i
    oroccur ssothattheycanpr edi
    ctandcont r
    olit
    .

    Charact
    eri
    sti
    csofScienceSkinnerheldthatsciencehasthr
    eeprinci
    plechar
    act
    eri
    sti
    cs:
    1.Itsfi
    ndingsar
    ecumul ati
    ve,
    2.Itrest
    sonanat ti
    tudethatvaluesempi r
    icalobser
    vat
    ion,
    and
    3.Itsearcher
    sfororderandlawf ul
    relat
    ionships.

    Conditi
    oningSki nnerr ecognizedt woki ndsofcondi t
    ioni
    ng:cl assicalandoper ant.
    Classi
    calCondi tioni
    ng In classicalcondi ti
    oning,a neut r
    al( conditi
    oned)st i
    mul usi s
    pair
    edwi thanuncondi t
    ionedst i
    mul usunt i
    litiscapableofbr ingingaboutapr evi
    ously
    unconditi
    onedr esponse,nowcal l
    edt heconditionedresponse.Forexampl e,Wat sonand
    Raynercondi t
    ioned ay oung boyt of earawhi t
    er at(thecondi tioned sti
    mul us)by
    associat
    ingitwi t
    hal oud,suddennoi se(anuncondi ti
    onedst i
    mul us).Eventual
    ly
    , thr
    ough
    theprocessofgener ali
    zation,theboyl earnedt ofearsti
    mulithatresembl edthewhi terat.
    OperantCondi t
    ioningWi thoper antcondi ti
    oning,rei
    nforcementi susedt oincreasethe
    probabil
    i
    tythatagi venbehav iorwill
    recur.

    Thr
    eef
    act
    orsareessenti
    alinoperantcondi
    ti
    oning:
    1.Theantecedent
    ,orenvir
    onmenti nwhichbehav
    iort
    akespl
    ace;
    2.Thebehavior
    ,orresponse;and
    3.Theconsequencethatfoll
    owst hebehavi
    or.

    Psy chol ogistsandot hersuseshapi ngt omol dcompl exhumanbehav ior.Diff


    erent
    hi
    stor i
    es ofr einforcementr esultin oper antdi scr i
    minat i
    on,meani ng thatdi ff
    erent
    organismswi llresponddi ff
    erentl
    yt ot hesameenv ir
    onment alcontingencies.Peopl e
    mayal sor espondsi mil
    arlytodi ff
    erentenv ironment alstimul i
    ,apr ocessSki nnercalled
    sti
    mul usgener ali
    zation.Any thi
    ngwi thintheenv ironmentt hatstrengthensabehav ioris
    ar einforcer.Posi ti
    v ereinforcementi sanyst i
    mul ust hatwhenaddedt oasi t
    uation
    i
    ncr easest hepr obabi l
    it
    yt hatagi venbehav iorwi l
    loccur .Negat iverei
    nforcementi st he
    str
    engt heningofbehav i
    ort hr
    ought her emov alofanav ersi
    v estimulus.Bothposi ti
    veand
    negat i
    ver einforcementst r
    engthenbehav ior
    .Anyev entthatdecr easesabehav i
    oreither
    bypr esent i
    nganav ersi
    vest i
    mul usorbyr emov ingaposi ti
    v eonei scalledpunishment .
    Theef fectsofpuni shmentar emuch l esspr edictabl
    et han thoseofr ewar d.Bot h
    punishmentandr einforcementcanr esultfrom ei thernat uralconsequencesorf rom
    humani mposi ti
    on.Condi ti
    onedr einforcersar et hosest imul ithatar enotbynat ure

    89
    sat
    isf
    ying(e.g.
    ,money )
    ,butthatcanbecomesowhent heyar
    eassoci at
    edwitha
    pri
    maryrei
    nforcer
    ,suchasfood.General
    izedr
    einforcersar
    econdit
    ionedr
    einfor
    cer
    sthat
    havebecomeassociatedwi
    thseveralpri
    maryreinforcer
    s.

    Reinf
    orcementcanf oll
    owbehav ioronei theracont inuousschedul eoronani ntermitt
    ent
    schedule.Therear ef ourbasicintermi t
    tentschedul es:
    1. Fixedratio,onwhi chtheor ganism isr ei
    nforcedi nter
    mitt
    entlyaccor di
    ngt othe
    numberofr esponsesi tmakes;
    2. Variabl
    e-ratio,on whi ch the or ganism isr einforced afteran av erage ofa
    predeterminednumberofr esponses;
    3. Fixed-i
    nterval,on whi ch t he or ganism i sr ei
    nforced fort he fi
    rstr esponse
    foll
    owingadesi gnatedper i
    odoft ime; and
    4. Variabl
    ei nterval ,onwhi cht heor ganism isreinf
    or cedafterthelapseofv ar
    ied
    periodsoft ime.

    Thet endencyofapr evi


    ousl
    yacquiredr esponset obecomepr ogressi
    vel
    yweakened
    upon nonreinf
    orcementi s cal
    l
    ed extinction.Such eliminati
    on orweakening ofa
    responseiscalledclassi
    calexti
    nct
    ioni nacl assi
    calcondit
    ioni
    ngmodelandoper ant
    exti
    ncti
    onwhent heresponsewasacquiredt hroughoperantcondit
    ioning.

    TheHumanOr gani
    sm Ski nnerbel i
    ev edt hathumanbehav iorisshapedbyt hreef or ces:
    (
    1)Nat uralsel ecti
    on,( 2)cul turalpr actices,and ( 3)t he indiv i
    dual's histor y of
    rei
    nf orcement ,whi chwedi scussedabov e.NaturalSelectionAsaspeci es,our
    behav iorisshapedbyt hecont i
    ngenci esofsur vi
    val;thati
    s, thosebehav iors( e.
    g.,
    sexandaggr ession)t hatwer ebenef i
    cialt othehumanspeci est endedt osur vi
    ve,
    wher east hoset hatdi dnott endedt odr opout .CulturalEvolutionThosesoci eti
    es
    thatev olvedcer taincul turalpr acti
    ces( e.g.toolmaki ngandl anguage)t endedt o
    surv i
    ve.Cur rentl
    y ,thel ivesofnear l
    yal lpeoplear eshaped,i npar t,bymoder n
    tools( comput ers,medi a,v ariousmodesoft ransportati
    on,et c.)andbyt heiruse
    oflanguage.Howev er,humansdonotmakecooper ati
    vedeci sionst odowhati s
    bestf ort heirsoci ety,butt hose soci eti
    es whose member s behav ei na
    cooper ative mannert ended t o sur vi
    v e.I nnerSt ates Skinnerr ecogni zed the
    existenceofsuchi nnerst at esasdr i
    vesandsel f
    awar eness,buther eject edthe
    notiont hattheycanex plainbehav ior.

    ToSki nner ,dr iv


    esr efert ot heef f
    ect sofdepr ivationandsat iationandt husar e
    rel
    at edt ot hepr obabil
    ityofcer tainbehav iors,butt heyar enott hecausesofbehav ior.
    Skinnerbel i
    ev edt hatemot ionscanbeaccount edf orbyt hecont ingenci esofsur vival
    andt hecont ingenci esofr einforcement ;butl ikedr ives,t heydonotcausebehav ior.
    Simi l
    ar l
    y,pur poseandi ntentionar enotcausesofbehav i
    or ,
    al t
    hought heyar esensations
    thatex i
    stwi thint heskin.Compl exBehav iorHumanbehav iori ssubj ectt othesame
    pri
    nci plesofoper antcondi ti
    oning assi mpl eani malbehav ior,buti tismuchmor e
    compl exanddi ffi
    culttopr edictorcont rol.Ski nnerexpl ai
    nedcr eat ivi
    tyast heresultof
    random oracci dentalbehav iorst hathappent ober ewar ded.Ski nnerbel i
    ev edthatmost
    ofourbehav iori s unconsci ous oraut omat ic and t hatnott hinking aboutcer tai
    n
    exper i
    encesi sr einfor
    cing.Ski nnerv i
    eweddr eamsascov ertandsy mbol i
    cf or
    msof
    behav iort hatar esubj ectt ot hesamecont ingenci esofr einforcementasanyot her
    behav ior.Cont rolofHumanBehav i
    orUlti
    mat ely,allofaper son'sbehav i
    ori scontroll
    ed
    byt heenv ironment .Societi
    esexer ci
    secont rolov erthei rmember sthr oughl aws,rules,
    andcust omst hattranscendanyoneper son'smeansofcount ercont rol.

    Therearefourbasi cmethodsofsoci al control


    :
    1.Oper ant condi ti
    oning,i ncl
    udi ng posi ti
    ve and negat
    iver ei
    nfor
    cement and
    punishment ;
    2.Descr ibi
    ng cont ingencies, or usi ng language to inf
    orm people of the
    consequenceoft hei
    rbehav i
    or s;
    3.Depr ivat
    ionandsat i
    ation,t
    echni quest hatincr
    easethel
    i
    keli
    hoodthatpeopl
    ewil
    l
    behaveinacer tainway ;
    and
    4.Phy sicalrestr
    aint,i
    ncludingthej ail
    ingofcriminal
    s.

    90
    Alt
    hough Ski nnerdeni ed the exi st
    ence offr
    ee wil
    l
    ,he didrecognize t
    hatpeopl
    e
    mani pul
    atevar i
    ableswi thi
    nt hei rownenvi
    ronmentandthusexer
    cisesomemeasureof
    sel
    f-contr
    ol,whichhassev eral techni
    ques:
    1.Phy si
    cal restraint,
    2.Phy si
    cal aids,suchast ools;
    3.Changi ngenv i
    ronment al st
    imuli
    ;
    4.Ar rangingt heenv ir
    onmentt oall
    owescapefr
    om aver
    siv
    estimuli
    ;
    5.Dr ugs; and
    6.Doi ngsomet hingel se.

    The Unheal thy Personali


    ty Soci alcontroland sel f-
    controlsomet i
    mes pr oduce
    counteracti
    ngst rat
    egi
    esandi nappropri
    atebehav i
    ors.Counteracti
    ngStrategiesPeopl e
    cancount er
    actexcessivesoci alcontrolby(1)escapingfrom i
    t,(2)r
    evol
    tingagai nstit
    ,or
    (3)passivelyresist
    ingit.Inappr opr
    iateBehav i
    orsInappropri
    atebehaviorsf oll
    ow f r
    om
    self
    -defeati
    ngtechniquesofcount er
    actingsocialcontrolorfr
    om unsuccessfulat t
    empt s
    atself-
    control
    .

    Psy chot her apy Ski nner was not a psy chot herapist,and he ev en cr it
    ici
    zed
    psy chot herapyasbei ngoneoft hemaj orobst aclest oasci ent i
    ficst udyofhuman
    behav i
    or .Nev er theless,ot her s hav e used oper antcondi ti
    oni ng pr i
    nci ples t o shape
    behav i
    ori nat her apeut i
    cset ti
    ng.Behav iortherapi stspl ayanact iver ol
    ei nt het r eatment
    process,usi ng behav ior modi fi
    cat ion t echni ques and poi nt ing out t he posi tive
    consequencesofsomebehav i
    orsandt heav er siveef f
    ect sofot hers.Rel at edResear ch
    Skinner '
    st heor yhasgener at edmor er esear cht hananyot herper sonal i
    tyt heor y.Muchof
    thisr esear chcanbedi vi
    dedi ntot wo quest ions:( 1)How doescondi tioningaf fect
    per sonal i
    ty? and ( 2)How does per sonal i
    ty af fectcondi ti
    oni ng? How Condi ti
    oni ng
    Affect sPer sonal i
    tyApl ethor aofst udi eshav edemonst ratedt hatoper antcondi ti
    oni ng
    canchangeper sonal i
    ty( thati s,behav ior).Forexampl e,ar ecentst udybySt ephen
    Higgensetal .demonst ratedt hatacont i
    ngentmanagementpr ogr am canbesuccessf ul
    i
    ndecr easingcocai neuse.How Per sonal ityAf f
    ect sCondi t
    ioni ngResear chhasal so
    found t hatdi fferentper sonal i
    tiesmayr eactdi fferentlyt ot he same env i
    ronment al
    stimul i
    .Thi smeanst hatt hesamer einforcementst rategieswi l
    lnothav et hesame
    effectonal lpeopl e.Forexampl e,Al anPi ckeringandJef f
    reyGr ayhav edev elopedand
    test edar einf or cementsensi t
    ivi
    tyt heor yt hatsuggest st hati mpul sivity,anx iety,and
    i
    nt roversion/ ext raver si
    onr elatet oway speopl er espondt oenv ironment alr einforcer s.
    CritiqueofSki nnerOnt hesi xcrit
    er i
    aofausef ult heor y
    ,Ski nner 'sappr oachr at esv er y
    highoni tsabi litytogener ater esear chandt ogui deact i
    on,hi ghoni tsabi litytobe
    falsifi
    ed, andaboutav erageoni tsabi lityt oorgani zeknowl edge.I naddition, i
    trat esv er y
    highoni nter nal consi stencyandhi ghonsi mpl i
    ci ty.

    ConceptofHumanitySki
    nner'
    sconceptofhumani
    tywasacompl etel
    ydetermi
    nist
    ic
    andcausalonet hatemphasizedunconsci
    ousbehavi
    orandtheuni quenessofeach
    per
    son'shistor
    yofr ei
    nfor
    cementwi thi
    n amostl
    ysocialenv
    ironment.Unlikemany
    det
    erminist
    s,Ski
    nneri
    squit
    eopt i
    mist
    icinhi
    svi
    ewofhumanit
    y.

    BANDURA:SOCI
    ALCOGNI
    TIVETHEORY

    Ov ervi
    ewofBandur a'sSocialCogni
    ti
    veTheoryBandur a'
    ssocialcognit
    ivet
    heory
    t
    akesanagent icper specti
    ve,meaningthathumanshav esomel imi
    tedabili
    tytocontr
    ol
    t
    heirl
    i
    ves.I ncont rasttoSkinner
    ,Bandura
    1.Recogni zest hatchanceencount ersandf or
    tuit
    ousev entsoftenshapeone' s
    behav i
    or;
    2.Pl acesmor eemphasi sonobser v
    ati
    onall
    earni
    ng;
    3.St ressest heimpor t
    anceofcogniti
    vefact
    orsinlearni
    ng;
    4.Suggest st hathumanact iv
    ityisafuncti
    onofbehav iorandpersonv ar
    iabl
    es,as
    wel lastheenv ir
    onment ;
    and
    5.Bel ievesthatr ei
    nforcementismediat
    edbycogni t
    ion.

    91
    BiographyofAl bertBanduraAlbertBandurawasbor ninCanadain1925,buthehas
    spenthisent ir
    epr ofessi
    onalli
    feintheUni tedStat
    es.Hecompl et
    edaPh. D.i nclini
    cal
    psychologyatt heUni ver
    sit
    yofIowai n1951andsi ncethenhaswor kedal mostent ir
    ely
    atStanf ordUni v
    er si
    ty,wherehecont inuest obet hemostact i
    veofal lper sonali
    ty
    theor
    istsi ninvestigat
    inghisownhy potheses.HumanAgencyBandur abelievest hat
    humanagencyi st heessenceofhumanness;t hati
    s,humansaredefinedbyt heirabili
    ty
    to organize,regulate,and enactbehav i
    orst hattheybeli
    evewillpr oducedesi rable
    consequences.

    Humanagencyhasf ourcoref eat


    ur es:
    1.Intentionality
    , orapr oacti
    vecommi t
    menttoacti
    onsthatmaybri
    ngaboutdesi
    red
    outcomes;
    2.For esight,ort heabili
    tytosetgoal s;
    3.Self-reactiveness,whi ch includes peopl
    e monit
    ori
    ng thei
    rprogr
    ess toward
    ful
    fil
    l
    ingt heirchoices; and
    4.Self-refl
    ectiveness,whi challowspeopletothi
    nkaboutandeval
    uatet
    hei
    rmot i
    ves,
    val
    ues, andl i
    fegoal s.

    Reci procalDeter mini


    sm Soci alcogniti
    vet heor
    yhol dsthathumanf uncti
    oningi s
    mol dedbyt hereciprocalinter acti
    onof( 1)behav i
    or;(2)per sonv ari
    ables,including
    cognition;and( 3)env ir
    onment aleventsamodelBandur acal l
    sr eciprocaldet erminism.
    Diff
    erent i
    alCont ri
    but i
    ons Bandur a does notsuggestt hatt he t hree factorsi nt he
    reci
    pr ocaldet erminism modelmake equalcont r
    ibuti
    ons t o behav ior
    .The r elati
    ve
    i
    nf l
    uenceofbehav ior,envir
    onment ,andpersondependsonwhi chf actorisst r
    ongestat
    anypar ti
    cularmoment .ChanceEncount er
    sandFor t
    uit
    ousEv ent sThel ivesofmany
    peoplehav ebeenf undament all
    ychangedbyachancemeet ingwi thanot herper sonor
    byaf ortuit
    ous,unexpect edev ent .Chanceencountersandf ortuitousev ent sentert he
    reci
    pr ocaldet er
    minism par adigm att heenv i
    ronmentpoi nt
    ,af t
    erwhi chtheyi nfl
    uence
    behav iorinmucht hesamewayasdopl annedev ent
    s.

    Self-System Thesel f-
    system gi v
    essomeconsi stencyto per sonali
    tybyal l
    owi ng
    peoplet oobser veandsy mbol i
    zetheirownbehav i
    orandt oevaluateitont hebasisof
    anti
    cipatedf utureconsequences.Thesel f-
    syst
    em includesbot hself-ef
    ficacyandsel f
    -
    regul
    ation.Self-Eff
    icacyHowpeopl ebehaveinaparticularsi
    tuati
    ondependsi nparton
    thei
    rsel feffi
    cacyt hatis,thei
    rbeliefsthatt
    heycanorcannotexer ci
    set hosebehaviors
    necessar ytobr i
    ngaboutadesi redconsequence.Ef f
    icacyexpect ati
    onsdi f
    ferfr
    om
    outcomeexpect ations,whichr ef
    ert opeopl
    e'spredi
    ctionoft helikel
    yconsequencesof
    thei
    rbehav ior.

    Sel
    fef
    fi
    cacycombi
    neswi
    thenv
    ironment
    alv
    ari
    abl
    es,pr
    evi
    ousbehav
    ior
    s,and ot
    her
    personalvar i
    ablestopr edictbehav i
    or.Iti
    sacquir
    ed,enhanced,ordecreasedbyanyone
    orcombi nationoff oursour ces:
    1.Mast er
    yexper i
    encesorper formance,
    2.Soci almodel i
    ng, orobser vi
    ngsomeoneofequal abil
    it
    ysucceedorf ailatatask;
    3.Soci alpersuasion,orl i
    steni
    ngt oatrust
    edperson'
    sencouragingwor ds;and
    4.Phy sicalandemot ionalstates,suchasanxiet
    yorfear,whichusuallyl
    owersself-
    effi
    cacy .

    High sel f
    -ef f
    icacy and a r esponsive env ironmentar et he bestpr edictors of
    successfulout comes.Pr oxyAgencyBandur ahasr ecentl
    yrecogni zedthei nf l
    uenceof
    proxyagencyt hroughwhi chpeopleex ercisesomepar ti
    alcont roloverev erydayliving.
    Successfullivingi nthe21stcent uryrequirespeopl etoseekspr oxi
    estosuppl yt heir
    food,del
    iverinf ormation,provi
    det r
    ansportation,et c.Wit
    houtt heuseofpr oxi es,moder n
    peoplewoul dbef orcedtospendmostoft hei rt
    imesecur i
    ngt henecessitiesofsur v i
    v al
    .
    Coll
    ecti
    veEf f
    icacyCol l
    ectiveeff
    icacyist hel evelofconf idencet hatpeopl ehav ethat
    thei
    rcombi ned ef for
    tswi l
    lproducesoci alchange.Atl eastf ourfactorscanl ower
    coll
    ecti
    veef fi
    cacy .
    1.Ev entsinot herpartsofthewor l
    dcanl eavepeopl ewi thasenseofhel plessness;
    2.Compl ext echnologycandecr easepeopl e'sperceptionsofcont rolov ert heir
    env i
    ronment ;

    92
    3.Entr
    enchedbur eaucraci
    esdiscouragepeopl
    efr
    om att
    empti
    ngtobr
    ingabout
    soci
    alchange;andf ourt
    h,t
    hesizeandscopeofworl
    dwidepr
    obl
    emscont
    ri
    bute
    topeopl
    e'ssenseofpower l
    essness.

    Sel
    f-
    Regul
    ati
    onbyusi
    ngr
    efl
    ect
    ivet
    hought
    ,humanscanmani
    pul
    atet
    hei
    renv
    ironment
    s
    andproduceconsequencesoft hei
    ractions,gi
    vi
    ngt hem someabili
    tytoregulat
    ethei
    r
    ownbehav i
    or.Bandurabel iev
    est hatbehav i
    orstemsf rom areci
    procalinf
    luenceof
    ext
    ernalandi nt
    ernal
    factors.Twoext er
    nalfact
    orscontri
    butet
    oself
    -r
    egulat
    ion:
    1.St andardsofevaluati
    on,and
    2.Ext ernalr
    einf
    orcement .

    Exter
    nalf
    actorsaffectself -
    regul
    ati
    onbypr ovi
    dingpeoplewithstandar
    dsf
    orev
    aluat
    ing
    thei
    rownbehav i
    or.Inter
    nal requi
    rementsforsel
    fregul
    ati
    oninclude:
    1.Self-
    observationofper for
    mance;
    2.Judgingorev al
    uatingperfor
    mance; and
    3.Self-
    reacti
    ons, i
    ncludingself
    -r
    einf
    orcementorself-
    punishment.

    Internal i
    zedsel fsanct ionspr eventpeopl ef r
    om v iolatingtheirownmor alstandar ds
    eit
    hert hr ough sel ect ive act i
    vation ordi sengagementofi nternalcont r
    ol.Sel ective
    acti
    vationr eferst ot henot i
    ont hatsel f-regul atoryi nfluencesar enotaut omat i
    cbut
    operate onl yi fact i
    v ated.I tal so means t hatpeopl er eactdi f
    ferentl
    yi n different
    sit
    uations,dependi ngont heirev aluationoft hesi t
    uat i
    on.Di sengagementofi nternal
    controlmeanst hatpeopl ear ecapabl eofsepar atingt hemsel vesf rom thenegat ive
    consequences oft hei rbehav i
    or .Peopl ei n ambi guous mor alsi tuat
    ions-who ar e
    uncertaint hatt hei
    rbehav i
    ori sconsi st
    entwi t
    ht heirownsoci alandmor alstandar dsof
    conductmaysepar atet hei rconductf rom i tsi njur i
    ousconsequencest hrough f our
    generalt echni quesofdi sengagementofi nter nalst andar dsorsel ecti
    veact iv
    at i
    on.First
    i
    sr edef ining behav ior,orj ustif
    y i
    ng ot her wise r epr ehensi ble acti
    ons by cogni ti
    vely
    rest
    ructur i
    ngt hem.
    Peoplecanuser edef ini
    tionofbehav iort odi sengaget hemsel vesf rom repr ehensible
    conductby :
    1.Just ify
    ingot her wisecul pablebehav ioronmor al grounds;
    2.Maki ngadv ant ageouscompar i
    sonsbet weent heirbehav iorandt heev enmor e
    repr ehensibl
    ebehav i
    orofot hers; and
    3.Usi ngeuphemi sticl abelst ochanget hemor alt oneoft heirbehavior.Asecond
    met hodofdi sengagementf rom i nt ernalst andar dsi st odistortorobscur et he
    relationshipbet weenbehav i
    orandi tsi njuriousconsequences.

    Peoplecandot hisbymi nimizi


    ng,disregarding,ordistort
    ingt heconsequencesof
    theirbehav i
    or.At hi
    rdsetofdi sengagementpr oceduresinvolvesblami ngt hev i
    cti
    ms.
    Finall
    y ,peoplecandi sengaget heirbehav i
    orf rom it
    sconsequencesbydi splacingor
    diff
    usi ngresponsibi
    l
    ity.Lear
    ningPeopl elearnthroughobser vi
    ngot hersandbyat tendi
    ng
    totheconsequencesoft hei
    rownact ions.AlthoughBandur abelievest hatr ei
    nf orcement
    aidsl earni
    ng,hecont endst hatpeoplecanl earni ntheabsenceofr ei
    nf orcementand
    even ofa r esponse.Obser vati
    onall ear
    ning.Thehear tofobser v
    at i
    onall earning i
    s
    model i
    ng,whi ch is mor et han simplei mi t
    ation,because i tinv olves addi ng and
    subt r
    actingfrom observedbehav i
    or.

    Atl
    eastt
    hreeprinci
    plesi
    nfluencemodeling:
    1.Peopl earemostl i
    kelytomodelhighst at
    uspeopl
    e,
    2.Peopl ewhol ackskil
    l,power,
    orstatusaremostli
    kelyt
    omodel,and
    3.Peopl etendtomodel behav
    iort
    hatt heyseeasbeingr
    ewar
    dingtothemodel
    .

    Bandur arecogni
    zedfourpr ocessesthatgov er
    nobser v
    ati
    onallearning:(1)att
    ent
    ion,
    ornot i
    cingwhatamodeldoes;( 2)representati
    on,orsy mboli
    callyrepresenti
    ngnew
    responsepat ter
    nsinmemor y;(3)behaviorproduct i
    on,orproducingt hebehav i
    ort
    hat
    oneobser ves;and(4)motivati
    on; t
    hati
    s,theobser vermustbemot i
    vatedtoper f
    ormthe
    observedbehav i
    or.Enact
    iveLear ni
    ngAllbehavi
    ori sfoll
    owedbysomeconsequence, but
    whethert hatconsequencer ei
    nforcesthebehav i
    ordependsont heper son'scogni
    tiv
    e

    93
    evaluat
    ionoft hesituat
    ion.Rel atedResear chBandur a'sconceptofsel f-eff
    icacyhas
    generatedagr eatdealofr esear chdemonst r
    atingthatpeopl e'sbeli
    efsar erelatedto
    theirabil
    i
    tytoenactawi dev arietyofper formances,i ncl
    udingst oppi
    ngsmoki ngand
    academi c perf
    ormance.Dy sf
    unct i
    onalBehav iorDy sfunctionalbehav i
    ori sl earned
    throughthemut uali
    nter
    acti
    onoft heperson( i
    ncludi
    ngcogni tiv
    eandneur ophysiological
    processes),theenvi
    ronment( includinginterpersonalrelat
    ions),andbehav ior
    alf act
    ors
    (especial
    lyprev
    iousexperi
    enceswi threi
    nforcement )
    .

    Self-
    Eff
    icacyandSmoki ngCessat i
    onSaulShi ffmanandhi scol l
    eaguesst udi
    edt he
    effectsofdai l
    yfluct
    uat i
    onsinsel feff
    icacyonsmoki nglapsesandr elapsesamongex-
    smoker swhohadqui tont heirownf oratl east24hour s.Theyf oundthatwhent hese
    partici
    pants smoked ev en a si ngle cigarette,theirdail
    ysel feffi
    cacybecame mor e
    variable,l
    eadingt ofuturelapsesand,wi thsomeexsmoker s,acompl eter elapse.Ex-
    smoker swho bel i
    eved int heirabi l
    it
    yt o quitsmoking wer eabl et o mai ntai
    n hi gh
    selfeffi
    cacyandt oavoidlapsesandr elapse.Depr essi
    onPeopl ewhodev el
    opdepr essive
    reactionsoften(1)underestimatet hei
    rsuccessesandov eresti
    mat etheirfai
    lur es,
    ( 2)set
    personal st
    andardstoohi gh,or(3)t r
    eatt hemsel v
    esbadlyf ortheirfaul
    ts.

    Phobi
    as

    Phobi asar elearnedby( 1)di rectcontact,(


    2)inappr opriategener ali
    zation, and( 3)
    observationalexper iences.Oncel earnedt heyaremai ntainedbynegat iver ei
    nfor cement ,
    ast heper soni sreinforcedf orav oi di
    ngf ear-
    producingsi t
    uat i
    ons.Aggr essiveBehav iors
    Whencar riedtoext remes, aggressi vebehav i
    orscanbecomedy sfunctional.Inast udyof
    childr
    enobser vingliveandf il
    medmodel sbeingaggr essi ve,Bandur aandhi sassoci ates
    foundt hataggr essiont endst of ostermor eaggr essi on.Ther apyThegoalofsoci al
    cogniti
    vet herapyi sselfregul at
    ion.Bandur anotedthreel evel
    soft reatment :(
    1)i nduct ion
    ofchange,( 2)gener alization ofchange t o otherappr opr i
    ate situations,and ( 3)
    mai nt
    enance ofnewl y acqui red f unctionalbehav iors.Soci alcogni t
    ivet her apists
    somet i
    mesusesy st emat i
    cdesensi t
    izati
    on,at echniqueai medatdi mi ni
    shingphobi as
    throughr elaxation.Sel f-
    Ef fi
    cacyandAcademi cPer for manceBandur aandagr oupof
    It
    alian resear chers st udied lev els ofsel f
    effi
    cacy and t heirr elat
    ion t o academi c
    performancei nmi ddle-school childrenl i
    vingnearRome.

    Theyf oundt hatchi ldrenwhobel ievedt hattheirparentshadconf idencei nt heir


    academi cabi li
    tywer elikelyt ohav ehi ghacademi caspirati
    ons,hi ghacademi csel f-
    efficacy ,andhi ghsel f
    -regulatoryef f
    icacy,andt hateachoft hesefact orsr el
    atedei t
    her
    directlyori ndirectl
    yt ohi ghacademi cperformance.Cr i
    ti
    queofBandur aBandur a'stheor y
    receiv esthehi ghestmar ksofanyi nthet extlargelybecausei twasconst ructedt hrough
    acar ef ulbalanceofi nnov ati
    v especulati
    onanddat afrom r
    igorousresear ch.I nsummar y
    ,
    the t heor yr ates ver yhi gh on i ts abil
    ityt o generater esearch and on i tsi nternal
    consi stency .Inaddi t i
    on,i trateshi ghonpar si
    monyandoni tsabi l
    it
    yt obef alsif
    ied,
    organi zeknowl edge,andgui det hepr actiti
    oner .ConceptofHumani tyBandur asees
    humansasbei ngrelativelyfluidandf l
    exible.Peopl ecanstorepastexper iencesandt hen
    uset hisinfor mationt ochar tfutureactions.Bandur a'stheoryratesneart hemi ddleon
    tel
    eol ogyv er suscausal i
    tyandhi ghonf reechoi ce,opt i
    mism,consci ousi nf l
    uences,and
    uniqueness.Asasoci alcogni ti
    v etheory,itrat esveryhighonsoci aldet erminant sof
    per sonal i
    ty.

    ROTTERANDMI
    SCHEL:COGNI
    TIVESOCI
    ALLEARNI
    NGTHEORY

    Overvi
    ew ofCogni ti
    veSoci alLearningTheor yBot hJulianRott
    erandWal t
    er
    Mischelbeli
    evet hatcogni
    ti
    vef act
    ors,moret hani mmediaterei
    nfor
    cements,deter
    mine
    how peoplewillreacttoenvir
    onment alf
    orces.Eachsuggest sthatourexpectati
    onsof
    fut
    ureeventsar emajordeterminantsofperformance.BiographyofJuli
    anRot t
    erJuli
    an
    Rott
    erwasbor ni nBrookly
    nin1916.Asahi gh-schoolst
    udent,hebecamef amil
    iarwi
    th
    someoft hewr iti
    ngsofFr eudandAdl er,buthemaj oredi nchemist
    ryr at
    herthan

    94
    psychologywhil
    eatBrooklynColl
    ege.I
    n1941, herecei
    vedaPh. D.incl
    ini
    calpsy
    chology
    fr
    om IndianaUniv
    ersi
    ty.Af
    terWorldWarI I
    ,hetookapositi
    onatOhioState,wher
    eoneof
    hi
    sst udentswasWalterMischel
    .In1963,hemov edtotheUniversi
    tyofConnect
    icutand
    hasremai nedt
    heresi
    nceretir
    ement.I
    ntroduct
    iontoRotter
    's

    Soci alLear ni ngTheor yRot ter'


    sinteract i
    onistposi ti
    onhol dsthathumanbehav ior
    i
    sbasedl ar gel yont heint eractionofpeopl ewi ththei rmeani ngfulenvironment s.Rot ter
    beli
    ev est hat ,althoughper sonal itycanchangeatanyt i
    me,i thasabasi cunitythat
    preser vesi tf rom changi ngasar esultofmi norexper i
    ences.Hi sempi ricallawofef f
    ect
    assumes t hatpeopl e choose a cour se ofact i
    on t hatadv ances them t oward an
    anticipat ed goal .Pr edicting Speci fi
    cBehav iorsHuman behav iorismostaccur ately
    predict ed by an under standi ng off ourv ariables:behav i
    orpot ent ial,expectancy ,
    rei
    nf orcementv alue,and t he psy chologicalsi tuat i
    on.Behav i
    orPot entialBehav ior
    potent iali st hepossi bi
    li
    tyt hatapar t
    icularresponsewi lloccuratagi vent i
    meandpl ace
    i
    nr elationt oi tsl ikelyr einforcement .Expect ancyPeopl e'sexpect ancyi nanygi ven
    sit
    uat ion i st heirconf i
    dence t hata par t
    icul arr einforcementwi l
    lf ollow a speci fic
    behav iori naspeci fi
    csi tuationorsi tuati
    ons.Expect anciescanbeei thergener alor
    speci fi
    c,andt heov eralllikeli
    hoodofsuccessi saf unctionofbot hgener al
    izedand
    speci fi
    c expect anci es.Rei nfor cement Val ue Rei nforcement v al
    ue i s a per son' s
    preferencef oranypar ti
    cul arreinf orcementov erot herr ei
    nf orcementsi fallareequal ly
    l
    ikelyt ooccur .Internalreinf orcementi st heindi vi
    dual '
    sper cept ionofanev ent,
    wher eas
    external r einfor cementr efer stosoci ety'
    sev aluat i
    onofanev ent .

    Rei
    nfor
    cement
    Reinforcementsequencessuggestt hatt hev alueofanev entisaf unctionof
    one' sexpect ationt hatapar t
    icularr einforcementwi l
    ll eadt of ut
    urereinforcement s.
    Psy chol ogicalSi t
    uationThepsy chologi calsi tuationist hatpar toft heext er
    naland
    i
    nt er nalwor l
    dt owhi chaper sonisr espondi ng.Behav i
    ori saf unct i
    onoft heinteracti
    on
    ofpeopl ewi tht heirmeani ngf
    ulenv ir
    onment .BasicPr edictionFor mul aHypotheticall
    y, i
    n
    anyspeci fi
    csi tuat i
    on,behav i
    orcanbepr edictedbyt hebasi cpr edicti
    onformul a,whi ch
    stat est hatthepot ent i
    alforabehav i
    ort ooccuri napar ticularsi tuati
    oninr elat
    iont oa
    givenr einforcementi saf uncti
    onofpeopl e'sexpect ancyt hatt hebehav i
    orwi l
    lbe
    followedbyt hatr einforcementint hatsi t
    uat ion.Pr edi
    cti
    ngGener alBehaviorsThebasi c
    predi cti
    oni st oo speci ficto gi
    vecl uesabouthow aper sonwi llgenerall
    ybehav e.
    Gener ali
    zedExpect anciesTomakemor egener alpr edictionsofbehav ior,onemust
    know peopl e'
    sgener al
    izedexpect ancies,ort heirexpect ati
    onsbasedonsi milarpast
    exper i
    encest hatagi venbehav i
    orwi llber einforced.Gener ali
    zedexpect anciesi ncl
    ude
    peopl e'
    sneeds- t hatis,behavi
    orsthatmov et hem t owardagoal .

    Needs
    Needsr efertofunctionall
    yrel
    atedcat egori
    esofbehav i
    ors.Rot t
    erli
    stedsixbroad
    cat
    egoriesofneeds,wi t
    heachneedbei ngr elat
    edtobehav i
    orst hatleadtot hesameor
    si
    milarrei
    nf orcement s:
    1.Recogni t
    ion-
    statusr eferstotheneedt oexcel,toachiev e,andt ohav eot hers
    recogni zeone'swor th;
    2.Domi nancei stheneedt ocontrolthebehav i
    orofot hers,tobei ncharge,ort o
    gainpowerov erothers;
    3.I ndependencei stheneedt obef reefrom thedominati
    onofot hers;
    4.Pr otect i
    on-dependencyi stheneedt ohav eot
    herstakecar eofusandt oprotect
    usf rom har m;
    5.Lov eandaf fect
    ionar eneedst obewar mlyaccept
    edbyot hersandt obehel din
    fri
    endl yregard;and
    6.Phy sicalcomf ortincludesthosebehav i
    orsai
    medatsecur ingfood,goodheal t
    h,
    andphy sicalsecurit
    y.

    Thr
    eeneedcomponent sar
    e:
    1.Need potent
    ial
    ,ort hepossibl
    eoccur rencesofasetoff uncti
    onal
    lyrel
    ated
    behavior
    sdir
    ectedtowardthesati
    sfact
    ionofsimi l
    argoal
    s;
    2.Freedom ofmov ement
    ,oraper son'
    sov eral
    lexpectat
    ionofbeingrei
    nfor
    cedfor
    perfor
    mingthosebehav i
    orsthatar edirect
    edt owardsati
    sfyi
    ngsomegener al

    95
    need; and
    3.Needv alueort heex t
    entt owhi chpeopl epr ef eronesetofr einf
    or cement sto
    anot her.Needcomponent sar eanal ogoust ot hemor especi ficconcept sof
    behav iorpot ential
    ,expect ancy,and r einforcementv alue.Gener alPr edicti
    on
    For mul aThegener alpr edicti
    onf ormulast atest hatneedpot entialisaf uncti
    on
    off reedom ofmov ementandneedv al
    ue.Rot ter'stwomostf amousscal esfor
    measur inggener ali
    zedexpect anciesaret heI nternal
    -Ext
    ernalCont rolScal eand
    theI nterpersonalTr ustScal e.I
    nternalandExt ernalCont r
    olofRei nfor cementThe
    Internal-External Cont r
    ol Scale(popularl
    ycal l
    ed" locusofcont r
    ol scale")attempts
    tomeasur et hedegr eet owhi chpeopl eper cei veacausalr el
    at i
    onshi pbet ween
    theirownef f
    ortsandenv ir
    onment alconsequences.I nterpersonalTr ustScale
    TheI nter personal TrustScal emeasur estheext enttowhichaper sonexpect sthe
    wor dorpr omi seofanot herpersont obet rue.
    Mal
    adapt
    iveBehavi
    or
    Rotterdef
    inedmaladapt
    ivebehav
    iorasanypersi
    stentbehav i
    orthatfail
    stomove
    apersoncl osert
    oadesi r
    edgoal.Iti
    susuall
    ytheresul
    tofunr eal
    i
    stical
    l
    yhi ghgoal
    sin
    combinati
    onwi thlow abi
    lit
    ytoachievethem.PsychotherapyI ngeneral,thegoalof
    Rott
    er'
    st herapyi
    st oachieveharmonybetweenacl i
    ent'
    sf reedom ofmov ementand
    needvalue.

    Thether
    api
    stisacti
    velyinvol
    v edintryi
    ngto
    1.Changethei mportanceoft hecli
    ent
    'sgoalsand
    2.Eli
    minatetheirunreal
    isti
    cal
    lylowexpectanci
    esforsuccess.

    Changi
    ngGoal sMaladapt i
    vebehav
    ior
    sfol
    l
    ow f
    rom t
    hreecat
    egor
    iesofi
    nappr
    opr
    iat
    e
    goal
    s:
    1.Confli
    ctbetweengoal s,
    2.Destruct
    ivegoals,and
    3.Unreali
    sti
    cal
    lyloft
    ygoals.

    Eli
    mi nat i
    ngLowExpect anciesInhelpingcl i
    ent schangel owexpect anci esofsuccess,
    Rotterusesav ar
    iet
    yofappr oaches,includi ngr einforcingposi ti
    vebehav i
    ors,ignor ing
    i
    nappr opriatebehav i
    ors,givi
    ngadv i
    ce,model i
    ngappr opriat
    ebehav iors,andpoi ntingout
    thelong-rangeconsequencesofbot hposi ti
    v eandnegat i
    vebehav iors.I nt
    roduct iont o
    Mischel's Cogni ti
    ve-Af
    fective Personalit
    ySy stem Li ke Bandur a and Rot ter,Mi schel
    beli
    evest hatcogni t
    ivefactors,suchasexpect anci
    es,subj ect i
    veper ceptions,v al
    ues,
    goals,andper sonalstandards,ar eimpor tanti nshapi ngper sonalit
    y .Inhi sear l
    yt heor y,
    Mischelser i
    ouslyquestionedt heconsi stencyofper sonali
    ty,butmor erecent ly,heand
    YuichiShodahav eadv ancedt henot i
    ont hatbehav iorisal soaf unct i
    onofr elati
    v ely
    stable per sonaldi spositi
    ons and cogni t
    iveaf f
    ecti
    v e processes i nteracting wi t
    ha
    parti
    cularsi tuati
    on.BiographyofWal t
    erMi schelWal t
    erMi schelwasbor ni n1930,i n
    Vienna,thesecondsonofupper -mi ddl
    e-classpar ents.Whent heNazi si nvadedAust ri
    a
    i
    n1938,hi sf ami l
    ymov edt ot heUni tedSt atesandev ent ual
    lyset tledi nBr ookl yn.
    Mischelr ecei v
    edanM. A.f r
    om Ci tyCollegeofNew Yor kandaPh. D.f rom Ohi oSt ate,
    wher ehewasi nfl
    uencedbyJul i
    anRot ter.Hei scur r
    entl
    yapr ofessoratCol umbi a
    Universi
    ty.

    Backgr
    oundoft
    heCogni
    ti
    ve-
    Aff
    ect
    ivePer
    sonal
    it
    ySyst
    em

    Mischelor i
    ginallybeliev edt hathumanbehav i
    orwasmost l
    yaf unctionoft he
    sit
    uation,butpr esentlyhe has r ecognized t he i
    mpor tance ofr el
    ativ
    elyper manent
    cogniti
    ve-af fect
    ive units.Nev er t
    heless,Mi schel'stheor ycont i
    nues t or ecogni ze the
    apparenti nconsi stency ofsome behav i
    or s.Consi stency Par adox The consi stency
    paradoxr ef erstot heobser vationt hat,al
    thoughbot hlay peopleandpr ofessionalst end
    tobelievet hatbehav iorisqui teconsi st
    ent ,researchsuggest sthati tisnot .Mi schel
    recognizest hat
    ,indeed, somet raitsareconsi stentovertime, buthecont endst hatthere
    i
    sl it
    tl
    eev idencet osuggestt hatt heyar econsi stentf r
    om onesi t
    uati
    ont oanot her
    .
    Person-Situat i
    onI nter
    act i
    onMi schelbel i
    ev est hatbehav iorisbestpr edictedf rom an
    understandi ngoft heper son,t hesi t
    uation,andt hei nteracti
    onbet weenper sonand

    96
    si
    tuati
    on.Thus,
    behav
    iorisnott
    heresul
    tofsomeglobal
    per
    sonal
    i
    tyt
    rai
    t,butbypeopl
    e'
    s
    percept
    ionsoft
    hemselv
    esinapart
    icul
    arsi
    tuat
    ion.

    Cogni ti
    ve-Affect ivePer sonalitySy stem Howev er,Mi scheldoesnotbel ievethat
    i
    nconsi st
    enci es in behav iorar e due sol elyt ot he si tuation;he r ecognizes that
    i
    nconsi st
    entbehav ior sr efl
    ectst ablepat ternsofv ariationwi t
    hinaper son.HeandShoda
    seet hesest ablev ariationsi nbehav iorint hef oll
    owingf r
    amewor k:IfA,t henX;buti fB,
    thenY.Peopl e'
    spat ternofv ariabil
    it
    yi sthei rbehav i
    or alsi gnat ureofper sonali
    ty,orthei
    r
    unique and st able pat ter
    n ofbehav ing di f
    fer
    entlyi n di fferentsi tuati
    ons.Behav i
    or
    Predi cti
    onMi schel'sbasi ct heoreti
    calposi tionforpr edi ctingandexpl aini
    ngbehav i
    oris
    asf oll
    ows:I fper sonal i
    tyi sast abl esy stem thatpr ocessesi nfor mationaboutt he
    sit
    uat ion,theni ndividual sencount eringdi fferentsit
    uat ionsshoul dbehav ediff
    erentl
    yas
    sit
    uat ionsv ar y.Ther ef ore,Mi schelbel iev est hat,ev ent houghpeopl e'sbehav iormay
    reflectsomest abili
    tyov ertime,itt endst ov aryassi tuat ionsv ary.Si t
    uationVar i
    ables
    Situat i
    onvar i
    abl esincl udeal lthosest i
    mul i t
    hatpeopl eat t
    endt oinagi vensituati
    on.

    Cognit
    ive-
    Affecti
    veUnitsCogni
    ti
    ve-
    aff
    ectiv
    eunitsincl
    udeall
    thosepsychologi
    cal
    ,
    soci
    al,and physi
    ologicalaspectsofpeoplethatper mitthem tointer
    actwitht hei
    r
    envi
    ronmentwithsomest abi
    l
    ityi
    nthei
    rbehavi
    or.Mischel
    identi
    fi
    edfi
    vesuchunits.

    1.First,ar eencodi ngst rategies,orpeopl e'sindiv i


    dualizedmannerofcat egorizing
    i
    nf ormat i
    ont heyr ecei vef r
    om ext ernal stimuli.
    2.Second,ar e compet enci es and sel f-regulator yst rategies.One oft he most
    i
    mpor tantoft hese compet enci es i si nt
    elligence,whi ch Mi schelar gues i s
    responsi blef ort heappar entconsi st encyofot hert raits.Inaddi ti
    on,peopl euse
    self-regul ator yst rategi est ocont rolt heirownbehav i
    ort hroughsel f-formulat ed
    goal sandsel f-producedconsequences.
    3.Thet hir
    d,cogni tive- aff ecti
    veuni tsar eexpect anciesand bel i
    ef s,orpeopl e's
    guessesaboutt heconsequencesofeachoft hedi fferentbehav ioral possi bi
    liti
    es.
    4.Thef our thcogni tive- af fecti
    ve,uni ti ncl udespeopl e'
    sgoal sandv al ues,whi ch
    tendt or enderbehav iorf ai
    rlyconsi stent .Mischel 'sf if
    thcogni tive-affect i
    veuni t
    i
    ncl udesaf fectiver esponses,i ncludi ngemot ions,f eelings,andt heaf fectst hat
    accompanyphy siologi calr eactions.Rel ated Resear ch The t heor ies ofbot h
    Rot terandMi schelhav espar kedanabundanceofr elatedr esearch, wi thRot ter's
    l
    ocusofcont rolbei ngoneoft hemostf requent lyresear chedar easi npsy chol ogy
    and Mi schel 's not ion ofdel ay ofgr atifi
    cat i
    on and hi s cogni tive-affect i
    v e
    per sonal i
    t ysy stem al sor eceivi
    ngwi deat t
    ent ion.LocusofCont rolandHeal th-
    Rel atedBehav i
    orsOneadj unctoft hel ocusofcont r
    olconcepti st heheal thlocus
    ofcont r
    ol ,andr esear chi nthisar easuggest st hatsel fmast eryofheal thand
    peopl e'sbel iefaboutt hei rpersonalcont r
    olov erheal threlatedbehav iorspr edi ct
    subsequentheal thst atus.

    Thi sbodyofr esear ch hasi ncluded such health-related behav i


    orsassmoki ng,
    abusi ngal cohol,andunwi seeat ing.Ingeneral,thisresear chi ndicatest hatpeopl ehi gh
    oni nternallocusofcont r
    ol,compar edwi t
    ht hosehighonext ernallocusofcont rol,are
    mor el ikelytoenactheal th-r
    elatedbehav i
    ors.AnAnal y sisofReact i
    onst ot heO.J.
    SimpsonVer dictMischel ,Shoda, andt wooftheircoll
    eaguesusedt hecogni t
    ive-aff
    ect iv
    e
    personal it
    ysy stem t oanal yzethev erdi
    ctintheO.J.Si mpsonmur dert ri
    al.Theyf ound
    thatEur opeanAmer icansandAf ricanAmer icanshaddi f f
    erentway sofl ookingatt he
    Simpson v erdict.Al t
    hough t heirr eacti
    ons t ended t of oll
    ow al ong r aciallines,
    participants'r ace itselfwas notas i mpor t
    antas t hei rt hought s and f eeli
    ngs i n
    deter miningt heirreact ionst ot hev erdi
    ct.Mor especifi
    cal ly,Eur opeanAmer icanswho
    agreedwi t
    ht hev er dicthadt hought sandemot i
    onsv er ysi milartot hoseofAf rican
    Amer i
    canswhower eel atedbyt hev er
    dict.

    Moreover
    ,Afri
    canAmericanswhodi sagr
    eedwiththev erdictt
    houghtandf el
    tmuch
    thesameasEur opeanAmericanswhower edismayedbyt henot -
    guil
    tyverdi
    ct.Cri
    tique
    ofCogni t
    iveSoci
    alLear
    ningTheoryCogniti
    vesoci
    allearningt heor
    ycombi nestherigors
    ofl ear
    ningtheorywiththespeculati
    veassumpt i
    ont hatpeopl earef orward-
    looking
    beings.Itrat
    eshighongener ati
    ngresearchandoni nternalconsist
    ency,andi trates

    97
    aboutav erageoni tsabili
    tytobefalsi
    fi
    ed,toorganizedata,andtoguideact i
    on.Concept
    ofHumani tyRotterandMi schelseepeopleasgoal -dir
    ected,cognit
    iveanimalswhose
    percepti
    onsofev entsaremor ecruci
    althant heev entsthemselves.Cogniti
    vesoci al
    l
    earningt heoryrat esv er
    yhi ghonsoci alinf
    luences,andhi ghonuni quenessoft he
    i
    ndividual,f r
    ee choi ce,tel
    eology,and conscious processes.On t he dimension of
    optimism v er
    suspessi mism, Rott
    er'
    sviewissli
    ghtlymor eoptimist
    ic,whereasMischel'
    s
    i
    sabouti nt hemiddl e.

    DI
    SPOSI
    TIONALTHEORI
    ESCATTELANDEYSENCK:TRAI
    TANDFACTORTHEORI
    ES

    Ov erview ofFact orAnal y


    ticTheor yRay mondCat tellandHansEy senckhav e
    eachusedf act oranaly sist oidentif
    yt rai
    ts( t
    hatis,relati
    velyper manentdi spositionsof
    people).Cat tellhasi dent if
    iedal argenumberofper sonalitytrai
    ts,whereasEy senckhas
    extr
    act edonl yt hreegener alfactors.BiographyofRay mondB.Cat tel
    lRay mondB.Cat tel
    l
    wasbor ninEngl andi n1905, educat edatt heUni v
    ersit
    yofLondon, butspentmostofhi s
    professionalcar eerint heUni tedSt ates.Hehel dpositi
    onsatCol umbiaUni versit
    y ,Clark
    University,Har vardUni v ersit
    y,andt heUni ver
    sityofI l
    l
    inois,wher ehespentmostofhi s
    acti
    v ecar eer.Dur i
    ngt hel ast20y earsofhi sl if
    e,hewasassoci atedwi tht heHawai i
    SchoolofPr of essionalPsy chology .Hedi edin1998,af ew weeksshor tofhi s93r d
    bir
    thday .Basi csofFact orAnal y
    sisFact oranal ysi
    si samat hemat i
    calpr ocedur ef or
    reducing a l ar ge numberofscor es toaf ew mor e generalv ari
    ables orf actors.
    Correlati
    onsoft heor iginal,speci f
    icscor eswi ththef actorsarecal l
    edf actorloadi ngs.
    Trait
    sgener at edt hroughf act oranalysismaybeei theruni polar(scal
    edf r
    om zer ot o
    somel argeamount )orbi polar(hav i
    ngt woopposi ngpol es,suchasi ntroversionand
    extr
    av ersion).

    Forfactorstohav epsy chologicalmeani ng,theanal ystmustr otatetheaxeson


    whicht hescor esar epl ott
    ed.Ey senckusedanor thogonalr otat
    ionwher easCat t
    ell
    favoredanobl i
    quer otati
    on.Theobl i
    quer otat
    ionpr ocedur eor dinari
    l
    yr esul
    t si nmor e
    trai
    tsthant heor t
    hogonalmet hod.Int
    r oducti
    ont oCat t ell
    'sTraitTheoryCat t
    ellusedan
    i
    nduct i
    veappr oacht oidenti
    fyt r
    ait
    s;thati s,hebeganwi t
    hal argebodyofdat athathe
    coll
    ectedwi thnopr econceivedhy pothesisort heor y.PTechni queCat t
    ell'
    sPt echnique
    i
    sacor rel
    ati
    onalprocedur ethatusesmeasur escol lect edf r
    om oneper sononmany
    diff
    erentoccasi onsandi shi sattemptt omeasur ei ndi vi
    dualoruni que,r athert han
    common,t rai
    ts.Cattel
    lalsousedt hedR( dif
    ferentialR)t echnique,whichcorr elatest he
    scores ofa l arge numberofpeopl e on manyv ariables obt ai
    ned att wo di fferent
    occasions.Bycombi ning these two t echniques,Cat tellhas measur ed bot h st ates
    (tempor arycondit
    ionswi t
    hinani ndivi
    dual )andt r
    aits( relati
    vel
    yper manentdi sposi tions
    ofani ndivi
    dual)
    .

    Medi
    aofObser vati
    onCat tel
    lusedt hreediffer
    entsour cesofdatathatent erthe
    correlati
    onmat rix:(1)Ldat a,oraper son' sl i
    ferecordt hatcomesf rom obser vat
    ions
    madebyot hers;( 2)Q dat a,whi charebasedonquest ionnair
    es;and( 3)Tdat a,or
    i
    nfor mat i
    on obtained f r
    om obj ecti
    vet ests.Sour ceTr ai
    tsSour cetrai
    tsref ertot he
    under l
    yingfactororf actorsresponsibl
    ef ort heintercorr
    elati
    onamongsur facet r
    aits.
    Theycanbedi stinguishedf r
    om t rai
    ti ndicators,orsur facet r
    ait
    s.Personalit
    yTr ai
    t s
    Personal i
    tytr
    ait
    si ncludebot hcommont raits(sharedbymanypeopl e)anduni quetrai
    ts
    (peculiartooneindi vi
    dual).

    Personal i
    tytrai
    tscanal sobecl assifi
    edi ntotemper ament,mot ivati
    on( dynami c),and
    abil
    ity
    .
    Temper amentt r
    ait
    sar econcer nedwi thhowaper sonbehav es.Oft he35pr imary
    orf ir
    st-ordertrait
    s Cat t
    ellhas i denti
    f i
    ed,allbutone ( i
    ntell
    igence)i s basi call
    ya
    temper amentt rait
    .Oft he23nor malt rai
    ts,16wer eobtainedt hroughQ medi aand
    composeCat tell
    'sfamous16PFscal e.Theaddi t
    ional sevenfactorst hatmakeupt he23
    normalt rai
    ts were origi
    nall
    yi dentifi
    ed onl yt hrough L dat a.Cat t
    ellbelieved that
    pathologicalpeoplehavet hesame23nor mal tr
    aitsasot herpeopl e,but,i
    naddi t
    ion, t
    hey
    exhibi
    toneormor eof12abnor malt rait
    s.Al so,aper son'
    spat hologymaysi mplybedue
    toanor mal tr
    aitthatiscarri
    edtoanext reme.

    98
    Second- Or derTr ai
    tst he35pr i
    mar ysour cet raitst endt ocl ustert oget her , formi ng
    eightcl earl
    yi dent i
    fiabl esecond- or dert r
    ai t
    s.Thet wost rongestoft hesecond- or dert r
    aits
    mi ghtbecal ledext rav er
    sion/ i
    nt roversionandanxi et y.Dy nami cTr aitsI naddi ti
    ont o
    temper amentt raits,Cat t
    ellr ecogni zedmot ivationalordy nami ct rait
    s,whi chi nclude
    attitudes,ergs,andsems.At t
    it
    udesAnat t
    ituder efer st oaspeci fi
    ccour seofact i
    on,or
    desi retoact ,i nr esponset oagi v ensi tuat i
    on.Mot iv ationi susual lyqui tecompl ex,so
    thatanet wor kofmot i
    ves,ordy nami cl attice,i sor di nar i
    lyi nvolvedwi thanat titude.I n
    addi ti
    on,asubsi diationchai n,oracompl exsetofsubgoal s,under li
    esmot ivat ion.Er gs
    Ergsar einnat edr i
    v esormot i
    ves,suchassex,hunger ,loneliness,pi ty,f ear ,cur iosity
    ,
    pride,sensuousness,anger ,andagr eedt hathumansshar ewi thot herpr imat es.Sems
    Semsar elear nedoracqui reddy nami ct r
    aitst hatcansat isfysev eraler gsatt hesame
    ti
    me.Thesel f-
    sent imenti st hemosti mpor tantsem i nt hati tint egratest heot hersems.
    TheDy nami cLat t
    iceThedy nami cl atticei sacompl exnet wor kofat t
    itudes,er gs,and
    semsunder lyingaper son'smot i
    v ational struct ure.Genet icBasi sofTr ait
    sCat t ellandhi s
    colleaguespr ov i
    dedest imat esofher i
    tabi l
    ityoft hev arioussour cet raits.Her itabi l
    it
    yi s
    anest i
    mat eoft heext entt owhi cht hev arianceofagi vent raitisduet oher edi t y.Cat tel
    l
    hasf oundr elativelyhi ghher itabil
    ityv aluesf orbot hf luidi ntelli
    gence( t
    heabi li
    t yt oadapt
    to new mat eri
    al )and cr ystall
    ized i nt el
    ligence ( whi ch depends on pr iorl earning),
    suggest i
    ngt hati ntelligencei sduemor et oher edityt hant oenv ironment .I ntr oduct iont o
    Eysenck' sFact orTheor yCompar edt oCat tell,Ey senck( 1)wasmor el ikelyt ot heor ize
    bef orecollect i
    ngandf actoranal y zingdat a;( 2)ext ract edf ewerf act ors;and( 3)useda
    widerv ari
    et yofappr oachest ogat herdat a.Bi ogr aphyofHansJ.Ey senckHansJ.
    Eysenckwasbor ni nBer l
    ini n1916,butasat eenager ,hemov edt oEngl andt oescape
    Nazit y
    rannyandmadeLondonhi shomef ormor et han60y ears.Ey senckwast rainedi n
    thepsy chomet ri
    cal l
    yor i
    entedpsy chologydepar t
    mentoft heUni versityofLondon,f rom
    whi chher ecei vedabachel or'sdegr eei n1938andaPh. D.in1940.

    Eysenckwasper hapst hemostpr oli


    fi
    cwr i
    terofanypsy chologisti
    nt hewor l
    d,
    andhisbooksandar ti
    clesoftencausedwor ld-wi
    decont r
    oversy.Hedi edinSept ember
    of1997.Measur ingPer sonali
    tyEy senckbel i
    evedt hatgeneti
    cf act
    orswer ef armor e
    i
    mpor tantthanenv ir
    onment alonesi nshapingpersonalit
    yandt hatpersonaltrai
    tscould
    bemeasur edbyst andardi
    zedper sonalit
    yi nvent
    ories.Cri
    teri
    af orIdenti
    fyi
    ngFact ors
    Eysencki nsist
    edt hatpersonalit
    yf actor
    smust( 1)bebasedonst rongpsy chomet r
    ic
    evi
    dence,( 2)mustpossessher i
    tabil
    it
    yandf i
    tanaccept ablegeneti
    cmodel ,(3)make
    senset heoreti
    cal
    l
    y ,and(4)possesssoci alrel
    evance.

    HierarchyofMeasur esEy senckr ecogniz edaf our-lev elhi er archyofbehav ior


    organi zation:( 1)speci f
    icactsorcogni tions;(2)habi tualact sorcogni tions;( 3)t raits,or
    per sonaldi sposi t
    ions;and ( 4)types orsuper factors.Di mensi ons ofPer sonal i
    ty
    Eysenck' smet hodsofmeasur ingper sonalitylimitedt henumberofper sonal it
    yt y pest o
    ar elat
    ivelysmal lnumber .Al
    thoughmanyt rait
    sexi st,Eysencki dent i
    fiedonl ythr eemaj or
    types.WhatAr et heMaj orPersonali
    tyFact ors?Ey senck'st heor yr ev olv esar oundonl y
    three gener al bi polar types: extrav er
    sion/ i
    ntroversion, neur oticism/ stabi l
    it
    y , and
    psy choticism/ super egof uncti
    on.Allthreehav east ronggenet i
    ccomponent .Ext raver ts
    arechar acterizedbysoci abi
    li
    ty,i
    mpul si
    v eness, j
    ocular i
    ty,l
    iveliness, opt i
    mi sm, andqui ck-
    wittedness,wher eas i ntr
    overts are qui et,passi ve,unsoci abl e,car eful,r eser v ed,
    thought ful,pessi mi st
    ic,peaceful
    ,sober ,andcont roll
    ed.Ey senck,howev er,bel i
    ev est hat
    thepr incipal differencesbet weenext ravertsandi ntr
    ov ert
    si soneofcor ticalar ousal lev el.
    Neur otict r
    aitsi nclude anxiety,hysteria,and obsessi v e compul siv e di sorder s.Bot h
    nor maland abnor mali ndivi
    dualsmayscor ehi gh on t heneur oticism scal eoft he
    Eysenck' sv ari
    ousper sonali
    tyinventories.Peopl ewhoscor ehi ghont hepsy chot i
    cism
    scal eareegocent r
    ic,cold,nonconforming, aggr essive,impul sive, host il
    e, suspi cious, and
    ant i
    social.Ment endt oscor ehigherthanwomenonpsy chot icism.

    Measuri
    ngSuperfact
    orsEy senckandhi scol leaguesdevel
    opedf ourpersonali
    ty
    i
    nv ent
    ories to measure superf
    actors,ort ypes.The t wo mostPage 36 of 52
    ASLagnadaI I
    I/
    090213TheoriesOfPer sonalitySummar izedfr
    equent
    lyusedbycur rent
    resear
    cher saretheEysenckPersonalit
    yI nv
    entory( whichmeasuresonl yEandN)and
    theEy senckPersonal
    ityQuesti
    onnaire( whichal someasur esP).BiologicalBasesof
    Personalit
    yEysenckbeli
    evedthatP,E,andNal lhaveapower fulbi
    ologicalcomponent,

    99
    andheci tedasev idencet heexistenceoft heset hreet ypesi nawi dev ari
    etyofnat i
    ons
    andl anguages.Per sonali
    tyandBehav i
    orEysenckar guedt hatdifferentcombi nati
    onsof
    P,EandN r elatet oal argenumberofbehav i
    orsandpr ocesses,suchasacademi c
    performance, creati
    vit
    y,andant isocialbehavior.Hecaut ionedt hatpsy chol ogist
    scanbe
    misledi ft heydonotconsi dert hev ari
    ouscombi nationsofper sonal i
    tydi mensions.
    Personal i
    tyandDi seaseFormanyy ears,Eysenckr esear chedt her el
    ationshipbet ween
    personal i
    tyfact orsanddi sease.Het eamedwi thRonal dGr ossar th-
    Mat icekt ostudythe
    connect i
    onbet weenchar acteri
    sticsandbot hcancerandcar diovascul ardiseaseand
    foundt hatpeopl ewithahel pless/hopelessat t
    itudewer emor elikel
    yt odi efrom cancer,
    wher easpeopl ewhor eact edtof r
    ustrati
    onwi thangerandemot ionalar ousalwer emuch
    mor elikel
    yt odi efrom cardiovasculardisease.

    RelatedResear cht het heor iesofbot hCat tellandEy senckhav ebeenhi ghly
    product ivei nt erms ofr esear ch,due i n par tt o Cat tel
    l'
    s 16 PF quest i
    onnai r
    e and
    Eysenck' sv ari
    ous per sonalityi nv entor ies.Some oft hi
    sr esear ch has l ooked at
    per sonal it
    yf actorsandt hecr eativ i
    tyofsci ent i
    st sandar ti
    st s.Inaddi tion,someof
    Eysenck' sr esearchat tempt edt oshowabi ologicalbasi sofper sonal ity.Personal i
    ti
    esof
    Creat iveSci enti
    stsand Ar ti
    stsEar lyr esear ch usi ng t he16 PF f ound t hatcr eative
    scient istscompar edwi thei t
    hert hegener alpopul at ionorl esscr eativesci ent i
    sts,wer e
    mor ei ntell
    igent,out going,adv ent urous,sensi t
    iv e,sel f
    suffi
    cient ,domi nant,anddr i
    ven.
    Otherr esearchf oundt hatf emal esci ent ists,compar edt oot herwomen,wer emor e
    domi nant ,confident, i
    ntell
    igent,radi cal,andadv ent urous.Resear chont heper sonalit
    yof
    artistsf ound thatwr i
    tersand ar tist swer emor ei ntelli
    gent,domi nant,adv enturous,
    emot ionallysensi t
    ive, r
    adical,andsel f-
    suf ficientt hanot herpeopl e.Lat erresear chfound
    thatcr eativear ti
    stsscor edhi ghonEy senck' sneur oti
    cism andpsy choticism scal es,
    i
    ndi cat ingt hatt heywer emor eanxi ous,sensi tiv
    e,obsessi ve,i mpul sive,host il
    e,and
    willingt otaker iskst hanot herpeopl e.Bi ol ogyandPer sonalit
    yIfper sonalityhasast r
    ong
    biologi calf oundat i
    on,t henr esear cher sshoul df indv erysimi larper sonal i
    tyt ypesi n
    variouscul turesaroundt hewor l
    d.
    Studi esi n24count ri
    esf oundahi ghdegr eeofsi mi lar it
    yamongt hesedi ff
    erentcul t
    ures.
    Eysenck' slaterwor ki nvestigatedper sonal ityfact orsacr oss35Eur opean, Asi an, Afri
    can,
    and Amer i
    cancul turesand f ound t hatper sonal ityf actorsar equi t
    euni ver sal
    ,thus
    suppor tingt hebi ologicalnat ureofper sonal it
    y .Cr itiqueofTr aitandFact orTheor ies
    Cat telland Ey senck' st heoriesr at ehi gh on par si mony ,on t heirabi l
    it
    yt o gener ate
    resear ch,and on t heirusef ulness i n or ganizing dat a;theyar e aboutav erage on
    falsifi
    abi li
    ty,usefulnesst ot hepr actitioner ,andi nter nal consistency .

    ConceptofHumani t
    yCat tellandEy senckbel i
    evet hathumanper sonal i
    tyis
    l
    ar gel yt hepr oductofgenet i
    csandnott heenv ironment .Thus,bot harer atedv eryhigh
    onbi ologi cali nfluencesandv eryl ow onsoci alf act
    ors.I naddi ti
    on,bot hr ateabout
    av er ageonconsci ousv ersusunconsci ousi nfluencesandhi ghont heuni quenessof
    i
    ndi v idual s.Theconcept soff reechoi ce,opt i
    mi sm v ersuspessi mism,andcausal it
    y
    ver sus t eleology do not appl y t o Cat tell and Ey senck. Page 37 of 52
    ASLagnadaI II/090213 Theor i
    es OfPer sonal itySummar i
    zed St r
    ucture ofPer sonalit
    y
    Accor dingt oAl lport,t hebasi cuni tsofper sonal ityareper sonaldi spositionsandt he
    propr ium. ALLPORT: PSYCHOLOGY OF THE I NDIVIDUAL Ov er
    v i
    ew of Al lport'
    s
    Psy chol ogy oft he Indi vidualGor don Al l
    por t,whose maj oremphasi s was on t he
    uni quenessofeachi ndi vidual,builtat heor yofper sonali
    tyasar eacti
    onagai nstwhathe
    regar dedast henon- humani sticposi tionsofbot hpsy choanal ysisandani mal -based
    l
    ear ningt heory .Howev er,Al l
    portwasecl ecti
    ci nhi sapproachandaccept edmanyoft he
    i
    deasofot hert heorists.Bi ographyofGor donAl lpor
    tGor donW.Al lportwasbor nin
    Indi anai n1897.Her ecei vedanunder graduat edegr eei nphi l
    osophyandeconomi cs
    from Har vard,andt aughti nEur opef oray ear .Whi l
    ei nEur ope,hehadaf ort
    uitous
    meet i
    ngwi t
    hSi gmundFr eudi nVienna,whi chhel pedhi m deci det ocompl eteaPh. D.in
    psy chol ogy .Af terr ecei vinghi sPh. D.f rom Har vard,Allportspentt woy ear sst udy i
    ng
    undersomeoft hegr eatGer manpsy chol ogists, buther eturnedt oteachatHar vard.Two
    year sl aterhet ookaposi tionatDar tmout h,butaf terfoury earsatDar tmout h,heagai n
    retur nedt oHar vard,wher eher emai nedunt ilhi sdeat hi n1967.Al l
    port'
    sAppr oacht o
    Per sonal ityAl lpor tbel iev ed thatpsy chol ogi callyheal thyhumans ar e mot ivat
    ed by
    present ,most l
    yconsci ousdr i
    vesandt hatt heynotonl yseekt oreducet ensi onsbutt o
    est abl ishnew ones.Heal sobel ievedt hatpeopl ear ecapabl eofpr oact i
    vebehav i
    or,

    100
    whi
    chsuggest
    sthatt
    heycanconsci
    ousl
    ybehav
    einnewandcr
    eat
    iveway
    sthatf
    ost
    er
    t
    hei
    rownchangeandgrowt
    h.

    Hecal ledhi sstudyoft heindivi


    dualmor phogenicscienceandcont rast editwi th
    traditionalnomot heticmet hods.Per sonalityDef i
    nedAl l
    portdef inedpersonal it
    yas" the
    dy nami c or gani zati
    on wi thint he indivi
    dualoft hose psy chophysi
    calsy stems t hat
    det ermi ne his char acter
    istic behav i
    orand t hought .
    "Per sonalDi spositions Al lpor t
    distingui shedbet weencommont rait
    s,whi chper mitinter-
    indivi
    dualcompar isons,and
    per sonaldi sposi ti
    ons,whi ch ar e peculiartot he indivi
    dual .He r ecogni zed thr ee
    ov erlappi nglev elsofper sonaldi spositi
    ons,t hemostgener alofwhi char ecar dinal
    disposi tionst hatar esoobv iousanddomi nat
    ingt hattheycannotbehi ddenf rom ot her
    peopl e.Notev eryonehasacar dinaldisposit
    ion,butal lpeopl ehav e5t o10cent ral
    disposi tions,orchar act
    eri
    st i
    csar oundwhi chthei rl
    ivesrevolve.Inaddit
    ion,ev eryonehas
    agr eatnumberofsecondar ydi sposit
    ions,whichar elessr eli
    ableandl essconspi cuous
    thancent ral
    traits.

    All
    portfurtherdi vi
    dedper sonaldi spositionsi nto( 1)mot i
    vati
    onaldisposi t
    ions,
    whichar est r
    ongenought oi niti
    ateact ionand( 2)st yli
    sti
    cdi sposit
    ions,whichr efert o
    themanneri nwhi chani ndividualbehav esandwhi chguider at
    herthani ni
    tiateact ion.
    Proprium Thepr opr i
    um r eferst oal lt hosebehav i
    orsandchar act
    erist
    icsthatpeopl e
    regar
    daswar m andcent ralint hei
    rlives.Al lportpr efer
    redthet er
    m proprium ov ersel for
    egobecauset helattertermscoul dimpl yanobj ectort hi
    ngwi thinaper sonthatcont rols
    behavior,whereaspr opri
    um suggest st hecor eofone' sper sonhood.Mot i
    vationAl lport
    i
    nsistedt hatanadequat et heor yofmot i
    v ati
    onmustconsi dert henot i
    onthatmot ives
    changeaspeopl emat ureandal sot hatpeopl ear emot ivatedbypr esentdr iv
    esand
    wants.React i
    veandPr oactiveTheor iesofMot ivationToAl lpor t,
    peoplenotonl yr eactt o
    thei
    renv ir
    onment ,butt heyal soshapet heirenv ironmentandcausei ttoreactt ot hem.
    Hispr oacti
    veappr oachemphasi zedt hei deat hatpeopl eoftenseekaddi ti
    onalt ensi on
    andthatt heypurposef ull
    yactont heirenv i
    ronmenti nawayt hatfostersgrowt ht owar d
    psychologicalhealth.

    Funct i
    onalAut onomyAl lport'
    smostdi sti
    nctiveandcont roversialconcepti shi s
    theoryoff uncti
    onalaut onomy ,whi chhol dsthatsome( butnotal l
    )humanmot i
    v esar e
    functi
    onal lyindependentf rom t heor iginalmot i
    ver esponsi blef orapar ti
    cularbehav i
    or .
    All
    portr ecognized t wo l evels off unctionalaut onomy :( 1)per sever ati
    vef unctional
    autonomy ,whichi sthet endencyofcer tainbasicbehav i
    ors( suchasaddi ctivebehav i
    or s)
    tocont inuei nt heabsenceofr ei
    nforcement ,and( 2)pr opr i
    atef unctionalaut onomy ,
    which ref erst o selfsust ai
    ning mot ives (such as i nterests)t hatar er elated tot he
    propri
    um.Consci ous and Unconsci ous Mot i
    vation Al though Al l
    por t emphasi z
    ed
    consciousmot ivati
    onmor ethananyot herpersonal itytheor i
    st,hedi dnotcompl etel y
    overl
    ookt hepossi bleinfluenceofunconsci ousmot i
    v esonpat hologicalbehav ior
    s.Most
    people,howev er,ar eawar eofwhatt heyar edoi ngandwhyt heyar edoi ngi t.The
    Psychologi call
    yHeal thyPer sonal it
    yAl lportbeli
    evedt hatpeopl ear emot ivatedbybot h
    theneedt oadj usttot heirenv ironmentandt ogr owt owardpsy chologicalheal th;thati s,
    peoplear ebot hr eactiv
    eandpr oactive.Nev ert
    heless,psy chologicall
    yheal thyper sons
    aremor el ikel
    yt oengagei npr oact i
    vebehav i
    ors.

    Al
    lportlistedsi xcri
    ter i
    af orpsy chologicalheal t
    h:( 1)anextensi
    onoft hesenseof
    self
    ,(2)war mr el ati
    onshipswi t
    hot her s,(3)emot ionalsecur i
    tyorself
    -accept ance,(4)a
    real
    ist
    icv i
    ew oft hewor l
    d,( 5)insightandhumor ,and( 6)auni f
    yingphilosophyofl if
    e.
    TheSt udyoft heI ndivi
    dualAl l
    por tstrongl yfeltthatpsy chologyshoulddev el
    opanduse
    researchmet hodst hatstudyt hei ndividualr at
    hert hangr oups.Mor phogeni cScience
    Tradit
    ionalpsy chol ogyreliesonnomot het i
    csci ence,whi chseeksgener all awsf rom a
    studyofgr oupsofpeopl e,butAl l
    portusedi diographicormor phogenicpr ocedurest hat
    studyt hesinglecase.Unl ikemanypsy chologists,All
    por twaswi l
    li
    ngt oacceptsel f
    -
    report
    satf acev alue.

    TheDi ar
    iesofMar i
    onTaylorI
    nt hel at
    e1930's,All
    portandhiswi febecame
    acquai
    ntedwithdiar
    ieswri
    tt
    enbywomant heycall
    edMar i
    onTaylor
    .Thesediari
    es-
    along
    wit
    hdescript
    ionsofMarionTay
    lorbyhermot her
    ,youngersi
    ster
    ,fav
    ori
    teteacher
    ,fr
    iends,

    101
    andanei ghbor -
    prov idedt heAl l
    portswi thal ar gequant i
    tyofmat er i
    alt hatcoul dbe
    studi edusi ngmor phogeni cmet hods.Howev er ,theAl l
    portsnev erpubl ishedt hismat erial
    .
    Letter sf r
    om JennyEv ent houghAl lpor tnev erpubl isheddat af rom Mar i
    onTay lor'
    s
    dairies,hedi dpubl i
    shasecondcasest udy -thatofJennyGov eMast er son.Jennyhad
    wr i
    ttenaser i
    esof301l etterst oGor donandAdaAl lpor t
    ,whosesonhadbeena
    roommat eofJenny '
    sson.TwoofGor donAl l
    por t'sst udent s,Al f
    redBal dwi nandJef frey
    Paigeusedaper sonalst ruct ureanal y sisandf act oranal ysisr espect i
    v ely,whileAl lpor t
    usedacommonsenseappr oacht odi scer nJenny '
    sper sonal i
    tyst ructur easr evealedby
    her l et
    ters.Al lt hree appr oaches y i
    elded si mi l
    ar resul ts,whi ch suggest st hat
    mor phogeni cst udiescanber el
    iable.Rel at edResear chAl l
    por tbel iev edt hatadeep
    reli
    giouscommi tmentwasamar kofamat ur eper son, butheal sosawt hatmanyr egul ar
    chur chgoer sdi dnothav eamat urereligiousor ient ati
    onandwer ecapabl eofdeepr aci al
    andsoci alpr ejudice.I not herwor ds,hesaw acur vil
    inearr elati
    onshi pbet weenchur ch
    attendanceandpr ejudice.TheRel i
    giousOr ient ationScal eThi si nsightl edAl l
    por tt o
    dev elopanduset heRel i
    giousOr i
    entat ionScal et oassessbot hani ntrinsicor i
    entat ion
    andanext rinsicor i
    ent ati
    ont owar drel igion.Al l
    por tandRossf oundt hatpeopl ewi than
    extrinsicor ientati
    ont owar dr eli
    giont endt obequi tepr ejudiced,wher east hosewi than
    i
    nt r
    insi corientationt endt obel ow onr acialandsoci alpr ejudice.Rel igiousOr i
    entat ion
    and Psy chol ogicalHeal t
    h Resear ch hasf ound t hatpeopl ewho scor ehi gh on t he
    Intri
    nsi cscal eoft heROSt endt ohav eov erallbet terper sonalf unct ioningt hant hose
    whoscor ehi ghont heExt rinsicscal e.I ngener al,thesest udieshav ef oundt hatsome
    highlyr eli
    gi ouspeopl ehav est rongpsy chol ogicalheal t
    hwher easot her ssuf ferfrom a
    varietyofpsy chological disor ders.

    Thepr i
    ncipaldi f
    ferencebet weent het wogr oupsi soneofi ntri
    nsicorex t
    ri
    nsic
    rel
    igi
    ous or i
    entati
    on;t hat is,peopl e wi th an i ntri
    nsic or ientati
    on t end t o be
    psychologi
    call
    y healthy,butt hose wi th an extrinsic ori
    entat i
    on suf ferf rom poor
    psychologi
    calhealth.Criti
    queofAl lportAllporthaswr i
    tteneloquent l
    yaboutper sonal
    it
    y,
    buthisv i
    ewsarebasedmor eonphi l
    osophi calspeculati
    onandcommonsenset hanon
    sci
    entif
    icstudi
    es.Asaconsequence, histheoryisverynar r
    ow, beinglimitedmost l
    ytoa
    modelofhumanmot ivati
    on.Thus,i tratesl ow oni t
    sabi l
    i
    t ytoor ganizepsy chologi
    cal
    dataandt obef alsif
    ied.Itrateshighonpar simonyandi nternalconsi stencyandabout
    averageonitsabil
    itytogener ateresearchandt ohelpthepr acti
    tioner .

    ConceptofHumani t
    yAl l
    portsawpeopleast hi
    nki
    ng,proacti
    ve,pur
    poseful
    bei
    ngs
    whoar egenerall
    yawareofwhatt heyaredoingandwhy .Ont hesixdimensi
    onsfora
    conceptofhumani ty,Allportr at
    es hi
    ghert han any othert heor
    iston consci
    ous
    i
    nfluencesand on t heuni quenessoft heindivi
    dual.Her ateshigh on fr
    eechoice,
    optimism,andt el
    eol
    ogy,andaboutav er
    ageonsoci ali
    nfl
    uences.

    HUMANI
    STI
    C/EXI
    STENTI
    ALTHEORI
    ESKELLY:PERSONALCONSTRUCTTHEORY

    Ov erview ofKel l
    y's PersonalConst ructTheor y Kel l
    y'
    st heory ofper sonal
    constructscanbeseenasamet atheor y,orat heor yaboutt heori
    es.I tholdsthatpeopl e
    anti
    cipateev ent sbyt hemeani ngsori nterpretationst hattheypl aceont hoseev ents.
    Kell
    ycal ledt hesei nter
    pret
    ationsper sonalconst ructs.Hisphi l
    osophi calpositi
    on,cal l
    ed
    constructiveal ternati
    vi
    sm,assumest hatal t
    ernativei nt
    erpretat
    ionsar ealway sav ailabl
    e
    topeopl e.Biogr aphyofGeor geKellyGeor geKel l
    ywasbor nonaf ar mi nKansasi n1905.
    Duringhi sschooly earsandhi searlypr ofessi
    onalcar eer,hedabbledi nawi devarietyof
    j
    obs,butheev entuall
    yrecei
    v edaPh. D.i npsy chol ogyfrom theSt ateUni versi
    tyofI owa.
    Hebeganhi sacademi ccareeratFor tHay sSt ateCol legeinKansas,t henaf terWor l
    d
    WarI I
    ,het ookaposi ti
    onatOhi oState.Her emai nedt hereunt i
    l1965whenhej oinedt he
    facult
    yatBr andei s.Hediedtwoy earsl ateratage61.

    Kelly
    's Phil
    osophicalPosi ti
    on Kelly bel
    ieved that people const r
    ue events
    accordi
    ngt otheirpersonalconst r
    uctsratherthanr eal
    i
    ty.PersonasSci enti
    stPeople
    general
    l
    yat tempttosol v
    eev erydayproblemsi nmucht hesamef ashionassci enti
    sts;
    thati
    s,theyobserve,askquestions,for
    mulatehypotheses,i
    nferconclusions,andpredi
    ct
    futur
    eev ent
    s.Scient
    istasPer sonBecausesci enti
    stsarepeople,t
    heirpr onouncements

    102
    shouldber egardedwi t
    ht hesameskept icism asanyot herdat a.Ever yscientif
    ictheory
    canbev i
    ewedf r
    om anal ternateangle,andev er
    ycompet entsci
    enti
    stshoul dbeopent o
    changinghi sorhert heory.Page40of52ASLagnadaI I
    I/090213Theor i
    esOfPer sonalit
    y
    Summar i
    zedConst ructiveAl t
    ernativi
    sm Kel l
    ybeliev
    edt hatallourinter pretat
    ionsoft he
    wor l
    dar esubjectt or ev i
    sionorr epl
    acement ,anassumpt ionhecal ledconst ructi
    ve
    alt
    ernativi
    sm.Hef urtherst r
    essedt hat,becausepeopl ecanconst ruet heirworldf r
    om
    diff
    erentangles,obser vationsthatar ev al
    idatonet imemaybef al seatal atertime.
    Personal Const
    ructsKel lybelievedthatpeopl elookatthei rworl
    dthrought emplatesthat
    theycr eateandt henat temptt ofitovert her eal
    it
    iesoft hewor ld.Hecal l
    edt hese
    templates ort ranspar entpat terns personalconst ructs,whi ch he bel i
    eved shape
    behav i
    or.

    BasicPost ulateKel l
    yexpr essedhi st heoryi nonebasi cpost ulateand11suppor ting
    corol
    lar
    ies.Thebasi cpost ulat eassumest hathumanbehav i
    ori sshapedbyt heway
    peopleanticipatet hef ut ure.Suppor ti
    ngCor ol l
    ariesthe11suppor ti
    ngcor ol l
    ar i
    escanal l
    beinfer
    redf rom t hisbasi cpost ulate:
    1.Al thoughnot woev ent sar eexact lyal i
    ke,weconst ruesi milarev ent sasi ft hey
    wer et hesame, andt hisi sKel l
    y '
    sconst ructioncor ollary.
    2.Thei ndiv i
    dual i
    tycor ol l
    ar yst atest hatbecausepeopl ehav edifferentexper iences,
    theycanconst ruet hesameev entindi fferentway s.
    3.The or gani zation cor ol lary assumes t hat peopl e or ganize t heir per sonal
    const ructsi nahi er ar chi calsy stem,wi t
    hsomeconst ructsi nasuper or dinate
    positionandot her ssubor dinat etot hem.
    4.Thedi chot omycor ollar yassumest hatpeopl econst rueev ent si nanei ther/or
    manner ,e.g.,goodorbad.
    5.Kel ly'
    schoi cecor ol l
    ar yassumest hatpeopl et endt ochooset heal ternativ eina
    dichot omi zedconst ructt hatt heyseeasext endi ngt her angeoft heirf uture
    choices.
    6.Ther angecor oll
    ar yst at est hatconst r
    uct sar elimi tedt oapar t
    icul arr angeof
    conv enience; t
    hati s, theyar enotr elev antt oallsituat i
    ons.
    7.Kel ly'
    sexper iencecor ol larysuggest st hatpeopl econt i
    nual l
    yr ev i
    set hei rper sonal
    const ructsast her esul toft hei rexper iences.
    8.The modul at i
    on cor ollar yassumes t hatonl yper meabl e const ruct sl ead t o
    change; concr eteconst ruct sr esistmodi fi
    cat i
    ont hroughexper ience.
    9.Thef ragment ationcor ollaryst atest hatpeopl e'
    sbehav iorcanbei nconsi stent
    becauset hei rconst ructsy stemscanr eadi l
    yadmi tincompat ibleel ement s.
    10.Thecommonal it
    ycor ol l
    ar ysuggest st hatourper sonalconst r
    uct st endt obe
    similart ot heconst ruct ionsy stemsofot herpeopl et ot heext entt hatweshar e
    exper i
    enceswi tht hem.
    11.Thesoci al i
    tycor ollaryst atest hatpeopl ear eabl et ocommuni cat ewi thot her
    peopl e because t hey can const rue t hose peopl e's const ructions.Wi tht he
    socialitycor oll
    ar y,Kel l
    yi ntroducedt heconceptofr ole,whi chr eferst oapat tern
    ofbehav iort hatst emsf rom peopl e'sunder standingoft heconst ruct sofot her s.
    Eachofushasacor er ol eandnumer ousper i
    pheral roles.

    Acor er olegivesusasenseofi denti


    tywher easper ipheralrolesar el esscent ralto
    oursel f-
    concept .Appl i
    cat i
    onsofPer sonalConst ructTheor yKel ly'
    smanyy earsof
    cli
    nicalexper i
    ence enabl ed hi m to ev ol
    v e concept sofabnor maldev elopmentand
    psy chother apy ,and t o dev elop a Rol e Const ructReper tory( Rep)Test .Abnor mal
    Dev elopmentKel l
    ysaw nor malpeopl easanal ogoust ocompet entsci entistswhot est
    reasonabl ehy potheses,obj ectivel
    yv iew ther esults,andwi ll
    ingl
    ychanget heirtheories
    whent hedat awar rantit
    .Si mi l
    arl
    y,unhealthypeopl ear eli
    keincompet entsci entist
    swho
    testunr easonabl ehy potheses,r ej
    ectordi stor tl
    egi ti
    mater esult
    s,andr efuset oamend
    outdat edt heor i
    es.Kel l
    yident if
    iedfourcommonel ement si nmosthumandi sturbances:
    (1)t hreat,ort heper ceptiont hatone'sbasi cconst r uctsmaybedr asti
    callychanged;( 2)
    fear,whi chr equir
    esani ncidentalrathert hanacompr ehensiver estructuringofone' s
    const ructsy stem;( 3)anxi ety,orther ecognitionthatonecannotadequat elydealwi t
    ha
    new si t
    uat i
    on;and ( 4)gui lt,defined as" the sense ofhav i
    ng l ostone' scor er ole
    structure."

    103
    PsychotherapyKel l
    yinsistedthatcl i
    entsshoul dsett heirowngoal sf ortherapyand
    thattheyshoul dbeact ivepar t
    ici
    pantsint het herapeut i
    cpr ocess.Hesomet imesuseda
    procedurecal ledfixed-r
    olet herapyi nwhi chcl i
    entsactoutapr edeterminedr olef or
    severalweeks.Bypl ayi
    ngt hepar tofapsy chologicall
    yheal t
    hyper son,cl ient
    smay
    discoverpreviouslyhiddenaspect soft hemsel v es.TheRepTestThepur poseoft heRep
    testistodiscov erway sinwhi chclientsconst ruesi gnif
    icantpeopleinthei rl
    ives.Cl i
    ents
    placenamesofpeopl etheyknowonar epertor ygridinor dertoidenti
    fybot hsimilarit
    ies
    anddi f
    ferencesamongt hesepeopl e.RelatedResear chKel l
    y'spersonalconstructt heory
    andhi sRept esthav egener atedasubst anti
    alamountofempi ri
    calresear chinbot ht he
    UnitedStatesandt heUnitedKi ngdom.

    TheRepTestandChi l
    drenUseoft heRept estwi t
    hchi l
    drenr ev ealst hatthesel f-
    const ruct sofdepr essedadol escent sar emar kedbyl owsel festeem, pessi mism, andan
    externall ocusofcont rol.Ot herr esear chwi thchi l
    drenandt heRept estshowst hat
    preadol escent sconst ruet hemsel vesandot hersi nway sconsi st entwi tht heBigFi ve
    personal i
    tyfact ors(ext r
    av ersion,agr eeabl eness,consci entiousness,emot i
    onalstabil
    ity,
    and i ntell
    igence) ,thus demonst rat ing t hatt he Bi g Fiv
    ef act or s can come f rom
    i
    nst rument sot hert hanst andar dper sonal i
    tyt ests.TheRepTestandt heRealSel f
    Versust heI dealSel fOt herr esear chhasf oundt hattheRept estwasusef ulin( 1)
    predict ingadher encet oaphy sicalact i
    vitypr ogram,( 2)det ectingdi fferencesbet ween
    ther eal selfandt heideal self,and( 3)measur ingneur oti
    cism.TheRepTestandt hePai n
    PatientAnumberofst udies,i ncludi ngt heLar geandSt rong( 1997)st udy,hav efound
    thatt heRept estcanbear el
    iableandv al
    idi nstrumentf ormeasur i
    ngpai n.Crit
    iqueof
    KellyKel ly'
    st heor yprobabl yi smostappl icablet or el
    ati
    velynor mal ,i ntell
    igentpeopl e.
    Unfor tunat el
    y,i tpay sscantat tent iont o pr oblemsofmot i
    vat i
    on,dev el
    opment ,and
    culturali nfl
    uences.Ont hesi xcr iteriaofausef ultheory,itratesv er yhi ghonpar simony
    andi nt ernalconsi stencyandaboutav erageoni tsabili
    tytogener at eresear ch.Howev er,
    i
    tr at esl ow oni tsabi li
    tyt obef alsifi
    ed,t ogui det hepr actiti
    oner ,andt oor ganize
    knowl edge.

    ConceptofHumani t
    yKell
    ysawpeopl easanticipati
    ngt hefut
    ureandl i
    vi
    ngt heirl
    i
    v es
    i
    naccordancewi ththoseantici
    pat i
    ons.Hisconceptofel aborati
    vechoicesuggest sthat
    peopl
    eincreaset hei
    rrangeoff uturechoicesbyt hepr esentchoicestheyfreelymake.
    Thus,Kell
    y'stheoryratesveryhi ghint el
    eologyandhi ghinchoi ceandopt imism.I n
    addi
    ti
    on,itreceiveshighrati
    ngsf orconsciousinfluencesandf orit
    semphasi sont he
    uni
    quenessoft heindivi
    dual
    .Fi nall
    y,personalconst r
    uctt heor
    yi saboutav erageon
    soci
    ali
    nfluences.

    ROGERS:PERSON-
    CENTEREDTHEORY

    Ov erv
    iew ofRoger s'sPer son- Cent ered Theor yAl t
    hough Car lRoger si sbest
    knownast hefounderofcl ient-
    cent eredt her apy,heal sodev elopedani mpor tantt heory
    ofper sonalit
    yt hatunderscoreshi sappr oacht ot herapy .Bi
    ogr aphyofCar lRoger sCar l
    Rogerswasbor ni ntoadev outl
    yr eligi
    ousf ami l
    yi naChi cagosubur bi n1902.Af t
    ert he
    familymov edt oaf arm nearChi cago,Car lbecamei nterestedi nscienti
    fi
    cf armingand
    l
    earnedt oappr eciatethescienti
    f i
    cmet hod.Whenhegr aduat edf r
    om t heUni versit
    yof
    Wisconsi n,Roger si nt
    endedt obecomeami nister
    ,buthegav eupt hatnot ionand
    compl etedaPh. D.inpsychologyf rom Col umbi aUni versityi
    n1931.I n1940, aft
    ernear l
    y
    adozeny ear
    sawayf r
    om anacademi cl i
    fewor kingasacl i
    ni cian,het ookaposi ti
    onat
    OhioSt at eUni versi
    ty.Later,hehel dposi tionsatt heUni v ersityofChi cagoandt he
    Universit
    yofWi sconsin.I
    n1964,hemov edt oCal iforniawher ehehel pedf oundt he
    Centerf orSt udiesoft hePer son.Hedi edi n1987atage85.Per son-Cent eredTheor y
    Rogerscar efull
    ycr aft
    edhi sper son- center edt heoryofper sonal i
    tyt omeethi sown
    demandsf orast ruct
    uralmodelt hatcoul dexpl ai
    nandpr edictout comesofcl i
    ent-
    centeredt herapy.

    However,thet heoryhasi mpl


    icati
    onsfarbeyondthetherapeuti
    csetti
    ng.Basi
    c
    AssumptionsPerson-centeredtheor
    yr est
    sontwobasicassumpt i
    ons:(1)thefor
    mativ
    e
    tendency
    ,whichstatest hatallmatt
    er,bothor
    ganicandinor
    ganic,tendstoevolv
    efrom

    104
    simpl ert omor ecompl exfor
    ms, and(2)anact ualizingtendency ,whichsuggest sthatal l
    l
    ivi
    ng t hings,including humans,t end to mov et oward compl etion,orf ulfi
    l
    lmentof
    potent ials.Howev er,inorderforpeopl e(orplantsandani mal s)tobecomeact ualized,
    certaini dentif
    iabl
    econdi ti
    onsmustbepr esent.Foraper son, t
    hesecondi t
    ionsi ncludea
    rel
    ationshi pwi thanot herpersonwhoi sgenuine,orcongr uent,andwhodemonst rates
    compl eteaccept anceandempat hyforthatper son.TheSel fandSel f-Act ual
    izationA
    senseofsel forpersonal i
    denti
    tybeginstoemer gedur i
    ngi nfancy ,and,onceest abl
    ished,
    i
    tal lowsaper sont ost ri
    vet owardself-act
    ualizat i
    on,whi chi sasubsy stem oft he
    actual i
    zat i
    ont endencyandr ef
    erstot hetendencyt oact ualizethesel fasper ceivedi n
    awar eness.

    Thesel fhast wosubsy stems:( 1)t hesel f-concept ,whi chi ncludesal lthose
    aspect sofone' si dentit
    yt hatareper ceivedi nawar eness,and( 2)t hei dealsel f,orour
    view ofoursel faswewoul dli
    ket obeoraspi r
    et obe.Oncef or med,t hesel f-
    concept
    tendst or esistchange, andgapsbet weeni tandt heidealsel f-
    resultini ncongr uenceand
    various l evels of psy chopathology .Awar eness Peopl e are awar e of bot ht heir
    selfconceptandt hei ri
    dealself,althoughawar enessneednotbeaccur at eoratahi gh
    l
    ev el.Roger ssawpeopl eashav i
    ngexper iencesont hreel evelsofawar eness:( 1)those
    thatar esy mbol izedbel owt hethreshol dofawar enessandar eei therignor edordeni ed,
    thati s,subcei ved,ornotal lowedi ntot hesel fconcept ;( 2)thoset hatar edi stortedor
    reshapedt of iti
    tint oanexi sti
    ngsel fconcept ;and( 3)t hoset hatar econsi stentwitht he
    self-conceptandt husar eaccuratelysymbol i
    zedandf r
    eel yadmi ttedt ot hesel f-
    structur e.
    Anyexper i
    encenotconsi stentwi tht hesel fconcept -ev enposi tiveexper i
    ences-wi llbe
    distorted ordeni ed.Needs The t wo basi c human needs ar e mai ntenance and
    enhancement ,butpeopl ealsoneedposi tiveregar dandsel f-r
    egard.Mai ntenanceneeds
    i
    ncl udet hosef orf ood,air,andsaf ety
    ,butt heyal soi ncludeourt endencyt or esist
    changeandt omai ntai
    noursel f-
    conceptasi tis.Enhancementneedsi ncludeneedst o
    growandt or eali
    zeone' sfullhumanpot ent i
    al.

    Asawar enessofsel femer ges,ani nfantbegi nstor eceiveposi tiv eregar dfrom
    anot herperson- thatis,tobel ov edoraccept ed.Peopl enatural
    lyv aluet hoseexper i
    ences
    thatsat isfythei rneedsf orposi tiver egar d,but ,unf or
    tunatel
    y ,thi sv al uesomet imes
    becomesmor epower fulthant her ewar dt heyr eceivef ormeet ingt heiror ganismi c
    needs.Thi sset supt hecondi tionofi ncongr uence,whi chi sexper iencedwhenbasi c
    organismi cneedsar edeniedordi stortedi nf av orofneedst obel ov edoraccept ed.Asa
    resultofexper ienceswi thposi t
    iver egar d,peopl edev eloptheneedf orsel f-
    regard,whi ch
    theyacqui reonl yaf t
    ert heyper cei vet hatsomeoneel secar esfort hem andv al
    uest hem.
    Onceest abli
    shed,howev er,self-regar dbecomesaut onomousandnol ongerdependent
    onanot her'
    scont inuousposi t
    iveev aluation.Condi t
    ionsofWor thMostpeopl ear enot
    uncondi ti
    onallyaccept ed.Inst ead, t
    heyr ecei vecondi ti
    onsofwor th; thati s,theyf eelthat
    theyar el ovedandaccept edonl ywhenandi ftheymeett hecondi t
    ionssetbyot her s.
    Psy chologicalSt agnationWhent heor gani smi cselfandt hesel fconceptar eatv ari
    ance
    withoneanot her ,aper sonmayexper i
    encei ncongr uence,whi chi ncl udesv ulnerabil
    ity,
    threat,defensiveness, andev endi sor gani zat i
    on.

    The gr eater the i ncongr uence bet ween sel f-


    concept and t he or ganismic
    experi
    ence,t hemor ev ulnerablet hatper sonbecomes.Anxi etyexi st
    swhenev erthe
    personbecomesdi mlyawar eoft hediscrepancybet weenor ganismicexper i
    enceand
    self
    -concept, whereast hreatisexper iencedwhenev erthepersonbecomesmor eclearl
    y
    awareoft hisi ncongruence.Topr eventincongruence,peopl er eactwithdef ensiveness,
    typi
    call
    yi nthef ormsofdi stortionanddeni al
    .Wi thdistort
    ion,peopl emi sinterpretan
    experi
    encesot hatitfit
    si ntot heirself
    -concept;withdeni al
    ,peopl erefuset oal l
    ow the
    experi
    ence i nto awar eness.When peopl e's defenses failto oper ate properly,their
    behaviorbecomesdi sorganizedorpsy choti
    c.Wi thdisorganization,peoplesomet imes
    behaveconsi stentlywiththeiror ganismicexper i
    enceandsomet i
    mesinaccor dancewi t
    h
    thei
    rshat t
    eredsel f-
    concept .

    Psychot
    herapy for cl
    i
    ent-cent
    ered psychother
    apy to be eff
    ecti
    ve,cert
    ain
    condi
    tionsarenecessar
    y:Avulner
    ablecli
    entmusthav econt
    actofsomedurati
    onwit
    ha
    counselorwhoiscongruent
    ,andwhodemonst ratesuncondi
    ti
    onalposi
    ti
    veregar
    dand

    105
    l
    istenswi thempat hyt o acl ient.Thecl ientmusti nt urnper ceivet hecongr uence,
    uncondi ti
    onalposi t
    iver egard,andempat hyoft hetherapist
    .I fthesecondi tionsar e
    present,thent hepr ocessoft herapywi lltakeplaceandcer t
    ainpr edict ableout comes
    willresult
    .ConditionsThr eecondi ti
    onsar ecr uci
    altocli
    entcenteredt herapy ,
    andRoger s
    calledthem t henecessar yandsuf fi
    cientcondi t
    ionsfortherapeuticgr owt h.Thef i
    rstis
    counsel orcongruence,orat herapistwhoseor ganismicexperiencesar emat chedbyan
    awar eness and by t he abili
    ty and wi l
    li
    ngness t o openly express t hese f eeli
    ngs.
    Congr uenceismor ebasi cthant heot hertwocondi ti
    onsbecausei ti sar elati
    velystable
    char act
    erist
    icoft hetherapist,
    wher east heot hertwoconditi
    onsar el i
    mi tedt oaspeci f
    ic
    therapeuticrelat
    ionship.Uncondi ti
    onalposi ti
    veregardexist
    swhent het herapistaccept s
    thecl i
    entwithoutcondi t
    ionsorqual i
    fi
    cations.

    Empat
    hicl
    i
    steni
    ngi
    sthet
    her
    api
    st'
    sabi
    l
    ityt
    osenset
    hef
    eel
    i
    ngsofacl
    i
    entandal
    sot
    o
    communicat
    et hesepercept
    ionsso thatthecl
    ientknowst hatanotherperson has
    ent
    eredi
    ntohisorherworl
    doff eel
    i
    ngswit
    houtpr
    ejudi
    ce,pr
    oject
    ion,
    oreval
    uati
    on.

    Pr
    ocessRoger ssawt heprocessoft herapeut i
    cchangeast akingplacei
    nsevenstages:
    Cl
    ient
    sar eunwill
    ingtocommuni cateany thingaboutt hemselves;
    1.Theydi scussonlyexter
    nalev entsandot herpeople;
    2.Theybegi ntotalkaboutthemsel ves, butsti
    llasanobject;
    3.Theydi scussstr
    ongemot i
    onst hatt heyhav efel
    tinthepast;(
    4.Theybegi ntoexpresspresentf eeli
    ngs;
    5.Theyf reelyal
    lowintoawar enesst hoseexper i
    encesthatwereprev
    iousl
    ydenied
    ordi
    storted;t
    heyexperi
    encei rr
    ev ersibl
    echangeandgr owth.

    Outcomes when cl ient-


    cent er
    ed t her
    apy is successful,cli
    ents become mor e
    congruent
    ,l ess defensive,mor e open t o experi
    ence,and mor er eali
    sti
    c.The gap
    betweent heiridealselfandt heirt r
    uesel fnar r
    owsand,asaconsequence,cl i
    ents
    experi
    encel essphy si
    ologicalandpsy chologicaltension.Fi
    nall
    y,cl
    ients'int
    erper
    sonal
    rel
    ati
    onshipsi mprovebecauset heyar emor eaccept ingofselfandot her
    s.ThePer son
    ofTomor r
    owRoger swasv ital
    l
    yi nterestedint hepsychologi
    call
    yhealthyperson,call
    ed
    the"f
    ullyf
    unct i
    oningperson"ort he" personoft omorrow."

    Roger
    sli
    stedsevenchar acteri
    sti
    csoftheper sonoftomorr
    ow.Theper
    sonoftomorr
    ow:
    1.Isabl
    etoadjustt ochange;
    2.Isopentoexper i
    ence;
    3.Isabl
    etolivef ull
    yi nthemoment ;
    4.Isabl
    etohav ehar moniousrel
    ationswi thot
    hers;
    5.Is morei ntegr ated wi t
    h no ar t
    if
    icialboundari
    es bet
    ween consci
    ous and
    unconsci
    ouspr ocesses;
    6.Hasabasi ctrustofhumannat ure;and
    7.Enjoysagreaterr ichnessinl
    if
    e

    Thefactorshav eimplicat
    ionsbot hf orthei ndivi
    dualandforsociety.Philosophyof
    ScienceRoger sagr eedwi t
    hMasl owt hatscientistsmustcareaboutandbei nvolvedin
    thephenomenat heystudyandt hatpsy chologistsshouldlimitthei
    robj ectivi
    tyand
    precisi
    on t ot heir methodology ,not t ot he cr eat
    ion of hypotheses or t ot he
    communi cation ofr esearch findings.The Chi cago Study When he t aughtatt he
    Universi
    tyofChi cago,Rogers,alongwi thcolleaguesandgr aduatest
    udent s,conduct eda
    sophisti
    catedandcompl exstudyont heef fect
    ivenessofpsy chot
    herapy .Hy potheses
    Thisstudytestedf ourbroadhy potheses.

    Asaconsequenceoftherapy:
    1.Cl i
    entswil
    lbecomemor eawareoftheirfeeli
    ngsandexper iences,
    2.Thegapbet weentherealsel
    fandthei dealselfwil
    llessen;
    3.Cl i
    ents'
    behav i
    orwil
    lbecomemor esoci al
    izedandmat ur
    e;and
    4.Cl i
    entswillbecomebot hmoresel f
    -acceptingandmor eaccept i
    ngofothers.
    MethodPar t
    ici
    pantswereadult
    swhosoughtt her
    apyatt heUniversi
    tyofChi
    cago
    counsel
    ingcent er
    .Experiment
    ersaskedhal foft hem t owai t60day sbef
    ore

    106
    receivi
    ngt her
    apywhi lebegi
    nni ngther apywi ththeot herhalf.I
    naddi ti
    on,they
    testedacont rolgroupof"normal s"whower emat chedwitht hetherapygroup.
    Thiscont rolgroupwasal sodi vi
    dedi ntoawai tgr oupandanonwai tgroup.
    FindingsRoger sandhisassociatesf oundthatt hetherapygroup-butnotthewait
    groupshowedal esseni
    ngoft hegapbet weenr ealselfandidealself.Theyalso
    foundt hatclientswhoi mprov eddur ingt herapy-
    butnott hoser atedasl east
    i
    mpr oved-showedchangesi nsoci albehav i
    or,asnotedbyf r
    iends.

    Summar yofResul tsAl t


    houghcl ient-centeredt her apywassuccessf ulinchangi ng
    cli
    ents,itwasnotsuccessf uli nbr ingingt hem tot hel ev
    eloft hef ull
    yf unctioning
    personsorev ent othel ev
    elof" nor mal "psy chologicalheal th.Rel at edResear chMor e
    recentl
    y,ot herr esearchers hav ei nvest i
    gated Roger s'
    sf acili
    tati
    v e conditions bot h
    outsidetherapyandwi thintherapy .Facili
    tativeCondi tionsOut sideTher apyInt heUni ted
    Kingdom,Duncan Cr amer has conduct ed a ser ies of st udies i nvesti
    gat i
    ng t he
    therapeuti
    cqual iti
    esofRoger s'sf acil
    itativecondi ti
    onsi ninterper sonalrelationships
    outside oft herapy.Cr amerf ound posi ti
    v er el
    ationshi ps bet ween sel f-
    est eem,as
    measur edbyt heRosenber gSel f-Esteem Scal e,andt hef ourfacili
    tat i
    vecondi ti
    onst hat
    makeupt heBar ret
    t-
    Lennar dRel at i
    onshi pI nventory-
    lev elofr egard,uncondi tionalit
    yof
    regard,congruence,andempat hy.Mor eov er,thedi rect i
    onoft her elati
    onshipst rongly
    suggestedthatRoger s'
    sf aci
    li
    tativecondi tionspr ecedet heacqui sit
    ionofhi gherl evel
    sof
    self
    esteem.

    Faci li
    tative Condi t
    ionsand Coupl esTher apyI n Bel gium,Al fonsVanst eenwegen
    (1996)usedar ev i
    sedf orm oft heBar rett-
    Lennar dt odet ermi neifRoger s'sf acil
    it
    at ive
    conditionsr el at
    edt osuccessdur ingcoupl est herapy .Hef oundt hatcl ient-centered
    couplest her apycanbr i
    ngaboutposi ti
    vechangesi ncoupl es,andt hatsomeoft hese
    changes l ast ed f or at l east sev en y ears af ter t herapy . Page 45 of 52
    ASLagnadaI II
    / 090213Theor iesOfPer sonalitySummar izedCr iti
    queofRoger sRoger s's
    person- center ed t heor yisone oft he mostcar efull
    yconst ructed ofal lper sonal i
    ty
    theories,andi tmeet squi t
    ewel leachoft hesi xcr i
    teri
    aofausef ult heory.I tratesv ery
    highoni nter nalconsi st
    encyandpar simony ,hi ghoni tsabi l
    itytobef alsifi
    edandt o
    gener ater esear ch, andhi gh-averageoni tsabi l
    itytoor ganizeknowl edgeandt oser veas
    agui det ot hepr act i
    tioner.ConceptofHumani tyRoger sbel ievedthathumanshav et he
    capaci t
    yt ochangeandgr ow- provi
    dedt hatcer t
    ainnecessar yandsuf fi
    cientcondi tions
    arepr esent .Ther efore,hist heoryratesv eryhi ghonopt i
    mism.I naddi t
    ion,i trateshi gh
    onf r
    eechoi ce, teleol ogy,consciousmot ivati
    on, soci
    ali nfl
    uences, andt heuni quenessof
    theindiv i
    dual .

    MASLOW'
    SHOLI
    STI
    C-DYNAMI
    CTHEORY

    Overvi
    ew ofMasl ow' s Holi
    stic-
    Dynami c Theor y Abr aham Masl ow' s holist i
    c-
    dynami ctheoryholdst hatpeopl earecontinuall
    ymot i
    vatedbyoneormor eneeds,and
    that,underthepr operci r
    cumst ances,theycanr eachal evelofpsychol ogicalheal t
    h
    call
    edsel f-
    actual
    izati
    on.Biogr aphyofAbr aham H.Masl ow Abr aham H.Masl ow was
    borninNew Yor kin1908,t heol destofsev enchildrenofRussi anJewishi mmi grant s.
    Aftertwoort hreemedi ocrey earsasacol l
    egest udent ,hiswor kimprovedataboutt he
    ti
    mehewasmar r
    ied.Her eceivedbothabachel or'
    sdegr eeandaPh. D.from t he
    Universi
    tyofWi sconsinwher ehewor kedwi t
    hHar ryHar l
    owconduct i
    ngani malst udi es.
    Mostofhi sprofessionalcareerwasspentatBr ooklynCol legeandatBr andei sUniver sity
    .
    Poorhealthforcedhi mt omov et oCali
    forni
    awher ehedi edin1970atage62.

    Masl
    ow'sView ofMot i
    vati
    onMasl ow'stheoryrestsonf i
    v ebasi
    cassumptionsabout
    moti
    vat
    ion:
    1.Thewhol eorganism ismotiv
    atedatanyonet i
    me;
    2.Mot ivat
    ioniscompl ex,andunconsciousmotivesoftenunder
    li
    ebehavi
    or;
    3.Peopl earecontinuall
    ymot i
    vatedbyoneneedoranot her
    ;
    4.Peopl eindif
    ferentcultur
    esareallmotiv
    atedbyt hesamebasicneeds;and
    5.Needscanbear rangedonahi er
    archy.Hierar
    chyofNeedsMasl ow hel
    dthat

    107
    l
    owerlevelneedshaveprepot
    encyoverhi
    gherl
    evelneeds;t
    hati
    s,t
    heymustbe
    sat
    isf
    iedbefor
    ehigherneedsbecomemoti
    vator
    s.

    Masl
    ow'shier archyi ncludes:
    1. Physiol ogicalneeds, suchasoxy gen,food,water,andsoon;
    2. Safetyneeds,whi chi ncludephy sicalsecuri
    ty,stabil
    i
    ty,dependency,protection,
    andf reedom f r
    om danger ,
    andwhi chresul
    tinbasicanxietyifnotsati
    sfi
    ed;
    3. Loveandbel ongingnessneeds,i ncludingthedesireforfri
    endship,t
    hewi shf ora
    mat eandchi ldren, andt heneedt obelong;
    4. Esteem needs,whi chf oll
    ow f rom t hesatisfact
    ionofl oveneedsandwhi ch
    i
    ncludesel f
    -conf idenceandt her ecogniti
    ont hatonehasaposi t
    ivereputation;
    and
    5. Selfact ualizat i
    on needs,whi ch ar e sati
    sfied only by the psychologically
    healthiestpeopl e.Unl i
    keot herneedst hatautomat i
    call
    yareactivat
    edwhenl ower
    needsar emet ,sel f-
    actualizat
    ionneedsdonoti nevit
    ablyfoll
    ow thesati
    sfact i
    on
    ofest eem needs.

    Onlybyembr acingsuchB- valuesastruth,beaut y


    ,oneness,andj ust
    ice,canpeople
    achievesel f
    actual
    izati
    on.Thef iveneedsonMasl ow'shierarchyar econat i
    veneeds.
    Otherneedsi ncl
    udeaest heti
    cneeds,cogni tiveneeds,andneur oti
    cneeds.Aest heti
    c
    NeedsAest heti
    cneedsi ncludeadesi reforbeaut yandor der,andsomepeopl ehav e
    muchst r
    ongeraest heti
    cneedst handoot hers.Whenpeopl ef ailtomeett hei
    raestheti
    c
    needs,theybecomesi ck.CognitiveNeedsCogni ti
    veneedsi ncludet hedesiretoknow, t
    o
    understand,andt obecur ious.Knowl edgeisapr erequisi
    teforeachoft hefiveconati
    ve
    needs.Al so,peoplewhoar edeni edknowl edgeandkepti ni gnorancebecomesi ck,
    paranoi
    d, anddepressed.

    Neur ot
    icNeedsWi t
    heachoft heabov et hr
    eedi mensi onsofneeds,phy si
    calor
    psychol ogicalill
    nessr esultswhent heneedsar enotsatisfi
    ed.Neur oti
    cneeds, howev er,
    l
    eadt opat hologyr egardlessofwhet hert heyaresat i
    sfi
    edornot .Neur oticneedsi nclude
    suchmot i
    vesasadesi retodomi nat e,t
    oi nfl
    ictpain,ortosubj ectonesel ftot hewi llof
    anotherper son.Neur oticneedsar enonpr oductiv
    eanddonotf ost erheal t
    h.Gener al
    Discussi onofNeedsMasl ow believ edt hatmostpeopl esat i
    sfyl owerl ev elneedst oa
    greaterext entt hant heydohi gherl ev el
    sneeds,andt hatthegr eat ert hesat i
    sfact i
    onof
    oneneed,t hemor ef ullythenexthi ghestneedi sli
    kelytoemer ge.I ncer tainrarecases,
    theor derofneedsmi ghtber eversed.Forexampl e,astar v
    ingmot hermaybemot ivated
    byl oveneedst ogiveupf oodi nor dert of eedherst arvi
    ngchi l
    dr en.Howev er,ifwe
    understoodt heunconsci ousmot ivat i
    onbehi ndmanyappar entr eversals,wewoul dsee
    thatt heyar enotgenui ner eversalsatal l
    .Thus,Masl ow insistedt hatmuchofour
    surfacebehav iorisact uall
    ymot ivatedbymor ebasi candof tenunconsci ousneeds.

    Maslowalsobel i
    ev edt hatsomeexpr essiv
    ebehav i
    orsar eunmot i
    vated,event hough
    allbehav i
    orshav eacause.Expr essi
    vebehav i
    orhasnoai m orgoalbuti smer elya
    person'smodeofexpr essi on.Incompar i
    son,copi ngbehav ior
    s( whicharemot ivated)
    deal wi
    thaper son'sattemptt ocopewi ththeenv ir
    onment .Theconat iveneedsor dinari
    ly
    callfor
    thcopingbehav iors.Depr ivati
    onofanyoft heneedsl eadstopat hologyofsome
    sort.Forexampl e,peopl e'
    si nabil
    itytoreachsel f-
    act uali
    zationresultsinmet apathology,
    definedasanabsenceofv alues,al ackoff ulf
    il
    lment ,andal ossofmeani ngi nl if
    e.
    Masl owsuggest edthati nstinctoidneedsar einnatelydet erminedev enthought heycan
    bemodi f
    iedbylearning.Masl owal sobeli
    evedt hathi gherlevelneeds( l
    ove,esteem, and
    self-
    actuali
    zat
    ion)ar el ateront heev oluti
    onaryscal ethanl owerl evelneedsandt hat
    theyproducemor egenui nehappi nessandmor epeakexper i
    ences.

    Sel
    f-Actual
    izati
    onMasl owbel i
    evedthatav erysmallper
    centageofpeoplereachan
    ul
    ti
    mat elevelofpsy chol
    ogicalhealthcalledself-
    actual
    i
    zati
    on.ValuesofSel
    f-
    Actuali
    zers
    Maslow hel dt hatsel f
    -actuali
    zers are met amotivat
    ed by such B-val
    ues as trut
    h,
    goodness,beauty,j
    ust i
    ce,andsi mpli
    cit
    y.Cr i
    ter
    iaforSelf
    -Act
    ual
    izati
    onFourcri
    ter
    iamust
    bemetbef oreaper sonachi evesself
    -actuali
    zati
    on:
    1.Absenceofpsy chopathology,

    108
    2.Sati
    sfacti
    onofeachofthefourl
    owerlevel
    needs,
    3.AcceptanceoftheBval
    ues,and
    4.Ful
    lreali
    zati
    onofone'
    spotenti
    alsf
    orgrowth.Char
    act
    eri
    sti
    csofSel
    f-
    Act
    ual
    i
    zing

    Peopl
    eMaslowli
    sted15quali
    ti
    esthatchar
    act
    eri
    zesel
    f-
    actual
    izi
    ngpeopl
    e,al
    thoughnot
    al
    lsel
    f-
    act
    uali
    zer
    spossesseachofthechar
    act
    eri
    sti
    cst
    ot hesameextent
    .

    Thesechar act er i
    sticsar e:
    1.Mor eef f
    icientper cept ionofr eality,meani ngt hatsel f-
    act uali
    zer sof t enhav ean
    almostuncannyabi li
    tyt odet ectphoni nessi not her s,andt heyar enotf ooledby
    sham;
    2.Accept anceofsel f,other s, andnat ur e;
    3.Spont anei ty,si mpl icit
    y,andnat ural ness,meani ngt hatsel f-
    act ualizer shav eno
    needt oappearcompl exorsophi sticat ed;
    4.Pr obl em cent eredwhi chi st heabi lityt ov iew age- oldpr oblemsf rom asol id
    phi losophi cal posi tion;
    5.Theneedf orpr i
    v acyoradet achmentt hatal l
    owssel f-
    act uali
    zi ngpeopl et obe
    alonewi thoutbei ngl onel y;
    6.Aut onomy ,meani ngt hatt heynol ongerar edependentonot herpeopl ef ort heir
    sel f-est eem;
    7.Cont inuedf reshnessofappr eciat ionandt heabi li
    tyt ov iewev ery dayt hingswi th
    af reshv isionandappr eci ation;
    8.Fr equentr epor tsofpeakexper iences,ort hosemy sticalexper i
    encest hatgi vea
    per son a sense oft ranscendence and f eel ings ofawe,wonder ,ecst asy,
    rev er ence, andhumi l
    ity;
    9.Gemei nschaf t
    s,t hati s,soci ali nter estoradeepf eelingofonenesswi thal l
    humani ty;
    10.Pr of oundi nt erpersonalr el ati
    ons, butwi thnodesper ateneedt ohav eamul ti
    tude
    off riends;( 11)t hedemocr at icchar acterst ructure,ort heabi lityt odi sregar d
    super f
    icial differencesbet weenpeopl e;
    11.Discr imi nat i
    onbet weenmeansandends,meani ngt hatsel f-act ualizingpeopl e
    hav eacl earsenseofr i
    ghtandwr ong,andt heyexper i
    encel i
    ttleconf l
    ictabout
    basi cv alues;
    12.Aphi losophi calsenseofhumort hati sspont aneous,unpl anned,andi ntrinsict o
    thesi tuat ion;
    13.Cr eat iveness, wi thakeenper cept i
    onoft ruth,beaut y ,andr eal
    ity;
    14.(Resi stancet oencul turation, ort heabi li
    tytosetper sonalst andar dsandt or esist
    themol dsetbycul t
    ure.Lov e,Sex,andSel f
    -Act ualizationMasl ow compar edD-
    l
    ov e( def iciencyl ov e)t oB- l
    ov e( lov ef orbei ngoressenceofanot herper son) .Self
    -act ual izing peopl e ar e capabl e ofB- l
    ov e because t hey can l ov e wi thout
    expect ingsomet hi ngi nr et urn.B- lov ei smut ual lyfel tandshar edandnotbased
    on def i
    cienci es wi thint he l ov er s.Phi losophy ofSci ence Masl ow cr iti
    cized
    tradi tionalsci enceasbei ngv aluef ree,wi thamet hodol ogyt hati sst er i
    leand
    nonemot i
    onal .He ar gued f ora Taoi sti
    c at t
    itude f orpsy chol ogy i n whi ch
    psy chol ogi stsar ewi l
    li
    ngt or esacr alizet heirsci ence,ort oinst illitwi t
    hhuman
    val uesandt ov iewpar ti
    cipant swi thawe, j
    oy ,wonder ,rapt ure,andr it
    ual .

    Measur i
    ngSel f
    -Actuali
    zati
    onMasl ow'smet hodformeasur ingself-
    act uali
    zat i
    onwer e
    consistentwit hhisphil
    osophyofsci ence.Hebeganhi sstudyofsel f-
    act uali
    zingpeopl e
    wit
    hl i
    ttleevidencet hatsuchacl assifi
    cat ionofpeopl eev enexi sted.Hel ookedat
    healt
    hypeopl e,learnedwhatt heyhadi ncommon,andt henest abli
    shedasy ndr omef or
    psychologicalhealth.Next ,heref
    inedt hedef init
    ionofselfact uali
    zation,studi edother
    people, andchangedt hesy ndrome.Hecont inuedt hisprocessunt i
    lhewassat i
    sf i
    edthat
    he had a cl eardef i
    nit
    ion ofsel f
    -actualizat i
    on.Ot herr esearchers hav e dev eloped
    personal i
    tyi
    nv ent
    oriesformeasur i
    ngsel f-act uali
    zati
    on.Themostwi delyusedoft hese
    i
    sEv erettShost r
    om' sPersonalOr i
    entationI nventory(POI )
    ,a150- i
    tem f orced-choice

    109
    i
    nventorythatassesses a v
    ariet
    yofself-
    actual
    izat
    ion f
    acet
    s.The Jonah Compl ex
    Becausehumansar ebornwit
    hanat ur
    alt
    endencytomov etowardpsy
    chologicalheal
    th,
    anyfai
    lur
    etoreachself
    -act
    ual
    izati
    oncant
    echnical
    l
    ybecal l
    edabnor
    mal devel
    opment .

    Onesuchabnor malsy ndromei st heJonahcompl ex,orfearofbeingordoi ngone's


    best,acondi tionthatal lofushav et osomeext ent .Maslowbel i
    evedthatmanypeopl e
    all
    ow f alsehumi li
    tyt ost i
    fl
    et heircreat i
    vi
    ty,whichcausest hem t ofallshor
    tofsel f
    -
    actualizati
    on.Psy chot herapyThehi erarchyofneedsconcepthasobv i
    ousr amif
    icati
    ons
    forpsy chotherapy.Mostpeopl ewhoseekpsy chotherapyprobabl ydosobecauset hey
    hav enotadequat elysat isfi
    edt heirloveandbel ongingnessneeds.Thi ssuggeststhat
    muchoft herapyshoul dinv ol
    veapr oductivehumanr el
    ati
    onshi pandt hatthejobofa
    therapistist ohel pcl i
    entssat isf
    yl ov eandbel ongingnessneeds.Rel atedResearch
    Resear chers hav ei nvest i
    gated Masl ow's concept of sel f
    -actual
    izati
    on in many
    divergence set t
    ings and f ora v ar i
    etyofpur poses.Sel f-
    Act ual
    izat
    ion and Int
    imate
    InterpersonalRelationsMi chaelShef f
    ieldandhi scol l
    eaguesusedt hePOIasameasur e
    ofsel factual
    izati
    onandf oundt hathi ghscor esont hePOIwer einverselyr
    elatedto
    i
    nter personalrel
    ations.

    Mor e speci f
    ical
    ly, people who appr oached self-
    actual
    izati
    on tended t o be
    sel
    fmot i
    vated,accept edfeeli
    ngsofaggressi
    on,andwer eabletosust ai
    ni nti
    macy.Self
    -
    Actual
    izati
    onandCr eativ
    ityMar kRuncoandhiscoll
    eaguesusedt heShor tIndexofSelf
    -
    Actual
    izati
    ont oassesssel f
    -actual
    i
    zati
    onandf oundaposi ti
    ver el
    ati
    onshipbet ween
    sel
    factual
    izati
    onscor esandt womeasuresofcreati
    vit
    y.Alt
    hought herel
    ationshipswere
    notstrong,theysuggestt hat,asMaslow'shypothesi
    zed,creativi
    tyisatl eastpartl
    y
    rel
    atedtoself-actual
    izati
    on.

    Self
    -Actualization and Sel f
    -Accept ance Some r esearcher shavet ested Maslow's
    assumpt i
    on thatsel f
    -actual
    i
    zing peopl eacceptt hemsel v es.Onest udy( Sumerli
    n&
    Bundri
    ck,2000)wi thAf ri
    can-Americanbusi nessmenf oundt hatthosewhoscor edhi gh
    onself-
    actualizat i
    ont endedt ohav ei ncreasedhappi nessandsel f-
    fulfi
    ll
    ment .Another
    studybyWi l
    li
    am Compt onandhi scol l
    eaguesf oundt hatsel fact
    ualizati
    onr el
    atedt o
    opennesst oexper ienceandt oseeki ngoutnew andexci tingexperi
    ences.Cr i
    ti
    queof
    MaslowMasl ow'st heoryhasbeenpopul ari
    npsy chologyandot herdiscipli
    nes,suchas
    management ,nur sing,and educat ion.Thehi erar
    chyofneedsconceptseemsbot h
    elementaryandl ogical,whichgivesMasl ow'stheorytheillusionofsimpl icit
    y.Howev er
    ,
    thetheoryissomewhatcompl ex,wi t
    hf ourdimensionsofneedsandt hepossibil
    it
    yof
    unconsciousl
    ymot ivatedbehavior.

    Asasci enti
    fi
    ct heory,Masl ow'smodelr ateshighingeneratingresearchbutl ow i
    n
    falsi
    fi
    abil
    ity
    .Oni t
    sabi l
    it
    yt oor ganizeknowl edgeandgui deaction,thetheoryratesquit
    e
    high;on i t
    s simplici
    tyand i nternalconsistency,itrates onlyav erage.Conceptof
    Humani tyMasl owbel i
    evedt hatpeopl earest ruct
    uredinsuchawayt hattheiracti
    vat
    ed
    needsar eexact l
    ywhatt heywantmost .Hungr ypeopledesiref ood,fri
    ghtenedpeople
    l
    ookf orsaf et
    y,andsof ort
    h.Al thoughhewasgener al
    lyopti
    misticandhopef ul,Maslow
    sawt hatpeoplear ecapableofgr eatevilanddest r
    ucti
    on.Hebel ievedthatasaspeci es,
    humansar ebecomi ngmor eandmor efullyhumanandmot i
    vatedbyhi gherlevelneeds.
    Insummar y,Maslow'sv iewofhumani tyr ateshighonf reechoice,optimism,teleol
    ogy,
    anduni quenessandaboutav erageonsoci al i
    nfl
    uences.

    MAY'
    SEXI
    STENTI
    ALTHEORY

    Overview ofMay 'sExi stentialTheoryExi stenti


    alpsy chol
    ogybegani nEur ope
    shortl
    yaf terWor l
    dWarI Iandspr eadt otheUni tedSt ates,whereRolloMaypl ayeda
    l
    argepar ti npopulari
    zingi t.Acl inicalpsychologistbyt r
    aining,Maytookt heview that
    moder npeopl efrequent l
    yr unawaybot hf rom maki ngchoi cesandfrom assumi ng
    responsibil
    ity.Bi
    ographyofRol loMayRol l
    oMaywasbor ni nOhi oi
    n1909,butgrewupi n
    Michigan.Af tergraduatingf rom Ober l
    i
    nCol l
    egei n1930,hespentt hr
    eey earsroami ng
    throughouteast er
    nandsout hernEur opeasani t
    inerantar ti
    st.Whenher etur
    nedt ot he
    UnitedSt ates,heent eredt heUni onTheol ogicalSemi nary,from whi
    chher eceiv
    eda

    110
    Mast erofDivi
    nit
    ydegree.Het henser v
    edf ortwoy earsasapast or,butquiti
    norderto
    pursueacar eeri
    npsychology.Her ecei
    vedaPh. D.incl i
    nicalpsychologyfr
    om Columbia
    i
    n1949att heageof40.Dur i
    nghi sprofessionalcareer,heservedasl ect
    urerorvisi
    ti
    ng
    professoratanumberofuni v
    er si
    ti
    es,conductedapr ivat
    epr acti
    ceasapsy chot
    herapi
    st,
    andwr oteanumberofpopul arbooksont hehumancondi ti
    on.Maydi edin1994atage
    85.

    Backgr oundofExi stenti


    alism Sør enKi erkegaard,t heDani shphi losopherand
    theologi an,isusual lyconsi deredt obet hef ounderofmoder nexistentiali
    sm.Li kel ater
    existentialists,heemphasi zedabal ancebet weenf reedom andr esponsi bil
    ity.Peopl e
    acqui r
    ef reedom ofact ion by expandi ng t hei
    rsel f-
    awar eness and by assumi ng
    responsi bi l
    it
    yf ort heiractions.Howev er,thisacqui si
    ti
    onoff reedom andr esponsi bil
    it
    yi s
    achiev edatt heexpenseofanxi etyanddr ead.WhatI sExi stent i
    ali
    sm?Thef ir
    stt enetof
    existentialism i st hatexi stencet akepr ecedenceov eressence,meani ngt hatpr ocess
    andgr owt har emor eimpor t
    antt hanpr oductandst agnat i
    on.Second,exi stent i
    alists
    opposet hear tif
    icialsplitbetweensubj ectandobj ect.Third, theystresspeopl e'
    ssear ch
    formeani ngi nt heirliv
    es.Four t
    h,t heyi nsi stthateachofusi sresponsi bleforwhowe
    areandwhatwewi llbecome.Fi f
    th,mostt akeanant i
    theoreticalposi ti
    on,believingt hat
    theoriest endt oobj ecti
    fypeopl e.Basi cConcept sAccor dingt oexistentiali
    sts,abasi c
    unityexi stsbet weenpeopl eandt heirenv ir
    onment s,auni tyexpr essedbyt het erm
    Dasei n,orbei ng-in-t
    he-wor ld.

    Thr eesi mul taneousmodesoft hewor ldchar acterizeusi nourDasei n:Umwel t,


    or
    theenv ir
    onmentar oundus; Mitwelt
    ,orourwor l
    dwi thot herpeopl e; andEigenwel t,orour
    relati
    onshipwi thoursel f
    .Peopl earebot hawar eoft hemsel vesasl i
    vingbeingsandal so
    awar eoft hepossi bili
    tyofnonbei ngornot hingness.Deat hi sthemostobv iousf orm of
    nonbei ng,whi chcanal sobeexper i
    encedasr etreatf rom life'
    sexper i
    ences.TheCaseof
    Phi l
    ipRolloMayhel pedi l
    lustratehisnotionofexi stentiali
    sm wi tht hecaseofPhi li
    p,a
    successf ular chitecti nhi smi d-50s.Despitehi sappar entsuccess,Phi l
    ipexper ienced
    sev ereanxi et
    ywhenhi sr elati
    onshipwi t
    hNi cole( awr it
    eri nhermi d40s)tookapuz zli
    ng
    turn.Uncer tai
    nofhi sf utureandsuf f
    eri
    ngf rom l owsel f
    -esteem, Phili
    pwenti nt otherapy
    withRol l
    oMay .Ev ent uall
    y,Phi l
    ipwasabl etounder standt hathisdi ffi
    cult
    ieswi thwomen
    wer erelatedt ohi sear lyex peri
    enceswi thamot herwhowasunpr edictableandanol der
    sisterwhosuf feredf rom sev erement aldisor der s.Howev er
    ,hebegant or ecov eronly
    afterheaccept edt hathi s" need"totakecar eofunpr edictableNi colewasmer elypartof
    hisper sonalhi storywi thunst ablewomen.Anxi etyPeopl eexper ienceanxi etywhent hey
    becomeawar et hatt heirexi st
    enceorsomet hingi dent i
    fi
    edwi thitmi ghtbedest r
    oy ed.

    Theacqui sit
    ion off r
    eedom i nev it
    ablyl eadst o anxiety,whi ch can beei ther
    pleasur able and const ructive orpai nfuland dest r
    uct i
    ve.Nor malAnxi et y Growt h
    producesnor malanxi ety,definedast hatwhi chispr opor t
    ionat
    et ot het hreat,doesnot
    i
    nv olver epression,andcanbehandl edonaconsci ousl evel
    .Neur oticAnxi etyNeur ot i
    c
    anx i
    et yisar eactiont hati sdispr oportionatet ot het hreatandt hatl eadst or epr
    essi on
    anddef ensivebehav iors.Itisf el
    twhenev erone' sv aluesar etransf ormedi ntodogma.
    Neur ot i
    canxietybl ocksgr owt handpr oduct i
    veact ion.Gui l
    tGuil
    tar iseswhenev erpeopl e
    denyt hei
    rpot enti
    alit
    ies, f
    ailtoaccur atelyper ceivetheneedsofot hers, orremai nbl i
    ndt o
    theirdependenceont henat uralwor l
    d.Bot hanxietyandgui l
    tareont ological;thatis,they
    refert ot he nature ofbei ng and nott of eeli
    ngs ar isi
    ng from speci fi
    c si t
    uations.
    Intentionalit
    yThest ructurethatgi vesmeani ngt oexper ienceandal lowspeopl etomake
    decisions aboutt he futurei s cal l
    ed i ntentionali
    ty.Maybel iev ed t hati ntenti
    onal it
    y
    per mitspeopl etoov ercomet hedi chot omybet weensubj ectandobj ect,becausei t
    enabl est hem t oseet hatt heirintentionsar eaf unct ionofbot ht hemsel vesandt heir
    env i
    ronment .

    Care,Love,andWi l
    lCarei sanact i
    vepr ocesst hatsuggest sthatt
    hingsmatter
    .
    Lovemeanst ocar e,t
    odelightinthepr esenceofanot herperson,andt oaffi
    rmthat
    per
    son'
    svalueasmuchasone' sown.Car eisalsoani mpor t
    anti
    ngr edi
    enti
    nwi l
    l
    ,defi
    ned
    asaconsciouscommi tmenttoact i
    on.UnionofLov eandWi l
    lMaybel i
    evedthatour
    modernsociet
    yhasl ostsi
    ghtoft hetruenatureofl oveandwi l
    l
    ,equat i
    nglovewithsex
    andwil
    lwithwillpower.Hef ur
    therheldthatpsy chologicall
    yhealthypeopleareableto

    111
    combineloveandwi llbecausebot himplycar e,choice,act i
    on, andr esponsi bi
    lit
    y.For ms
    ofLoveMayi dent i
    fi
    edf ourki ndsofloveinWest er ntraditi
    on: sex, eros,phil
    ia,andagape.
    Maybel i
    evedt hatAmer icansnol ongerv i
    ew sexasanat uralbi ologicalfunction,but
    havebecomepr eoccupi edwi t
    hitt othepoi ntoft rivi
    alizat i
    on.Er osi sapsy chological
    desir
    ethatseeksanendur ingunionwi thalov edone.I tmayi ncludesex, butitisbui l
    ton
    careandtenderness.Phi lia,aninti
    mat enonsexualf riendshi pbet weent wopeopl e,takes
    ti
    met odev el
    opanddoesnotdependont heact i
    onsoft heot herper son.Agapei san
    alt
    rui
    sti
    corspirituall
    ov et hatcarr
    ieswi t
    hitther iskofpl ay ingGod.Agapei sundeser ved
    and unconditi
    onal .Fr eedom and Dest i
    ny Psy chologi cally heal thy individuals are
    comfort
    ablewit hfreedom, abletoassumer esponsi bil
    it
    yf ort heirchoices, andwi ll
    ingto
    facetheirdestiny.Fr eedom Def inedFr eedom comesf rom anunder standingofour
    desti
    ny.

    Wear ef r
    eewhenwer ecognizet hatdeat hisapossi bi
    l
    ityatanymomentand
    whenwear ewi ll
    i
    ngt oexperiencechanges,ev eni nthef aceofnotknowi ngwhatt hose
    changeswi llbr i
    ng.FormsofFr eedom Mayr ecognized t wo formsoff reedom:(1)
    fr
    eedom ofdoi ng,orfreedom ofact i
    on,whichhecal ledexi st
    enti
    alfreedom,and( 2)
    fr
    eedom ofbei ng,orani nnerfreedom,whi chhecal ledessent i
    alfreedom.Dest i
    ny
    DefinedMaydef i
    neddestinyas" t
    hedesi gnoft heuni versespeaki ngthrought hedesi
    gn
    ofeach one ofus. "In otherwor ds,ourdest iny includes the li
    mi t
    ations ofour
    environmentandourper sonalqualiti
    es,incl
    udi ngourmor t
    ali
    ty,gender,andgenet i
    c
    predisposi
    ti
    ons.Fr eedom anddest i
    nyconst it
    ut eapar adox,becausef r
    eedom gains
    vi
    talit
    yfrom desti
    ny,anddest i
    nygainssignifi
    cancef r
    om f reedom.

    Phil
    ip'sDest inyAf t
    ersomet imeint her apy,Phil
    ipwasabl et ostopbl aminghi s
    mot herfornotdoi ngwhathet houghtsheshoul dhav edone.Theobj ectivefactsofhi s
    chil
    dhoodhadnotchanged, butPhili
    p'
    ssubj ectivepercepti
    onshad.Ashecamet oter
    ms
    withhisdest iny,Phi l
    ipbegant obeabletoexpr esshisanger ,tof eellesstrappedinhi s
    rel
    ationshipwi thNi cole,andt obecomemor eawar eofhispossi bil
    it
    ies.Inotherwor ds,
    hegai nedhi sf reedom ofbei ng.ThePowerofMy thAccordingt oMay ,thepeopl eof
    contempor aryWest ernci vi
    lizati
    onhaveanur gentneedf ormy t
    hs.Becauset heyhav e
    l
    ostmanyoft heirtraditi
    onalmy t
    hs,theyt ur ntor el
    igi
    ouscul ts,dr ugs,andpopul ar
    cult
    ur etof i
    llthev acuum.TheOedi pusmy thhashadapower fulef f
    ectonourcul t
    ur e
    becausei tdeal swi thsuchcommonex istentialcri
    sesasbi rth,separat i
    onfrom parents,
    sexualuni onwi thonepar entandhost il
    it
    yt owardt heot her,independencei none' s
    searchf ori
    dent ity
    ,and, fi
    nally,deat
    h.

    Psy chopat hol ogyMaysaw apat hyandempt i


    ness-notanxi etyandgui l
    t-ast he
    chiefexi stent i
    aldi sor dersofourt i
    me.Peopl ehav ebecomeal i
    enatedf rom t henat ur al
    wor ld( Umwel t),f rom ot herpeopl e( Mit
    wel t)
    ,and f rom t hemsel ves ( Eigenwel t).
    Psy chopat hologyi sal ackofconnect ednessandani nabi l
    i
    tyt of ulfi
    llone' sdest i
    ny .
    Psy chot her apyThegoalofMay '
    spsy chotherapywasnott ocurepat ientsofanyspeci fi
    c
    disor der ,butt o make t hem mor ef ull
    y human.May sai dt hatt he pur pose of
    psy chot her apyi st osetpeopl efree,toal l
    ow t hem tomakechoi cesandt oassume
    responsi bilityfort hosechoi ces.RelatedResear chMay 'stheoryofper sonal it
    ydoesnot
    l
    endi tsel ft oeasi lyt establehy potheses,and,t her
    efore,ithasnotgener atedmuch
    resear ch.Nev ertheless,Jef fGr eenberg and hi s coll
    eagues hav ei nv estigated t he
    conceptoft errormanagement ,whichi sbasedont henot ionofex istentialanxi ety.In
    gener al,Gr eenber g'sf indingsar econsistentwi thMay '
    sdef i
    niti
    onofexi st entialanxiet y
    asanappr ehensi onoft hreat
    st oone' sexistence.Howev er,thisresear chcanal sobe
    expl ainedbyot herpsy chologicaltheories.Crit
    iqueofMayMay 'spsy chologyhasbeen
    l
    egi timat el
    ycr iti
    cized asbei ng ant i
    theoreti
    caland unj ustl
    ycr it
    icized asbei ng ant i-
    i
    nt ellectual .

    May'santi
    theoreticalapproachcal lsforanewki ndofsci ence-
    onet hatconsiders
    uniqueness and personalf reedom as cr ucialconcept s.Howev er,Page 51 of52
    ASLagnadaI I
    I/
    090213Theor i
    esOfPer sonal
    itySummar izedaccor di
    ngt othecr i
    teriaof
    presentscience,May '
    st heoryratesl owonmostst andards.Current
    ly,hi
    st heor
    yi sv ery
    l
    owoni tsabil
    it
    ytogener ateresearch,t obefalsi
    fi
    ed,andt oguideaction;l
    owoni nt ernal
    consist
    ency( becausei tlacksoper ationall
    ydef i
    nedt er
    ms) ,av
    er ageonpar simony ,and

    112
    highoni t
    sorganizationalpowersduetoit
    sconsiderati
    onofabr oadscopeoft hehuman
    conditi
    on.ConceptofHumani tyMayv i
    ewedpeopl eascompl exbeings,capableofboth
    tremendousgoodandi mmenseev il
    .Peoplehav ebecomeal i
    enatedfrom thewor ld,
    from otherpeople,and,mostofall,f
    rom t
    hemsel v
    es.Onthedi mensionsofaconceptof
    humani ty
    ,Mayr ateshighonf r
    eechoice,t
    eleol
    ogy,soci
    ali
    nfluences,anduniqueness.On
    theissueofconsci ousorunconsciousfor
    ces,histheor
    ytakesami ddlepositi
    on.

    Cor
    ev ueorKapwa(
    al shar
    edi
    nnersel
    f)

    Kapwai s t he cor e const r


    uct of Fi l
    ipino Psy chology .Kapwahas t wo
    cat
    egor
    ies,I
    bangTaoandHi ndiIbangTao.
     IbangTao( "outsider")Ther ear ef i
    vei nteractionl evelsundert hiscat egory:
     Paki kitungo:ci vil
    it
    y -I n Conf ucian et hi cs,r i
    ght behav ior meant right
    demeanort owar dsaut hor it
    ies( Parents,El der s,
    etc.).
     Paki kisalamuha:actofmi xing -Thi si s a soci alv alue t hati s pr
    imari
    ly
    communi t
    arianandConf ucian.Itespousest heabili
    tyt oadapt .
     Paki kilahok:actofj oining-Thi st ranslat est o par ti
    cipat i
    onoft heent i
    re
    communi t
    yt ohel paper son.
     Paki kibagay:conf ormi ty-Thi sr unsi ntoconf li
    ctwi t
    hi ndividualit
    ywhi chmany
    Fil
    ipinosi nf actwi l
    li
    ngl yt hrowawayi nf av orofconf ormi tywi thdemandsof
    thosewhoar einchar ge.
     Paki kisama:bei nguni tedwi ththegr oup.
     HindiI bang Tao( "
    one- of-us" )Ther e ar et hree i nteracti
    on l evel
    s undert his
    category:
     Paki kipagpal agayang- loob:actofmut ual trust
     Paki kisangkot :actofj oiningot hers
     Paki kipagkai sa:beingonewi thother s

    Pi
    vot
    ali
    nter
    per
    sonalval
    ue
     Pakir
    amdam:Shar ed i
    nnerper
    cept
    ions.Fi
    l
    i nos usedamdam,ort
    pi he i
    nner
    percept
    ionofot
    her
    s'emot
    ions,asabasi
    ctoolt
    ogui
    dehi
    sdeal
    i
    ngswi
    thot
    her
    people.

    Li
    nki
    ngsocio-
    personalval
    ue
     Kagandahang-
    Loob:Shar
    edhumani
    ty.Thi
    sref
    erst
    obei
    ngabl
    etohel
    pot
    her
    peopl
    eindir
    eneedduet
    oaper
    cept
    ionofbei
    ngt
    oget
    herasapar
    tofoneFi
    l
    ipi
    no
    humanit
    y.

    Accommodat
    ivesur
    faceval
    ues
     Hi
    ya:Loosel
    yt r
    ansl
    atedas'
    shy
    ness'bymostWest
    ernpsy
    chol
    ogi
    st Hi
    s, yai
    s
    actual
    ly'
    senseofpr opr
    iet
    y'.
     Utangnal oob:Norm ofrecipr
    oci
    ty.Fi
    li
    pinosareexpectedbyt hei
    rneighborst o
    ret
    urnfavors—whetherthesewereaskedforornot—wheni ti
    sneededorwant ed.
     Pakiki
    samaandPaki ki
    pagkapwa:SmoothI nter
    personalRel
    ati
    onship,orSIR,as
    coinedbyLy nch(1961and1973).Thisatti
    tudeisprimari
    l
    yguidedbyconf ormity
    withthemaj or
    it
    y.

    Confr
    ont
    ati
    vesur
    faceval
    ues
     Bahal
    aNa:Bahal
    aNat r
    ansl
    atesl
    i
    ter
    all
    yas"
    leav
    eitupt
    oGod(
    Bat
    hal
    a)"andi
    tis
    usedasanexpr ession,almostuni versal
    ly,i
    nFil
    ipinoculture.Fil
    i
    pinosengagein
    thebahal anaat t
    it
    udeasacul t
    ure-i
    nfl
    uencedadapt ivecopi ngstrat
    egywhen
    facedwi thchall
    engingsituati
    ons.
     LakasngLoob: Thisattit
    udei schar acter
    izedbybeingcour ageousinthemidstof
    problemsanduncer tai
    nti
    es.
     Pakikibaka:Li
    teral
    lyinEnglish, tmeansconcur
    i rentclashes.Itrefer
    stotheabi
    li
    ty
    oftheFi l
    ipi
    notounder takerev olut
    ionsandupr i
    singsagainstacommonenemy .

    113
    Soci
    etalvalues
     Kar angal
    an:Loosel
    ytr
    ansl
    ated t
    o di
    gni
    ty,t
    hisact
    ual
    l
    yref
    erst
    o whatot
    her
    peopl eseeinaper sonandhow t heyuset hatinfor
    mationtomakeast andor
    j
    udgeabouthi s/herwor t
    h.
     Pur i:t
    heext ernalaspectofdi gnity.Mayr ef
    ert ohow otherpeoplejudgea
    personofhi s/herwor th.Thiscompel sacommonFi l
    i
    pinot oconformt o
    social
    norms, regardl
    esshowobsol etet heyare.
     Dangal :t
    hei nternalaspectofdi gnity.Mayr efertohow aper sonjudgeshis
    ownwor th.
     Katarungan:Loosel ytransl
    atedt ojustice,thisactuall
    yrefer
    st oequityingivi
    ng
    rewar dstoaper son.
     Kalayaan:Freedom andmobi li
    ty.I
    ronicall
    y ,
    thismaycl ashwiththelessimport
    ant
    valueofpakikisamaorpaki ki
    bagay(conf ormi t
    y).

    Appr
    oachesandmet
    hods

    Approaches,orl
    apit
    ,andmet hods,orpamamaraan,i
    nFili
    pinoPsy chol
    ogyare
    di
    ff
    erentfrom t hatofWest ernPsychology.InFi
    li
    pino Psy
    chol
    ogy ,t
    hesubj ect
    s,or
    par
    ti
    cipant
    s, edkal
    cal
    l ahok,areconsi
    deredasequali
    nstatustot
    heresearcher.

    Theparti
    cipant
    sareincludedintheresearchasagr oup,andnotasindi
    vi
    dual
    s-
    hence,anumpukan,ornat uralcl
    uster
    ,isrequir
    edt oser
    veast hepart
    ici
    pant
    s,perse.
    Ther esearcheri
    si ntr
    oducedt oanat ur
    alclusterbyatulay(bri
    dge)
    ,whoi sapartof
    theumpukanandi sawell-
    respectedmanint hecommunity.

    Someoft heappr oachesandmet hodsusedi nFi l


    ipinoPsy chologyar e:
    1. Pakiki
    pagkuwent uhan:I nt hismet hod,t her esear cherengagesi nast ory-
    tel
    l
    ing
    with anumpukan.The r esearchermer ely ser ves as t he f acili
    tator,whi l
    e
    thekalahokorpar t
    icipantsar et heonewhoar et ot al
    k.Thet erm kwent o,fr
    om
    theSpani shwor dcuent o,l
    iteral
    lymeans' tot ellast ory'
    .
    2. Panunul uyan:Int hi
    smet hod,t her esear cherst aysi nthehomeofhi skal ahokor
    part
    icipantwhi leheconduct st her esear chwi t
    hconsentbyt hehostf amily,
    whoseheadser vesast het ulaytoanumpukan.Thet ermt uloy,whi chi stheroot
    wordoft heterm panunul uyan, li
    terall
    ymeans' togoi n'.
    3. Pagdadal aw-dal aw:I nt hi
    smet hod,t her esear cheroccasi onal l
    yv i
    sitst hehouse
    ofhishostort ulay,asopposedt ost ay i
    ngi nt hehouse.Thet erm dal awl i
    ter
    all
    y
    means' v i
    sit'
    .
    4. Pagtatanung- tanong:I nt his met hod,t he r esear cherunder goes a ki nd of
    questioningsessi onwi thhi skal ahokorpar t
    icipants.Int hismet hod,howev er,
    '
    leadquest i
    ons'( thosequest ionswhi chdi rectl
    yr efertot het opicbei ngst udi
    ed)
    arenotsupposedt obeasked, i
    nst eadt hequest i
    onst obeaskedar esupposedt o
    have been der ived f rom t hekal ahok's answer s t hemsel v es. The
    wordt anongl iterall
    ymeans' quest i
    on'.
    5. Pakiki
    ramdam:I nt his appr oach,t he r esear cheruses ent i
    rely his/ herown
    feel
    ingsoremot i
    onst ojust i
    fyifhi spar ticipant sorkal ahokar ereadyt obepar t
    ofhi sresear chornot .Thet erm damdam l i
    terallymeans' innerper cepti
    onof
    emot i
    ons' .

    Psy
    chopat
    hol
    ogy

    Fil
    ipino psy chopathology , orsikopatol
    ohiyain Fil
    ipi
    no, from
    Spanishpsicopatologia,ist hest udyofabnor malpsy chologyint heFi l
    i
    pinocont ext
    .
    Severalment aldisordershav ebeeni dentif
    iedthatcultur
    e-boundsy ndromes,andcan
    ther
    eforebef oundonl yint hePhi l
    ippinesori nothersocieti
    eswi t
    hwhi chFili
    pinosshar e
    cult
    uralconnecti
    ons.Exampl esofsuchar e:
     Amok:Mal ayanmooddi sorder ,mor eaptlycal
    led"AustronesianMoodDi sorder"
    ,
    inwhi chaper sonsuddenl yl osescont rolofhimselfandgoesi nt oakill
    ingfrenzy,
    afterwhichhe/ shehal l
    ucinat esandf all
    sintoat r
    ance.Af t
    erhe/ shewakesup, he
    hasabsol utel
    ynomemor yoft heev ent.

    114
     Bangungot:Ar el
    ati
    velycommonoccur r
    encei nwhi chapersonsuddenlyl oses
    controlofhi
    sr espi
    rati
    onanddigesti
    on,andfallsintoacomaandul t
    imatelyto
    death.Thepersonisbelievedt
    odream offall
    i
    ngi ntoadeepaby ssattheonset
    ofhisdeath.Thi ssyndromehasbeenr epeatedlylinkedt
    oThailand'
    sBrugada
    syndromeandtot heingesti
    onofri
    ce.However,nosuchmedi caltieshavebeen
    proven.

    Mani
    fest
    ati
    onofuni
    ver
    salment
    aldi
    sor
    der
    s
    Fil
    ipinopsychopathologyalsorefer
    st ot
    hedif
    fer
    entmani
    fest
    ati
    onsofment al
    di
    sorders i n Fili
    pino peopl e. One example of such is the manifest
    at i
    on
    ofdepressionandschizophreniainFi
    li
    pinos,whi
    char
    e,fort
    hemostpart,l
    essv i
    olent.
    Psycho-medi ci
    neandfait
    hheal er
    s

    Fil
    ipi
    no psy chomedicine, orsi
    komedikal na sikol
    ohiyain Fili
    pino, i
    s the
    appl
    icati
    on ofbasic psy chol
    ogyt o nati
    ve heali
    ng pr
    acti
    ces loosel
    yconsi der
    ed as
    '
    medicine'
    .Thesepr acti
    cesarecloselyti
    edtot hefai
    thheal
    ers,aswellast othenat
    ive
    pagan priest
    esses l i
    ke thebabay l
    anorkat
    alonan,who wer e suppressed by the
    Spaniar
    dsdur i
    ngtheircol
    onizati
    onofthePhil
    ippines.

    Exampl
    esofsuchpr acticesi ncl ude:
    1.Hilot:Theuseofmassaget oai dapr egnantmot herint hedel i
    veryofherchi ld.
    2.Kulam: Hexorbewi t
    chment .
    3.Lihi:An i ntensecr av ing f orsomet hing orsomeonedur ing pregnancy .Fai t
    h
    healersormanghi hi
    lott est i
    fyt hatift hecr avingi snotsat i
    sf i
    ed,abnor mal i
    tyof
    thechi ldmayr esult.
    4.Pasma:A conceptt hatexpl ainshowi nit( heat)andl ami g(cold)t oget hercan
    resultini ll
    ness, especi al lyr heumat i
    sm.
    5.Sust o: Soul-fli
    ght.Der ivedf rom Lat i
    nAmer icant r
    adi t
    ions.
    6.Pagt atawas:A met hod ofdi agnosing i llness wher einal um (caledt
    l awas)i s
    ri
    tualisticallyusedbyt heal bul aryoormedi cinemanf ordi agnosi sofav ar i
    etyof
    healthcondi tons.Thet
    i awasi susedt o'cross'( signoft hecr oss)t hef or ehead
    andot hersuspi ciousorai li
    ngpar tsoft hebodyaspr ay er sar ebei ngwhi spered
    (bulongoror acion) .Itist henpl acedongl owi ngember s,r emov edwheni tstart
    s
    tocr ack, thent ransf erredt oasmal lrecept acleofwat er .Asi tcools, i
    tssof tened
    form spr eadsont hewat ersur faceandassumesashapet hatmaysuggestt he
    causeoft hei ll
    ness,of tenoneofsev erali ndigenousf orces:dwar fs,dev i
    lsor
    otherev ilspi ri
    ts( na-nuno, na-kul am,na- demonyo) .Thewat erint hev ehicleis
    thenusedt oanoi ntt heai li
    ngpar torpar tsoft hebodyt ocount eractt heev il
    forcesori l
    lness.Thet awasi st hendi scar dedandt hr ownwest war d,pr eferabl
    y
    i
    nt otheset tingsun.
    7.Usog:Aconceptt hatexpl ainshow ababywhohasbeengr eetedbyast r
    anger
    acqui resamy ster i
    ousi llness.Appar ent l
    yder i
    vedf rom t heSpani sht raditi
    on
    ofMal deOj o.
    8.Gabâorgabaa: TheVi say anconceptofnegat i
    v eKar ma.

    Si
    kol
    ohi
    yangPi
    l
    ipi
    no-Vi
    rgi
    l
    ioEnr
    iquez

    Hakbangtungosapaggi
    singngdiwangPili
    pinomulasakanil
    angkolony
    alnakaranasan-
    -
    i
    toaylabansasikol
    ohiy
    anglumagosamgai ndust
    ri
    ali
    zedcount
    ri
    esnapili
    ti
    nil
    alapatsa
    i
    sangThi
    rdWor l
    dnabansy agay
    angPili
    pinas.

    1.Anobat alagaangSP?
    Ang SP ay hi ndiisang reaksyunar
    yong disi
    pli
    nang ini
    mbentong mga anti
    -
    Kano.AngSPaynakaugatsaat i
    ngkasay sayan.Bagopadumat i
    ngangmgaKast i
    laay
    maysi kolohi
    yanat ay
    o.Nasaanyoi tongmgaal amat,sal
    awikai
    n,atbp.Naki
    ki
    tasamga
    i
    toangpandai gdigangpananaw( worldvi
    ew)ngat i
    ngmgani nuno.Angatingki
    nagi
    snang
    si
    kolohiyaayisangbat ayanngSP.

    115
    2.Saan- saanmaki kit
    aangSPsapagbabagongpanahon?
    May SP r in sa mga akda ni na Rizal,Jaci
    nto,Luna,atbp.Sapanahon ng
    pagbabagong- isip,i
    sinulongnilaanginteresngmgaPili
    pinoatit
    inuwi
    dangmgamal i
    ng
    pag-aakala.
    Samgapag- aaralnaginawanoongpanahonngmgaAmer i
    kano.
    Pakiki
    l
    ahok
    ngmgasi kol
    ohi stasapagl utasngsuli
    raninngl
    ipunansapanahonngsigal
    ot.
    Makiki
    tari
    n
    sawi ka,kul
    turaatpananawngmgaPi li
    pino.

    3.Hi
    ndibabagoangSP?
    Sakaranasannat
    in,hi
    ndi
    .
    Sapor
    malnaakademy
    a,masasabi
    ngsanggolpaang
    SP.

    4.Paanonaangi bangteyorya(Kanlur
    anin)?
    Huwagi basur
    aangmgai to,maysi l
    bipar i
    nsil
    asapagpapaliwanagngpagkil
    os
    ngt
    ao.
    Maging kr
    it
    ikalpagdati
    ng sa pagt anggap ng mga t eyory
    ang .Kanl
    urani
    n.Masusi
    munangsuri
    inbagogami t
    in.
    "Cri
    ti
    calrej
    ecti
    oni sasdangerousatuncri
    ti
    cal
    accept
    ance.
    "

    5.AngSPbaayi sangagham?
    Oo,dahi lit
    oaykaal amangt agapagt anda,tagapal
    iwanagat minsa'
    yt agal
    utasng
    mga sul i
    ranin nat i
    ng mga Pi l
    i
    pino.Scienti
    fic ang SP dahi l mer on di n i t
    ong
    sistemat i
    kongpr osesongsi nusunodsapagkal apngmgadat os.
    It
    oaysi kolohi
    y alna
    teorya,met odo atapl i
    kasyongpi
    nauunl ad sa pamamagi tan ng kultur
    ang Pi lipi
    no
    bilangbatay an.Tunguhinpar inngSPangmakahanapngmgauni ber
    salnateoryaukolsa
    pagkat ao.Angpokusngal amangaysapagkat aongPi l
    i
    pino.Mulasapagbubukl odng
    mga si kolohiyang bat ay sa bawatkultura,mas makat otohanan ang uni bersalna
    sikolohiyangmat at
    amo.

    6.Anoangmaaarikonggawi
    nparasaikauunl
    adngSP?
    a)Pagi
    gingkri
    ti
    kal
    .
    b)Paki
    ki
    lahoksamgaisy
    ungkinakaharapngmgaPi
    l
    ipi
    no

    Hinihikayatangmgasikolohi
    stanglumabassakani
    langmgal aborator
    yoatmakibagagi
    nangmaki t
    anil
    aangkalagayanngmasnakar ar
    amingPili
    pino-
    -pagbabamulasat oreng
    garing.
    Paanokagagawangpag- aaralkunghi
    ndimonaii
    nti
    ndihanonararanasanangkani
    lang
    kalagay an?

    c) Gumawa ng pananali
    ksikukolsa mga kat utubong konseptot
    ulad ng
    tampo,lambi
    ng,
    sali
    ng-pusa,atbp.Sapaggawang pananal iksi
    k,huwag
    kal
    imutannaangmgat aongki nukunanngimpor masyonaydi l
    amang
    subj
    ect
    skundidapatkalahoksainyongpag-
    aaral

    d)Maki
    bukl
    odsaibapangnanini
    walasaSPatsama-
    samang
    i
    sul
    ongangdi
    wangPili
    pinoatmaka-
    Pil
    i
    pino

    7.Anu-
    anoangmgabat ayanngSPsakul turaatkasaysayan?
    a)Kinagi
    snangsikolohiya
     Mgaar al
    ,ri
    twalngmgabaaby l
    anatkatalonan,
    mgadal angi
    n,kuwent
    ong-
    bayan,alamat ,epi
    ko
     Lit
    erat
    urangmgaPi li
    pino,
    pasali
    tamanopasul at
     Mgakaugal i
    angmi nanangmgaPi l
    ipi
    no
     Mgaugaliatpani ni
    walatungkolsapag-aarugangbata

    b)Angtaoatangkany angdiwa
     Nagt atagposabatayangitoangSPatangSikolohiy
    asaPi l
    i
    pinas
     AngSPaybahagi atkabahagingsi
    kol
    ohiy
    asadai gdig
     Ang t eorya ng dalawang kalul
    uwanapi
    naniniwalaan ng kat
    utubo sa
    Pi
    li
    pinasayon

    116
     kaySal azar(1974)aybi nubuongdi waatngkakambal nito
     Ang pag- uugat ng si kol
    ohiya bi lang di
    siplinangakademiko ay may
    mahabang kasay say an saUnibersidad ng San Car los na kung saan
    angsikolohiyangteoreti
    kalaybi ni
    gy anngpagpapahal agani Goer
    tz( 1965)
     Layunin di t
    o ang makabuo ng i sangpangkal ahatang lar
    awan ng mga
    kaalamanat bat
    aspangkai si
    pan
     Naritoangi mpluwensi y
    angAl emannanag- ugatsapananal i
    ksi
    kniWundt ,
    nagdaan sa kamay ni Kulpe, at nanul ay sa pagt uturo ni
    JohannesLi ndwurskyhanggangsamgakasal ukuy angpag-aaralniGoertz
     Ang si stemang i t
    o ng si kolohi
    y a na may mal aki
    ngimpluwensy a sa
    kal
    agi t
    aang Pi l
    ipi
    nas ay ki l
    alar insa taguri
    ng si kol
    ohia ng "tanso at
    pompy ang. "

    c) Angpanahonngpagbabagong- i
    sip
     Hi ndidapatmangi ming hanapi
    n ang ugatngsi
    kol
    ohi
    ya ng wi
    ka sa
    l
    eksikogr
    apiya ni PerdoSerr
    ano Laktaw o sa mga gi nawa ng
    poklor
    ist
    angsiI
    sabel
    odel osReyes

     Maramingmabubuongkaal amangsikol
    ohikalmul
    asamgaakdangmga
    Pil
    i
    pinong t umatalakay samga paksang makabuluhan para sa
    mgasikol
    ohista,t
    uladngpag- i
    bigsakalikasan(
    del
    Pil
    ar,1988)omga
    sal
    oobintungkolsakamatayan(
    delPi
    lar
    ,1907).

    d)Angpanahonngpagpapahal agasaki l
    osatkakay ahanngt ao
     Agust i
    nAlonzo--angkauna- unahangPi l
    i
    pinongnagt aposngMast erado
    saSini
    ngngSikolohiyasaUP
     Kapanahon ni ya siHar tendorp na isa sa mganunang Amer i
    kanong
    nagpaki
    tanginteressasikolohiy
    aditosaatin
     Teor yaniOsi
    as( 1940)tungkolsakaugnay anngwi kasal i
    punanayi sang
    hal
    imbawangpag- uugnaysakaal amangpangl i
    nggwi st
    ikasakilosngtao.
     Mgagawai nninaI si
    doroPanl ai
    gui(1952),
    SinforosoPadill
    a( 1961,1963)
    atAlf
    redoLagmay (1964)napawangnagpapahal agasaki l
    osat kal
    agayan
    ngtao.

    e) Ang panahon ng pagpapahal aga sa sul iranin ng l i


    punan nat umat alakay
    sapagpapanaogngmgasi kol
    ohistangPilipinomul asakani langt
    orenggar ing
     Bukod- tangiangpagpapahal agangibi nigayni Aldaba-Lim( 1938,1957m
    1963, 1966b, 1969) samga sul i
    ranin sa l ipunan. Si ya ang
    pinakamadal ashumi
    kay atssa mga si kolohistang bumaba sakani lang
    torenggar i
    ngatmakinigsamgasul i
    rani nngbay an.
     Ang pagpapahal aga sa mga sul ir
    ani n ng lipunan ay habang- buhayna
    uukilki
    lsai sipanngbawat si
    kolohi
    stangnai smagt agosakat ahi
    mi kan
    ngkany angpagsuringdat os( dat
    apr ocessi ng)or pag-eeksperiment o( l
    ab
    control).

    f
    ) Angwi ka,kultur aatpananaw ngmgaPi l
    i
    pinonasi yangpinakapundament al
    nasali
    ganngi bapangbat ayangnabanggit.
     Pi nakapundament al na sal igan ng mga bat ayangit
    o ay ang
    pagpapahal agasawi ka,kult
    uraatpananawngmgaPi l
    ipino
     Napakahal agangbat ayanngSPangwi kangkatutubosaPi l
    ipi
    nasdahi l
    "angkasay say anngsi
    kolohiyasaPili
    pinasayssaksisanapakar ami
    ngpag
    -aaralnai sinagawasamgawi kangday uhan.I
    toaymapangani bkung
    kabaligtar
    an ngkat ot
    ohanan ang maki t
    ang resulta ng pananali
    ksiksa
    i
    sangkul t
    ur anai si
    nasagawaay onsapananawatwi kangi bangkult
    ura."
     Angwi kaayi sangmahal agangdaluyangmaaar i
    ngbaguhi nbil
    angsali
    gan
    ngpananal iksik.

    117
    8.AnoangIskal
    angMananal i
    ksi
    k?
     Mga met odong gi nagami t ng i
    sang mananaliksi
    k sasikolohi
    ya sa
    pagtatarok ng diwa ng kal ahok.
    It
    o'y mga metodong subok na ang
    kakayahangl umikom ngi mpormasyonsakult
    urangPi l
    i
    pino,atangkolsa
    pag-uugali
    atpangar aw-araw napamumuhayngmgaPi li
    pino.
    Inayosit
    o
    ayonsaant asngpagkamasal imuotngmgaparaan( mulasapinakasimpl
    e
    hanggangsapi nakamasalimuot)
     Pagmamasi d(mal ay
    o,mababaw)
     Pakiki
    ramdam
     Pagtatanung-tanong
     Pagsubok
     Pagdalaw-dalaw
     Pagmamat yag
     Pagsubay bay
     Pakiki
    alam
     Pakiki
    lahok
     Pakiki
    sangkot( verypart
    icipat
    ory
    ,malal
    im,mal
    apit
    )

    9.AnoangIskalangPagt utunguhanngMananal i
    ksikatKalahok?
     Mga met odong i minumungkahi ng dapatgami ti
    n ngmananal iksi
    k sa
    kany angpag- aaralngdi wangPil
    ipinosapamamagi tanngkalahok
     Ang ant as ng pagt utunguhan ay siayar i
    ng ant as ngi
    mpor masyong
    makukuha
     Sa si kolohi
    sya,i minumungkahing ang pagt ut
    unguhan ay parat
    ingi
    n sa
    antasngpaki kipagpalagayang-
    loob,sapagkatsagani t
    ongpar aanlamang
    mat atarokangt unayna
     kaloobanngkal ahok

    Ant
    asngpakiki
    pag-ugnay an/pakikipagkapwa
    a)Ibangtao:
     Paki kitungo-ibangt ao
     Paki kisalamuha-madal asnangmaki t
    a
     Paki kil
    ahok-act ivepar ticipati
    on
     Paki kibagay-adj ustmentwi t
    hothers
     Paki kisama-nat ur alrelati
    on
    b)Hindiibangt ao:
     Paki kipagpalagay ang-loob-pal agayangloob
     Paki kisangkot-mayki nalaman/ empathy
     Paki kii
    sa-pagi i
    sangdi bdib

    10.Anoangiba'
    t-i
    bangaspet o/
    dimensy
    onngpaki
    ki
    pagkapwa
     Levelofcomf ort
     Sharedexperiences
     LevelofDiscl
    osure
     Concern
     PhysicalDi
    stance

    11.Anoangmgakat angi
    anngisangmaka-Pi
    li
    pinongpananal
    iksi
    k?
    a)Mahalagaangugnay anngmananal
    iksikatkal
    ahok
    b)Pant
    ayangkal ahokatmananal
    i
    ksik(omasunapaangkal ahok)

    12.Anoangmgabat ay
    anngpar amasabingangisangbagayay
    maka-
    Pil
    i
    pino?
    a)Nakaugatsakai
    sipanatkar
    anasangPili
    pino
    b)Maypagpapahal
    agasakul t
    urangPil
    i
    pino
    c) Nagl
    alay
    onggi
    singi
    nangdiwangPili
    pino

    118
    13.Saanongmgaaspet onai
    sa-
    Pil
    i
    pinoangSP?
     Tey orya-
    metodo
     Ni l
    alaman
     Pr akti
    satgamit

    14.Anoangapatnat r
    adisyonngSikol
    ohi
    ya?
     Akademiko-siyent
    ipi
    ko
     Akademiko-pil
    osopiko
     Taalnasikolohia
     Si
    kolohi
    yangsi ko-medi
    kal
    15.AnoangcoreconceptsaSP?
    Kapwa(mul asamgasal it
    angkal
    uluwa+kat
    uwang)

    16.Anoangtat
    longuringdibi
    syongpanl
    ipunan?
     Economic
     Poli
    ti
    cal
     Cult
    ural-
    ->GreatCult
    ural
    Divi
    deoGCD

    17.Anu-
    anoangmgaur
    ingpagt
    ulong?

    a)Kawanggawa-t empor aryo,


    nauubos( hali
    mbawa: cannedgoods,pera)
    b)Technol ogicalt
    ransfer-wal angfoll
    owt hrough(hal
    imbawa:bahaypar asa
    mganasal antanglahar);maaar i
    nghindiangkopsasitwasyon(hali
    mbawa:
    pagtutur
    ongmagbasasamgabat a,ngunithindingkompr ehensyonat
    hindinamanpalanilanai i
    nti
    ndihanangkani l
    angbinabasa.
    )
    c) Empower ment - pi nakamat aas na ur ing pagt ulong;angklasikong
    halimbawa:huwagbi gyanngi sdaangi sangtaongnagugutom,bagkusay
    turuansiy
    akungpaanomangi sda

    18.Anoangmgapr oblemasapaggami tngbany agangwi


    ka?
     Marginal
    izati
    on-pagkukul
    angsapagunawa
     Di
    storti
    on-hindiangkopnapagbibigaykahul
    ugan
     Al
    ienati
    on-masy adongnapapalayoangkonseptopar
    amaunawaan

    19.Anu-
    anoangmgakar anasangPi
    li
    pinosawi
    ka?
     Katutubongkonsepto
     Pag-aandukha
     Pagbibinyag
     Pagtatakdangkahulugan
     Banyagangkonsept o
     Impluwensyangligaw

    20.Buodngpagkakai bangKanl ur
    aningSi kolohi y
    aatSPKSSP
    a)Sinoangnaki kinabangmananal iksikkal
    ahok
    b)Saan nakabat ayang t agumpayhusayng mananal iksikr
    elasyon ngng
    mananali
    ksik?mananal i
    ksikatkal ahok
    c) Anoangmahal aga?Resultaproseso
    d)Sinoangmaykapangy ar
    ihan?Mananal iksi
    kkal
    ahok
    e) Wikangginagami t
    ?Mananal iksikkalahok
    f) Kali
    kasanngpapel naginagampanancl ear
    lydefi
    nedi
    nterchangeabl
    e

    21.Met
    odol
    ohi
    yangmaka- Pi
    li
    pino:
    Lapi
    t/Met
    odo
     Paki
    kipagkuwentuhan
     Panunuluyan
     Pagdadalaw-dal
    aw

    119
     Pagtat
    anung- t
    anong
     Paki
    kiramdam
     Pakapa-kapa
     Paki
    kipagpalagayang-
    loob
     Paki
    kisama
     Paki
    kipanayam

    22.Met
    odol
    ohiyangmaka-Pil
    ipi
    no:mai
    nst
    ram met
    hods(
    "t
    ool
    s")
     Pagtatanung-t
    anong
     Pagmamasi d
     Ginabay angTal
    akayan
     Pakikipagkuwent
    uhan

    JUNGIANTHEORYANDSOCI ALWORKPRACTI
    CE
    Her
    manBorenzwei
    g
    UNTVERSTTYOFSOUTHERNCALIFORNI
    A
    SCHOOLOFSOCI ALWORK

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Car
    lJung’s contr
    ibut
    ions to psychol
    ogy,psycho-
    ther
    apy,andsoci
    alsci
    ence
    havehadlit
    tl
    eimpactuponsoci alwor kpract
    ice.Soci
    alWorkAbstr
    actt
    oli
    stsonl
    yone
    art
    icl
    ewhereJungi
    ant heoryi
    sutil
    izedbysocialworker
    s.McBroom hasr
    ecentl
    ywri
    tt
    en

    120
    anarti
    cle
    "TheCollect
    iveUnconsci
    ousasaUni f
    yingConcepti nTeachingHumanBehav iorCr
    oss
    Cult
    ural
    ly:”I
    fonlytwoar ti
    clesaboutJungi anpsychologyhaveappearedint hesocial
    workl i
    terat
    ureint he l
    astt welve-y earsi tseemssaf et o assume either that
    the ,
    Jungian ori
    ented socialwor
    kers pr act
    ice t
    heirJung underground andf ai
    lt o
    publi
    shont hatJungr emainsanathemat otheprofessi
    on.

    In pantone oft his art


    icl
    e an attemptwi llbe madeto under
    stand why
    socialwork haschosen t oignore Jung’steachi
    ngs.Thecompati
    bil
    it
    y ofJungian
    andsocialwor ktheoryist he contentoft he secondpartofthe paper
    .Thepaper
    proposesthat the incorpor
    ation ofJungian theoryint
    o soci
    alwonkt heory may
    i
    nspireourf ut
    urecr eat
    ivegrowthasapr ofessi
    on.

    ThePol
    it
    icsofPopul
    ari
    ty

    Inoneofhi smor eintimateinter


    changeswi thacol l
    eagueFr eudspokeabout
    hissecr etambitiont o bemor ethewr it
    erthant hepsy chotherapi
    st.4 Fr
    eudut ili
    zi
    ng
    the gr eatGerman aut hors Lessing andGoet he as hi slit
    erarymodel s,was an
    excell
    entwr it
    er;Jung’s wr it
    ingwascumber some and at t i
    mes uni ntel
    ligibl
    e.As
    Rober tBlythe contempor ary poet who i s a Jungian put i t,”
    Jungwi th al lhi s
    greatness was notgood wi th words.Iam sorryaboutthat.Ani maandAni musar e
    notver ygoodwor dstoconv eyJung'sconcepts."Part
    lybecauseofhi sexcellentwr i
    ti
    ng
    skil
    lFr eud overshadowed Jung i nt he publi
    shed polemics aboutt heirt heoreti
    cal
    dif
    ferences.

    Jungbecamedi
    sreput
    abl
    ebecauseofal
    l
    egedsuppor
    toft
    heNazipar
    tydur
    ing
    Wor
    ldWarI
    I.

    I
    n1933Jungt ookov ertheedi
    tor
    shi
    poft heZent
    ral
    blattf
    urPsy chotherapy.In
    hisfi
    rstedi
    tor
    ialcommentJungst at
    ed: "
    Thatther
    eareact ualdif
    ferencesbet ween
    GermanicandSemi t
    icpsychologyhaslongbeenknownt ointel
    li
    gentpeopl e. These
    dif
    fer
    encesarenolongergoingtobeobli
    ter
    ated,
    whichcanonlybet otheadv antageof
    sci
    ence."

    To take a commentsuch as t he preceding one outofcont extwi thout


    understandi
    ngJungasahumanbei ngdoeshi m agr av einj
    ust
    ice.Jungbel i
    evedt hat
    thepsy cheofeachmember ,ofeachet hnicgroupcont ainedthecoll
    ecti
    veunconsci ous
    my t
    hologyoft hegroup. Withi
    nJung' sv iew Germani candSemi t
    icmy t
    hologies;and
    cult
    uresdiff
    er .Lungwasut terl
    ybewi lderedandt akenabackbyt hestormt hathehad
    gatheredabouthi mself
    .Heaskedwhyi twasi nor derf orhimtodiscussdi ff
    erencesi n
    FrenchandEngl i
    shpsychol
    ogyorWest ernand-Chi nesepsy chol
    ogywith-outreprisalbut
    couldnotdoaboutJews.Hi sdisciplesmanyoft hem Jewsf el
    thisremar kswer et rul
    y
    i
    nnocentofanyder ogat
    oryormal i
    ciouspol i
    ti
    cali
    ntent.

    Unfor
    tunat
    elyJungalsobel
    iev
    edanancientmyt
    hthatagreatRei
    chwoul
    dri
    sein
    Ger
    many.Hewast ooslowt or
    ecognizeThatt
    hegov
    ernmentofAdolphHi
    tl
    erwasnot
    t
    heful
    fi
    ll
    mentofthi
    smy th.

    Ci r
    cumst ant i
    alev i
    dencewasgat heredbysomeFr eudi
    ansasammuni tionfor
    theirt heor eti
    calbat tl
    e wi t
    ht he Jungi ans designed to associate Jung wi t
    ht he
    Reichsf uhreroft heNaziPsy chother
    apySoci et
    y.Appear ingsi mult
    aneouslytoJung’ s
    editori
    al statementi nthe
    Zent r
    alblattment ionedabov ewasRei chsfuhrer'
    sProfessorDr .M.H.Goring'
    sst atement
    tot he Nazichapt er
    ,"thesocietyassumesofal lmember swhoar eacti
    veaswr it
    ersor
    speaker s t hatt hey hav ewor kedt hrough i n allscientif
    icearnestAdol phHi tl
    er'
    s
    fundament alwor k“ MeinKamf "andthatt heyacknowl edgeitasthebasisoft heirwork.
    "
    Itisironict hatJung' scontactwithDr .M.H.Gor i
    ng,acousi nofthenot ori
    ousHer man
    Goring,wasf ort hepur poseorpr ot
    ect i
    nghi sJewi shcolleaguesinGer manyandt o

    121
    pr
    ovi
    det
    hem wi
    thsomei
    nter
    nat
    ional
    stat
    usi
    fexpel
    l
    edf
    rom Ger
    many
    .

    Our r etr
    ospective knowl edge about Jung as a humani tarian makes i t
    i
    nconcei vabl ethathewoul dsuppor ttheMazi butchers.Jung' st heor yacknowl edgest he
    i
    mper f
    ectionofman,humanf all
    ibil
    it
    y .Jungconf essedhi sowner rorsaboutt heNazi s.
    JustasJungaccept edt heshadowbehav i
    orofhi scl ientsandt huscur edt hem,Letus
    trytounder standandf or gi
    veJungf orhisselfacknowl edgeder rors.Jung' sopt imistic
    cli
    nicalbentmadehi m slowt ocondemnt heNazi s.Hehadanopt imi stichopet hatthe
    Nazi swer ecapabl eofr eli
    nquishingt heirmadness.Heconf essesi nal etterdat edApr i
    l
    20, 1946t hathehadi ll
    usionsaboutpeopl ewheni tcamet oNazi sm.Jungconf essedt o
    thegal lantRabbiLeoBaeck:" Islippedup. "(Ont hesl ipperyGr oundsofPol it
    ics. )Jung's
    mi stakeaccor di
    ngtoj af f
    e( andi nhi sownopi nionaf tertheev ent )layi nt alkingt oo
    much. Jaf feemphasi zest hef actt hatJungwast ooopt i
    mi st i
    candgoesont osay ,
    "whichpr ov esonceagai nthet ruism t hatagr eatsci enti
    stisnotnecessar il
    yagood
    politi
    cian."WhenRabbiBaeckhear dJung' ssideoft hest oryatameet i
    ngt heyhadi n
    Zur i
    chi mmedi at
    elyaf t
    ert hewarRabbiBaeckbecamecompl etelyr econci ledt oJung
    andannouncedt hi
    sf actpubl i
    cly.Af termeetingt heNazil eader sJungr ecogni zedt hat
    theywer ei ndeedmadmen.Tor epeatJungr egrettedt hathewassl owt or ecogni zethe
    Nazi barbarityandslowt odecl ar
    ehi sant i
    -Nazism.

    Jung'
    sr eput
    ati
    onandi nfluencei nAmer i
    caint he1930'
    s,1940'sandpostwar
    yearssuf f
    eredt r
    emendouslygivent heant i
    -f
    asci
    standpol i
    ti
    calcli
    mateoft hi
    ser a.Of
    equalimpor tancetwoaspectsoft hecontentJung’stheor
    yhadt oawai tt
    heirti
    mef or
    acceptance. Jungr ei
    ntr
    oducest hef emini
    nepr i
    ncipl
    eandt heGodcompl exf orthe
    achievementofpsy chol
    ogicalwhol eness.Bothconcept sf
    oundinfert
    il
    egroundt otake
    rootandf l
    our i
    shinasocialcul
    turalcli
    mat esubsumedbypr edominantl
    ypatri
    archaland
    scient
    ifi
    cwor ldvi
    ews.

    Theaforement
    ionedaspect
    sofJung'stheor
    ymadehim unpopularandy etthis
    paperproposesthatitispreci
    sel
    ytheseconceptsthatcur
    rentl
    yhaver el
    evancef or
    soci
    alworkpracti
    ce.Thefemini
    nepri
    nci
    pleandtheCodcomplexther
    efor
    ecanser veas
    l
    ogicaltr
    ansit
    ionsint
    ot hesecondpartoft hi
    spaperwheret heywil
    lbemor efully
    di
    scussed.

    ThePot
    ent
    ialCont
    ri
    but
    ionofJungi
    anTheorytoSoci
    alWor
    kTheor
    yandt
    oSoci
    alWor
    k
    Pract
    ice

    Forsoci alworkersdispleasedwithlabel
    ingpersonswit
    hindiagnosti
    ccat egori
    es
    Jungof fer
    st henotionofwhol enessasopposedt opat hol
    ogy
    .Eachofus,say sJung,
    achieveswhol enessbyintegratingourpersonaandshadow.Theper sonaisourmask
    tothewor ld:how wechooset oappeart oot hersandhow wechooset ointegr
    ate
    ourselvesi nto societ
    yv iaoursoci alrol
    es. Per l
    man’sPersonai mmedi atel
    yof f
    ers
    congruencebet weenJungi anandsoci alwor k.
    theory.InhertextPerl
    manemphasi zes
    assisti
    ngt heper sonswewor kwi t
    ht odevelopthei
    rwor kandloverolesipsof actoto
    developast r
    ongper sona.

    Incontr
    ast
    ,theshadowcont
    ainsaspect
    sofour
    -sel
    vesequival
    entt
    owhatHarry
    Stack Sul
    li
    van would cal
    l"notme”RobertBlv'
    simagery aboutitcan assi
    stour
    underst
    andingoft
    heshadow:

    Wecomei nt
    ot hewor l
    dwi ththr
    eehundr edsi xtydegr eesofper sonali
    ty,afull
    circle.Theni magi neal i
    tt
    leblackbagnextt oyoupl aceal ltheaspect sofyourself
    thaty ou’
    rePar ents,teachers,andothersignif
    icantper sonst rainy out odisown.
    Ify ouar eamany oumayputy ourappropriater age,y ourt ender nessintothe
    black bag. I fy ou're a woman y ou may puty ou’re aggr essi v
    e scienti
    fi
    c
    propensi ti
    esi ntot hebl ackbag. Bef or
    el ong t heman’ sper sonalit
    ycanbe
    repr esentedbyapi eceoft hecircl
    esobi g;Essent ialaspect sofbot ht heir
    per sonalit
    iesar eplacei ntotheblackbag,ar el ostint heshadow.Mostofus
    spendei ghteeny earsofourl iv
    esburyingpartsofour selv esintot heshadowand

    122
    spendt
    henextfift
    yyear
    stry
    ingt
    or ecovert
    hem.
    Intheprocessofeachspouserediscover
    inghi
    sorhershadow,amari
    talpai
    r
    mayspendhundr edsofhoursf
    indingoutwhotheyr
    eall
    yareandift
    heyreall
    y
    bel
    ongtogether
    .

    Not
    ethedial
    ect
    icstr
    uct
    ureofJung'sconcept
    s.Thesel
    fist
    hei
    ntegr
    ati
    onoft
    he
    uni
    tyofopposi
    tesnamel
    ythepersonaandshadow.

    Mor ei mportantforourdiscussi onFr eudandmanyofhi sf ol


    lowersv iewedt he
    shadow ast hesickpartofour sel
    ves.Jungsay si tisonlywhenwet r
    yt oli
    v eoutour
    shadow t hatwe may geti nto dif
    ficul t
    y withoutsoci ety. Viewing one's shadow
    nonpejor ati
    velyasanunconsci ousundev elopedpar tofoneselfi
    ssubt l
    yy etsignif
    icantl
    y
    dif
    ferentt handisowni ngtheshadowasasi ckpar tofoneself.Whenwecount eractthe
    depleti
    onofourener gyrequir
    edt oguar dagai nstourer r
    oneousf ear
    soft heshadow' s
    energy, whenwei ncorporat
    etheener gyav ai
    lablefrom theshadowi nt
    ooursel fsystem,
    wer ediscov erournatural
    lycur
    ious,l
    ustf ul
    l,vi
    talselvesandbecomef r
    eet oexpl or
    e,love,
    andcr eativelyengageourwor l
    d.Rober tBlydescr i
    beshisi ncor
    porati
    onofhi sshadows.

    Iam fif
    tyy ear
    soldandIf
    eel
    moreal
    iv
    enowt hanwhenIwasyounger
    .Whenyou
    accepty ourshadow when y
    ou no l
    ongerguard agai
    nstit
    s ener
    gy y
    our
    depressionlif
    ts.

    Blygoesontodescr
    ibeJung'
    scapacit
    ytolaughf
    rom thedept
    hsofhi
    sbeing,
    an
    exampl
    arofwhatoccur
    swhenoneonl ongerf
    earsandaccent
    shisownshadow.

    Freud'sconceptoft hei dsoundssi mi lart oJung'sconceptoft heshadow.The


    subt l
    edifferencesbet weent het woar epr of ound.Tor epeatforemphasi s,toFr eudthe
    shadow equi val
    entoft hei dwast obedef endedagai nstthr
    oughi solati
    on,repression,
    denial,andot hermechani smsofdef ense.Fr eud' sconceptofsubl i
    mat i
    on,thecapaci ty
    oft heegot oi ncorporateidi mpul sesanddi ver tthem intohi ghersoci alact scomes
    closesttoJung' sviewaboutt heshadow.Adl ersumsupt hemaj ordiff
    erencei nFreud
    andJung' smaj oremphases.Adl erspeaksofFr eud'st hr
    ustascausat ive-
    -reducti
    vev s.
    Jung'st hrustassy nthet
    iccr eative.Fr eudi nter pretedmanyaspect sofpsy chological
    phenomenaasbei ng" nothi
    ngbut "some- thingt hatcouldber educedt oal owerl evel
    phenomena.Fr eudr educedmuchofdy sfunct ionalpsy chologicalphenomenat othe
    negat i
    vei dwhi chhev i
    ewedast hesewerofoursexualandaggr essivedr i
    ves. In
    cont r
    astJungv iewst heunconsci ous,incl usiv eofi t
    sshadow asapr i
    orisourceofour
    essence,ofourl if
    e'staskandourcr eativ
    eener gy .Acur soryunder standingofJungi an
    theorymayhav ealr
    eadyal ert
    edt her eadert ot hepr acti
    ceimplicationsofat heor ywhere
    the maj ort hrusti st o under stand whata cl ient'
    s communi cations por t
    end when
    cont r
    asted wi that heorywher et he maj ort hrusti st o under stand whata cl i
    ent's
    communi cationstellusabouthi spast .

    Jung'stheor
    yofpersonalit
    ytypesof f
    ersanothersourceforachievingwhol
    eness
    ofself
    .Thet heoryofpersonal
    it
    yt ypeshast hepotenti
    altoofferusanothermethodfor
    assessingtherapi
    stcl
    ientcompat ibil
    i
    ty.I naddit
    ionper sonali
    tytypet heor
    yhast he
    potent
    ialto assistus int he understandi
    ng ofmar italincompatibi
    li
    tyand marital
    compat i
    bil
    i
    ty.

    Junghy pothesizest hattheego,t he"li


    tt
    lelight'whichhel psusadaptt oour
    env
    ironmentat tempt st hisadapt at
    ionbymeansoff ourbasi cformsofpsy chi
    cact i
    vit
    y
    ormajorf unct i
    ons.VonFr anzsuccinctlydescri
    bestheseasf oll
    ows:
    1.The sensat ion f unction which consciouslyr egister
    si nnerand out erf acts,
    i
    rrat i
    onally;
    2.Thet hinking funct ion bymeansofwhi ch ourconsci ousego est ablishesa
    rational (
    thatisinaccor dwithreasoni ngeneral),l
    ogicalorderamongobj ects;
    3.The f eeli
    ng funct ion,whi ch rati
    onally est
    abl i
    shes or,al t
    ernati
    vely" select
    s"
    hierarchiesofv al ue( t
    hisismor epleasant,morei mportant,et
    c.thanthat);
    4.Thei ntuit
    ivefunct ionwhi chlikesensat i
    onisi r
    rati
    onal,whichappear st obea
    kindofper cepti
    onv i
    at heunconsciousandwhi chseemst obemai nlyconcer ned

    123
    wi
    tht hef
    uturepossi
    bil
    it
    iesofwhati
    sathand.(I
    ntui
    ti
    onisnotident
    icalwit
    h
    f
    antasywhichJungregardsasahumancapaci
    tyi
    ndependentoft
    hefuncti
    ons,
    j
    ustaswil
    li
    s.)

    Jung al so hy pothesi zest hateach ofusi n ourdev elopmentcul ti


    vatesand
    diff
    erenti
    atesonef unctionmor et hant heot her sandt ends-toov erdev el
    opt hi
    sf uncti
    on
    forhisadapt ation.Under girdingt hef ourf unct i
    onsi sJung' smor ebasi cdichotomyof
    i
    ntrov er
    sion--ext r
    av ersi
    on.Thesecanbedef inedi nshor thandmannerbyusi ngDav id
    Riesman' st erms i nnerand out erdi rect
    edness,r espect
    ively. The under dev el
    oped
    functionsJungcal louri nferiorfunctions.Thi si snott osayf orexampl ethatsensat i
    on
    i
    si nferi
    ortot hinkingort osayt hatext raversioni smor edesir
    abl ethani ntr
    oversion.I n
    factweof t
    enpr oj
    ectbot hourneedsanddef icitsuponot herper sons.Opposi tesmay
    attr
    actandmar ryormaynotbeabl et oendur eoneanot her.Acl i
    entwi lloft
    enpr oject
    hispoor l
    ydev elopedf unct i
    onsupont het her apist,asour ceoft ransference. Thef i
    t
    betweencl ientandt herapist,theat tr
    act i
    onandr epulsi
    on,orbot hofmar i
    talpartnerscan
    beexpl ai
    nedbyJung' sper sonalitytypology .

    Againhel pingcl i
    ent sachievetheirwholenessandi psof actomor eadequate
    socialadapt ati
    onsmayr equir
    et hatwebeal er
    t-totheirundevel
    opedf uncti
    ons.Iti
    sof
    i
    nter esttothiswr it
    erwhowasbot hamemberofaset tl
    ementhouseandr eceivedhi
    s
    basicpr ofessionalt r
    aining in settl
    ementhouseshow Jungi an theor ywasputi nt
    o
    pract i
    cewithoutr ecognizingitassuch.Muchofsoci alworkwithgr oupsdescr i
    bedby
    Wi l
    sonandRy l
    andcanber econceptual
    izedasut i
    li
    zi
    ngpr ogram (e.g.dr ama,dances,
    crafts,andgames)asmet hodsf orhel
    pingcli
    entsgeti ntouchwit handdev el
    opboth
    theirsuperiorandi nf
    eri
    orf unctions.Par toft
    het herapeut
    icimpactoft hesettl
    ement
    mayhav ebeent oassi stcl i
    entstobecomeawar eofandi nt
    egrat
    et heirshadows;aswe
    changepar tnersi nasquar edanceeachofourpar t
    nersbecomest hemi rr
    orofa
    projectedshadoworper sonali
    tytypeaspectofourselv
    es.

    Tosummar ize,Jung'sconceptofwholenesshonorssoci
    alwor
    k'scommi t
    ment
    tothecl
    ient
    'sst
    rengthsratherThanweaknesses.Theshadowandundevelopedaspect
    s
    ofone'
    spersonal
    ityrequi
    redevelopmentrat
    herthandenunci
    ati
    on.

    Jungr egar
    dssoci et
    yasasuper ordinatet othei ndivi
    dual
    ,anotherar enaof
    compatibi
    li
    tybetweenhisandourprof
    ession'sperspectiv
    es.I twasprobablybecauseof
    hi
    sownneedt oparti
    ali
    ze,toworkouthisownar enaofcogni ti
    vemast erythatJung
    chosetof ocusupont hepsychesi
    multaneousl yrecogni
    zingt hesurer
    -or
    dinateapr i
    ori
    i
    mportanceofsociety.Iti
    ssurpr
    isi
    ngtodiscov ert
    hat…

    “…Jungisi nter
    estedpr i
    mar i
    lyint
    heindivi
    dual;butfrom thelar
    gerperspectiveof
    thestudyofmanher egardssocietyast hepr i
    orfact.Soci etyandt hesocial
    experi
    encesofhi storyareulti
    matelythemai nsupplier
    soft heindivi
    dualpsyche.
    Itcomesaboutt hent hatwhi l
    ehisprimaryfocusisont heindi
    vidualpersonali
    ty,
    theconceptionofi ndi
    viduali
    tyisnotagivenf actforhim butonlyader ivat
    iveof
    themoref undament alcategoryofsociet
    y.”

    Simi
    l
    art oMead' sview,Jungseessoci et
    yasst rongestandmostv i
    talwhenthe
    i
    ndivi
    dualswithi
    nitcanexpr essthearchetypesoftheircollect
    iveunconsciousinthe
    symbolsoftheirparti
    cul
    arsoci et
    y.Soci
    alWor k'
    ssocialacti
    onor ient
    ati
    onwhenv iewed
    fr
    om aJungianper specti
    verequireschangingoursocietyandi t
    sconcomi t
    antsymbols
    sothroughthesesy mbolseachoft hepersonswewor kwi thcanexpr essthemeaning
    o&hisorherli
    fe.

    Anot
    hermajorcontr
    ibuti
    onofJungrelatedtodi
    scoveri
    ngourwholenessisthe
    i
    ntegr
    ationofbot
    hourmascul i
    nit
    yandfeminity.Hereagainasubtl
    etydist
    ingui
    shes
    JungandFreud.Thissubtlet
    yhasmajorimplicati
    onsfort
    heunderst
    andi
    ngofment al
    angui
    shanditsal
    l
    eviat
    ion.

    Fr
    eud'
    sPatr
    iar
    chytendst
    odevaluethefemini
    neaslesser
    ,atti
    mespathol
    ogical
    .
    Simi
    l
    artodi
    sowni
    ngtheshadowitisprefer
    abl
    ef ormentodisowntheirf
    emini
    nit
    yand
    forwomen t
    o di
    sown thei
    rmasculi
    nit
    y.Through hi
    sanima-ani musconcepts,the

    124
    femini
    neessencei nmanandt hemascul ineessencei nwomen,Junkpost ul
    atesthat
    becomingawhol eper sonrequir
    est hatweacceptandi ntegrat
    etheoppositesexwi thi
    n
    us. Timeandspacepr ev
    entaf ulldi
    scussionaboutt her oleoftheafore-mentioned
    i
    ntegrat
    ionintheenr ichmentofourcr eati
    vi
    tyandsel f
    hood.Ther eaderi
    sencouragedt o
    readJuneSinger'
    s" Boundar i
    esoft heSoul"foraf ull
    erexposi ti
    on.Iti
    smor ecomf orti
    ng
    andmor etherapeuticall
    yhelpfultopersonst oper cei
    v eandacceptt hei
    rinneropposi t
    e
    sexatti
    tudesandf eelingsaspar tofthei
    rwhol enessr atherthanashomosexual ,orsick,
    orboth.

    The r eli
    giousness ofJung' st heor y,t heret of
    orev iewed pej orati
    vely,has t he
    potentialforbei ngt hesour ceofouri nnerper sonalandpr ofessionalspi ri
    tualrenewal .
    "Allt
    hepowerofcr eationar einusandwear ei nt hem"say sTilli
    ch.Wehav elookedt o
    ourext ravertedempi r
    icism tohelpusf i
    ndhow wecanbestser v
    et heper sonswho
    consultus wi t
    ht hei rdi ff
    icul
    ti
    es. " Mi ghty casewor k has st r
    uck out ,”ext r
    av er
    ted
    empi r
    icism hast hrownbacki nt
    o ourf aces. Jungwoul dsuppor tl ogicalposi ti
    vi
    st
    research. Hepr idedhi msel fforrepudi ati
    ngei ther -
    orposi t
    ionsi nf avorofbot h-and
    positi
    ons.Per hapst het imehascomet oaccel er atelookingi nwardt othecol lecti
    ve
    unconsci ous,tot heobj ecti
    v er
    eali
    tywi thin,forpr act i
    cepr i
    nciples.Manyofoursoci al
    wor ktheor eti
    ciansi mpl y,ifnotexplicit
    lyst ate,thei rbeli
    eft hatwepossessani nnate
    autonomousapr iorisel fwhosedi ctatesar eequalt osoci alandcul turalinput sto
    personal i
    tydev elopment . WeacceptmanyofFr eud'steachingbutf i
    ndi tdiff
    icultto
    acceptt hatitwasFr eudwhof i
    rstconcept uali
    zedt hecol l
    ectiveunconsci ous.I tisJung
    whobr ingst heconceptt othecoll
    ecti
    v eunconsci oust oitslogicalconcl usi
    on.

    TheGodcompl ex,say sJung, i


    sanempi ricalcrosscultur alreal
    i
    ty.Disbel
    iefinthe
    sacredispartial
    lyaby productofbel iefinlogi
    calposi ti
    vistscient i
    fi
    cmet hod.Scienti
    f i
    c
    met hoditsel
    fhasbecomer eli
    gion.Atitsworstsci enti
    ficmet hoddev oidofthef eel
    i
    ng
    functi
    onoft heegol edt ot heNazihol ocaust.Ati tsbestmanyt opr anki
    ngcr eat
    ive
    scienti
    ststal
    kaboutt heirmor espiri
    tualhuncheswhi chl eadt hem t odiscovery
    .Rober t
    JasTrowf ounderanddi rectorof
    NASA' sGoddar dInst
    it
    utef orSpaceSt udi
    es,atheor eti
    calphy sicistandast r
    onomerwi th
    highcredenti
    alsexpressest heaf orementionedpoi nti
    nt hefollowi ngmanner :

    “..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    .iti
    simpossi blet oev erf
    indbysci ent
    if
    icreasoningwhatt hecreati
    veforce
    or-theprimemov eroft heenergywast hatbroughtt hi
    suni ver
    seof :oursinto
    being…Sot hesci entist
    shav epaintedt hemselvesintoacor nerbypr ovi
    ngby
    theirownmet hodst hattherear
    ef orcesinthi
    swor ld-
    -andy oucancal lt
    hem God
    orthef orcesofphy si
    cs--t
    hatarefor -
    everbeyondt hereachofsci enti
    fi
    cinquiry
    .
    Andt hat’
    sjustmi ndbl owingtome.Thi sapointofcont actbetweenscienceand
    reli
    giousthinkingt hatgoesbey ondt hesuperfi
    cialresembl anceofthef l
    ashof
    l
    ightt oafewpassagesi nt heBi
    ble."

    Whet herone' sfait


    hr estsi nSpinoza’ santheasm- -
    Godornat ur etakey ourpi ck,-
    -
    Darwin’
    snat ur
    al selecti
    on,ort heDei ty,
    itisthisauthor'
    sbel i
    efthatthesel fexi stsapr i
    ori
    ,
    beitcausedby l awsofnat ure,inheri
    tedmut at
    ions,oraGodgi v
    enessenceonecan
    chooset or ej
    ectorf ul
    fi
    ll
    .Thi saut horalsoagr eeswi thJung' sv i
    ewt hatt hepsy chei s
    theproductoft hei mpactofext ernalnat uralandsoci alphenomenauponapr e-formed
    humanessence.Jungr eaffi
    rmst henecessi tyforreexploringandr ediscov eringouri nner
    essence. Whi l
    e Fr eud hel ped us t ol ook wi thi
    nt o discoverhow ourper sonal
    unconscious,ourear lyexperienceswi t
    ht hesignif
    icantot hersinourl ives, cant ripusup
    orbeasour ceofi nspir
    ation,Jung' scollectiveunconsci ous,cont ainingt he wi sdom of
    eter
    nity
    ,mayal sobeanobj ect i
    vesour ceofourcr eativei nspir
    ati
    onandcr eativegr owt h.

    Thei mageryoftwosocialwor kexampl esmayhel pthereadermakecont actwith


    Jung'si deas. Imaginet hebrutal
    izedchi ldmov i
    ngi ntoadol escenceandadul t-
    hood
    searching wi t
    hinforhi s orhersexuali dentit
    yi fhe orshe has gr own up i na
    predomi nantl
    ysinglesexcor r
    ecti
    onalfaci l
    i
    ty,orinasi ngleparentfamily.Kaganst ates
    thatsuchchi l
    drenmayhav eencount eredsi gni
    ficantot her
    swhocanser veasr ole
    model sf orhealt
    hyenvironment.Insomeci r
    cumst ancest heper sonalenv i
    ronmentsof
    suchchi ldr
    enar esopoort hatisdiffi
    culttoconv incinglyexplai
    nt heindi
    v i
    dual'
    ssour ce
    ofinnerst rengthbysignifi
    cantpersonsi nhi sorhersoci alenv i
    ronment .Thiswr i
    ter'
    s

    125
    cl
    inicalexper i
    encehasf orcedhim tof acet hepossibil
    it
    yt hatthei ndivi
    dual
    sinner
    capacitytogr ow mayr esi
    deint heperson'sabil
    it
    yt omakecont actwith- t
    heanima-
    animusandar chet
    y pesofhi sorhercollecti
    veunconscious.Theper sonbat ter
    edasa
    chil
    d,theper sondepr iv
    edofanopposi teorsamesexr ol
    emodel maybehel pedtomake
    contactwi t
    ht hear chetypeoft hewiseol dmanort hegr eatmot herwithintheaprior
    i
    coll
    ectiveunconsciousofhi sorherpsyche.Thi si
    nnerimago,inadditi
    ont oexter
    nalr
    ole
    model s,perhapsev eni nsteadofexter
    nalr ol
    emodel smayi ndeedbet hesour ceofthe
    person’sgrowt h.

    Concl
    usi
    on

    Topar aphraseBel l
    ow' sr
    est at
    ementofSpi noza'sphilosophyi n" Humbol dt'
    sGift ,
    "
    oncey ougr antaf l
    yi
    ngst oneconsci ousnessy ou'v
    egr antedi tfreewi l
    l.Jung' sbelief
    thatspiritisgr ant
    edt ousapr ioriinthecol lectiv
    eunconsci ousdeser v esahear ing.
    Consistentwi t
    hJung' s"bothand"posi t
    ionper hapswehav eswungt hependul um asf ar
    asitcangoi nthedi r
    ectionofext ra-v
    ertedlogicalposi t
    ivi
    sm.Per hapsi tist i
    mewemi ne
    i
    ntrovertedphenomenol ogyf orthet r
    uthswi t
    hinour selvesasbot hper sonsandheal er s.
    Perhapsi tistimewehel ptheper sonswewor kwi thmi nethet ruthswi t
    hint hemselves.
    Theseexpl orati
    onsmaybet hearenaoft hef uturegr owthoft hepr ofessi on.Si ncethi s
    paperbel ongst oJungletmeal lowhi mt ospeakf orhimselfabouthav inganopenmi nd
    sohisideascanbegi v
    enar eceptiveheari
    ng:

    Iwasof tenamazedt othepoi ntofdespairatt hepr esumpti


    onofthe
    organizedknowl edgeanddi scipli
    neofmydayandt hei
    rcommonat t
    it
    ude
    ofal lknowi ngness which Ien- counter
    ed ev erywher
    e among men in
    commandofr eli
    gious,scienti
    fi
    c,andphilosophicheights.Iwasenr
    aged
    bytheirlackofjustor di
    nary,natural
    ,heal
    thycuriosit
    yinwhattheydi
    dnot
    know andt heirinstantdismissalasi r
    rel
    evant,supersti
    ti
    ous,ormysti
    cal
    rubbi
    shofwhatseemedt omepoi nt
    erstowar dsincreasedknowl
    edge
    andnewar easforinvesti
    gat i
    on.

    Jungsay sthatthereissomet hi
    ngabov eandbey ondour selvesyetpresentwit
    hin
    ourselveswhichi fignoredcancauseuspsy chicdi st
    ress.Fr eudl ookedt oJungashi s
    l
    ogicalsuccessor . Jungr efusedt olosehisi denti
    tybybecomi ngasy mbioti
    cnon-
    i
    ndiv i
    duated shadow ofFr eud. I tist hi
    s writer'
    s opinion thatFr eud,as in many
    ci
    rcumst ancesi sagainpr ovenemi nentl
    ycorrect,inpar ti
    fnoti nt oto.I nthi
    swr i
    ter
    's
    vi
    ew Junghaspi ckedupFr eud'stor
    chandhasbr oughtmanyofhi sment or'
    sand
    bel
    ov edcollaboratorspioneerexplorat
    ionstotheirnextst agesofdev elopment.Onei s
    advisedt obeopent ot hepossi bi
    l
    ityt
    hatJung'si deasar ethet ransit
    ionsbetweenour
    currentandahi gherstageofconsci ousness.

    InthispaperIhav eendeav oredt oexpl ai


    nwhyJungwasr epudi
    ated.McBr oom
    pointsoutt hatMaddiwasf orced t oi nclude Jung in hisbookaboutsy stemsof
    psychotherapybecauseofstudentpr essur e.1hav ealsoattemptedtodemonst rat
    ethat
    Jung'sv i
    ewsaboutt hepre-eminentr oleandi mportanceofsoci et
    y,hi
    sv iewsabout
    wholenessr at
    herthanpat hologyorpat ri
    archalperfect
    ion,hisviewsabouti nt
    egrat
    ing
    one'smascul i
    nit
    yandf emininit
    yr athert hanv iewi
    ngt heopposit
    esexwi thi
    nusassi ck,
    andhisf ai
    thintheunconsciousar eal lpartofandcompat ibl
    ewithsoci
    alwor kpract
    ice
    andv al
    ues.Wehav ebeenopent omanyper specti
    ves.Letusbeopent oav iew t
    hat
    att
    empt stoputusi ntouchwi t
    ht hespi ritwithi
    nus.
    LetusallowJung'snoblespirittoenr ichourpr ofessi
    on.

    1
    Abst
    ract
    sforSoci
    alWor
    ker
    s(NewYor
    k:Nat
    ionalAssoci
    ati
    onofSoci
    alWor
    ker
    s,1965-
    75).
    2
    R.
    J.Madero,andC.F.Mart
    inez
    ,Lat
    inoDr
    eam Anal
    ysi
    s:Oppor
    tuni
    tyf
    orConf
    ront
    ati
    on.
    "
    Soci
    alCasework55(B)469,
    1974.

    126
    3
    El
    i
    zaethMcBr oom,"TheColl
    ect
    iveUnconsciousasaUni fy
    ingConceptinTeachi
    ng
    HumanBehav i
    or,
    "(Sant
    aBarbar
    a,Cal i
    for
    nia:Fi
    rstRegi
    onal1 Conf
    erenceofSocial
    Psychi
    atr
    y,September
    ,1977(
    unpubl
    ished).
    4
    Hendri
    k,Rui
    tenbeck,"
    FreudasWeKnewi
    -i
    m,"TheLi
    brar
    yofPsy
    choanal
    ysi
    s,Vol
    .1,
    No.4,
    (Ri
    dgef
    iel
    d,NewJersey)
    .
    5
    Rober
    t,Sl
    y,PoemsandTal
    k,(
    LosAngel
    es:
    C.G.JungCasset
    teLi
    brar
    y,1977.
    )
    6
    Wi
    lhel
    m,Rei
    ch,
    TheFunct
    ionofTheOr
    gasm,
    (NewYor
    k:Wor
    ldPubl
    i
    shi
    ngCo.1971.
    )p.
    127
    7
    Laur
    ensv anderPost
    ,Jungandt
    heSt
    oryofOurTi
    me(
    New Yor
    k:Pant
    heonBooks,
    1975,p.195.
    8
    l
    bid.p.194.
    9
    Rei
    ch,
    op.ci
    t.
    10
    v
    anderPost
    ,op.ci
    t.p.196.
    11
    CarlGust
    aveJung,Let
    ter
    s,Vol
    .1,p.425(
    Pri
    nce-
    town:Pr
    incet
    ownUni
    ver
    sit
    ypr
    ess)
    1973.
    12
    P.Mari
    eLouiseVonFr
    anz,
    C.G.
    ,Jung,
    HisMy
    thi
    nOurTi
    me(
    NewYor
    k:G.P.Put
    nams
    Sons,
    1975)p.63.
    13
    I
    bid,
    p.63.
    14
    1bi
    d,1.
    15
    v
    anderPostop.ci
    t,p.196.
    16
    Hel
    enHar
    ri
    sPer
    lman,
    Per
    sona(
    Chi
    cago:
    Uni
    ver
    sit
    yofChi
    cagoPr
    ess,
    1968.
    17
    Bl
    y,o.ci
    t.
    18
    I
    bid
    19
    Ger
    har
    dAdl
    erSt
    udi
    esi
    nAnal
    yti
    cal
    Psy
    chol
    ogy(
    NewYor
    k:Capr
    icor
    nBooks,1969)
    .
    20
    v
    anderPost
    ,o.ci
    t.p.142.
    21
    v
    onFr
    anz
    ,op.ci
    t.pp.46-
    47.
    22
    Dav
    idRi
    esman,
    TheLonel
    yCr
    owd.(
    NewHav
    en:
    Yol
    eUni
    ver
    sit
    yPr
    ess,
    1961.
    )
    23
    Ger
    trudeWil
    sonand Gl
    ady
    sRy
    land,
    Soci
    alWor
    kPr
    act
    ice.(
    Bost
    on:Hought
    on.Mi
    ff
    in
    Co.1942).
    24
    Ir
    aProgof
    fJung'
    sFsy
    chol
    ogyandi
    tsSoci
    alMeani
    ng,(
    Gar
    denCi
    tyNewYor
    k:Anchor
    .
    Books.
    973)"
    .142.
    25
    Ansel
    m Str
    aussEdit
    orGcorgeHer
    ber
    t,Neadon
    Soci
    alPsy
    chology(
    Chicago:
    Phoeni
    xBooks1,50)
    .
    26
    Pr
    ogof1O.ci
    t.
    27
    JuneSi
    nger
    ,Boundar
    iesoft
    heSoul
    :ThePr
    act
    iceofJung'
    sPsy
    chol
    ogy(
    Gar
    denCi
    ty,

    127
    NewYor
    k:Anchor
    Books,
    1973.
    28
    Pau1Ti
    l
    li
    ch,
    "TheRi
    ghtt
    oHone,
    "Uni
    ver
    sit
    yof
    Chi
    cagoMagazi
    ne,
    Nov
    ember1965.
    29
    JoelFisher
    ,"Has Ri
    ghtCasework St
    ruck Out"Soci
    alWor
    k(New Yor
    k:Nat
    ional
    Associ
    ati
    onofSoci
    alWorker
    s,Vol
    .18,
    No.4,July
    ,1973)
    .
    30 m
    Please see t
    he ar
    ti
    cles byWJil
    i
    am Schwart
    z. EmanuelTr opp El
    eanorRyderand
    El
    izabethMcBroom inRobertW.Robert
    sandHelenNor then,Theori
    esofSoci
    alWork
    withGroups(NewYork:Col
    umbiaU]ni
    ver
    sit
    yPr
    ess,1976)
    .
    31
    Adl
    er,
    op.ci
    t.
    32
    Wil
    li
    am Ov er
    and,"Scient
    istDisput
    es Vi
    ki
    ng Fi
    nd-
    ings,
    "The Los Angel
    es Ti
    mes,
    Wednesday
    ,Nov ember9,1977.
    33
    Jer
    ameKagan, "
    Acqui
    sit
    ionandSigni
    fi
    canceofSexTypingandSexRol
    eIdent
    it
    y,"eds.
    Mart
    inL.Hoff
    manandLoi sWladi
    sHof f
    man,Review ofChil
    dDevel
    opmentResearch
    (
    NewYork:Russel
    lSage,
    Foundati
    on1969,Dp.137-
    267.
    34
    Saul
    Bel
    l
    owsHumbol
    dt'
    sGi
    ft(
    NewYor
    k:Av
    onPubl
    i
    shi
    ngCo.
    ,1975.
    35
    VanderPost
    ,oD.ci
    t.o.102.
    36
    McBr
    oor
    n,op.ci
    t.

    128
    OVERVI
    EW OFTHEORI
    ESOF
    HUMANBEHAVIOR&THESOCIALENVIRONMENT
    APPLI
    CATI
    ONSTOSOCI ALWORKGENERALISTPRACTI
    CE

    Thefoll
    owi ngisav erygeneraloutl
    inesummar i
    zingt hetheoriescoveredint heNCSSSf oundati
    onclassesofSSS
    571:HumanBehav i
    or&t heSocialEnv i
    ronment.Theor yapplicati
    on&i ntegrati
    onwithpracti
    cearedemonst rated.
    Thisoutl
    inei sonlyasummar yofhighli
    ghts;al
    ltheor i
    sts,i
    deas, andconcept sarenotincl
    uded.
    Becausehumanbehav iori
    scompl exandt hesoci alworkpr ofessi
    oni sbroad,numer oustheori
    esar euti
    li
    zedf orsoci
    alwor kpract
    iceatthemicr
    o-meso-
    macrolev els.Thesetheoriesfocusonhumangr owt handdev elopment ,psychol
    ogicalandsocialfuncti
    oning,andsocialservi
    cedeliv
    ery.Sometheor
    ies
    emphasizesoci alandeconomi cjustice.Allt
    heor i
    esar evalue-l
    adenandcomeoutofasoci o-hi
    stor
    icalcontext.Thus,
    alltheor
    iesshouldbecri
    ti
    quedwith
    att
    enti
    onpai dtothei
    rcross-cul
    tur
    al appli
    cabil
    i
    ty.

    DEFINITI
    ONS:
    Theory—int
    err
    elatedsetsofconcept
    sandpr
    oposi
    ti
    ons,
    organi
    zedi
    ntoadeduct
    ivesy
    stem t
    oexpl
    ainr
    elat
    ionshi
    psaboutcer
    tai
    naspect
    soft
    hewor
    ld(
    e.g.
    ,
    thet
    heoriesli
    stedbelow).

    Per
    spect
    ive—anemphasi
    sorpoi
    ntofv
    iew;concept
    satanear
    li
    erl
    evelofdev
    elopment(
    e.g.
    ,a“
    str
    engt
    hsper
    spect
    ive”
    )oratabr
    oaderandhi
    gherl
    evelof
    abst
    ract
    ion(
    ex:
    a“humani
    sti
    cper
    spect
    ive”ora“
    dev
    elopment
    alper
    spect
    ive”
    )

    Par
    adi
    gm—anar
    chet
    ypeormodeoft
    hought
    ;agener
    alwayofseei
    ngt
    hewor
    ld(
    e.g.
    ,“moder
    nism”or“
    post
    -moder
    nism”
    )

    Pr
    act
    iceModel
    —agui
    def
    orpr
    act
    it
    ioneri
    nter
    act
    iont
    hatoper
    ati
    onal
    i
    zest
    heor
    y;i
    ncl
    udesconcr
    eteact
    ionsandt
    echni
    ques(
    not
    e:somet
    heor
    ieshav
    emor
    e
    wel
    l
    -dev
    elopedpr
    act
    icemodel
    sthanot
    her
    s)

    Di
    mensi
    on—af
    eat
    uret
    hatcanbef
    ocusedoni
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    l
    yorsepar
    atel
    y,butcanonl
    ybeunder
    stoodi
    nrel
    ati
    ont
    oot
    herf
    eat
    ures(
    asi
    n“di
    mensi
    onsof
    humanbehav
    ior
    ”ora“
    mul
    ti
    -di
    mensi
    onal
    appr
    oach”t
    ohumanbehav
    ior
    )

    129
    130
    131
    132
    133
    134
    ABNORMAL
    PSYCHOLOGY

    SOCI
    ALDEVI
    ATI
    ON

    Rev
    iewer
    :
    Asso.Prof
    .Glory
    JeanG.Leonin,
    RSW,MSW

    The def
    ini
    ti
    on of t
    he

    135
    wordabnormalissi
    mpleenough:devi
    ati
    ngfrom t
    henorm.However
    ,appl
    yi
    ngthisto
    psy
    chologyposesacompl
    exproblem:whati
    snormal?Whosenor
    m?Forwhatage?For
    whatcult
    ure?

    Somewoul dsimplyclassi
    fywhatis" good"asnormalandwhati
    s" bad"as
    abnor
    mal ,butthi
    sisav agueandnarrow defi
    nit
    ionandbri
    ngsupmanyofthesame
    quest
    ionsforthedef
    ini
    ti
    onof"good"asdoesthedefini
    ti
    onf
    or"nor
    mal
    ".

    Ther
    ear
    emanymor
    eway
    sofdet
    ermi
    ningamor
    eobj
    ect
    iver
    efer
    encepoi
    nt.

    One way of def


    ini
    ng abnormal
    i
    tyis stat
    ist
    ical dev
    iat
    ion. Most human
    char
    act
    eri
    sti
    csar
    eni
    cel
    ydist
    ri
    but
    edalongasmoot
    hbell-
    shapedcurve.

    Thosewhost r
    aytoofarfrom theav er
    ageonthi
    scurvearet henconsideredabnor
    mal .
    Thisdef
    init
    ion,however,hasitsproblems.I
    tdoesnotr ecognizevaluableder
    ivat
    ions,
    suchasgeni us,nordoesitrecognizecommonbutmal adaptivebehaviorli
    kesmoking
    anddri
    nking.Nonethel
    ess,thi
    smet hodisbot
    hobject
    iveandscienti
    fi
    c.

    Av erysi
    mpl ei
    deathatcanbeusedtoclassi
    fyabnormalbehav
    i sper
    ori sonaldist
    ress.
    Basical
    ly
    ,ifapersoniscont
    entwit
    hthei
    rli
    fe,t
    hentheyareofnoconcer
    nt othement al
    healthfi
    eld.However
    ,ifaper st
    son' houghtsorbehavi
    orsarecausi
    ngt hem personal
    di
    scomf
    ortorunhappi
    ness,
    thent
    heywi
    l
    lbeconsi
    der
    edabnor
    mal
    .
    Themostcommoncr i
    ter
    ionfordefi
    ningabnor
    mal
    i
    ty,howev
    er s mal
    ,i adapt
    iveness.
    Ther
    ear
    etwoaspect
    sofmaladapt
    ivebehav
    ior
    :

    1.Maladapt
    ivet
    oone'
    sself-inabil
    it
    ytor eachgoals,toadapttothedemandsof
    l
    if
    eand
    2.Maladapt
    ivet
    osoci
    ety-i
    nter
    feres,di
    sruptssoci
    algroupfunct
    ioni
    ng.

    Thist ypeofdef ini


    tional l
    owsmuchf lexi
    bili
    ty.Itprov i
    desroom f orconfor
    mi ng
    behav i
    orto society'
    snor msaswel lasdev i
    antbehav iorasl ong asi tisnotsel f
    -
    damagi ng.Itmakesabnor malt herelat
    ivetermi tneedst obe,dependentuponeach
    i
    ndividual'
    sli
    feandcircumst ances.Therearecertaincategoriesofbehav i
    orthatsuggest
    thepresenceofpsy chologicaldi
    sorderswhichar e,i
    nonewayoranot her,maladapt
    ivein
    thattheythreatenthewel l
    -bei
    ngoft heindiv
    idual.Thesecat egor
    iesincludelongperiods
    ofdiscomf ort
    ,impair
    edf uncti
    oning,bi
    zarrebehav i
    or,anddisrupt
    ivebehav ior
    .

    CATEGORI
    ESOFABNORMALI
    TY

    A.LongPer
    iodsofDi
    scomf
    ort
    Gi
    ven,ever
    yoneexperi
    encessomeki ndofpsy chol
    ogicaldiscomf or
    tdur ingt hei
    r
    l
    ife.Thiscouldbeany t
    hingassimpleaswor ryingaboutacal culust esttogriev i
    ngt he
    deathofal ovedone.Thi sdi
    str
    ess,however,isr el
    atedtoar eal,ort hr
    eatenedev ents
    andpassesawaywi t
    ht i
    me.Whensuchdi stressingfeel
    ings,howev er
    ,persistf oran
    extendedperiodoftimeandseem t obeunr elat
    edt oeventssur roundingtheper son,
    1
    theywouldbeconsideredabnormalandcouldsuggestapsy chol
    ogi caldi
    sorder.

    B.I
    mpai
    redFunct
    ioni
    ng
    Here,agai
    n,t
    her
    emustbemadeadi st
    inct
    ionbet
    weensimpl
    yapassi
    ngperi
    odof
    i
    nef
    fi
    ciencyandprol
    ongedi
    nef
    fi
    ciencywhi
    chseemsunexplai
    nabl
    e.Fori
    nst
    ance,aver
    y

    136
    br
    il
    li
    antpersonwhoconsi
    stent
    lyf
    ail
    scl
    assesorsomeoneconst
    ant
    lychangi
    ngj
    obsf
    or
    noreason.

    C.Bi
    zar
    reBehavi
    or
    Therear emanyt hingspeopl edot hatot herswouldfindst r
    ange.Thev ar
    ious
    pi
    ercingst oday'syoungergener ati
    onchoosest ogetandt hei
    rst yl
    eofdressmayseem
    bi
    zarret oadul ts,buttheirmot ivati
    onsar enothar dt ounderstand,whichkeepsthem
    fr
    om bei ngconsi deredcl i
    nicall
    yabnor mal.Bizarrebehaviort
    hathasnor ati
    onalbasis,
    howev er,seemst oindicatet hatthei ndi
    vidualisconfused.Thepsy chosesfrequentl
    y
    bri
    ngonhal lucinati
    ons( baselesssensor yper cepti
    ons)ordelusions(beli
    efswhichare
    patentl
    yf al
    sey etheldast ruthbyt heindiv
    idual).

    D.Di
    srupt
    iveBehavi
    or
    Disr
    upt
    ivebehavi
    ormeansi mpulsiv
    e,apparent
    lyuncontrol
    l
    ablebehavi
    orthat
    disruptstheli
    vesofother
    sordepr ivesthem ofthei
    rhumanrightsonar egul
    arbasi
    s.
    Thist y
    peofbehaviori
    scharacter
    ist
    icofasev er
    epsychol
    ogi
    caldisorder
    .Anexampleof
    thisistheanti
    soci
    alper
    sonali
    tydi
    sorder.

    Al
    lofthesetypesofbehavi
    oraremal
    adapt
    ivebecausetheydi
    rect
    lyaf
    fectt
    hewell
    -bei
    ng
    oftheindiv
    idualandthosearoundt
    hem,andbl ockthegrowthandf ul
    fi
    ll
    mentofthe
    i
    ndi
    v i
    dual
    'spotent
    ial
    .

    CLASSI
    FYI
    NGPSYCHOLOGI
    CALDI
    SORDERS

    Classi
    ficati
    onofpsy
    chologi
    caldi
    sorder
    srequi
    rest
    hatsy mpt
    omsbeident
    ifi
    ed;
    set
    sofsy mptomsf or
    m asyndrome.Sever
    alofthemostprev
    alentoft
    heDSM-I
    V's16
    cat
    egor
    iesofdi sor
    der
    saref
    oll
    owing.

    1.Anxi
    etyandEgo-
    Def
    enseMechani
    sms

    Anxi
    ety i
    s a di
    ff
    use, ext
    remel
    y unpl
    easant f
    eel
    i
    ng of v
    ulner
    abi
    l
    ity
    ,
    apprehensi
    on,and fear.Symptoms ofanxi et ydisordersi ncl
    ude motortensi
    on
    (tr
    embling,jumpi
    ness,inabil
    i
    tytor el
    ax ),hy per
    activ
    ity( raci
    ng hear
    t,dizzi
    ness,
    perspir
    ati
    on),andapprehensi
    on( dist
    urbingt houghts).Thef ol
    lowi
    ngfive(ofthe
    thi
    rteenintheDSM-I
    V)typesofanxietydisordersarewel lknown.

    Anxi
    etyNeur
    osi
    sTypes

    TheDiagnost
    icandStat
    ist
    ical
    Manual
    ofMent
    alDi
    sor
    der
    scl
    assi
    fi
    esanxi
    etydi
    sor
    der
    s
    i
    ntothefol
    lowingcat
    egori
    es:

    Specifi
    cphobi asandsoci alanxi
    etydisor
    der saret hecommonestamongstal l
    theset
    ypes.Posttraumaticstressdisor
    dersandgener al
    izedanxiet
    ydi sorder
    sarenext
    commonest.Oftentheseconditionsremainunderdiagnosedbecausepat i
    entsgener
    all
    y
    donotapproachthephy si
    cianorthepsychiat
    ri
    stforthetr
    eat mentofthesecompl ai
    nts.

    1. Pani
    cdi
    sor
    derwi
    thorwi
    thoutAgor
    aphobi
    a

    Apanicdisor
    derischaract
    eri
    zedbyachr oni
    cstateoftensionthatcanerupti
    n
    suddenepi
    sodesofintensepanicordreadt
    hatlastsev
    eralminutes(orhours)andmay
    i
    ncludeavar
    ietyofsymptomssuchaschestpains,tr
    embli
    ng,anddizziness.

    137
    Pani
    cattacksarecharacteri
    zedbyi nt
    ensef eel
    ingoft err
    orwhi
    chgener al
    lyst
    rikes
    suddenl
    yandi sincapaci
    tati
    ngt ot hepatient.Theseepi sodesmayl astforvari
    able
    peri
    odsandattai
    napeakby10mi nutesgenerall
    y.Rarely
    ,theymaylastupt oonehour.
    Inbetweentheattacksthepat i
    enti sconstantl
    ywor ri
    edaboutgetti
    nganot herpanic
    att
    ack and hence avoi
    ds situati
    ons thatmay pr ovoke a pani
    c attack.Common
    symptomsofapani cat
    tackareasf oll
    ows:

    Pani
    cat
    tacksy
    mpt
    oms:

     ChestPai ns
     Poundi ngHeart
     Fearofdy ing
     Sweat i
    ng
     Shor tnessofbreathorafeel
    ingofsmother
    ingorchoki
    ng
     Shaki ngort r
    embling
     Feelingsofunr eal
    ity
     Terror
     Tinglingornumbi ng
     Af eelingofbeingoutofcontrol
    orgoi
    ngcrazy
     Li
    ght -headednessordizzi
    ness
     Nauseaorst omachpr obl
    ems
     Fl
    ushesorchi ll
    s

     Patient
    sgener all
    yseekmedi caladviceconsi deringthistobesomemedi cal
    cri
    sisonlytobet oldthatthispr obl
    em i spsy chologicalandnotmedi cal.Many
    pati
    entsoftenseekanot heropi ni
    onbutt heyar etoldthesamet hi
    ngagai n.Such
    peoplelandupsel f-
    medicatingthemsel veswhi chi sharmfulint helongr un.
     Patientmaysuf ferfrom discretepanicsy mpt omsbutt hiswoul dbet ermedas
    Panicdisorderonlywhent heat tacksbecomef requentandt hepat i
    entdev elops
    fearofgetti
    nganot heratt
    ackorf earstheconsequencesoft heat t
    ack.
     Panicat t
    acksmayoccurassuchormaybeaccompani edbyAgor aphobi a.
    Patient
    swi thagoraphobiaar eafraidofpl acesorsi t
    uati
    onsi nwhi chtheymi ght
    haveapani cattackandbeunabl etoleav eort ofindhelp.Suchpat i
    entsgener ally
    fearbeinginplaceswher et heyant i
    cipatet hattheymaygetapani cat tackand
    theymaynotbeabl etohel pthemsel vesi nt heev entofanat t
    ack.I nclinical
    sett
    ings,agoraphobiaisusuallynotadi sorderbyi tself
    ,butist y
    picall
    yassoci ated
    withsomef orm ofpanicdisorder.

    138
    2. Acut estr essdi sorder
    Thisi sacondi t
    ionthatispr ecipit
    atedbyexposur et oast ressfulortraumatic
    eventr ecent lyandt heresponsei sofi ntensef ear, helplessnessorhor ror.Aft
    er
    suchanev entthepat i
    entexperiencesasenseofemot ional numbness, has
    reducedawar enessaboutt hesur r
    oundi ngs( asifi nadaze)andi softenunable
    torecal lani mpor t
    antaspectoft het r
    auma.Thepat i
    entper sistentlyr
    e-
    experiencest het r
    aumat iceventandt r
    iest oav oidany thingthatr emindshi m of
    thetrauma.Ther ear ealsomar kedsy mpt omsofanxi etyori ncreasedar ousal
    (e.
    g.ir r
    it
    abi l
    i
    ty ,poorconcentration, di
    ffi
    cul t
    yinsl eepi ng,hyper vigi
    lance,
    exagger at edst artl
    er esponse,restlessness, etc).Thi scausesmuchdi ffi
    cult
    yin
    functioningnor mal lyathomeandatwor k.Thepat ientget sthesesy mptoms
    gener all
    ywi thinfewday stoabout4weeksaf t
    ert hest ressful event.Thisphase
    mayl astany wher eupt o4weeks.

    3. Post
    -t
    raumat
    icst
    ressdi
    sor
    der

    Post -t r
    aumat i
    cst ressdi sor der( PTSD)i sananxi etydi sordert hatdev elopsaf t
    er
    exposur et o at raumat icorf right eni
    ng ev ent .Sy mpt omsoft hisdi sordergener all
    y
    devel opabout3mont hsorl ateraf t
    ert hestressf ulort raumat icev ent.Thesesy mpt oms
    usual lylastf ormor ethanamont h.Somepat i
    ent sr ecov erwi thi
    n6mont hswher eas
    someoft hem maydev elopachr oni ccoursel astingf ory ear s.
    Thet r
    aumacanbei nt heform ofnat uraldi sasters, war , v
    iolence, acci dents, etc.Few
    mont hsaf terthet raumat icev ent ,t hepat i
    entt ypi
    callyexper i
    encesst rongf eelingsof
    fear,hor rorandhel plessness.Thepat ientrepeat edlyr eli
    v est het raumat icev enti nt he
    form off lashbacksandni ghtmar es.Oftent her ei saf eel i
    ngast hought heyar ere-
    exper iencingt het r
    aumaal lov eragai n.Flashbacksar egener allytrigger edbycer t
    ain
    sit
    uat ions whi ch br i
    ng back memor ies oft he t raumat ic ev ent.I n some pat i
    ents
    fl
    ashbackscanev enoccurspont aneousl yorwi thoutanyr ecogni zabl et rigger .The
    patientbegi nst oav oidsi tuati
    onsorexper iencest hatremi ndt hem oft heor i
    ginal trauma
    and t his can l ead t of airl
    ysev erer estr
    iction i nt hei ract i
    vit
    y .Sl eep di stur bances,
    depr ession,f eeli
    ng det ached ornumb ( dereal i
    zation) ,easyst artl
    ing ar e commonl y
    exper ienced.Of t
    en t here ar ef eelingsofl ossofpl easur e ori nter esti n pr ev i
    ously
    enjoy ableact ivi
    ti
    es( anhedoni a).Womenappeart obeatgr eaterr iskt hanmenf or
    devel opingPTSDaf t
    ert raumat i
    cexper iences.

    Apost-tr
    aumat icstressdi sorderischar act
    erizedbyt her eexper i
    encingofa
    traumat icevent,sy mpt omsof i
    ncreasedar ousal,av oi
    danceofr emindersoft he
    origi
    nalt rauma,anddi mi ni
    shedi nterestindailyacti
    vities. Manywarv eter
    ansr etai
    n
    vividmemor iesof( f l
    ashbacks)andni ghtmaresaboutt r
    aumat i
    cev entsexper i
    enced
    dur i
    ngbat tl
    e.Whi l
    et hecausesofanxi et
    ydi sor
    dersarenotcompl etel
    yunder stood,i
    ti s
    gener all
    ybelievedt hatsomeoft hedi sorders(suchasspeci fi
    cphobi as,obsessi ve-
    compul si
    vedisorders,andpani cdi sorders)mayhav eagenet i
    cbasi s.Onecausemaybe
    theinadequat eactionoft heneur otransmi t
    tergamma- ami nobutyri
    caci d(GABA) .Certai
    n
    drugs, suchasVal i
    um andLi bri
    um, whichincreasethesensi ti
    vi
    tyoft heGABAr eceptors,
    helpr educeanxiety.

    4. Soci
    alphobi
    a

    Soci
    alAnxi
    etyDi sor
    derorsocialphobiai
    scharact
    eri
    zedbymar kedandper si
    stent
    fearinoneormor esocialsit
    uati
    ons.Apersonsuf
    fer
    ingfr
    om phobiawi l
    lavoidorwil
    lbe
    extremel
    ydistr
    essedi nsocialsett
    ingsandthi
    sisthemaj ordif
    fer
    encebet weenashy
    personandasoci alphobic.Ashyper sonmaybeuncomfortabl
    einsocialsi
    tuat
    ions,but
    hissymptomsar enotdisabli
    ng.

    Basicall
    yasoci alphobichasf earofnegat i
    veevaluationandhei si nt
    enselywor ri
    ed
    thathewi lldoorsaysomet hi
    ngt hatwi l
    lmakeot hersthinkpoor lyofhim.Theyt endto
    thi
    nkt hattheyar elesssociall
    ycompet entthanothers.Theyof t
    enbelievethateveryone
    noti
    cessmal lestmistakeswhi cht heymakeandmaygr eat l
    yexaggeratethesev erit
    yof
    thenegat i
    vej udgmentsaboutt hosemi stakes.Whenanev entsuchasapr esentat i
    onor
    apar t
    yi sunav oidabl
    ef orsuchaper son,hemaywor r
    yf orday sorev enweekspr i
    orto

    139
    theev ent.Commont hingsthatmakeasoci alphobicanxiousarepubli
    cspeaking,
    i
    nformalconv ersat
    ionsi nsmallorlargegroups, dati
    ng,i
    nter
    act
    ingwit
    hauthor
    ityf
    igur
    es,
    eati
    ng,wr i
    ti
    ng,orotherpublicperformances.
    Heredi
    tymaypr edisposeaper sontodev el opsoci
    alphobiabutinmostcasesi t
    requir
    esat ri
    ggerfr
    om t heenvironmentforfullblowndev el
    opmentofthedi
    sorder
    .

    5. Speci
    fi
    cphobi
    as

    Fearofv ar
    iousthingsisacommonphenomenonbutanexcessi v e,persist
    ent
    andirr
    ati
    onalfearofcer t
    aint hi
    ngsorsituationsister
    medasphobi a.Whent he
    phobi
    aisaboutsomespeci fi
    cobjectorsi
    tuation,i
    tist
    ermedasspeci
    ficphobi a.The
    i
    ndivi
    duali
    sof t
    ennotabl etofindoutther
    ationalebehi
    ndthi
    sfearbuthej ustcannot
    seem tofacetheseorov ercomet hesefears.Somecommont hi
    ngswhi chcause
    suchphobiasareli
    stedbelow:

     Aphobi cdi sorderi smar kedbyacont inual ,irrati


    onalf earofaspeci fi
    csituation
    orobj ectsuchassnakes,hei ght s,bei ngcl osedi nasmal lpl ace,orl eavi
    ngt he
    homeenv ironment .Eachphobi ahasadi f
    f erentnamedependi ngont het hing
    fear ed, suchas
     acr ophobi a, afearofhi ghpl aces;
     agor aphobi a,af earofopenspaces; and
     soci al phobi a, a f ear of soci al or per formance si t uations i n whi ch
    embar rassmentmayoccur
     Ani mal s:Spi ders,li
    zards,cockr oaches, rats, dogs, snakes, insect s, etcaref ewof
    themostcommonani malst owhi chpat ientsr eportphobi as.
     Env ironment al:Fearofwat er,height s, fire,st or ms,dar kness, et c
     Situat ional :Fearofgoi ngi nel evat or s,cl osedpl aces,cr owdedpl aces,tunnel s,
    bridges,et c Fearofi nj
    ect i
    ons,i nj ury ,sightofbl ood,et car ef ew common
    phobi as; suchpat i
    entsusual lyfaintatt hesi ghtofbl oodori njur y.
    Usual lyf ormanyi ndividualst hephobi cst i
    mulusi seasyt oav oid.Whent he
    fear edobj ectiseasyt oav oid,peopl ewi thphobi asmaynotf eeltheyneed
    treat ment .Incer tai
    ncases,howev er,speci f i
    cphobi ascanbecomei mpairingor
    i
    ndi v i
    dual smaygot oexcessi vel engt hst oav oidexposur et ot hef earedobjector
    situat ion.I nt hese cases,t reat menti sr ecommended.Thi si s parti
    cul arl
    y
    i
    mpor tant ,asi ndivi
    dualswi thasi ngl eSpeci ficPhobi aar el i
    kel yto dev elop
    addi tional phobi asofsi milarobj ect sorsi t
    uat i
    onsov eraper iodoft ime.

    Speci
    fi
    cphobiastendtor uninf
    amili
    esandv er
    yoftenf
    amil
    ymember shave
    fearofsimilarobj
    ectsorsituati
    onsi.
    e.acommon“ t
    heme”off ear
    .Ingeneral
    ,
    phobiasappeari nadolescenceandadul t
    hood.Adult
    -onsetphobiastendt o
    showamor establecourse,wit
    honlyasmal lper
    cent
    ageofthesedisappear
    ing
    withouttr
    eatment.

    6. Obsessi
    vecompul
    sivedi
    sor
    der

    Obsessi
    ve compulsive disorder( OCD)i s charact
    eri
    zed byt he presence of
    obsessionsandcompul sions.Obsessi onsandcompul si
    onsar eunreasonableandin
    excessandt heycausemar keddi stresstothepati
    ent.
    Alt
    houghObsessive-Compul siveDi sor
    derusual
    lybeginsinadolescenceorearly
    adulthood,i
    tmaybegini nchildhood.Gener al
    lytheonsetisgradual,butoccasi
    onal
    ly
    acuteonsethasbeennot edinsomecases.Themaj ori
    tyofi ndivi
    dual
    shav ea
    chronicwaxingandwani ngcour se,wi t
    hexacerbat
    ionofsy mptomst hatmaybe
    rel
    atedt ost
    ress.

    Obsessi
    onsi
    ncl
    udet
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ng:
     Recurr
    entandper si
    stentt
    hought
    s,impul
    ses,ori
    magesthatar
    eint
    rusi
    ve
    andinappropr
    iat
    eandcauseanxietyordi
    str
    ess
     Thoughts,impul
    ses,ori magesthatarenotsimplyexcessi
    veworri
    es

    140
    aboutproblemsi nrealli
    fe
     Pati
    entmakesat tempt stoignor
    eorsuppr essthesethought
    sortr
    iesto
    neutr
    ali
    zet hem bythinkingaboutotherthi
    ngs
     Pati
    entr ecogni
    zest hattheset houghts,impulses,ori magesar
    et he
    productofhismi ndandnoti mposedf rom outsi
    de

    Anobsessive-compulsivedisorderisanext remepr eoccupati


    onwi t
    hcertain
    thoughtsandcompul siv
    eper formanceofpar t
    icul
    arbehav i
    ors.Anobsessi onisthe
    unsoli
    cit
    edreoccur
    renceofdi stur
    bingthoughts;acompul si
    onisar epeti
    ti
    vebehavior
    (suchascheckingdoorlocks)orment alacti
    vi
    ty( counti
    ng,prayi
    ng,etc.
    )thatonefeels
    compelledt
    odo,ev enagainstone'swill
    .Anexampl eofthedisorderisthecompulsi
    on
    towashone'shandsrepeatedl
    y ,of
    tentotheextentofmaki ngthem sore

     Compul
    sionsi
    ncl
    udet
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ng:

    Repetit
    ivebehav i
    our s,suchaswashi nghandsr epeat edly ,order i
    ng,andchecki ng
    l
    ocksanddoor sagai nandagai n, etc.Thepat ientf eel sdr i
    vent or epeatt heseact i
    ons
    andthesemustbecar r
    iedouti nor dert or eli
    ev et heanxi et
    y.
     Anyot hert ypi
    calbehav i
    ourorment alact st hatt hepat ientcar ri
    esouti nordert o
    reducedi str
    essoranx iety .
    Thepoi ntt obenot edi st hatt hepat ientr eal i
    zest hatt heseobsessi onsand
    compul si onsar eunr easonabl eandi nexcess( excepti ncaseofchi ldren).These
    obsessi onsandcompul sionscausemar keddi stresst ot hepat ientandar etime
    consumi ng( t
    akingmor et hananhourdai l
    y )andcausemar kedi nterferencei n
    the pat ient'sr out i
    ne f unct ioning.Fore. g. :pat i
    entmay be obsessed wi th
    cleanli
    nessandmayspendhour sdai lyi nwashi nghimsel fandt akingbat hsat
    l
    engt h.Hemaybekkspendi ngl otoft i
    mewashi nghi shandsbecausehef eels
    thattheygetdi rtyev enifhedoesnotdoany t hingt odi r
    t ythem.Compul sionsar e
    notr eal
    ist i
    callyconnect edt ot het hingswhi cht heyar ekdesi gnedt oneut rali
    ze.
    Theyar emeantt or educet heanxi etyordi stressoft hepat ientandnott opr ovide
    anypl easur eorgr atif
    icat ion.Themostcommoncompul sionsi nvolvewashi ng
    andcl eani ng,count ing, checki ng, r
    equest ingordemandi ngassur ances, repeating
    actions,et c.Whenat tempt ingt or esistacompul sion,t hepat ientmayhav ea
    senseofi ncreasi nganxi et yort ensiont hati sof t
    enr el i
    evedbyy i
    eldingt ot he
    compul si on.I nthecour seoft hedi sor der ,af terr epeat edf ailuret oresistt he
    obsessi onsandcompul sions,t hepat ientmaygi veint ot hem;henol onger
    exper i
    encesadesi ret or esistt hem,andmayi ncorpor atet hecompul sionsi nto
    hisorherdai l
    yrout ine.

    7.Gener
    ali
    zedanxi
    etydi
    sor
    der
    s
    Ageneralizedanxi etydisorder( GAD)isacondi tionchar acter
    izedbyexcessi v
    e
    anxietyandwor rying,occurri
    ngmor eday sthannotf oraper i
    odofatl eastsixmont hs.
    Anxietyisnottriggeredbyanypar ticularobj
    ectorev entbutseemst obewhatFr eud
    caledf
    l r
    ee-
    fl
    oatinganxi ety,anxi
    etythati sgeneralandper vasive.
    Theonseti sgener all
    yar oundchi ldhoodoradol escencebutcaseswi thlate-onset
    anxietysymptoms ar e also seen.Gener ali
    zed anxietydi sorderi s characteri
    zed by
    excessiveanxi
    et yandwor r
    y.Thisoccur sformostoft heday sf oratl east6mont hs,
    aboutanumberofev ent
    soract i
    vi
    ties.Generallytheanxi etyi
    saboutwor k,dail
    yev ent s
    orper f
    ormances.Thepat ientfi
    ndsi tdiffi
    cul
    ttocont r
    olt heanxi etyaboutv ari
    oust hings
    andt hi
    sisoft
    enassoci at
    edwi t
    hfewormostoft hefollowi ngfeatures:

     Restlessness
     I
    rri
    tabili
    ty
     Dif
    ficult
    yinconcentr
    ati
    ng
     Sl
    eepdi sturbances(
    dif
    fi
    cul
    tyi
    nfal
    l
    ingasl
    eep,
    frequentwaki
    ngi
    nthemi
    ddl
    e)
     Easyf ati
    gue

    141
    The anxi ety causes si gni f
    icantdi st
    ress and i mpair
    menti nv ari
    ous areas of
    functi
    oning.Thecour seofgener al
    i
    zedanxi etydi sorder
    si schr onicandusual l
    yget s
    worsedur i
    ngperiodsofst ress.Thei ntensit
    y,dur ati
    on,orfrequencyoft heanxietyand
    worryisf aroutofpr opor t
    iont ot heactualli
    keli
    hoodori mpactoft hef earedevent.The
    personf indsitdi ff
    icul tto keepwor r
    isomet hought sfrom interfer
    ingwi thhi sdai l
    y
    acti
    vit
    iesandhasdi fficultyst oppingthewor r
    y .Duringthecour seoft hedisorder,the
    focusofwor r
    ymayshi ftf rom oneconcer nt o another.Inchi l
    drensuf feri
    ng from
    Generali
    zed Anxiet yDi sorder,t hereisa t endencyt o worryexcessi velyaboutt hei
    r
    compet encewi t
    ht heirf ri
    endsort hequalit
    yofthei rperfor
    mance.Hy steri
    calNeurosis

    Itisanill
    nessknownf r
    om thet i
    meofGr eeks,al
    thoughdownthroughagesithas
    changeditsmeaninganddimension.Origi
    nal
    l
    yi twasthoughtt
    obeawomen' sdisease,
    asthewor dhy st
    eri
    asigni
    fi
    es'uterus'
    ,theut
    erusmov edfrom onepartoft
    hebodyt o
    anotherbecauseofsexual
    frust
    rati
    on.

    Thehyster
    icalr
    eactioninmodem psychopathologyisexplai
    nedasser vi
    ngdefensiv
    e
    functionbywhi chthei ndi
    vi
    dualescapesorav oidsstressfulsi
    tuati
    ons.Asaneur oti
    c
    disorder,t
    hesy mpt
    omsofhy st
    eriacantaketheform ofwi destvari
    ety.Al
    thoughatone
    pointoft i
    methedi agnosisofhyster
    iawasnott hatfrequentperhapsbecausemedi cal
    knowl edgehadnotadv ancedsomuch, t
    hesamehasconsi derabl
    ychangednowaday s.

    Hy st
    eri
    acanbecl i
    nical
    l
    ygr oupedundert
    wot ypes:conversi
    onanddi ssoci
    at e-i
    n
    conversi
    onhysteri
    atheaffl
    ict
    edpersoncanpresentphysi
    calsymptom ofpsychologi
    cal
    ori
    gin.Intheabsenceoforganiccause,t
    hesy mptomsandf eatur
    esareintri
    guingand
    eni
    gmat ic.

    Featur
    esoftheHy steria:
    1.Therecanbehy ster
    icalconv ul
    sion(f
    it)
    .
    2.Sensorydisturbances- l
    ossofsensi ti
    vi
    ty.
    3.Hypoesthesis( parti
    allossofsensi t
    ivi
    ty)
    .
    4.Hyperesthesis( excessivelossofsensiti
    vit
    y).
    5.Analgesia(l
    ossofsensi ti
    v i
    tytopain)
    6.Parestheni
    a( except i
    onal sensati
    on,suchastingl
    i
    ng)

    Iti
    ncludes bl
    urofv isi
    on,photophobi
    a,doublev i
    sion,nightbli
    ndness,and
    def
    ect
    ivester
    opsi
    s.Theheartdistur
    bancesfrom t
    otaldeafnessto'sel
    ecti
    veonehas
    al
    sobeenfoundasconver
    sionsymptoms.

    Thev i
    sceralsympt omsoft hi
    sdi sor
    derareheadache,l umpsi nthethroat,
    choki
    ngsensation,coughingspells,bl
    eachingnausea,sneezing,diff
    icul
    tyinbreathi
    ng
    etc.Anotherenigmatic conver
    sion syndr
    ome.i s pseudociasi
    s( false pr
    egnancy)in
    women who dev elop morning si
    ckness,absenceofper i
    od,f ul
    l
    nessofbr east,and
    bulgi
    ngbell
    ywithoutbeingpregnant.

    Thedi ssociatehysteria,onot herhand,isalsoamani f


    est ati
    onofunder l
    yi
    ngconf li
    ct.
    Thisisanescapebehav i
    ori nwhicht heindivi
    dualgrati
    fieshi surgesbutdeniest he
    personalr esponsibi
    lit
    yofhi sunaccept abl
    ebehav i
    or.Ther eisadi ffer
    encebetween
    hysteri
    calamnesi aandamnesi acausedbybr ai
    npathology .Inthelat
    ertheregi
    str
    ation
    andst orageofi nfor
    mat i
    onar eimpairedwhereasi nthef ormert herecal
    lofregi
    stered
    i
    nformat ionisaffectedalthoughthef or
    gott
    enmat eri
    alisint act
    ,beneaththeconscious
    l
    evel.

    Somnambul
    ism i
    sal
    soanot
    hert
    ypeofdi
    sor
    derwher
    ethei
    ndi
    vi
    dualwal
    ksi
    nsl
    eepbut
    whenheget supt hef ol
    lowi
    ngmor ni
    ngdoesnotr emembert heev ent
    .Faguecal l
    edit
    "spli
    tpersonali
    ty"
    .Thet wopersonal
    it
    yworksindependentlyinthesamei ndiv
    idual,one
    having no knowl edge oft he other.Mult
    ipl
    e per sonal
    it
    y has si mil
    arf eatures of
    dissoci
    ativ
    ehy steria.Theremaybeoneormor et woper sonali
    ti
    esi nani ndi
    vidualbut
    theirf
    unctionsdiff
    erf r
    om oneanother,
    andnoawar enessofexistenceoftheot her.

    142
    Hi
    stor
    yofHy
    ster
    ia

    Thest udiesofhy steri


    abyChar cot ,aFr enchneur ologistwhowor kedatt he
    Salpetr
    ier
    ehospi talinPar is,wer eparti
    cularlyi nfluenci ali nthel ate19t hcent ur
    y .He
    beli
    evedt hathysteriawascausedbyaf uncti
    onaldi sor deroft hebr ainwhi chcaused
    symptoms,and whi ch also rendered pat i
    ents sucept iblet o hy pnosis so t hatnew
    symptomscanbepr oducedbysuggest ion.Char cot ,Lat erbecamemor eint er
    estedin
    theprobablit
    yofapsy col
    ogicalcauseasar esul tofcl i
    ni calstudiesbyhi spupi l
    ,Pierr
    e
    Janet,whopr oposedt hatthedi sor
    derinhy steriahasat endencyt odi ssoci at
    e,i.
    e.to
    l
    ooset henor malintegrati
    onbet weenv ari
    ouspar tsofment alfunctioning,togetherwi t
    h
    ar est
    rict
    ionofper sonalawar enesssot hatt heper sonbecameunawar eofcer tai
    n
    aspectsofpsy chologicalf
    unctioningthatwoul dot herwi sebewi thinhisawar eness.

    Hy
    ster
    ia-
    Conv
    ersi
    onTy
    pe:

    Duri
    ngt heWor l
    dWarIandI I
    ,conversi
    onr eactionwast hemostf r
    equenttypeof
    psychiatr
    icsy ndrome.Exampl esofcommon conv er si
    on sy
    mpt omsi n soldi
    ersare
    paraly
    sisinlegsandi nabil
    i
    tytost r
    engthent heirback.Thesesy mpt omsar ebecause
    thereisaconf l
    ictbet
    weent hei
    rloyal
    tytotheirnationandt hei
    rli
    v es.Todayitconsti
    tut
    es
    only5% oft heneur oses.Increaseineducat ioni soneoft her easonswhyi thas
    decreased.Thisdisordercanbeseenamongt heill
    it
    eratesandlow-i ncomegr oup.

    Themostcommonhy steri
    caldisturbancesofspeechi s-Aphonia,herethepersoni s
    abl
    et ospeakonlyinwhispers.Mut i
    sm anothertypeofspeechdisor
    derthoughr
    ar e.For
    psychoneurot
    icdi
    sordersthedifferenttr
    eatmentmet hodsuggestedarechemotherapy,
    shocktherapy;
    psychoanaly
    ticandbehav iort
    herapy.

    8. Anxi
    etyduet
    omedi
    calcauses

    Anxietymaybeasy mpt om ofanumberofmedi calcondit


    ionsaswel land
    henceitisnecessaryt
    or ul
    eoutthesecondi
    ti
    onsbeforewet est
    ifythepat
    ientto
    besuff
    er i
    ngfrom anxi
    etydi
    sorder.Fewoft
    hem hav
    ebeenl ist
    edbelow:

    a) Neurologi calillnessescancausesympt omssi mi l


    art ot hosef oundi nanxiety
    di
    sorder sandhencet hesei ll
    nessesmustber uledoutbef oreconcludingt he
    sympt omst obet hatofanxi etydi sorder s.Fol l
    owi ngar ef ewoft heexampl es
    ofsuchneur ological disorder s:
     Cer ebr alv ascul ari nsuf f
    iciency :Transi enti schemi cat t
    acks( TIA)lasting
    from 10- 15secondsupt oanhour( briefbl ocksi nt hebl oodv esselsoft he
    braincausi ngt empor arylossofbr ainbl oodsuppl y)
     Anxi et yst atesandper sonal i
    tychangesf oll
    owi ngheadi njury
     Inf ect ionsoft hecent r
    alner voussy stem
     Degener ativ edisorder soft hener v oussy stem
     Al zhei mer '
    sdement i
    a
     Mul tipl e scl er
    osi s:Maybe mar ked ear lyon byv ague and changi ng
    medi cal compl aints
     Hunt ingt on' schor ea:Maypr esentear l
    yasanxi etyorot herfunctional
    disor derbef or
    et hemov ementdi sor deri sev i
    dent.Ital way shasaposi t
    ive
    fami lyhi stor y
     Toxi cDi sor ders
    o Lead I ntoxicat i
    on:l oss of appet ite,const ipation and col icky
    abdomi nal pai nfollowedbyi rr
    itabili
    tyandr est lessness
    o Mer cur yintoxi cati
    on: from cont ami nat edf i
    sh
    o Manganesei ntoxicat i
    on: fr
    om i ndust rialexposur e
    o Or ganophosphat e i nsect i
    cides ( simi l
    ar t o ner ve gas) :f rom
    chemi cal orinsect i
    cideexposur e
     Par tialcompl exsei zures

    143
    b) Endocr inedi sordersal sof requent l
    ypr esentwi thsy mpt omsofanxi etyand
    these can be t he di ff
    erent ialdi agnosi sf oranxi et
    y di sorders.Common
    exampl eswoul dbe:
     Hy perthyroidism ( i
    ncr eased t hyroid hor mone)commonl ypr esent s as
    anxi etyandi soneoft hemostcommonendocr i
    neabnor malities.Most
    commoni n20t o40y earsol dwomen.
     Adr enalhyper function orCushi ng's syndr ome:Thi s has a v ari
    etyof
    causes,i ncluding tumor s oft he pi tuitaryoradr enalgl ands orf rom
    steroidsgi vent otreatot heri l
    lnesses.Anxi etyisacommonf eatureas
    al
    so abnor malhai ri
    ness,acne,change i nf atdi stri
    bution,decr eased
    menst ruati
    oni nwomenandi mpot encyi nmen.
     Hy poglycaemi a( decreased bl ood gl ucose) :Usual lyassoci ated wi tha
    historyofdi abetes and i nsul i
    n orot herhy poglycaemi c medi cations.
    Rar elythisoccur sfrom ani nsul i
    nsecr etingtumor .
     Hy popar athyroidi
    sm ( decr eased par athy r
    oid hormone) :Almostal way s
    associ ated wi th a hi storyoft hy r
    oid sur gery.Itof ten present s wi t
    h
    over whel minganxi ety,eitherwi t
    horwi thoutper sonali
    tychanges.
     Menopausal andpr emenst rualsyndr omes.

    c) Cardi
    opulmonar ydi sorders:Oft
    enpresentswithshort
    nessofbreath,rapi
    d
    br
    eathi
    ng, complaintsofchestpain,chestpaint
    hatar
    ewor sewi
    thexerti
    on.
     Angi na
     Pulmonar yembol us
     Ar r
    hy t
    hmi as(
    irregulari
    ti
    esofheartbeat)
     Chr onicobstr
    uct ivepulmonarydi
    sease(COPD)
     Mi t
    ralv al
    veprolapse( gener
    all
    yharmless)

    d) Pheochr
    omocyt
    oma(
    epi
    nephr
    inesecr
    eti
    ngt
    umour
    s)

    Subst
    ancei
    nducedanxi
    etydi
    sor
    der
    s

    Substanceinducedanxiet
    yi scommonl ymi
    ssedoutbecausev er
    yoften
    thephy sici
    anmaynott akedet ai
    l
    ednoteoft hemedi cationthatthe
    pati
    enthasbeencont inui
    ngsincelongandthesemedi ci
    nesmaybet he
    cul
    prit
    s i n induci
    ng anxiety symptoms in t he patient. Common
    medications and dr
    ugs which can i
    nduce anxiet
    ysy mpt oms are as
    fol
    l
    ows:

     Non-psychot ropicmedi cati


    ons:
    o Sy mpat homimet i
    cs( oftenf oundi nnon- pr escri
    pti
    oncol dandal l
    ergy
    medi cations):epinephrine,nor ephinephrine,i soprot
    eronol,l
    evodopa,
    dopami nehy drochlori
    de,dobut amine,ter butali
    nesul f
    ate,ephedri
    ne,
    pseudo- ephedrine
    o Xant heneder ivati
    ves( asthmamedi cations,cof f
    ee,colas,over-
    the-
    count erpainremedi es):ami nophyll
    ine,theophy l
    li
    ne,caff
    eine
    o Ant i-
    inf l
    ammat oryagent s:indomet hacin
    o Thy r
    oi dpreparati
    ons
    o I nsuli
    n( duetohy poglycemi cr eacti
    on)
    o Cor ticosteroi
    ds
    o Ot her s:nicot
    ine,ginsengr oot,monosodi um gl ut
    amat e

     Psy
    chot r
    opicmedi cati
    ons:
    o Ant i
    depressants( i
    ncludi
    ngMAO- i
    nhibi
    tors)
    ,drugsf ort r
    eatmentof
    attenti
    on deficitdisorders(on r are occasi
    ons cause anxiety-
    type
    syndromes)
    o Tranquili
    zing drugs:benzodi azepines (par
    adoxicalresponse most
    commoni nchi l
    drenandi nel derl
    y),anti
    psychoti
    cs( akathi
    siamay
    presentasanxi ety
    )
    o Ant i
    choli
    nergi
    c medi cations can cause a delir
    ium whi ch,in earl
    y
    stages,may easi ly be confused wi th anxi
    ety:scopol amine and

    144
    sedati
    nganti
    hist
    amines(f
    oundinov
    er-t
    he-count
    ersleeppreparat
    ions)
    anti
    parki
    nsoni
    anagents,
    tri
    cycl
    i
    canti
    depressant
    s,anti
    psychoti
    cs

    Ot
    herDr
    ugs:
     Caffei
    ne-i
    ntoxicati
    onorwi thdrawal
     Nicoti
    ne-wit
    hdr awalevenmor et hanacut
    eint
    oxi
    cat
    ion
     Stimulant
    s-cocaine,amphet amines,et
    c.
     Alcoholoralcoholwithdrawal

    Drugwit
    hdrawali sacommoncauseofanxi et
    ysymptoms.Al ar
    genumberof
    drugscancausewi thdrawalstateswi t
    hsy mpt
    omsofanxiet
    yorev enagit
    ati
    on.All
    sedat
    ivehypnot
    ics,
    tri
    cycli
    canti
    -depressant
    sandant
    i-
    chol
    i
    ner
    gicscancausewit
    hdrawal
    symptoms.

    InFreud'svi
    ew,
    thehumani
    sdr
    ivent
    owar
    dst
    ensi
    onr
    educt
    ion,
    inor
    dert
    oreduce
    f
    eel
    i
    ngsofanxiety
    .

    Anxi
    ety:anaver
    siv
    einnerst
    atet
    hatpeopl
    eseekt
    oav
    oidorescape.

    Humansseekt
    oreduceanxi
    etyt
    hroughdef
    ensemechani
    sms

    Def
    ense Mechani
    sms can be psychol
    ogi
    cal
    l
    y heal
    thy ormal
    adapt
    ive,butt
    ensi
    on
    r
    educt
    ioni
    stheov
    eral
    lgoal
    inbot
    hcases.

    Acompr ehensi
    velistofDef enseMechani smswasdevel opedbyAnnaFr eud,
    Sigmund'sdaughter.Annaremai nedwi thherFat
    hert hroughouthisli
    fe,
    nevermarryi
    ng.
    I
    nFr eudianterms,sher emainedt rappedinherOedi puscomplex,nevergivi
    ngupher
    l
    ongingt opossessherfathersexually.However,
    becauseofast rongegoandsuperego,
    thisID baseddesi r
    eswer esubl imatedintopsy chologicalcr
    eativ
    itywhi
    chadv anced
    Freudi
    ant heor
    y,herfat
    her'
    sgr eatestlove.

    Fr
    eudspeci
    fi
    edt
    hreemaj
    ort
    ypesofanxi
    ety:

    1. Real
    it
    yAnxi
    ety:themostbasi
    cform,root
    edinreal
    i
    ty.Fearofadogbi
    te,f
    ear
    ar
    isi
    ngfr
    om animpendi
    ngacci
    dent
    .(EgoBasedAnxi
    ety)

    MostCommonTensi
    onReduct
    ionMet
    hod:

    Remov
    ingonesel
    ffr
    om t
    hehar
    mful
    sit
    uat
    ion.

    2. NeuroticAnxiety:Anxi
    etywhichari
    sesfr
    om anunconsci
    ousfeart
    hatt
    heli
    bidi
    nal
    i
    mpul sesoftheI Dwill
    takecontr
    olataninopport
    uneti
    me.Thisty
    peofanxi
    etyis
    dr
    ivenbyaf earofpuni shmentthatwi
    llresul
    tfr
    om expr
    essi
    ngtheID'
    sdesires
    wit
    houtpr opersubli
    mat i
    on.

    3. MoralAnxiety:Anxiet
    ywhichresul
    tsfr
    om fearofv i
    olat
    ingmoralorsocietal
    codes,moralanxiet
    yappear
    sasguil
    torshame.I
    nthisconcept
    ionofAnxi
    ety,we
    can see why Fr eud concent
    rat
    ed on strengt
    hening the Ego through
    psychoanal
    ysis.

    Def
    enseMechani
    sms

    Whensomet
    ypeofanxi
    etyoccur
    s,t
    hemi
    ndr
    espondsi
    ntwoway
    s:

    1.Fi
    rst,
    probl
    em sol
    vi
    ngef
    fort
    sar
    eincr
    eases
    2.Secondl
    y,def
    ensemechani
    smsaretri
    gger
    ed.Thesear
    etact
    icswhi
    cht
    heEgo

    145
    dev
    elopst
    ohel
    pdeal
    wit
    htheI
    Dandt
    heSuperEgo.

    Al
    lDef
    enseMechani
    smsshar
    etwocommonpr
    oper
    ti
    es:

    1.Theycanoperat
    eunconsci
    ousl
    y
    2.Theycandi
    stort
    ,tr
    ansf
    orm,orf
    alsi
    fyr
    eal
    i
    tyi
    ssomeway
    .

    Thechangi
    ngofpercei
    vedreal
    it
    yall
    owsf
    oral
    esseni
    ngofanxi
    ety
    ,reduci
    ngt
    he
    psy
    chologi
    calt
    ensi
    onf
    eltbyani
    ndiv
    idual
    .

    TypesofDef
    enseMechani
    sms:

    1.Repr
    essi
    on
     Themostbasi
    cdefensemechanism.
     Someti
    mesref
    err
    edt oas:def
    ensiveness
     Repr
    essi
    oncanbeconsciousbutismostcommonl
    yunconsci
    ous.

    Adv
    ant
    ages:
     Canprev
    enti
    nappropri
    ateIDimpul
    sesfrom becomingbehav i
    ors.
     Canprev
    entunpl
    easantthoughtsf
    rom becomingconscious.
     Canprev
    entmemor i
    esofthingswehavedonewr ongfrom resurf
    aci
    ng.

    Repr
    essi
    ondoesnothavetobetotal,par
    ti
    almemor
    ieswher
    eonl
    ythesi
    ngl
    e
    pi
    eceofdamagi
    ngi
    nfor
    mati
    onis"
    for
    got
    ten"iscommon.

    Whatan indi
    vidualr
    epr
    esses depends upon cul
    tur
    alexpect
    ati
    ons and t
    he
    par
    ti
    cul
    ardev
    elopmentofani
    ndi
    vidual
    ’
    ssuper-ego.

    2.Deni
    al
     Theindiv
    idualdeniesthatthet hreateni
    ngev enteventookplace
     Denialbecomesmor ediff
    icultwi t
    hage,ast heegomat ur esandunder st
    ands
    moreaboutt he"objecti
    verealit
    y"itmustoper atewithi
    n.
     Peopleengagingi nDeni alcanpayahi ghcosti st er
    msofcat hectedpsy chi
    c
    energywhichisusedt omai ntainthedenialstate.
     Repressi
    onandDeni alaret hetwomai ndef ensemechanismswhi chever y
    body
    uses.
    Example:Atschool ,ast udentseei ngagr adeof"C"nextt otheirname,
    andautomat ical
    lyassumi ngt heprofessormadeagr adingerror.

    3.Pr
    oject
    ion
     Anxietyisr educed bycl aiming anotherperson actual
    lyhast he unpleasant
    thoughtsthaty ouar ethi
    nking.Youareattr
    ibuti
    ngy ourownr epressedt houghts
    tosomeoneel se.
     I
    fy ouall
    owt hist houghtt
    oconsciouslysurf
    ace,youwi l
    lexper
    iencemor al anxi
    ety
    i
    nt ermsofgui l
    tf eeli
    ngs,
    becauset hi
    sconsciousthoughtgoesagai nstthemor al
    prohibi
    ti
    onsofy oursuperego.

    4.Rati
    onalizati
    on
     All
    owst ofindl ogi
    cal r
    easonsf orinexcusableactions
     Possibl
    e Rat ionali
    zation:I tis bettert hatIhol d ontot hi
    s money ort he
    governmentwi l
    lspendi tonweaponsofmassdest ructi
    on.
     Rati
    onali
    zat i
    onhel pstopr otectoursenseofsel f-
    est eem
     Rati
    onali
    zat i
    oni sclosel yti
    edt otheSelf-ser
    vingBi as:Thetendencytointer
    pret
    successasi nwar dlyachievedandt oascribefail
    uret ooutsi
    defactor
    s.
    Exampl e:Possi bleRational
    izat
    ion:Idi dn'twantt opursuet hatcareer
    ,
    anyways

    5.I
    ntel
    lect
    ual
    izat
    ion

    146
     Thinkingaboutev entsi ncold,hard, r
    ati
    onal ter
    ms.
     Separ atingonesel ffrom theemot ionalcontentofanev ent,focusinginst
    eadon
    thefact s.
     Intel
    lectualizationpr otect
    sagai nstanxiet ybyrepressingtheemot ionsconnected
    withanev ent .
     Forexampl e,awi fewhol earnsherhusbandi sdy i
    ngt ri
    est olearnallshecan
    aboutt hedi sease,pr ognosis,andt reatmentopt i
    ons.Bydoi ngthisshecanhel p
    repress t he emot ionalonsl aughtoff eel
    ings ofl oss and angerwhi ch can
    accompanyt hedeat hofal ovedone.
     Freud bel iev ed thatmemor i
    escoul d hav e bot
    h consci ousand unconsci ous
    aspect s,andt hati ntell
    ectuali
    zational l
    owsf ortheconsci ousanal ysi
    sofnon-
    anxietypr ovoki nginformat i
    onaboutanev ent.

    6.Regr ession
     Becauseofpar t
    ialfi
    x at
    ionsinanyoft hepsy chosexualstagesofdev elopment,
    regressioncanoccurwhenani ndiv
    idualisf acedwi t
    hhi ghl evelsofst r
    essin
    theirli
    fe.
     Regr essioni sthegi vingupofmat ur
    epr oblem solvi
    ngmet hodsi nfavorofchil
    d
    l
    ikeappr oachest ofixingproblems.
     Someonewi t
    hanor alfi
    xati
    onmayi ncreaset hei
    rcigaret
    tesmoki ngofl ol
    li
    pop
    l
    ickingbehav iorwhenst r
    essedatwor k.
     Someone who i s analr et
    entive mightbecome mor e det ailori
    ented and
    fastidi
    ousl yneaterasar esul
    tofanxiety.
     Thisr egr essionr epresentsawayofr el
    atingt othewor ldt hatwasf ormerl
    y
    effectiv
    e.
     Regr essionisawayt otrytorecaptur
    esomechi l
    dhoodsatisfaction.

    7.Displ acement
     Displacementi stheshi ft
    ingofintendedt argets,especi
    all
    ywhent heini
    ti
    altar
    get
    i
    st hreat eni ng.
     Thecl assi cuseofdi splacementi sintheunder st
    andingofdi splacedaggressi
    on.
     Ani ndi vi
    duali s" dresseddown"byt hesuper v
    isorattheirj
    ob.Theyf eelangerand
    host i
    lityt owar dt heirsuper vi
    sor.TheirID,drivenbyaggr essiveimpulses,would
    l
    iket ot eart heboss' sheadof f
    .TheEgo,bei ngr eali
    tybasedandv erymuchi n
    favorofcont inuedpay checks,reali
    zest hatthisisnotagoodi deaandt heref
    ore
    does notr emov e boss' s head.The per son goes home,butst il
    lhas t hi
    s
    aggr essi vei mpul se.TheEgoal lowsf ort
    hei ndi
    v i
    dualtoscr eam atthespouse,
    sincei tf eelst hiswi l
    lnott hreat
    enf uturepaychecks.Thespouse,nowangr yand
    upset ,di splacest heirangeront heirchil
    d,whot henbecomesangr yandki cks
    theirpetdog, af urtherdisplacementofanger .

    2.Somat
    ofor
    m Di
    sor
    der
    s

    Somat oform disordersr epr


    esentagr oupofdi sorderscharacteri
    zedbyphy si
    cal
    symptomssuggest i
    ngamedi caldisorder;howev ernogener almedicalcondit
    ion,other
    mentaldisorder,orsubst ancei spresent.Psy chologicalconf li
    ctsmaybet r
    anslated,or
    conver
    ted,into phy si
    calpr oblems,pai n,orcompl aint
    s.I ndivi
    dual
    ssuf feri
    ngf rom a
    somatoform disorderarenotconsci ouslyawar eoft hepsy chologi
    calfactorswhichar e
    i
    noper at
    ion,andt heyar enot" makingup"t heirphy sicalsympt oms.Thesy mptomsand
    pai
    narer eal-thecausei ssimpl ypsychiatri
    cinsteadofmedi cal.

    Asomatoform di
    sorderi
    scharact
    eri
    zedbyoneormoresymptomsofaphysi
    cal
    dysf
    unct
    ionbutforwhi chthereisnoi dent
    if
    iabl
    eorgani
    ccause.Fol
    lowi
    ngaretwo
    exampl
    es(fr
    om sevenintheDSM-IV)
    .

    Ty
    pesofSomat
    ofor
    m Di
    sor
    der
    s:

    BodyDy
    smor
    phi
    cDi
    sor
    der
    :

    147
    Indi
    vi
    dualssuff
    eringfrom bodydysmor phicdisorderbecomedeepl
    yconcer
    nedabout
    somei magi
    nedormi nordefecti
    nt hei
    rappear ance.Theymaygot ogr
    eatlengt
    hsto
    concealt
    hei
    r"defects"orav
    oidcontactwithothers.

    1.Conver
    sionDi
    sor
    der
    :

    In conversion disorder
    ,a psy chosocialconfli
    ctorneed is conv er
    ted i
    nto
    dramati
    cphy si
    calsymptomst hataffectv ol
    unt
    arymotororsensoryfuncti
    oni
    ng.
    Thesy mptomsof tenseem neurol
    ogical,suchasparal
    ysi
    s,bl
    indness,orlossof
    feel
    ing(anesthesi
    a) .

    A conv ersion di
    sorderisa condition manifest
    ed bya physi
    caldysf
    unct
    ion
    (bl
    indness,
    deaf ness,par
    aly
    sis,numbness,etc.
    )thathasnounderlyi
    ng
    organicbasis.Thisconditi
    on( f
    ormerl
    ycal l
    edhy st
    eri
    a)allowsescapef
    rom ananxi
    ety
    -
    provoki
    ngact i
    vity.Forexample,anat hl
    etewhodr eadscompetinginanevent
    ,might
    developanumbar m andeffect
    ivel
    yavoidtheevent.

    2.Hypochondr
    iasi
    s

     Indivi
    duals who suf ferf r
    om hy pochondriasi
    s unr eal
    i
    stical
    lyinter
    pretbodily
    sy mptomsassi gnsofaser i
    ousil
    lness.Oftenthei
    rsy mptomsar enormalbodily
    changes,such as occasi onalcoughi ng,sores orsweat i
    ng.Although some
    pat i
    entsr
    ecogni zethatthei
    rconcernsar eexcessiv
    e,manydonot .
     Hy pochondr i
    asistypi
    call
    yi nvol
    vesnumer ousphy sicalsympt omsandf requent
    visit
    stodoct ors.
     Hy pochondr i
    asisischaracteri
    zedbyacont i
    nuingbeliefthatonehasoneormor e
    serious il
    lnesses although no medi calev i
    dence suppor tsthe belief
    .An
    occasional headache.

    3.Pai
    nDi
    sor
    der
    Pai
    ndisor
    derischaracter
    izedbyanexaggerati
    onofandconti
    nuat
    ionofpain
    wit
    houtmedicalcause.
    Thisdisor
    dergener
    allydev
    elopsaf
    teranaccidentor
    dur
    ingani
    ll
    nessthathascausedgenui
    nepai
    n.

    4.Somat
    izat
    ionDi
    sor
    der
     Indi
    vi
    duals wit
    h somat izat
    ion disor
    derhav e numer ous l
    ong-l
    asti
    ng physi
    cal
    ail
    mentsthathaveli
    ttl
    eornoor gani
    cbasis.
     Theyusuall
    ygof r
    om doct ortodoctorinsearchofr el
    ieffr
    om thei
    rsymptoms.
     Theyoftendescri
    betheirmanysy mptomsindr amat i
    candexaggeratedter
    ms.
     Somat i
    zati
    ondisorderscanl astformanyy ears,andsy mptomsrarelydi
    sappear
    complet
    elywithoutext
    ensi v
    epsy chother
    apy.

    CausesofSomat
    ofor
    m Di
    sor
    der
    s
    A combi
    nati
    on off
    act
    orsi
    s pr
    obabl
    yresponsi
    blef
    ort
    he dev
    elopmentof
    somat
    ofor
    m di
    sor
    ders.

    1.St
    ress:
    Stressi sbelieved t o be one oft he mostcommon causesofsomat of
    orm
    disorders.Str
    essandanxi etymaybeconv er
    tedtophy si
    calsymptoms.
    2.Culture:
    Culturalinfl
    uencesappeart oaffectt hegenderr ati
    osandbodyl ocat
    ionsof
    somat oform disorder s,as wellas t hei
    rf r
    equencyi n a specifi
    c populati
    on.
    Resear chers have discov er
    ed lowerl evel
    s ofsomat i
    zati
    on disorderamong
    peoplewi thhigherlevelsofeducation.Preoccupat
    ionwi t
    hhealthandt hebodyi n
    generalmaybecul tural
    lyinfl
    uencedandmaycont ri
    butetothedev elopmentof
    thesedi sor
    ders.

    3.Bi
    ology:

    148
    Geneti
    corbi ol
    ogicalfact
    orsmayal soplayar olei
    nt hedev elopmentofthese
    di
    sorders.Forexample,peoplewhosufferfrom somatizati
    ondi sor
    dermayalso
    di
    ffer in how t hey per cei
    ve and pr ocess pain, and i ndivi
    dual
    s with
    hypochondri
    asi
    smaybeul t
    rasensi
    ti
    v et
    onor malbodypr ocesses

    3. Di
    ssoci
    ati
    veDi
    sor
    der
    s

    Dissoci
    ati
    vedi sor
    dersar emar kedbyasepar ationf rom ori nterr
    upti
    onofa
    person'
    sfundament al
    aspectsofwaki ngconsciousness(suchasone' sper sonali
    dent
    it
    y,
    one'spersonalhi
    story
    ,etc.)
    .Allofthedissociati
    vedisorder sarebelievedt ostem f
    rom
    traumaexper i
    encedbyt heindiv
    idualwi ththisdisorder.Thedi ssociati
    veaspectis
    thoughttobeacopi ngmechanism inwhi chthepersonl i
    terall
    ydissociateshimselff
    rom
    asi t
    uat
    ionorexperi
    encetoot r
    aumat i
    ctoi nt
    egratewit
    hhi sconsci oussel f
    .

    I
    ndi ssoci
    ati
    vedisorders,apartofanindi
    vi
    dual
    '
    spersonal
    i
    tybecomesseparat
    e
    (di
    ssoci
    ated)from otherparts,pr
    oducingalackofint
    egr
    ati
    onofi dent
    it
    y,memory
    ,or
    consci
    ousness.

    TheDSM- I
    Vl istsfivef orms; thet hreemostcommonf oll
    ow:
     In di ssociative amnesi a,an i ndiv
    idualdev elops a sudden i nabilit
    yt or ecall
    i
    mpor tantper sonali nformat ion( suchasherorhi sname) ;thedi sorderof ten
    foll
    owspsy chol ogicaltrauma.Thememor ylosscannotbeat tri
    butedt ophy si
    cal
    trauma,apar ti
    cularmedi calcondi t
    ion,ordirectef f
    ectsofdr ugs.Memor yrecall
    mayoccursuddenl yorgr adual ly.
     Peopl eexper iencingadi ssoci ativefuguesuddenl yandunexpect edlyt ravelaway
    from t heirhomeorcust omar ypl aceofactivi
    tiesandar eunabl etor ecallsomeor
    alloft heirpast .Theyar e conf used aboutt heirpersonali dentity,maynot
    rememberwhot heyar e,andsomet imesassumeanew i dentity.Recov erymay
    ber api d.
     A di ssoci ativei dent it
    y di sor der( formerl
    y,mul ti
    ple personality disor der)is
    char act er
    izedbyt heassumi ngoft woormor edi sti
    nct
    ,integratedper sonal i
    ties,
    eachofwhi chmani festsi tsel fattimes.Thebehav i
    orsar eaccompani edbyan
    i
    nabi lity,too ext ensiv et o be expl ai
    ned by or dinaryforgetfulness,t or ecall
    i
    mpor tantper sonali nformat ion.Oneper sonalit
    ymayhav enomemor yoft he
    other (s).Of tent hesedi sor der sstem f r
    om chi ldhoodt raumasuchassexual
    abuse.

    a)Di
    ssoci
    ati
    veAmnesi
    a
    Peopl
    ewi thdissociativ
    eamnesi aar eunabletor ecal
    limport
    antinfor
    mation,
    usual
    l
    yofat raumaticorstressfulnature,
    aboutt hei
    rli
    ves.Thelossofmemoryismuch
    moreextensi
    vethannor malforgetti
    ngandi snotcausedbyor gani
    cfact
    ors.Di
    ssoci
    ativ
    e
    amnesiamaybel ocali
    zed,selecti
    ve,general
    ized,
    orcontinuous.

    Dissoci
    ati
    veAmnesiaisat ypeofamnesiacausedbyt r
    aumaorstr
    essr
    esul
    ti
    ng
    i
    naninabil
    it
    ytorecalli
    mport
    antpersonali
    nfor
    mati
    on.Amnesiamayalsobeasympt
    om
    ofot
    herpsychol
    ogicaldi
    sor
    ders,
    includi
    ngPTSDorsomatizat
    iondi
    sor
    der.

    I
    n Dissoci
    ati
    ve Amnesia,the lostmemor yusuall
    yi nvol
    ves autobiographi
    cal
    i
    nformati
    on such as personalidenti
    ty,and/orpeople,places orev entst hatar e
    consi
    dered famil
    iar t
    ot he indivi
    dual.Though forgot
    ten,t hi
    s previously known
    i
    nformati
    onoftenconti
    nuestoinf
    luencetheindi
    vi
    dual
    'sbehavior
    .

    I
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    swiththisdisor
    derusual
    lyhaveoneormor egapsinmemoryof
    anywher
    efrom afew minut
    est oafew hoursordays.Howev
    er,memor
    ylosscan
    someti
    messpanyear
    sorevenanindi
    vi
    dual'
    sent
    ir
    eli
    fe.

    Mosti
    ndi
    vidualswi
    ththisdi
    sor
    derar
    eawarethattheyhavemissingmemor i
    esor
    peri
    odsoftime,butsomemaybecomeawar eoft hist i
    mel ossonlywhent heyare
    confr
    ontedwi
    thevidencet
    hattheyhav
    edoneorsai
    dt hi
    ngsthattheycannotr
    ecall
    .

    Di
    agnost
    icCr
    it
    eri
    aforDi
    ssoci
    ati
    veAmnesi
    a

    149
    A.Thepr edomi nantdi st
    urbancei soneormor eepi sodesofi nabili
    tyt or ecall
    i
    mpor tantper sonalinformat i
    on, usuall
    yofat raumat i
    corst ressfulnature,thatis
    tooext ensi vetobeexpl ainedbyor di
    naryfor getful
    ness.
    B.Thedi stur bancedoesnotoccurexcl usivelydur ingt hecour seofDi ssociati
    ve
    I
    dentity Di sorder,Dissociative Fugue,Post traumat ic St
    ress Di sorder,Acut e
    Str
    ess Di sorder,orSomat ization Disorderand i s notdue t ot he di r
    ect
    physiologi caleffectsofasubst ance( e.
    g.,adr ugofabuse,amedi cati
    on)ora
    neurologi calorot hergener almedi calcondi ti
    on( e.g.,Amnest icDisorderDuet o
    HeadTr auma) .
    C.The sy mpt oms cause cl i
    nicall
    ysi gnifi
    cantdi st
    ress orimpai r
    menti n social,
    occupat ional ,
    orot heri
    mpor tantar easoff unctioning.

    Sympt
    omsofDi
    ssoci
    ati
    veAmnesi
    a
    Themostcommonsy mptom ofDi ssociat
    iveAmnesi aismemoryloss.Memor y
    l
    ossmaycov ershor
    torlongperiodsoft i
    me, spanninghour
    soryears.Confusion
    aboutident
    ityandsurr
    oundingsaswel lasdepr essi
    onarealsoof
    tenpr esentin
    mostindivi
    dualswit
    hthi
    sdisorder.

    b)Di
    ssoci
    ati
    veFugue
    Peopl
    e suff
    ering fr
    om a di ssoci
    ati
    vefugue notonlyf or
    getthei
    rpersonal
    i
    denti
    ti
    esanddet ai
    lsoft heirpastli
    ves,butal
    sofleetoanentir
    elydi
    ff
    erentl
    ocati
    on,
    of
    tenunawar eofhow t heycamet obei nthenew l
    ocat
    ion.Fuguesusual
    lyf
    oll
    ow a
    st
    ressf
    uleventandtendt oendabruptl
    y.

    Di
    ssoci
    ati
    veFuguei sdisorderinwhichoneormor eepisodesofamnesi aoccur
    wit
    hsudden,unexpected,purposefultr
    avelawayf rom home.Af uguest at
    emayl ast
    fr
    om hourstoweeksormont hs,andtheindivi
    dualmaytravelfarfr
    om homeandbegi na
    new j
    obwi t
    hanew i denti
    ty,unawareofanychangei nhisl i
    fe.Duri
    ngt hef ugue,the
    i
    ndivi
    dualmayappearnormalt othosear oundhim andattractnonotice,andmayonl y
    comet otheatt
    enti
    onofmedi calorlegalauthori
    ti
    eswhenhebecomesawar eoft he
    memor yl
    ossorbecomesconf usedabouthi si
    denti
    ty.

    Dissociati
    vefugueoccursspont aneouslyandaf f
    ect
    sappr oximatel
    y0.2percent
    ofthepopulation.Iti
    smor ecommoni ni ndivi
    dualswhohav eexperiencedtr
    auma,such
    aswar ,accidents,ornatur
    aldi
    sasters.Ot her,mor ecommon,lif
    est r
    essorsmayal so
    tr
    iggerafuguest ate,
    suchasmar i
    talproblems, f
    inanci
    aldi
    ff
    icul
    ti
    es,orlegali
    ssues.

    Diagnosti
    cCri
    ter
    iaf
    orDissoci
    ati
    veFugue
    A.Thepr edomi
    nantdi
    stur
    banceissudden,unexpect
    edt
    rav
    elawayf
    rom homeor
    one'
    scust
    omar
    ypl
    aceofwor
    k,wi
    thi
    nabi
    l
    ityt
    orecal
    lone'
    spast
    .
    B.Conf
    usi
    onaboutper
    sonali
    dent
    it
    yorassumpt
    ionofanew i
    dent
    it
    y(par
    ti
    alor
    compl ete)
    .
    C.Thedi sturbancedoesnotoccurexcl usivel
    yduri
    ngt hecourseofDissoci
    ati
    ve
    Identi
    tyDisorderandi snotduetot hedirectphysi
    ologi
    calef
    fect
    sofasubstance
    (e.g.
    ,a dr ug ofabuse,a medi cation)ora gener almedicalcondi
    ti
    on (e.
    g.,
    tempor all
    obeepi l
    epsy).
    D. Thesympt omscausecl ini
    cal
    lysi gnif
    icantdist
    ressori mpai
    rmentin soci
    al,
    occupat i
    onal,orotheri
    mpor t
    antareasoff uncti
    oni
    ng.

    Sympt
    omsofDi
    ssoci
    ati
    veFugue
    Oft
    enani ndiv
    iduali
    nafuguestatehasnosy mpt
    omsorisonl
    ymildl
    yconf
    used
    dur
    ing the epi
    sode.Sy mptoms such as depr
    essi
    on,di
    scomf
    ort
    ,gri
    ef,shame,and
    sui
    cidali
    deati
    onoftenappearwhenthefugueends.

    Di
    ssociati
    vefuguemaybesuspectedwhenani ndi
    vi
    dualseemsconfusedabout
    hi
    sidenti
    tyori spuzzl
    edabouthispast,butof
    tencannotbediagnosedunti
    laft
    erthe
    i
    ndiv
    idualret
    urnst ohispre-
    fuguei
    dentit
    yandseekshelpduet odistr
    esscausedby
    fi
    ndi
    nghimselfincompletel
    yunfami
    l
    iarcir
    cumstances

    150
    c)Di
    ssoci
    ati
    veI
    dent
    it
    yDi
    sor
    der
    A personwi t
    hDI D developst woormor edi
    sti
    nctpersonal
    i
    t i
    es,eachwi t
    ha
    uniquesetofmemor i
    es,behaviors,thoughts,andemoti
    ons.Atanygi ventime,oneof
    thesubper sonal
    i
    ties(al
    ter
    s)takescent erstageanddominatestheperson'
    sf uncti
    oning.
    Usuallyonespeci fi
    cpersonali
    ty,referr
    edt oast hehost
    ,appearsmor eoftent hant he
    others.

    Dissoci
    ati
    v eI denti
    tyDi sorder ,previ
    ouslycal l
    edmul ti
    pleper
    sonalit
    ydi sorder,i
    sa
    di
    ssoci ati
    vedisorderi nvolvi
    ngadi st urbanceofi denti
    tyinwhi cht
    woormor esepar ate
    anddi sti
    nctpersonal i
    tystatescont rolt heindivi
    dual'sbehavioratdiff
    erentt i
    mes.The
    di
    fferentidenti
    ti
    es, referr
    edt oasal t ers,mayexhi bi
    tdiff
    erencesinmanyar eas, incl
    uding
    speech,manner i
    sms,bel i
    efs,andgenderor ientati
    on.Phy si
    calcharact
    erist
    ics,suchas
    accent,handpr eference,andev eney ecol or,maychangedependi ngont heper sonal
    ity
    .
    Therei s usual
    ly memor yl oss f orev entst hatoccur red whil
    e one oft he other
    personalit
    ieswasi ncont roloft hebody .

    Indiv
    idual
    swi tht hisdisordermayhav easf ewast woal ter
    s,orasmanyas100.
    Ofteneachal t
    erplay saspeci ficroleinthei ndivi
    dual'
    sli
    fe,
    takingcontrolwhenincer tai
    n
    sit
    uations.Someal t ersmaybeawar eoft heothersand ev en hav etheabi l
    ityto
    communi catewitht hem, butthisisnotal way sthecase.The"host "or"corepersonali
    ty"
    veryof t
    eni scompl et el
    yunawar eoft hepr esenceoft healters,andi tisnotunt i
    lthe
    i
    ndividualseekspr of essionalhelpf oroneoft heothersymptoms, suchasdepr essionor
    amnesi a,thatthetruecondi t
    ionisdi scovered.

    Di
    agnost
    icCr
    it
    eri
    aforDi
    ssoci
    ati
    veI
    dent
    it
    yDi
    sor
    der
    A.Thepr esenceoft woormor edist
    inctidenti
    tiesorper sonali
    tystates(eachwi th
    i
    t sownr elat
    ivelyendur i
    ngpat t
    ernofper ceiving,relatingt o,andthinkingabout
    theenv ir
    onmentandsel f
    ).
    B.Atleastt wooft hesei denti
    ti
    esorper sonalit
    yst atesr ecurrent
    lytakecont r
    olof
    theper son'sbehav ior.
    C.Inabil
    it
    yt or ecalli mpor tantpersonalinformat i
    ont hati st ooextensivetobe
    explai
    nedbyor dinar yforgetf
    ulness.
    D.Thedi sturbancei snotduet othedirectphysiological effectsofasubst ance(e.g.
    ,
    blackoutsorchaot i
    cbehav i
    orduringAl coholI ntoxication)oragener almedi cal
    condition(e.g.
    , compl expar t
    ialsei
    zures).Note:I nchi l
    dr en,t
    hesy mptomsar enot
    attr
    ibutabletoi magi naryplaymatesorot herfant asypl ay .

    Sympt
    omsofDi
    ssoci
    ati
    veI
    dent
    it
    yDi
    sor
    der
     Alcohol ordr ugabuse
     Amnesi a, blackoutsort i
    mel oss
     Audi t
    oryhal luci
    nations
     Compul sions,phobias,orothersy mpt omsofanxi
    ety
     Depr essionorpr onouncedmoodswi ngs
     Eatingdi sorders
     Fl
    ashbacks, ni
    ghtmar esorintrusiv
    ememor i
    es
     Fuguest atesor" outofbodyexper i
    ences"
     Headaches, oft
    ensev ere
     Pani cattacksorsy mptomsofPTSD
     Suicidal t
    hought sorself-mutil
    ation

    d)Deper
    sonal
    izat
    ionDi
    sor
    der
    Thosesuf fer
    ingwi ththi
    sdi sorderhav eadi st
    ortedperceptionofthemselves,
    thei
    rbodies,andt heirlives.Theper sonmayf eelasifheisanaut omatonorisina
    dream.Of tent hesympt omsar etr ansi
    entandoccurwi t
    hanxi ety
    ,panic,orphobic
    symptoms.Howev er,sy mptomscanbechr onicandper si
    storr ecurformanyy ears.
    People suffer
    ing wit
    h deper sonal
    ization often have gr
    eatdi f
    fi
    cultydescri
    bing t
    heir
    symptomsandmayf earorbel i
    evet hesympt omsmeant heyaregoi ngcrazy.The
    pati
    entoftenfeelsunrealandmayexper i
    encet heworl
    dasunr ealanddreamli
    ke.

    Deper
    sonal
    i
    zat
    ion i
    s est
    imat
    ed t
    o be t
    he t
    hir
    d mostcommon psy
    chi
    atr
    ic

    151
    sympt om,andf r
    equentl
    yoccursduringli
    fe-t
    hreateni
    ngexper iences,suchasacci
    dents
    andassaul t
    s.Iti salso notuncommonf orpeopl et o experi
    encemi l
    depi
    sodesof
    depersonal
    izat
    ionwhenf acedwithast ressfulsit
    uationsuchasgi vi
    ngaspeechor
    takinganimpor t
    antexam.Whi lesomepeopl ereportt heseexperiencesasupset
    ti
    ng,
    othershavesaidtheyf i
    ndthem hel
    pfulandcal ming.Itisawayf ormanypeopletoset
    asidethei
    rcurr
    entanxieti
    esandmor eeff
    ectivelydealwiththetaskathand.

    Frequentorsev ereepi sodesofdeper sonalizati


    onmaymaket heindivi
    dualfeel
    asthought heyar egoi ngcr azyorl i
    vingi nadr eam wor l
    d.Theepi sodesmayi nt
    erfer
    e
    wit
    honeormor ear easoft heper son'
    sl if
    e,andmaymakei tdif
    fi
    culttobepr oducti
    veat
    al
    l.Indiv
    idualsof tenf i
    ndi text remelydi f
    fi
    cultt odescr ibetheirsympt oms,andmay
    bel
    ievethesy mpt omsmeant heyar epsy chotic.Realitytesti
    ngisnoti mpairedduri
    nga
    depersonali
    zationepi sode,butt hef eart hatt heyar e"goingcr azy"maymakesome
    peoplereluctantt odi scusst heirsy mpt omswi tht heirdoctorandmayi ncreaseanxiety
    whichinturncant riggermor eepi sodesofdeper sonali
    zati
    on.
    Whenepi sodesofdeper sonalizati
    onar ef r
    equentandsev ere,adi agnosisof
    Depersonalizati
    onDi sordermaybegi ven.

    Di
    agnost
    icCr
    it
    eri
    aforDeper
    sonal
    izat
    ionDi
    sor
    der
    A.Persistentorrecur rentexper i
    encesoff eeli
    ngdet achedf rom,andasi foneisan
    outsideobser verof ,one'sment alprocessesorbody( e.g.,f
    eeli
    ngl ikeoneisina
    dream) .
    B.Duringt hedeper sonalizationexper i
    ence, reali
    tytestingremai nsintact.
    C.Thedeper sonalization causescl inical
    lysi gnif
    icantdi stressori mpai r
    menti n
    social,occupational,orot heri mpor tantar easoff uncti
    oni ng.
    D.Thedeper sonalizati
    onexper iencedoesnotoccurexcl usivelyduri
    ngt hecourse
    ofanot herment aldisorder ,suchasSchi zophreni a,PanicDi sorder,AcuteStress
    Disorder ,oranot herDi ssoci ative Disor der
    ,and i s notdue t ot he di
    rect
    physiologicaleffectsofasubst ance( e.g.,adrugofabuse,amedi cati
    on)ora
    gener almedical condition( e.g.
    , tempor allobeepi l
    epsy ).

    Sympt
    omsofDeper
    sonal
    izat
    ionDi
    sor
    der
    :
    1.Lossorchangeoffeel
    ingi
    nbodypar t
    s:
    Afeeli
    ngofnumbnessi noneormor ebodypar ts.Lossofsensat
    ion,as
    thoughthebodypartdoesnotbel ongorhasbecomedet achedfrom t
    herestof
    thebody.Theremightbelit
    tl
    er esponsetopai
    norot hersensati
    ons,adefense
    thatwouldbeheal
    thyandusef ulduri
    nganaccidentorli
    fe-
    threat
    eni
    ngsit
    uation,
    butunhealt
    hyandharmfuldur
    ingev er
    ydayl
    if
    e.

    2.Dist
    ort
    edper cepti
    onsofy ourbody:
    Asenset hatpartsofthebodyar echanginginsi
    zeorshape,
    orthaty
    our
    bodyisshr i
    nking.Af eel
    ingthatcertai
    nbodypar tsdonotseem tobelongor
    appearfakeorplasti
    c.Theremi ghtbeasensethatspeci
    fi
    cbodypart
    shavebeen
    tr
    ansplantedfr
    om otherareasorev enfr
    om otherpeopl
    e.

    3.I
    nvisi
    bil
    it
    y:
    Youmayf eelinvi
    sibl
    eortransparent
    ,andthatother
    sarenotabl
    etosee
    you.Youmayf eelasthoughy oublendinwiththeenvi
    ronment
    ,oraremovi
    ngat
    adiff
    erentspeedthanthosearoundy ou.

    4.Notrecognizi
    ngyourselfi
    nt hemirr
    ororinphotographs:
    Beingunabletor ecogni
    zey our
    selforfeeli
    ngunf ami
    li
    arwiththeperson
    l
    ookingbackaty ouwheny oulookint
    oami rror.Feel
    ingthatyourref
    lecti
    on
    bel
    ongst osomeoneel se,ortoyouatadiffer
    entaget hanyouarenow.

    5.Detachmentfrom youremot ions:


    Alackofemot ionalresponseoraninabi
    li
    tytof eelcert
    ainemot i
    onsisnot
    uncommon.Youmayf eelcutofffr
    om youremotionsorunabl et oaccessthem
    attheappropriat
    etimes.Ther emaybeasenset haty ourfeel
    ingsaredull
    edor
    fl
    at,orthattheyarest oredawaysomewher edeepi nsideofy ou.Manypeopl e
    thesedaysfeeltheneedt opusht hei
    remotionsasidewhenatwor k,
    justasthey

    152
    feeli
    tnecessaryt
    oleavet
    heir"
    wor kself
    "attheoffi
    cebef
    oregoi
    nghomei nthe
    eveni
    ng.Ify ouaresuf
    fer
    ingfrom depersonal
    izat
    ionyoumightfeelthatyour
    emotionsarenolongerwi
    thi
    nr each,anddonotr etur
    nevenwheny ouwantor
    needthem to.

    6.Feel
    ingsofunreali
    tyorofbeingarobot :
    Asenset haty ouarefuncti
    oni ngautomat i
    call
    yoronaut o-pil
    ot,ort hat
    somethingorsomeoneel seiscont rolli
    ngy ourthought
    s,feel
    ings,oract ions.
    Manypeopl eexperi
    enceaf eel
    i
    ngofbei ngunreal
    ,orli
    keanactorinamov ie.You
    mayhav ethethoughtthatyouarejust" goi
    ngt hr
    oughthemot i
    ons"oflif
    e,ort hat
    ther
    eisnoemot i
    onalconnecti
    ontoy ouractionsandnot houghtbehindany thing
    youdo.

    7.Floati
    ngorout -
    of-
    bodyexperiences:
    Youmayf eelast houghy ouarehoveri
    ngoveryourbodyorout si
    deof
    yourself
    .Youmayhav etheexper i
    enceofwatchi
    ngyoursel
    ffrom adistance,or
    ofst anding on t
    he sideli
    nes commenting on oreven cri
    ti
    cizi
    ng yourown
    performance.

    8.Talki
    ngtoy ourself
    :
    Hav i
    ngaconv ersat
    ionwi thyourselfoutloud,ast houghyouar espeaking
    toasepar ateper son.Possi bl
    yy ouwi l
    lev enanswery oursel
    foutl oudaswel l
    ,
    taki
    ngont her oleoftwosepar ateindi
    v i
    duals.
    Everyonehasi nternaldialogueswhenmaki ngadeci sion,prepar
    inga
    speech,orpr acti
    cing f ororr ehearsing a future conv er
    sati
    on,butdur i
    ng a
    depersonali
    zationepi sodet hesedi aloguesar eof t
    enoutl oudandt akeplace
    muchmor efrequent l
    y

    4.MoodDi sor
    der
    Mooddi sorder
    s arechar
    act
    eri
    zedpr
    imari
    l
    ybyadi st
    urbancei
    nmood.(Remember
    ,
    however
    ,t hatallpsy
    chol
    ogi
    caldi
    sor
    der
    saf f
    ectone'smood,oraf
    fect
    .)Two mood
    disorders(fr
    om fouri
    ntheDSM- I
    V)aredescri
    bedbelowinmoredetai
    l.
    Inmaj ordepr
    essivedi
    sorder,aperson,f
    ornoapparentr
    eason,experi
    encesatl
    east
    twoormor eweeksofdepr essedmoods,f eel
    ingsofworthl
    essness,anddimini
    shed
    i
    nt erestorpl
    easureinmostacti
    vit
    ies.

    Tobecl
    assi f
    iedas:
     A maj ordepr essivedisor
    der,theepi
    sodemustbeaccompani edbycl i
    nicall
    y
    signif
    icantdistr
    essandi mpai
    rmentinsoci
    al,
    occupat
    ional
    ,orot
    herareasofdai l
    y
    l
    iving.
     I nabi polardisorder,
    apersonalter
    nat
    esbetweenthehopel
    essnessandlethargy
    ofdepr essi
    onandt heover
    excit
    edst eofmani
    at a.

    Mani aismanifest
    edbyhy peract
    ivi
    tyandwi l
    dexcitement.Aper
    sonsuff
    eri
    ngfrom
    thi
    sdisordermaylosecont r
    olandactveryinappropr
    iat
    elyandsomet
    imesdestr
    uct
    ivel
    y.
    (Subcategori
    esofbipolardi
    sorder
    sareclassif
    ieddependingonther
    ati
    osofmanicand
    depressiveepi
    sodes.)

    Thecausesofmooddi sorder shavebeent hesubj ectofmuchr esearch.Itisknownt hat


    geneticf act
    orsar einvolved.( I
    fonei denticalt winisdi agnosedashav ingamaj ormood
    disorder,thechancesar eonei ntwot hattheot hert winwi l
    lalsosuf fersuchadi sorder.)
    Biochemi calfactorsalsopl ayar ole.Nor epi nephrine,aneur otransmitter,ispr esentin
    excessiveamount sdur i
    ngmani aandatl owl evelsdur i
    ngdepr ession.Ser otonin,another
    neurotransmitter,isatl ow l evelsdur i
    ngdepr ession.Dr ugst hatr egulatet hel evelof
    theseneur o-t
    ransmi tt
    ers(tricycli
    cant i
    depr essant s;monoami neoxi dase, MAO, inhibit
    ors;
    and sel ecti
    ve serotonin-reuptake inhibitor s,SSRI s)ar e used f ort reatmentoft he
    depressions.Resear chhasal soshownt hatcogni ti
    vef actors,suchassel f-
    def eati
    ng
    reacti
    onst oev ents,contributet ot hedev elopmentofdepr ession.Ani ndivi
    dualwho
    acceptssol eblamef oral loflif
    e'shappeni ngsi smor elikelytodev elopdepr ession.

    153
    Chi
    l
    dhood-
    OnsetBi
    pol
    arDi
    sor
    der
    Itisest i
    matedthatone- t
    hirdofal lthechi
    ldr
    eni nt heUnit
    edStateswhohav e
    beendiagnosedwithattenti
    on-defici
    tdisorderwit
    hhy peracti
    vit
    yareactual
    lysuf
    fer
    ing
    fr
    om earl
    y-onsetbi
    polardisor
    der.Unt ilr
    ecentl
    y,bi
    polardisorderwasnotv i
    ewedasan
    i
    ll
    nessthatcouldoccuramongchi ldren.

    Manypsy chiatr
    istsar er el uctantt ogi v
    eadi agnosisofbi polardisordert oa
    youngchi ldformanyr easons.Di stinguishingbetweennor malandabnor malbehav iorin
    chil
    dr en is dif
    ficultas al lchi ldren suf ferf r
    om some degr ee ofi mpulsiveness,
    hyper acti
    vi
    ty,andal ow t olerancef orf rustr
    ati
    on.Al so,thesy mpt omsofear l
    y-onset
    bipolarcanov erlapormi mi ct hesy mpt omsofADHD,opposi tionaldef i
    antdi sorder
    (ODD) ,conductdi sor
    der( CD) ,
    and/ oranxietydisorders,cl
    oudingthepi ctureevenf urther.
    Bipolardisorderinchildrenusual l
    ypr esent squitediff
    erentl
    yf r
    om t hewayi tpresent sin
    adults.Childrennor mall
    yhav eamor echr oniccourseofi l
    lnessandt endtocy cl
    ev ery
    rapidly.Somemayhav ef requentspi kesofhi ghsandl owswi thina24hourper iod.
    Bipolarchildr
    ent endtobeopposi tionalandi nfl
    exibl
    e,theyar eoftenext r
    emel yirr
    itable,
    andmostexper ienceragest hatcanl astforhour satat i
    me.

    CommonSympt
    omsofCOBPD
    Accor
    dingtoDemetr
    iandJani
    cePapolos,authorsof"TheBipol
    arChi
    ld"
    ,thesy
    mptoms
    obser
    vedinchi
    ldr
    enwithear
    ly-
    onsetbi
    polardisordermostcommonlyincl
    udetheones
    l
    ist
    edbelow:

     Separ ati
    onanxi ety
     Ragesandexpl osi
    vet empert antr
    umsl ast
    ingupt osev er
    alhour
    s
     Mar kedi rri
    tabili
    ty
     Opposi ti
    onal behavior
     Rapi dcy cli
    ng( f
    requentmoodswi ngsoccur r
    ingwithinanhour,aday
    ,orsev
    eral
    day s)
     Distract i
    bi l
    ityandhy per act
    ivi
    ty
     Impul sivi
    ty
     Rest lessness/ fi
    dgetiness
     Sil
    liness, giddiness,goof i
    ness
     Raci ngt hought s
     Aggr ession
     Grandi osity
     Car bohy dr atecr av
    ings
     Risk- takingbehav i
    ors
     Depr essedmoodorl ethargy
     Lowsel f-
    est eem
     Difficultyget tingupi nthemor ni
    ng
     Soci al Anxi ety
     Ov ersensi t
    ivit
    yt oemot ionalorenvir
    onment altr
    iggers
     Bedwet t
    ing( especiallyboy s)
     Nightt errors
     Rapi dorpr essur edspeech
     Fasci nat i
    onwi thgoreormor bidtopics
     Hy per sexual it
    y

    Opposi
    ti
    onalDef
    iantDi
    sor
    der
    Allchi
    l
    drenareoppositi
    onalfrom ti
    met oti
    me,par ti
    cular
    lywhent heyaretir
    ed,
    hungry,orupset.Theymaythrowtantrums,disobey,and/orarguewithparents,
    teachers,
    andotheradul t
    s.Opposi
    ti
    onalbehav i
    orisoftenanor malpartofdev el
    opmentfortwot o
    thr
    ee y earoldsand earl
    yadol escents,and isgener all
    yev en expect
    ed.When t his
    behaviorbecomes so f r
    equentand consi stentthati tstands outas abnor malor
    excessivewhencompar edwithotherchildr
    enoft hesameageanddev el
    opment all
    evel,
    orwheni tbeginstoaff
    ectthechil
    d'ssocial
    ,academicandf ami l
    yli
    fe,t
    hereisreasonfor
    concern.

    154
    Opposi
    ti
    onaldef iantdisorderisaper si
    stentpatter
    n( l
    asti
    ngf oratleastsix
    months)ofnegativi
    stic,host i
    l
    e,disobedient
    ,anddef iantbehaviorinachildort een
    wit
    houtseri
    ousviol
    ationoft hebasicrightsofothers.Thisdisor
    derismorecommoni n
    boysthaningir
    lsbefor epuberty,butequalinbothsexesaf terpuber
    ty.Bet
    ween2and
    16percentofchi l
    drendi splaythispattern.Somechi l
    drenwithODD maygoont o
    devel
    opcall
    edconductdi sorder.

    Sympt
    omsofODD:
    I
    ndivi
    dual
    swi thoppositi
    onaldefi
    antdi sorderarguerepeatedl
    ywithadults,l
    ose
    thei
    rt emper,andf eelgreatangerandr esentment .Theyoftenignoreadul
    tr ulesand
    requests,del
    iber
    atelyannoyotherpeople,andbl ameot her
    sf ort
    heirownmistakesand
    problems.Thispatternofuncooperati
    ve,defiant,andhostil
    ebehav i
    orisper
    sistentand
    seri
    ousenought ointerf
    erewithdaytodayf unctioning.

    I
    ndividualswithODDar eof t
    enverydiffi
    culttobear ound.Thedest
    ruct
    iveness
    anddisagreeablenesstheyexhibi
    tarepurposeful,andtheyoftengetenj
    oymentoutof
    seei
    ngsomeoneel sehurtorangr
    y.Theyarer arel
    yt r
    ulysor
    ryforcausi
    ngother
    shar m,
    andgenerall
    ybel i
    evenothingi
    sthei
    rfaul
    t.

    Althoughchi l
    drenwit
    hODDshowsy mpt omsv er
    ysimil
    artochil
    drenwi thADHD
    orconductdi sorder,t
    hereexi
    stsomedef i
    nit
    edi f
    fer
    ences.Chil
    drenwit
    hADHDbehav e
    i
    mpul si
    velyandwi t
    houtthi
    nki
    ng,whi lechil
    drenwi t
    hODDbehav ever
    ypur poseful
    l
    yand
    oft
    enwi thawel lthoughtoutplan.Childr
    enwi thODDgener al
    l
    ydonotdi splaythemean
    orcruelbehaviorthati
    ssoof t
    enpr esentinconductdisor
    der.

    Di
    agnost
    icCr
    it
    eri
    aforODD:
    A.Apatter
    nofnegat i
    visti
    c,host il
    e,anddef i
    antbehaviorlasti
    ngatleast6mont
    hs,
    duri
    ngwhichf our( ormor e)ofthefol
    lowingarepresent :
    1.oft
    enlosest emper
    2.oft
    enargueswi t
    hadul t
    s
    3.oft
    enactiv
    elydef iesorr efusestocompl ywit
    hadults'requestsorr
    ules
    4.oft
    endeli
    ber atel
    yannoy speopl e
    5.oft
    enblamesot hersf orhisorhermi stakesormisbehav ior
    6.i
    sof t
    entouchyoreasi lyannoy edbyot hers
    7.i
    sof t
    enangr yandr esent f
    ul
    8.i
    sof t
    enspitefulorv i
    ndi cti
    v e

    Not
    e:Consi
    deracri
    ter
    ionmetonl yi
    fthebehav
    ioroccur
    smor efr
    equent
    lyt
    hani
    s
    t
    ypi
    cal
    l
    yobserv
    edi
    nindi
    v i
    dual
    sofcompar
    abl
    eageanddevel
    opment
    all
    evel
    .

    B.Thedi sturbanceinbehaviorcausescl i
    nical
    lysigni
    ficantimpai
    rmentinsocial
    ,
    academi c,oroccupat
    ional
    functi
    oning.
    C.Thebehav i
    orsdonotoccurexclusivelyduringthecour seofaPsychot
    icorMood
    Disorder.
    D.Crit
    eriaarenotmetf orConductDisor der,and,i
    ftheindivi
    duali
    sage18y ear
    sor
    older,cr
    iteri
    aarenotmetforAntisocialPersonali
    tyDisorder.

    Per
    vasi
    veDevel
    opment
    alDi
    sor
    der
    s

    Pervasi
    veDev elopment
    alDisordersarecomplexneurodevelopmentaldi sor
    der
    s
    characteri
    zed by delay sinthe dev el
    opmentofsoci al
    izati
    on,communi cati
    on and
    cogniti
    on.Sy mptomsmaybenot i
    cedasear l
    yasinfancy
    ,althought hetypicalageof
    onsetisbef ore3y earsofage.Pervasiv
    emeanst hatthedisorder
    si nthi
    scat egoryar
    e
    conditi
    onst hatsi
    gnifi
    cantl
    yaff
    ectseveralar
    easofli
    feanddisruptdail
    yfuncti
    oning.

    Sympt
    omsofPDD:
    I
    ti sveryimpor
    tantt
    o under
    stand t
    hatallchil
    dren can exhi
    bitunusualbehav
    ior
    s
    occasi
    onal
    l
    ywi t
    houthav
    ing a PDD.Consi
    stencyoft heunusualbehav i
    orsiswhat

    155
    di
    ffer
    ent
    iat
    eschi
    ldr
    enwit
    hPDDfrom nor
    mal
    toddl
    ers.
    Symptomsmayincl
    udeprobl
    emswit
    h:

     Learning, usi ngandunderstandi


    nglanguageandot hercommuni
    cat
    ionski
    ll
    s
     Dif
    ficultyr elati
    ngtopeople,emotions,object
    s,andevent
    s
     Unusual playwi thtoysandotherobjects
     Problemsr egulat
    ingsensoryinf
    ormationsuchassoundandtemperat
    ure
     Dif
    ficultywi t
    hchangesi nrouti
    neorfami l
    iarsur
    roundi
    ngs
     Repet i
    tivebodymov ementsandbehav iorpatt
    erns
     Self
    -injuriousbehav i
    or
    TypesofPDD:

    1.Aut
    ist
    icDi
    sor
    der
    :

    Auti
    sm isachildhooddisorderchar
    acteri
    zedbysi
    gni
    fi
    canti
    mpairmentinsocial
    i
    nteract
    ions,gr
    ossandsi gnif
    icanti
    mpairmenti
    ncommunicati
    on,andrest
    ri
    cted
    patt
    ernsofbehavior
    ,int
    erest,
    andactiv
    iti
    es.

    2.Asper
    ger
    'sDi
    sor
    der
    :

    Asper
    ger'
    sischaract
    eri
    zedbyimpair
    mentsi
    nsoci
    alr
    elat
    ionshi
    psandr est
    ri
    cted
    orunusualbehav
    iorsoract
    ivi
    ti
    es,buti
    tdoesnotpr
    esentthelanguagedelays
    obser
    vedinpeopl
    ewi t
    hauti
    sm.

    3.Ret
    t'
    sDi
    sor
    der
    :

    Thisdisorderi
    salmostexcl
    usi
    vel
    yobser v
    edi
    nf emal
    es,andisaprogr
    essi
    ve
    neurol
    ogicaldi
    sor
    derthatischar
    acter
    izedbyconst
    anthandwri
    ngi
    ng,ment
    al
    ret
    ardati
    on,andi
    mpair
    edmotorski
    ll
    s.

    4.Chi
    l
    dhoodDi
    sint
    egr
    ati
    veDi
    sor
    der
    :

    CDDinvol
    vessever
    eregressi
    oninlanguage,adapt
    ivebehav
    ior
    ,andmot
    orski
    l
    ls
    af
    teraper
    iodofnormaldevel
    opmentforapproxi
    mately2-
    4year
    s.

    CausesofPDD:

    The exactcause ofPDD isnotknown.Manybel iev


    e a combinati
    on ofbi ol
    ogi
    cal
    condit
    ionsmaycontri
    butetothedevel
    opmentoforcauset hesedisorders,incl
    udi
    ng
    brai
    ntrauma,vi
    ral
    inf
    ect
    ions,
    andgeneti
    cs.Per
    vasi
    veDevel
    opmentalDisorders

    Pervasive Dev el
    opment al Di
    sorders are complex neurodev el
    opmental di sor
    der
    s
    character
    ized by delaysi nthe dev el
    opmentofsoci al
    izati
    on,communi cati
    on and
    cogniti
    on.Sy mptomsmaybenot icedasear l
    yasinfancy
    ,althought hetypicalageof
    onsetisbef ore3y earsofage.Pervasiv
    emeanst hatthedisordersinthi
    scat egoryar
    e
    conditi
    onst hatsi
    gnifi
    cantl
    yaff
    ectseveralar
    easofli
    feanddisruptdail
    yfuncti
    oning.

    At
    tent
    ionDef
    ici
    t/Hyper
    act
    ivi
    tyDi
    sor
    der(
    ADHD)

    Theexi
    stenceandi ncidenceofAt tent
    ionDef i
    cit
    / Hyperacti
    v i
    tyDi sorderhasbeen
    debatedaloti
    nrecenty ears.Parents, t
    eachers,doctors, t
    herapists,andev enthemedia
    aregetti
    nginv
    olvedandv oici
    ngt heirconcer nsaboutt hedi agnosisandt r
    eatmentof
    ADHD.Somear guet hathy peracti
    v i
    tyandat t
    entionpr obl
    emsar eanor malpartof
    chi
    ldhood-andt heyar e.Thedi fferencei sthati nt hosesuf f
    eringf r
    om ADHD t he
    symptomsaremor esever eandper sistentandcauseadi sruptioninf unctioni
    ng.

    Withoutearl
    yi dent
    if
    icat
    ion and propertreat
    mentADHD can hav e seri
    ous
    consequences incl
    udi
    ng lowered self
    -est
    eem,f ail
    urein school
    ,depressi
    on,and
    substance abuse.Itwas once believ
    ed t he sy
    mpt oms ofADHD disappear
    ed in

    156
    adol
    escence,butwenow know t
    hisi
    snotalway
    str
    ue.Thesy
    mptomsoftencont
    inue
    i
    ntoadult
    hoodwheret
    heyconti
    nuetocausepr
    obl
    emsatwor
    kandi
    nrel
    ati
    onshi
    ps.

    Whati
    sADHD?

    ADHDi snotanewdi sor


    der ,
    butit
    snamehaschangedmanyt imesovertheyears
    tor efl
    ectt heincr
    easingunder standi
    ngwehav eofi tssy mptomsandcauses.Thi s
    disorderis character
    ized bypoorat t
    ention ski
    ll
    s,impulsivit
    y,and,in some cases,
    hyperactivi
    ty.ADHD i s a neur obiol
    ogicaldisabil
    it
    y beli
    ev ed to be caused by a
    neurotransmitt
    erpr oblem int he centr
    alner vous system.Resear ch evi
    dence also
    i
    ndicatest hatADHDi soneoft hemosti nheri
    tabl
    edisordersofchildhood,af
    fect
    ingup
    to3-5per centofschool-agedchil
    drenintheUnitedStatesalone.

    Att
    hist
    imet
    herear
    et hreecategori
    esofADHD:
    1.ADDwi t
    hhyperact i
    vi
    ty
    2.ADDwi t
    houtHy peracti
    vi
    ty
    3.ADDResidualTy pe,orUndi
    ffer
    ent
    iat
    edADD

    Di
    agnost
    icCr
    it
    eri
    aforADHD:
    A.Eit
    her(1)or( 2):
    1. I
    nattention:si x(ormor e)oft hef ol lowingsy mpt omsofi nattenti
    onhav eper sist
    ed
    foratl east6mont hst oadegr eet hati smal adapti
    v eandi nconsist entwi th
    development all
    ev el
    :
    a)of tenf ail
    st ogiv ecl oseat tent i
    ont odet ai
    lsormakescar el
    essmi stakesi n
    school wor k,wor k, orot heract i
    vities
    b)of tenhasdi ff
    icul t
    ysust aini ngat tentionint asksorpl ayact i
    viti
    es
    c) of tendoesnotseem t ol istenwhenspokent odi r
    ectly
    d)of tendoesnotf ollow t hr oughoni nstruct i
    onsandf ai
    l
    st ofinishschool
    wor k,chor es,ordut iesi nt hewor kplace( notduet oopposi ti
    onalbehav ior
    orfai luretounder st andi nst ructions)
    e) of tenhasdi ff
    icul t
    yor gani zingt asksandact i
    vit
    ies
    f) of ten av oids,di slikes,ori sr eluctantt o engage i nt askst hatr equire
    sust ainedment al effor t(suchasschool wor korhomewor k)
    g)of tenl osest hingsnecessar yf ort asksoract ivit
    ies( e.g.,toys,school
    assignment s,penci l
    s, books, ortool s)
    h)i sof teneasi lydist ract edbyext raneousst imul i
    i)i sof tenf orgetful indai l
    yact ivit
    ies

    2. hyperacti
    vi
    ty-
    impul
    sivi
    ty:si
    x(ormore)oft
    hef
    oll
    owingsy
    mptomsofhy
    peracti
    vi
    ty
    -i
    mpul si
    vi
    tyhavepersi
    stedforatl
    east6monthstoadegreet
    hati
    smaladapti
    ve
    andinconsist
    entwit
    hdev el
    opmentall
    evel
    :

    Hy
    peracti
    vity
    a)of tenfidgetswi thhandsorf eetorsquir
    msi nseat
    b)of tenleav esseati nclassroom orinothersituat
    ionsinwhichremaini
    ng
    seatedi sexpect ed
    c) often runs aboutorcl i
    mbs excessi v
    elyi n si
    tuat
    ions i
    n which i
    tis
    i
    nappr opr i
    ate( inadolescentsoradul ts,maybel i
    mi t
    edtosubjecti
    ve
    feeli
    ngsofr estl
    essness)
    d)of tenhasdi f fi
    cul
    typlayi
    ngorengagi nginlei
    sureacti
    vit
    iesqui
    etl
    y
    e) i
    sof ten" ont hego"orof t
    enactsasi f"
    dr i
    venbyamot or"
    f) oftentalksexcessi vel
    y

    I
    mpulsivit
    y
    a)oftenblurtsoutanswersbeforequesti
    onshavebeencomplet
    ed
    b)oftenhasdi ff
    icul
    tyawait
    ingtur
    n
    c) of
    teninterr
    uptsorint
    rudesonot her
    s(e.g.
    ,but
    tsi
    ntoconv
    ersat
    ionsorgames)

    B.Somehy per
    acti
    ve-
    impul
    siv
    eori natt
    ent
    ivesy mpt
    omsthatcausedimpair
    ment
    werepr
    esentbefor
    eage7y ear
    s.
    C.Someimpair
    mentf r
    om t
    hesy mptomsispresenti
    ntwoormoreset
    ti
    ngs(e.
    g.,
    at

    157
    school [
    orwor k]andathome) .
    D.Ther e mustbe cl earev idence ofcl i
    nical
    lysignif
    icantimpair
    mentin social
    ,
    academi c,oroccupationalfuncti
    oning.
    E.The sy mptoms do notoccurexcl usi
    velydur i
    ng the cour
    se ofa Pervasive
    Development alDisorder,Schizophreni
    a,orotherPsy choti
    cDisor
    derandarenot
    betteraccount edforbyanot herment aldisor
    der( e.g.
    ,MoodDi sor
    der
    ,Anxiety
    Disorder,Dissoci
    ati
    veDi sorders,oraPersonali
    tyDisorder)
    .

    Codebasedont
    ype:
    314.01Attention-Defi
    cit/
    Hy peracti
    vityDisorder,CombinedTy pe:ifbothCr i
    ter
    iaA1and
    A2ar emetf orthepast6mont hs
    314.00 Attention-Defi
    cit
    /Hy peracti
    vity Disorder,Predominantl
    yI nattenti
    ve Type:if
    Cri
    teri
    onA1i smetbutCr i
    terionA2i snotmetf ort
    hepast6mont hs
    314.01 Attention-
    Def i
    cit
    /Hy peract
    ivity Di
    sorder,Predominantly Hyperacti
    ve-
    Impulsi
    ve
    Type:ifCr
    iteri
    onA2i smetbutCr it
    erionA1i snotmetf ort
    hepast6mont hs

    Codi
    ngnot
    e:Forindi
    vidual
    s(especi
    all
    yadolescentsandadult
    s)whocur r
    ent
    lyhave
    sympt
    omsthatnol
    ongermeetful
    lcri
    ter
    ia,
    "InPar
    tial
    Remissi
    on"shoul
    dbespeci
    fi
    ed.

    Bi
    pol
    arandDepr
    essi
    onSy
    mpt
    oms

    Bi
    pol
    ar(
    mani
    c-depr
    essi
    on)anddepr
    essi
    onar
    ecl
    assi
    fi
    edasmooddi
    sor
    der
    s.

    Depressi
    onisalow,
    sadstatei
    nwhi
    chli
    feseemsdar
    kandi t
    schall
    engesoverwhel
    mi ng.
    Functi
    oni
    ng canbesev er
    elyi
    mpari
    ed,and t
    hedepressed i
    ndi
    vidualof
    tenlosesal l
    i
    nteresti
    nacti
    vi
    ti
    es,
    becomeshopel
    ess,
    andmayevencontemplat
    eorcommi tsui
    cide.

    Mania,theopposi
    teofdepr
    ession,isast
    ateofbreat
    hlesseuphor
    ia,oratl
    eastfr
    enzi
    ed
    energy
    ,inwhichpeoplemayhav eanexaggerat
    edbelieft
    hatthewor l
    disthei
    rsfort
    he
    taki
    ng.Asmaniaprogr
    esses,psychosi
    sbecomesmor eandmor el
    ikel
    y.

    Peoplewit
    hbipolardisor
    derr
    ideanemoti
    onalr
    oll
    ercoaster
    ,swi
    ngi
    ngfrom t
    hehei
    ght
    s
    ofelati
    ontothedept hsofdespai
    rwit
    houtexter
    nalcause.Thefi
    rstepi
    sodemaybe
    ei
    thermanicordepressiv
    e.

    Manicepi sodes,typi
    cal
    lylast i
    ngf r
    om af ew weekst osev eralmont hs,aregener al
    ly
    short
    erindur at
    ionandendmor eabruptl
    yt hanmaj ordepressiveepi sodes.Insome
    cases,episodesofdepressionandel ationmayal ter
    nat eregularl
    y,withmont hsory ear
    s
    ofsympt om- f
    reenormalfunct i
    oningbet weent hedisorderedmoodst ates.Sometimes
    casesinvolveper i
    odsof"r
    api dcy cl
    i
    ng"i nwhichthei ndiv
    idualexper i
    encest woormor e
    ful
    lcycl
    esofmani aanddepr essionwithinayearwi t
    houtanyi nterveni
    ngnor mal per
    iods.
    Rapidcyclingisrel
    ati
    vel
    yuncommon, butoccursmor eof t
    enamongwoment hanmen.

    Ty
    pesofDepr
    essi
    veDi
    sor
    der
    s:

    1. MajorDepressi
    on:
    Majordepressi
    oni sahor r
    ibl
    ei l
    lnessthatcancauseaper sontosufferemot ional
    l
    y,
    physi
    call
    y,and social
    ly
    .Depr ession i
    s notthe same t
    hing as gr
    ief
    ,t hough some
    symptomsar ecommont oboth.I nordert
    orecei
    vethi
    sdiagnosi
    s,theindivi
    dualmust
    exper
    ience symptoms f or a per i
    od of at l
    east t
    wo weeks.Sui cidalt hought
    s,
    hospi
    tali
    zat
    ion,
    andev enpsychosisarenotuncommon.

    2. Dy st
    hymi cDisorder:
    Dy sthymicdi sor derisachr oni
    cdisor
    derchar act
    eri
    zedbyatl easttwoyear
    sofmi l
    d-
    moder at
    edepr ession.Indiv
    idual
    ssuffer
    ingf r
    om dysthymicdisor
    deroft
    enrepor tt
    hat
    t
    heydon' trememberev ernotfeel
    ingdepressed.Mosti ndi
    vi
    dualswiththi
    sdi sor
    der
    funct i
    on relati
    v elywell,butusuallyhav e some dif
    ficul
    tymanaging t
    he tasks and
    responsibili
    tiesofdai l
    ylif
    e.

    Ty
    pesofBi
    pol
    arDi
    sor
    der
    s:

    158
    1.Bi polarType1:
    Tor ecei
    veadi agnosisofBi
    pol
    ar1,aper sonmustexper i
    enceatleastonemanicor
    mixed epi sode.Al mostalway
    st hese episodes alt
    ernate wit
    h peri
    ods ofmaj or
    depressi
    on.Of t
    en,thoughnotalways,theepi sodesmaybef ol
    lowedbyperiodsof
    normalmood.Psy choti
    csymptomsar enotuncommon,andhospi t
    ali
    zat
    ioni
    sof t
    en
    necessary.Rapidcycli
    ngmayormaynotbepr esent.

    2.Bi
    pol
    arType2:
    Bipolar2 i
    nvol
    ves al
    ter
    nat
    ing peri
    ods ofmaj ordepressi
    on and hypomani
    a.The
    depressi
    onisof
    tenmorechr
    onicinnatur
    e,andsomestudiesshowahigheri
    nci
    denceof
    suici
    deinthosesuf
    fer
    ingfr
    om thisform ofbi
    polar
    .Rapidcycl
    ingmayormaynotbe
    present.

    3.Cycl ot
    hymi a:
    Cycl
    othymiainv olv
    esal ternati
    ngepisodesofmi l
    ddepressionandhy pomania.Many
    peoplesuff
    eri
    ngf r
    om t hisf or
    m ofbipolardisordernoti
    cev eryfew peri
    odsofnormal
    moodi nbetweenepi sodes.Rapi dcycl
    ingi sthenorm,withmanypeopl ecy cl
    i
    ngweekly
    ,
    dai
    ly,orevenhour ly.Someexper t
    sbelievet hosewithcy cl
    othymiahaveahi ghri
    skof
    goi
    ngont odev eloponeoft hemoresev ereformsofbipolardisor
    der.

    4.Rapi
    dCycl
    ing:
    Rapid cy cl
    ers ar ethose t hathav e experienced fourormor e epi
    sodes ofmani a,
    hypomani a,depr essi
    onormi xedstatesi nat welvemont hperi
    od.Somepeopl emay
    evency clesev eralti
    mesaday ,soquicklythattheirupsanddownsar eoftenconfused
    withmi xedst ates.Womenandchi l
    drenar emuchmor elikel
    ytober api
    dcy cl
    ersthan
    men.
    Thisisof tenav erydiff
    icultform ofbi pol
    artot r
    eat,asrapidcy
    cli
    ngpat i
    entsareless
    l
    ikel
    yt orespondt otradi
    tionalmedications.Approximatel
    y15percentofbipol
    arpersons
    arerapidcy cl
    ers.

    A.Schi
    zophr
    eni
    a

    Schi
    zophr
    eni
    aisachronic,
    sever
    e, anddisabli
    ngbraindisease.Appr
    oxi
    matel
    y1per
    cent
    ofthepopul
    ati
    ondevelopsschizophreniaduri
    ngt hei
    rlifet
    ime– morethan2mill
    ion
    Ameri
    canssuf
    ferf
    rom t
    heill
    nessinagi venyear.

    Peopl ewi t
    hschi zophreniaof t
    ensuffert err
    ify
    ingsymptomssuchashear i
    ngi nternal
    voicesnothear dbyot her s,orbeli
    evi
    ngt hatotherpeoplearereadingt heirmi nds,
    control l
    i
    ngtheirthought s,orplot
    ti
    ngt ohar mt hem.Thesesymptomsmayl eavethem
    fearfulandwi thdrawn.Theirspeechandbehav iorcanbesodisor
    ganizedthatt heymay
    bei ncompr ehensibleorf right
    eni
    ngt oot hers.Avail
    abl
    etreat
    mentscanr elievemany
    sympt oms,butmostpeopl ewit
    hschi zophreniaconti
    nuetosuffersomesy mptoms
    throughoutt heirli
    ves;ithasbeenest imat edthatnomor ethanonei nfi
    vei ndivi
    duals
    recov erscompl et
    ely.

    Schi
    zophr
    eni
    cdi
    sor
    der
    sar
    esev
    eredi
    sor
    der
    schar
    act
    eri
    zedbydi
    stor
    tedt
    hought
    sand
    percepti
    ons,atypicalcommuni cation,inappropri
    ateemot i
    on,abnormalmot orbehavior
    ,
    andsoci alwi
    thdrawal.Theslow- developingschizophreni
    aknownaschr onicorpr ocess
    schizophreni
    a has a poorpr ognosi sf orrecovery
    ;when a f ormerl
    y wel l
    -adj
    usted
    i
    ndiv i
    dualdevel
    opsschi zophr
    enia( knownasr eacti
    veoracuteschizophreni
    a),therei
    sa
    betterchanceofrecov er
    y.Thef i
    vemaj ortypesofschizophr
    eni
    aar easfoll
    ows.

    Par
    anoi
    d schi
    zophr
    eni
    a i
    s char
    act
    eri
    zed by pr
    omi
    nent del
    usi
    ons or audi
    tor
    y
    hal
    lucinati
    onsi
    nthecontextofrel
    ati
    vepreser
    vat
    ionofusualcogni
    ti
    vef
    unct
    ioni
    ngand
    aff
    ect.(Exampl
    esar
    edelusionsofper
    secuti
    on,gr
    andeur
    ,orboth)

     Paranoidschi
    zophrenicstrustnooneandareconstantl
    yonguar
    dbecausethey
    areconv i
    ncedthatothersareplott
    ingagai
    nstthem.Theymayseekr et
    ali
    ati
    on
    againsti
    maginedenemi es.
     Catatoni
    cschizophreniaisev i
    dencedbyex cessi
    ve,somet
    imesvi
    olentmotor

    159
    activ i
    tyorbyamut e,unr esponsi ve,st uporouscondi ti
    oni nwhi chaper sonmay
    retaint hesamepost uref orhour s.Aper sonmayr emai ninonest atef oral ong
    periodoral ter natebet weenv iolentact i
    vi
    tyandr emainingst iffandi mmobi le,
    totallyunresponsi vet ot heout sidewor l
    d.
     Disor ganized( hebephr enic)schi zophr eni
    ai schar act eri
    zedbybi zarr
    esy mpt oms,
    i
    ncl udingext remedel usions, hallucinat i
    ons,andi nappr opri
    atepat t
    ernsofspeech,
    mood,andmov ement .Inappr opr iatemoodsmaybemani fest edbyl aughi ngor
    cryingatunsui tablet i
    mes.
     Undi fferenti
    at ed schi zophr eniai s mani fested by del usions,hal lucinat i
    ons,
    i
    ncoher entspeech,anddi sorgani zedbehav i
    or .Thecongl omer at eofsy mpt oms
    fi
    tt hecr it
    eri
    aofmor et hanonet ypeorofnocl eart ypeofschi zophr enia.
     Resi dualschi zophr eniai s a condi ti
    on in whi ch atl eastone epi sode of
    schi zophreniahasoccur r
    edal thought herear ecur r
    entlynopr omi nentpsy chot i
    c
    sympt oms( forexampl e, delusionsorhal l
    ucinations) .Certainnegat i
    vesy mpt oms,
    thosei ndi
    catingal ack,suchasf l
    ataf f
    ect,pov er t
    yofspeech,andav oli
    tion( lack
    ofusi ngt hewi ll
    ,orchoosi ng),cont inue,howev er,asdot woormor eat tenuat ed
    posi ti
    vesy mpt oms( eccent ricbehav ior,oddbel iefs,andsof orth) .Thecour seof
    thi
    st ypeofschi zophr eniamaybet i
    mel i
    mi tedandmayr epr esentat ransitional
    phasebet weenr emi ssionandaf ul l
    -blownpsy chot icepisode.

    Thecausesofschi zophreniaar ecompl exandst il


    lnotcompl etel
    yunder stood.I tis
    knownt hatgenet i
    cf actorsar einvolvedbecauseschi zophreniaisf oundr epeat edlyin
    certainf ami li
    es;adul tchil
    dr enofschi zophr enicpar entsar emor el ikel
    yt o dev elop
    schizophr eni athanar echi l
    drenofnonschi zophrenicpar ents.Howev er,inheri
    tancedoes
    notcompl etelyexpl aintheet iol
    ogy( cause)ofschi zophr eni
    a( only46%ofi denticaltwins
    ofschi zophr enict wi nsdev elopt hedisorder),andcur rently
    ,abi ochemi calfactori salso
    deemed i mpor tant.Aut opsies on some schi zophr enics hav ef ound an excess of
    dopami ner eceptor s,anddr ugst hatbl ockt heact i
    v ityoft hatneur otransmi tt
    erhel p
    controlschi zophr eni c sympt oms.I n addi ti
    on,mi suse ofamphet ami nes,whi ch are
    similart o dopami ne and whi ch mayi ncrease t he l evelofdopami ne int he br ain,
    produces many sy mpt oms si mil
    art ot hose found i n schizophreni a.Int he brain
    structuresofschi zophr eni
    cs,ot herv ari
    at i
    onsf rom t henor m al sooccur ,suchasa
    smal lert halamus and enl arged v entri
    cles.The compl ete eti
    ologyofschi zophr enia
    remai nsaf ocusofr esear chinpsy chopathol ogy.

    Sympt
    omsofSchi
    zophr
    eni
    a

    Thef i
    rstsignsofschi zophreniaof tenappearasconf usi
    ng,orev enshocki ng,
    changesi nbehav i
    or.Copingwi tht hesy mpt omsofschi zophreniacanbeespeci al
    ly
    diff
    icultf orfamilymember swhor ememberhow i nv ol
    v edorv ivaci
    ousaper sonwas
    beforet heybecamei ll
    .Thesuddenonsetofsev er
    epsy choti
    csy mpt omsisr efer
    redto
    asan“ acute”phaseofschi zophrenia.“Psychosis,”acommoncondi t
    ioninschizophreni
    a,
    i
    sast ateofment alimpairmentmar kedbyhal lucinati
    ons,whi char edisturbancesof
    sensor yper cept
    ion,and/ordelusions,whi char efalsey etstronglyheldpersonalbelief
    s
    thatr esultf r
    om ani nabil
    itytosepar ater ealf r
    om unr ealexper i
    ences.Lessobv i
    ous
    sympt oms,such associ alisolati
    on orwi thdrawal ,orunusualspeech,t hinki
    ng,or
    behav ior,maypr ecede,beseenal ongwi th,orfoll
    owt hepsychot i
    csy mptoms.

    Somepeoplehav eonlyonesuchpsy choti


    cepisode;othershav emanyepisodes
    duri
    ngalif
    eti
    me,butleadr el
    ati
    velynormalli
    vesduri
    ngtheinterim per
    iods.However,t
    he
    i
    ndivi
    dualwit
    h“chronic”schizophreni
    a,oracontinuousorr ecurri
    ngpat t
    ernofill
    ness,
    oft
    en does notfull
    yr ecovernor malfuncti
    oni
    ng and t y
    pi cal
    l
    yr equires l
    ong-
    term
    tr
    eatment,
    gener
    all
    yincludingmedi cat
    ion,
    tocontr
    olthesympt oms.

    A.Characteri
    sticsympt oms:Two( ormor e)ofthefoll
    owi
    ng,eachpresentfora
    si
    gnifi
    cantpor ti
    on oft i
    medur ing a 1-mont
    h per
    iod (
    orlessifsuccessful
    l
    y
    tr
    eated):
    1.del usions
    2.hal luci
    nations
    3.di sorgani
    zedspeech( e.
    g.,f
    requentder
    ail
    mentori
    ncoher
    ence)
    4.gr osslydisorgani
    zedorcatatoni
    cbehavi
    or

    160
    5.negat
    ivesy
    mpt
    oms,
    i.
    e.,
    aff
    ect
    ivef
    lat
    teni
    ng,
    alogi
    a,orav
    oli
    ti
    on

    6.Per
    sonal
    it
    yDi
    sor
    der
    :

    Whati
    saPer
    sonal
    i
    tyDi
    sor
    der
    ?

    Accor
    ding tothe DSM- I
    V,per sonali
    ty disorders ar
    e" enduri
    ng pat
    ter
    ns of
    percei
    ving,rel
    ati
    ng to,and thi
    nking aboutt he env i
    ronmentand onesel f"t
    hat"are
    exhibi
    tedinawi derangeofimportantsocialandper sonalcontexts,
    "and"arei
    nfl
    exi
    ble
    andmal adapti
    ve,andcauseei
    thersigni
    fi
    cantimpairmentorsubj ectivedi
    str
    ess.
    "

    Personalit
    ydisordersaref
    oundin10%-13%oft hegeneralpopul at
    ion.Theyar e
    thoughtt
    oor i
    ginateinchil
    dhoodandconti
    nueintotheadulty
    earsandt obesoi ngr
    ained
    thatiti
    sdiffi
    cultt opi
    npointanonset.Mal
    adaptiv
    epersonali
    tycharacteri
    sticsdevelop
    overtimeintot hemal adapti
    vebehav
    iorpat
    ternsthatcreat
    edistr
    essf ort heaf f
    ected
    personanddrawt heat
    tenti
    onofother
    s.

    Atthistimet heDSM- I
    Vdi vi
    destheper sonali
    tydisor
    dersint
    ot hreegr oupsof
    "
    clusters.
    "Thismet hodwi l
    lprobabl
    ycont i
    nueunt i
    lther
    eisast r
    ongsci enti
    ficbasisfor
    v
    iewingt hem differ
    entl
    y.Clust
    erAi scall
    edthe" odd"or"eccent
    ri
    c"cluster,clust
    erBi s
    t
    he" dramatic,
    ""emotional
    ,
    "or"errat
    ic"cl
    uster
    ,andCi sthe"anxi
    ous"or"fearful
    "clust
    er.

    Per sonali
    tydisor
    dersar elongstanding,mal adaptiv
    e,andi nfl
    exibl
    eway sofr el
    atingto
    others,andthebehaviorsorsympt omschar acteri
    sti
    coft hem usuall
    ybegininchil
    dhood
    oradol escence.Thosewi th personal i
    tydi sordersmayf uncti
    on adequatelyand be
    regardedsi mplyaseccent ri
    c,butwhent heyar ef acedwithanext r
    emel ystressf
    ul
    situati
    on,theycanrespondonl yrigidlyandnar r
    owly .Theeleventypesofper sonali
    ty
    disordersareclassi
    fiedint hreegr oups,orcl usters,basedont heirsimil
    ari
    ti
    es.The
    disorders oft
    en emer ge duri
    ng chi ldhood,adol escence,and ear ly adul
    thood and
    cont i
    nueintoadul
    tli
    fe.

    3cl
    ust
    ersofper
    sonal
    it
    ydi
    sor
    der

    Cl
    ust
    erA—di
    sor
    der
    sofodd/
    eccent
    ri
    creact
    ions

    1. ParanoidPersonali
    t yDisorder:
    Peoplewi t
    hPar anoidPer sonalit
    yDisor
    derareexcessi
    velymistrustf
    uland
    suspici
    ousofot hers,withoutanyj usti
    fi
    cati
    on.Theytendnottoconfidei nother
    s
    andtot hi
    nkot herpeopl ewantt ohar mt hem.Peoplewi t
    hthi
    sdisordermaybe
    argumentati
    ve,maycompl ain,ormaybequi et
    ,butt heyareobvi
    ousl yhost i
    l
    e
    towardsothers.Theyof tenappeart enseandarev er
    ysensiti
    vetocr i
    tici
    sm and
    haveanexcessi veneedf orautonomy .

    A par anoi
    d per
    sonal
    it
    y di
    sor
    der is mani
    fested by a pervasi
    ve di
    str
    ust and
    suspi
    ciousnessofot
    hersandat
    endencytoi
    nter
    prettheact
    ionsofother
    sasmalevol
    ent
    orthr
    eatening.

    2. SchizoidPersonalit
    yDi sorder:
    PeoplewiththisPer sonal
    it
    yDisordershowapat ter
    nofdet achmentfrom
    socialr el
    ati
    onships and a v erylimited r
    ange ofemot ions ininter
    personal
    si
    tuations.Theyseem al oof,col
    d,andindif
    ferentt
    ootherpeople.I
    ndivi
    dual
    swi t
    h
    SchizoidPer sonal
    it
    yDi sorderseem nei t
    hert odesi
    reorenj oyclosenesswi t
    h
    others,i
    ncludingromant i
    corsexual r
    elati
    onships.

    Aschizoidpersonal
    i
    tydi
    sorderi
    scharacter
    izedbyatendencytobei ndi
    ff
    erentto
    soci
    alr
    elati
    onshi
    psandbyrestr
    ict
    edexpr
    essionofemoti
    onsinint
    erper
    sonalsett
    ings.

    3. Schi
    zot
    ypalPersonal
    it
    yDisorder:
    PeoplewithSchi
    zoty
    pal Per
    sonal
    i
    tyDi
    sor
    derar
    ety
    pical
    l
    ysoci
    all
    yisol
    ated,

    161
    l
    iket hosewi thSchi zoidPersonalit
    yDi sorder.Inaddi ti
    on,howev er,theyalso
    behav einway st hatwouldseem unusual l
    yt omanyofus,andt heyt endt obe
    suspiciousandt ohav eoddbeliefs.Theyof tenhav ei deasofr eference,which
    meanst heythinkinsigni
    fi
    cantev entsrelat
    edi rectl
    ytot hem.Theyof t
    enr epor
    t
    unusualper ceptualexperi
    ences,incl
    udingsuchi l
    lusi
    onsasf eel
    ingt hepresence
    ofanot herpersonwhent heyar ealone.Thosewi ththisdisordert endt ohave
    paranoidthought sandexpresslit
    tleemot i
    on.

    Thosewi
    thaschi
    zot
    ypalper
    sonali
    tydi
    sor
    derdispl
    ayeccentr
    icwaysoft
    hinking,
    perceivi
    ng,communi
    cati
    ng,and behav
    ing and ar
    e acutel
    y uncomfor
    tabl
    ein close
    rel
    ationshi
    ps.

    Cl
    ust
    erB—di
    sor
    der
    sofdr
    amat
    ic,
    emot
    ional
    ,orer
    rat
    icr
    eact
    ions.

    1. AntisocialPersonali
    tyDisorder :
    Peoplewi t
    ht hi
    sdi sorderhav eahi storyoffaili
    ngt ocompl ywi t
    hsoci al
    norms.Theyt endtobei r
    responsible,impul siv
    e,anddecei tful
    ,andt heyper form
    acti
    onsmostofuswoul dfindunaccept ablesuchasst eali
    ngf rom f ri
    endsand
    family.Complet el
    ylackinginconsci enceandempat hy,theyselfishlytakewhat
    theywantanddoast heyplease,v iolati
    ngsoci alrul
    esandexpect ationswi t
    hout
    showi nganyconcer norr emor se.Thosewi t hthispersonali
    tydisorderar eusually
    superfici
    all
    ychar ming,intel
    ligent,insincere,andnor mall
    yshow apat hological
    egocent r
    ici
    tyandincapaci t
    yf orlove.

    Indi
    vidual
    swi
    thananti
    soci
    alper
    sonali
    tydi
    sor
    dermani
    festaper
    vasi
    vet
    endency
    t
    odi
    sregardandtovi
    olat
    ether
    ight
    sofother
    s.

    2. Borderl
    inePer sonalit
    yDisorder:
    Thosesuf feri
    ngf r
    om Bor derli
    nePer sonal
    it
    yDi sorderleadt umultuous
    l
    ives.Theirmoodsandr elat
    ionshipsar eunst abl
    e,andusual l
    yt heyhav eav er
    y
    poorself-i
    mage.Thesepeopl eoftenf eelempt yandar eatagr eatr i
    skofdy i
    ngby
    thei
    rown hands.Bor derl
    inesf earabandonmentand l ackcont rolovert heir
    emot i
    ons.Theyf requent
    lyengagei nsui cidaland/ orself-
    mutilativebehav i
    ors,
    cutti
    ngorbur ningorpunchi ngthemsel ves.Thosewi t
    ht hi
    sdi sor derareoften
    veryint
    ense, goingfrom angertodeepdepr essioninashor tti
    me, andareinone
    ofthehi ghestr i
    skgroupsf orsubst anceabuse.Theyal soar echar act
    eri
    zedby
    i
    mpul si
    vity,
    whi chcanbeseeni ntheirdrugabuseandsel f-
    mut il
    ation.

    Thesei ndivi
    dualstendt obeov er
    lydramat icandoftenseem al mostt obeact i
    ng.
    People wit hthispersonalit
    ydi sor derar ei ncli
    ned to expresst heiremot ionsi n an
    exaggerated f ashi
    on.They al so t end t o be v ai
    n and sel f
    -centered,and t o be
    uncomf ortabl
    e when t hey ar e noti nthe l i
    mel i
    ght.They ar e often seduct i
    vei n
    appearanceandbehav i
    or,andt heyar etypicall
    yv er
    yconcer nedaboutt heirlooks.In
    addit
    ion,theyseekr eassuranceandappr ov alconstant
    lyandmaybecomeupsetor
    angrywhenot hersdonotat t
    endt ot hem orpr aisethem.Cogni ti
    velytheytendt ov i
    ew
    si
    tuati
    onsi nverygl
    obal,black-and-whi teterms.Speechi softenv ague,lackingindetail
    ,
    andchar acter
    izedbyhy perbole.

    Aborderl
    inepersonal
    i
    tydi
    sorderi
    schar
    act
    eri
    zedbyinst
    abi
    l
    ityofi
    nter
    per
    sonal
    r
    elat
    ionshi
    ps,sel
    f-i
    mage,andemot
    ionsaswel
    lasbymarked
    i
    mpul si
    vi
    ty.

    3. NarcissisticPersonali
    tyDisorder :
    Peoplewi ththi
    sdi sordershowanexagger atedsenseofsel f
    -i
    mpor tance
    and ar e pr eoccupied wi t
    hr eceivi
    ng at tent
    ion.They l ack sensiti
    vity and
    compassi onforothersduet ot heirunreasonableself-
    absorpti
    on.Theyar enot
    comfor t
    abl eunlesssomeonei sadmi r
    ingt hem.Theyar eof t
    engr andioseand
    al
    sot endt ouseorexploitothersf ortheirowninterest
    sandshowl i
    ttl
    eempat hy
    .
    They can be ext remely env i
    ous and ar rogantwhen conf r
    onted wi t
    h other
    successf ulpeople,andar efrequent l
    ydepr essedbecauset heyof t
    enf ailt
    ol i
    ve

    162
    upt
    othei
    rownexpect
    ati
    ons.

    Mani
    festat
    ionsofanarci
    ssisti
    cper
    sonal
    i
    tydi
    sor
    deri
    ncl
    udeaper
    vasi
    vepat
    ter
    n
    ofgr
    andi
    osi
    ty,
    aneedf oradmi
    rat
    ion,andal
    ackofempat
    hy

    Cl
    ust
    erC—di
    sor
    der
    sinv
    olv
    inganxi
    etyandf
    ear
    ful
    ness

    1. Av oidantPer sonal i
    tyDisor der:
    Ast henamesuggest s,peoplewi t
    hAv oi
    dantPer sonali
    tyDisorderare
    extremel y sensi t
    ivet ot he opi ni
    ons ofot hers and t herefore avoi
    d most
    rel
    at i
    onshi ps.Thei rextremel ylow self-
    esteem,coupl edwit haf earofreject
    ion,
    causest hem t obel imitedi nthei
    rf r
    iendshipsandv erydependentont hosethey
    feelcomf ortablewi th.Car emustbet akennott oconf usei ndivi
    dual
    swhoar e
    asoci albecauset heyar eapat het
    ic,affectiv
    elyflat,andrelativel
    yuninter
    estedin
    i
    nter personalr el
    ationships (as in schi zoi
    d per sonali
    ty disorder)wi t
    ht hose
    sufferingf rom Av oidantPer sonalit
    yDi sorder,whoar easoci albecauset heyare
    anxiousandf earf
    ul ofrejecti
    on.

    Thosewithanavoidantpersonali
    tydisor
    derexhi
    bit
    ,inavar
    iet
    yofcontext
    s,a
    perv
    asivepatt
    ernofsocialinhi
    bit
    ion,feel
    ingsofinadequacy
    ,andhyper
    sensi
    ti
    vi
    tyto
    negati
    veeval
    uati
    ons.

    2. DependentPer sonali
    tyDisor
    der:
    Peopl ewiththispersonalit
    ydi sorderrelyonot herstomakeor dinary
    decisi
    onsaswel lasimpor t
    antones,whi chr esul
    tsinanunr easonabl
    efearof
    abandonment .Theseindivi
    dualssomet imesagr eewithotherpeoplewhent heir
    ownopi ni
    onsdi f
    fer,
    soasnott ober ej
    ected.Theirdesi
    retoobtainandmai ntain
    supporti
    ve and nur t
    uring r
    elati
    onships may l ead tot hei
    rot herbehav i
    oral
    charact
    erist
    ics,incl
    uding submissiveness,timidit
    y,and passivity
    .They f eel
    i
    nadequate,ar ev ery sensi
    ti
    vet o criti
    cism,and hav e a constantneed f or
    reassur
    ance.

    Thosewit
    hadependentper sonali
    tydi
    sorderallowot
    herst
    omakedeci
    sionsand
    di
    splayaneedtobet akencar
    eofthatleadstosubmi ssiv
    eand
    cl
    ingingbehav
    ioraccompaniedbyfearsofseparati
    on.

    3. Obsessi ve-Compul sivePer sonali


    tyDisorder:
    Those who hav e Obsessi ve-
    Compul si
    ve Per sonal
    it
    y Di sorder ar
    e
    characterizedbyaf ixat
    ionont hi
    ngsbei ngdone" ther
    ightway ."Alt
    houghmany
    mightenv yt heirper si
    stenceand dedi cat
    ion,thi
    spr eoccupationwi t
    hdet ai
    l
    s
    preventst hem f r
    om act uallycompl eti
    ngmuchofany thing.Peoplewi ththi
    s
    personality disorderar ev er
    y wor k-or
    ient
    ed,spending l i
    tt
    let i
    me on l ei
    sur
    e
    acti
    vit
    ies.Becauseoft heirgener alr i
    gidi
    ty,t
    hesepeopl et end to havepoor
    i
    nterpersonal relati
    onships.

    An obsessive-compul siv
    e per sonali
    tydisorderinvol
    ves,in manycont ext
    s,a
    tendencytowar dperfectioni
    sm, arigi
    dpr eoccupati
    onwi t
    horderl
    iness,
    and ment aland inter personalcont r
    olatt he expense offlexi
    bil
    ity,openness,and
    effi
    ciency.
    Adi sordertermedaper sonalit
    ydi sordernotot herwi
    sespecifi
    edi sonet hatdoesnot
    meett hecrit
    eri
    af oraspeci fi
    cper sonali
    tydisorderbutinwhi cht hecombi nati
    onof
    sympt omscausescl inicall
    ysignif
    icantdistr
    essori mpai
    rmentinfunctioni
    ng.

    Sel
    f-
    Inj
    ury

    Whati
    sSel
    f-
    Inj
    ury?

    Self
    -Inj
    uryist
    hedeli
    berateharmt otheselfwit
    houtt
    heint
    enttocommitsui
    cide.
    I
    tisalsoreferr
    edtoasself
    -abuse,sel
    f-har
    m, sel
    f-
    mutil
    ati
    on,
    andSI.
    Sel
    f-
    injur
    yisof tenmist
    akenasaf ai
    ledsuicideatt
    empt,andalt
    houghther
    earemany

    163
    self-
    injurerswhoar esui ci
    dal,researchsuppor tsthatt hemaj or i
    tyofindivi
    dualsthatself
    -
    i
    njurehav enotconsideredsui cide.Thosewhoengagei nself -
    injur
    iousbehav i
    ornor mall
    y
    dosoasameansofcopi ng.
    Itisbel ievedbymanyt hati ndi
    vidual sthatself-i
    njuredosoi nanat temptt odraw
    attenti
    ont othemselvesormakeot hersfeelsor r
    yf ort hem,butt hosewhosel f-
    inj
    ure
    oftenkeept heirproblemsasecr etev enfrom thosev erycl oset ot hem.Sel f
    -i
    njur
    ers
    oftengoy earsbeforeany onehasanyi deathatapr oblem ev enexi st
    s.
    Statist
    icst endt osuppor tthebel iev ethatthemaj orit
    yofpeopl ethatengagei nself
    -
    i
    njuriousbehav iorhaveahi storyofchi ldhoodsexual ,phy si
    cal,and/ oremot i
    onalabuse.
    Notal lindivi
    dualsthatsel f
    -i
    njurewer eabused, howev er
    ,andt her earemanyf act
    orsthat
    probabl ycontri
    butetot hedev elopmentofsel f
    -i
    njury.

    CommonMet
    hodsofSel
    f-
    Inj
    ury:
     Cutti
    ng
     Burning
     Scratchi
    ng
     Picki
    ngofscabsandheal
    i
    ngwounds
     Headbanging
     Wr i
    stbangi
    ng

    What everform ofsel f


    -injuryisused,t hepersoni susual l
    yl ef
    twithacal m andpeacef ul
    feel
    ingaf tertheact .Sincet hosefeelingsar eonlytempor ar
    y,thepersonwi l
    lpr obably
    continuetosel f-
    injureunt iltheydealwi ththeunder lyi
    ngi ssuesandf i
    ndshealthierways
    tocope.Di f
    ferentpeopl esel f
    -i
    njur
    ef ordifferentreasons,andof tenacombi nationof
    reasonsi sgiven.Sel f-
    injuryisof t
    ent r
    iggeredbyf eeli
    ngsofgui lt
    ,helpl
    essness,reject
    ion,
    self
    -hatred,anger ,
    f ail
    ureandl oneli
    ness.Of t
    en, al
    thoughnotal ways,thesefeel
    ingsst em
    from pastorpr esentev ents,suchasdomest icv i
    olence,deathofl ovedones,l ackof
    careasachi l
    d,par ental depression,alcoholi
    sm orcr i
    ticalbehavi
    or.

    CommonReasonsf
    orSel
    f-
    Inj
    ury:
     Rel
    ieffrom psy chologicalpainoranat t
    empttomov e"i
    nner
    "paintotheoutsi
    de
    whereitiseasi ertodeal wit
    h
     Rel
    easeofanxi etyortension
     Toescapechr onicfeeli
    ngsofnumbnessorempt i
    ness
     Anexpressionofangert owardstheself
     Punishmentf orreal orimaginedwr ongdoi
    ngs
     Areenactmentofabusesuf feredinthepast
     Ameansofi nduci ngdissociati
    on-orbreaki
    ngfr
    eefrom adi
    ssoci
    ati
    vestat
    e

    Sel
    f-
    inj
    uryi
    snott
    he'
    probl
    em'f
    ormanywhohar
    mthemsel
    ves.I
    tist
    hef
    eel
    i
    ngsand
    reasons behind t
    he cutt
    ing t
    hatar et he sour
    ce ofpain.Manyself-
    inj
    urersf i
    nd i
    t
    extremel
    ydi ff
    icul
    ttoexpresst hei
    rr easonsf orsel
    f-
    inj
    uryinanydet
    ail
    ,whi chiswhy
    therapycanbesov erybenefi
    cial-thoughi tcantakeyearsofhar
    dwor ktol ear
    nnew
    way sofcopingwiththei
    rprobl
    ems.

    Selfi
    njuri
    ousbehavi
    ordoesNOTcat egor
    izesapersonaspsychot
    ic,
    sui
    cidalormental
    ly
    di
    sturbed.Whilemanypeopl ewit
    hpsy chologi
    calpr
    oblemsmaysel f
    -i
    njure,andsel
    f-
    i
    njuryissomet i
    mesaccompaniedbydepr essi
    onoroccursasasy mptom ofanother
    psychiat
    ri
    cdisorder
    ,sel
    f-
    inj
    urycanandof tendoesexistal
    oneandisadi sorderi
    nits
    ownr i
    ght

    7.Del
    ir
    ium,
    Dement
    ia,
    Amnest
    icandot
    hercogni
    ti
    vedi
    sor
    der

    Cognit
    ivedisor
    dersinvol
    veaclini
    cal
    lysi
    gnifi
    cantdefi
    citi
    ncogniti
    onormemorythat
    repr
    esentsamar kedchangef r
    om aprevi
    ousl eveloffunct
    ioni
    ng.Thedi
    sor
    der
    sar e
    usual
    lyfur
    thercat
    egori
    zedbasedonthei
    rpresumedetiol
    ogy.

    164
    a)Adel iri
    um i schar act erizedbyadi stur bancei nconsci ousnessandachangei n
    cogni tiont hatdev elopov erashor ttime.Someexampl esar edel irium duet oa
    medi calcondi t
    ion, andsubst ance- i
    nduceddel iri
    um ( suchascausedbyadr ugof
    abuseorat oxin) .Dr ugst hatar elistedascausi ngt hecondi tioni ncl udealcohol,
    amphet amines,caf feine,cocai ne,hal l
    ucinogens,i nhalants,mar i
    juana,ni cot i
    ne,
    opiat es,phency clidine ( PCP) ,sedat ives,and ot herunspeci fied chemi cals.
    Subst ancewi t
    hdr awal mayal sopr oduceadel i
    ri
    um.
    b)A dement iai schar act eri
    zedbymul ti
    plecogni tivedef i
    citsthati ncl udememor y
    i
    mpai rment .Exampl esar edement iaofAl zheimer '
    st ype, v ascul ardement i
    a,
    anddement iaduet oHI Vdi sease
    c) An amnest ic disor deri s shown by mul ti
    ple cognitive def i
    cit
    st hatinclude
    memor yi mpai r
    ment ,butt hedi sorderi snotconnect edwi thst at
    esofdel eri
    um or
    dement i
    a.Amaj orpr oblem i st het ransf erofinformat i
    onf rom shor ttermt olong
    term memor y.Amnest i
    cdi sordersr esultf r
    om a phy sicalcause such asa
    traumat icev ent(forexampl e, aheadi njuryincurredinanacci dent, dur i
    ngsur gery
    ,
    orf rom anel ectricshock) ,dr ugabuse, ort heuseofmedi cati
    ons.
    d)A f our th cat egor y,cogni tive disor dernotot herwise speci fi
    ed,i s used to
    delineat eacogni ti
    v edy sfunct i
    onpr esumedt o beduet o agener almedi cal
    condi tionorsubst anceusebutt hatdoesnotmeett heot herdi agnost iccri
    teri
    a.
    8.Eat
    ingDi
    sor
    der

    Anindi
    v i
    dualsuf f
    eri
    ngwithAnor exiaNervosahasav er
    ylowbodywei ghtcausedbysel f-
    i
    mposedst arv ati
    on.Inwoment hi
    scanal soresul
    tincessat i
    onofmenst rualperiods.
    Thosewi t
    hBul i
    miaNer v
    osaengagei napat t
    ernofbi nge-
    eati
    ngepi sodesf ol
    lowedby
    i
    nappropri
    ate and har mfulcompensat orybehav i
    ors such as self
    -induced vomi ti
    ng,
    abuseofl axat i
    vesand/ordi ureti
    cs,andexcessi veexerci
    se.Bul i
    mi csareusual lyof
    normalorsl ightl
    yabov eav eragewei ght.Theunder lyi
    ngl i
    nkbetweenanor ex i
    aand
    bul
    imiaist hatbot hcondit
    ionsar echar acter
    izedbyanov er
    ridi
    ngpr eoccupationwi th
    bodysizeandshape.

    Aswi t
    halmostallmentaldi
    sorder
    s,thecult
    uralcontextplaysasigni
    fi
    cantr
    olei nthese
    two disor
    ders.Indi
    vi
    dualsl i
    ving i
    ni ndustri
    ali
    zed societi
    es are bombarded wi th
    messagesfrom t
    hemedi apromotingtheideathat,part
    icular
    lyf
    orwomen,bei ngthinis
    notonlyessenti
    altophy si
    calbeautybuti salsot hekeyt oromanticandf inancial
    successaswell
    .Thishelpstoexplai
    nwhy90per centofthosewitheati
    ngdisordersare
    female.

    Eat
    ingdi
    sor
    der
    sar
    echar
    act
    eri
    zedbysev
    eredi
    stur
    bancesi
    neat
    ingbehav
    ior
    .

    1. Anorexianervosaischar
    acter
    izedbyar efusaltomaintainaminimallynormal
    weight,i
    ntensefearofgaini
    ngwei ght
    ,anddi st
    ort
    ionint hepercepti
    onoft he
    shapeorsi zeofone'sbody.Post menarchealfemaleswi tht
    hiscondi t
    ionare
    oft
    en amenor rhei
    c( hav
    ing mi ssed three consecuti
    v e menstrual cycl
    es)
    .
    Muscularweaknessandosteoporosis(
    bonel oss)mayalsooccur.

    Forthosewi t
    hAnor exiaNer vosa,t hegoalofmai ntaini
    ngat hinbodybecomest he
    verycenterpieceofexi stence,av al uet hattakespr ecedenceov erev erythi
    ng el se,
    i
    ncludingheal t
    h,survival,sex,andev enbei ngbeautif
    ul.Itiscrit
    icaltor ecognizet he
    symptomsofanor exiaear lybecauset erri
    bleoutcomesar emuchmor eeasi l
    yprev ented
    withprompti nter
    venti
    on.Unf ort
    unat
    el y,awarenessofthepr oblem byfriendsandf ami l
    y
    i
    sonl yhalfthebat t
    le.Manypeopl ewi t
    ht hi
    sconditi
    onar eeitherunableorunwi lli
    ngt o
    acknowledget hattheirbodi esarev anishing,despi
    tetheal ar
    m expr essedbyev er yone
    aroundthem andt heunmi stakabl
    edr opont hescale.

    A character
    ist
    icofthisdi
    sorderi
    sdenialandanunfort
    unat
    einabi
    li
    tytoseet he
    dangersbeforeitistoolat
    etorespondtothem.Ofthepeopl
    ewithAnor
    exiaNerv
    osa
    whoar efollowedoverasuf f
    ici
    entper
    iodoftime,upto20% di
    easar esultoft
    heir
    di
    sorder.

    The DSM-
    IV speci
    fi
    es t
    wo subt
    ypes ofAnor
    exi
    a Ner
    vosa -Restr
    ict
    ing and Bi
    nge-
    Eat
    ing/
    Pur
    ging.Thosewit
    htheRestr
    ict
    ingt
    ypedi
    ettoli
    mitthei
    rcal
    ori
    ci nt
    ake;inthe

    165
    Bi
    nge-
    Eati
    ng/Purgi
    ngtype,theyrepl
    yonpur ging.Unli
    keindivi
    dualswi t
    hBuli
    mia,the
    Bi
    nge-
    eati
    ng-pur
    ginganorexi
    cbingesonr el
    ativ
    elysmallamount soff oodandpurges
    moreconsi
    stent
    ly,i
    nsomecaseseacht i
    mesheeat s.Approxi
    mat elyhal
    fthei
    ndi
    vi
    duals
    whomeetthecri
    teri
    aforAnorexi
    aengageinbingeeati
    ngandpur ging.

    2. Bulimia nervosa is mani


    fested by binge eati
    ng and use ofi nappropri
    ate
    techniques,suchaspurgi
    ngoruseofl axati
    ves,t
    opreventweightgain.Toquali
    fy
    for this diagnosi
    s,an indivi
    dualmust engage i n binge eating and t he
    i
    nappr opri
    atecompensatoryacts(pur
    ging,useoflaxati
    ves)
    ,onav erage,t
    wicea
    weekf orthreemonths

    Indiv
    idual swit
    hBul i
    miaNervosacannothel ptheireat inganymor ethananal coholi
    ccan
    controlhi sdri
    nking.Bingeeatingepi sodesal ternat ewithf r
    anticef fort
    stogetr i
    dof
    calori
    es-pay ing forthebingeing byv omi t
    ing,usi ng l
    axativ
    es,f asti
    ng orconst ant
    exercising.Thedi l
    emmaar i
    sesf rom t hecont radictionthatt hebul i
    mi ccannotcont rol
    hercal ori
    cintake,butwantstocont rolherwei ght.Ifbodyshapewasnotani ssue,the
    unrestrainedbinge-eat
    ingwouldleadt oobesi t
    y .Butbul i
    mi cscarever ymuchaboutt heir
    bodywei ghtandshapeandar eengagedi nadesper ateattemptt oneut r
    ali
    zetheeffect s
    ofthebi ngesinordertoavoidgainingwei ght.Thisl eadst oit
    sownv ici
    ouscy cl
    e.

    Anepi sodeofbi nge-eat


    ingisli
    keaf eedingf r
    enzy.Theindi
    vi
    dualconsumeshuge
    amount soffood,oftentothepointofact ualphysi
    calpai
    n.Thentheymayv omitand
    star
    tallov eragai
    n.Whent hebingeisov er,thebuli
    micusual
    lyfeel
    sdi sgustedand
    embarrassed,andthisisoneoft hereasonsbingeingisoft
    endonewhi l
    eal oneandis
    keptsecretfr
    om fr
    iendsandf ami
    l
    y .

    Sel
    f-i
    nducedv omiti
    ngisbyf art
    hemostcommonl yusedcompensat orybehavior
    .Some
    peopl
    emaypr ef
    ertheuseofenemasandl axat
    ivesandaf ew adddi uret
    ics.These
    compensatorybehav i
    orsservebot
    ht oall
    evi
    atethefearofgai
    ningweightandt orest
    ore
    adesperatel
    yneededf eeli
    ngofcontrol
    .Somet i
    mest heactofpurgingbecomesanend
    untoit
    sel
    fandr el
    ievesanxiet
    yoractual
    lybecomespl easur
    abl
    einitsownr i
    ght.

    Ther earetwosubt ypesofBul i


    miaNer v osa,dependingont hecompensat orymet hod
    usedt ocounteracttheimpactofthebi nges.ThePur gi
    ngtypei nvol
    vestheuseofsel f
    -
    i
    nducedv omi
    tingort heabuseoflaxat
    ives, di
    ureticsorenemas.TheNonpur gingtypeis
    fort hosewhousef asti
    ngandexcessi veexer cisetocounteractt heweight-
    gai
    ning
    effectsofabinge.Peopl ewit
    hthePur gingt ypeofBul i
    mia,appr oxi
    matel
    y2/ 3ofthose
    witht he di
    sorder,are more aptto show si gnsofdepr ession and are even more
    preoccupiedwiththeirbodyi
    maget hant hosewhodonotpur ge

    9.Ot
    herDi
    sor
    der

    DSM-IV diagnost i
    c categori
    es not descr ibed abovei nclude “subst
    ance-
    rel
    ated
    disorder
    s”;“disordersusuallyfir
    stdi agnosedi ninfancy
    ,childhood,oradolescence”
    ;
    “sexualandgenderi denti
    tydisor
    ders”;“sleep
    di
    sorders”
    ;“ i
    mpul se-
    control disorders not elsewhere cl assi
    fi
    ed”;“adj
    ustment
    disorder
    s”;and“ othercondi
    ti
    onst hatmaybeaf ocusofclini
    calattent
    ion.
    ”

    Di
    sabl
    eorAbl
    e
    Def
    ini
    ngDi
    sabi
    li
    ty

    Iwasgoi ngthroughal eadingmagazine'


    sreaderwoessecti
    on.Thereweremanyissues
    concerningreader’
    sproblems.Amot herwaswor ri
    edabouthert woyear
    ,whocouldnot
    speak.Anothermanwasbot heredf
    orhischil
    dwhohadwat erphobi
    a.Thesearet
    woof
    thecases,butmaj ori
    tyofpeoplearefaci
    ngsomeort heothertypeoftr
    ouble.I
    nbr
    oader
    sense,thecasesar eofdisabil
    i
    ty.

    Thecondi t
    ioninwhi cht
    hepersonbecomesi ncapabl
    eofperfor
    mi ngnormaldailyli
    fe
    funct
    ionsist ermedas‘ di
    sabi
    l
    ity
    ’.Thi
    sincludesment alorphysi
    calimpair
    mentt hat
    substant
    ial
    lyrestr
    ict
    soneormor emajorl
    if
    eact i
    vi
    ti
    es,suchas,mov i
    ngaround,seei
    ng,

    166
    l
    ear
    ning,
    wor
    king,
    per
    for
    mingmanual
    tasks,
    speaki
    ng,
    andhear
    ing.

    TheUni t
    edNat i
    onshaspr ocl
    aimedDecember3asI nter
    nati
    onalDayofPeopl
    ewi t
    h
    Disabi
    l
    ity.Si
    nce1992,iti
    scelebratedever
    yy ear
    .Itwasestabl
    ishedt
    oencour
    agethe
    di
    sablethroughspreadi
    ngawar eness:ondisabi
    li
    tyi
    ssuesandt heabi
    li
    ti
    esofpeopl
    e
    withadisabi
    li
    ty.

    Disabil
    ityi
    sf oundwidespreadinallagegroups.Buti fdisabi
    l
    ityisseeni nchil
    drenand
    youth,itaff
    ectshiseducationandlearni
    ng.Thear eaoflearni
    ngdi sabili
    tyisquit
    elarge.
    Thel earni
    ngdisabil
    i
    tyisintri
    nsi
    ctoindivi
    dual.I
    tissupposedt ospr ingoutduet osome
    nervous sy st
    em dy sf
    unction,which may ev en continue throughoutl i
    fe.Learning
    disabil
    it
    ymaybeconcomi tantwit
    hotherdisabil
    i
    tiesrel
    atedtoey es,ears,orevenmi nd.

    Raisi
    ngachi l
    dwi t
    hlearni
    ngdi
    sabil
    it
    yisnotaneasytask.I
    tisaneye-
    openingexper
    ience,
    aseach‘ di
    sabled’chi
    ldhasspeci
    altal
    ent
    .Toidenti
    fyandmaket hem exceli
    nwhat ev
    er
    tal
    enttheypossess, i
    snotasi
    mplechore.

    Chil
    drenandy outhwi t
    hl earningdi
    sabi
    li
    ti
    eshavetobehandledwi t
    hextracare.I tis
    foundthatwhensuchi ndividual
    sareencour
    agedtopursuethei
    rgoalinlife,t
    heydo
    succeed. Such indivi
    dual s shoul
    d be encouraged to develop sel
    f-knowledge,
    underst
    andingthei
    rlegalrightsandduti
    esagai
    nstanydi
    scri
    minat
    ion,andf
    ightforright
    cause,i
    finj
    usti
    cehappenst othem.

    Di
    sabi
    li
    ti
    es

    Notev er
    yhumani snormal!Apersonwhoi sunabl etoperfor
    m oneormor eacti
    vi
    ti
    es,
    requir
    edinevery
    dayli
    fei sst
    atedasdisable.Thereiswi decontrov
    ersyindeter
    mini
    ng
    the exactnatur
    e ofdi sabi
    l
    iti
    es.Severalindi
    v i
    dual
    s and gr oups are af
    fi
    anced i
    n
    presenti
    ngauniver
    sal
    l
    yaccepteddefi
    nit
    ionof‘disabi
    li
    ty’
    .

    Accor dingtomedi calconsider


    ations,t
    hecondi t
    ionsthatmakei tdiff
    icul
    torunf easi
    ble
    tor ead,speak,orwr i
    te,mentalinfi
    rmity,orepi l
    epsy,comesunderdi sabi
    li
    ti
    es.The
    personi simpair
    edt ocar r
    yournor malsoci alobligat
    ionsduet ohi sdi sabi
    li
    ti
    es.As
    approachedbysoci alcontemplati
    on,disabil
    it
    yisnotonmedi calgrounds,butthesocial
    barriersthatkeepani ndivi
    dual
    from equal accesstoallpract
    icesandpol i
    cies.

    Di
    sabi
    l
    iti
    escanbeofnumer
    oust
    ypes:

     Phy si
    caldi sabi l
    i
    ty ,r
    esul t
    ingi nnoorr estr
    ict
    edmobi l
    i
    tyduet oarthri
    ti
    s,paraly
    sis
    orPar kinson’sdi sease.
     Visuali mpai r
    ment ,whi chencompassesbl i
    ndness,cataract
    ,colorblindness,or
    l
    owv ision.
     Otherphy sicaldi sabili
    ti
    esi ncludehear inginjur
    y,cancer,tubercul
    osis,diabetes,
    spinal cordinjury, oranybodyor ganfail
    ure.
     Ment aldi sabili
    tyi ncludesl earni
    ngdi sorder,phobias(agoraphobia,acrophobia
    etc.),
    anxi ety,orev endepr ession.
     Otherdi sabili
    tiescompr iseal coholi
    sm, drugs,orsenil
    it
    y.

    What ev ermaybet hecaseofdi sabi


    li
    ti
    es,iti
    sf r
    equentlyseenthatsuchpersonsar e
    discri
    mi nated from the rest:be i tin an educationalinst
    it
    uti
    on,wor k place,or
    entertainmentzones.TheDi sabil
    i
    t yDi
    scri
    minati
    onAct( DDA)provi
    descert
    ainguidelines
    toprot ecttherightsandenforcesdut i
    estaggedalongbywor kpl
    acemanagement .This
    Actappl i
    esforempl oyer
    sandt he‘ di
    sabl
    ed’employees,todojobonsamepl atf or
    m by
    adjustment sandneedf ulsupport.Itl
    aysemphasisonwor ki
    ngoutfl
    exibl
    eway s;hence
    allarebenef i
    tedfrom i
    t.

    Cer
    tai
    nway
    sinwhi
    chi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    scangi
    vet
    hei
    rshar
    eofhel
    par
    e:

     Suppor
    ti
    ngpr
    ogr
    amsf
    orr
    ehabi
    l
    itat
    ionofdi
    sabl
    edper
    sonnel
    ’
    s.

    167
     Hel
    pinthedev el
    opmentandeasyav ail
    abil
    i
    tyofdisabl
    eassi
    stantdevi
    ces,such
    aswheelchai
    rs,hear
    ingaids,
    etc,
    totheneedful
    .
     St
    rengt
    heningjoi
    ntventur
    esforbenef
    itofdi
    sabledpeopl
    e’
    sorgani
    zati
    on.

    Di
    ff
    erentTypesofDi
    sabi
    li
    ty
    Di
    sabil
    it
    yty
    pes:

    1. Eyesightdisabil
    it
    y
    Youar econsi deredtohav eaneyesightdisabi
    lit
    yify oudon’thavenormalvi
    sionevenif
    youwearey eglassesorcontactl
    enses.Visualimpairmentmaybecausedbysev eraleye
    diseaseslikeager el
    atedmusculardegener at
    ion,cataract
    s,andmor e.Ther
    earev i
    sion
    i
    mpai rment st hatcan bet reat
    ed medically,butt herealso thatcan’tbecorrected
    medi cal
    lyafteraccidentsori
    nheri
    tedoculardisorders.

    2. HearingDisabil
    it
    y
    Thi
    sdisabili
    tyi
    ncludespeoplewhoarecompl etel
    ydeaf.Or,havepart
    ial
    hear
    inginoneor
    bot
    hear s.Howev er
    ,tocorrectt
    hisprobl
    em, youarerequi
    redt heuseofaheari
    ngaid.I
    f
    you mayhav e noti
    ced,there ar
    e people who have hearing di
    sabi
    li
    tyyetcan sti
    l
    l
    communi catethr
    oughsignlanguage.

    3. Mobi li
    tydisabil
    it
    y
    Mobi lit
    yr ef
    erstodi ff
    erentpeoplewithvary
    ingt ypesofphysicaldisabil
    i
    ties.Itisof t
    en
    related toi ndiv
    idualwi th upperli
    mb mobi li
    ty,manualdext eri
    ty,and co- ordinati
    on
    probl em.Mobi l
    it
    yi mpairmentisoneofthedisabil
    ityt
    ypesthataffectmov ementr anging
    from gr ossmot orskill
    slikewalki
    ng,tofi
    nemot ormov ementi nvolvi
    ngmani pulationof
    object s byhand.Some use assi sti
    ve equipmentsuch as wheel chai
    rorel ectroni
    c
    stroll
    erst obeablet omov earound.

    4.Cogni
    ti
    vedi
    sabi
    li
    ty
    Cogni t
    ionisanot herwor df orthi
    nking.Itincludesmanydi ff
    erentfunct
    ionsincl
    udingour
    abil
    iti
    est opayat tent
    ion,learnandr etai
    ni nformat i
    on,sol
    veproblems,andusel anguage
    toexpr esst houghts.Cogni t
    ivedisabil
    i
    tyr eferstopeopl ewithdy sl
    exia,abrain-
    based
    typeofl earni
    ngdi sabil
    i
    tyt hatspecifi
    callyimpai r
    sy ourabi
    li
    tytoread,andotherlearni
    ng
    diff
    icul
    ties.Learningpr oblems,ont heot herhand,di f
    fer
    sf rom someonewhohasa
    seri
    ousment alimpairment .

    a)Lear
    ningDi
    sabi
    l
    ity

    Lear ningdi sabi


    lityi sdefinedassev er
    aldi sordersaffectingt heacademi cs
    andnor malf uncti
    oningofl i
    feofaper sonincludingpr oblem tor ead,writ
    e,l
    ear n,
    l
    ist
    enandspeak,or ganizeinf or
    mat i
    on.I
    t’
    sduet ot heCent ralNer vousSystem
    Dysfunct i
    on.
    Itcanoccurconcur rentl
    ywi thsomeoft hecommondi sablement ssuchas
    ment alretardation,sensor yimpairmentsorenv i
    ronment ali
    nfluencesbuti ti
    snot
    aconsequenceofanyoft hese.
    Theremaybesev er alotherdef ini
    ti
    onsofl earningdisabili
    ty ;i
    ti sduet ot he
    i
    nterdiscipli
    nar yapproachi nthest udyofl
    ear ningdi sabi
    l
    ity.

    Howev
    er,
    ther
    eissomecommongr
    oundwher
    efewt
    hingsar
    eunani
    mousl
    yagr
    eedupon:

     Badi
    mpactonacademi
    cs.

    Aper sonpossessi nglear


    ningdisabil
    i
    t yconf
    ront
    sprobl
    emsi nachiev
    inggoodr esul
    tsin
    academi cs.Ambi guit
    iesexistbetweenaper son’
    spotent
    iali
    tytolearnandwhathe
    actuall
    ylearns.
    LD is nota r esultofment alretardati
    on oranyenvir
    onment alinf
    luence such as
    di
    rectional,
    emot i
    onal.

    168
    I
    tdoesnothav
    eagoodi
    mpactonacademi
    csi
    ncl
    udi
    ngpr
    obl
    em i
    nmat
    hemat
    ics.

    a)Someoft hefrequentmi sconcepti


    onsthatwidel
    yprevai
    linthesociet
    yare:
    LearningDisabil
    ityoccur sduet olowIQ.
    Inrealtyitisnotso.SomeLD suf f
    erer
    shav eagoodi ntel
    li
    gencelevel.The
    problem comeswhent heyf i
    ndthemselvesunabletolearnexactl
    ywhatt hei
    rIQ
    suggests.
    A LD suf f
    erer of ten l oses hi
    s/her sel
    f confi
    dence and t herefore,f i
    nd
    hi
    msel f/her
    selfreluctantt operf
    orm/conductwell
    .

    b)LearningDisabil
    itysuffer
    ersarelazy.
    Itisyetanot herwr ongnot i
    onwi del
    yprevail
    ingi nsoci
    etythattheLDsuffer
    ers
    basicall
    ysuffersf r
    om ment allow pr
    ocessing.Manyoft hem donotsucceedin
    recall
    i
    ngt heinformat i
    onatr i
    ghttime,duetot helowpr ocessi
    ngspeedofmind.
    DespiteLD suf ferershavingbeenhar dwor king,theydonotgett hedesired
    output.

    c) Learni
    ngDi sabi
    li
    tysuffer
    ersdonotwor krightl
    y
    Itisabsolutel
    yfalsenotion.Asuf f
    er ermaybebadi nar t
    soraestheti
    csbuthe
    maybegeni usincomput ers.Iti
    sal soappl i
    cableoneverynor
    malhumanbei ng
    thathecannotbegoodateachandev erything.Orwecansayi ti
    snotpossi bl
    e
    to achieve absolut
    e perfecti
    on in ev en a singl
    et hi
    ng.These aret he well
    establ
    ishedchallengesforhumanbei ngswhi chareyettobeconquered.Sowhy
    toblameaLear ningDisabil
    itysuf
    ferer.

    b)I
    ntel
    l
    ect
    ual
    Disabi
    l
    ity

    Iti
    saf actthatever
    ychi l
    dlearnsanddev elopsatdiffer
    entspeedsandi nvar
    iousway s.
    Howev er
    ,therear ealsochildrenwhowi lllearnatamuchsl owerpacet hanother
    chil
    drenofthesameage.Ther easonbeingani nt
    ell
    ectualdi
    sabi
    li
    tywhichcanbelinked
    withsomegenet icori nheri
    tedcondi t
    ionssuchasFr agi
    leX syndrome,PraderWi ll
    i
    syndrome,auti
    sm andDownsy ndrome.Someot hercausesmayal sobeduet oahead
    i
    njuryoril
    l
    ness,butforfewot hers,t
    hecausesar enotfoundatall
    .

    Eachpersonwithi
    ntel
    lectualdi
    sabi
    l
    itycandevelopandlearnbecauset hereareal
    ready
    alotofserv
    icesav
    ail
    abletohelpandassistpeoplewit
    hthisdisabil
    i
    tyandtheirf
    amili
    es.
    Therearesomegeneraltermsusedforint
    ell
    ectualdi
    sabi
    l
    ity,
    whi chareasfoll
    ows:

    Devel
    opmentalDel
    ayisaphr
    aseusedforachil
    dwhoi sdevel
    opi
    ngmor
    esl
    owl
    ythan
    ot
    herchi
    ldr
    enofthesameageinoneormor
    eareasofdevel
    opment
    .

    GlobalDev
    elopmentDel
    ayisater
    m usedwhenachi
    l
    disdev
    elopi
    ngmor
    esl
    owl
    ythan
    sameagechi l
    dreni
    nal
    lar
    easofdevel
    opment
    .

    Areasofdev elopmentisusedbypr ofessi


    onal
    swhenr ef
    err
    ingt
    otal
    kaboutdiff
    erent
    typesoflearning.Themajorareasofdev el
    opmentincl
    udemovementwhichisgross
    andf i
    nemot ormov ement
    ,communi cati
    onwhi chi
    st al
    ki
    ngandli
    steni
    ng,sel
    fcar e,
    feedi
    ng,t
    hinking,soci
    al,
    emoti
    onal,
    andsensorydevel
    opment.

    SensoryDev elopmentisthedevel
    opmentoft hev ar
    ioussensesofsmell,
    visi
    on,hear
    ing,
    touch,taste,
    aswel lasmov ementawareness.Ani nstanceont hi
    s,i
    swhenchil
    drenget
    older
    , t
    heycomet ocompr ehendthatal
    lfooddoesnott astethesame,l
    emonsar esour,
    candiesar esweet,andthroughti
    met heycombi neinfor
    mat i
    ongivenbythei
    rsensesto
    getabet teri
    deaofwhati shappeningar
    oundt hem.

    Sensor yI
    ntegr
    ati
    ondef i
    nesachi ld’
    scapaci
    tytoor gani
    zeandr eacttoinformat
    ion
    receivedt
    hrought hesensessuchassmel l
    ,touch,heari
    ng,vi
    sion,andmov ement.
    Childr
    enneedtobeabl etosortoutandr
    espondtosensoryinf
    ormationbef
    oretheycan
    developmoreintr
    icat
    ethi
    nkingskil
    l
    sandbehavi
    ors.

    169
    Del
    ayedInt
    ell
    ect
    ualdevel
    opmentref
    erstosl
    owlear
    ninginachi
    ldusuall
    ybelowtheage
    off
    ive,
    andisanoftenusedter
    m ofprof
    essi
    onal
    siftheyar
    enotsureistheslownessi
    s
    per
    manentortemporar
    y.

    Intel
    lect
    ualdisabil
    ityiswhenachi l
    dl earnsmor eslowlycompar edt ootherchil
    drenof
    thesameage, andhasadi f
    fi
    cultyinlearningarangeofski ll
    sneededt oli
    veandwor kin
    thesociety.Theseski ll
    si ncl
    udesel f
    -care,communi cation,social,andpersonalsafety.
    Indiv
    idualswithintel
    lectualdisabil
    i
    tywi l
    lalsohavelimitati
    onsint hinki
    ngskill
    sincluding
    theabi l
    i
    tytor easonoutandr emember .Theywi l
    lalsohav etroubl ewit
    hat t
    enti
    onand
    organizi
    nginformat i
    on,aswel lasdi ffi
    cultycomprehendingonhow t hi
    ngsar eorhow
    eventsrelat
    etoeachot her.

    Theearl
    yassistanceonchi l
    drenwithdevel
    opmentaldel
    aywil
    lenabl
    etomaket
    hem
    cat
    chuplaterandthencontinuetodevel
    opasotherchi
    ldr
    enoft
    hesameage,
    asnotal
    l
    devel
    opmentdelaysresul
    ttoint
    ell
    ect
    ualdi
    sabi
    li
    ty.

    c) Sexual
    Dev
    iat
    ion:

    Fetishi
    sm-bel i
    efinmagi calfet
    ishes,ext
    ravagantdevi
    ation.Thepathol
    ogi
    cal
    di
    splacementoferoticint
    erestandsati
    sfacti
    ontoafetish.
    Feti
    sh- an object of bodil
    y par t
    s whose r ealof fantasi
    ed pr
    esence is
    psychologi
    calnecessaryforsexualgr
    ati
    ficati
    ontotheextentofthatmayint
    erfer
    ewit
    h
    completesexualexpressi
    on.

    1.Transnest eti
    sm ( t
    ransv eti
    le)–aper sonespeci all
    yamal ewhoadoptt hedr ess
    andof tent hebehav i
    ort y picaloft heopposi tesexespeci al
    l
    yf orpur poseof
    emot i
    onal sexual grati
    fication.
    2.Voyeur( Voy euri
    sm)–oneobt ainingsexualgrati
    ficationfrom seeingsexor gans/
    sexualact s.
    Onewho habi tuall
    yseekssexualst imulati
    on byv i
    sual
    means.
    Apr y i
    ngobser verwhoi susual lyseekingthesorbidort he
    scandal ous.
    3.Pedophilia,Homosexual i
    ty,Sadi sm, Masochism
     Pedaphi l
    ia-anadul tindividualwhopr eyonmi norchild
     Homosexual ity
    -hav ingsexual desirewit
    ht hesamesex.
     Sadi sm-ament aldi sor
    derwher ebyaper soni nfl
    ictpaintot hesexual
    par tnerbef oreordur ingthesexual act.
     Masochi sm-aper sonwhoenj oy srecei
    vingt hepai nbeforeordur i
    ngt he
    sexual act.

    d)Alcoholi
    sm Personali
    tyDi
    sor
    derchar
    acter
    izedbycompul
    siv
    edrinki
    ng.Al
    coholi
    c
    beveragesisrelati
    vel
    ycommon,butexcessiv
    edri
    nki
    ngoralcoholi
    sm i
    sviewed
    asdev i
    antbehav i
    or.

    Ty
    pesofDrinkers
    1.Soci alDr
    inkersdri
    nkswhent heoccasi
    onsuggestsordemandsi
    t,and
    t
    heyar ei
    ndiffer
    enttoal
    cohol.Theycantakeitorl
    eavei
    t.
    Somesoci al
    drinkersdr
    inkr
    egularl
    y,ot
    hersinf
    requent
    ly.

    2.HeavyDri
    nkers-dr
    inkmorefr
    equencyandconsumegreat
    erquant
    it
    ies
    whentheydri
    nk.Theyoccasi
    onall
    ybecomeintoxi
    cat
    ed.

    3.Acut
    eAlcohol
    i
    cs-havemucht r
    oublecontr
    oll
    i
    ngthenuseofal
    cohol.
    Theymaygoonweekendbingesordrunks.Theyhav
    esoberper
    iods,
    hutt
    heyrel
    ymoreandmor
    eonal cohol
    .

    170
    4.Chroni
    cAl coholi
    cs-dri
    nkconst
    antly.They“l
    iv
    et odrink,dri
    nkt oli
    ve”.
    I
    tisdiff
    icultifnotimpossi
    bleforthem toholdjobs,andt heirhealt
    h
    wil
    linevi
    tablybeaf fect
    edSociol
    ogi st
    sbeli
    evet hatalcoholi
    sm isa
    l
    earnedbehav ior
    ,sincedri
    nki
    ngpat ter
    nstendt obeassoci atedwi t
    h
    occupat
    ional groups, soci
    al classes, r
    eli
    gious cat egor
    ies, and
    nati
    onal
    iti
    es

    Ment
    all
    yDer
    anged

    Ment
    alI
    ll
    ness— anybehavi
    oraldi
    sor
    der
    ,whet
    herf
    unct
    ionaloror
    gani
    c,wi
    thsucha
    degr
    eeofsev
    eri
    tyast
    orequi
    repr
    ofessi
    onal
    hel
    pand(
    usual
    l
    y)hospi
    tal
    i
    zat
    ion.

    Ment
    all
    yIl
    l
    — Have al
    way
    sbeen r
    egar
    ded asdev
    iant
    s.I
    n Bi
    bli
    calt
    ime — ment
    all
    y
    di
    sor
    der
    edwer
    edescr
    ibedasbei
    ngpossessedbydemonsordev
    il
    s.

    I
    nCol oni
    alAmer i
    ca— t heywer er
    egardedaswit
    ches,persecutedandev en
    executed,theywereregardedaslunati
    csormadmanandconfinedinjail
    sorl ockedin
    wellbarredrooms.inthelastcent
    ury,t
    hementall
    ydi
    sor
    der
    edhav ebeenr ecognizedas
    i
    ll
    .

    Now,ment
    aldi
    sor
    der
    sar
    egener
    all
    yrecogni
    zedasaheal
    thpr
    obl
    em andasa
    soci
    alprobl
    em.

    Leadi
    ngCauses:

     Causesofment alil
    lnessseem t othedi v
    erseast hoseofphy sical
    disease.
     Obv iously,t
    hemani festati
    onofment alill
    nessandt heproblemsposedf orthose
    closestt ot heillper sonar eoftenv erydifferentf rom thoseofot herform of
    i
    llness.
     Ironical
    ly,themor eser iousthement alil
    l
    ness,t hel essli
    kelyisthepatientto
    recognizet hatheisi ll
    .
     Per haps,itistheaspectofment alil
    l
    ness, -thepat i
    entsinabil
    i
    tytoreali
    zethathe
    i
    s si ck and needs hel p along witht he f actt hatment alill
    ness disrupt
    s
    i
    nt erpersonalrelati
    onshi ps,t
    hathassetof fment alpati
    ents,notasillpersons,
    butasi nsane“ crazy”,ali
    enated.

    3Maj
    orCl
    assesofMent
    alDi
    sor
    der
    s:

    1. Psychoses — whi ch entaila gross derangementofment alprocesses and


    i
    nabili
    tyt
    oev aluateexternalreal
    it
    ycorrect
    ly.
    2. Neuroseswhi chent ai
    limpairmentoffunctioni
    ng,oftenasegmentofabehav i
    or,
    butnosharpbr eakwi t
    hr eali
    ty.
    3. Psychosomat ic disor
    der s — whi ch ent
    ailveryr ealorganic sy
    mpt oms and
    malfunct
    ionscausedatl eastinpartbypsychologi
    cal pr
    ocesses.

    Pl
    aceboef
    fect
    :

    I
    nsane-i
    smostof
    tenappl
    i
    cabl
    etoper
    sonssuf
    fer
    ingf
    rom t
    heacut
    eorchr
    oni
    cphases
    ofpsy
    chosi
    s,t
    hougharecur
    rentl
    egalpr
    obl
    em isposedbythef
    actthatt
    heboundar
    y
    bet
    weensaneandi
    nsanei
    snotthesameasthatbet
    weenpsy
    chot
    icandnon-
    psy
    choti
    c.

    Causes:
    1.Hast hei
    rorigi
    ninthefamily
    .
    2.Occupat i
    onalsi
    tuat
    ion
    3.Effectsofeconomicinsecuri
    ty
    4. Lossofstatus

    Theder
    angedpersonisnotcapabl
    eofbei
    ngi
    nfl
    uencedbyt
    heCommuni
    cat
    ionofot
    her
    s;
    heisnot‘
    reasonabl
    e’
    .

    171
    Dy
    nami
    cMechani
    smsofDer
    angement
    s

    Conf
    li
    ct

    Allfor
    msofment alconf
    li
    ct,webeli
    eve,canbest
    atedintermsoft
    hemeansof
    t
    hemeans-endschema;
    thelogi
    calpossi
    bil
    i
    tiesofwhi
    chareasfol
    lows:

    I
    . Endsmaybeincompat i
    blebecauset
    heyareopposit
    eincharact
    ere.
    g.
     Asoldierwhowi shestoescapefrom thedangerofbattl
    eandatthesame
    t
    imeappearbr
    avet ousfell
    ows.
     Amanwhowi shestobebot hapersonoflear
    neddigni
    tyandapopul
    arcl
    own.

    Insuchcasesoneort heot
    herendmustbesuppr essed;theegomustcreat
    ea
    hier
    archyrat
    hert
    hananequali
    tyofanti
    thet
    icalends.Iftheendsarestr
    ongl
    yheld,
    theeffor
    ttocont
    roloneort
    heot hermayfail
    ,givi
    ngr i
    set oneurot
    icorpsy
    chot
    ic
    symptoms.

    I
    I.Di
    ff
    erentendsmaycompet
    eforscar
    cemeans.

    Thewomanwhol ov
    esherhusbandandchil
    drenandatt heti
    melovehercareer
    wil
    lfi
    ndt hateachmakesdemandsonascar cecommodi t
    y,herti
    meandener gy
    .She
    mustbepr epar
    ed t o sacri
    fi
    ceoneinf avoroftheot herto acceptan i
    ncomplete
    ful
    fi
    ll
    mentofbot h.Ifshecannotestabl
    ishmodif
    icat
    ion,thensheall
    owstheconfl
    ictto
    conti
    nueandt othatextentbecomesadisor
    gani
    zedperson.

    Conf l
    i
    ctmayar isefrom t
    oogreatadi spar
    it
    ybet weenendsandmeans.I fthegoali s
    str
    onglydesiredandy etisi
    mpossi bl
    eofachi evement
    ,frust
    rati
    onnecessaryresult
    s.
    Repeatfrust
    rati
    onstendstopr
    oduceagener ali
    zedl
    ackofconfidencei
    none’sabil
    it
    yt o
    achieveanyend,andagener alizedconcept i
    onofoneselfasl essef
    fici
    entandl ess
    worthythanothers.

    Themai
    ngoal
    Theappr
    ovalofot
    hers,
    isconti
    ngentupontheaccompl
    i
    shmentofawidevari
    ety
    ofsubordi
    nat
    eends.Repeat
    edf r
    ustr
    ati
    ontheref
    oremeansabreakdownwi
    thref
    erence
    tot
    hosestandar
    dsbywhichoneev al
    uat
    esoneself

    CommonGener
    alI
    ndi
    cat
    ionsofAbuseofDr
    ugs:
     Changesi nattendanceatworkorschool
     Decreaseinmor al
    capabil
    i
    ties(wor kperf
    ormance,effi
    ciency,
    habi
    ts,et
    c.)
     Poorphy si
    calappearance,neglectofdressandper sonalhygi
    ene.
     Useofsungl assestoconceal dil
    atedorconstri
    ctedpupilsandtocompensatef
    or
    eyes’reducedabi l
    i
    tytoadjusttosunl i
    ght.Unusualeffor
    tstocoverarm andhi
    de
    needlemar ks.

    Fact
    saboutMent alIl
    lness
     Asmanyas80per centofpeopl esuffer
    ingf r
    om ment alil
    lnessescanef fect i
    vely
    ret
    urntonor mal ,productiv
    el i
    vesiftheyreceiveappropriat
    et r
    eat ment.
     Duri
    nganyone- yearper i
    od,upt o50mi ll
    ionAmer icans,mor et han22per cent,
    suff
    erf rom a cl early diagnosable ment aldisorderi nvolving a degr ee of
    i
    ncapacityt hatinter f
    ereswi t
    hempl oyment ,at
    tendanceatschool ordai
    lylife.
     Thedirectcost sofsuppor tandmedi cal
    treatmentofment ali
    llnessest otal$55. 4
    bil
    l
    ionay ear.
     The indirectcost s,such as l ostempl oyment ,reduced pr oduct i
    vi
    ty,cr iminal
    acti
    vi
    ty,v ehicularacci dentsandsoci alwelfareprogramsi ncreaset het otalcost
    ofment al andsubst anceabusedi sorder
    st omor ethan$273bi ll
    ionay ear.
     Medicationsr elieveacut esympt omsofschi zophreniain80per centofcases, but

    172
    onlyabouthal fofallpeoplewi t
    hschizophr eni
    aseekt reatment.
     Wi t
    ht her
    apy ,80to90per centofthepeopl esuf f
    eringfrom depressiv
    edisor
    ders
    cangetbet ter,butlessthanone- t
    hir
    doft hosesuf feri
    ngseekt reatment.
     Refinement sofl it
    hium car bonat
    e,usedi ntreatingmani c-depressi
    ve(bi
    polar
    )
    disorder,haveledtoanest i
    mat edannualsav i
    ngsof$8bi ll
    ionint r
    eat
    mentcosts
    andl ostproductiv
    ityassociatedwithbipolardisorder.

    Whati
    sSt
    igma?

    Ifafri
    endorcol
    leagueannouncesatworktheyneedt i
    meoffforcancert
    reat
    mentor
    becauseofabrokenleg,theyareshownsympat hyandsuppor
    t.Ifthi
    ssameper son
    asksforti
    meof ftodealwi thament ali
    l
    lness,theyri
    skrej
    ecti
    on,humil
    iat
    ion,and
    possi
    blyev
    enthelossoft
    heirj
    ob.

    Mentali
    ll
    nesscanbedev
    astat
    ingnotonl
    ytotheli
    vesofthemen,womenandchi
    l
    dreni
    t
    af
    fectsdi
    rect
    ly,
    butal
    sot
    hoseofthei
    rfamil
    i
    es,f
    ri
    ends,andcol
    l
    eagues.

    Treat
    mentsar eavai
    labl
    et ohelpcontr
    olorevendimi
    nishthesy mpt
    omsofment al
    i
    ll
    ness,butthef
    earofsocialst
    igmacanmakei
    textr
    emel
    ydiff
    icul
    tfort
    hosesuf
    fer
    ingt
    o
    seekoutthehel
    ptheyneed.

    Vi
    cti
    msofment ali
    ll
    nessar
    efacedwithther
    iskofl
    osingthei
    remploymentandf
    riends,
    ofbeing ri
    dicul
    ed and mi
    sunder
    stood,and ofbeing di
    scri
    minat
    ed agai
    nstlegall
    y,
    medi
    call
    y,andsocial
    ly.

    Sti
    gmai sever
    ywhere-atschoolandwor k,ont
    hepl
    aygr
    oundandatt
    hegy
    m,i
    n
    hospi
    tal
    sandhotel
    s,andont
    hetel
    evi
    sion.

    CLASSI
    FICATI
    ONOFMENTALDI
    SORDER

    . Ment
    I alRet
    ardat
    ion-Agener
    alt
    ermsr
    efer
    ri
    ngt
    oanydegr
    eeofment
    aldef
    ici
    ency
    .

    Ment
    alDefici
    ency-Int
    ell
    ectualsubnormali
    tyofanyt
    ype.
    Cl
    assifi
    cationofMent alDefi
    ciency
    Borderl
    inedefi
    ciency IQ70-80
    Moron IQ50-69
    I
    mbeci l
    e IQ20-49
    I
    diot IQbelow20

    Fi
    v eLevelsofMent
    alDef
    ici
    ency
    Borderli
    ne IQ83-68
    Mild IQ67-52
    Moder ate IQ51-36
    Severe IQ35-20
    Profound IQbel
    ow20

    I
    I. OrganicBr ai
    n Syndrome ( OBS)-I mpaired i
    ntel
    lectualfunct
    ioni
    ng,memor y
    ,
    judgment .Poorl ear
    ning acti
    vi
    ty,Labil
    it
    yand shal lowness ofaffect.May be
    acute/chronicdependingonpr obabil
    i
    tyofr eversi
    bil
    it
    y .Maybeassociatedwith
    psychoticsymptomsandbehav i
    oraldi
    sturbancesornon- psy
    choti
    cbehavior.

    A.Psychoses-f
    undamentalmentalderangement(aspar
    anoi
    a)char
    act
    eri
    zedby
    def
    ectiveorl
    ostofcont
    actwi
    threal
    it
    y(psychot
    ic)
    .

    1.Seni
    ledement
    ia-exhi
    bit
    ingal
    ossofment
    alf
    acul
    tyduet
    ool
    dage.
    2.Pre-
    seni
    le.

    B.Al
    cohol
    i
    cPsy
    chosi
    s

    173
    Del
    ir
    ium tr
    emens-aviol
    entdeli
    ri
    um wi
    tht
    remor
    sthati
    sinducedbyexcessi
    ve
    andprol
    onguseofal
    coholi
    cli
    quors.

    C.Psy
    chosi
    sassoci
    atedwi
    thot
    hercer
    ebr
    alcondi
    ti
    on

    1.Epidemi
    cencephali
    ti
    s— anoutbreakorproductofsuddenr
    api
    dspr
    ead,
    growthordev
    elopmenti
    nfl
    ammat
    ionofthebrai
    n.

    2.Cer
    ebr
    alar
    ter
    ioscl
    erosi
    s-r
    elat
    ingt
    othebr
    ainort
    hei
    ntel
    l
    ectcer
    ebr
    al.

    3.Art
    eri
    oscler
    osis-achr
    onicdi
    seasechar
    acter
    izedbyabnor
    mal t
    hickeni
    ngand
    har
    deningoftheart
    eri
    alwal
    lswit
    hresul
    ti
    nglossofel
    asti
    cit
    y.

    4.Epi
    lepsy—anyofthevari
    ousdisor
    dermarkedbydist
    urbedel
    ectr
    icalr
    hyt
    hms
    ofthecent
    ralner
    voussyst
    em andtypi
    cal
    l
    ymani f
    estedbyconvul
    siveatt
    acks
    wit
    hcloudi
    ngofconsci
    ousness.

    5.I
    ntr
    acr
    ani
    alneopl
    asm (
    tumor
    )

    D.Psy
    chosi
    sassoci
    atedwi
    thot
    herphy
    sical
    condi
    ti
    on

    1.Endocr
    inedisor
    der-(hor
    monedisorder
    )li
    kei
    rr
    egularmenst
    ruat
    ion.
    2.Metaboli
    c/Nutr
    it
    ionaldi
    sor
    der
    -referst
    ometabol
    ism

    E.Funct
    ionalPsy chosi
    s-Psychosesnotat
    tri
    but
    edtophysi
    cal
    condi
    ti
    on.
    1.Schi zophrenia
    2.Cat atonic.
    3.Eccent ric-devi
    ati
    ngf r
    om anestabli
    shedpat
    ter
    nofacceptedi
    mageor
    conduct .
    4.Par anoid-

    Neur
    oses-ament
    al/emot
    ionaldi
    sor
    dert
    hataf
    fect
    sonl
    ypar
    tsoft
    heper
    sonal
    i
    ty,i
    s
    accompaniedbyal ossdi stor
    tedper cepti
    onofreal
    itythaninpsychosi
    sdoesnotr esul
    t
    i
    n distur
    bance oft he use ofl anguage and is accompanied by var
    ious physi
    cal
    ,
    physi
    ologi
    cal
    ,ment aldist
    urbance.
    Neuroti
    c-an emot ionall
    y unstablei ndiv
    idualaf
    fected wit
    h neurosi
    s.Characteri
    zed
    especi
    all
    y by fat
    igabil
    ity and often lack ofmotivati
    on Feeli
    ng ofinadequacy and
    psychosomati
    csympt oms.

    Commonl
    yAbusedDr
    ugsandt
    hei
    rIndi
    cat
    ions

    Ty
    peofDr
    ugs Ty
    pical
    Indi
    cat
    ions

    I
    . Depressants(
    downers) al
    cohol,st
    agerr
    ingorstumbli
    ng,f
    all
    ing
    i
    ncludingDorr
    idenandvar
    ious asl
    eepatwor k,sl
    urr
    edspeech,di
    l
    ated
    bar
    biturat
    es pupi
    ls,
    diff
    icul
    tyconcentr
    ati
    ng

    I
    ntoxi
    cat
    ionbehavi
    orwit
    hnoodorof
    II
    . St
    imulant
    s(amphet
    amines) Excessi
    velyact
    ive,i
    rr
    it
    able,
    i
    ncludi
    ngMethamphet
    amineor argumentati
    ve,
    nervous,dil
    atedpupi
    l
    s,
    ‘
    speed’ l
    ongperiodswithouteati
    ngorsleepi
    ng

    I
    II
    . Cocai
    ne(
    alsost
    imul
    ant
    s)

    174
    quickl
    yrel
    easedbyanxiety
    ,ir
    ri
    tabi
    l
    ity
    and/ordepressi
    ons,someti
    mes
    Ener
    geti
    c,euphor
    ic,
    fixedanddil
    ated accompaniedbyhalluci
    nat
    ionand
    pupi
    l
    s,possibl
    etr
    emor s(euphor
    ia paranoi
    ddel usi
    ons)

    I
    V. Nar
    coti
    cs(opi
    um, her
    oin i
    njecti
    ngdrugs,fi
    xedandconst ri
    cted
    morphi
    ne,
    codeine) pupil
    sFrequentscratchinglossof
    appeti
    te(butf
    requent l
    yeatsweet s).
    Mayhav esnif
    fl
    es,red.Wat eri
    ngey es
    andcoughunt i
    lanother‘fi
    x’,l
    ethargic
    drowsy,andalt
    ernatebet weendoz ing
    andawakening(‘nodding’)
    Scar
    sonar
    msorbackofhandsf
    rom

    V. Mar
    ij
    uana(
    ahal
    l
    uci
    nogens) Inearl
    ystagesmay beeuphoricand
    appearanimated,speakingrapidl
    yand
    l
    oudlywithburstsoflaughter;pupil
    s
    maybedi lat
    edandey ebloodshot;may
    have,di
    stort
    edper cepti
    onsand
    experi
    encehall
    ucinations;i
    nlaterstages
    maybedr owsy .

    VI
    .Otherhal
    l
    ucinogens(
    LSD,STP, Behav i
    orandmoodyv aryv i
    vi
    dly,sitor
    DOM, mescali
    neDTM,DET) recl
    inequi et
    lyintraceli
    kestateor
    appearf earf
    ulorev enterri
    fi
    ed, di
    lated
    pupilsinsomecases; mayexper i
    ence
    nausea, chil
    ls,
    flushes,i
    rregular
    breathing,sweat i
    ng,tr
    umbl i
    ngofhands;
    maybechangesi nsenseofsi ght
    ,
    hearing,touch,smel l
    andt i
    me

    Rober
    tMerton5Patt
    erns,
    orModesofAdapt
    ati
    onBasedonGoal
    s(whaty
    ouwant
    )and
    Means(howyougett
    hem)

    GOAL MEANS
    Acceptedmean: toregister
    ,
    Foracol
    l
    egestudenti
    sa
    I
    .Conf
    ormi
    st(++) gotoclass,readbooksand
    degr
    ee
    passtests.
    Butusesunaccept able
    meanst ogetit;
    Cheatsont ests,
    buyst erm
    I
    I.I
    nnov
    ati
    on(+-) Want
    sthesamegoal
    paperswr i
    tt
    enbyot hers,
    copiesotherpeople’
    snot es
    andsoon.
    St
    ickstoacceptedmeans
    I
    II
    .Ri
    tual
    i
    st(
    -+) Want
    sthesamegoal anddoeswhathe/shei s
    supposedt o

    175
    176
    BASI
    CCONCEPTOFDEVIANCE
    AnI
    ( ntr
    oduct
    ion)

    Thecoursewewillbeexpl
    ori
    ngthenatur
    eofconformit
    yt o-anddevi
    ati
    onf r
    om -
    soci
    alrulesinbot
    hourownandot hersoci
    eti
    es.I
    nordertodot hi
    s,wewilli
    nit
    ial
    l
    yneed
    tounderstandanumberofbasi
    cconceptst
    hatwecandev el
    op.

    1.TheSoci
    alDi
    str
    ibut
    ionofCr
    imeandDevi
    ance:
    I
    nthisr
    espect
    ,wewillbel
    ooki
    ngatamaj oraspectofdeviantbehavi
    ourinoursoci
    ety
    (
    cri
    me)andthewaysuchbehav
    iouri
    sassoci
    atedwithvar
    ioussocialcat
    egori
    essuchas:

     Class
     Age
     Gender
     Ethni
    cit
    y
     Reli
    gion

    2.Theor
    iesofCr
    imeandDevi
    ance:
    I
    nsimpl
    eter
    ms,weneedtolookatt hevar
    iousexpl
    anat
    ionsofcri
    meanddev
    iancet
    hat
    hav
    ebeenpr
    oducedbysoci
    ologi
    stsovert
    hepast100orsoy ear
    s.

    3. Power,
    DevianceandSocialControl
    :
    Theconceptofpoweri sav er
    ysignifi
    cantoneinrel
    ati
    ontothewaysoci alr
    ulesar
    e
    creat
    edandappli
    edand,fort
    hisreason,weneedtoexaminethi
    sconceptasameansof
    underst
    andi
    ngthenatur
    eofsocialconfor
    mityanddevi
    ance.

    4. SocialReacti
    onstoCri
    meandDevi ance:
    Asi
    gni
    ficantaspectof(
    devi
    ant)behaviouri
    sthereacti
    onofot
    herstothatbehavi
    ourand,
    i
    nthi
    srespect,wewi l
    lbepart
    icul
    arlyconcernedwithanexaminat
    ionofther ol
    eofthe
    massmediaintheprocessofDeviancyAmpl i
    fi
    cat
    ion.

    5.TheRol
    eoft
    hePol
    ice,
    Cour
    tsandPenalSyst
    em:
    Theconcer
    nher
    ewi
    l
    lbet
    oout
    li
    net
    her
    oleof"
    off
    ici
    al"agenci
    esofsoci
    alcont
    roli
    nour
    soci
    ety
    .

    6. YouthSubculturesandStyles:
    Overthepast20-30y earsanumberof" devi
    antsub-
    cultures"(
    Mobs,Hi
    ppi
    es,Punks
    andsof or
    th)havesurfacedinbothourownandot hercul
    turesandt he
    concernherewi llbet o bothexaminet henatureandpur poseofsuchsubcul
    tur
    al
    groupi
    ngsandt heirr
    elati
    onshi
    ptodev i
    antbehavi
    ouringeneral.

    7. Soci
    ologicalExpl
    anationsofSui ci
    de:
    Sui
    cideisaninteresti
    ngexampl eofaf orm ofdevi
    antbehav i
    ourt
    hathasbeenstudiedin
    agreatdealofdept hbyvari
    oussoci ol
    ogist
    sov ertheyears.I
    nthi
    spartofthecoursewe
    wil
    llooknotonl yatsomesoci ologi
    calexplanat
    ionsoft hi
    sbehavi
    ourbutalsoatt he
    wayi nwhichwecanuset hisar eaofsoci albehaviourtohighl
    ightmethodol
    ogical
    di
    ffer
    encesofappr oachtothest udyofhumanbehav i
    our.

    TheConceptofDev
    iance

    "Dev
    iance"i
    sawi de-
    rangi
    ngter
    m usedbysoci ologi
    ststoref
    ertobehav
    iourt
    hatvar
    ies,
    i
    nsomeway ,f
    rom asocialnorm.Int hisrespect
    ,itisevidentt
    hattheconceptof
    devi
    anceref
    erstosomef or
    m of"r
    ule-
    breaki
    ng"behaviour
    .

    Inrelat
    iont odev iance,theref
    ore,theconceptr elatestoallformsofr ule-
    breaki
    ng
    (whethert hisinvolvessucht hi
    ngsasmur der,theftorar son-t hebr eaki
    ngoff or
    mal
    soci
    al rules-orsucht hingsaswear i
    nginappr opri
    ateclothingforagi vensocialsi
    tuati
    on,
    fai
    li
    ngt opr oducehomewor katschool orbei ngcheekyt oapar ent,teacherandsof ort
    h-
    more-or -
    lessthebr eakingofr elati
    vel
    yinformal socialr
    ules).
    Asshoul dbeappar ent,criminalbehaviourisaf orm ofdev i
    ance(onet hatisdefinedas
    thebr eaking ofl egalr ules)and,whi l
    ewewi llbeconcent rat
    ing upont hisar eaof

    177
    devi
    ance,i
    tneedst
    ober ememberedthatiti
    sonlyoneaspect-al
    bietav
    erysi
    gni
    fi
    cant
    one-inrel
    ati
    ontot
    heconceptofdev
    iantbehavi
    ouri
    nanysociet
    y.

    Asageneralr
    ule,
    ther
    efor
    e,wecansayt
    hatt
    her
    eisadi
    sti
    nct
    ionbet
    weencr
    ime
    anddev
    iancei
    nter
    msof :

    "
    Allcrimeis,bydef
    ini
    ti
    on,devi
    antbehaviour,butnotallfor
    msofdev
    iancear
    e
    cr
    iminal
    ".
    Devi
    ance,then,i
    samuchmor egeneri
    c(gener
    al)categorythancri
    me.

    Twodi
    sti
    nctcat
    egor
    ies;

    1.I
    nfor
    malDevi
    ance
    Inf
    ormaldevi
    anceref
    erstothefactt
    hatani ndi
    vi
    dual(orgroupofi ndi
    vi
    duals)maybe
    sli
    ght
    lynon-
    confor
    misttot
    hegeneraltr
    endofsociety;however,hi
    s/her
    /thei
    rbehav
    iour
    doesnotconst
    it
    uteanil
    l
    egalact
    .RecentexampleisDavidBl
    aine;

    I
    nformal
    deviant
    sarepeople/groupsofpeoplether
    eforewhosebehav
    iourmi
    ght
    r
    aiseaneyebrowbutwi
    llnotencourageapersontocall
    thepoli
    ce.

    Inf
    ormaldeviantsarepeoplewhoaresimpl
    y“di
    ff
    erent
    ”forsomer easonor
    another
    .I neffect,i
    tisf
    airtosayt
    hatweareal
    linfor
    mal
    lydevi
    anttosome
    degreeoranother.

    I
    nSociol
    ogy,therei
    safasci
    nati
    onwithyoungpeoplebecauseofthei
    rinf
    ormal
    l
    y
    dev
    iantt
    endencies–par
    ti
    cular
    lywhenlooki
    ngatyouthsubcul
    tur
    es

    Asubculture=agr oupofpeopl ei nsoci


    etywhosebehav i
    our(andsometi
    mes
    sty
    leofdress)issi
    gnif
    icant
    lydif
    ferentf
    rom wi
    dersociet
    y–somuchsot hatthey
    haveauni quecul
    ture(awayoflif
    e).Howev er
    ,becausetheyst
    il
    lexi
    stwit
    hinour
    societ
    ytheyarecall
    edsubcultur
    es

    2.For
    malDevi
    ance
    For
    maldev i
    ance,qui
    tesimpl
    y,descr
    ibesanactcommi t
    tedbyapersonorgroupof
    per
    sonsthatcontrav
    enes(goesagainst
    )theest
    abl
    ishedlawsofsociet
    y. Afor
    mal
    dev
    ianti
    stheref
    oreacri
    minal
    .

    Domest i
    cviolence Smoki ng
    Mur der Dri
    nkingtoomuch
    Foxhunt ing Suici
    de
    All
    owi ngchildrentousemobi
    l
    ephones Buy i
    ngalcohol
    under
    age
    UsingI nt
    ernetchatrooms Graffi
    ti

    Rel
    ati
    vemeans,
    ther
    efor
    e,subj
    ectt
    ochangeacr
    osst
    imeandl
    ocat
    ion.

    Some soci
    eti
    es’defi
    nit
    ion of f
    ormal
    ly dev
    iant and i
    nfor
    mal
    l
    y dev
    iant i
    s
    consi
    der
    abl
    ydif
    fer
    entf
    rom oursf
    orexampl
    e.

    Iti
    salsot hecaset hatweinterpr
    etdeviantactsi
    nrelat
    iontowheretheyhappen
    –consi derforexampl eonemanki ll
    i
    nganot her–instantl
    y,wemightassumea
    for
    mal l
    ydev i
    antact–howev er,i
    nthecont extofawart hi
    sisaccept
    able,i
    nthe
    contextofasubur borinnercit
    y,t
    hisisclearmurder
    .

    “Socialconst
    ruct
    ”– itisat ermt haty ouhav epr obablycomeacrossbefore– f or
    example,thef
    amilyisasocialconstruct–t hereforeournoti
    onofwhataf amilyis,is
    subj
    ecttochangeacrossti
    meandl ocation
    whatwer egar
    dasi nf
    ormall
    yandf ormallydeviantisdetermi
    nedbysociet
    yatlarge–i f
    enoughpeopleinsocietyoveral ongper i
    odoft imef eelanactt
    hatwasi nformally

    178
    devi
    anti
    sf or
    mallydevi
    antforexample,t
    heremightbepressureont
    helegalsystem t
    o
    makesuchanactf ormall
    ydev i
    ant
    .Pastexampl esmightincl
    udest
    alki
    ng,harassi
    ng
    peopl
    ewithtextmessagesandusingmobilephoneswhendrivi
    ng.

    Hagan(1984),aCanadi
    anCr
    imi
    nol
    ogi
    st,out
    li
    nedhowsoci
    etyconst
    ruct
    sournot
    ionof
    devi
    ance;
    theseare;

    1.Thedegr eeofagr eementaboutt hewr ongf


    ulnessoftheact–Thi smayr ange
    fr
    om conf usi
    on/apat hytotot
    alagreement
    2.Severityoft hesoci alresponseel i
    cit
    edbyt heact;thi
    scanr angefrom li
    fe
    i
    mpr isonmentt opolit
    eav oi
    dance,
    3.Societiesev aluati
    onoft hehar m el
    ici
    tedbyt heact;t
    hislooksatthedegr
    eeof
    vi
    cti
    mi sation–t hedegreeofpersonalandsocialhar
    m.

    Let
    ’si
    ll
    ustratethiswithafewexampl es;
    1.9/11–anactwhi chundoubt edlyscarredAmer i
    caandper manentlyal teredthe
    waywel i
    veandseet hewor l
    di nitsafter
    mat h;West er
    nsoci ety(andi tisf ai
    rto
    say, mostoft heworld)wasuni tedinthewayi tsawt heext r
    emewr ongf ulnessof
    theact ;andtherewasasev er
    er esponseasar esult
    .
    2.Cloning– anactwhi ch,onecoul dar gueisl ikel
    yt obecl assedasasoci al
    diversionoraconf li
    ctcr i
    mef orawhi le–soci etyisdividedast othehar mt hi
    s
    causes, it
    swr ongf
    ulnessandasar esultresponsesar eli
    kelytobemi xed.

    Handinhandwithdevi
    ance,however,
    comest heconceptsoci
    alcontr
    ol
    Soci
    alcontrolexi
    ststo preventnegati
    vedev i
    ance(thatisdev i
    ancewhich can be
    damagingtoother
    s)–asmostdev i
    anceis,
    itcouldbeargued,negat
    iveany
    way,wewi l
    l
    l
    ooksimplyusetheter
    m“ devi
    ance”here

    Ther
    ear
    etwot
    ypesofsoci
    alcont
    rol
    ;

    A.I nfor
    mal SocialCont
    rol
    Ifyouhadapr oblem, whowouldyouturntofir
    st?Afri
    end?Family
    ?I ti
    squit
    elikelythat
    youwoul dseeksol aceinsomeoney ouknew well…someonewhoy ousaw r
    egul ar
    ly–
    someonewhopl aysav eryi
    mportantpar
    tinyourli
    fe.Thisiswhatwemeanbyi nformal
    socialcontr
    ol.Thisform ofcont
    roli
    stheref
    orebasedont heapprov
    alordi
    sappr ovalof
    thosearounduswhoser evi
    ewofuswer egardasimportant
    .

    Thr
    eemai
    ngr
    oupst
    hatf
    alli
    ntot
    hiscat
    egor
    yar
    e;

    1.Fami
    l
    y,
    Ourbasi clearni
    ngofnor msandv al
    ues(whatisregardedasdesi rableandachievabl
    e,
    oftendictati
    nghow weshoul dl
    ive)arelear
    nedint her eal
    m ofthef ami l
    y.Thefamily
    therefor
    epl aysav er
    yimportantroleonsocial
    isi
    ngusandt heref
    oregi vi
    ngusourown
    i
    dent i
    ty.Itisinthisreal
    mt hatwel ear
    nt hebasicmor ali
    tyofsociety andwelearnto
    dev el
    opaconsci ence.Thef amil
    ycontrolsusinav erysubtleway–unl esswedov ery
    wrongper hapswher epuni
    shmenti sobvi
    ousandpr onounced.

    2. Fr i
    ends,
    I
    nSoci ology,theter
    m“ peergroup”isoft
    enusedasanal ter
    nat
    ivet
    ot het
    erm“fri
    ends”
    .
    Apeergr oupisagr oupofpeopleofasi mil
    araget ouswhower elatet
    o.Oftenpeer
    groupscant eachusi nf
    ormally(i
    .e.of
    teninaver
    y“ pi
    ecemeal”andsubtl
    eway–much
    l
    iket hef amil
    y )how to behavecor r
    ectl
    yand proper
    ly,butsometimestheydo the
    oppositeasweshal lseelat
    er!

    3.Wor
    kCol
    l
    eagues
    Verysimi
    lart
    opeergr
    oupsbutper
    hapswor
    kcol
    l
    eaguesar
    elessl
    i
    kel
    ytoabuset
    heway
    theycancont
    rol
    us!

    B.FormalSoci
    alContr
    ol
    Thesecondfor
    m ofcontr
    olisf
    ormalsoci
    alcontr
    ol.InSoci
    ology,t
    hesei
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsar
    e
    ref
    err
    edtoasorgani
    sati
    onsorsyst
    emst hatexer
    ciseri
    gidr
    ules,i
    deol
    ogi
    esandmoral
    s

    179
    t
    hatwear
    eof
    tencompel
    l
    edt
    oobey
    .For
    mal
    soci
    alcont
    rol
    wecani
    ncl
    ude:

    1.Rel
    i
    gion
    Hist
    ori
    cally
    ,thechurchwasoneofthemajorfor
    msofsoci alcontrol
    .However,per
    haps
    i
    tsdegr eeofsocialcont
    rolhaswanedali
    tt
    lenow I t
    ssigni
    ficanceasaf or
    m ofsocial
    contr
    ol,however,maysti
    llexi
    sti
    nthewayithasinf
    luencedthelegalsy
    stem,thefamily
    andeducation.

    2.Educat
    ion
    Educati
    onhasoftenbeencit
    edasaf or
    m ofcontr
    olint
    hewaymor al
    it
    yandcit
    izenship
    aretaughtt
    opupils.Oft
    en,t
    hishasbeenref
    err
    edtoast heHiddenCurri
    cul
    um (
    Bowl es
    andGinti
    s);acur
    ricul
    um t
    hatyoul
    earnwit
    houtr
    eall
    ythi
    nkingabouti
    t.

    3.TheMassMedi
    a
    Themassmedi a(radi
    o, t
    elevi
    sion,ci
    nema,art
    set c)infl
    uenceusbyprovi
    dingmodelsof
    behavi
    ourt hatwecopy( itisthroughthemassmedi athatwehaverol
    emodel s)whil
    e
    condemningot her“devi
    ant ”f
    ormsofbehav iour.Thi si ssomet
    hingwewi l
    llookatin
    moredept hl at
    eron;indeed,itcouldbearguedt hatthemediaisplay
    ingamor eand
    morecrucialrol
    einshapingpubl i
    copini
    onthatitev erhas.

    4.TheHeal
    thSer
    vice
    Atf i
    rstitmayseem qui test r
    anget osuggestt hatt heHeal thServi
    cei sasy stem of
    socialcontrol
    ;butremember ,whent alkingaboutsoci alcontrolwearenotnecessar il
    y
    talki
    ngaboutnegat i
    vecontrol(i.
    e.condemni ngbehav i
    ourthati sdevi
    ant);soci
    alcont
    rol
    alsodescribesposit
    ivecontrol(i
    .e.encour agingust oconf or mtothev al
    uesofsociety)
    .
    TheHeal thServiceencouragesust ober esponsibleaboutourheal t
    h;thinkaboutvery
    subtlethi
    ngsf orexamplelikeachi ldget ti
    ngal oll
    ipopatedent i
    st–t hatisasignthat
    youhav edonewhati sexpect edofy ou.Someper specti
    v es,however,arguethatthe
    HealthServiceismoreli
    kelytobeasy stem ofinf
    or mal socialcontr
    ol.

    5.TheLegalSyst
    em
    Undoubtedlythemostobv i
    ousty
    peofsocialcontr
    olinsociet
    y. TheLegalsy
    stem,
    ther
    efor
    e,i
    st hemostpowerf
    uli
    nsti
    tut
    iont
    hatdeal
    swithsoci
    alcont
    rol
    .Incl
    udedi
    nt hi
    s
    arethepol
    iceandthecour
    ts.

    PRI
    MARYANDSECONDARYDEVI ATIONS
     Pri
    mar yDevi at
    ion-isnott ooser iousanddoesnotaf fectthei ndivi
    dual
    ’sself
    -
    concept ,foriti swi t
    hinthe boundsofr easonabl
    e,accept able,and nor
    mal
    behaviorforpeopl eli
    kethem.Itf it
    sinwithordoesnotser i
    ouslyd* actfr
    om the
    person’stypi
    cal stat
    usandr ol
    e.e.g.
     Thedoct orwhosplit
    sfees,
     Theper sonwhodr i
    nkstoomuch, and
     Theeccent ri
    ccoll
    egeprof essorarealldefi
    antt
    obesur e,butthesetypes
    ofdev i
    ationareconsideredpr i
    mar ybecausetheydonotgof orbey
    ond
    theboundar i
    esoftheconv enti
    onalstatusesandrulestheyoccupy .

    A process al
    so occurs wher
    ebysoci et
    yreact
    st o cont
    inued,pr
    imar
    ydev
    iat
    ion by
    expr
    essingmoralindi
    gnati
    on,r
    eject
    ion,
    andpenal
    ti
    es.

     SecondaryDevi
    ati
    on-refer
    stodev iat
    ionthatrepresentsadef ense,at
    tack,or
    adj
    ustmenttot heprobl
    emscr eatedbyt hesoci etalreact
    iontot heprimary
    devi
    ati
    on.Theindi
    vi
    dualbecomeslabeledandstigmat i
    zed.Thepersonsbeginto
    seehim asot
    hersdo,andthesel
    f-
    conceptbeginstochange.

    e.
    g.Thesociet
    alreacti
    onhasthei
    ntentofst
    oppingpri
    marydevi
    ati
    on,butmayforceone
    i
    ntosecondarydeviat
    ion.Thi
    sint
    urnoftenleadstoanincr
    easeindevianti
    nvol
    vement
    andbehavi
    or.

     TheJuv
    enil
    eispi
    ckeduponami norchar
    ge,l
    iker
    unawayorcur
    fewviol
    ati
    on.
    Sheisl
    ockedupinadetent
    ionhomeandt r
    eatedli
    ketheot
    herdel
    i
    nquents.

    180
    Shel
    ear
    nsf
    rom t
    hem,
    star
    tst
    oseeher
    sel
    fdi
    ff
    erent
    lycar
    eer
    .

    Thevol
    umeofdev iantbehav
    iorcanbereducedonlybyremov
    ingt
    hecondi
    ti
    onst
    hat
    gi
    ver
    isetoi
    t,andnotthr
    oughtreat
    mentofi
    ndivi
    dual
    cases.

    For
    msofr
    ule-
    breaki
    ngbehav
    iour(
    byHagan)

    1. Admir
    edbehavi our:
    Anexampl eofdev i
    ancet hatmightbeconsi
    deredas"good"or" admirabl
    e"behavi
    our
    (whi
    lstal
    sobreakingsocialnor
    ms)mi ghtbesomethi
    nglikeher
    oism -thesavingofthe
    l
    ifeofanot
    herpersonwhi l
    stputt
    ingyourownl
    ifeingr
    eatdanger
    ,forexample.

    2. Oddbehaviour:
    Manyf ormsofbehav iour-whilstnotbeingcri
    minal-aref r
    equent
    lyconsider
    edtobe
    somehow" odd"or"diff
    erent"t
    onor malbehavi
    our.Theseformsofdeviancerangef
    rom
    suchthingsasoutlandishmodesofdr ess,thr
    oughmi l
    dlyeccent
    ri
    cformsofbehaviour
    (t
    hepersonwhoshar est hei
    rhousewith50cats,f
    orexampl e)
    ,toout
    ri
    ghtmadness.

    3. Badbehav i
    our:
    Dev i
    antbehaviourint hi
    scategorytendstober est
    rictedtolaw-breaki
    ngorcr i
    minal
    behav i
    our-behav i
    ourthatinsomewayi sseenasbei ngsomethingmor ethansimply
    outlandi
    shoreccent r
    ic.Dependi
    ngupont heti
    meandpl ace,f
    ormsofbehav iouri
    nthi
    s
    categorymightincl
    udecrimesofviol
    ence,cr
    imesagainstpropert
    yandsof or
    th.

    Dev
    iance:
    Absol
    uteorRel
    ati
    ve?

    Wecandefi
    nedevi
    ancei
    nanabsolut
    ewayitwouldmeanthati
    nal
    lsoci
    eti
    es
    andatal
    lti
    mescer
    tai
    nfor
    msofbehav
    iourwi
    ll
    beconsi
    der
    eddev
    iant
    .

    Twosi
    gni
    fi
    canti
    deasofabsol
    utedevi
    ance:

     Fir
    stl
    y,itwouldmeant hatallsoci
    eti
    eswould,forsomer easonorot
    her,develop
    rul
    est hatpr
    escri
    bedcer t
    ainformsofbehav i
    our(or“act
    s”,t
    ousethejargon).by
    understandi
    ng the reasons for such prescr
    ipti
    ons we would be abl et o
    understandtheessenti
    alnatur
    eofdev i
    anceandsocialcontr
    ol.

     Secondly,i
    twouldmeant hatthestudyofdevianceshouldconcentrateonwhy
    peoplebreakcertai
    nr ules.Thatis,i
    twouldnecessari
    lyfocusont hedeviant(or
    cri
    minal)and,bysodoi ng,wouldfocusonav ar
    ietyoffact
    ors,bot
    hpsy chologi
    cal
    (devi
    ants as “damaged per sonali
    ti
    es,forex ample) orsocial( f
    ami l
    y and
    educati
    onalbackground, cl
    ass,genderandage,etc.

    Wecandef inedevi
    anceinar elat
    ivewayi twoul dmeant hatdif
    fer
    entsoci eti
    esat
    differ
    entt i
    mesdevel
    opdiff
    erentwaysofseei ngt hesamef orm ofbehaviour.Thus,i
    n
    effect,someonecouldcommitanactinonesoci etythatwoul
    dbeseenasdev i
    antwhil
    e
    theycoul dcommitt
    hesameacti nadiff
    erentsocietyandbeseenasnon- deviant
    .

    Cr
    oss-
    Cul
    tur
    alandHi
    stor
    icalCompar
    isons

    Asimplewayofi ll
    ustr
    ati
    ngt hei deathatdevi
    anceisactualyar
    l elat
    iverat
    herthanan
    absol
    uteconceptistoconsi derhow t hesamef orm ofbehavi
    ourcanbeconsi der
    ed
    devi
    antornon-
    devianti
    ndi f
    ferentsocieti
    es(cr
    oss-
    cult
    uralcompar
    ison)andint
    hesame
    soci
    etyatdi
    ff
    erentti
    mes( hi
    storicalcompari
    son).

     Homosexuali
    ty
     Sui
    cide
     Dri
    nkingal
    cohol
     Bei
    ngmar r
    iedtomorethanoneper
    sonatt
    hesamet
    ime.
     Womenwear ingt
    rouser
    s.

    181
     Ki
    l
    li
    ngsomeone

    TheSoci alConstr
    uct ionofDevi
    ance
    Oner easonforargui ngthatdevi sar
    ancei el
    ati
    veconcepti
    stosensit
    izeyoutotheidea
    thatconceptsofdev iant/non-
    devi
    antbehavi
    ourar
    esocialconst
    ruct
    ions.Thati
    s,each
    societyorcult
    urecr eatesrul
    esofbehavi
    ourbywhichitsmembersaregov er
    nedand,of
    necessity,
    control
    led.

    AspectofDev
    iance

    1. i
    deol ogyisanimportantaspectofthesoci
    ologyofdevi
    ance,sincei
    tseemsevi
    dent
    thatoneoft hecrucialvari
    abl
    esinvol
    vedindef i
    ningbehaviourasdevi
    ant/non-
    deviantisthebasi
    cv aluespeopl
    einanysoci
    ety(orsoci
    algroup)hol
    d.

    Howev er,whil
    ethi
    sisclear
    lyimportant,i
    deologyaloneisnotasuff
    ici
    entform of
    explanat
    ionsinceitiscl
    earthatpeopl ecan,inef
    fect,thi
    nkwhattheyli
    keabout
    theirownandot herpeopl
    e’
    sbehav i
    our( youarefree,forexampl
    e,t
    obel i
    evethat
    i
    t’snotdev i
    anttowearyourunderpantsony ourheadandwanderar oundsinging
    “I’
    m alit
    tl
    epixie”
    ).Whatmat t
    ersisy ourabil
    i
    ty(orinabil
    it
    y)toi
    mposey ourideas
    aboutnormal i
    tyonother
    s.

    2.Wemustbui l
    dt heconceptofpoweri ntoanyexpl anati
    onofdev iant/non- dev
    iant
    behavi
    our
    .Inthisr espect,wecouldarguethatcer tai
    nactsareconsi dereddeviant
    notbecausetheyar e“inher
    entlywrong”(asI ’
    v esuggested,nof orm ofhuman
    behavi
    our
    ,howev erextremeordi sgust
    ingwemi ghtbeli
    eveittobe,i s“alwaysand
    ever
    ywhere”wrong)butbecausepower fulgroupsinanysocietysayt heyaredeviant
    andhavetheabil
    itytoimposet hei
    rdefi
    nit
    ionofnor mali
    tyonothers.

    3.I
    tbecomesclearthatdeviancei
    snotsomuchaquest
    ionofwhatyoudobutmorea
    quest
    ionofwhet herornotother
    sobjectt
    owhaty
    oudo( andwhattheyar
    eabl
    eto
    dotoyouinordertotrytostopyoudoingi
    t).

    “Devi
    anceisnotaqual
    i
    tyofwhatpeopl
    edo[
    theact
    ].Rat
    her
    ,iti
    saqual
    i
    tyofhow
    peopl
    ereactt
    owhaty
    oudo”
    .

    Soci
    etalandSi
    tuat
    ional
    Dev
    iance

    Theabov er epr
    esentsanoppor tuni
    tyto bri
    eflyconsiderwhatPl ummerhas
    arguedi sthediff
    erencebetweensociet
    al(thati
    s,society
    -wide)andsit
    uational(
    thati
    s,
    l
    ocalised)deviance,sincethisdist
    inct
    ionhelpstor einf
    orcet heideathatbehav i
    our
    considereddeviantinonesit
    uati
    onmaybeconsi derednon-devianti
    nanother.

    By“ soci
    etaldeviance”Pl
    ummermeansthev ar
    iouscat
    egor
    iesofbehav
    iourt
    hatare
    ei
    therill
    egalorwhichare“
    commonl
    ysensed”bypeopl
    etobedevi
    ant(
    suchasswear
    ing
    atyourteacher)
    .

    “Sit
    uationaldeviance”,ontheotherhand,r ef
    erstothewaydi ff
    erentsub-
    cul
    tur
    al(or
    sit
    uat i
    onal)groupsdev el
    opnormsofbehav i
    ourthatmaybeatoddswi tht
    hoseof
    “societyasawhol e”.I
    nsuchsituat
    ions,behavi
    ourthatmightbeconsider
    edsoci
    etal
    ly
    deviant(thef
    t,homosexuali
    tyandsof or
    th)maybeper f
    ect
    lyaccept
    able.

    Thef
    ollowi
    ngexample:
     Inoursociety
    ,kil
    li
    ngsomeoneisconsi
    der
    eddev
    iant
    .Tonotgoar
    oundki
    l
    li
    ng
    peopl
    eis,
    ther
    efor
    e,non-
    dev
    iant
    .

     However,f
    orasol
    dier
    ,fi
    ght
    ingi
    nawar
    ,ther
    ever
    sei
    str
    ue.Tonotki
    l
    ltheenemy
    i
    sconsider
    eddevi
    ant.

     Thus,i
    nthel
    att
    ersi
    tuat
    iont
    hebasi
    cval
    uesandnor
    msof“
    soci
    ety
    ”ar
    einv
    ert
    ed

    182
    byt
    hedemandsoft
    he“
    sit
    uat
    ion”
    .

    Cul
    pabl
    eandNon-
    Cul
    pabl
    eDev
    iance

    Af urtherdi
    sti
    ncti
    onwecanbet weendiffer
    enttypesofdeviantbehaviouri
    sonet hat
    recognisestheideathatther
    eisaqual i
    tati
    vedif
    ferencebet
    weenpeopl ewhocommi t
    deviantactsconsciousl
    y(andwi t
    haf ul
    lunderst
    andingofthef acttheyarebehaving
    deviantly
    )andthosewhosedev i
    antbehav
    iourmay, f
    orexampl
    e, beacci
    dentalornof
    ault
    oftheirown.

    Culpable deviance refer


    st o actsf orwhi ch t
    he i
    ndivi
    dualper pet
    ratorcan be hel
    d
    personallyaccountable.Theyare,inshort,actsofdevi
    ancecommi tt
    edbypeopleinthe
    knowl edgethatsuchact saredev iant
    .Exampl esheremi ghtincludecr i
    messuchas
    mur der,t
    heftorv i
    olence,aswellasawi devariet
    yofnon-cr
    iminaldeviance.

    Non-cul
    pabl
    e devi
    ance,on the ot
    herhand,ref
    ersto act
    sforwhich t
    he i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    per
    petrat
    orisnotheldpersonal
    lyaccount
    abl
    e.Exampl
    esofthi
    sty
    peofnon-cul
    pabl
    e
    devi
    antbehavi
    ourmighti
    ncludedev
    iantact
    scommitt
    edby:

    1.Peopleclassi
    fi
    edas“ mental
    lyi
    ll
    ”.Inoursoci
    etywerecogni
    sethatt
    he“ ment
    ally
    -
    i
    ll”(howeverthi
    si sdef
    ined)cannotbehel dcul
    pabl
    ef ordev
    iantact
    ionssince
    theyarenotconsider
    edtounderstandtheval
    uesandnormsof“normal
    ”society.

    2.Chi
    ldren.I
    noursociety
    .forexample,theageofcriminalresponsi
    bil
    it
    yvar
    iesf
    or
    di
    ffer
    entformsofcrime.Iti
    s,however,agener
    alrul
    et hatchil
    drenundert
    heage
    of10cannotbeheldresponsi
    bleforanycri
    minalactstheycommi t.

    Oper
    ati
    onal
    izi
    ngTheConceptofDev
    iance

    Onereasonforwanti
    ngt ooperat
    ional
    iset
    heconceptofdevi
    ancei
    sthatweneedto
    t
    hinkclear
    lyabouthow peopl
    eact ual
    l
    yarri
    veatthecri
    ter
    iausedt
    oclassi
    fyv
    ari
    ous
    for
    msofdev i
    ance:

    Hagansuggestst
    hatt
    herearethreemainway stomeasuretheser
    iousnessofdev
    iant
    behavi
    our(whenweconsi
    derconcepti
    onsofdev i
    ancei
    ntermsof"societ
    yasawhol e"
    ,
    rat
    herthanfr
    om t
    hevi
    ewpointofanypart
    icul
    arsoci
    algr
    oup)
    .

    1. Thedegreeofagreementaboutthewrongfulnessoft
    heact:
    Inthi
    srespect
    ,theremightexi
    starangeofpossiblelevel
    sofagr
    eementwhi
    chgof
    rom
    almostt
    otaldi
    sagreementtohighl
    evel
    sofagreement .

    2.Thesoci etal
    ev al
    uati
    onoft heharminfl
    ict
    edbytheact:
    I
    nthi
    srespect,whatissigni
    ficantisageneralsoci
    alassessmentofbot
    hper
    sonaland,
    mosti
    mportantl
    y,widersoci
    al,harm causedbytheactofdevi
    ance.

    3.Thedegr eeofsev er
    it
    yoft hesocialresponset ot heact:
    Inal lcasesofpossi bl
    edev i
    ance,t he"socialreaction"t obehavi
    ourisgoingtobe
    signif
    icantand,asy oumi ghtexpect ,therangeofr esponsesgoesf r
    om fai
    rlymi nor
    ,
    highly-
    local
    ised,responses(tell
    i
    ngsomeonet ogoaway ,sendi
    ngthem t
    oCoventryand
    sof orth)
    ,throughsuch" personal"responsesasphy sicalviol
    encetomoresociet
    y-wide
    responsessuchasi mprisonmentandev enCapitalPuni shment.

    Accor
    dingtoHagan'
    sfr
    amewor
    k,t
    her
    efor
    e,t
    hemostser
    iousact
    sofdev
    iancei
    nany
    soci
    etyar
    ethoset
    hat
    :

    1.I
    nvol
    vebr
    oadl
    evel
    sofagr
    eementaboutt
    hewr
    ongf
    ulnessoft
    heact
    .

    183
    2.I
    nvol
    vehi
    ghl
    evel
    sofsoci
    al(
    asopposedt
    oper
    sonal
    )har
    m.

    3.I
    nvol
    veav
    eryst
    rongsoci
    alr
    eact
    iont
    otheactacr
    osssoci
    etyasawhol
    e.

    Drawingontheabove,Haganmakesadist
    inct
    ionbet
    weenbot
    h"cr
    ime"and"
    dev
    iance"
    andthevar
    iet
    iesofl
    i
    kelysoci
    alr
    esponset
    oeachinthefol
    l
    owi
    ngway:

    1. Cr
    ime:

    1. Consensus(f
    orexample,murder,
    theft
    ,et
    c.)
    .
    Cri
    mesaboutwhoseser iousnessthereisgener
    alagr
    eement.ForHagan,cr
    imesin
    thi
    scategoryareseenasbeingmostser i
    ouspreci
    sel
    ybecausether
    eissomef or
    m
    ofgeneral
    agreementaboutthei
    rseri
    ousness.

    2. Conf l
    i
    ct( f
    orexampl e,publ i
    cdemonst r
    ati
    ons,drugof fences,il
    legalabortion
    etc.)
    .
    Cr i
    mesov erwhich" publi
    copi nion"isdivi
    ded.ForHagan, cr
    imesi nthiscategoryar e
    seen to be t r
    eated less ser i
    ously,precisely because argument s and conf l
    icts
    surroundt hem.Forexampl e,"drugabuse"maybedef i
    nedasa" medicalproblem"
    andt hereforeonewher ethedr uguserisi nneedofhel pr atherthanpuni shment
    (thesekindsofcr imesar esomet i
    mesr eferr
    ed-toas" cri
    meswi t
    houtv i
    ctims",si
    nce
    noper sonot herthant hedr ugabuseri sdi rectl
    y"inj
    ured"byt hebehav i
    our-ot her
    formsofsuchcr imemi ghtbet hingsli
    ketaxev asion,i
    ll
    egalparking,et
    c.).

    2. Devi
    ance(
    non-
    cri
    minaldevi
    ance)
    :

    a) Soci
    aldevi
    ati
    ons( f
    orexample,i
    nsani
    ty,
    betrayaloft
    rust
    ,juveni
    leprankset
    c.)
    .
    Thesetypesofbehav i
    ourwillbev i
    ewedasdev iant(becauset heywil
    l,insomeway ,
    breaksoci
    alnorms)buttheyarenotvi
    ewedascr i
    mi nal
    because,forexample,t
    heyare:

     Hi
    ghl
    ylocal
    i
    sed(
    abet
    ray
    aloft
    rustmayonl
    yinv
    olv
    eacoupl
    eofpeopl
    e).

     Somethingthei
    ndi
    vi
    dualhasnocont
    rolov
    erandt
    her
    efor
    enor
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    ty
    for(
    insani
    ty)
    .

     Notpar
    ti
    cul
    arl
    yser
    iousi
    nrel
    ati
    ont
    othesoci
    alhar
    mtheydo.

    b)Social di
    ver
    sions( f
    orexample,st
    ylesofdr
    ess,
    manner
    ismsetc.
    ).
    Behavi
    ourint hiscategorytendstobeusedmor easanindicat
    ionofli
    kel
    yfor
    msof
    potent
    ialdeviance (
    although,in manycasest heymaybe mi l
    dlydevi
    antfor
    msof
    behavi
    our)thananythingelse.

    Forexample,dressi
    ngasa"hippy"mayindi
    cat
    etopeopl
    et hather
    eissomeonewhoi s
    l
    ikel
    yt obeinvol
    vedinsomeform ofdr
    ugabuse(whi
    ch,
    ifyou'r
    eint
    erest
    ed,
    repr
    esent
    sa
    form ofst
    ereoty
    ping)
    .

    I
    ngener al,wecannot ethatbehavi
    ourthatfall
    sintot hecri
    mi nalcategor
    yi sbehaviour
    t
    hatisregul atedbysomef orm offor
    malsoci alprocessofattempt edregulat
    ion(poli
    ce,
    l
    egalsyst em andsof ort
    h),whil
    ebehaviourthatfall
    sintothedev iancecategoryi
    sl i
    kely
    t
    ober egul atedby
    i
    nfor
    mal cont r
    olagenci
    es(parent
    s,peergroupsandsof or
    th)
    .

    Theor
    iesofDev
    iance:

    1. Funct
    ional
    ism:AnOver
    view
    TheFuncti
    onalistper
    spect
    ivei
    saf orm ofSt
    ructural
    i
    stsoci
    ologyand,assuch,wecan
    i
    nit
    ial
    l
    ychar act
    erizei
    tasaf m ofmacr
    or osociologi
    calt
    heorizi
    ng.I
    nt hi
    srespect,t
    he
    maintheoreti
    calquesti
    onaddressedbysociol
    ogistsworki
    ngwi thi
    ntheFunctional
    ist
    per
    specti
    veisthatof:

    184
    Howdosoci al
    syst
    ems("
    soci
    eti
    es")hol
    dtoget
    her?
    Inthei
    rattemptstopr
    ovi
    deananswert othi
    squesti
    on,Funct
    ional
    i
    stshav
    eini
    ti
    all
    y
    concent
    rat
    edupontwoi
    deasthatarecl
    osel
    yrel
    atedt
    otheabove:

     Howisordermai
    ntai
    nedinanysoci
    ety
    ?
     Whatar
    et hemai
    nsourcesofst
    abil
    i
    tyinanysoci
    ety

    Funct
    ional
    i
    stsociol
    ogist
    s are notpart
    icular
    ly concer
    ned wi
    th an exami
    nat
    ion of
    i
    ndivi
    duali
    deas,
    meaningsandint
    erpr
    etat
    ions.

    Whatt heydot endtoemphasise,however


    ,istheideathatthebasisofsoci alorderisto
    be found in shared val
    ues /consensus (hence t
    his perspect
    ive somet i
    mes bei ng
    ref
    erred-t
    oasConsensusSt ructur
    ali
    sm todisti
    ngui
    shitfrom theConf l
    ictStructur
    ali
    sm
    ofwriter
    ssuchasMar x).

    Twomaj
    orconcept
    soff
    unct
    ional
    ism:

    1.SocialSystem:
    I
    nbasicterms,"
    societ
    y"i
    sseenasanor
    gani
    sedst
    ruct
    ure(
    orf
    ramewor
    k)ofi
    nter
    -r
    elat
    ed
    par
    ts(cal
    ledI
    nstit
    uti
    ons)
    .

    2.Soci alStruct
    ure:
    Thisrefer
    stot hespecif
    icfr
    ameworkar
    oundwhi
    chanysociet
    yisbased(i
    neffect
    ,soci
    al
    str
    ucturereferst othespecif
    icwaysi
    nwhichvar
    iousinsti
    tut
    ionsar
    er el
    atedtoone
    anotheronaf uncti
    onalbasi
    s).

    Todevel
    optheseideas,I'
    venotedthattheconceptofsociali
    nst
    it
    uti
    oni
    scent
    ralt
    othi
    s
    per
    spect
    iveandaninsti
    tuti
    oncanbel ooselydefinedas:
    “Abroadpatt
    ernofshared,st
    able,
    socialrelat
    ionships”
    .

    Inthissense,aninst
    it
    uti
    oninv
    olveslar
    ge-
    scal
    e,or
    gani
    sed,behav
    iourpat
    ter
    nst
    hat
    per
    sistov
    erti
    me.Examplesi
    noursoci
    etyi
    ncl
    ude:

     Famil
    y,
     Work,
     Educat
    ionand
     Rel
    igi
    on.

    When Functi
    onal
    ists study "societ
    y",t her
    efor
    e,t hey look i
    nit
    ial
    l
    y ati nsti
    tut
    ional
    arr
    angementsandrel
    ationshi
    ps,sincet heseareseenast hebasi
    cbuil
    ding-
    blocksofany
    soci
    ety.Thewayi
    nwhi chinst
    ituti
    onsr elat
    etooneanot herdeter
    minesthestruct
    ureand
    basi
    ccharact
    erofanysociety
    .

    Inst
    it
    uti
    onalarr
    angement
    sar
    eal
    sosi
    gni
    fi
    canti
    nrel
    ati
    ont
    otheconceptofcul
    tur
    e,whi
    ch
    canbedefinedasa:

    “Br
    oadpat
    ter
    nofval
    uesandbeli
    efsthatbot
    hcharact
    eriseapar
    ti
    cul
    arwayofl
    i
    fe
    andwhi
    charetr
    ansmi
    tt
    edfrom gener
    ati
    ontogenerat
    ion”.

    Themai nreasonf ort hesigni


    ficanceoftherelati
    onshipist hatpeoplearebornintoan
    exist
    ingsystem ofinstit
    uti
    onalar r
    angement
    s.
    Inordertolearnhowt obehav einsociet
    y,t
    herefore,arr
    angement shav etobemadef or
    peopletofit-
    intoexisti
    ngpatternsofbehaviour(patter
    nst hatareestabl
    ished-andhel d
    rel
    ati
    v el
    ystableandconst antov erti
    me-byinstit
    utional
    isedpatternsofbehavi
    our).This
    processissociali
    zation:

    Valuesandbel
    ief
    saretransmitt
    edtoi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    s(andint
    ernali
    sed-thati
    s,t
    heybecome
    anessenti
    alpartofani ndi
    vidual
    '
    ssoci
    almake-up)
    ,throughav ari
    etyofsoci
    ali
    zi
    ng
    agenci
    es(thefamil
    y,peergroup,massmedi
    aandsof ort
    h).Theseagenci
    esmaybe

    185
    i
    nst i
    tut
    ionsint heirownr i
    ght(thef amil
    yf orexampl e)orpartofani nsti
    tuti
    onalset-up
    (thepoli
    ce, f
    orexampl e,
    arepartofal egalinstituti
    on).
    Throught hesoci al
    i
    zingpr ocesst hebasi cv aluesofanysoci et
    yar einternal
    isedby
    i
    ndividualsand,f orthistooccur ,Functi
    onalists( suchasTalcottParsons,G. P.
    Mur dock
    andWi ll
    iam Goode)ar guet hatanysocietyisf ounded, maint
    ainedandr epr
    oducedont he
    basisofabr oadv alueconsensus ( i
    nt hisr espect,broadl ev
    elsofagr eementov er
    fundament alvalues,forexample) .

    Var
    iousf
    ormsofbehav i
    our:
    1.Firstl
    y,soci
    etyisseenasasetofi nt
    er-
    relat
    edandmutual
    ly
    -dependentsoci
    al
    str
    uct est
    ur hatexi
    stpri
    ortoanyindivi
    dual-thei
    ndi
    vi
    duall
    ear
    nshowt obehave
    wit
    hinsociet
    yand,i nthi
    srespect,behavesinwaysthatareeffecti
    vel
    ypre-
    defi
    nedbythesesoci
    alstr
    uct
    ures.

    2.Secondly,becausepeopleare,bydef i
    niti
    on,social
    i
    sedi nt
    oasetofexi sti
    ng
    cult
    uralval
    ues(andtheyli
    vetheirl
    iv
    esinaccordancewi t
    hsuchval
    ues),i
    tfol
    lows
    thatallhumanact i
    vity/choiceef f
    ect
    ivel
    ytakespl aceinthecontextoft hi
    s
    i
    nstit
    uti
    onall
    y-det
    erminedcul
    turalor
    der.

    The soci
    ali
    sation pr
    ocess -t
    hrough whi
    ch cult
    uralv al
    ues ar
    etr
    ansmit
    ted tothe
    i
    ndivi
    dual-placesl i
    mit
    suponpeople'
    shorizons,percepti
    onofpot
    enti
    alcoursesof
    act
    ionandsof ort
    h.

    Devi
    ati
    onoccursbecausepeoplear
    eplacedunderv
    ari
    ouski
    ndsofsoci
    alpr
    essur
    ethat
    ef
    fect
    ivel
    yli
    mitthei
    rpotenti
    alchoi
    cesofacti
    onanditist
    oanunderst
    andi
    ngofsuch
    i
    deasthatweneedtonowt urn.

    From Durkhei
    m’spoint
    -of
    -vi
    ew,i
    n orderto under
    stand t
    he f
    unct
    ion ofcr
    ime,i
    tis
    necessar
    ytolookatt
    hewayhecharact
    eri
    sedthenatureof

    Twobasi
    ctypesofsoci
    etyi
    nunder
    standi
    ngt
    hef
    unct
    ionofcr
    imebyDur
    khei
    m

    1.Smal l
    -scalesoci
    eties-suchasr ural,pre-
    industri
    al,societi
    es,soci
    alorganisati
    on
    wasseent obef undament all
    ybasedar oundclosel y-
    sharednormsandv al
    ues.In
    suchsoci eti
    est hereisar el
    ativel
    yl imitednumberofsoci alrel
    ati
    onshipsand
    thoset hatexi
    sttendt obebaseduponcl ose,
    per sonal,normsandv al
    ues.Smal l-
    scaleDur khei
    m ar guedt hatsincenor msandv aluestendt obet hesocialglue
    thatbindspeoplet ogetheringroups, thecombi nationofinformalsoci
    alcont r
    ols,
    restr
    ictedgeographicmobi li
    tyandt hel i
    ke,ser
    vedast hebasisforsocialorder
    .

    2.Large-scalesocieti
    es- associeti
    esdev elopandgrow,Durkheim arguedt hatthe
    mor altieswhichbi ndpeoplet ogetherareweakenedbecauset heycannotbe
    continuall
    yreinforcedbycl ose,per sonal,cont
    act
    .Thus,associ eti
    esbecome
    mor e-complexint ermsoft hemul ti
    tudeofsoci alr
    elat
    ionshi
    pst hatexist
    ,a
    mechani sm toregul atetheset ypesofr el
    ati
    onshi
    pshast obedev eloped-and
    thi
    smechani sm is,i
    nef f
    ect,alegalsystem.

    I
    nt hi
    srespect,l
    egal
    systemsdevel
    opinor
    dertocodi
    fymoral
    behav
    iourand,i
    nsodoi
    ng,
    Durkhei
    m ar gued,t
    his pr
    ocess l
    aysthe gr
    oundworkf
    orourunder st
    andi
    ng oft
    he
    funct
    ionsofbothlawandcrime.

    Thesef
    unct
    ionscanbeout
    li
    nedasf
    oll
    ows:

     Fi
    rst
    ly,l
    awsmar ktheboundar
    iesofaccept
    abl
    eandunaccept
    abl
    ebehav
    iouri
    n
    anyl
    arge-scal
    esoci
    ety
    .

     Secondly,l
    awsareav erypubl
    icfor
    m ofboundarymar ki
    ng.Unli
    kenorms,for
    example,theyar
    ewr it
    ten-downandappl
    icabl
    et oever
    yoneinasociet
    y.Inthis
    respect
    ,thecodi
    ficat
    ionofmor al
    sintol
    awsr equi
    respubl
    icdispl
    ayst
    hatsuch

    186
    boundari
    esexist
    .Suchdisplaysmaybeseent obeaf unct
    ionofsuchagencies
    as:
     Themassmedi a-wher ebycri
    minalbehavi
    ourispubli
    cized.
     TheCour ts-wherei
    nt hetr
    adit
    ionsandrit
    ualsofthelegalsyst
    em ser
    veto
    seti
    tapartf
    rom ever
    y daybehavi
    our.

    3.Thi r
    dly,cri
    mi nalbehav iourwasseenbyDur kheimt obet hewayi nwhi chlegal
    boundarieswer et ested.Hear guedt hatbecausel awswer enecessari
    lysoci al
    stat
    ics(theyar esl ow t ochangeonceadopt ed) ,therewast hepossibili
    tythat
    changesi npeople'sbehav iouroverti
    mewoul df ailt
    ober efl
    ectedbyappr opr
    iate
    changesi nt helaw -unl esssomemechani sm exi stedtopr ovidetheimpet us
    wherebychangecoul dbeaccommodat ed.
    Criminalbehav i
    our,ineffect,repr esent
    st hedynamicf orcewherebypeopl earemadet o
    reassesst heappl icabi
    li
    tyofv ariouslaws.Wher el awsar eout-of-
    stepwi t
    hgener al
    behav i
    our,t
    heyneedt obechanged.

    Amoder nexampl
    eoft hisideami ghtbefoundint heint
    roducti
    onoft heCommunity
    Charge("
    Pol
    lTax"
    )inBrit
    ainintheearly1980’
    s;becausethelawwaswi delydi
    sobey
    ed,
    thegover
    nmentwasfor
    cedt orethi
    nkit'
    satt
    it
    udetothispart
    icul
    arlaw.
    ..

    4.Finally
    ,crimehasani ntegrat
    ingf unct
    ion,int hatpubli
    cal arm andoutrageat
    criminalactsservestodr aw t
    hel aw-abidingclosertogether.Thi
    s,accor
    dingto
    Dur kheim,servestoincreaselevelsofsoci alsoli
    dari
    ty( t
    hecommunalf eeli
    ngs
    thatpeopl ehav eforoneanot her,thesenseofbel ongingtoacoher entsocial
    group/soci etyandsof ort
    h).I
    nthisway ,thebondsbet weenpeopl ewereseento
    becont inual
    lyrei
    nfor
    cedbycr i
    mi nalbehaviour.

    Al
    thoughDur
    kheim wasclearaboutt
    hef
    uncti
    onalsi
    gni
    fi
    canceofcri
    me,hewasal
    so
    awareoft
    hefactt
    hattoomuchcrimei
    nasoci
    etywoul
    dcreat
    eprobl
    ems.

    Inter
    msoft heabove,ther
    efor
    e,Dur
    khei
    m arguedthatthebasi
    sofsoci
    alor
    derin
    complex,i
    ndust
    ri
    al,soci
    eti
    eswast obefoundintherel
    ati
    onshi
    pbet
    weentwoideas,
    namely:

     TheCol l
    ectiveConscience:
    Thisideai susedt oexpr esst hewayi nwhi chcoll
    ect i
    vebel ief
    s,valuesandsof orth
    combi netocreateaki ndof" collect
    ivesenseofconsci ousness"aboutv ar
    iousaspect s
    ofthesocialworl
    dwi t
    hinwhichpeopl eexist
    .Inef f
    ect,i
    treflectstheideathat"soci
    ety"is
    verymuchal ive-j ustlikeahumanbei ngi salive-andt heconsci enceofsocietyi s
    expressedasaki ndof" sum total"ofthebeli
    efsandv aluesofpeopl ewhobel ongtot hat
    societ
    y .I
    neff
    ect,thecol l
    ecti
    veconsci encerepresent
    st hewi llofsoci
    etyasawhol e,just
    asthei ndi
    vi
    dualconsciencer epresentsthewillofpar
    ticularindivi
    duals.

     Legal r
    ules:
    ForDur khei
    m -asf ormanyFunct i
    onal
    i
    stwr i
    ters-legalrulesrepresentaform of
    object
    iveexpressionoft hecoll
    ecti
    veconsci
    ence. Inthisrespect,l
    awsar ebasical
    ly
    norms" wri
    tlarge"-t
    hatis,nor
    msofbehav i
    ourthatdon'
    tjustappl
    yinformall
    ytospecif
    ic
    groupsbutwhi ch,onthecontr
    ary,
    areappl
    iedformall
    ytoeveryoneinsociet
    y.

    Aswehav eseen,Dur khei


    m ar
    guest hatpeopleareshapedbytheirsoci
    alexperi
    ences
    (theyexperi
    encesocietyasamor alfor
    cebearingdownuponthem)andi tfol
    l
    owst hatif
    thecollect
    iveconsci
    encei sweakened( by,f
    orexample,toomuchcr i
    minalbehaviour
    ),
    themor alt
    iesthatbi
    ndpeopletogetherareal
    soweakenedwast hatofanomie.

    Anomi elit
    erall
    y meanast at
    eofnor mlessness-asi t
    uati
    oninwhi chnonor msof
    behaviourareinoperat
    ion.
    Thisoccur r
    edwhent radi
    ti
    onalnor
    msofbehav i
    ourwer eunderminedwi t
    houtbeing
    repl
    acedbynew nor ms.Intheabsenceofcl earmoralguide-
    li
    nesfortheirbehavi
    our
    ,
    peopleexperiencefeel
    i
    ngsofanxiet
    y,ai
    mlessness,purposel
    essness,di
    sor
    ientat
    ionand
    soforth.

    187
    Giddens("
    Soci
    ology
    ")descr
    ibesanomieasa"
    Processwher
    ebysoci
    alnor
    msl
    oset
    hei
    r
    holdoveri
    ndi
    vi
    dual/groupbehav
    i "
    our.

    Anomi e,t
    herefore,wasseenbyDur kheimtobeav erydangerousphenomenon,mai nl
    y
    becausewhenpeopl eno-l
    ongerbeli
    eveintheirobl
    igati
    onst oothers(
    becausetheyno-
    l
    ongerhav eaconceptofacol l
    ecti
    veconsciencebywhi chtoguidethei
    rbehavi
    our),t
    hey
    rever
    tt osel
    f-i
    nterest
    .Inef
    fect
    ,theyattempttolookafterthemselveswit
    houtbotheri
    ng
    toomuchabouthowt hi
    smayaffecttheli
    vesofothers.
    ..

    Thus,highlev
    elsofcr
    iminalbehavi
    ourweakenthecol
    l
    ect
    iveconsci
    enceandproduce
    anomie.Sincehumanbei ngscannotli
    veinast at
    eoftrueanomief orl
    ong,social
    col
    lapseoccurs,
    pri
    ort
    otheestabli
    shmentofsomenewfor
    m ofmoralor
    der.
    ..

    St
    rai
    nTheor
    y:R.
    K.Mer
    ton.

    Inthi
    sr espect
    ,Mer t
    onal ter
    edt hegeneralfocusofDur kheim'suseoft heconceptof
    anomie,changingitfrom aconditi
    onwher ebyastateoftr uenorml essnessexist
    ed(that
    i
    s,asi t
    uationinwhi chnomor alguide-l
    inesforpeoples'behav i
    ourexi sted)toonei n
    whichindivi
    dualscoul dexperi
    enceanomi ei
    ftheywereunabl etof oll
    ow t hedominant
    normsinanysoci et
    y.I nthi
    ssense,Mer tonisarguingt hatindiv
    idualscanexper i
    ence
    anomienotbecausenor mativ
    egui de-
    li
    nesdonotexi st,butr atherbecauset heyar e
    unabl
    e( orunwill
    i
    ng)tobehav einway sthatconfor
    mt osuchnor ms.

    I
    nsuchasi tuation,anomi eoccursbecausethereisatensionbetweenwhatpeopl ehav e
    beensocial
    izedt odesi reandwhatt heyareabl etoachievethroughlegitimatemeans.
    Mertonarguedt hatt hedisj
    unctionbetweenwant ing"success"andther el
    ativelackof
    l
    egit
    imateoppor t
    unit
    yf orsuccessdidnotmeant hatpeoplesimplygav e-upwant i
    ngt o
    besuccessful.Thiswasnotpossi bl
    ebecauset hewholethrustofthei
    rsoci al
    izati
    onwas
    gear
    edt owardst hev alueofsuccess.I nasituati
    onwher ebypeopledesi redsuccess-
    yetwereeffectivelydeniedit-hear guedthatpeoplewoul df i
    ndother ,probablyl ess
    l
    egit
    imate,meanst owardsdesiredends.

    Beforewel ookatt hewayi nwhi chMer toncharacter


    izedawi derangeofpossible
    responses tot hi
    s anomi c si
    tuat
    ion ( t
    he socialstrai
    nt hatis caused by wanting
    somet hingthati
    tisnotpossibletogetl egit
    imatel
    y),i
    t'
    sworthnot ingthatinat
    tempt
    ing
    toexplainhowpeoplet r
    iedtoresol
    v ethis"endsandmeans"pr oblem, Mertonwasaware
    thatdiffer
    entsoci
    algroupshaddifferentexpectati
    onsaboutthemeani ngofsuccess.
    Forsomeonewhohasbeenunempl oyedf ormanymont hs,forexampl e,t
    hesimplef
    act
    ofgettingajobmaybeconsi deredassuccess-adesi redendhasbeenmet .

    Mertonelabor
    atedfi
    v ebasicresponsestot
    heanomicsit
    uat
    ionwhi
    chheclai
    medtosee
    i
    nAmer icansociet
    y.Hecl assif
    iedthesety
    pesofconfor
    mityanddev
    iancei
    nter
    msof
    accept
    anceanddeni alofbasi
    cendsandmeans:

    1.Conf or mityappl iest othel aw- abidingcitizen.Thesepeopl eacceptbot hsoci ally


    -
    producedendsandt hesoci all
    y -
    legiti
    mat edmeanst oachievet hem.
    2. I
    nnov ati
    oncoul dappl yt oent r
    epr eneurswhodev elopnew meanst oachi eve
    social l
    y -
    desiredendsaswel last hosewhooper ateont hemar ginsofcr i
    mi nal/
    non- criminalmeans( t
    he" ArthurDal ey"typewhocut s-
    corners,forexampl e) .I
    t
    could equal lyappl yto cr iminal s;thosepeopl ewho pur suedesi red endsby
    il
    legitimat emeans.
    3.Ritualism mi ghtr efertosomeonewhoconf ormst osociall
    y-approv edmeans, but
    hasl ostsi ghtoft heends( orhascomet oacceptt hattheywi llnev erachi eve
    them) .Thisper soni slikelyt obesomeonewho" goest hrought hemot ions"of
    wor kingwhi lstsecr etl
    yknowi ngt hattheywi l
    lnev erachiev ethemostdesi r able
    thingssoci etyhast ooffer .Suchpeopl ear el i
    kelytobeel der l
    yandt heypr obabl y
    enjoyar easonabl ycomf or tabl
    el ifestyl
    e.
    4.Anexampl eofr etreati
    sm i ssomeonewho" dr ops-out"ofmai nst ream soci ety
    .
    Thedr ugaddi ct
    swhor etreatsi nt oasel f-
    cont ainedwor ld,theal coholi
    cwhoi s
    unabl et ohol d-downast eadyj obandsof orth.
    5. Politi
    caldev iancei sagoodexampl eoft her ebelli
    onr esponse,whet hert hisi s

    188
    expressedi
    nt ermsofwor ki
    ngf
    orar
    evol
    uti
    onar
    ygr
    ouport
    hroughpol
    i
    tical
    ter
    rori
    sm /f
    reedom-f
    ight
    ing.

    2.Inter
    acti
    onali
    stPer specti
    ve
    Thi
    sper
    specti
    veisnor mall
    yconsider
    edt
    oconsi
    stoft
    hreepossi
    blev
    ari
    ati
    ons,
    namel
    y:
     Phenomenol ogy.
     Symbol i
    cI nt
    eracti
    on.
     Ethnomet hodology.

    "I
    nteracti
    oni
    sm"-somer efert
    othem as" phenomenol
    ogical
    "theor
    iesor"SocialActi
    on"
    theori
    es-butwhat evertheterminol
    ogyused,i t
    ’sevi
    dentthattheyr ef
    ert oaqui t
    e
    specifi
    cwayofl ookingatandexpl ai
    ningthesocialworl
    d-awayt hatisqual i
    tat
    ivel
    y
    diff
    erenttobot
    hFunct i
    onali
    stper
    specti
    v es(aswehaveseen)andConfli
    ctperspecti
    ves.

    I
    ngener al
    ,I
    nteracti
    onistper
    specti
    vestendtoconcentrat
    eonr elati
    vel
    ysmall-
    scalelev
    els
    ofsociali
    nter
    action(betweenindi
    vidual
    s,smal
    lsocialgroupsandsof or
    th)and,fort
    his
    reason,t
    heyaresomet i
    mesrefer
    red-t
    oasa" mi
    crolevelofsociologi
    calanal
    ysis"
    .

    Thebasi cideast
    hatInter
    acti
    oni
    stsoci
    ologist
    shavei
    ncommon( andwhi
    chmakethem
    diff
    erentinmanyrespectstomacroperspecti
    vesl
    i
    keFunct
    ional
    i
    sm andMarxi
    stConf
    li
    ct
    theori
    es)canbesummar i
    sedasfol
    lows:

    1.Theyf ocusont hewayi nwhi chi ndivi


    duals( or"socialactors"asI nter
    acti
    onist
    s
    l
    iket ocal lthem)act ( t
    hati s,makeconsci ouschoi cesaboutt heirbehavi
    our
    basedupont hewayt heyi nterpretsi t
    uations)-r at
    hert hansimplyr eacttosocial
    stimul ati
    on.
    2.Thewayi nwhi chdifferentsoci alactorsi nterpr
    ett hebehav iourofot hersis
    significantasameansofunder standingthewayi nwhi chthewor ldi
    ssocially
    const ructed.
    3.Thesoci alcont extwit hin which peopl einteractissi gnifi
    cantf orbot htheir
    i
    nt erpretati
    onoft hebehav i
    ourofot hersandt hewayt heyt hemselv eschooseto
    behav eatanygi v ent
    ime.
    Inpart
    icul ar,Meadar guedt hatourbehav iourasi ndiv
    idualsi scondi t
    ionedbyt wo
    aspect
    sofoursel f-
    awar eness( thatis,theabi li
    tyto"seeour selves"asother sseeus).

    a)The"I"aspectwhi
    chl ar
    gel
    yconsi
    stsofspont
    aneousactionsand
    b)The"Me"aspectwhi chconsi
    stsofanawarenessofhowot herpeopl
    eexpectus
    tobehaveatanygivenmomentandi nanygiv
    ensituat
    ion.

    The"I"andthe"Me"areparal
    lelpar
    tsofwhatMeadcall
    ed" TheSelf
    "anditi
    stheabi
    li
    ty
    ofhumanbei ngstodev el
    opa" sel
    f-
    concept
    "that
    ,Meadargued,makesusdi f
    fer
    entt
    o
    thevastmajori
    tyofani
    mals.
    I
    fwel ookatanexampl eofthe" I
    "andthe"Me"bothofthesepointsshoul
    dbecomea
    l
    itt
    leclear
    er.

    I
    fsomeoneacci dental
    lyput
    sthei
    rhandi nt
    oaf i
    re,t
    he"
    I"aspectofthesel
    fisexpressed
    bysuchthingsasfeeli
    ngpain,
    pull
    i
    ngy ourhandoutoft
    heflamesquickl
    yandsof orth.
    The"Me"aspectoft heself
    ,however
    ,willcondi
    ti
    onhowtheper sonwhohasbur ntthei
    r
    handwil
    lreact.

    Thi
    sreact
    ionwi
    l
    lbecondi
    ti
    onedbysucht
    hingsas:

    1.Whowear
    e(soci
    alf
    act
    orssuchasgender
    ,ageandsof
    ort
    h).

    2.Wher
    ewear
    e(athome,
    inpubl
    i
    candsof
    ort
    h).

    3.Whowear
    ewi
    th(
    fami
    l
    y,f
    ri
    ends,
    peopl
    ewedon'
    tknow,
    aloneandt
    hel
    i
    ke)
    .

    I
    nInt
    eract
    ioni
    stter
    ms,wecanexpressthi
    sast
    hei
    deat
    hatdev
    iancei
    snotaqual
    i
    tyof
    t
    heact(whatsomeonedoesordoesn'
    tdo)
    .

    189
    DEVI
    ANTBEHAVI
    ORI
    NPERSPECTI
    VE

    Tosayt hatsomet
    hingisdevi
    antistoimplythatsomet
    hingi
    swr
    ongandneedst
    obe
    fi
    xed.Thisi
    sincor
    rectv
    iewforsev
    eralr
    easons.

     Fi
    rst,
    itisi
    mpor t
    anttoremembert hatdev
    iantbehav
    iorisbasi
    call
    ythepr
    oductof
    peopl
    e’sdefinit
    ionsrat
    hersomet hi
    ngnaturalori
    nherent
    .Knowingthi
    sall
    owsus
    toshiftourf ocusfrom theperson’sbehaviort
    othequest i
    on,
    ’Whyi shis/
    her
    behavi
    orbeingcal l
    eddeviant
    ?”

     Second,Dur khei
    m,Er ikson,andot hershavepointedoutthatdevi
    antbehavioris
    notnecessar i
    lyhar mfultogr ouplif
    e.Infact,i
    toftenpl
    ay sanimportantpartin
    keeping the socialor derintact.Dev i
    antbehav i
    orenables gr
    oups to define
    boundari
    es— i tpr eservesstabili
    tywithinthegroupbypot t
    ingoutthecontrast
    betweenwhati si nsidethegr oupandwhati soutsi
    deEr i
    ksonsuggestst hat
    withoutthebat t
    lebet ween”nor mal“anddev i
    ant
    ,”thecommunitywoul dlacka
    senseofi denti
    tyandcohesi on,asenseofwhatmakesi taspecialpl
    aceint he
    l
    argerwor ld.

     Fi
    nall
    y,dev
    iantbehavi
    orappearstobeoneoft heprocessesinv
    olv
    edinsocial
    change.Of
    ten,whatisdevianttodayi
    sacceptedtomorrow andexpect
    edthe
    nextdaye.
    g.devi
    antcl
    othi
    ngstyl
    esofthepastar
    eti
    lefashionoft
    oday.

    3.NewRi ghtReal
    ism:
    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Intheearl
    y1980's,two"new"appr oachest
    ot hestudyofcri
    meanddev i
    ance
    begantoemergeinBri
    tainandAmer ica,bothofwhichfocuseduponthe"
    real
    i
    ties"of
    cri
    me(speci
    fi
    cal
    l
    y)-butfrom di
    ff
    erentendsofthepol
    iti
    calspect
    rum.

    I
    nBr
    it
    ain,t
    he"
    NewLeftReal
    ism"st
    art
    edtodev el
    opt hrought
    hewor kofwri
    ters
    suchasLeaandYoungwhi
    lethe"New Ri
    ghtRealism"(confusingi
    sn'
    tit?
    )devel
    oped
    aroundt
    heworkofWi
    l
    soni
    nAmer i
    caandwrit
    erssuchasClarkeandMay hew i
    nBri
    tain.

    Whi
    le,asyoumi ghtexpect
    ,thetwobasicapproachesaddr
    esst
    he"pr
    obl
    em"ofcr
    ime
    f
    rom qui
    tedi
    ff
    erentpoli
    ti
    calst
    art
    ingpoi
    nts,
    theyhaveacoupl
    eofi
    deasi
    ncommon:

    1.Bot
    hv i
    ewcri
    measaf or
    m of"soci
    alpr
    obl
    em"-notonl
    yforcont
    rolagenci
    esbut
    al
    soforthev
    ict
    ims/pot
    ent
    ial
    v i
    cti
    msofcr
    ime.

    2.Bot
    hpr oduceideasthatatt
    empttol
    ocat
    ecr
    imewi
    thi
    nawi
    derpol
    i
    tical(
    albei
    t
    di
    ff
    erent)cont
    ext-the"NewReal
    i
    sm".

    New RightReal
    i
    sm l
    i
    ein bot
    h Cont
    rolTheor
    yand,asy
    ou mi
    ghtexpect
    ,pol
    i
    tical
    Conser
    vati
    sm.

    The"reali
    st"aspectoft heneo- conser
    vati
    vetheori
    esgr oupedundertheheadingofthe
    "New RightRealism"relat
    esmor etoa" r
    eal
    i
    stic"view aboutthecausesofcr i
    meand
    devi
    ancet hantoapar t
    icularsetofmet hodol
    ogicalpri
    ncipl
    es.I
    nt hi
    srespect
    ,NewRight
    Real
    istf orms ofanal ysis are,as we shal lsee,gr ounded squarel
    y on posi
    ti
    vi
    st
    methodologicalpri
    nci
    ples.

    Thus,the"real
    isti
    c"assessmentoft hecausesofcr i
    me( aconceptt hat’
    susedv er
    y
    l
    ooselyhere since it’
    sprobabl
    yf ai
    rto sayt hatNew RightReal i
    sm isnotunduly
    concer
    nedwi thconcept sofcausali
    tyinrelat
    iontocr i
    meanddev i
    ance)and,most
    i
    mpor t
    antl
    y,it
    spr eventi
    on,
    proposedbyNewRi ghtReal
    ist
    sf ocusesontheideathatt
    he
    real
    i
    tyofcri
    mei sv erymucha"whatyouseeiswhaty ouget"pri
    ncipl
    e.

    190
    Thr
    eepoi
    ntsar
    ewor
    thyofnot
    eher
    e:

    1.Wi l
    sonadoptsanexpl i
    cit
    lyposi t
    ivi
    stmet hodology ,insofarashei nsi
    stst hat
    ,
    since"r
    ootcauses"cannotbei denti
    fiedormeasur edempi r
    icall
    y,weshouldnot
    bothertol
    ookfort hem ortoconsidert hem asev idence.
    2.Attemptsbygov ernmentto" i
    denti
    fyandel iminat e"thecausesofcr imear e
    doomedt ofail
    ure.Simil
    arl
    y,attemptst oi ncreasel ev el
    sofpuni shmentf ort
    hose
    convict
    edofcrimesi nanattemptt o"det er"cri
    mi nalswi l
    lnotbesuccessf ul.
    3."Cri
    me"and" cri
    mi nalbehavi
    our "cannotbeel i
    mi natedf rom society-the"best"
    thatwecanhopet odoistor educeitsimpactuponpeopl e'sliv
    es...

    I
    ntheabov
    e,wecanseet
    womai
    nthemesi
    nNewRi
    ghtReal
    i
    sm soci
    ology
    :

    a.Atamacr olev
    el,aform ofCont
    rolTheory,i
    nwhi
    chmor
    alv
    aluesar
    e
    st
    ressedasbei
    ngthekeytocr
    imeprevent
    ion.

    b.Atami cr
    olevel
    ,afor
    m of"
    cost/benef
    it
    "anal
    ysi
    s,wherebyt
    hetaskof
    contr
    olagenci
    esistomakecri
    met oodif
    fi
    cul
    t/riskyf
    orthepotent
    ial
    cri
    minal
    .

    Neo-
    Conser
    vat
    iveTheor
    ies:

    Havingl
    ookedbri
    efl
    yatthewor kofacoupleof(Ameri
    can)NewRi ghtRealistwrit
    ers,it
    mightbeusefult
    oplacethewor kofsuchwrit
    ersi
    ntosomekindoft heor
    et i
    calcontext.
    Thi
    scontextcanbegivenbyl
    ooki ngatt
    wobasicfor
    msof"neo-conservat
    ive"theor
    izing,
    namelyContr
    olTheor
    yandSituati
    onalTheor
    y.

    A.Cont r
    olTheory.
    Neo-conser
    vati
    vetheor
    iesgener
    all
    ytendt
    oshar
    ethef
    oll
    owi
    ngf
    undament
    alat
    tri
    but
    es:

    1.Abelieft
    hereisageneral v
    alueconsensusatt hehear
    tofoursociety
    .
    2.Theideathatl
    awsar ecreatedf orthebenefi
    tofthemajor
    ityofci
    ti
    zens.
    3.Humanbei ngsarenatur
    allyself-seeki
    ng,dev
    iousandfundamental
    lysel
    fi
    sh.
    4.People arerati
    onal-t hey make choi ces and ar
    e awar e ofthe possi
    ble
    consequencesofthei
    rbehav iour.

    B.Si t
    uati
    onalTheor
    y.
    "Sit
    uat
    ionalTheorywasint
    roducedbyst affwor
    kingattheHomeOf
    fi
    ceResear
    chand
    Planni
    ngUnitinthemid1970's.Itembodiesanemphasisont
    hei
    mmediat
    efeat
    uresof
    theenvir
    onmentinwhichanoffencemightbecommi t
    ted.
    ".

    Sit
    uationalTheorydevel
    opeddur i
    ngt heper i
    odofoffi
    ceofaLabourgov ernmentin
    Bri
    tainand,asy oumightexpect
    ,hasf ocuseduponwhatsuccessi
    vegov
    ernmentshave
    consideredtobethefundamentalaspectofcri
    mecontr
    ol,namelyt
    heabi
    li
    tyof"or
    dinar
    y
    ci
    tizens"toprev
    entcri
    met aki
    ngplace.

    Asy ou mightexpectfrom theabove,Sit


    uat
    ionalTheor
    yishi
    ghl
    yrest
    ri
    cted i
    nit
    s
    theor
    eti
    cal
    andpractical
    scope,i
    nsof
    arasiti
    sconcernedt
    o:

    a.Managecri
    minalbehavi
    our-bymaki
    ngi
    tmor
    edi
    ff
    icul
    tfort
    hecr
    imi
    nalt
    o
    "
    safel
    y"commitacrime.

    b.Focusuponcr
    imessuchast
    hef
    t,bur
    glar
    y,aut
    o-cr
    imeandt
    hel
    i
    ke.

    Thetheor
    eti
    calbackgr
    oundt
    oSi
    tuat
    ionalt
    heor
    ythatwemi
    ghtusef
    ull
    y-i
    fbr
    ief
    ly-
    expl
    orei
    sasfol
    lows:

     Fi
    rstl
    y,i
    tbor
    rowsheavil
    yfrom Cont
    roltheoryinr
    elat
    iont
    othei
    deathatt
    her
    eis
    nothi
    ngpart
    icul
    arl
    yspeci
    al(ei
    therpsychologi
    cal
    l
    yorsocial
    l
    y)aboutacr
    imi
    nal
    .

    191
    Any
    onei
    scapabl
    eofcommi
    tt
    ingacr
    ime.Themai
    nquest
    ions,
    int
    hisr
    espect
    ,ar
    e:

    a.Whatar
    ethesoci
    alcondi
    ti
    onsunderwhi
    chpeopl
    ecommi
    tcr
    imes?

    b.Howcant
    hephy
    sical
    env
    ironmentbechangedt
    opr
    eventcr
    ime?

     Secondl
    y,t
    wof
    urt
    herassumpt
    ionsar
    eev
    ident
    :

    a.Thatdeviant
    sarebasi
    call
    yrati
    onalpeopl
    e(agai
    n,aswi
    thCont
    rolTheor
    y
    thi
    spresupposesacost/benefi
    tfor
    m ofanal
    ysi
    s).

    b.Agreatdealofcr i
    mei sopportuni
    sti
    c.Formostoft heti
    me,"cri
    minal
    s"
    ar
    elaw- abidi
    ng( i
    nthesenset heydonotl iv
    esolelyontheproceedsof
    cr
    iminalv entur
    es),nordotheypar ti
    cular
    lyplanthei
    rcr
    imes.Howev er
    ,
    gi
    vent heoppor t
    unit
    y(anunlockedcar ,anunatt
    endedbag),acri
    mewi l
    l
    becommi tt
    ed.

    I
    nthisrespect,t
    hepoorareseen aspotenti
    alcr
    imi
    nal
    s;ther
    efore,thi
    s
    j
    ust
    if
    iesharshert
    reat
    mentf
    rom t
    hepol
    ice,i
    ntermsoft
    heoveral
    lcontr
    olof
    t
    hei
    rbehavi
    our.

    4.NewLef tReal
    ism
    NewLef
    tReal
    i
    stapproacht
    othest
    udyofcr
    imebegi
    nsbydoi
    ngt
    wot
    hings:

    1.Fi
    rst
    ly,
    itr
    eject
    s"par
    ti
    al"t
    heor
    iesofcr
    imebecauset
    heyar
    egui
    l
    tyofei
    ther
    :

    a.Anover-concent
    rat
    ionontheoper
    ati
    onofcont
    rolagenci
    es(
    forexampl
    e,
    Funct
    ionali
    sm andSubcul
    tur
    alt
    heory
    )or

    b.Anover-
    concentr
    ati
    onont heexper
    iencesofcr
    imi
    nal
    sandt
    heat
    temptt
    o
    "
    underst
    and"thei
    rpointofvi
    ewaseither:

    "
    Vict
    ims"ofal
    abel
    l
    ingpr
    ocess(
    Int
    eract
    ioni
    sm)or

    "
    Pol
    it
    icalcatal
    yst
    s"agai
    nstbour
    geoi
    shegemony(
    Radi
    calCr
    imi
    nol
    ogy/
    Mar
    xistSubcul
    tur
    alt
    heory
    ).

    2. Secondl
    y,i
    tsynthesizesvari
    ouselement
    sfr
    om pasttheor
    eti
    calper
    specti
    ves
    intoa"newreal
    i
    stic"approachtocr
    imeanddevi
    ancet
    hatseekstounder
    stand:

    a.Theeffectthatcr
    imehasoni
    tsv
    ict
    ims(
    mai
    nly
    ,butnotexcl
    usi
    vel
    y,t
    he
    worki
    ngclass).

    b.Thesocialori
    ginsofcri
    me,mainl
    yint
    ermsoft
    hecul
    tur
    albackgr
    ound
    anddevelopmentofcr
    iminal
    s.

    NewLef
    tReal
    i
    stcr
    it
    iqueofbot
    hOr
    thodox(
    "conser
    vat
    ive"
    )andRadi
    cal
    Cri
    minol
    ogy
    :

    1.Or
    thodox(conservat
    ive)cri
    minol
    ogy:
    Forthisty
    peofcr iminol
    ogy:

     Cri
    meoccur sbecauseofal ackofadequat esocial
    izati
    onintov ar
    iousnon-
    cri
    minal/dev iantvalues-expressedbestinthevari
    ousi deasrelat
    ingtothe
    i
    nadequat e soci al
    izati
    on ofv ar
    iousclasses/i ndivi
    duals.A conservat
    ive
    vari
    anttendst osee" cr
    imi
    nals"asbeing"bornbad".
     Thecr i
    mi nalindivi
    dualisseent obeaf lawedpersonali
    ty-eitherbi
    ologi
    call
    y
    orsociall
    y .
     Cri
    mer epresent sanant i
    -soci
    alexpressionofdiscontentfrom peoplewho
    l
    ack" ci
    vil
    izedv alues".

    192
     Ther oleoftheStateisbasical
    lyaneutralone,i
    nsofarasitisheldt
    opr otect
    theinterest
    softhe"law-abi
    ding"agai
    nstthoseofthe"cri
    mi nal
    ".
     Ther oleoft hepoli
    cei sbasicall
    ythatof"probl
    em solving"-thecontinual
    confrontati
    onofl awlessness,thedevelopmentofpr agmat i
    csoluti
    onst o
    cri
    meandsof or
    th.

    2.Radi
    calCr
    iminology(
    "Lef
    tIdeali
    sm")
    :
    Fort
    histypeofcri
    minology:

     Cri
    me occurs because,f undament al
    l
    y,economi c depr
    ivat
    ion (
    realor
    i
    magined)dri
    vespeopleintocr i
    me.peopl ewhot ur
    nt ocri
    medosoasa
    sol
    uti
    ontothei
    r"absol
    utel
    ydeprived"posit
    ionwi
    thi
    ncapit
    ali
    stsoci
    ety
    .

     Thecr i
    minal-notthepersonwhoconf orms-isseent ohaveasuper i
    orl
    evel
    ofconsciousness/under standi
    ng.Int hi
    srespect,t
    hecriminalrespondsto
    the"degradat
    ionsofcapit
    alism"by"fi
    ght i
    ngback".Non-cr
    iminal
    sar eseenas
    being i
    deological
    lyconditi
    oned to accepta situat
    ion in whi
    ch t heyare,
    ult
    imately,
    thelosers.

     Cr
    imerepresentsaform of"
    prot
    o-rev
    olut
    ionar
    y"acti
    vi
    ty-iti
    sar eact
    iontoa
    sy
    stem char
    acteri
    zedbysyst
    ematicunder-
    pri
    vi
    lege,
    degradat
    ionandsof or
    th.

     "I
    tinv
    olv
    es,ifiti
    sat hef
    t,aredi
    str
    ibuti
    onofincome,orifiti
    spartofyouth
    cul
    tur
    e,symbol i
    cand styl
    ist
    icawarenessof ,say,t
    he lossoftradi
    ti
    onal
    worki
    ng-
    classcommuni t
    yort herepressi
    venatureofthesystem.Inei
    ther
    case,
    iti
    nvolv
    esalter
    nati
    veval
    ues".

     TheSt ateisseent obeaninst


    rumentofar ul
    i
    ngclass(hencethetheoret
    ical
    tr
    adit
    ion under pinni
    ng Radi
    calCriminol
    ogy being that of I
    nstr
    ument al
    Marxi
    sm) .Ther oleoftheStateisonei nwhichi tacti
    vel
    ypromot esthe
    i
    nter
    est softher i
    chandpowerful
    attheexpenseofthepoorandpower l
    ess.

     Thepoli
    ce/j udi
    ciaryareagentsofaruli
    ngclass,i
    nsof
    arast
    heycar
    ry-
    out
    pol
    ici
    esthatarei
    nt helat
    ter
    'sgener
    ali
    nter
    est
    .

     The"problem ofcri
    me"i sseentobel ar
    gelyi
    ll
    usory,
    insofarasiti
    saproblem
    foraruli
    ngclass-andt heirint
    erests-r
    atherthanaproblem forsoci
    etyasa
    whole.Inthisrespect,"
    fearofcr i
    me"and" moralpanics"repr
    esentperi
    odi
    c
    att
    empt stocontrolpeople'
    sbehaviourt
    hroughideol
    ogicalmeans.

    ForLeaandYoungi npar
    ti
    cular
    ,therear
    eanumberofpoints-from aNewLef
    tReal
    i
    st
    perspect
    ive-thatcanbemader elat
    ingt
    ocri
    meandcr i
    minalbehavi
    our
    ,someofwhi
    ch
    areaclearresponset
    otheideasatwhichwehav
    ejustbri
    efl
    ylooked.

     Fi
    rst
    ly,t
    heyarguethat,
    logical
    l
    y,iti
    sthewell-
    soci
    ali
    zedi
    ndi
    vi
    dualwhoshoul
    dbe
    most-l
    i
    kelytot urntowardscr i
    measa " sol
    uti
    on"tothei
    rpersonal/soci
    al
    pr
    oblems,pr
    imar i
    l
    ybecauseCapi t
    ali
    sm pr
    oduces:

    a.Egal
    it
    ari
    anideals(
    forexampl
    e,"pol
    it
    ical
    equal
    i
    ty"
    )and
    b.Mater
    ialshor
    tages/depri
    vat
    ions.

    Thus,peoplewhoar esocial
    izedtoexpect/wantmater
    ialsuccessbutwho
    aredenied,forwhateverreason,t
    hissuccessar
    emore-l
    i
    kelytoturntowar
    ds
    cr
    imeasa" solut
    ion"tothi
    s"probl
    em".

     Secondl
    y,cr
    imei
    sseentobeagr oup/cul
    tur
    alr
    esponset
    osomet
    hing,r
    ather
    thanasi
    mplemat
    terofi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    choice.

     Thi
    rdl
    y,LeaandYoung'sperspect
    iveoncrimerepr
    esent
    sat
    heoret
    icalr
    etur
    nto
    amore-or
    thodox,
    classi
    cal
    ,Marxi
    stapproachwher
    ebycri
    mei
    snotseenassome

    193
    form of"rev
    oluti
    onary"endeav our(achal l
    enget other ul
    i
    ngclass'l
    egalrightto
    appropri
    atesurpl
    usv aluepr i
    vatel
    y).Rather,crimeisseenmuchasMar xhimself
    saw crime-asar eactionaryform ofbehav iourwhichrepr
    esentedadi v
    ersion
    from t
    hedev el
    opmentofr ealpoli
    ti
    calsolutionstotheexperi
    enceofdegradati
    on,
    exploi
    tati
    onandsof orthsuf f
    eredbyt hewor kingcl
    ass.

    Whilecri
    meingeneralhassomef orm ofpol
    iti
    caldimensi
    on( mai
    nlybecausepeopl
    edo
    nottoler
    ateitandatt
    emptt ofindway sofeli
    mi nati
    ngit
    ),iti
    simportanttonotethat
    ,
    unli
    keRadicalCri
    minology,New LeftReali
    sm seescr iminalbehavi
    ourasbei ngthe
    expressi
    onofCapit
    ali
    stpri
    nci
    plesinanil
    legi
    ti
    matef orm.

    3.Inrelati
    ontoRadicalCri
    minology,LeaandYoungar guet hati
    tisthelackofany
    organized,poli
    ti
    cal
    ,ideol
    ogyt hatt ar
    getsCapit
    ali
    sm ast her ootofpeople's
    oppressionthatmakeswhatt heyter
    m" Lef
    tIdeal
    i
    sm"i nadequateasat heor
    eti
    cal
    explanati
    onofcrime/deviance.Astheynote:

    "Theradicalsar ecorrectwhent heyseecr i


    measar eact i
    ont oanunj ust
    societ
    y.butt heymakeacr uci
    al mistake:theyassumet hatt hereacti
    ont o
    ajustcausei snecessar il
    yaj ustone.Ont hecontr
    ary:i tisoftenexact l
    y
    theopposi t
    e.t her eactiontopov er
    t yamongpoorwhi tes,forexampl e,
    maybet opar adear oundwav i
    ngUni onJacks:itmaybet hetawdr y
    nati
    onali
    sm oft heNat i
    onalfront.Ther eacti
    ontorelati
    vedepr ivat
    ionmay ,
    asPaulWi ll
    is["LearningToLabour ]hassoabl yshown, besexi sm, r
    acism
    and anti
    -intell
    ectuali
    sm.Cr ime is one f orm ofegoi sti
    cr esponse t o
    depriv
    ati
    on.i t
    sr ootsar einj usti
    cebuti tsgrowt h often perpetuates
    i
    njusti
    ce.
    " .

    Thus,i
    fcrimereal
    l
    ydoeshav eitsrootcausesineconomicdepri
    vati
    on,iti
    slogi
    calto
    assumethatthewor ki
    ngclass-ast hemosteconomi cal
    l
    y-depr
    ivedclassinsoci
    ety-
    real
    lymusthaveagreaterl
    evelofi
    nvolvementi
    ncri
    me...

    Int hi
    s sense,t he complexity ofhuman behav i
    ouri s st
    ressed (
    people do not
    automatical
    lyreacttosomet hinglikeunemploymentbychoosingcr i
    measasol uti
    onto
    thei
    rmat eri
    alproblems),i
    nsof arasNew Lef tReal
    ism tri
    estoshow how thestruct
    ural
    condit
    ionsthatactupont hei ndividualli
    mit
    ,constr
    ainandcondi t
    ionthei
    rpercepti
    on
    aboutwhatr epresent
    sa" r
    ationalchoi ce"i
    nanygi
    vensituati
    on.

    Wecanonl
    yunderst
    andcr
    imi
    nalbehav
    iouri
    nter
    msofacombi
    nat
    ionofeachoft
    he
    f
    oll
    owi
    ngf
    actor
    s..
    .

    1.Subcul
    tur
    e:
    a)Thisuseoft heter
    m" sub-culture"refl
    ectsaf ai
    rl
    ymai nstream soci ol
    ogical
    usage, wher ebysub- cul
    turesar eseenasaf orm ofcoll
    ecti
    ver esponset othe
    parti
    cularsoci alsituat
    ion wi thi
    n whi ch a soci
    algr oup dev elops.Int hi
    s
    respect ,whilstther
    ei sat endencyf orsuchsub- cul
    turestobe" oppositi
    onal"
    i
    nr elation tot hei
    rbasi c ai ms,i tis perf
    ectlypossiblet o see t hem in
    "i
    ndependent " sub-cult
    uralt erms ( si
    nce,as I '
    ve pr evi
    ously suggest ed,
    cri
    mi nalsappeart obasi call
    ywantwhatev eryoneelsei nsoci etyhasbeen
    encour agedt owant-weal th,status,powerandsof ort
    h).

    b)Thest ructuralpositionofsoci algroupswi t


    hinCapit
    alistsociet
    yisimportant-
    hencewor king-classy ouths( especiallymal es)
    ,forexampl e,aremor e-
    li
    kel y
    to dev el
    op di sti
    nct iv
    e sub- cult
    uralst y l
    es than middle-cl
    ass youths (the
    obv i
    ous" exceptiont hatprov esther ule"beinghippi
    es-al argelymiddle-
    class
    youthsub- cul
    ture.Howev er,hippiest oo could beseenasasub- cultural
    responset oapar t
    icularstructuralsit
    uat i
    on-namel y,theVietnam War-t hat
    directl
    yaf f
    ectedt hel i
    vesoft hispar t
    iculargroupofpeopl e-theydi
    dnotwant
    tof i
    ghtint hi
    swar )
    .

    c) Abal
    ancehast
    obest
    ruckbet
    ween:

    194
     Underst
    andingthesubj
    ect
    iveint
    erpr
    etat
    ionsofthepar
    ti
    cipant
    swithi
    na
    sub-
    cult
    uralgroupi
    ng (
    forexample,whatt heybel
    i
    evetheirbehavi
    our
    repr
    esents)and,

     Underst
    andi
    ngtheobj
    ect
    ivesoci
    alcondi
    ti
    onst
    hatgi
    ver
    iset
    obehav
    iour
    thati
    scri
    minal
    /devi
    ant
    .

    d)Sub- cultur
    alval
    ues,int hisrespect,ar
    enoti ndependentoft hecult
    urein
    whi cht heyar
    ise(al
    thought hesev al
    uesmay ,ofcourse,beexpr essedinways
    thatar enotappr oved-of).Thus,forLeaandYoung,i tispr ecisel
    ybecause
    wor king-cl
    assy out
    hs,f orexampl e,acceptthegener alv al
    uesofCapi tal
    i
    st
    soci etythatt
    heyindulgei ncr
    iminalbehaviour-thepursuitofdesiredendsby
    i
    llegiti
    mat emeans...

    I
    ngener al,thestr
    engthoftheabovesubcul
    tur
    alconcept
    ioni
    sthati
    tisnotrest
    ri
    ctedto
    "worki
    ng-classyouth"
    .Onthecontr
    ary,
    iti
    sappli
    cabl
    eacrossawholerangeofgr
    oupings.
    Thus,

    2.Rel
    ati
    veDepr
    ivat
    ion:
    Thisinvolvessubjecti
    v efeeli
    ngsof" beingdepr i
    ved"andt heconcepthasbeenusedby
    sociol
    ogistssuchasMer tonorTownsend( "Povert
    yint heUnitedKingdom"i nvari
    ous
    ways.Whati ti
    nvol v
    es,inef fect,isther ecognit
    ionthatconcept ssuchaspov er
    tyor
    wealtharesubjectivesoci alcategori
    est hatarerelati
    vetoani ndiv
    idual
    'spercepti
    onof
    whatotherpeopl epossess,whatt hisindivi
    dualmi ghtreasonablyexpecttopossessin
    ter
    msoft heoverallstandardofl i
    vinginsociety,t
    heirimmediatesocialgroupi
    ngandso
    for
    th.

    Thus,themi l
    li
    onai
    rei
    nasoci
    etyofbi
    l
    li
    onai
    resi
    s,t
    o al
    lint
    ent
    sand pur
    poses,
    "
    rel
    ati
    vel
    ydepr
    ived"
    .

    3. Mar ginal
    isati
    on:
    ForLea and Young,t he preponderance ofmale,wor ki
    ng-cl
    ass,youths i
    n cri
    me
    i
    nv olv
    ementi srelat
    edtotheirmarginalstat
    usinsoci
    ety(
    insofarastheyarebot
    hy oung
    andr elat
    ivelypoor )
    .Theexpr essi
    onofdi scont
    entatthi
    smar ginalst
    atus-whereitis
    progressi
    vel ydeniedtothi
    sgr oupeit
    her:

     Poli
    ti
    cal
    l
    yor
     Economical
    l
    y

    I
    sli
    kel
    ytor
    esul
    tincr
    imi
    nal
    act
    ivi
    ty-t
    hesoci
    alex
    pressi
    onofsoci
    almar
    ginal
    i
    sat
    ion.

    4.Mar
    xistt
    heor
    y
    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Asisbecomingtr
    aditi
    onali
    nthisseri
    esof"
    CrimeandDev i
    ance"Not
    es,i
    t'
    suseful
    t
    obegint
    hisexaminat
    ionofthewayv ari
    ousMarxi
    stconfl
    i
    cttheor
    ist
    shaveatt
    emptedto
    t
    heori
    sethenatur
    eofcr i
    meanddev i
    ancebyoutli
    ningsomeoft hemaintheoret
    ical
    f
    eatur
    esoftheper
    specti
    veinvol
    ved.

    Mar
    xistConf
    li
    ctTheor
    y:TheTheor
    eti
    calBackgr
    ound.

    Mar xistConf l
    i
    ctt heoryori
    ginatedt hrought hewor kofKarlMar x(1818-1883)andcanbe
    i
    nitiall
    ycl assi
    fiedasa" Str
    uct ur
    alist"or" macro-soci
    ological"form ofanalysis(al
    way s
    remember i
    ngt hatthissimplef orm oft heoret
    icalpi
    geon- holi
    ngmayobscur et hefact
    thatwr i
    terswor ki
    ngwi t
    hint heper specti
    v emayhol dv er ydiff
    erentviewsaboutt he
    natur eoft herelati
    onshi
    pbet ween" str
    ucture"and"acti
    on").
    Mar xist
    s gener all
    yhav et heorised t he nature ofsocialexi stence.We can begi n,
    therefore,byl ookingatthewayMar xist
    sunder standthenat ureofsoci alr
    elati
    onships
    withinv ari
    oussoci eti
    es.

    195
    Mar xi
    stfor
    msofanal ysi
    stendtobegi
    nwitht
    heassumpt i
    onthatthemostfundament
    al-
    andhencemostsi gni
    f i
    cant-f
    ormsofsocialrel
    ati
    onshi
    paret hosewhichinvol
    vethe
    producti
    onoft hebasi
    cmeansofpeople'
    sexist
    ence.Thi
    sincl
    udesthi
    ngslike:
     Food.
     Cl othing.
     Shel ter.

    I
    nallsociet
    ies,theprovi
    sionofsuchthingsisafundament
    alsoci
    alnecessi
    tyandi
    t
    i
    nvol
    vesdevisi
    ngsomemeanswher ebysuchthi
    ngsar
    e:
     Producedbyapopul ati
    on.
     Distr
    ibutedtopeopl
    eand
     Exchangedinsomeway .

    I
    naddit
    ion, i
    tisimportanttonotethatthepr
    oduction,di
    stri
    buti
    onandexchangeofsuch
    thi
    ngsasf oodandshel t
    erisacommunalact i
    vi
    ty-peopl ehavetoco-
    operatei
    nsome
    waytoproducet hesethings.I
    nordertoproduce,ther
    efore,peopl
    eare"
    forced"(
    wil
    l
    ingl
    y
    orunwi
    ll
    ingly)toenterint
    oav ari
    etyofsoci
    alrel
    ati
    onships.

    Mar xar
    guedt hat,
    throughouthumanhistory,thewaypeopl e"co-operat
    ed"-ororgani
    sed
    themselves-t oproducet he"meansoft heirsocialexi
    stence"(thekindsofthingsI'
    ve
    notedabov e)hasbeendi f
    ferent
    .Tounderstandt hisi
    dea-andi t
    ssi gni
    fi
    cance-weneed
    tounderstandthebasi cmechanicsinv
    olvedi nt hesoci
    alproductionofcommodi ti
    es(a
    "commodi ty"i
    ssimplydefinedassomet hingt hatcanbepr oduced-f ood,achair
    ,acar
    orwhatev er-di
    str
    ibutedandexchanged).

    Pr
    oduct
    ionoft
    hemeansofsoci
    alexi
    stencei
    nvol
    ves,
    forMar
    x,t
    hreebasi
    cthi
    ngs:

    1. TheFor
    cesofProduction:These"forces"inv
    olvesuchthi
    ngsas:
     Land,
     Rawmat eri
    als,
     Tools/Machi nes,
     Knowledge(scienti
    fic/technicalandtheli
    ke),
     People(or
    ,mor ecor r
    ectl
    y,theirl
    abour).

    2. TheRel at
    ionsofProduct
    ion:
    AsI '
    venot ed,peopl
    ecannotpr oduceany t
    hingwit
    houtenteri
    ngi nt
    ov ar
    ioussocial
    rel
    ati
    onshi
    ps and t hi
    si dea simply encompasses the di
    ff
    erent kinds of social
    rel
    ati
    onshi
    psi ntowhichpeopl ehavetoent eratvari
    oustimesi nordert oproduce
    commodi t
    ies.

    InCapitali
    stsocieti
    essuchasourown,i t'
    spossibl
    etoidenti
    fydif
    fer
    entbroad
    socialgroupi
    ngs-gr oupsofpeopl
    ewhoshar eabasical
    ly-
    simil
    arposi
    ti
    oninthe
    producti
    onpr ocess.Marxcal
    l
    edthesegroups"soci
    alcl
    asses"andwewi l
    ll
    ookat
    thei
    rtheoreti
    calsigni
    fi
    cancei
    nmoredetaili
    namoment .

    3.TheMeansofPr oducti
    on:
    Thethi
    rd,ver
    ysi
    gni
    fi
    cantelement,r
    elatestot
    hosepartsoft
    heForcesofpr
    oducti
    onthat
    canbel egal
    l
    yowned-f orexample,inCapit
    ali
    stsoci
    eti
    es,landraw mat
    eri
    alsand,in
    somecases,Knowl
    edge,butnotsuchthingsas"peopl
    e".

    Accor
    ding t
    o Mar
    x,di
    ff
    erenthi
    stor
    icalper
    iods hav
    e di
    ff
    erentdomi
    nantmeans of
    pr
    oducti
    on:

     I
    nFeudal
    soci
    ety
    ,landwast
    hemosti
    mpor
    tantmeansofpr
    oduct
    ion.

     I
    nCapi
    tal
    i
    stsoci
    ety
    ,landi
    sst
    il
    lsi
    gni
    fi
    cant
    ,butt
    hemosti
    mpor
    tantmeansof

    196
    pr
    oduct
    ionar
    ethi
    ngsl
    i
    kef
    act
    ori
    es,
    machi
    nesandsof
    ort
    h.

    Acoupl
    eofpoi
    ntsar
    eimpor
    tantt
    onot
    e:

    1.Somesoci
    ologi
    stshavestar
    tedt
    oarguet
    hat,i
    npost-
    moder
    nsoci
    ety
    ,knowl
    edge
    becomest
    hemosti mport
    antmeansofpr
    oducti
    on.

    2.Legalowner
    ship ofthemeansofpr
    oduct
    ion i
    sgoi
    ng t
    o makey
    ou a v
    ery
    powerf
    uli
    ndi
    vidual/soci
    algr
    oup.

    3.Onlyinslav
    esocieti
    esareworker
    spartofthemeansofpr
    oducti
    on(inCapital
    ist
    soci
    ety,f
    orexample,employeesarenotownedbythei
    remployer
    s-al lt
    hatthe
    employerbuys(t
    hroughwages)istheabi
    l
    ityt
    ouseanemployee'
    slabour(hence,
    thei
    r"l
    abourpower"-theabi
    l
    ityt
    oputsomeonetowork)
    .

    Marxarguedthatyourrelat
    ionshi
    ptot hemeansofproduct
    ionobj
    ect
    ivel
    ydet
    ermined
    yoursoci
    alcl
    assand,i fweacceptt hisideaforamoment,itf
    oll
    owsthatheini
    ti
    all
    y
    i
    denti
    fi
    edtwogreatclassesinCapit
    ali
    stsociet
    y:

    1.TheBour
    geoi
    sie(
    UpperorRul
    i
    ngcl
    ass)
    .

    Thosepeopl
    e(ami
    nor
    it
    y)whoownedt
    hemeansofpr
    oduct
    ion.

    2.ThePr
    olet
    ari
    at(
    LowerorWor
    kingcl
    ass)
    .

    Thosepeopl
    e(t
    hemaj
    ori
    ty)whodi
    dnotownt
    hemeansofpr
    oduct
    ion.

    ForMar x,the conceptofsocialclass was offundament


    alsigni
    fi
    cance,preci
    sely
    because i
    tcoul d be used t
    o expl
    ainthe basi
    s ofsocialchange (
    in a wayt hat
    contemporaryt
    heorist
    scouldnot
    ).

    Marxarguedthatal
    lsociet
    iesinv
    olvedconfl
    i
    ct-someti
    mesopenbutmoreusual
    ly
    submer
    gedbeneaththesurfaceofev er
    ydayl
    ife-t
    hatwasbaseduponf
    undament
    al
    i
    nequal
    i
    tiesandconf
    li
    ctsofi
    nter
    est:

    Themosti mportantoftheseconfli
    ctswasthatbetweensocialcl
    asses-
    thebourgeoi
    sieandt heprol
    etar
    iat-anditwast heconst
    antantagoni
    sm
    betweenthesetwogreatclassesthatcr
    eatedsocial
    change.

    Thebasisoft hisconfl
    i
    ctl
    iesint
    hefactthatalt
    houghwealthiscreatedbytheprolet
    ariat
    (t
    hewor kingclass),
    iti
    sappropr
    iat
    ed(thati
    s" t
    akenaway")pri
    vatel
    y-byt hebourgeoisie
    -i
    nt heform ofprofi
    ts.
    Inthisr espect,Marxnoted abasiccont r
    adict
    ion,wi
    thin Capit
    alistsoci
    alsystems,
    between:

    1.Theforcesofproduct
    ion(t
    hethi
    ngsthatar
    erequi
    redt
    oproducecommodi
    ties)
    and
    2.Therelat
    ionsofproduct
    ion(i
    nbasi
    ct er
    ms,whobenef
    itst
    hemostf r
    om t
    hese
    arr
    angements)
    .

    Thus,al
    thoughtheforcesofpr oduct i
    oninvol
    ve,asI'
    venoted,co-operati
    on( t
    hatis,t
    hey
    arefundamental
    lysocialinnat ure),inCapit
    ali
    stsociet
    iesther elat
    ionsofpr oducti
    on
    haveaprivat
    e,i
    ndivi
    duali
    sti
    c,nat ure.Alt
    houghpeoplenecessari
    lyco-operatetoproduce
    thi
    ngs(commodi t
    iesfrom whichev er
    yoneshould,i
    deall
    ybenefit),oneclasseffecti
    vel
    y
    expl
    oit
    sanotherbytheirabi
    li
    tytoaccumul at
    eprofi
    tsinpri
    vatehands.

    Howev
    er,
    if,
    asI '
    vesuggest
    ed,therel
    ationshi
    pbet
    weensoci
    alcl
    assesi
    s:
     Unequal,
     Exploit
    ati
    ve,
     Foundedona" conf
    li
    ctofint
    erest

    197
    Whydot
    heexpl
    oit
    edput
    -upwi
    tht
    hissi
    tuat
    ion?

    Moreimport
    ant
    lyper
    haps,whydoessocietynotdi
    ssol
    veintoaper pet
    ualci
    vi
    lwar-a
    conf
    li
    ctbet
    weenther
    ichandthepoor
    ,theexpl
    oit
    edandtheexpl
    oit
    ers?

    Mar xarguedthatthiswasi ndeedaf undamentalproblem forthebourgeoisi


    einany
    Capital
    istsoci
    ety-andt heyr esol
    veitt
    hroughsomehowmaki ngtheprolet
    ari
    atbeli
    eve
    thattheeconomi csystem i
    sbaseduponf reedom,fai
    rnessandequal i
    ty.Thisi
    swher e
    theconceptsofboth" power"and" i
    deol
    ogy"comei nt
    ot heequati
    on-andwewi lll
    ookat
    theseideasingreat
    erdetaili
    namoment .Fundamentall
    y,ther
    efore:

    Capi
    tal
    i
    sm inv
    olvesbothshar
    edendeavour
    sandunequalrewar
    ds.Iti
    sthe(
    str
    uct
    ural
    )
    nat
    ureoft
    hisfor
    m ofeconomicpr
    oduct
    ionthatpr
    oducest
    heset
    hings.

    Ononelevel
    ,peopl
    einanysoci
    etydosharefundamentalv
    alues,butMar xargued
    t
    hatthi
    s"consensusoverbasi
    cv al
    ues"(whi
    chFuncti
    onali
    sts,forexample,tend
    t
    otakeforgrant
    ed)wasbynomeanst hewholest
    ory
    .Ineffect,
    Mar xarguedt hat
    t
    hebourgeoi
    sieareabl
    etouset hepowerthatcomesfrom economi cowner ship
    t
    o"contr
    ol"t
    hewayi nwhichpeoplethi
    nkaboutandseethenat ureofthesoci al
    wor
    ld.

    Ratherthan"valueconsensus"beinganecessary ,f
    undamental,condi
    tionf
    or
    human societ
    y ,Marx saw this consensus as bei
    ng manuf act
    ured by t
    he
    bourgeoi
    sie(t
    hr ough t
    he pri
    mary and secondary soci
    ali
    sat
    ion process,f
    or
    example).

    Tocl osethisopeni ngsect ion( ?


    ),therefor
    e,wecanl ookbr iefl
    yatt hewayMar xargued
    thateconomi cowner shippr oduceseconomi cpowerwhi chi nturni st ransl
    atedinto
    polit
    icalandideologicalpower .
    Aswehav eseen, f
    orMar x-andMar xi
    stsgeneral
    ly-economi crelationshipsareseent o
    bet hemostsi gnif
    icantinanysoci etybecausetheyrelatet othev erymeansofsoci al
    existenceitsel
    f.Howev er,itisev i
    dentt hat
    ,inanysociety,t
    her ear
    eot hertypesofsoci al
    rel
    ationship,namel ypoli
    t i
    calandi deologi
    calrel
    ati
    onships.Mar xar guedt hattheset wo
    basict ypesofsoci alr elati
    onshipsr epr
    esented t
    wo par tsoft he ov erallnatur
    e of
    rel
    ationshipswi t
    hincapitalistsociety:

    1.Economicrel
    ationshi
    ps-the"i
    nfrast
    ruct
    ure"or"economicbase"ofsoci
    ety
    .
    2.Poli
    ti
    cal
    /ideological
    rel
    ati
    onships-the"super
    struct
    ure"ofsoci
    ety
    .

    Superst
    ructuralr
    elat
    ionshi
    ps,inef f
    ect
    ,dev
    elopoutofthenatureofthewayeconomic
    rel
    ati
    onshipsareorganised(i
    tmi ghthel
    pyoutounderst
    andthisideabyvi
    sual
    izi
    ngthe
    superst
    ructur
    eofanysoci et
    yasaki ndofdomet hatrest
    supont hegr
    ound(which
    repr
    esentstheeconomi cbase).

    Alt
    hough superst
    ructur
    alr el
    ati
    onshi
    ps areimpor t
    ant,theyul ti
    mat el
    yr estupon the
    economicbaseofsoci ety-accordingtoMar xist
    s,theseki ndsofr el
    ati
    onshipsar e
    dependentupon-andr eflect-thenatur
    eofeconomi crelat
    ionshipsi nsociet
    y.Thus,if
    economicr el
    ati
    onships aref undamental
    ly unequal
    ,t hen polit
    icaland i deologi
    cal
    rel
    ati
    onshi
    pswillbothrefl
    ect-andhelptorei
    nforce-i
    nequali
    ty.Forexampl e:
    Pol
    i
    ticalr
    elat
    ionshi
    ps:

    Capitaldominateslabouri
    ntheworkpl
    ace.
    Requirescertai
    nt y
    pesofl aw t
    ocementthisr
    elat
    ionshi
    pint
    ermsofcont
    ract
    s,
    propertyri
    ghtsandsof ort
    h.

    ForMar xi
    sts,ther
    efore,t
    hosewhodomi nat
    et heeconomi csphereinanysoci
    etywil
    l
    alsodomi nat
    epol i
    ti
    call
    yandideol
    ogi
    call
    y-and,int hisrespect
    ,animport
    antideain
    relat
    iont othestudyofcrimeanddevi
    anceisthatt
    hei deologyofther
    uli
    ngcl
    assisthe
    domi nantideol
    ogyinsociety
    .

    Tomaket
    hisal
    i
    ttl
    emor
    ecl
    ear
    ,wecandemonst
    rat
    ethi
    sideaschemat
    ical
    l
    yint
    he

    198
    f
    oll
    owi
    ngway
    :

    Aneconomi
    cal
    lypower
    fulcl
    ass(thebourgeoi
    sie)seekstot
    ransl
    ate/reproduce
    i
    tseconomi
    cpoweracr
    ossallot
    herinst
    it
    uti
    onsi nsoci
    ety
    .Thi
    sensuresthat:

    1.Thei
    reconomi
    cinter
    est
    sdomi
    nat
    etheeconomi
    cint
    erest
    sofal
    lot
    her
    cl
    assesi
    nsoci
    ety
    .

    2.Al
    lotheri
    nst
    it
    utionshel
    ptor epr
    oducet
    heeconomi
    cdomi
    nance(
    or
    "
    hegemony
    ")ofthebour
    geoi
    sie.

    Theideol
    ogyofar uli
    ngclassi
    sthedomi
    nanti
    deol
    ogy-t
    her
    ear
    eot
    her
    sbuteconomi
    c
    powerofbourgeoisieensurest
    heyar
    e:
     Nothear d.
     Mar gi
    nalized.
     Disregar
    ded.
     Etc.

    I
    nter
    msofcr
    ime:

    Lawsarecr
    eatedbybourgeoi
    sie(orthei
    rpol i
    ti
    calrepr
    esent
    ati
    ves)t
    obasi
    cal
    l
    y
    saf
    eguar
    deconomici
    nter
    estsofbourgeoi
    sie.Forexample:

    1.Lawsgoverni
    ngor
    der.
    2.Lawsrel
    ati
    ngtopr
    ivat
    epr
    oper
    ty/cont
    ract
    set
    c.

    Tr
    adi
    ti
    onalMar
    xism

    I
    nasi
    mil
    arwayt
    oFunct
    ional
    i
    stt
    heor
    y,Mar
    xistconf
    li
    ctt
    heor
    ist
    ssee:

    1.Insti
    tuti
    onsassignif
    icantobj
    ect
    sofst udy
    ,i ntermsofwhyi nsti
    tut
    ionsare
    createdbypeopl
    e,thekindofpur
    poseeach(int
    er-
    rel
    ated)i
    nst
    it
    utionservesand
    sof ort
    h.

    2.Thesoci
    ali
    sati
    onprocessassigni
    fi
    cantforourunder
    standi
    ngofbot
    h"soci
    ety
    "
    andourgener
    alposi
    ti
    onwithi
    nthatsoci
    ety.

    3.Soci
    alst
    ruct
    ures-noti
    ndi
    vi
    dualmeani
    ngs-ar
    ethemostsi
    gni
    fi
    cantobj
    ectof
    st
    udy.

    Unl
    i
    keFunct
    ional
    i
    stt
    heor
    y,howev
    er,
    Mar
    xistconf
    li
    ctt
    heor
    ist
    s:

    1.Do notsee" societ


    y"asa" l
    i
    ving thing"t hatexist
    sov erand abovepeopl e.
    Mar xi
    stsdonotcommi twhatiscalledt he" er
    rorofrei
    ficati
    on",i
    nsofarast hey
    recognisethat"soci
    ety"ist
    hepr oductofpeopl e'sbehavi
    our.Ifpeopl
    ecr eat
    et he
    socialstruct
    ureswi t
    hinwhi chbehav iourisor deredthen,ofcour se,theyar e
    perfect
    lycapableofchangingthesoci alorder..
    .

    2.Do notsee t he basis ofsoci alorderas being "


    shar
    ed val
    ues"and basic
    consensusov eragreedsoci algoal
    s/ends.Ont hecontr
    ary
    ,theysee" shar
    ed
    val
    ues"and" consensus"asbei ngmy sti
    fi
    cati
    ons-awayofmanuf acturi
    ngand
    manipulat
    ingpeople'
    sper cepti
    onofthesocialworl
    dtosui
    tthebasi
    ci nter
    est
    sof
    aruli
    ngclass.

    3.Seesoci
    ety/soci
    alsyst
    emsasbei ngi
    naconst
    ant-i
    nev
    itabl
    e-st
    ateofconf
    li
    ct.
    Soci
    alor
    derexi
    stsnotbecausei
    tis:

    a.The"
    nat
    ural
    "st
    ateoft
    hingsor
    ,

    b.Becauseev
    ery
    onei
    sinbasi
    cagr
    eementabouthow or
    dershoul
    dbe

    199
    mai
    ntai
    nedandsof
    ort
    h.

    Or
    derexi
    stsbecausepowerf
    ulsocialgr
    oups(orclasses)ar
    eablet
    oimposeasenseof
    or
    der
    ,per
    manenceandst abi
    l
    ityuponall
    othercl
    assesinsociet
    y.

    Powerisav er
    ysigni
    fi
    cantconcepti
    nMar
    xistt
    heoryand,aswehav
    eseen,poweris
    ul
    ti
    matel
    y seen t
    o deri
    vef r
    om economi
    c ownershi
    p.By owni
    ng the "
    means of
    pr
    oducti
    on"
    :

    a.Youexer
    ciseper
    sonalpowerov
    ert
    hel
    i
    vesoft
    hepeopl
    ewhowor
    kfor
    you.

    b.Youmakepr of
    it
    swhi chcanbeusedt
    owi
    eldpowerandi
    nfl
    uencei
    na
    widersoci
    alset
    ting.

    I
    nthi
    srespect
    ,thepossessi
    onofpowergi
    vesy
    ou:

    1.Economicpower
     Weal th,
     St at
    us.

    2.Poli
    ticalpower
     Controloverpol
    it
    icali
    nsti
    tut
    ions
     (government,t
    heSt at
    e).

    3.I
    deol
    ogi
    cal
    power

     Cont
    roloverthewaypeopl eareabletov i
    sual
    i
    seandinterpr
    etthesoci
    alwor
    ld.
    Thi
    si scarr
    ied-outthr
    oughv ari
    ousf or
    msofsoci al
    i
    sationthroughthemass
    media,
    thewor kpl
    ace,t
    hefamil
    y,theeducati
    onsyst
    em andsof or
    th.

    Becauseeconomi cproducti
    oni
    ssof undamentallyi
    mpor t
    anti
    nanysoci ety,itfoll
    ows
    thatal
    lotheri
    nsti
    tut
    ionsinsoci
    etydi
    rectthei
    reffort
    stowardsserv
    icingthi
    si nst
    itut
    ion.
    I
    n so doing,theyarecl ear
    lysubor
    dinat
    et ot hisinst
    it
    uti
    on and hence,thosewho
    dominatetheeconomicspherewil
    lal
    so,bydefaultal
    most,dominat
    einallotherspher es
    ofsocial
    li
    fe.

    Inshort
    ,ther
    eisapowerst r
    uggl
    einsoci et
    ypr
    edominant
    lyi
    nter
    msofthosewhoown
    themeansofpr oducti
    on(thebourgeoi
    sie)andthosewhodonot(t
    heprolet
    ari
    at)
    ,but
    alsoacr
    ossmanyot herar
    easofsociall
    if
    e.

    Oneoft hemainideasthatshouldbecomingthroughaboutMar xi
    stper
    specti
    vesonthe
    socialwor l
    disthatsocialorderi
    snotper manentandunchangi ng.Ont hecontr
    ary,
    alt
    houghi tmayappearthatwayinourever
    ydayliv
    es, t
    hereal
    it
    ybeneaththeappear
    ance
    i
    st hatpeoplehavetoconti
    nuall
    yproduceandreproducethesocialworl
    dbyattempti
    ng
    tomai nt
    ainandchal
    lengeexisti
    ngfor
    msofpowerr elati
    onshi
    ps.

    Thus,theruli
    ngclass,forexample,mustcont i
    nuallyr
    eproducecapital
    istfor
    ms
    ofeconomi cproduct
    ion,si
    ncei ti
    sonlyby" del
    iveri
    ngtheeconomi cgoods"that
    thei
    rhegemonycanbemai nt
    ained.t
    hewor kingclass,
    ont heotherhand,arenot
    simply passi
    ve consumer s ofa " Capi
    tali
    stdr eam"-t hey are conti
    nuall
    y
    organi
    zingandagitat
    ingforagr at
    ershar
    eofpower-bot heconomicandpol i
    ti
    cal.

    I
    nsi mplet
    erms,t hereasonfort
    heappearanceofsoci alorderoverti
    me(eventhough
    greaterorlesserconf l
    ict
    s may er
    uptf r
    om t ime t oti
    me)i st hatone cl
    ass has
    fundament
    all
    ygr eat
    erlevel
    sofpowerthanotherclassesi
    nsociety
    .

     Soci
    ety
    ,inthi
    ssense,mayhav et
    heappear
    anceofabiol
    ogi
    calorganism (
    where
    noconfl
    ictbet
    weenthev ar
    iouspart
    sexi
    sts)
    ,butf
    orMarxi
    ststhi
    si ssimplyan
    i
    naccur
    ate
     Anal
    ogy-preci
    sel
    ybecauseconfl
    icti
    sal
    lar
    oundusinourev
    erydayli
    ves.

    200
    6.Ecologi
    cal
    Theor
    ies
    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Ecologi
    caltheori
    es,aswiththeFunctionali
    sttheor
    iestowhichtheyar
    eclosely-
    rel
    ated,
    aresomet i
    mescal led“Posit
    ivi
    st”theori
    es.Thi sisbecausetheyseektol ocatethe
    causesofhumanbehav i
    our(i
    nt hi
    scase, devi
    anceandnon-devi
    ance)wi
    thi
    nsomef orm
    ofsocialst
    ructur
    ethatexi
    stsexter
    naltotheindivi
    dual
    .

    Inthecaseofecologi
    caltheor
    ies,thecausesofcri
    me,f
    orexampl
    e,aretobefoundin
    thewaythephysicalenvi
    ronmentinwhi chpeopl
    eli
    veandi
    nter
    actsoci
    all
    ycr
    eatesthe
    condi
    ti
    onsforcr
    iminalandnon-cri
    mi nal
    behavi
    our
    .

    Ecol
    ogicaltheor
    iesal
    so,y
    oumi ghtl
    i
    ket
    onot
    e,shar
    eacoupl
    eofcommonf
    eat
    ureswi
    th
    Funct
    ionali
    stsubcul
    tur
    alt
    heor
    ies.

    a.Both,al
    beitinsl
    ight
    lydif
    fer
    entways,pl
    acepar t
    icul
    arstressont heway
    vari
    ouscultur
    al/sub-cul
    tur
    algr
    oupsdevel
    opt heirownpar t
    icul
    arnorms
    and val
    ues in a way thatref
    lect
    s bot
    ht heirphy si
    caland mat er
    ial
    cir
    cumstances.

    b.Both areimpl i
    cit
    ly structur
    ali n scope and,mor e-speci
    fi
    cal
    ly,hav
    e
    devel
    opedoutofmai nstream Functi
    onalistt
    heory.Thiscanperhapsbe
    bestseeninrelat
    iontot hewaybot hf ormsoft heori
    singemphasisehow
    i
    ndivi
    dual/gr oupv aluesar i
    seasar esponset oani ndivi
    dual
    '
    ssocial
    ci
    rcumstances/situation.

    Wher eecologicaltheoriestendtodi ff
    erfrom sub-cul
    tur
    altheori
    esisinthedi f
    ferent
    stressplacedupont heori
    ginofsub-cultur
    albehavi
    our.Ecol
    ogist
    s,aswewi l
    lsee,hav e
    tendedtoemphasi set hesigni
    fi
    canceoft hephy si
    calenvi
    ronmentorgeographicar ea
    (hence,such t heori
    es are someti
    mes known as " ar
    ea studi
    es")
    ,whil
    e sub-cult
    ur al
    theori
    stshav etendedt oemphasiset hewayi nwhichnormsandv al
    uesrel
    atemor et o
    mat er
    ialci
    rcumst ances.

    Tonnieswor konGemei nschaft(aconceptheusedt ot heor


    isethenatureof
    socialrelat
    ionshipsinsmall
    -scal
    e,"communi t
    y-t
    ype"(part
    icular
    lyr
    ural
    )areasand
    Gesellschaft(aconceptheusedt otheori
    sethenat ur
    eofsoci alrel
    ati
    onshi
    psin
    l
    arger-scale," associ
    ati
    on-t
    ype" (part
    icul
    arl
    y ur ban) areas,was par ti
    cul
    arl
    y
    i
    nfluentialwit
    ht heChicagoSchoolecologi
    sts.

    Durkhei
    m’si deasaboutthewayi nf
    ormalsoci
    albondst
    endedtobeweakened
    oncesocieti
    esbegant odevelopinbothsi
    zeandnumberofsoci
    alr
    elat
    ionshi
    ps
    theycont
    ainedwassimi l
    arl
    yinfl
    uent
    ial
    .

    However,asi
    de f
    rom t
    he above,one oft
    he main or
    igi
    nali
    nfl
    uences i
    nthe ear
    ly
    dev
    elopmentofecologi
    caltheori
    es ofcr
    ime and devi
    ance was thatof"Soci
    al
    Dar
    winism":

    I
    nsi mplet er
    ms,Soci alDar
    wi ni
    sm involvestheideat hatiti
    spossibletoappl
    ysomeof
    Darwin'sor i
    ginalobservat
    ionsaboutt henat ureofani malbehav i
    our/evolut
    ion i
    n
    rel
    ati
    ont ohumansoci algroupings.Inpar t
    icul
    ar ,si
    ncetheecologicalf
    ocuswasupon
    t
    her elat
    ionshipbetweenpeopl eandt heirphysicalenvir
    onment,theworkofsomeone
    l
    ikeRober tPark("HumanEcol ogy")natural
    lytendedt ofocusuponthewayt he"st
    ruggl
    e
    forspace"wi t
    hinurbanenvironmentsaf f
    ectedpeopl e'
    sbehaviour
    .

    Par
    k,forexampl
    e,not
    edthewayi nwhi
    ch,i
    nAmer icaatleast
    ,successi
    ve"wavesof
    i
    mmi gr
    ati
    on"int
    o Ameri
    can ci
    ti
    es had an unset
    tl
    ing and di
    srupt
    ive ef
    fectupon
    est
    abli
    shedcommuni
    ti
    es.

    I
    n"Juv
    eni
    l
    eDel
    i
    nquencyandUr
    banAr
    eas"
    ,forexampl
    e, Shaw andMcKayexpl
    i
    cit
    ly

    201
    att
    emptedt ol
    inktheideaof"area"tohumanbehaviour(especi
    all
    ycr
    imi
    nalbehav
    iour
    ).
    Inthi
    srespect
    ,thebasict
    hrustofthei
    rstudycanbeoutl
    inedthus:

    a.Theareainwhichpeoplel
    iv
    eissigni
    fi
    cantinrel
    ati
    ont
    osuchthi
    ngsas
    densi
    tyofoccupat
    ion,t
    hest
    abi
    l
    ityorother
    wiseofcommunall
    i
    feandso
    for
    th.

    b.Peopl
    e'sbehavi
    ouriscondit
    ionedbyreferencetothebehav
    iourofot
    hers
    and,i
    nt hi
    srespect
    ,peopletakethei
    rguide-li
    nesforbehavi
    ourfr
    om the
    wayinwhichthepeoplearoundthem appeartobehave.

    I
    f,forexampl
    e,thi
    sbehav i
    ouriscondit
    ionedbynon- cri
    minali
    ty,thiswi
    llbethe
    prevai
    l
    inget
    hos;if
    ,ontheotherhand,peoplesuspectthat"ever
    y one"i
    sinvol
    ved
    i
    ndev i
    ant/cri
    minalbehav
    iour
    ,thentheywillal
    soinvolvethemsel v
    esinthi
    skind
    ofbehavi
    our
    .

    Thel ogi
    coft hi
    sf orm ofargumenti squi t
    eexpl i
    cit
    ,i nt hatitinvol
    vesthebasi c
    assumpt i
    on thatpeopl e devel
    op gui de-l
    i
    nes aboutt heirbehav i
    ourthr
    ough their
    percepti
    onoft heprevai
    li
    ngnormsandv alueswi t
    hinapar t
    icularar
    ea.Thi
    s,i
    nturn,l
    i
    nks
    i
    ntot heideathatpeoplebecomeat tachedtot hepart
    icul
    arar eainwhicht
    heyli
    ve,si
    nce
    i
    tisi ntheirimmediateneighbourhoodt hattheydev el
    opasenseofcommunall ivi
    ng,
    ri
    ghtsandr esponsi
    bil
    i
    t i
    es.

    ShawandMcKayappl iedthesei
    deas(someofwhi chresembleFunctionali
    stideasand
    otherswhichappeartohavebeenincorporat
    edf r
    om anInter
    acti
    onistperspecti
    vecall
    ed
    "Symboli
    cI nt
    eracti
    on"
    ),t
    hroughananal y
    sisofwhatt heytermed"Concent ri
    cZones"–
    thetheoryofSocialDi
    sorgani
    sat
    ionis,
    accordingl
    y,fr
    equentl
    yrefer
    red-toas“Concentri
    c
    Zone”theory.

    Inbasi ct er
    ms,theyarguedt hatanycit
    y(i
    nt hisinstancetheycit
    edChicago)couldbe
    dividedi ntovari
    ousconcentriczonesemanatingf r
    om t hecentr
    eoft heci
    ty.Youcan
    visualisethesezonesbythinkingaboutanarcherytarget,f
    orexample,
    withthecentr
    eof
    the t arget( t
    he Bul
    ls-
    eye)bei ng Zone 1 and each successiver i
    ng being named
    successi vely
    .

    Concent
    ri
    cZones
    (
    diagr
    ammat i
    cvi
    ew)

    Themi
    ddl
    ezone(
    Zone1)i
    sthecent
    ral
    busi
    nessdi
    str
    icti
    nanyci
    ty.

    Thenextisthei
    nnerci
    ty(
    Zone2)
    ,somet
    imescal
    l
    edt
    heI
    nter
    sti
    ti
    alZoneorZoneof
    Transi
    ti
    on.

    Thi
    sZonei
    ssur r
    ounded,respecti
    vel
    y,by:
     Respectableworki
    ngcl asshousi
    ng( Zone3)
     The(mi ddl
    eclass)suburbs(Zone4)
     Thecityfri
    nge(rur
    al /semi-r
    ural
    areas)inhabi
    tedbyt
    her
    ich(
    Zone5)

    Inexami ningcrimeratesi nrelat


    iontoeachzone, ShawandMcKayf oundthatonezone
    i
    npar t
    icular(Zone2)exhi bi
    tedhigherratesofcr i
    met hananyot herzone.Thiszone
    (whichShaw andMcKayt er
    meda" zoneoftransition"becausei twast othisareaof
    cheaphousi ngt hatsuccessiv ewavesofimmigr ant
    s-I ri
    sh,Ital
    i
    an,Pol i
    shandsof or
    th-
    came) ,hadaconsi stentl
    yhi gherrat
    eofcr i
    met hananyot herzone,regardl
    essofwhich
    i
    mmi grantgroupdomi natedt hecult
    urall
    i
    feofthear ea.

    Thisl
    eadShawandMcKaytoarguethatthehi
    ghcrimerateswerenotaconsequenceof
    thebehavi
    ourofanyonepart
    icul
    arethnicgr
    oup( si
    ncei tdi
    dn'
    treal
    lyseem tomake
    muchdiff
    erencewhi
    chet
    hni
    cgroupwasdomi nantatpar
    ti
    cularti
    mes).

    202
    Rather
    ,theyarguedthatsomethi
    ngaboutthefactofli
    vinginasuchazonewast her
    oot
    causeofthehighlevelsofcri
    me.This"
    somet hing"was,accor
    dingtoShawandMcKay,
    thefactthatnosettledcommuni t
    ycouldestablishi
    tselfi
    nthiszonebecauseofthe
    repeat
    edwav esofimmi gr
    ati
    onint
    o-andemi grati
    onoutof-thezone.

    Ineffect
    ,thehi ghturnoverofpeopl
    ei nthe" zoneoftransi
    ti
    on"result
    edi ntheideaof
    "soci
    aldisorganisat
    ion"-thei
    deathatal ackofclear,moral
    ,guide-
    li
    nesder i
    vi
    ngfrom a
    settl
    ed,stable,communi t
    ystruct
    ureresultedinal ackofinfor
    malsoci alcont
    rolsand
    henceahi ghr at
    eofcr i
    me.

    Howmi
    ghtt
    heconceptof"
    soci
    aldi
    sor
    gani
    sat
    ion"expl
    ainhi
    ghr
    atesofcr
    ime?

    Wecani
    dent
    if
    yatl
    eastt
    womaj
    orpr
    obl
    emswi
    tht
    hiski
    ndoft
    heor
    eti
    cal
    expl
    anat
    ion:

     Fi
    rstl
    y,whilethei
    deaofsocial di
    sorganisat
    ionseems,onthefaceofthings,t
    obe
    ausef ulconcept,i
    tisdifficultt
    oseehow t heideaof" di
    sor
    ganisedhuman
    behavi
    our"canbesust ained-nof orm ofhumanbehav iourcan,inef f
    ect,be
    di
    sorganised forthe part
    icipants( al
    though itmay appeardi sor
    ganised to
    outsi
    ders..
    .)
    .

     Secondl
    y,asafor
    m ofcausalexpl
    anati
    on,soci
    aldi
    sorgani
    sat
    ionisbot
    hacause
    andaneffect(
    whi
    chis,
    ofcourse,l
    ogical
    lyi
    mpossibl
    e).Thi
    sfoll
    owsbecause:

    a.Soci
    aldi
    sor
    gani
    sat
    ioncr
    eat
    eshi
    ghr
    atesofcr
    ime.

    b.Hi
    ghr
    atesofcr
    imecr
    eat
    esoci
    aldi
    sor
    gani
    sat
    ion.

    I
    nef
    fect
    ,wehav
    enol
    ogi
    cal
    wayofknowi
    ngwhi
    chcomesf
    ir
    st.
    ..

    Cul
    tur
    alTr
    ansmi
    ssi
    onTheor
    y

    Partl
    yasar esponsetosuchcr i
    ti
    cism,soci aldisor
    ganisat
    iont
    heorygavewayt ot he
    development/r efi
    nementofCul t
    ur alTransmission t
    heory,wher
    ebyt he emphasis
    passedf r
    om af ocusondisor
    gani
    sationt oafocusont hewaygroupsbecomecriminall
    y
    organisedinsuchareasasthezoneoft ransi
    tion.

    Inthi
    sr espect,whatwear estarti
    ngtoseei sthedev
    elopmentofamuchmore
    expli
    cit
    lysub-culturalf
    orm oftheori
    sing,wher
    etheexpli
    cat
    oryemphasi
    sshi
    ft
    s
    ontothesocialisati
    onprocess.

    Intheset erms,"
    criminalbehavi
    our"i
    sseentobe" nor
    malbehavi
    our
    "forsome
    socialgroupsand,hence,cri
    minalnor
    msandvaluesaretr
    ansmi
    tt
    ed,t
    hrought
    he
    social
    isati
    onprocess,fr
    om onegenerati
    ont
    othenext.

    Themajorprobl
    em here,howev er
    ,ist
    hequest
    ionofwhy,i
    fcul
    turalt
    ransmi
    ssi
    oni
    ssuch
    apowerfulf
    orm ofsocial
    isati
    onforsomepeople,
    itdoesnotseem toappl
    ytoot
    her
    sin
    anappar
    entlysi
    milarsoci
    al posi
    ti
    on:

    I
    nshort,i
    tdoesn'
    texpl
    ainwhysomepeopl
    ecommitcr
    ime(
    "becauset
    heyhav
    e
    beensoci
    ali
    sedtoseei
    tasnormal
    ")whi
    l
    eother
    sdonot
    .

    Asawayofr esol
    vingthi
    spr oblem,ther
    efore,whatwasneededwasat heorythat
    appli
    edmore-
    speci
    fi
    call
    ytopeoples'act
    ualbehavi
    our-andsuchatheorydev
    elopedout
    ofthewor
    kofSutherl
    andandCr essey("
    ThePrinci
    plesofCr
    imi
    nol
    ogy")
    .

    Di
    ff
    erent
    ialAssoci
    ati
    on

    Usi
    ng theidea of"Di
    ff
    erent
    ialAssoci
    ati
    on"
    ,Sut
    her
    land and Cr
    esseyar
    gued t
    hata
    cr
    iminali
    sli
    kel
    ytodevel
    opifhe/she:

    203
    ".
    ..
    recei
    vesan excessofdefi
    nit
    ionsf
    avourabl
    etov
    iol
    ati
    on oft
    hel
    aw ov
    er
    defi
    niti
    onsunf
    avourabl
    etov
    iol
    ati
    onoft
    helaw".

    Thus,thiswasamor e-expl
    i
    citl
    ysub-
    culturalfor
    m oft heori
    singbecauseitstar
    tedt o
    l
    ocatepeople'sbehav
    iourwit
    hinacult
    uralframeworkofr ul
    es,rol
    esandresponsi
    bil
    it
    ies-
    thepeopleyouassociatedwithwerebasicall
    yresponsi
    bleforwhetherornotyoubr oke
    thel
    aw, dependi
    nguponhow" nor
    mall
    y"theyv i
    ewedcriminalbehavi
    our.

    Howev
    er,
    itwasnotsi
    mpl
    yacaseof
    :

    "
    ify
    ouassoci
    atewi
    thcr
    imi
    nal
    syouwi
    l
    lbecomeacr
    imi
    nal
    ",

    Mainl
    ybecauseSut
    her
    landandCr
    esseyr
    eal
    i
    sedt
    hati
    twasnotl
    i
    kel
    ytobean"
    eit
    her/
    or
    "sit
    uat
    ion.

    Forexampl e,y
    ourf
    amilymayst
    ressnon-cr
    iminalbehaviourwhil
    eyourpeer
    sare
    heavi
    lyinvolv
    edincri
    me-inthi
    si nst
    ance,theindi
    vidualrecei
    vescont
    radi
    ctor
    y
    soci
    ali
    singmessages.

    Thisidea,initsel
    f,wassomet hingnew,i nsofarast hesocial
    i
    sationpr ocesscouldbe
    seenascont r
    adictory,r
    athert hanar el
    ati
    vel
    ysi mpleprocessoft eachi
    ngi nwhichthe
    i
    ndividualbei
    ngsoci ali
    sedappear stoplayli
    tt
    leactualpart
    .
    SutherlandandCr esseyar guedt hattherewer efourmai nv ar
    iablesi nvolv
    edi nthe
    creat
    ionofacr iminal:
    1.Fr equencyofdef i
    nitions:
    Thati s,thenumberoft imest hatcr i
    minaldef i
    nit
    ions(forexampl e,t hebeli
    efthat
    steal
    ingf r
    om therichisokay )occur .

    2.Durati
    onofdef
    ini
    ti
    ons:
    Thel
    ongertheindi
    vi
    duali
    sexposedt
    ovar
    iousdef
    ini
    ti
    ons,t
    hemor
    eli
    kel
    ytheyar
    eto
    i
    ncor
    porat
    ethem.

    3.Priori
    tyofdefini
    ti
    ons:
    Thisbasical
    lyrelat
    est ostageintheli
    fecycl
    eoftheindi
    vidual
    .A y
    oungchild,f
    or
    example,mayexper i
    encetheprimar
    ysoci
    ali
    zati
    onoft
    hef
    amilymorefor
    cef
    ull
    ythanany
    othersoci
    ali
    singinf
    luences.

    4.Intensi
    tyofdef
    init
    ions:
    Theprest
    ige/statusofthepersonmaki
    ngthedef
    init
    ionwil
    lbei
    mport
    ant
    ,si
    nceifwe
    arei
    mpressedbysomeonewear emor
    eli
    kel
    ytoberecepti
    vet
    owhatt
    heyar
    esayi
    ng.

    EDWI
    NSUTHERLAND’
    STHEORYOFDI
    FFERENTI
    ALASSOCI
    ATI
    ON

    I
    tsay st hatbehaviornormalanddev iantali
    keislearnedduringint
    eracti
    onwi thot
    hers.
    Sutherl
    andf eltthattheprosti
    tutes,thepr of
    essi
    onalt hi
    ef;andthewhi t
    ecol l
    arcri
    minal
    l
    earnt o behav et hrough associat
    ion and communi cat
    ion wit
    h peopl e who di
    splay
    deviantbehav iorinaf av
    orablel i
    ght .Theyaret aughtt heposit
    iver ewardsoft hat
    behav i
    or—t hatcrimedoesnotpay .

    Beforeleavi
    ngt hesoci
    ologicaltheori
    esofdev i
    antbehavi
    or,weshouldbrief
    lyl
    ookat
    anotherapproachthathasat t
    ractedwideint
    erest
    .Thisapproachf
    ocusesnotsomuch
    ont hedeviantactordeviantper son,butr
    atherontheprocessofdefini
    ngtheactor
    personasdev i
    ant

    WHOMAKESTHERULES?
    WHOENFORCESTHEM?
    ONWHOM ANDWHY?

    Thesequest
    ionsemer
    gef
    rom whati
    sgener
    all
    ycal
    l
    edLABELLI
    NGTHEORY.

    204
    Thistheoryseesdevi
    antbehavi
    orasaproductofgroupdefi
    nit
    ions.Becomingadev i
    ant
    i
    nvolvesal abeli
    ngpr
    ocess;Oneisdevi
    antbecauseapart
    icul
    argr ouplabel
    shim orher
    assuch.Inot herwor
    ds,l
    abeli
    nggroupsdet
    erminewhoandwhati sdeviant
    ;dev
    iat
    ionis
    social
    lydefi
    ned.

    HowardBecker
    -referstorulecreat
    orsandruleenfor
    cer
    s,peoplewhoseprof
    essi
    on
    cent
    ersar
    ounddefi
    ningandregul
    ati
    ngdevi
    antbehav
    ior,
    asmoralentr
    epr
    eneur
    s.

    Label
    ingtheor
    ylooksatitthi
    sway,somepeoplemakerul
    es,other
    senfor
    cethem,and
    outofthi
    sprocesspar
    ti
    culari
    ndi
    vi
    dualsar
    elabel
    eddev
    iant
    .Iti
    sasocial
    process.

    TOWHOM DOESDEVI
    ANTLABELGETAPPLI
    ED?

    Wel
    l
    ,nott
    oev
    ery
    oneequal
    l
    y,ofcour
    seI
    tdependsi
    npar
    tont
    he;

    1.Seri
    ousnessoft heact.Onv eryseri
    ousbehav i
    ors(homicide,armedrobbery
    )
    aboutwhich thereisa generalagreement,thedev i
    antlabelisquicklyand
    for
    mallyappli
    ed.Iftheactisl essserious(belchi
    nginpubl i
    c,dressi
    ngv er
    y
    str
    angel
    y),t
    hedev i
    antl
    abel
    ,i
    fappliedatall
    ,wi
    llbeappli
    edlessstri
    ngent
    ly.

    2.I
    talsodependsont hevul
    nerabi
    li
    tyoft
    heper sonbei
    nglabeled.Lowercl
    ass
    peopl
    eandminor
    it
    iesaremoreli
    kel
    ytobelabel
    edadevi
    antthanother
    s.

    3.Itdependsaswev i
    sibi
    li
    ty.I
    ftheactisobviousandoccur sf ul
    lviewofother
    s,i
    tis
    mor elikel
    yt ogetar eacti
    on.Theseandot herfactor
    si nteractincompli
    cat
    ed
    way s.Thus,int
    heviewoft helabeli
    ngtheori
    sts,
    call
    ingpeopl edev i
    antmaybean
    arbi
    traryandcapri
    ciousact-t el
    li
    ngusmor eabouttheper sondoingt hel
    abel
    i
    ng
    thanaboutt heper
    sonbei nglabel
    ed.

    Anexampl eoft helabeli


    ngpr ocessact i
    onhasbeenpr ovidedbySt anfordPsy chologist
    Dav i
    dRosenhan.Rosenhanand7col leaguesv iewt hemselvesasqui t
    esane, butfort he
    purposesofanexper imenteachwentt ot headmi ssionsof f
    iceofament alhospi t
    aland
    tol
    dt hesamest ory:Theywer ehearinguncl earv oicest hatseemedt obesay i
    ngwor ds
    l
    ikeempt y,
    holl
    owandt hud.Thatwasenoughf ort headmi t
    ti
    ngpsy chi
    atri
    stsatt welveof
    thehospi t
    als,Rosenhanandhi sfr
    iendswel tdiagnosedasschi zophrenicandadmi t
    ted.
    Thel abelwasappl iedandi tstuck.Thedi agnoseswer enotquest i
    onedbyot herstaff
    member s,andthepsuedopat ient
    swer eincarcerat edforbet ween7and52day sbef ore
    beingr el
    eased.Althought heybehav edcal ml yandnor mal l
    yint hehospi t
    al,theywer e
    continuall
    ygivenpi l
    lsto“ help”them ( at otalofnear l
    y2, 100).Nonewer ereleasedas
    cured—“ i
    nremissionwast hef i
    naldiagnosis.

    7. Non-
    Soci
    ologi
    calt
    heor
    iesofDev
    iance

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    1.I
    deasconcerni
    ngt
    hewaybot
    hconcept
    sofcr
    imeand,
    inpar
    ti
    cul
    ar,
    dev
    iancecan
    bedef
    ined.

    2.Thevari
    ouswaysthatwecanbegint
    ounderstandhowconcepti
    onsofcri
    minal/
    devi
    antbehavi
    ourarebasedupon soci
    alprocesses(
    invol
    vingsuchideasas
    soci
    alr
    eacti
    on,l
    ev sofsoci
    el alhar
    m andsoforth)
    .

    3.Generalbackgroundinf
    ormat
    ionaboutcri
    meinBr
    it
    aint
    hatfocusedonsome
    basi
    cpat t
    ernsofsocialdi
    str
    ibut
    ion(
    consi
    der
    edi
    ntermsofsuchconcept
    sas
    age,sexandclass).

    Non-
    Soci
    ologi
    calExpl
    anat
    ionsofCr
    imeandDev
    iance.
    twomainareas:

    205
    1.Expl i
    cit
    lypsychol
    ogicaltheor
    ies
    2. Geneti
    c/bi ol
    ogicaltheori
    es(whi
    ch,f
    oral
    lint
    ent
    sandpur
    posest
    endt
    obe
    psychologi
    calinori
    gin).

    I
    nthi
    srespect
    ,weneedt
    olookatsucht
    heor
    iesbecause:

    a.Theyar
    eexpl
    i
    cit
    lyi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    i
    sti
    c(r
    athert
    hansoci
    al)i
    nscope.

    b.Theyprov
    ideuswi t
    hacompar at
    iverefer
    encepoi
    ntagai
    nstwhi
    cht
    o
    measur
    esociol
    ogi
    caltheor
    iesi
    ngeneral
    .

    AsI’
    vejustnoted,thi
    sisabriefov
    erviewoft hesefor
    msofnon-soci
    ologi
    caltheor
    isi
    ng
    si
    ncesuchtheoriesaremanyandv ar
    ied.Si
    ncewehav enei
    thert
    het i
    menort heneedto
    l
    ookatthem allinanydetail
    ,I’
    vesimplypresentedasel
    ecti
    onofthev ar
    ioustypesof
    non-
    soci
    ologi
    caltheori
    esofcri
    methatexist
    .

    Bi
    ologi
    calTheor
    ies

    Earl
    ybiol
    ogicaltheori
    estendedtowardsseeingcrimeasaf orm ofil
    lness,causedby
    pathol
    ogi
    calfactorsspeci
    fi
    ctocertai
    nclassesofindi
    vi
    dual
    s.Pathol
    ogy ,i
    nthisrespect,
    rel
    atestotheideat hatt
    hecrimi
    nalcannothelpbutcommi tcri
    me.Int hi
    srespect,the
    causeoflaw-br
    eakingmight,f
    orexample,befoundinachemical
    imbalanceinthebr ai
    n.

    I
    nthisrespect
    ,wecanperhapssummari
    set
    hem i
    nter
    msoft
    hecommon-
    sensei
    dea
    t
    hatsomepeoplear
    e"bor
    ncr i
    minal
    s".

    A majorv ersi
    onofsucht heor
    isi
    ngiscont ainedi nthewor kofLombroso( "
    L'Uomo
    Deli
    quente",1876),wherehearguedthatcri
    mi nalswerethr
    owbackstoanear l
    i
    er,more
    pri
    miti
    ve,form ofman.I nsupportofthi
    sbel i
    ef,Lombrosoclai
    medtohav ei
    dentifi
    eda
    numberofgenet ical
    ly-
    deter
    minedcharacter
    isti
    csf oundi
    nthe" cr
    imi
    nalcl
    asses"-such
    thi
    ngsas:

     Largejaws,
     Highcheekbones,
     Largeear s,
     Extranipples,t
    oesorfi
    nger
    s,
     Aninsensi t
    ivi
    tytopai
    n.

    I
    nt hisrespect
    ,such t
    hings wer
    ethe out
    war
    d mani
    fest
    ati
    ons ofi
    nbor
    n cr
    imi
    nal
    pr
    edisposi
    ti
    ons.
    ..

    Acoupl
    eofpr
    obl
    emst
    hatcanbenot
    edwi
    tht
    hiski
    ndofappr
    oachi
    nvol
    vet
    hef
    actt
    hat
    :

    1.Lombroso'
    sphy si
    ologicalr
    esearchwascarri
    ed-outamongsti nmat esinI t
    ali
    an
    pri
    sons.Essenti
    all
    y,theref
    ore,hewasstudying,i nt hemain,thev erypoor-
    peopl
    ewhosephy sicaldevel
    opmenthadbeenaf fectedbypovert
    y, poornutri
    ti
    on
    andsof or
    th.Inthisrespect,hewasbasi
    nghi st heoriesonagr oupofpeopl e
    whosephysical
    dev el
    opmenthadbeenseverel
    yaf fectedbysoci
    aldepr i
    vat
    ions..
    .

    2.Notev ery
    onewhobr eaksthelaw endsupi npri
    son.Thistypeoft
    heor
    isi
    ng
    neglect
    stheideathatt
    hereisa"gr
    eyarea"ofcri
    minali
    ty-peopl
    ewhocommi t
    cri
    mesbutwhoar enotcaughtandt
    heref
    orenoti
    mprisoned.

    Therearemanyr easonsf orthi


    s.Parti
    cul
    argroupsinanysoci
    etymaypossess
    thepowertoeither"
    hide"thei
    rdev i
    anceor-mor epr
    obabl
    y-escapehavi
    ngthei
    r
    behavi
    ourclassif
    ied /labell
    ed asdev i
    antint hefi
    rstpl
    ace.Inthi
    srespect
    ,
    Lombroso'
    sresearchwashopel essl
    ybiased.
    ..

    Bri
    efl
    y expl
    ain why Lombroso'
    s pr
    ison r
    esear
    ch woul
    d hav
    e bi
    ased hi
    s
    concl
    usi
    onsabout"cr
    imi
    nal
    s".

    206
    Inamorecontempor aryv
    ein,Shel
    donandEl eanorGl ueckclai
    medt ohav ediscoveredan
    appar
    entrel
    ati
    onshipbet weenphysicalbuil
    danddel i
    nquentbehaviourinmal es(The
    ter
    m deli
    nquency is used,sociol
    ogical
    ly
    ,t or efert o deviant/cr iminalbehav iour
    committ
    ed byj uvenil
    es)
    .Theyar gued thatst ocky ,rounded,indi
    viduals( known as
    mesomorphs)tendedt obemor eacti
    veandaggr essivethanpeoplewi t
    hot hertypesof
    physi
    cal
    buil
    d.

    Again,themai nproblem wi ththi


    ski ndoft heori
    singi nvolv
    est hequest i
    onofi denti
    fyi
    ng
    del
    inquent s.Ineffect,itrevolv
    esar oundt hequest ionofhowsoci et i
    esbothdef ineand
    i
    nterpretdelinquency( and,byextensi on,devi
    ance).
    Forexampl e,thebehav iourofmi ddleclassst udents"celebrati
    ng"theendoft heir
    fi
    nalexamsi nar owdymannercoul dwel lfallwithi
    nacat egor yof"del
    inquency "
    ,
    yetsuchbehav i
    ouri sunli
    kelyt obedef i
    nedasdel i
    nquent .I
    tmay ,instead,be
    rati
    onali
    sed as" high spir
    it
    s"-a t empor ary ,understandable,lapse int
    or ule-
    breakingbehav iourandsof ort h.

    I
    naddit
    ion,oneexpl
    anat
    ionf
    ort
    heaggr
    essi
    vebehav
    iourofmesomorphsmaywellbe
    t
    hefactthatmaleswiththi
    sty
    peofbuil
    datt
    ractaggressi
    ver
    esponsesf
    rom ot
    her
    mal
    es.
    ..

    Psy
    chol
    ogi
    cal/Genet
    icTheor
    ies

    Theabov eexamplesbr oadlyoutl


    inet
    hebasi ctheoret
    icaldri
    ftofbiologicaltheoriesof
    deviance.Genetictheori
    esofdev i
    ance,ont heotherhand,tendtoar guet hatthereisa
    di
    rectcausalconnect ionbet weensuchthingsasani ndi
    vidual
    'sgenet i
    cmake- upand
    predisposit
    ion’
    stowar dstypesofbehaviourthatarelikel
    yt obedef inedasdev iantor
    cri
    mi nali
    nanysociety.

    HansEysenck,forexample,hasproposedt
    hatt
    her
    eisaconnect
    ionbet
    ween"
    ext
    rov
    ert
    per
    sonal
    it
    ies"andcriminalbehav
    iour.

    Accordi
    ng t
    o Eysenck,extr
    overt
    sareper
    sonal
    i
    tyt
    ypeswho "
    acti
    mpul
    siv
    ely
    ..
    .cr
    ave
    exci
    tement
    ..
    .t
    akerisks"andsofor
    th.

    Suchgeneti
    ctheor
    ist
    sdonotnecessarilyclai
    mt hatanindivi
    dual
    '
    sgenescausecriminal
    behavi
    our,
    assuch.Rather
    ,theyarguethatsuchper sonal
    it
    ytypesar
    emorepr edi
    sposed
    tobehavei
    nway st
    hatlaythem opentocriminal
    sanct i
    ons.

    Thus,t
    heext rover
    tper sonal
    i
    tycouldqui
    t eeasi
    l
    yfindwaysofbehavi
    ngthatarequit
    e
    soci
    all
    y-acceptabl
    e(suchasi nthebusinesswor l
    d,forexampl
    e,wheretheextr
    overt
    entr
    epreneurmaywel l
    beanadmi redfi
    gure).

    Ext
    rover
    tpersonali
    ti
    es,theref
    ore,i
    nv ol
    veageneti
    cimper
    ati
    ve(thati
    s,acommandthat
    hastobeobey ed)thatforcespeopl etobehaveinpar
    ti
    cularways-"ri
    skt
    aking"by
    cut
    ti
    ngcorners,goingafterthethingstheydesi
    reinway
    sthatmayi nf
    ri
    ngemoraland
    l
    egalcodesofconductandsof or
    th.

    Thisi
    deaof“ notal
    waysplayi
    ngbysoci et
    y’
    srul
    es”maybr i
    ngtheextrov
    erti
    ntoconfl
    ict
    wit
    h soci
    alnor ms/l aws.Cr i
    minal
    it
    y,inthissense,isseen asa combi nat
    ion of
    genet
    ical
    l
    y-deter
    minedpersonal
    ityty
    peandsoci al
    ly
    -cr
    eateddefi
    nit
    ionsofcr i
    meand
    devi
    ance.

    Anumberofpr
    obl
    emsar
    eappar
    entwi
    tht
    heabov
    e:

    1.I
    nt hefi
    rstpl
    ace,genet
    icexpl
    anati
    onsofhumanbehav
    iourar
    esi yunpr
    mpl oven
    hypot
    heses,wheretheonusisuponthet
    heor
    istt
    odemonstr
    ateempi
    ri
    cal
    l
    y( t
    hat

    207
    i
    s,usingf actualev i
    dence)thenat ur
    eoft herel
    ati
    onshipbetweengenesand
    behavi
    our .Whi l
    stgenetici
    sts,forexampl
    e,havebeensuccessfuli
    nt hei
    sol
    ati
    on
    ofgenest hatgov ernsuchthingsasaperson'
    sphysi
    calcharact
    eri
    sti
    cs:
     Ey ecol our,
     Hai rcolour,
     Basi cbodyst r
    uctur
    eandsof or
    th,

    Nogene( orgenet
    iccombinat
    ion)hasbeendi scoveredthatdi
    rectl
    ycontr
    olshuman
    behav
    iour.Wheregeneshav
    ebeenf oundtoinf
    luencebehaviourt
    hereisi
    nvar
    iabl
    ysome
    for
    m ofassociat
    edphysi
    caldi
    sabil
    i
    tyorabnormali
    typresent
    .

    Whetherthislackofempiri
    calevi
    dencemeanst herei
    snor el
    ationshi
    pbet weengenes
    andbehav i
    our-orsimplythatgeneti
    csci enceisnotsophi
    sti
    cat edenough( asyet
    )to
    i
    solat
    et hi
    sr el
    ati
    onshi
    p-isaquest i
    ont hatremainsunanswered.Howev er,t
    helackof
    empir
    icalveri
    fi
    cati
    onofEysenck'
    shypothesisremainsaseri
    ousweakness. .
    .

    2.Thei deaofper
    sonal
    it
    yisonethatmanysociologi
    sts(i
    nparti
    cul
    arInter
    actionist
    writ
    erssuchasMead,Becker ,Gar
    finkelandBerger)havequesti
    oned.I nt his
    respect,
    wecanident
    if
    ytwobasicpr
    oblemswithEysenck'
    sconceptofpersonality
    :

    a)Thenatur
    eofhumanper sonali
    tyisbyno-meansclear.Isit
    ,asEysenck
    seemstosuggest
    ,basical
    lyone-di
    mensi
    onal-t
    hatpeoplecanbecl
    assifi
    ed
    i
    ntobasi
    ceit
    her/or"personal
    it
    yt y
    pes"(
    suchasei
    therextr
    over
    tori
    ntrover
    t
    andsofor
    th)
    ?

    Thequest i
    onher e,t
    her
    efore,ist heext enttowhichwecant al
    kabout
    i
    ndivi
    dualpersonali
    ti
    esasifpeopl eonl ybehavedi
    nonepar ti
    cul
    arwayat
    al
    ltimes,regar
    dlessoftheirsocialsituati
    onandanyappr eci
    ati
    onofthe
    consequencesofbehaviourthatov er
    -stepstheboundar
    iesofpermissi
    ble
    behavi
    our.

    I
    fyouthi
    nkabouty
    ourbehaviour
    ,forexampl
    e,i
    tshoul
    dbeev
    identt
    hati
    t
    i
    schangedandmodif
    ieddependi
    nguponsuchthi
    ngsas:

    Thenatureofthesoci
    alsit
    uati
    oninwhichy
    ouarebehaving,
    Thefamili
    ari
    tyorot
    herwiseofthepeopl
    ewithwhom youareint
    eract
    ing,
    Yourpercept
    ionofthenormsoperati
    ngint
    hatsoci
    alsett
    ingandsoforth.

    In additi
    on,i
    t'
    scl earthatpeopl
    e are ableto modi
    fyt
    hei
    rbehavi
    our
    consciouslytotakeaccountofsucht hingsastheappr
    opr
    iat
    enessor
    otherwiseofpar
    ticul
    arbehav
    iour
    alfor
    ms.

    Wewi l
    ldevel
    optheabov
    eideasinmor edetai
    lwhenwelookatt
    hewor
    k
    ofGeorgeHerber
    tMeadandhisconceptofsel
    f-
    devel
    opment
    .

    b)Secondl y
    ,t hi
    sgenet i
    cv iew ofpersonali
    ty impli
    est hatpeopl ewho are
    genetical
    ly-
    predi
    sposedt owardsbehaviourthatmaybri
    ngt hem intoconf
    li
    ct
    withlegal/mor alnormsar esomehow soci al
    lyabnor
    mal( deviant
    ).I
    nthis
    respect,thedevianti
    ndividuali
    sseenasbei ngabnormalinasoci etyt
    hatis
    fundament alynor
    l mal.This,howev
    er,begsanumberofquest ions:

     Whyar esomeext rov


    ertpersonali
    ti
    essuccessfulwhil
    stother
    sat t
    ractdevi
    ant
    l
    abels?
     Arecriminal
    sami nori
    tyi
    nanysoci et
    y?
     Arecriminal
    sfundamentall
    ydiff
    erenttoev
    eryoneelseinsomenon-social
    way?
     Cant hedist
    inct
    ionbetweenpeopl ewhoar ecri
    minalsandpeoplewhoar enon-
    cr
    iminalsbeusefull
    ysustai
    ned?

    I
    npart
    icul
    ar,ofwhatsigni
    fi
    cancei
    sthef
    actthatmanypeopl
    ecommi
    tcr
    imesf
    orwhi
    ch
    t
    heyar
    enev ercaught-whatdo/canweknowaboutsuchpeopl
    e?

    208
    Thesoci
    alwor l
    d-wheni t
    spossi
    blenatureisevenr ecogni
    sed-i sseenassomething
    st
    ati
    candlargel
    yunchangi
    ng.I
    nsimpleterms,theconceptof" soci
    ety
    "t endst
    obeseen
    asli
    tt
    lemorethanacoll
    ecti
    onofr
    elat
    ivel
    yisol
    atedindivi
    dualpersonal
    it
    ies.

    Intandem witht heabov e,bot hf or


    msofexpl anationtr
    eatthedevi
    antasbeingabnormal
    i
    nanor malsociety.Inthisr espect,themaj or
    ityofpeopleareseentobelaw-abi
    dingand
    l
    itt
    leattent
    ioni sgivent ot hei deat hatthedisti
    ncti
    onbetweendev i
    antandnon-devi
    ant
    behaviourishi ghlypr obl
    emat ic.Formanysoci ologi
    ststheideat hatpeopl
    ear enot
    simply"cri
    mi nal"or" non-criminal"int ermsoft heirbehavi
    ourisnotonet hatcanbe
    easil
    ysustained.

    Thismethodol
    ogicalassumpt
    ionleadssucht
    heor
    ist
    stotr
    yandaccountforapparent
    abnormali
    tyi
    nt ermsoft hei
    ndiv
    idualandhi
    s/herpersonal
    i
    ty,genet
    icmake-upor
    whatever
    .

    Forgenet
    ici
    sts,indiv
    idualabnor
    mali
    tyisroot
    ed is genet
    ic make-
    up -peopl
    e ar
    e
    i
    nher
    entl
    ypredisposedtowar
    dsobeyi
    ngordi
    sobeyi
    ngsocialr
    ules.

    Forpsychologi
    stssuchasEy senck(basi
    ngt hei
    rpsychologi
    caltheori
    esonapar ti
    cul
    ar
    concept
    ionofhumangenet ics),expl
    anati
    onsofabnormal i
    tyresi
    deinsucht hi
    ngsasthe
    psychol
    ogicalmedi
    ationofsocialnormsthroughindi
    vidualexper
    iencesinsoci
    ety.

    Thisleadstoideassuchasdev i
    antsociali
    sati
    on-t heideathatwelearntobedeviant-
    andincorrectorfaul
    tysoci
    ali
    sat
    ionthroughthef amil
    y,massmedi aandsof or
    th.I
    nthis
    respect,t
    hedev i
    anti
    sseenasav i
    cti
    m offorcesbey ondhis/hercontrolandt
    hemot or
    ofabnormal i
    ty,
    here,
    isindi
    vi
    dualexper
    ienceratherthanindi
    vi
    dualgenes.

    3.Thir
    dly,bot
    htypesofexpl anati
    onuset hei
    deaofabnor mali
    tyasameansof
    expl
    ainingdevi
    antbehaviour
    .Thedev i
    antper
    sonalit
    yisabnormalbecauset he
    abnormalpersonali
    tyis devi
    ant-a f orm ofcircul
    arargument( ataut
    ology)
    wherebythethi
    ngt hati
    st obeexplained(devi
    antbehavi
    our)becomesbotht he
    causeandtheeffectoft
    heexplanat
    ion.

    Var i
    ouspsychol
    ogist
    s,from Fr eudonwards,hav eidenti
    fi
    edchil
    dhoodexper
    iencesas
    bringthekeytoourunder standingofdeviantbehavi
    our.Usual
    l
    y,iti
    sthemotherwhom
    takestheblameforproducingmal adj
    ustedoffspr
    ing.
    ..

    JohnBowl by("44JuvenileThieves"
    ),f
    orexampl e,hasar guedt hatthef ai
    lureofthe
    mot hertosati
    sfyherchild'
    s"basi
    chumanneed"f oremot i
    onalsecuri
    tycanr esulti
    nthe
    producti
    onofapsy chopathicpersonal
    i
    ty.Thepsy chopat
    hi sseenasani ndi
    v i
    dualwho
    actswi t
    houtasenseofgui l
    torrecogni
    ti
    onoft her i
    ghtsofothers.Psychopathscannot
    bedet err
    edf r
    om cri
    mi nalbehavi
    ourbecauset heyhav enosenseofr ightandwr ong-
    theymer el
    yfoll
    owtheirownsenseofper sonalneed.

    Feministwr i
    ter
    ssuchasAnnOakl ey,however
    ,hav esuggestedthatsuchav iew of
    womeni sa" mal
    emy th"-aprojecti
    onofmal efantasiesaboutwomenontot hel
    i
    v esof
    women t hemselves t
    hatr at
    ionalses and excuses mal
    i e dominat
    ion and female
    subordinati
    onintermsofitbei
    ng" natural
    "or"
    God-given".

    Womeni nAl oresesocietyhadasi gni f


    icantrolet opl
    ayinthef ood-gathering
    process;theywer enotsi mplyt i
    ed i ntot heroleofwi feand mot her.Thei r
    economicr olenecessitatedlongper iodsawayf r
    om thei
    rhomeandchi l
    dren-
    andt hechild-r
    eari
    ngr olewasf requent lygiven-overtomen( br
    others,father s,
    grandparentsandsof orth)
    .Oakleyf oundnoev idencetosupportthei deat hat
    thi
    sresultedinthecreationofmaladjust edindivi
    duals.

    2.Thedegreet owhi chtheenv i


    ronmentissupposedt oinfluencebehav i
    ouris
    consci
    ousl
    ydown- play
    edinthesetypesofnon-
    soci
    ologi
    calexpl anati
    on-yeti
    tis
    by no means clearhow,met hodologi
    cal
    l
    y,we can pr ecisely measur
    et he
    supposed degr
    ees ofi nfl
    uence eit
    hergenes orenv i
    ronmenthav eint he

    209
    dev
    elopmentofsoci
    albehav
    iour
    .

    How, forexample,isitpossibl
    etoi solateani ndiv
    idualfrom theinfl
    uence
    ofhis/herenv ir
    onment ?Wear eall bornintoasoci etythatalr
    eadyexists;
    asoci etythathasi t
    spar ti
    cularinstit
    utions,norms,v aluesandbel i
    efs.
    How t hencanwesepar ateindiv
    idualbehav iour(thatis,psy chol
    ogical
    personali
    ty)fr
    om themul ti
    tudeofsoci alinfl
    uencest hatsurroundusf r
    om
    themomentwear eborn?

    3.A maj ormet hodologi


    calprobl
    em -one notsi mplyr estri
    cted to genet i
    c/
    psychologicalexplanati
    onsbutalsoapplicabletosomef ormsofsoci ological
    analy
    sis -wi t hthese forms ofexplanati
    on ist he tendency tot r
    eatbot h
    conceptionsofcr i
    meandcr imi
    nali
    tyaslar
    gelyunproblematic.Thatis,toassume
    thatweal limplici
    tl
    yknowwhati smeantbyt heseideas-t hatcriminalsare,by
    defi
    nit
    ion,law-breakersandnon-
    cri
    minalsare,equal
    ly,
    non-law-breakers.

    Sociol
    ogicalAnalysesofSuicide
    Durkheim bel
    ievedt hat,inordertounder st
    andsoci all
    if
    ewehadt oanalysehuman
    behaviouri
    ntermsofi t
    sexpli
    cit
    lysocialchar
    acter
    isti
    csand,fort
    hisreason,
    thestudyof
    sui
    cidewasapar t
    icularl
    yappropri
    atechoiceofsubjectmatt
    erbecause:

    1.Upunt
    ilDur
    khei
    m'sanal
    ysi
    s,sui
    cidehadbeen"
    expl
    ained"i
    nter
    msof
    :

    a)"Freewi ll
    ":
    Thebasi cideaher ebei ngt hatpeople,asfree-
    thinkingindiv
    iduals,
    simpl ymadet hechoi ceofwhet herornott oki l
    lthemselvesi naki ndof
    "socialv acuum" .Suicide,int hisr espect,wasseent obeaf undamentally
    psy chologicalphenomenon.
    b)Biologicaldeterminism:
    Inthisrespect,suicidalindiv idual
    swer eexpl
    ainedintermsofsucht hings
    as" madness" ,
    racial charact eri
    sti
    cs, "
    innatepredi
    sposit
    ion’s"andsof orth.
    Inthissense,sui cidewasexpl ainedi ntermsofi ndivi
    dual spossessing
    somef orm ofinher entbi ologicalcondi t
    ionthatcausedt hem t ocommi t
    suici
    de.

    2.Durkhei
    m arguedthatifi
    tcoul
    dbeestabl
    ishedthatsui
    cide-apparentl
    ythemost
    per
    sonalofi ndi
    vi
    dual,
    psychol
    ogi
    cal,
    condit
    ions-hadsocialcausesthenitwoul
    d
    hel
    pt oestabli
    shsoci
    ologyasbot
    hanewdi scipl
    ineand,mostimportantl
    y,ast
    he
    sci
    entif
    icstudyofsoci
    alphenomena.

    Li
    stsomeoftheway sinwhi
    ch"soci
    ety
    "seemst
    ofor
    cey
    out
    odot
    hingst
    haty
    ouwoul
    d
    notdoi
    fyoudidn'
    t"hav
    etodothem".

    Forexampl
    e,I"
    hav
    e"t
    ogot
    owor
    keachday
    ,justasI"
    hav
    e"t
    oobeyt
    hel
    aw.

    “
    Sui
    ci
    de”
    :ACl
    assi
    cSoci
    ologi
    cal
    Anal
    ysi
    s

    "Si
    ncesui cidei sani ndividualactionaf fect
    ingt hei ndivi
    dualonl y,i
    tmustseemi ngly
    dependexcl usi
    vel
    yoni ndiv i
    dualfactor
    s,t husbelongi ngtopsy chol
    ogyalone.I snott he
    suicide'sr esolveusual lyexpl ainedbyhi stemper ament ,char act
    er,antecedentsand
    pri
    v ate hist ory
    ?..
    .I
    f,i nstead of seei ng i nt hem [ t
    hati s,sui ci
    des]onl y separate
    occur rencesunr elatedandt obesepar atelystudied,thesui cidescommi ttedinagi v en
    societydur ingagi venper iodoft imearet akenasawhol e,i
    tappear sthatthistotali
    snot
    simpl yasum ofi ndependentuni t
    s,acollecti
    vet otal,butisitselfanewf actsuigener i
    s
    [t
    hati s,uni queinsomeway ]
    ,withitsownuni t
    y,individuali
    tyandconsequent l
    yi t
    sown
    nature-anat ur
    e,furthermor e,dominantlysocial.
    ".

    Whydoyout hi
    nkDur
    khei
    m chosetostudysui
    ciderat
    es,asopposedt
    osi
    mpl
    ythe
    numberofpeopl
    ecommit
    ti
    ngsuici
    dei
    nanysoci
    etyinanyoneyear
    ?

    210
    Havingest
    abl
    ishedt hatt
    heindivi
    dualdeci
    siontocommi tsui
    cidewas,logical
    ly,based
    upontheoperationofsomef orm ofext
    ernalpressur
    eorsocialconst
    raint,Durkhei
    m
    neededtot
    heorisethebasicnatur
    eoftherelat
    ionshi
    pbetweent
    het wo:

    1.Inthefir
    stplace,Durkhei
    m consi
    deredthatthepr
    opensi
    tyofanindi
    vi
    dualto
    commi tsui
    cide( t
    hatis,therel
    ati
    vel i
    keli
    hoodofoneindi
    vi
    dualcommitt
    ing
    sui
    cidewhil
    stanotherdoesnot)
    ,wasr el
    atedtot
    wobasi
    cconcept
    s:

    a)Level
    sofsoci
    ali
    ntegr
    ati
    on

    By"socialintegrat
    ion"Durkheim meantthewayinwhichpeoplecomet o
    seeandf eelthemselvest obepar tofagr eat
    erwhole(a"soci
    ety
    ",for
    example).Aswehav eseen,themai nmechanism f
    orint
    egrat
    ingpeople
    i
    ntosoci etyist hesociali
    sat
    ionprocessand,forourpur
    poseshere,we
    canconsi der"soci
    ali
    sationasanintegr
    ati
    ngmechanism"

    b)Level
    sofsoci
    alr
    egul
    ati
    on.

    By"socialregulati
    on",Durkhei
    m meantthewaysinwhichsoci
    algroups/
    societi
    esat temptt o controlthei
    rmember sr
    angeofbehav iour
    .This
    i
    nvolvest hi
    ngslikelegalnorms( l
    aws)
    ,cust
    oms,t
    radi
    ti
    onsandthelike,
    as
    wellast heless-f
    ormalrangeofnor msofbehavi
    ourt
    hatpeoplerouti
    nely
    developasameansofcont roll
    i
    ngboththei
    rownandother
    s'behavi
    our.

    Befor
    ewel ookatDurkhei
    m'smethodology
    ,itmi
    ghtbeusef
    ult
    obr
    ief
    lyel
    abor
    atet
    he
    fourt
    ypesofsui
    cidei
    denti
    fi
    edbyDurkhei
    m:

    1. Egoistic(Lackofsocialintegrat
    ion):
    I
    nt hi
    sinstance,suici
    der esult
    sf r
    om af ail
    ure(withi
    nasoci algroupwhosemember ship
    theindi
    vidualv al
    ues)ofgr oupmember stor eci
    procate(thatis,ret
    urn)anindiv
    idual'
    s
    i
    ntensefeelingsofr esponsibil
    i
    tyf orhis/heract i
    ons.Inthisrespect,egoi
    sti
    csuicide
    deri
    vesfrom aweakeni ngoft hesocialt i
    est hatbindthei ndivi
    dualtothegroup( or
    i
    ndeed,society )
    .Whenpeopl ebecomedet achedfrom groupv al
    uesandexpect at
    ions
    theysufferwhatDur kheimt ermedan" excessofi ndi
    viduali
    sm" ,r
    esult
    inginsuicide
    becomingast rongbehav iour
    alresponse.

    Forexampl e,Durkheim notedt hatamongst19t hcenturyPr ot


    estantsthesui ci
    derate
    wassigni
    ficantl
    ygr eaterthanamongstCat holics.Hepar tl
    yattri
    butedthisf acttothe
    i
    deathatPr otest
    ant swerel argel
    yleft
    ,byt heirChurch,towor k-outtheexactmeans
    t
    owardstheirownsal v
    ati
    on-t heChurchdidnotpr ov
    ideclearrul
    esi nthi
    srespect(unli
    ke
    t
    heCatholicChurch) .Anindivi
    dualunabletocomet otermswi t
    hshapi nghis/herf ai
    th
    maydevelopdoubt sabouthi s/herabili
    tytoli
    ve-uptot heexpectati
    onsofot herChurch
    membersand, insuchasi tuati
    on,egoi
    sti
    csuicideisli
    kelytoresult
    .

    Thus,becauset heProtestantChur
    chdidnotlay-
    downsuchclearr
    ulesofintegr
    ati
    on,
    member softhisChurchwer emore-pr
    onet
    oegoism,weremor
    e-li
    kel
    ytobethrownback
    upontheirpersonalr
    esourcesinti
    mesofcri
    sisandhencemor
    e-li
    kel
    ytocommi tsui
    cide
    thanCatholi
    cs.

    "
    Protect
    ion"from sui
    cide,t
    her
    efore,camenotf
    rom "
    fai
    th"orr
    eli
    giousbel
    i
    efs,butf
    rom
    t
    heintegrat
    ingquali
    tyoftheCatholi
    cChur
    ch'
    swayofli
    fe.

    Similarl
    y,marri
    edpeopl
    ewithchi
    ldrenwer estat
    istical
    l
    yl essl
    ikel
    ythansinglepeopl
    eor
    chil
    dlesscouplestocommitsui
    cide-again,t
    hecr ucialvari
    abl
    eisnotmar r
    iageit
    self
    ,but
    theintegrat
    ingeff
    ect
    soffamil
    yli
    fe,responsi
    bil
    it
    yf orchil
    drenandsof or
    th.

    Inadditi
    on,thefactthatsui
    ciderat
    esdecl
    i
    neintimesofwarwasexpl
    ainedbyDur
    khei
    m
    i
    nt ermsoft heintegrat
    ingeffectuponsoci
    etyofpeopl
    ehavinga" commoncause"
    againsta"commonenemy "
    .

    211
    2. Alt
    ruisti
    c( Over-
    integrati
    on):
    Inthisi
    nstance,suicideresultsfrom anov er
    -int
    egrati
    onoft heindiv
    iduali
    ntothenor ms
    andv al
    uesofasoci algroup.Inthisrespect,i
    tistheoppositeofegoi st
    icsui
    cideinsofar
    ast hei
    ndivi
    dualf eelsunablet oresi
    stthedemandsmadeuponhi m /herbyt hesocial
    grouptowhi chhe/shei sintimatel
    yattached.Inasense, aperson'
    sindivi
    dualidenti
    tyis
    submergedi nt
    ot heidentityofthegroupi t
    self.Anindi
    v i
    dualwho, f
    orexample, f
    eelsthat
    theyhavedi sgracedt hegr oupmaybedr i
    vent owardssuicideasameansofmor al
    atonement.

    InJapan,forexample,t
    heconceptofhonourmaydr iveani ndi
    vi
    dualt
    ocommi tri
    tual
    sui
    cideiftheybel
    iev
    et heyhavebroughtdishonourt ot hei
    rprimar
    ysocialgroup-t he
    sol
    dierwhobehav esinacowar dl
    ywayi nbat tle,thegeneralwhosuffersacr ushing
    def
    eatandsof ort
    hmaybedr i
    ventowardssuicidet oatoneforthesoci
    aldisgracet hey
    bel
    ievethemsel
    vestohavebroughtupontheircomr ades.

    I
    nt hisrespect,suicidemaywel lbel ooked upon asa deepl
    y-honour
    abl
    ef or
    m of
    behavi
    our-somet hingforwhi
    chtheindi
    vidual
    istobecommendedr athert
    handespi
    sed.
    Unli
    keegoisti
    csui cide,t
    hetaki
    ngofone' sownl if
    ecanbev iewedasconf or
    mingto
    groupnorms,ratherthandevi
    ati
    ngfr
    om them.

    3. Anomi c(Lackofsocialregulat
    ion)
    :
    Theconceptof" anomie"canbel ooselyt
    ransl
    atedasast at
    eof"normlessness"and,in
    thi
    sinstance,suici
    deisseentobecomeapossi bil
    i
    tywhenani ndi
    vi
    dualissuddenlycast
    adri
    ftfrom t he famil
    iarnormative surr
    oundi
    ngs in hi
    s /herl i
    fe.As Ni sbet("
    The
    Sociol
    ogicalTradit
    ion"
    )notes:

    "Anomicsuici
    deiscausedbythesuddendisl
    ocati
    onofnor mat
    ivesyst
    ems-t
    he
    breakdownofval
    uesbywhi
    chonemayhavel
    ivedforali
    fet
    ime.
    ".

    Int hi
    sr espect,anomi cformsofsui cide become a possi
    bili
    tywhen an i ndivi
    dual
    becomesuncer t
    ainaboutt heworl
    di nwhi chhe/sheli
    ves.Durkheim obser
    v edthatthis
    form ofsuici
    dalbehav i
    ourwasr el
    ati
    v el
    ycommoni nti
    mesofbot heconomicdepr ession
    andpr osperi
    ty.Inkeepingwi t
    hhisr ealistmethodol
    ogy,hearguedt hatsuicidedidnot
    resultfr
    om eitherpov ert
    yorpr osper i
    ty,butfrom t
    heincreasedsoci ali
    nstabil
    itythat
    result
    edfrom socialchange(inbothindiv i
    dualandwi
    dersocialterms).

    Forexampl e,itisnotpov ertyitselfthatpr oduces" suici


    daldespai r
    "i nt he
    i
    ndi vi
    dual.Thepov erty-stri
    ckenindividualwhoi smostl i
    kelyt ocommi tsuicideis
    onewhohasseenar api ddeteri
    orationinhis/heri ndiv
    idualci r
    cumst ances( the
    classicexampl ebeingt hest ockbrokerwhol osesev eryt
    hing-j ob,status,i
    ncome
    andsof orth-inabanki ngcol l
    apse).Thus,itisnott hef actofbei ngpoort hat
    makessui ci
    deanopt i
    on,butt henor mativedislocationinani ndi v
    idual'
    slifethat
    result
    sf rom ar apidchangei nsoci alcir
    cumst ances.Int hisr espect,asmal e
    unempl oymenthasi ncr easedi nBr i
    tai
    nov erthepast15y ears,wehav eseena
    mar kedincreaseinsui cidesamongstt hisgroupofpeopl e.

    Simil
    ar l
    y,theri
    char eno- moreli
    kel
    yt ocommi tsui
    cidet hant hepoor .Ther ichsui
    cidal
    i
    ndividualisonewhoi sl ikel
    ytohaveseenar apidchangei nt heirsocialsit
    uati
    on(such
    as,forexample,bywi nni ngthef
    ootbal lpools)-arapi dchangei nwhicht henormsand
    val
    uest hathadst oodt hem ingoodst eadf ormostoft heirli
    fetimeno- l
    ongerapply.Their
    changed socialsi tuation maymake such nor msl essr elevantt ot hei
    rnew soci al
    sit
    uationand,int her elati
    veabsenceofsuchsoci alr egulation,thi
    smaymakesuch
    i
    ndividualsmore-pronet oanomicsuicide.

    4.Fat al
    ist
    ic(Ov er
    -regul
    ation).
    Thi
    sf orm ofsuicidewasseenbyDur kheimtobet heoppositeofanomicsuici
    deand
    was seen t o occuramongstsoci algr oups t
    hatsuffered fr
    om oppr
    essive social
    di
    scipl
    ineandr egulat
    ion.AlthoughDur khei
    m consider
    edt hi
    sf or
    m ofsuici
    det obe
    al
    mostnon- exi
    stentinmoder nsoci et
    ies(andconsequentl
    ydidnotitt
    oanygreatextent)
    ,
    anexampleher emi ghtthehighr at
    esofsui ci
    deamongstslaves.

    212
    I
    ntheabovewecanseet hatDurkhei
    m'smet
    hodol
    ogyi
    sami
    xtur
    eofbot
    hposi
    ti
    vi
    stand
    r
    eal
    istpr
    inci
    plesofexpl
    anation:

    "Posi
    ti
    vi
    stinthesenset hathet ri
    edtomaket hetheor
    eti
    calconnecti
    onbetweenan
    i
    ndivi
    dual
    'ssocialsi
    tuati
    onandt heir"
    stat
    eofmind"
    ,suchthatt
    helatterwassomehow
    deter
    mined(orconditi
    onedifyouli
    ke)bythef
    ormer.

    "Reali
    st"i
    nthesenset
    hathearguedthattherelati
    onshi
    pbetweenanindivi
    dual'
    s"social
    being"asamemberofsoci et
    yandt hei
    r" st
    ateofmi nd"wasconnect
    edbyempi ri
    cally
    unobservabl
    efact
    ors-"hi
    ddensoci
    alforces"(or,aswewi l
    lseei
    nthenextSt udyPack,
    "mechanisms")t
    hatpushandpressuri
    sedi ndi
    vidual
    'sint
    omakingchoicesaboutt heir
    behaviour
    .

    Fi
    nall
    y,Baechler("
    Suicides",1979)arguedt
    hatsui
    cidewasnotsimplyanendi nitsel
    f,
    butalso,mostimpor t
    ant l
    y,ameanst oanend.Thus,Baechlerarguedthatsuicidal
    behavi
    ourwassi mplyanext remef or
    m ofsoci
    alst
    rategyadopt
    edfortheachievement
    ofcer
    tainsoci
    alends.Inthisrespect,
    Baechl
    eri
    dent
    if
    iedfourmaint
    ypesofstrat
    egy:

    1. Escapi
    st:
    Thesuici
    dei
    sfl
    eei
    ngf
    rom ani
    ntol
    erabl
    esoci
    alsi
    tuat
    ion.

    2. Aggr
    essive:
    Theint enti
    oni
    stohar
    m ot
    her
    sbybl
    ami
    ngt
    hem f
    orf
    orci
    ngt
    hei
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    tocommitsuicide.

    3. Obl
    ative:
    Thesui
    cidei
    sdesi
    gnedt
    odr
    awat
    tent
    iont
    osomepol
    i
    tical
    /mor
    ali
    deal
    .

    4.Ludi
    c:
    Theat
    temptatsui
    cidei
    sa"
    cal
    cul
    atedgambl
    e"wi
    thl
    i
    feanddeat
    h.

    SOCI
    AL
    PROCESSESIN
    GROUPSAND
    COMMUNI TI
    ES

    213
    DYNAMICSOF
    FAMI
    LYLIFE

    Rev
    iewer
    :

    Dr
    .Bagi
    anAl
    eyssaA.Abdul
    kar
    im,
    RSW

    SOCI
    ALPROCESSESI
    NGROUPSANDCOMMUNI
    TIES

    Soci
    alFuncti
    oning
     Canbeconcei v
    edast heproductoftheindiv
    idual’
    sactiv
    iti
    esass/ heinter
    acts
    withthesocialenvi
    ronment
    .Itref
    erstotheacti
    vit
    iesorbehav i
    oressent
    ialtothe
    diff
    erentroles s/
    he hasto perfor
    m in his/
    heri nvol
    vementwi th ot
    hers( De
    Guzman,
    1978)
    .

    Har
    ri
    etBart
    kett(1992)Def
    inedsoci
    alf
    unct
    ioni
    ngas..
    .
     Ther el
    ati
    onbetweent hecopi
    ngactiv
    ityofpeopl
    eandt
    hedemandf
    rom t
    he
    env
    ironment.

    Soci
    alProcessintheGr
    oups&Communi t
    ies
     Socialprocess aret hose way
    s ofi nter
    acti
    ng whi
    ch are obser
    vabl
    e when
    indiv
    idual
    sandgr oupsmeetandest ablishsyst
    emsofrelat
    ionshi
    portheresul
    ts
    thatari
    sewhenchangesdi st
    urbthealreadyexist
    ingmodesoflif
    e.

    Cl
    assi
    fi
    cat
    ion
    1.Basi cSocialProcesses
    1Compet
    1. i
    ti
    on-f orms ofopposi ti
    on and st r
    uggl e.A less vi
    olentforms of
    oppositi
    oninwhi cht woormor eper sonsorgr oupst r
    uggleforsomeendor
    goalbutinthecauseofwhi chattenti
    oni sformedchi efl
    yonther ewardrather
    thanthecompet i
    tion(YoungandMack) .
    TypesofCompet it
    ion:
     Per sonal-involvesdirectcontact.
     I mpersonal-i nvolvesstrugglesbetweengr oupswhichmayt aket he
    form ofeconomi c,poli
    tical
    ,and r eli
    gious cult
    ural
    ,recreat
    ion and
    socialandt heobjecti
    vemaybef orst at
    us, pr
    esti
    ge,orrecogni
    tion.

    214
    Funct
    ionsofcompeti
    ti
    on:
     Assignmentofanindi
    vi
    dual t
    oapl aceinsociet
    y.
     Contri
    buti
    ontot heselecti
    onofmember softhef
    unct
    ionalgr
    oups
    whi
    chprovi
    dethesocialdivi
    sionoflabor.
     Encouragementofachi
    ev ementandef f
    ici
    ency

    2.Confli
    ct
     Maydev el
    opfrom compet i
    ti
    on
     For msofemot ionali
    zedandviol
    entopposit
    ioninwhi chthemaj orconcernis
    toovercomet heopponentasameansofsecur i
    ngagi v
    engoal orreward.”
     Mot ivatedbythedesi ret
    osecureascarcegoal orcommonv al
    ues.
     Focus oft he at t
    enti
    on isthe opponentwi tht he i
    ntent
    ion ofbl ocki
    ng,
    destr
    uct i
    onanddef eataccompaniedbyfear
    , hateoranger.

    Cl
    assi
    fi
    cationofConf l
    ict
    1.Pot ential-confl
    i
    ctfort
    hecont rol
    ofscar ceval
    ues.
    2.I deological/
    confli
    ctov
    ert hemai nt
    enanceorsupr emacyofcer
    tai
    nway
    s
    oflif
    e.
    3.Raci al-confli
    ctoverbi
    ological
    domi nance.

    Funct
    ions
    1.Mayhel pestablishunitywhent hegroupsar ethreatenedbyanout side
    force.
    2.May become a st abi l
    i
    zing mechani sm whi ch may st i
    mulat
    et he
    establ i
    shmentofnew pol icies,procedures,goals,etc.ift heseweret he
    concer nsofconf l
    ict
    .
    3.Pr ov idesanout letfortheexpr essionofsuppr essedemot i
    on.
    3.Cooper ati
    on
     A mor e specifi
    c aspectofhuman i ntercourse having to do with
    mut ualaidoral l
    ianceofper sonsseeki ngsomecommongoal sor
    rewar d(Young&Mack) .
     Ani mpor tantcharacteristicisthemut ualadv antaget obegai nedby
    cooper ati
    ngmember st hroughshar i
    ngt heper formanceofcommon
    tasks.
     Pat t
    ernofcooper ationisacqui r
    edinthef amilyandf r
    iendshipgroups.

    Der
    ivedSoci
    alPr
    ocess

    1.Accommodat i
    on
     UsedbyYoungandMacki nt wosenses:asacondi ti
    onandaspr ocess.
    “Asacondi t
    ion,i
    treferstot hefactofequi li
    brium bet weeni ndivi
    dual sand
    groupsandt he“ r
    ulesoft hegame”whi chhasdev el
    opedasapr ocessi t
    referst ot he consci ous ef f
    or t
    s ofmen t o dev elop such wor ki
    ng
    arrangement samongt hemsel vesaswi l
    lsuspendconf li
    ctandmaket heir
    rel
    at i
    onshi psmor etolerableandl esswast eful ofener gy.
     Eachgr oupt ri
    estoadj usttotheot herandy etmai ntainitsowni dent it
    yor
    i
    nter ests.
     For msi ncludecoer cion,compr omi se,arbitration,conci l
    iati
    on,tolerati
    on
    andt ruce.
    2.Assi
    milation
     I ti
    sapr ocessofi nterpenetrati
    onandf usioni nwhi chper sonsandgr oups
    acqui r
    et hememor i
    es,sent i
    ment s,andat titudesofot herper sonsor
    groupsandbyshar i
    ngt hei
    rexper iencesandhi storyar eincorporatedwi t
    h
    them i nacommoncul tur
    alf usion-abl endingofv alues,atti
    tudes,and
    beliefs(Par kandBur gess).
     Occur ssl owlyi nti
    meandi sf acili
    tatedbyl ear ni
    ngt hel anguageoft he
    group,f ri
    endl yandt ol
    erantattitudeoft hemember s,andt hesimilarit
    yof
    culturalpat t
    erns.
    3.Amalgamat i
    on
     I ntermar r
    iageofper sonscomi ngf rom di f
    ferentet hni
    cgr oups.

    215
     Hast ensassimi
    lati
    onbymaki ngt hephy si
    calandcul t
    uralcharacter
    istics
    ofthet woethni
    cgr oupssimilar.
    4.Accul
    turation
     Pr ocessesbywhi chsoci eti
    esofdi fferentcult
    uresaremodi fi
    edt hr
    ough
    fai
    rlycloseandlong-conti
    nuedcont actbutdonotbl endwi t
    honeanot her.
     Usual l
    ya2- waypr ocess,societ
    ybor rowsf rom thecultur
    eoft heot her
    withoutlosi
    ngit
    si denti
    ty.

    Soci
    alGr
    oups
     Agr oupisanymemberofpeopl ewit
    hsimil
    arnorms,v
    alues,andexpect
    ati
    ons
    whor egular
    lyandconsci
    ousl
    yint
    eract
    .
     Thesegr oupsmaybei naschool,achur
    ch,acluborapoliti
    calpar
    tyandare
    composedofpeopl ewhoshar esomethi
    ngincommon,i nter
    acti
    ngwitheach
    otherandareguidedbyasetofnorms.

    Under
    standingGr oupBehavior(Knowles&Knowl es)
    1.Groupqual i
    ti
    es
     Adef i
    nablemember shi
    p
     Gr oupconsciousnessoraconsciousident
    ifi
    cat
    ionwi
    theachot
    her
     I nterdependenceinsati
    sfacti
    onofneeds
     I nteracti
    on
     Abi l
    it
    yt oacti
    nunitarymanner

    2.Pr
    opert
    iesofgr oups
     Background-composi ti
    on of t he gr oup, pr epar ation, expect ati
    on,
    arr
    angement smadef ort hemeet ing
     Part
    ici
    pationpat tern-pat ternmaybeonewaywi thleadert alki
    ngt omember s,
    ortwo-waywi t
    hl eadert al ki
    ngandmember sr espondi ngormul ti-
    directi
    onal
    wit
    hall member sspeaki ngt ooneanot her.
     Communi cat i
    on-consi stsofv er
    balandnon- verbalcommuni cationofi deas,
    val
    ues,andf eelingsbet weent hemember s.( JosephLuf t,1970)
     Ref erst owhati sexpr essedv er
    ballyandnon- ver bally.
     Appl iest oar ti
    culatedwor ds,thoughts, andunv ocal izedfeeli
    ngs
     Concer nst hei ntent i
    onsoft hecommuni cationsandt hei mpr essi
    ons
    receivedbyt heonest owhom t hecommuni cat i
    oni saddr essed
     May be f ormali .e.
    ,conv eysi n an or ganizat ion through r egular
    channel s,orinformal thani nt
    eracti
    onamongf riends.
     Di ffi
    culti
    esi ncommuni cati
    onmayr esultf rom i magi nar ythreatst o
    group member s ormay be r elated t o quest ions ofpowerand
    infl
    uence.
     Channel sofcommuni cati
    onsmaybebui l
    ti ntot hest ructureofa
    groupormaybedev elopedi nf
    ormal lyasaf unct ionofi nterpersonal
    needsandconf li
    ct .
     Atmosphereorsocialclimate
     Standards-devel
    opmentofcodeofethicsorsetofst
    andardsofbehav
    ior
    .
     Sociometri
    cPatter
    n- r
    elati
    onshi
    poff
    ri
    endshi
    pandantipat
    hy .
     Struct
    ureandorganizati
    on
     Vi sibleorganizat i
    on-str
    uctur
    escommi tt
    ees,appoint
    edpositi
    onsoran
    informal div
    isionofl abor.
     I nvisibl
    e or gani zati
    ons pr ocedure- ar r
    angement of member s
    accor di
    ngt or elat
    ivepresti
    ge,i
    nfluence,power,seni
    ori
    ty.
     Procedures-waysofwor ki
    ngt ogetthi
    ngsdonei .
    e.,useofRobert
    ’sRulesof
    Order,maki ngdecisionsbyv ot
    ati
    onorconsensuset c.
     Goals-immedi ateorl ongrangewhi chthegrouphopest oaccomplish.

    TheGr
    oup-For
    mati
    onofGroups
    – Deli
    berat
    efor
    mati
    ont
    oaccompl
    i
    shsomeobj
    ect
    ive.

    216
    TYPESOFGROUPS
    1. Wor kgr oups-t oper f orm somet askmor eef ficient l
    yt hrought hepool ingand
    coor dinat ionoft hebehav iorandr esour cesofacol lecti
    onofi ndivi
    dualse. g.
    expedi tiongr oupMay on.
    2. Probl em- solvinggr oup- e.g.commi ssions,t askf orce,commi tteesf ormedont he
    belieft hatagr oupcanf orm asol ut i
    onmor eefficient l
    yt hansi ngl eindividual
    s.
    3. Soci alact iongr oup- formedf rom t hedesi retoi nfluencet hecour seofev entsi n
    soci ety-e.g.par ties, l
    obbi es,tradeassoci ations, civilrightgr oup, etc.
    4. Medi t
    at inggr oups-e. g.coor dinat ingcounci l
    s,i nter depar t
    ment alcommi ttees,
    arbitrationboar ds, etc.
    5. Legi slativegr oups-t of ormul ater ules,r egulations,l aws,pol icies,e. g.boardsof
    dir
    ect or s, governmentl egislati
    v ebodi es.
    6. Clientgr oups-f ormedbasedont heassumpt iont hatt heper for manceofcer tain
    serv i
    cesi smor eef fect iveoref f
    icienti fthe“ client s”ar et r
    eat edasgr oupsrat her
    thanasi ndi v
    idual s.
     Spont aneousf or mat i
    on-manygr oupsar isebecausepeopl eexpectt o
    der i
    vesat isfact ionf rom associ atingt oget here. g.soci alcl ubs,juveni l
    e
    gangs, f
    riendshi pcl i
    ques.
     Ext ernaldesi gnat i
    on-acol lectionofi ndiv idual smaybecomeagr oup
    becauset heyar et r
    eat edi nahomogenouswaybyot herpeopl e.Peopl e
    maybepl acedi ntocat egor iesont hebasi sofcol or ,age,sex,hei ght ,
    wei ght,abi li
    ty,educat i
    on, r
    el igion, ethnicgr oups, etc.

    TwoBasicty
    pesofGr oupFunctions
    • The achi evementofsome speci fic group goals-task or
    ient
    ed funct
    ions.
    Examplesofmemberbehav iors:
    Init
    iatesaction,
    keepsmembersattent
    iononthe
    goal
    ,clar
    ifi
    esthei
    ssue,dev elopsapr oceduralpl
    an,eval
    uat
    esthequali
    tyofwor k
    done,andmakesexpertinformat i
    onav ail
    able.

    TypesofGr oupFunct i
    ons
    • St r
    engt hening of t he group i t
    sel
    f - gr oup building functi
    ons. e.
    g. keeps
    int
    erper sonalrelati
    onspleasant,arbitratesdi sputes,providesencouragement,
    givethemi norit
    yachancet obehear d,st i
    mul at
    essel f-
    dir
    ecti
    onandi ncreases
    theinterdependenceamongmember s.
    Classi
    fi
    cationofgr oupfunctons(
    i byKennet hBenneandPaulSheat s)
    Group bui lding and maintenance roles-t hose whi ch contr
    ibut
    et o buil
    ding
    rel
    ati
    onshipsandcohesi venessamongmember s.
    (Requi
    redfort hegr ouptomai nt
    ainit
    selfasagr oup)

     Encour aging-beingf ri
    endly,warmr esponsivetoothers,praisi
    ngothersandthei
    r
    i
    deas, agreeingwi t
    handaccept i
    ngt hecont ri
    buti
    onsofot hers.
     Medi at i
    ng-har moniz i
    ng,conci li
    ating diff
    erences i
    n poi ntofv i
    ew,maki ng
    compr omi ses.
     Gate Keepi ng-t ryi
    ng t o make i tpossi bleforanot hermembert o make a
    contributionbysay ing“ Wehav en’theardf rom Ji
    my et,
    ”orsuggestingli
    mited
    tal
    king- ti
    mef orev er
    y onesot hatallwillhaveachancet obehear d.
     Standar dset t
    ing-expr essingst andardsf orthegroupt ousei nchoosingits
    subjectmat terorprocedur es,r
    ulesofconduct ,
    ethi
    calvalues.

    Gr
    oupBuil
    ding&mai ntenanceroles
     Followi ng-goingalongwi ththegroup,somewhatpossiblyaccepti
    ngtheideasof
    others, servi
    ngasanaudi enceduringgroupdiscussi
    on,beingagoodlist
    ener.
     Relievingt ension-draini
    ngof fnegativ
    ef eel
    i
    ngbyj est
    ingorbyt hrowingoilon
    troubledwat er
    s, di
    vert
    ingattent
    ionfrom unpl
    easanttopleasantmatt
    ers.

    Grouptaskr oles-thosewhi chhelpthegroupdoi tswor


    k.Requi
    redforthelocomoti
    on
    ofthegroupt owardsit
    sgoal s.
    1.Initi
    ating-suggesting new ideasorachanged wayofl ooking atthegroup
    probl
    em orgoal ,
    pr oposi
    ngnewact i
    vit
    ies.
    2.Informat i
    onseeki ng-askingf orr
    elevantfact
    sorauthori
    tat
    iveinfor
    mationor

    217
    relatingper sonal experi
    enceper ti
    nentl
    ytot hegroupt ask.
    3.I nformat ion gi vi
    ng-aski ng f orr el
    evantf acts oraut hori
    tati
    vei nf
    ormat ion or
    relatingper sonal experi
    enceper ti
    nenttogr ouptask.
    4.Opi niongi vi
    ng-st at
    ing aper ti
    nentbelieforopi nionsomet hing t
    hegr oup is
    consi dering.
    5.Cl ar i
    fying-pr obing f ormeani ng and under st
    anding,r est
    at i
    ng somet hi
    ng t he
    groupi sconsi deri
    ng.
    6.El abor ating-buildingonapr eviouscomment ,enlar
    gingoni t
    , gi
    vingexampl es.
    7.Coor dinat i
    ng-showi ngorcl ari
    f y
    ingtherelati
    onshipsamongv ari
    ousideas,t r
    ying
    topul l
    ideasandsuggest ionst ogether
    .
    8.Or ient i
    ng-def iningt heprogr essoft hediscussionint ermsoft hegr oup’sgoal s,
    raisingquest i
    onsaboutt hedi recti
    onthediscussionist aki
    ng.
    9.Test ing-checki ngwi ththegr oupt oseeifitisreadytomakeadeci si
    onort ot ake
    someact ion.
    10.Summar izing-reviewingthecont entofpastdiscussion

    Non-f
    unct ionalr ol esemanat i
    ngf rom sel f-cent eredbehav i
    or :
    1.Bl ocki ng-i nter
    fer i
    ngwi tht hepr ogressoft hegr oupbygi vingof fonat angent ,
    citi
    ngper sonalexper iencesunr elatedt ot hegr oup’spr oblem,ar gui ngt oomuch
    on a poi ntt he r estoft he gr oup has r esolved,r ej
    ecting i deas wi thout
    consi der ation,pr event ingav ote.
    2.Aggr essi on-cr itici
    z ingorbl ami ngot hers,showi nghost i
    lit
    yt owar dt hegr oupor
    somei ndi vidualswi thoutr elationt owhathashappenedi nt hegr oup,attacking
    themot i
    v esofot her s, deflatingt heegoorst atusofot her s.
    3.Seeki ng r ecogni ti
    on-at t
    empt i
    ng t o cal lat tenti
    on t o one’ ssel fbyexcessi ve
    talking, ext remei deas, boast i
    ng, andboi sterousness
    4.Speci alpl eading-i nt roduci ng orsuppor ting ideas r elated t o one’ s own pet
    concer ns or phi losophi es bey ond r eason. At t
    empt i
    ng t o speak f or t he
    “grassr oot s,”“thehousewi fe,”“ thecommonman”andsoon.
    5.Wi thdr awi ng-act i
    ng i ndifferentorpassi ve,r esorti
    ng t o excessi vef ormality,
    doodl ing, whi sper i
    ngt oot her s.
    6.Domi nat i
    ng-t rying t o asser taut hor i
    tybymani pulating the gr oup orcer t
    ain
    member sofi tby“ pulli
    ngr ank, ”gi vingdi recti
    onsaut hor i
    tati
    v ely,inter
    rupting
    cont ribut ionsofot her s.
    Col
    lecti
    v ebehav i
    or
     Asf or msofsoci albehav iori nwhi cht heusualconv entionceaset ogui desoci al
    act i
    ons and peopl e col lect i
    v elyt r
    anscend,by pass,orsubv er ti nsti
    tut
    ional
    pat ternsandst ructur es.”( Tur ner&Ki ll
    i
    an, 1987: 3)
     Way soft hinki
    ng,f eel i
    ng,act ingt hatdev elopamongal argenumberofpeopl e
    whi char er elat
    ivelyspont aneousandunst ruct e.(
    ur Zanden, 1991: 400) .
     Col l
    ect ivebehav ioroccur si nt imesofr api ssoci alchange.
     Ex: riot ,crowds, religiousr evival s, r
    ebel l
    ions.

    Smel
    ser’sTheor yofCol lecti
    v eBehav i
    or-Det ermi nantsofcol l
    ect ivebehav i
    or:
    1.St ructur alconduci veness-soci alcondi ti
    onst hati sper missi veofagi vensor tofa
    collectivebehav ior.Ex: confli
    ctbet weenempl oy ersandempl oyeesinaf act ory
    2.St ructur alst rain-amat terofconf li
    ctamongv aluesornor ms,e.g.pr esenti n
    equal i
    tybet weent hebl acksandt hewhi tesi nt heU. S. A.,ther i
    singpr icesof
    commodi tiesandl owwagesofwor kersmaybr ingst rain.
    3.Gr owt handspr eadofagener ali
    zedbel ief.Thebel i
    efi dent i
    fiesthesour ceand
    recommendst hatcer tainactionsbet akent or elievet hest r
    ain.
    4.Pr ecipitatingf act or-e. g.ani ncidentwhi chi si nterpret edi nt er
    msofhost il
    e
    beliefsandoccur rencei nasi t
    uationofast r
    uct ural conduci venessandst rain.
    Ex: assassi nat ionofSenBeni gnoAqui no
    5.Mobi li
    zat i
    on ofpar t
    icipantsf oract ion af t
    ert he pr eci pit
    ation -a mat terof
    l
    eader shi pandcommuni cation.
    Ex: rall
    iesanddemonst rat
    ionaf t
    eranev entoccur s.
    6.Oper ationofsoci alcont rol
    -itsrelativeweaknessorabsencemakescol lecti
    ve
    behav iorpossi ble.

    218
    Ty
    pesofCol
    l
    ect
    ivebehav
    ior

    1.Cr
    owd
    TypesofCr
    owd:
    a)Casual -i saspont aneous,l oosel yorgani zedandv erymoment aryt ypeof
    groupi ngwhosemember scomeandgo.
    b)Conv ent ional ized-i s char acterized by est ablished r egular way s of
    behav ingdependi ngupont het imeandpl aceofper f
    ormanceandor derof
    act i
    v i
    ties
    c) Act ingcr owd-i st het y pemostobser ved ast hisi sanact i
    ve,v olatil
    e
    groupofexci t edper sonswhoseat tent i
    oni sfocusedonacont roversialor
    prov ocat i
    v ei ssuewhi char ousesact i
    on, i
    fnoti ndignat i
    on.Ex:r iots,mobs,
    unr ulyst r
    ikes, rall
    ies
    d)Pani cs- aresi tuationsi nwhi chpeopl ear elargel yaf f
    ectedbyf ear, suchas
    stampedes.
    e) Expr essi v ecr owd-i schar act erizedbyr hy thmi cact ivi
    ty,intenseemot i
    onal
    cont agi on,andemot ionalr elease.Unr estrainedphy sicalmov ementl ike
    clappi ng, singi ng, danci ng, shaki ng,rol l
    ingorcr yingi nfrenziedact i
    vityare
    distinctf eat ur esoft hiscr owd.
    2.Audience
     “ I
    nst i
    tut i
    onal ized cr owd” .Theyar e usual lypassi ve and cont roll
    ed by
    cer taincul tur alrul es.Theyhav et or emai nqui etdur ingt heper f
    or mance
    and cl ap t hei r hands onl y af ter t he r endi ti
    on.A ki nd of set t
    ing
    arrangement , gather edwi thaspeci ficpur pose.
    3.TheMass
     I s a di ff used col l
    ect iv i
    ty.I ti s made up ofa numberofdi sparate
    i
    ndi v
    idual s, eachr espondi ngi ndependent l
    yt ot hesamest imulus.
     Bl umer( 1946)char act erizest hemassasmadeupofmember scomi ng
    from al lst rat a oft he soci ety and al lwal ks ofl i
    fe;composed of
    anony mous i ndividual s so t her ei s har dly any i nteraction among
    member s; iti sloosel yor gani zedandhasl i
    tt
    leuni t
    y.
    4.ThePubl i
    c
     I sadi sper secol lect i
    v eand,i tincl udest heel ement arypr ocessesof
    mi lli
    ngandr umor .I tisf acedwi thani ssueonwhi cht heyhav et her i
    ght
    toagr eeordi sagr ee.
     Di sagr eement , di scussi on, ar gument , count er-argument and
    compr omi sear eimpor tanti npubl i
    c
    5.Rumor sandGossi p
     Rumori sunv er ifi
    edorunsubst ant ialinformat i
    onaboutev entsorpeopl ewhi ch
    becomer evised, dist orted, condensedorex pandedasi tistransferredf rom one
    persont oanot her .
    Essent
    ialchar
    act
    eri
    sti
    csofRumor
    :
     I
    thasacl i
    mat eofuncer t
    aintyast hereisnodef i
    nit
    ei nf
    ormati
    onabout
    thet opicofconcer n.
     I
    ti sunst ableaspeopl espr eadt heinformati
    on,itbecomesal teredor
    distorted.
     I
    ti sdif f
    iculttost op.Somer umorsdisintegr
    ateovertimeorarest opped
    byconv incinginformation.
     Gossi pi srelat
    edt or umors.Itisalsoinformalandidl
    etalkbutcenterson
    theper sonal affairsofothers,usuall
    ycelebri
    ti
    esli
    ketheelit
    e,moviestars,
    orpol i
    ticians

    Fashi
    ons,FadsandCr azes
     Cul t
    uraldri
    ft
    s,suchast hechangesinfashi
    on,f
    ad,crazesarefor
    msofmass
    i
    nteract
    ions or dif
    fused coll
    ecti
    vi
    ti
    es.They meet a per son’
    s need f
    or
    exci
    tement,novel
    ty,
    self-
    expr
    ession,
    sel
    f-
    esteem,orsoci
    alst
    atus.

    Cr
    azes
     Ar
    e new act
    ivi
    ti
    es whi
    ch exci
    te per
    sons who become subsequent
    ly

    219
    pr
    eoccupiedwi
    ththese.
     I
    sanintenseat
    tr
    actiont
    oanact
    ion,
    act
    ivi
    ty,
    obj
    ect
    ,orper
    son.

    Fads
     Are passing fancies or novel
    ti
    es rel
    ated to tr
    ivi
    aldev iat
    ions from the
    convent
    ionalbehavior
    .
     Theyinvolveminormodi fi
    cati
    onsordecorati
    onsofdr esses,mannerisms,and
    use ofslang wor ds and otherver
    balexpressi
    ons-coll
    ecti
    ve enthusiasm i
    s
    devel
    opedf oraninnovat
    ionthatmeet
    speople’
    sfancy.

    Behav
    iorcont
    agi
    on
     Thespont
    aneouspickupori
    mitat
    ionbyot
    hersoft
    hebehavi
    orini
    ti
    atedbyone
    memberofthegroupwherei
    nit
    iat
    ordi
    dnotint
    endt
    ogettheother
    st odowhat
    hedid.

    Di
    sast
    erBehav ior
     I sdisplayedduri
    ngtimesofdi sast
    ersuchasear
    thquakes,v
    olcani
    cer
    upt
    ions,
    typhoonorhurri
    canes,andcoupd’et
    at.
     Combi nesbothcrowdandmassbehav ior
    .

    Publ
    icOpini
    on
     Iscomposi teofi ndividualopi nionsast hesear ecommuni catedt oleaderswho
    areempower edt orenderadeci si on.
     Can be expr essed t hrough t he bal lots or r eferendum,l etter
    s,pet itions,
    delegat
    ions,meet ings, andi nter estgr oups.
     Groupcohesi v eness- ar esul t
    antofal lf orcesact ingont or emai nint hegr oup.
    Componentf or cesar isef rom at tracti
    venessoft hegr oupandt heat tr
    activeness
    ofthealternativemember ships.
     I ncent iveproper tyoft hegr oup-goal s,pr ograms,char acteri
    sticsstyleof
    oper ation,prest i
    ge, orpr oper t
    iessi gni
    ficantt ohismot i
    vebase.
     Mot ivebaseofmember s-needsf oraf fi
    li
    ati
    on,r ecogni t
    ion,secur i
    ty,
    moneyorot herv aluest hatcanbemedi at edbygr oup.
     Hi sexpect ancy -t hatmember shipwi llhav ebenef i
    cialordet r
    iment al
    consequencesf orhi m.
     Hi scompar isonl evel-hisconceptoft hel evelofout comest hatt he
    groupmember shipwi l
    l pr ovi
    de

    Consequencesofgr oupcohesiveness
     mai ntenanceofmember ship
     powerofgr oupov ermember s
     par ti
    cipationandl oyal
    ty
     per sonal securit
    y
     sel f
    -evaluation-senseofpersonal
    wor
    th

    Gr
    oupSolidari
    t y
     Gi vent hest r
    ongemphasi songr oupsol i
    dari
    tyi nthePhili
    ppines,conformit
    yt o
    groupnor msi sheav i
    lyrewar dedwhi l
    et odev iatef r
    om them istocour tstr
    ong
    socialdisappr ov al.
    Somemechani smswhi chsuppor tthesy stem ofsoci alcont
    rolare:
    A.Techni quesdi scer nibleingroupi nteracti
    onl ike
    1.Thecommi tmentt opaki kisamaa.
    2.Thet endencyt olevel ani ndivi
    dualwhoi soutofli
    ne
    3.Gossi p
    B.Thecur bingofant i
    -socialat t
    itudesbydi sallowingpriv
    acyorbyascr i
    bing
    undesi rablest atusest odev iants.
    C.Aconv er sationalt echniquewhi chLy nchhascal l
    edsociostatcutsdownt o
    sizeanyi ndiv idualwhopubl icl
    yt akescr editf oractorcl ai
    msanyki ndof
    super i
    or it
    yov erhi singr oup.
    D.Thepr essur esf orconf ormityaredi f
    fi
    cultfort heloneindi
    vidualtoresi
    st.

    220
    Soci
    alPowerbasesofGr
    oups

    Fi
    veBasesofPower:
    1.Rewar d
    2.Referent
    3.Coercive
    4.Expert
    5.Legit
    imate

    Powerinsoci alwor k
    • Thecl ienthaspower
    • Thesoci al workerhaspower
    • Thesoci al workercannotgi v epowert ot hecl
    ient.
    • Thecl ientcannotgi vepowert ot hesoci alworker.
    I
    nternat
    ionalFeder ati
    onofSoci alWor kers
    Pri
    ncipl
    e4. 1Humanr ight sandhumandi gni ty
    • Soci alwor ki sbasedonr espectf ort
    hei nherentwor
    thanddi gnit
    yofall
    peopl e,andt herightst hatfollowf r
    om thi
    s.
    • Soci alwor kers shoul d uphol d and def end each person’s physi
    cal
    ,
    psy chologi cal,emotional andspi rit
    ual
    integri
    tyandwell
    -being
    Thi
    smeans:
    • Respect ingt herightt oself-
    det ermi nation
    • Pr omot ingt herightt oparti
    cipat i
    on
    • Tr eati
    ngeachper sonasawhol e
    • Ident i
    fyi
    nganddev el
    opingst rengths

    Power
     Ref
    erstotheabil
    it
    ytoaccessandcontrolr
    esour
    cesandpeople.
     Powerl
    essness-“i
    st heinabi
    l
    itytomanageemot i
    ons,ski
    l
    ls,knowl
    edge,and/
    or
    mater
    ialr
    esourcesinawayt hateff
    ect
    iveper
    for
    manceofv al
    uedsoci
    alrol
    eswill
    l
    eadtopersonalgrat
    ifi
    cati
    on.
    ”

    Poweri
    nsocialwor k
     PowerOv er
     PowerWit h

    Empower
    mentdef initi
    on
    1.Toi nvestwi thpower ,
    especiall
    ylegal powerorof fi
    cialauthorit
    y.
    2.Toequi porsuppl ywithabil
    it
    y;enable:
     UsageNot e.I t
    smoder nuseor iginatedint hecivilri
    ghtsmov ement ,whi
    ch
    soughtpol i
    ticalempower mentf ori t
    sf ol
    lowers.Thewor dwast hent akenup
    byt hewomen' smov ement,anditsappeal hasnotf l
    agged.
     Si ncepeopl eofal lpoli
    ti
    calpersuasi onshav eaneedf orawor dthatmakes
    t heirconst i
    tuentsfeelthattheyar eorar eaboutt obecomemor eincont rol
    of
    t heirdestinies,empowerhasbeenadopt edbyconser vati
    vesaswel lassocial
    r eformers.I thasev enmigratedoutoft hepolit
    icalarenaintootherfiel
    ds.

    Poweri
    nsocialwor k
     Empower mentist heprocessofenhanci ngt hecapacit
    yofindivi
    dualsorgroups
    to make choicesand t ot ransform those choices i
    nto desir
    ed acti
    ons and
    outcomes.Cent r
    altot hi
    spr ocessar eactionswhi chbothbui l
    dindiv
    idualand
    col
    lecti
    veassets,andi mprov etheeffi
    ciencyandf air
    nessoft heorganizat
    ional
    andinsti
    tut
    ionalcontextwhichgov er
    ntheuseoft heseasset s(worl
    dbank.org).

    Def
    ini
    ti
    onofResil
    ience
     I nthe contextofexposur et o signi
    fi
    cantadversi
    ty,whetherpsychol
    ogical
    ,
    envi
    ronmental,orboth,r
    esil
    ienceisboththecapacit
    yofindivi
    dual
    stonavigate
    thei
    rwayt oheal t
    h-sust
    aini
    ngr esour
    ces,i
    ncl
    udingopportuni
    ti
    estoexperi
    ence

    221
    feeli
    ngsofwel l
    -bei
    ng,andacondi t
    ionoft hei ndiv
    idual
    ’sf
    ami l
    y,communi t
    yand
    culturet o pr ov i
    de these heal thr esources and exper i
    ences in cult
    urall
    y
    meani ngfulway s.
     Theabi l
    i
    tyt obecomest r
    ong,heal t
    hy ,orsuccessf ulagai
    naftersomethingbad
    happens.
     Theabi l
    i
    tyofsomet hi
    ngt or et
    urnt oi t
    sor igi
    nalshapeafterithasbeenpul l
    ed,
    stretched,pressed, bent,
    etc.
     Thecapaci tyofast r
    ainedbodyt orecov eritssizeandshapeaf terdef
    ormation
    causedespeci all
    ybycompr essivestress.
     Abilit
    ytor ecoverf r
    om oradj usteasil
    yt omi sfort
    uneorchange

    CULTURE
    Howdowedef inei
    t?
    Howdoesitshapewhowear
    e,andwhatwef
    eel
    ,thi
    nkanddo?

    Howdowedef
    ine“
    cul
    tur
    e”?
    Ext
    ernal
    defi
    niti
    ons
    – Concretedefini
    tions
    – Behavioraldefi
    niti
    ons
    – Symbol i
    cdef i
    nit
    ions

    Int
    ernal
    def
    ini
    ti
    ons
    Cul
    tur
    eis…
     Rootedinbehavior
    …whatwedo, howwebehave, howwer espond
     I
    ncludesourmat eri
    alart
    ifacts…art
    ,music,buil
    dings,
    products,naturalr
    esour
    ces
     I
    ncludesourthi
    nking…soci alknowledge,bel
    i
    efs,morals,
    laws, customs
     I
    ncludesourpatterns&symbol s…l
    anguage,publicmeanings,class
     I
    ncludesourvalues…ideas, habi
    ts,
    tradi
    ti
    ons

    Cul
    tur
    e
     “ t
    hatcompl exwhol ewhi ch i
    ncl
    udest heknowl edge,art
    ,beli
    ef,mor al
    ,laws,
    customsandot hercapabil
    it
    iesandhabitsacquir
    edbymanasamemberoft he
    societ
    y(EdwardTaylor)
     Ref erstothosequali
    tiesandattr
    ibut
    est hatsum tobethecharacter
    ist
    icsofall
    mankind.I
    trefer
    stot hewayoflif
    efoll
    owedbyt hegroupthati
    ssociety.

    Cul
    tur
    eis…
    1. Learned-t henor ms,ski l
    ls,v al
    ues,andknowl edgewhichconst i
    tuteone’ scult
    ure
    areacqui reddur i
    ngthecour seofone’ slifeandnott r
    ansmit t
    edgenet ically
    .
    2. Shar ed-t ransmi tt
    edf rom onegener ationt othenext ,nott hroughgenes,but
    throught eaching.
    3. Cumul ative-increasei nsi ze,ef f
    ectofsuccessi veadditi
    on.Ther ateofchange
    varyenor mousl yast heyar ebroughtaboutbynewi deasthrought hepr ocessof
    discov eriesori nvent
    ionsort hrought hemedi um ofcult
    uralbor r
    owing.
    4. Dy nami c-movi ng,changi ng.Al waysgr owi ngtonew ideas,new t echniquesar e
    discov eredandol dway smodi fiedanddi scarded.
    5. Diverse-di st
    inct.Culturev arywi delyi nmanyway sinwhi cht heygui de,human
    behav iorf rom languaget opost ur efr
    om i deastogoodmanner s.
    6. Integr atedWhol e-mut uallyint
    er dependentpar t
    sandcloselyintegrated.

    Soci
    etyi
    sahol
    on,
    whataf
    fect
    sacer
    tai
    nel
    ementaf
    fect
    sot
    herel
    ement
    .

    I
    not
    herwor
    ds…

    “Cul
    tur
    ei ncl
    udesmul t
    iplelevel
    soft radi
    ti
    ons,values,& bel i
    efs,aswellassocial
    ,
    biol
    ogi
    cal,&natur
    alact
    s.
    Theseprocessesaredr
    ivenbythemeaningswegi vetoortakef r
    om them.
    Thesemeaningsarefort
    ifi
    edorchangedinrel
    ati
    onsbet weenpeopl e,
    ashi
    stor
    yunf
    olds.
    ”
    --
    E.Hutchi
    son( 2008)

    222
    I
    thasbeensuggest
    edt
    hat
    …

    • Indi
    vi
    duals&gr oupsview t
    hewor ldindif
    fer
    entways,shapedbythei
    rcul
    tur
    al
    experi
    ences
    • Thesediff
    erentwaysofunderst
    andingaf
    fectcommunicati
    on
    • Suchdiff
    erencesmayleadtoconfl
    icts&misunder
    standi
    ngsbet
    weengroups

    -
    -E.Hal
    l(1976)
    .BeyondCul
    tur
    e

    Forexampl
    e,onacont
    inuum…

    Somepeoplehave“
    lowcontext”v
    isi
    on…
    Other
    shave“hi
    ghcont
    ext”v
    ision

    Thegener
    aldi
    ff
    erencesal
    ongt
    hiscont
    inuum

    Per
    sonswi
    thhi
    ghcont
    extvi
    siont
    endt
    obe…
     Morer el
    ati
    onall
    ybased
     Cir
    cularint
    hinki
    ng
     Focusedonawi derangeofi
    nfor
    mat
    ion
     Lessv er
    ball
    yexpli
    ci
    t

    Per
    sonswi
    thl
    owcont
    extvi
    siont
    endt
    obe…
     Moreindiv
    iduall
    ybased
     Li
    nearinthinki
    ng
     Taskori
    ented&nar rowl
    yfocused
     Ruleori
    ented&f act
    ual

    Yetcultur
    ei s a dynami
    c pr
    ocess t
    hatal
    so mustbe vi
    ewed wi
    thi
    n a per
    sonal&
    si
    tuat
    ionalcont
    ext

    J.Lai
    rdhassai
    dthatcul
    tur
    esar
    e…
     Improvi
    sat
    ional
     Wefi
    texper
    iencesi
    ntomeani
    ngs,
    &wecr
    eat
    enewmeani
    ngs&newsy
    mbol
    s
    f
    ornewexperi
    ences
     Fl
    uid&emer gent
     Wehav emul ti
    plecul
    tur
    al sel
    vest hatshi
    ftaccor
    dingt ooursetti
    ng
     Aninter
    sectionofmanygr oups
     Webel ongt omanygr oups, &thereisdiv
    ersit
    ywi t
    hinourgr oups
     Notmeasur able
     Itisnotat hingoranobj ect;i
    tisacl ust
    erofmeani ngsfrom past
    ,pr
    esent
    ,&
    f
    uture
     Pol
    iti
    cal
     Peopl edonothav eequal opportunit
    iest
    ohav etheirstor
    iestold

    Aswemov
    efur
    theri
    nt he21stcent
    ot ury
    …
    Manydevel
    oping,non-
    West er
    nsociet
    iesareshi
    ft
    ingf
    rom a“pr
    e-modern”t
    oa
    “moder
    n”vi
    ew oftheworld,whil
    eWesternsociet
    iesar
    emovingint
    oa“ post
    -moder
    n”
    vi
    ewofhumanint
    eracti
    on&cultur
    e

    Whatdoest
    hismean?

    “
    Pre-moder
    ner a”
     Trut
    hisv i
    ewedascomingfrom author
    it
    y&t r
    adit
    ions
     Thereisastr
    ict&fi
    xedsoci
    alorder,wi
    thunshakablevi
    ewsaboutwhati
    str
    ue
     Peopleunder
    standtheworl
    dthroughmy t
    hs&r i
    tuals,
    rat
    hert
    hansci
    ence

    223
    “
    Moder
    nism”
     Moder ni
    sm i
    sbuil
    tont hebelieft
    hatscience&knowledgeareobjecti
    ve&wecan
    knowt hecause&effectofbehavior
     Moder ni
    sm isbasedont hebeli
    efthat“ t
    heself”i
    sdevelopedbyapr edi
    ctabl
    e
    inter
    acti
    onbetweenexternalsoci
    o-cul
    turalfor
    ces&int
    ernalpsy
    chologi
    calf
    orces.

    “
    Post
    -moderni
    sm”
     Isthenewv oiceinadi
    ver se&mul t
    icult
    uralsociet
    y
     Proposest hatthedevelopmentoft heselfisaconsci ous,ongoi
    ng,unf
    oldi
    ng
    pr
    ocess
     Recognizeswehav emultiplesel
    ves&manyv ocabul
    ari
    es
     Viewsobjective,
    val
    ue-
    freescienceasone- sided

    Post
    -modernism pr oposest hat…
     Reali
    tyisbot hsubj ecti
    ve&objecti
    ve
     Subjecti
    ver ealityiscreatedbytheint
    er nali
    zati
    onofoursoci alnorms
     Ourunder standi ngsar ear esultofoursoci alr elat
    ionships,developed ata
    parti
    cularpoi ntint i
    me
     Socialprocesses( suchascommuni cation,confl
    ict,&negot i
    ati
    on)canbeused
    forsocialcont rol
     Thewayweseet hewor ldaf
    fectsoursoci alpol
    icy&ourchoi ces

    Whatdoy
    outhi
    nk?
    Howwoul
    dyoudescr
    ibey
    ourcul
    tur
    e?

    Onacont
    inuum,
    wher
    ear
    eyou?

     Iti
    sv er
    yimportantt
    hatIam alwaysonti
    me
     Strongfamil
    ytiesarei
    mportant;myfamil
    ymember saremyf r
    iends,
    myf
    inanci
    al
    empl oyment
    ,&myemot i
    onalsuppor
    t
     Rulesareguideli
    nes&shouldbef ol
    l
    owed basedont hesi
    tuati
    on&mypersonal
    j
    udgment
     Roleschange&bot hmen&womencandoev er
    ythi
    ng
     Ifeelbett
    erwit
    hconstantcompany

     Beingont i
    mei snotver
    yimpor t
    ant
     Myf ami l
    yisimportantbecausewear er el
    ated,buteachper
    sonisdi
    ff
    erent&
    i
    ndependent
     Everyoneshouldobeyallr
    ulesbecausetheyexistfort
    hecommongood
     Therear efi
    xedrol
    esformen&women
     Ineedt obealone&notinterr
    uptedforsi
    gnif
    icantperi
    odsev
    eryday

    AspectofCul
    tur
    e

    1.Belief-whatt hepeopl east ruebasedi nfait


    h,traditi
    on,exper ienceorscienti
    fi
    c
    obser vat i
    one.g.God’ spower, rit
    ual,superstit
    iousbelief&et ernalli
    fe.
    2.Values-shar edconcept sofwhati strueanddesi rable,appropr i
    ate,i
    mportant.
    3.Nor ms-ar ewr i
    tt
    enandunwr ittenrulest hatguidebehav iorappr opri
    atet
    oagi ven
    si
    tuat i
    on.Somenor msar eappl i
    edt oev erydayactivity
    .Someappl ytothosethat
    occurear ly.
    4.Folkway s-akindofbehav i
    ort hatisor ganizedandr epet i
    tiv
    e.Itdoesnotr equir
    es
    str
    ictcompl iance.
    Ex:pagmamanot oanel derl
    y
    5.Cust oms-gr oup’swayofdoi ngt hingsi ncommonmanner .
    6.Mor es-f olkway sthatinvol
    vemor alandet hi
    calvalues.I tisthemosti mpor t
    ant
    cul
    t ural norm, vi
    olat
    iontosuchi spuni shableorthoset hatev olvessanct
    ions.
    Ex:phy si
    calabuse,rape.

    224
    Ot
    herconcept s
    1.Et hnocent r
    ism-isav al
    uesy st
    em thatdeniesthewor thofot hercul
    tur
    esand
    encour agesrej
    ecti
    onofthosebroughtupindif
    fer
    enttradit
    ions.
    2.Cul turalRelati
    vi
    sm-holdt hattherecanbenouni versalstandar
    dt oeval
    uat
    e
    cultur
    eornor m asgoodorbadandt hateachcult
    uremustbeseeni ni
    tsown
    term.

     Sy mbol i
    ssomet hing,verbal ornon- verbal,thatcomest ost andforsomet hing
    else.
    Ex:theletterd-o-ghav est andf ortheani mal wecal l
    dog.
     Wor ldvi
    ew-i sani deaofr eality,
    aconceptofnat ure,ofself,ofsociety.
     I sassoci atedwi t
    ht hecogni t
    ivedomai n,whatwet hinkaboutt hi ngs.
     Et hos-ist he “ t
    one,char acter,and qual i
    ty ofPeopl el ife,it
    s mor aland
    aestheticst yleandmoods;i tist heunder lyi
    ngat t
    it
    udet owardt hemsel ves
    andt heirwor ldthatli
    feref l
    ects.(Geer t
    z ,1973) .
     Associ ated mor e wi tht he emot i
    onalor af f
    ect iv
    e and st ylisti
    c
    dimensi onsofbehav ior-howwef eel aboutt hi
    ngs.
    3.Culturaluniversal-i
    st hechar acteri
    st i
    cscommont oal lcul
    tures.
    Ex :Nocul turestolerateindiscriminatel ying,stealingorv iolencewi t
    hint hei n
    group.
    4.CultureShock-I saf eel
    ingofconf usion,anx i
    ety,andf r
    ustrationwhent heysee
    thattheirdeeplyheldv al
    uesandbel iefarev i
    ol ated.

    Dy
    nami
    csofFami
    lyLi
    fe

    Famil
    y
     Isasoci alinst
    it
    utionfoundi nallsoci
    eti
    est hatuni
    tespeoplei
    ncooper
    ati
    ve
    groupstooverseethebearingandraisi
    ngofchildr
    en.
     Ki nshi
    pisasocial;bondbasedonbl ood,marr
    iageoradopti
    on.
     Fami lyunit–asasoci algroupoftwoormor epeople,r
    elat
    edbybl
    ood,
    marri
    age
    oradopti
    on,whousual l
    yliv
    et oget
    her.

    Def
    ini
    ngFami
    l
    yLi
    fe

    1. Thet
    ermf amil
    yisusedt odescr i
    beanumberofrel
    ati
    onshi
    ps.
     Biologcal
     Nucl ear
    -f
    ami l
    yofmot her,fat
    her,chi
    l
    dandsi
    bli
    ngs
     Cl oseandintimatefr
    iends
    2.Connotesquali
    tyornatureofrelati
    onshi
    psuchas:
     Meani ngfulsexualr
    elati
    onships

    225
     Lovingpar ent-
    chi l
    dr elati
    onshi p
     Permanentandl ong-raisingr elati
    onshi ps
     Int
    imat erelat
    ionshi p
     Faithful andloyal rel
    at i
    onshi ps
    3.Theter
    mi sal sousedt odescr i
    ber elationships
     Procr eationandsoci alizati
    onofchi ldren
     Nurisngandpr otectiveact ivit
    ies
     Affect i
    vef unctionsmember sgi v eemot ionalsuppor tnecessar yto
    help member s endur e t he har sh r eali
    ti
    es of an i ncreasingl
    y
    imper sonal societ y
    .
     Distinctionbetweent hef ami l
    yofor i
    ginandt hefamilyofprocreation
     Distinctionbet weenmar riageandf amilybei ngindependentofone
    anot her.
     Defineal so ashousehol d compr isi
    ng allt heper son occupying a
    housi nguni tl
    imi tedonl yt ostruct ur
    eandl egal st
    atus.

    Var
    iat
    ionsi
    nheSt
    ruct
    ureofFami
    lyLi
    fe
    Two-parentandmar r
    iedcouplf amil
    ies,theone-parentfamily(Asar esul
    tofa
    deathofparent,separat
    ion,unwedpr egnancy,stepfamil
    ieas,cohabit
    ingcouples–two
    unrel
    atedcouples,singl
    eper sons)
    .Tr ansactionalpatt
    ern– r efer
    st otheboundaries
    amongf ami
    liesmember s.Boundariesar edefi
    nedi nter
    msofr ol
    es–whomay /maynot
    parti
    ci
    patei
    nanyf amilyli
    fe.

    Funct
    ionsoff
    ami
    lyaccor
    dingt
    otheSt
    ruct
    uralf
    unct
    ional
    ist
    Thef
    ami
    lyi
    sthebackboneoft hesoci ety.
    1.Sociali
    zation – t he f amilyi st he f i
    rstand mosti nf
    luentialset ting for
    sociali
    zation.Par ent shelp childr enbecomeweel -i
    ntegrated,cont ributi
    ng
    member sofsoci ety.
    2.Regulationofsexualact ivi
    ty–ev erycul tur
    eregulatessexualact ivi
    tyi nthe
    int
    erestofmai ntaining kinship or ganizati
    on and pr oper t
    yr i
    ght s.One
    universalregulati
    oni st heincesttaboo, anormf or
    biddingsexual relationsor
    mar ri
    agebet weencer tainrel
    ativ
    es.
    3.SocialPl acement–Par enstconf ert heirownsoci alidentit
    y–i nt er msof
    race,ethnicit
    y,reli
    gion, andsocial class-onchil
    drenatbi r
    th.
    4.Mat eri
    alandEmot ionalSecur i
    ty–Manypeopl evi
    ewf amil
    yasa“ hav enina
    heartl
    esswor ld”looki ngt okinf orphy sicalprot
    ection,emot i
    onalsuppor t
    andf inancialassist ance.Thus,peopl el ivi
    nginfami li
    est ent oeheal t
    hier
    thanpeopl elivi
    ngal one.

    Soci
    alConf
    li
    ctTheor
    ist
    1.Propertyanainheri
    tance–Fr i
    enri
    chEngels(1902)tracetheor i
    ginofthefamily
    tomen’ sneed(esp.intheuppercl asses)t
    oidenti
    fyheir
    ssot heycouldtransmit
    propert
    ytotheirsons.
    2.Patri
    archy– toknow t hei
    rhei r
    s,menmustcont rolthesexual i
    tyofwomen.
    Famili
    esthustransform womeni ntothesexualaneconomi cpropert
    yofmen.
    3.Racialand ethnici nequalit
    y – Raci aland et
    hnic caategori
    es persi
    stov er
    generati
    ons onlyt ot he degree thatpeople marry otherslike t
    hemselves.
    Endogamousmar ri
    ageshor esupracialandethni
    chierar
    chies.

    I
    tsr
    olei
    nsoci
    alst
    rat
    if
    icat
    ion–f
    ami
    l
    yaspar
    tandpar
    cel
    ofcapi
    tal
    i
    sm.

    Symbol
    icI
    nter
    act
    ioni
    st
     View familyasa st r
    ucturalsy st
    em.Fami lyliv
    ing of f
    ersan oppor tunit
    yfor
    i
    ntimacy,a wor d with Latinrootsmeani ng “shared fear”
    ,t hatisasf amil
    y
    member sshar eacti
    v i
    ti
    es,theybuildemotionalbonds.Thef actt hatparent
    sact
    asaut hori
    tyfigur
    esof t
    enl i
    mit
    st heircl
    osenesswi t
    hchi l
    dren.Onyaspeopl e
    reach adult
    hood t o kinshipties between generations open up t oi ncl
    ude
    confi
    ding in and t urni
    ng t o one anotherf orhel p with dai l
    yt asks and
    responsibi
    l
    iti
    es.

    226
    Funct
    ionsoft
    heFami
    ly
     Regul
    atessexualbehavi
    ourandi stheuni
    tofr eproducti
    on
     Thefamil
    yperfor
    mst hefuncti
    onofbi ol
    ogicalmai nt
    ainance
     Thefamil
    ygivesit
    smember sst
    at us
     Animportantmechanism f
    orsocialcontr
    ol
     Thefamil
    yperfor
    mseconomi cfuncti
    ons,especiall
    yinsimplesoci
    eti
    es

    Tr
    ansi
    ti
    osandPr
    obl
    emsi
    nFami
    lyLi
    fe

    Di
    vor
    ce–
    Causes:
    1. Indi
    viduali
    sm isont herise–spendl esst i
    met ogether.Bei ngindivi
    dual i
    sti
    cand
    moreconcer newithper sonalhappi nesst hanwi t
    ht hewel l-bei
    ngoff ami li
    esand
    chil
    dren
    2. Romant icloveof t
    ensubsi des– becauseourcul tureisbasesmar riageson
    romant i
    clive,r
    elati
    onshipmayf ailwhensexualpassi onfades.Manypeopl eend
    amar ri
    agei nfavorofanewr elati
    onshsi pt hatrenewsexci t ementandr omance.
    3. Womenar el ssdependentonmen–mar r
    iageusedt obeaneconomi cbondt hat
    provi
    dessuppor ttopar tners,especi allywomen.I ncreasingpar tici
    pat ioni nt ha
    l
    aborf orcehasr educedwi vesf inancial dependencyonhusbands.
    4. Manyoft oday’smar r
    iagesar est ressful–wi thbot hpar t ner
    swor kingout side
    thehomei nmostmar ri
    ages, jobsl eavel esstimeandener gyf orfami l
    yl ifewhi ch
    makingr ai
    singchi l
    drenhar derthanev er.

    Ty
    pesofFami ly
     NuclearFamily(conjugalf
    amily)–af ami
    l
    yunitcomposedofoneortwoparent
    s
    andtheirchi
    l
    dren
     Ext
    endedFami l
    y( consangui
    nef ami
    ly)-afamil
    yunitt
    hatincl
    udespar
    entsand
    chi
    ldrenaswellasot herki
    n.

    Mar
    ri
    agepat ter
    ns
    1. Endogamy–mar r
    iagebetweenpeopleofthesamesocial cat
    egor
    y
    2. Exogamy–mandat esmarri
    agebetweenpeopleofdiff
    erentsoci
    alcategor
    ies
    3. Monogamy–Oneuni on(Greek)marr
    iagethatuni
    testwopar t
    ners
    4. Polygamy–mar ri
    agethatunit
    esthr
    eeormor epeople
    5. Polygyny–manymen- marri
    agethatunit
    esonemal eandt woormor efemales
    6. Polyandry– manyhusbandsi smar r
    iagethatunit
    esf emaleandt woormor e
    males

    Resi
    dent
    ialPatterns
     Patri
    localit
    y– placesoft hef ather– ar esi
    denti
    alpatt
    erninwhi
    chamar ri
    ed
    coupleliveswit
    hornearthehusband’ sfami l
    y.
     Mat r
    il
    ocal i
    ty–placesofmot her–ar esidenti
    alpat
    ter
    ninwhichamarr
    iedcouple
    li
    veswi thornearthewif
    e’sfami ly.
     Neolocal i
    ty–anewpl ace–ar esi
    debt
    ialpatter
    ninwhichamarri
    edcoupl
    elives
    apartfrom bothsetsofparents.

    Pat
    ter
    nsofDescent
    - I sasy stem bywhichember sofasocietytracekinshipov ergener
    ati
    ons.
    1. Patri
    li
    nealdescent– i sasy stem tracingki nshi
    pt hr
    oughmen.Chl drenare
    rel
    atedt oothersonlythroughtheirfat
    hers,sot hatfather
    st y
    pical
    l
    ypassproper
    ty
    ontot heirsons.
    2. Mat r
    il
    inealdescent– asysyt em t r
    acingki nshipthroughwomen.Mot herpass
    propertytotheirdaughters.

    227
    3. Bi
    lat
    eraldescent
    s–( twosi
    deddescent)asy st
    em tr
    acingki
    nshi
    pthr
    oughboth
    menandwomen.I nthi
    spat
    tern,chi
    l
    drenrecognizepeopl
    eonboththefat
    her
    ’s
    si
    deandthemot hersi
    deasr
    elati
    ves.

    Par
    adi
    gm Shifti
    nSoci alWork
    From t
    het r
    aditi
    onalemphasisont heindi
    v i
    dualt
    ot hatoft hefamil
    y
    1.Rdef i
    nespat hologyordysfunct
    ionalbehav i
    orasar esultofast r
    ugglebetween
    i
    ndivi
    dualsratherthanvi
    ewingitasaf actorwit
    hinthei ndi
    v i
    dual
    .
    2.Thei ndiv
    idual’
    sbehav i
    or(whathedoes, hismot i
    vati
    onsf orhisactions,andhow
    hisbehavi
    orcanbechanged)t akenewdi mensionsaswef ocusorat t
    enti
    onto
    thebri
    adcont extinwhi
    chtheindividualf
    uncti
    ons.

    Tr
    adit
    ionalFami ly
     Af ami l
    yforminwhichtherolesofhusbandandwifeareclear
    lyseparat
    eandt
    he
    husbandmonopol i
    zespowermakest hemaj
    orfami
    lydeci
    sions
     Desi r
    ef ori
    ndependenceandequalit
    ybyeachmemberoft hefamily,
    incl
    udi
    ngt
    he
    chi
    ldrenchall
    engesthedominantrol
    eofthefat
    herandhusband.

    Assumpti
    ons
     Familyisahet erosexuali nsti
    tuti
    onwi t
    hpr escri
    ptionabouthow amananda
    womanoughtt obej oinedtogetherandlivet
    oget her.
     Thepr operfami l
    yf ormi stobeanucl earfamilycomposedofamar r
    iedmanand
    womanandt heirchildren.
     Thehusbandi st heheadoft hef amil
    ywi thul t
    imateauthor
    it
    yov erwi
    frand
    chil
    drenwi t
    hcl ear lyseparater ol
    es– husbandasi ncomeearnerandwifeas
    homemakerandpr oviderofchi
    ldcare.

    Equal
    -part
    nerMarri
    age
     A mor edemocr ati
    cf orminwhi chbothhusbanddandwi fecontr
    ibut
    etothe
    f
    ami l
    y’
    seconomi cr esour
    ces,shareauthor
    ityanddeci
    sion-
    making,andwork
    t
    ogetheri
    nchil
    dr ear
    ing.
     Promot esant
    i-
    sexism –appliesf
    emini
    stperspect
    ive.

    RecentTr
    endsi nfamil
    yLif
    e
     Wi v
    esev enmotherswit
    hsmallchil
    drenl i
    kel
    ytobeempl
    oyedout
    sidet
    hehome
     Mar r
    iagesareli
    kel
    ytoendwit
    hdi vor
    ce/ separ
    ati
    on
     Single-
    parentf
    amil
    iesaremor
    epr evalent

    ChangesinRol eExpectati
    onsamongFami lyMembers
     Changeswi thi
    nt hef amil
    yofprocreat
    ion-
    rel
    ati
    onshi
    psbet
    weenspousesand
    betweenmi norchi
    ldrenandpar
    ents.
     Changesi ntheextendedki nf
    amilysuchasbet weenel
    der
    lypar
    ent
    sandthei
    r
    adultchi
    ldr
    en.

    Ont her oleofwomen– 4ki ndsofoppr essiont hatkeepwomeni ndi sadvantage


    posit
    ion
    1. Structur
    alDi scrimi nati
    on–womenar el esslikel
    yt hanment obeemot ionally
    fulf
    ill
    edandt oachi evesexualsat isfacti
    on, thei
    rabili
    tytocont rolconceptionand
    birt
    hi sthr
    eatenedorr estri
    cted;inequal it
    yofoppor t
    unityineducat i
    onandl i
    mited
    accesst omeani ngfuljobsandcar eers.
    2. CulturalDicriminat ion – Thei nferiorit
    yofwomenembeddedi ntonor msand
    belief
    sofsoci etybymeansofl anguage,soci ali
    zati
    onpr ocesses,andcul tural
    stereoty
    ping.
     Rol est rain-createdbymar riagesandmot herhoodi nt hepr ocreati
    ve
    f
    ami l
    y;womensuf feredlegal ,economi c,socialandpsy chologicalharm.
    3.SexualExpl oitation-Bot hinsideandout sideoft hef amily
    -threathenedbyt he

    228
    doubl
    estandardi
    nsexf
    avor
    ingmen,sexualhar
    assment
    ,vi
    olencei
    nthef
    orm of
    abuseandrape.

    Ont
    her
    oleoft
    hechil
    dren-f
    amilyproblemsi nv
    olvi
    ngchil
    dren
     Chi
    ldabuse-usuall
    yinv olv
    essomeki ndofacper pet
    rat
    edagai nstthe
    chi
    l
    d
     Chi
    ldneglect
    -usuallyinvolvesabandoni
    ngr esponsi
    bil
    i
    tyforthewel f
    are
    oft
    hechild
     Chi
    ldsexualabuse-isdi sti
    ngui
    shedfrom emot i
    onalandphysicalabuse
    bytheexpl
    ici
    tysexualnatureoftheact.

    Ont
    her
    oleoft
    heelderl
    y
     Famil
    yprobl
    emsr el
    atedtoelder
    ly
     El
    derabuse-i.
    e.fi
    nancial
    ,psychol
    ogical
    andphysicalnegl
    ect
     Cmpriseasignif
    icantport
    ionofthepoor,par
    ti
    cularl
    yamongwomenand
    ethni
    cminori
    ti
    es
     Somel i
    veonsubsi denceincome;copewithi
    solati
    on,il
    lheal
    th,abuseor
    abandonment.

    TheFamilyasasy stem
     Asasoi alorganizati
    onwhi chfocusesont hefunct
    ioningofactualfamil
    i
    esin
    theirevery
    daylives.
     From sy st
    emsper specti
    ves-i
    tisvi
    ewedasHOLON,si mult
    aneousl
    yawhol eand
    apar tofal ar
    gersy stem-concer
    nedwi t
    htheint
    eract
    ionswithi
    nthefamili
    esand
    betweenf amili
    esandt hesoci
    alenvi
    ronmentofwhichtheyareapart.

    Famil
    yWel l-
    bei
    ng
     Theopt i
    mum leveloffami
    lyfuncti
    on-how wel
    lthefamil
    ysatisf
    iesit
    sneeds,
    keepsitsboundari
    esopenandflexi
    ble;andmaint
    ainsbenef
    ici
    alstr
    uctur
    aland
    i
    nteract
    ionspat
    ter
    ns.

    Famil
    yboundar i
    es-
    describe t
    he famil
    y’s abi
    li
    tyto meetsur vi
    valand devel
    opment
    needs
     Wi thi
    nt hefami l
    yboundaryar eitsmember sand t hei
    rr ol
    es,nor
    ms,v al
    ues,
    tr
    aditi
    ons,goals,plus ot
    herelement sthatdist
    inguish one f
    amil
    yf r
    om the
    anotherandfr
    om thesocialenv
    ironment.

    Ty
    pesofFami lyBoundar ies
    1. Random f ami li
    es–ar emostunheal thy,typi
    callyhaveboundar i
    esthatlackclari
    ty
    orareconst ant l
    yshifti
    ngandchangi ng;ther
    ei snosenseoff amil
    ycohesi on,
    and
    eachmemberseemst obedoi nghisorherownt hing.
    2. Closedf ami l
    ies–t endstober igi
    dwi thweel -edfi
    nedr oles,wellorganizedand
    dir
    ectedbypl annedgoal sandschedul es;fami l
    ypr ojectsandconcer nst ake
    precedenceov erindivi
    dualdesired;f
    ami l
    ystabi l
    it
    yisofgr eatimpor t
    ance.
    3. Openf ami l
    ies–Theheal t
    hiesttypeandwel lorganizedint hesenset hatthereis
    cl
    earboundar y;goal s;roles,and member ship are wel ldefined and wel l
    understood; t
    her eisflexi
    bil
    it
    y;indiv
    idualconcer nsar erespondedt obalancewi th
    provi
    dinggenui neconcernfort hefami l
    yasawhol e.

    Somequal i
    ti
    esofaheal thyfamil
    y
     Directandopencommuni cati
    onpatterns
     Appr eci
    ati
    onandr espectforoneanother
     Spiri
    tualandreli
    giouscommi tment
     Adapt abi
    li
    tyandflexi
    bil
    it
    y
     Clari
    tyoffamilyrules

    FAMI
    LYRELATI
    ONSHI
    PS

    Whati
    saf
    ami
    ly?

    229
    Af amil
    yispri
    marygr oupswhosemembersar erelat
    edbybl ood,adopti
    on,or
    marr
    iage and usuall
    y have shared common r
    esidences,hav e mutualrighs and
    obl
    i
    gations,andassumeresponsibi
    l
    ityf
    ort
    hepr
    imarysocil
    ali
    zati
    onoftheirchi
    l
    dren

    Af
    ami
    lyi
    sasocial
    inst
    it
    uti
    onbecausei
    tbr
    ings:
     Val
    ues
     Aut
    hor
    ity

    Values–implythatcer
    tai
    nki
    ndsofbehavi
    our
    sareprefer
    red
    Authori
    ty–usessancti
    onsandotherf
    ormsofcont
    rolwhensomeonef
    ail
    stoconfor
    m
    SocialI
    nsti
    tut
    ion – ar
    egovernedbyr ul
    eandlawsandway sofbehavi
    ourthatar
    e
    t
    radi
    ti
    onal
    inourcul
    tur
    e

    TheFami l
    yasaSy stem:
    Basichypothesisaboutf ami l
    y:
    1.Al lpartsoft hefami l
    yareint
    err
    elated
    2.Onepar toft hef amilycannotbeunder st
    oodi ni
    solat
    ionfrom therestofthe
    familysystem
    3. Fami lyfunct i
    oningcannotbef ull
    yunderstoodbysimplyunderst
    andi
    ngeachof
    theindivi
    dual familymember sorsubgroups.
    4.Af ami l
    ystructureandor gani
    zati
    onar ei
    mpor t
    antfact
    orsthatstr
    ongl
    yinfl
    uence
    anddet erminet hebehav i
    ouroffamil
    ymember s.
    5.Thet ransactionalpatter
    nsofthef amil
    ysystem st
    rongl
    yshapet hebehavi
    ourof
    familymember s.

    TheSturcturalModel
    Thismodelf ocusesonf ami l
    ysy st
    em rathert hanont heindi
    vidual.Thef amilyis
    regar
    dedasasy tem.
     Fami l
    iesar eseenhi er ar
    chicall
    yorganized,wi thparentshav i
    ngt heaut horit
    yto
    managet heirchildren.
     Rul esgov erni nteractionsacrossandwi t
    hinf amil
    ysubsy stemsandmaybeov ert
    orcov ert
     Boundar i
    esbet weenf amil
    ysubsy stemsandbet weent hefamilyandext ernal
    systemsshoul dbecl earandf i
    rm.( Boundariesareinvisi
    blebordersthatsepar ate
    thefami l
    yf rom out sideenv i
    ronmentaswel las bor dersthatseparatethef amily
    subsy st
    ems)
     Fami l
    ySt ructure–t hi sref
    erst omember s,subsystems,pat t
    ernsofi nt
    er acti
    on,
    rul
    esandhi erarchies.
     Hi erarchies–wi thinsy st
    em andsubsy st
    ems.

    GROUPS
    Dynami
    csofGr
    oups

    Whati
    sagr
    oup?

     I
    tis…“ anaggregateofindi
    vidualstandingincert
    ainobser
    vablerel
    ati
    onstoeach
    other
    .The ki nds ofr el
    ations exempl i
    fi
    ed wil
    l,ofcour se,depend upon,
    or
    deter
    minetheki ndofgroup,whet heritbeaf amil
    y,anaudience,acommitt
    ee,a
    l
    aborunion,oracrowd.”(Brodbeck)

    Gr
    oup…
     …acol
    l
    ect
    ionofi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    swhoseexi
    stenceasacol
    l
    ect
    ioni
    srewar
    dingt
    othe

    230
    i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    s.”(
    Bass)

    Uni
    quenessofthegr
    oupasdefined…
     El ement
    softhegroupsareindivi
    duals
     Member shipi
    sasetofpeopl e
     Peopl emustbereal
    tedt
    oneanot heri
    nsomedef
    ini
    ti
    veway
     Theabovei mpli
    essomeinter-dependency

    Mai
    npur
    poseofagroup
    Meetsper
    sonalandsoci
    alneeds–

     Belongi ng
     Recogni t
    ion
     Socialization
     Adv enture
     Accompl ishment
     Service
     Prestige, Stat
    us
     Skil
    ls

    CONTI
    BUTI ONOFTHEGROUPTOI NDI VIDUALS
     Pr ov i
    desoppor tunitiest odev elopski ll
    saspar tici
    pati
    ngmember sofsoci ety
     Thewayi nwhi chi ndi vidualsl earn,thespeedofl earning,theretentionoflearned
    mat eri
    al,andt hewayi nwhi cht haysol vethei
    rpr oblemsar edefini
    telyinf
    luenced
    bysmal lgr oupst owhi cht heybel ong
     For mat i
    onofat ti
    tudesandt endst obedeci siveint hedev elopmentofnor msof
    responset osi t uations
     Changesani ndi vi
    dual ’sv alues,levelofaspi r
    ationandst r
    ivi
    ng
     Modi fi
    est hei ndi vi
    dual ’
    shabi t
    sofl i
    ving,workingandcar ry
    ingonl if
    e’spursuits
     Per ceptionofhi mel fandhi sroleinagi vensit
    uat i
    on
     Pr ov i
    des psy chol ogi cal suppor tf or individuals and hel p them expr ess
    themsel ves
     I nfl
    uencest hechoi cest hati ndividualsmakewhent hayar einsi t
    uat i
    onswher e
    alt
    ernativesar epr esent ed
     Af fectsindividual ’sspeed, accur acy, andproduct i
    vit
    yint hewor ksituati
    on
     Secur i
    ty-
    givingf unct ionoft hesmal lgroup
     Pl acelimitsoni ndividual driveforpowerandhi sneedt obecont rol
    ling

    Char
    act
    eri
    sti
    csofaGr oup
     Theyengagei nfr
    equentinter
    act
    ion
     Theydefi
    net hemselvesasmember s
     Theyaredefinedbyot her
    sasmember s
     Theysharenor msconcerningmatt
    ers
     Theyfi
    ndt hegrouprewarding
     Theypursueindependentgoals

    COMMONELEMENTSOPEARTI
    NGI
    NAGROUP
    1.Behavi
    or
     Quest
    ionst
    oaskt
    odet
    ermi
    newhtbehav
    iouri
    nter
    act
    ioni
    s:
    a)Whatarepeopl
    edoi ng?( ver
    balornon-
    ver
    bal
    )
    b)Whoistal
    king?
    c) I
    sev
    ery
    onepartici
    pating?
    d)Towhom doeseachper sontal
    k?

    2.Emot
    ions
    a)Whatf
    eel
    ings(emotions)ar
    epresenti
    nthegroup?
    b)Howdotheyfeelaboutwhattheyaredoi
    ng?

    231
    a) sIst hereagener alfeeli
    ngclimate?Host i
    le?Friendly
    ?Bor ed?
    Confused?Sl eepy?Etc.
    Note:Toef fect
    ivel
    ydet erminethegr oup’
    semot i
    ona,y ouneedt olookatt he
    group’
    s behav i
    our.The emot i
    ons ofa gr oup are of
    t entransmitt
    ed thr
    ough
    behavi
    ourssuchassi lence,bodypost ure,f
    aci
    alexpressi
    on, etc.

    3.Nor
    ms
     I
    deasabouthow member sshoul
    dact ,shouldfeel,andshouldexpresstheir
    f
    eeli
    ngs.I
    not
    herwor ds,whati
    sandi sn’taccept
    ableinthegroup.
    a)Whatr ulesdothemember sseem tobef oll
    owi
    ng?
    b)Whatseemst obeconsi deredacceptablewaysofacti
    ngorfeeli
    ng?
    c) Whatseemst obeunaccept abl
    ewayst obehaveorfeel
    ?
    d)Dot heytalkaboutr
    ules?

    4.Goal
    s
    a)Whatthegroupistodo
    b)Tasksitwi
    llworkon
    c) Whati
    twil
    lworkon
    d)Whatitwil
    lproduce

    GROUPATMOSPHERE

     Tensel/ Frustrat ing – i nabi l


    it
    yt omov e/accompl i
    shper cei
    v edt ask( pr
    essures,
    confl
    ictsbet weenmember s,personal l
    ythreatening
     Fli
    ght– gr oup pur suesat opicot hert hant het opi
    caf fecting t hegr oup or
    engagesi nhor sepl ayorbul lsessionasameansofav oi
    dingt her eal task
     Fight–compl etedi sagr eementr egar di
    ngt hetopict obediscussed; decisionst o
    bemade/ act ionst ot ake; ormember sant agonistictowardeachot her
     Wor k–gr oupdev otesi tselftoitstaski npur posefulmanner ,gr oupat mospher e
    i
    soneof“ taskor ient ati
    on”
     Play–gr oupav oidsi tstasks; l
    ighthear t
    edunser iousatti
    tude
     Sluggish–gr oup“ justcan’ tgetgoi ng? ”
     Cooper ative–member swor ktoget herhar moniously,member sshar e,goalsand
    suppor toneanot heri nattaini
    ngt hem
     Compet it
    ive–sever almember sseem t owi ntheirownpoi nts,t hatgr oupact i
    on
    canpr oceedonl yona“ wi n-l
    ose”basi s
     Rewar ding–member shav ewor kedt ogetherwel landaccompl i
    sht hetaskf or
    t
    hemsel ves.

    Maj
    orFeatur
    esaGr oupshoul
    dhav e…
     Thegroupisacoll
    ect
    iveinwhi chpeoplefaceandint
    eractwi
    theachot
    her
     Thepeopleneedeachotherforspecifi
    cpurposes
     Peopl
    ecomet oget
    hertowor koncommont asks
     Theworkisembeddedinar elevantagencyfuncti
    on

    USESOFGROUPS
    1. Foreffectonpar t
    icipant s
     Soci ali
    zat i
    on0resoci alizati
    on; acquiri
    ng/changingt heconceptofsel f,i
    dentit
    y,
    mot iv
    ation;attitudef ormat ionandchange,f ormat i
    onandmodi f
    icati
    onof
    valuesandbel ief s;behav ioralchange;achi evi
    ngasenseofbel ongingand
    suppor t
    ;educat ion.
    2. Coll
    ectivepr oblem- solving
     Wor koncommonorj ointt asks,par t
    icularl
    yint hear eaofi deas,gr oup
    thi
    nking, cogniti
    v e,emot i
    onal ,
    orsocial,orindivi
    dual,group, orsocial si
    tuati
    on.
    3. Forchangei nthesoci alsituationorcondi ti
    onsout sidet hegr oup
     Modi fi
    cationoft hei nsti
    tuti
    onorsoci alsystem withinwhi cht hegr oupexi st
    s
    oroft he soci alsi tuation-includi
    ng the communi tyorsoci et
    y– t hrough
    pressure,di ssemi nation ofi nfor
    mat i
    on,oror ganization;modi ficati
    on of

    232
    at
    ti
    tudesofout
    sider
    s.

    LEADERSHI
    PROLES

    TASKROLES–t
    hoseneededt
    oaccompl
    i
    shspeci
    fi
    cgoal
    ssetbyt
    hegr
    oupDav
    id
    andFr
    ankJohnson

     Infor mat ionandOpi ni onGi ver–of fer sf acts,opi nions,i deas,suggest ions
    andr el ev anti nfor mat i
    ont ohel pgr oupdi scussi on
     Infor mat ioandOopi nionSeeker–asksf orf act s,infor mat i
    on,opi nion,i deas
    andf el li
    ngsf rom ot hermember st ohel pgr oupdi scussi on
     Star ter–pr oposesgoal sandt askst oi nitiateact ionwi thint hegr oup
     Direct ionGi ver–devel opspl ansonhowt opr oceedandf ocusesat tent i
    onon
    thet askt obedone
     Summar izer–pul lst oget herr elatedi deasorsuggest i
    onsandr estat esand
    summar i
    zesmaj orpoi ntdi scussed
     Coor di nat or– showsr elat ionshi psamongv ar i
    ousi deasbypul li
    ngt hem
    toget herandhr amoni zesact i
    viti
    esofv arioussubgr oupsandmember s
     Diagnoser– f i
    gur esoutsour cesofdi fficultiest hegr ouphasi nwor king
    effect i
    v elyandt hebl ockst opr ogressi naccompl i
    shingt hegr oup’sgoal s
     Ener gizer–st i
    mul atesahi gherqual ityofwor kf rom t hegr oup
     Real i
    tyTest er–exami nest hepr act ical i
    tyandwor kabi lit
    yofi deas, ev aluat es
    alter nat ivesol utions,andappl iest hem t or ealsi tuationst oseehowt heywi ll
    wor k
     Ev aluat or– compar esgr oupdeci si onsandaccompl ishment swi thgr oup
    standar dsandgoal s
     Mai ntenanceRol es–t hosewhi chst r engt hensoci al/emot i
    onalbondswi thin
    thegr oup( Dav idandFr ankJohnson)
     Encour agerofPar ti
    ci pat ion–war m; l
    yencour agesev er yonet opar t
    icipat e,
    givingr ecogni ti
    onf orcont r ibution,demonst r
    at ingaccept anceandopenness
    toi deasofot her s,isf riendl yandr esponsi vet ogr oupmember s
     Har moni zer and Compr omi ser – per suades member s t o anal yze
    const ruct iv elyt heirdi ffer encesi nopi ni ons,sear chesf orcommonel ement s
    i
    nconf li
    ct s, andt r
    iest or econci ledi sagr eement s
     Tensi onRel iever–easest ensi onsandi ncr easest heenj oy mentoft hegr oup
    member sbyj oki ng,suggest i
    ngbr eaks,andpr oposi ngf unappr oachest o
    groupwor k
     Communi cat ionHel per–showsgoodcommuni cat i
    onski ll
    sandmakessur e
    thateachgr oupmemberunder standswhatot hermember sar esay ing
     Ev aluat ororemot i
    onalCl imat e–asksmember showt heyf eel aboutt heway
    i
    nwhi cht hegr oupi swor kingandabouteachot her ,
    andshar esownf eel i
    ngs
    aboutbot h
     ProcessObser ver–wat chest hepr ocessbywhi cht hegr oupi swor kingand
    usest heobser vationst ohel pexami negr oupef fect iveness
     Standar dSet ter–expr essesgr oupst andar dsandgoal st omakemember s
    awar eoft hedi r ectionoft hewor kandt hepr ogr essbei ngmadet owar dt he
    goal andt ogetopenaccept anceofgr oupnor msandpr ocedur es
     Act iveLi st ener– l istensandser vesasani nt erest edaudi encef orot her
    member s, isr ecept i
    v et oot her s’ i
    deas, goesal ongwi tht hegr oupwhennoti n
    disagr eement
     TrustBui lder– accept sandsuppor tsopennessofot hergr oupmember s,
    reinf or cingr iskt akingandencour agingi ndi v i
    dual ity
     Inter per sonalPr oblem Sol ver– pr omot es open di scussi on ofconf l
    icts
    bet weengr oupmember si nor dert or esol veconf l
    ict sandi ncreasegr oup
    toget her ness

    LEADERSHI
    PSTYLES

    1.Tr
    ansact
    ional

    233
    2.Autocrati
    c
    3.Bureaucrati
    c
    4.Charismatic
    5.Democr ati
    c/part
    ici
    pat
    ive
    6.Laissez-f
    air
    e
    7.Task-ori
    ented
    8.People-ori
    ented/
    rel
    ati
    ons-or
    ient
    ed
    9.Servant
    10.Tr
    ansformati
    onal

    LEADERSHI
    PSTYLE DESCRI
    PTI
    ON DOWNSI
    DE
     Member sagr eet oobeyl eader  Team member scan
    whent heyacceptt hejob doli
    ttl
    et oimprove
    benef its: 1)cl ar i
    fiesev er yone’
    s j
    ob
    TRANSACTI
    ONAL rolesandr esponsi bi
    li
    ties2)  sati
    sfacti
    onstifl
    i
    ng
    mot i
    v at edpeopl et hri
    ve l
    eadst ohigherstaf
    f
    becauset eam j udgedbasedon tur
    nov er
    per formance
     Leaderhascompl etepower  Hightl
    evelsof
    efficientdeci si onsqui ckget s absent
    eeism and
    AUTOCRATI
    C wor kdoenbestusedi n hi
    ghstafftur
    nover
    crisis/ deci si
    onsar equi ckand
    withoutdi ssent
     Leader swor k“ byt hebook”  I
    neff
    ectiv
    eon
    followr ul esr igor ouslyensur e t
    eamst hatr
    elyon
    BUREAUCRATI
    C thatpeopl ef ollowpr ocedur es f
    lexi
    bil
    i
    ty,cr
    eati
    vi
    ty,
    preci sel yusedwher epeopl edo i
    nnovati
    on
    rout i
    net asks
     Resembl est ransf ormat ional  Theycanbel
    iev
    e
    i
    nspi renent nweedi nghusi am moreinwhatwesay
    CHARI
    SMATI
    C
    mot i
    v at esot her st omov e
    forwar d
     Includest eam member si n  Hinderssit
    uat
    ions
    DEMOCRATIC/ deci sion- maki ngencour age needingspeedand
    PARTI
    CIPATORY creat ivityt eam member shi ghl
    y effi
    ciency
    engaged
     Leaderal l
    owsmember st o  Damagi ngi ft eam
    wor kont heirown member sdon’ t
     Canl eadt ohi ghsat i
    dfcat i
    on managet hei rti
    me
    LAI
    SSEZ-
    FAI
    RE andi ncr easedpr oductiv i
    ty wellori ftheydon’ t
    haveknowl edge,
    ski
    llsand
    mot i
    v ati
    on
     Focusonl yonget t
    ingt hejob  Nott hinkmuch
    donecanbeaut ocraticensur es aboutt het eam well-
    TASK-
    ORI
    ENTED deadli
    nesar emet beingcancause
    mot i
    v ati
    onand
    ret
    ent ionpr oblems
     Focusedonor gani
    zing,  Cangosof armay
    supporti
    nganddev eloping putteam
    PEOPLE-
    ORI
    ENTED peoplepar ti
    cipatory developmentabov e
     Encouragest eamwor kcr eati
    v e tasks
    col
    laboration
     Oftennoptf ormal l
    yrecogni zed  Notsui t
    edwhen
    l
    eadby :Ex. quickdeci sionsand
    SERVANT(ROBERT
     Hi ghi nt egri
    ty meet ingdeadl i
    nes
    GREENLEAF)
     St ayoutoft helimelight
     Cr eatesposi ti
    ve

    234
    corporat
    ecult
    ure
     Highmor al
    e
     Oftenthebeststy
    le  Needssuppor
    tfr
    om
     Inspi
    ri
    ng “
    detai
    lpeopl
    e”
    TRANSFORMATI
    ONAL
     Expectthebestfr
    om eachone
     Leadstohighproduct
    ivi
    ty

    CONFLI
    CTS

    Vi
    ewsonConf
    li
    ct

    1. Tradi
    tional–conf li
    ctisbad,alwaysnegati
    veimpact
    ;decli
    neinper
    formanceas
    confl
    ictincr
    eases
    2. Behav i
    oral/
    contempor ary– confl
    icti
    snat ur
    alandinevi
    tabl
    einorgani
    zati
    ons;
    canhav eeitherposi
    tiveornegati
    veeff
    ect
    3. Int
    eracti
    onist–conf l
    icti
    snecessarytoincr
    easeper
    formance

    CAUSES:

    1. Inter est–act i
    onsandemot ionsbywhi chpeopl ebecomei nvol
    vedt ogainor
    prot ecttheirneeds
    2. Infor mat i
    on – caused by l ack ofi nformat i
    on ordiffer
    ences i nt he same
    i
    nf ormat ion
    3. Rel ationship – di ff
    erences of per sonality and emot ions, as wel l as
    mi sconcept ions,ster
    eotypesandprejudices
    4. Struct ural–di f
    ferenti
    deasaboutpr ocess, r
    ulespowertocont rolt
    imeandspace
    suchasi nlandvoundar i
    es,di
    stri
    but
    ionofgoods, orr
    esourceusei ssues.
    5. Val ues–cl ashesbet weencul t
    ural
    ,social,orpersonalbeli
    efsordi f
    ferentworl
    s
    viewsandt radi
    ti
    ons

    VALUESOFMANAGI
    NGCONFLI
    CT

     Avoidance(wit
    hdrawal)
     El
    iminati
    ngthesour ceofconf
    li
    ct
     Suppressi
    on(ofmi nori
    ty)
     Agreement(coll
    aborati
    on)
     Bui
    ldingall
    i
    ance
     Fi
    ndingacompr omi se
     I
    ntegrati
    on(consensus)

    CONFLI
    CTMANAGEMENTMODES

     UseofFORCE
    (
    Concer
    nforsel
    fishi
    gh;
    concer
    nforot
    her
    sisl
    ow)
     Whenyouaresuret hatyouareright
     Whneanemer gencysituat
    ionexists(doordie)
     Whenstakesarehighandi ssuesareimportant
     Whenyouarestrongerdon’tstartabatt
    leyoucan’
    twi
    n
     Togai
    nstatusordemonst ratepositi
    onpower
     Whenacceptanceisunimpor t
    ant

     UseofCOLLABORATION/CONFRONTATI
    ON
    (
    Concer
    nforsel
    fishi
    gh;
    concer
    nforot
    her
    sishi
    gh)
     Wheny oubothgetatleastwhaty
    ouwantandmay
    bemor
    e
     Toreduceoveral
    lpr
    ojectcosts

    235
     UseifAVOIDANCE/WITHDRAWAL
    (
    Concer
    nforsel
    fisl
    ow;concer
    nforot
    her
    sisl
    ow)
     Wheny oucan’twin;st
    akesar elow
     Sat
    kesar ehighbutyouaren’treadyy et
     Togainstatusordemonst r
    ateposi t
    ionpower
     Togaintime
     Todiscourageyouropponent
     Tomai nt
    ainneutral
    i
    tyorreputation
     Wheny outhinktheprobl
    em wi l
    lgoawaybyi t
    sel
    f

     UseofACCOMMODATI ON/SMOOTHI
    NG
    (
    Concer
    nforsel
    fisl
    ow;
    concernf
    orot
    her
    sishi
    gh)
     Tocreateobl i
    gationforatr
    ade-of
    fatal
    aterdat
    e
     St
    akesar elow; l
    iabil
    i
    tyli
    mit
    ed
     Whenanysol ut
    ionwi l
    lbeadequate
     Wheny ou’l
    lloseany way
     Togaintime

    DYNAMI
    CSOFTHEFI
    LIPI
    NOFAMI
    LY

    Thef
    ami
    lymaybedscr
    ibed…

    I
    nter
    msofr elat
    ionshi
    ps–
     Bi
    ological

    236
     Nuclear
     Extendedf
    amily
     Closeandint
    imate
     Lovingpar
    ent-
    chil
    drel
    ati
    onshi
    ps

    I
    nter
    msoff unct
    ions–
     Economi csecuri
    ty
     Procreati
    onandsociali
    zat
    ionofchi
    ldr
    en
     Nursingandpr ot
    ecti
    veact
    ivi
    ti
    es
     Affecti
    vefuncti
    onsasinemotional
    suppor
    t

    For
    msofFami
    ly

    1.Tr
    adi
    ti
    onalFami
    ly(
    Pat
    ri
    archal
    )

     Af
    ami
    l
    yfor
    minwhi
    cht
    her
    olesofhusbandandwi
    fear
    ecl
    ear
    lydef
    inedand
    t
    hehusbandmonopol
    i
    zesandmakest
    hemaj
    orf
    ami
    l
    ydeci
    sions.

    2.Coupl
    esasPr
    tner
    sinMar
    ri
    age

     Amoredemocrat
    icform wheret
    hehusbandandwifecontr
    ibutet
    othe
    f
    amil
    y’
    seconomicresources,
    shareaut
    hori
    tyanddeci
    on-making,
    andwor
    k
    t
    oget
    heri
    nchil
    d-r
    earing.

    Var
    iat
    ionsi
    nFami
    lySt
    ruct
    ure

     Two-parent smarri
    edcoupl
    ef amil
    ies
     One-parentf ami
    ly(sol
    oparents)
     St
    epf amilies
     Cohabiti
    ngcoupl e
     GayandLesbi ancoupl
    es
     Si
    ngleper sons
     Transacti
    onal Patt
    erns
     I
    treferstot heboundari
    esamongf amil
    ymember
    s

    Boundar
    iesar
    edefinedi
    nter
    msofr
    ules–whomayandmaynotpar
    ti
    cipat
    ein
    anyfami
    lyact
    ivi
    ty.

    Ty
    pesofFami
    lyTr
    ansact
    ional
    Pat
    ter
    ns

     Healthyfami l
    y–boundar i
    esar eneit
    hertoorgidnort oodiffused;Member sare
    i
    ndependentofoneanot heryetunit
    edont hewelfareoft hef amil
    y
     Enmeshedf amily–Boundar iesbetweensomeoral lofthefami l
    ymember sare
    undif
    ferentiat
    ed,permeabl e,
    andf l
    uid;Member slackasenseodi ndependence;
    asamat teroffactthereisasembl anceofphy si
    cal andemot i
    onaldependence
     Disengagedf ami l
    y–Member softhefamilyhavev eryli
    ttl
    et odowi thone
    another,andthei ndependenceofeachmemberi sr igidi
    tyrespected.

    I
    nter
    act
    ional Pat
    ter nsoftheFamil
    y
     Mar r
    iage
     Powerr el
    at i
    ons
     ClosenessandI nt
    imacy
     Communi cat i
    on
     Problem solv i
    ngabili
    ti
    es
     Abil
    itytodeal wi
    thloss
     FamilyVal ues
     Autonomy

    237
    Poi
    ntsofConf
    li
    cti
    ntheFami
    ly

     Tensi
    onPoi ntsinvolvingwomen( VAW)
     St r
    ucturalDiscr i
    minati
    on–i nequali
    t yi
    nmanyaspect s:educati
    on,abi
    li
    ty
    tocontrolconcept i
    onandbirth,sexualsati
    dfacti
    on,accesstojobsand
    car
    eers
     Cul t
    uralDiscrimination–stereotyping,l
    anguageused, soci
    ali
    zati
    on,
    cul
    tureofsilence
     Sexual Exploitati
    on–spawnedbyadoubl estandar
    dormor alit
    y
     Rol estrai
    ncr eatedbymar r
    iageandmot her
    hood

     Tensi
    onPoint
    sinvol
    vingChil
    dren
     Chil
    dabuse
     Chil
    dNeglect
     Cult
    ureofSil
    ence
     Lackofopportuni
    tyf
    oreducat
    ion,
    heal
    thandr
    ecr
    eat
    ion
     VAWC

     Tensi
    onPointsinvolvi
    ngt heElderly
     ElderAbuse( Economi c,
    psy chological
    andphysi
    cal
    )
     Nosecur i
    ty/noinsurancef oroldage
     Separati
    onf rom thefamily(isol
    ation,l
    onel
    i
    ness)
     Il
    lhealt
    h,subsistenceincomeornoneatal l

    Possi
    bler
    esul
    tsofTensi
    ons

    1.Wives,evenmot herswit
    hsmal l chil
    drenarelikelytobeemploy
    edout
    sidet
    he
    home
    2.Moremar riagesareli
    kel
    yt oendwi thsepar
    ation
    3.Preval
    enceofsi ngl
    e(solo)parentf amili
    es
    4.Chil
    drenandel derl
    yneglectel
    eadi ngtoinsti
    tutional
    izat
    ion
    5.Common- lawr el
    ati
    onshi
    p
    6.Earl
    ymar ri
    age( t
    eenage)ofchildren

    CULTURE
    Def
    ini
    ti
    on
     Iti
    st hatcompleswholewhichincl
    udesknowledge,art
    ,bel
    ief
    ,mor
    all
    aws,
    customsandt radi
    ti
    ons,andotherhabi
    tsacceptedbymanasamemberof
    society.I
    tref
    erstothewayoflifef
    oll
    owedbyt hegroupthati
    scal
    l
    edsoci
    ety
    .

    Char
    acter
    isti
    csofCul
    ture
     Iti
    slearned–usuall
    yfrom r
    especti
    vefamil
    ies;
    rol
    emodeli
    ng,other
    s.
     Iti
    sshar ed–t
    ransmitt
    edfrom onegenerat
    iontot
    henextthr
    oughteachi
    ng
     Cumul at
    ive–i
    ncreasesinsizeasaresul
    todsuccessi
    veaddit
    ion(medi
    a,
    coloni
    ali
    sm,et
    c.)

    Dy
    nami
    c
     Diver
    se–di
    sti
    ncti
    ntermsoflanguage,
    patt
    ernsofbehav
    iour
    ,bel
    i
    efs,
    etc.
     Whole(mut
    uali
    ndependenceofi
    tspart
    s)

    SomeAspect
    sofCul
    tur
    e

     Bel
    ief
    s–Exampl
    e:bel
    i
    efi
    nGod,
    super
    sti
    ti
    ousbel
    i
    ef

    238
     Values–Sahr edconceptofwhatisgoodanddesirable,
    appropr
    iat
    eornot
    appropr
    iat
    e.Example:SIR.Cl
    osefa,i
    l
    tties,
    lov
    eforchildr
    en
     Norms–
     Folkway s–pat t
    ernofbehavi
    ourthati
    sorganizedandrepet
    iti
    vebutdoes
    notrequir
    estri
    ctcompli
    ance.Ex.Pagmamano
     Cust oms–common

    239
    SOCI
    ALCHANGE
    AND
    DEVELOPMENT

    Rev
    iewer
    :
    Dr
    .Bagi
    anAl
    eyssaAbdul
    kar
    im,
    RSW

    Whati
    ssoci
    alChange?

     Changei
    sanenduringhi
    stori
    calfor
    cewithnot
    iceabl
    evari
    ati
    onst
    hrough.
    Change may be har
    dly di
    scerni
    ble oreasi
    l
    y observ
    able;itmay be

    240
    constr
    uctiv
    eordestructi
    ve;butwhat
    everitsnatur
    ei toccurev er
    ywhere
    andev er
    ytime.
     Changehasbeenr egardedinmanyways-asmeans,pr ocess,andend,or
    even a socialmovement,a stat
    e ofaffai
    rsinvolv
    ing a program,an
    i
    deology,andapr oblem.Theuseofnew obj ectsori deast oreacha
    cert
    aingoals.

    Lev
    elsofHumanAct
    ionandChange

     Thef i
    rstindi vi
    dual( I
    ndividualper sonality)hashi stori
    callybeent hespher eof
    psychologistwhet hert heypur sueapsy choanalyti
    corbehav iori
    stframewor k.
     The second l evel( interactions among i ndi
    viduals) const it
    utes t he area
    psychologyspeci f i
    call
    yst udent sgroupdy namics.I tconsistsoft he“ behav i
    ori
    st
    perspecti
    ve” ,
    includingper sonal i
    ty,
    interactionandsel f-
    theory.
     Thet hirdl evel( groupofsoci alsy stems)hasgener al
    lybeenofi nter
    estof
    sociol
    ogist.The gr oup i st he uni tofanal ysis,par t
    icularl
    yt he emer gent
    propert
    iesoft hegr oupwher et hesocial l
    ev eli
    sfelttoreside.
     Thef ourthl evel( culturalsy stem)i st heconcer nofant hropology .(Par son
    1966:5)sai dt hatt hemeani ngsandi ntenti
    onsofhumanact sar ef ormedi n
    termsofsy mbolsy stems,al ongwi tht hecodest hroughwhi chtheyoper atein
    patter
    nst hatf ocusmostgener al
    l
    yont heuni v
    ersalaspectofhumansoci ety
    ,
    l
    anguage.

    Nat
    ureofChange

     SocialChangei smodi fi
    cati
    onort r
    ansf or
    mat i
    onofpubl i
    cpol i
    cy,cul
    ture,or
    soci
    al i
    nsti
    tuti
    onoverti
    me.
     SocialChangeisanongoi ngprocesst hatcontinuouslyoccursanditisdif
    fered
    vari
    edfrom timetoti
    meal sodependoneachsoci ety.
     Changecannotbecont rolanditisoccurredinev erysit
    uati
    oninordertodevelop
    soci
    ety.
     Changecanbemani f
    ested( vi
    sibl
    e)ofl atent(invisi
    ble)modif
    icat
    ioninsoci al
    experi
    enceandi scomposedwi t
    hfiv
    ei nterr
    elat
    edcomponentwhi charei
    dent i
    fy,
    l
    evel,durat
    ion,magni
    tude(scale)andrate.

    Theor
    yint
    egr
    ati
    ngt
    hedi
    ff
    erentsour
    cesofchange

     Thereareanumberoff actorsthatcausechangeort r
    ansformat i
    oninthesoci
    ety.
     In sociologicalwr it
    ing,t hey considered t echnol
    ogy,i deology,competit
    ion,
    confl
    ictpol i
    ticalandeconomi cf act
    orsandst r
    uctur
    aldamageast heimport
    ant
    aspects/sour ces.
     Theseent i
    resour cesshar eacommonv alueofchangingt hatmakei tgrowth
    rapi
    dly.
     Changesaccompani edbypr osandcons.
     Sourcesofchangeswi llaf f
    ecteachl evelinsocialstr
    uctureint hesoci
    etysuch
    asinthet erm ofindivi
    dual .Groups,organizati
    ons,i
    nsti
    tut
    ions,andsociety
    ,
     Sourcescannotbesepar atedori sol
    atedofi tbecauseitwi llmaket hesociety
    becameunst ableandnotoccur redproperly.

    Atypol
    ogyoft heor
    iesofsocialchangemaybeempl oyedtoclari
    fysomeoft he
    assumpti
    onsr egar
    dingthe“social
    ”and“ change”containedinthesetheori
    es.They
    arenotmut uall
    yassumpt i
    onsandder i
    vati
    veappr oachestosoci alchange.Four
    boardcat
    egoriesaredi
    sti
    nguished.

     Evolutionaryt heor
    ies-Char acteri
    ze pri
    maril
    y by assumption ofsmooth,
    cumul ati
    vechange, oft
    eninl i
    nearcomplexit
    yandadapt abi
    l
    ity
    ,
     Equili
    br i
    um t heory
    -char acterized by t
    he conceptofhomeost asi
    s,and
    focusingont heconditiontendingtowardstabi
    li
    tyasaconsequence.
     Confli
    ctt heory-character
    izedbyt heassumpt i
    onthatchangeisendemicto

    241
    allsoci
    alor
    ganism, andfocusi
    ngont hecondi
    ti
    ont hattendtowardi
    nstabi
    l
    ity
    asaconsequence; and
     “RiseandFal l
    ”t heor i
    es-charact
    eri
    zedbyt heassumpt i
    ont hatsoci
    eti
    es,
    cultur
    esorciv
    il
    izationr egr
    essaswel lasgrowthatallsoci
    etiesdonotmove
    i
    nt hesamedirection( Appel
    baum 1971:9-
    10)

    Ther ear ealsot hemoder ni


    zat i
    onordi achromet heori
    esofunl i
    nearchange.
    Moder nizationhasnumer ousdef init
    ions, allofwhi chrelat
    ei nsomeway stoprogressof
    characteristi
    csofindustrializati
    on.
    Lev ydefinemoder nizationdi rectlyi ntermsoft echnologyi
    nt hatheconsi der
    s
    anysoci etyt hatmor emoder nized,t hegr eat ertheratioofi nani
    matetoanimatepower
    sources,andt hegreatertheext entt owhi chhumanef f
    ortsar emul
    tipl
    iedbytheuseof
    tool
    s.Smel ser(1966:110- 111)concei ved ofmoder ni
    zation asrel
    ated to economic
    developmenti natleastfourdi stinctbuti nterrelatedprocesses.

    1.Inthereal
    mt echnol
    ogy,adevel
    opingsoci
    etyischangi
    ngfr
    om simple
    and tr
    adit
    ional
    i
    zed techni
    ques t
    owardt he appl
    i
    cati
    on of sci
    ent
    if
    ic
    knowl
    edge.

    2.Inagri
    cult
    ure,t
    hedevelopi
    ngsocietyevol
    vesfrom subsist
    encefar
    ming
    towar
    dt hecommer ci
    alproducti
    onofagr i
    cul
    turalf
    oods,whi chmeans
    speci
    ali
    zati
    onincashcr
    ops,purchaseofnon-
    agri
    cult
    uralwagelabor
    .

    3.I
    ni ndust
    ry,
    thedevel
    opingsoci
    etyundergoesat r
    ansi
    ti
    onfrom t
    heuseof
    humanandani malpowertowardindust
    rial
    i
    zati
    onproper,
    ormenwor ki
    ng
    forwagesatpower -
    dri
    venmachinewhichpr oducecommoditi
    esoutsi
    de
    thecommuni t
    yofproduct
    ion.

    4.Inecol
    ogi
    calarr
    angement
    s,thedevel
    opi
    ngsoci
    etymov
    esf
    rom t
    hef
    arm
    andvil
    l
    agestowardur
    banconcent
    rati
    on.

    Mul
    ti
    plef
    act
    orsI
    nSoci
    alChange

    Socialchangei scl oselyinter


    twinedwi thculturalandt echnologicalchanges.
    Mul t
    ipl
    ef actorsunder l
    i
    ei tsbr oadandcompl exnat ure.Likethephenomenoni nt
    he
    physicalsciences,socialchangei nthesoci alsci
    encesdi splaysr at
    e,directi
    on,for
    m,
    type,cause,or der,si
    multants,andbar r
    iersinitsemer gence,dev el
    opment ,anddecli
    ne
    (Davis1949: 623-636,Foster1962: 64-
    146;Appel bi
    um 1971: 117;138).Thest udyofthe
    factorsnecessitatesthedelineati
    onoft helengthofthet i
    me, geographicalarea,andt
    he
    groupt obeconsi dered.

    TheRat
    eofSoci
    alChange

    Rat
    eisrefer
    redtoaspeedorspace,
    whent hebal
    ancebetweenopposingfor
    ces
    ti
    lt
    st owardchange-prevent
    ingones,t
    hestabi
    l
    ityofthesoci
    etypredominat
    es;onthe
    otherhand,whent hebalanceti
    lt
    stowardthechangepromoti
    ngforces,arateofthe
    socialchangeoccur
    s.

    Ther
    ateofsoci
    alchangeandt
    hecul
    tur
    all
    agt
    hatev
    ent
    ual
    l
    yresul
    tsar
    eper
    cei
    veby
    :

    1.Compar ingtheoveral
    lcult
    ur eorpar
    tsoft
    hecul
    tureofdi
    fferentsoci
    eti
    esatthe
    gi
    v enperiod;
    2.Exami ni
    ngt heoverallcul
    tureorpartsofthecult
    ureoft hesamesoci et
    yat
    di
    f f
    erenttimes,
    or;
    3.Viewingt hepar
    tsofthecultureoft
    hesamesoci
    etyataspecifi
    cperi
    od.

    TheFor
    m ofSoci
    alChange

    242
    Soci
    alchangemayormaynotber epeat
    edov erdefi
    nit
    eperiodsoft ime.This
    characteri
    sti
    cofsocialchangeisindicatedbyt heter
    mf orm.Kingsl
    eyDav is(1949:
    628-
    629)suggest stwoidealfor
    msofsoci alchange:(1)thecycli
    cal
    ,inwhichwhol ecult
    ures
    ortheirpartsar
    erepeatedov eraconsiderableperi
    odoftimeand; (
    2)thelinear,
    inwhich
    cul
    turesort hei
    rspeci
    fi
    caspect schangei nonlyonedir
    ecti
    onandnev errecur.

    Di
    rect
    ionofSoci
    alChange

    Closel
    yassociatedwi t
    hr at
    eandf ormist hedir
    ecti
    onofsoci alchange.Thet hree
    maybemeasur edinrel
    ationtot heobject
    ivesthatapersonoragr oupwi shestoachieve
    onal ong-r
    angeorshor t-
    rangebasis.Ther api
    dityorslownessofsoci alchangemaybe
    def
    ined in accordance witht entati
    ve schedule setfort he attainmentofspeci al
    obj
    ectives,
    whichinturncont r
    ibutetowardthefulfi
    l
    lmentofagener algoal .

    The f
    orm ofsocialchange maybe deduced on the basi
    s ofr epet
    it
    ion or
    cont
    inuit
    yofchangeint
    heper i
    odoft enyear
    s.Thedir
    ecti
    onofsoci alchangemaybe
    eval
    uatedint
    heli
    ghtofi
    tsconsi
    stencywit
    hpastorpr
    esentcondit
    ions.

    CausesofSoci
    alChange

    SocialChangei sbroughtaboutnotbyonef actoral onet obeconsi deredar e


    i
    nter playorv arioussoci
    alandnon- socialfactorslikegeographi callocati
    on,topogr aphy
    oft hel and,cl i
    mat esoi
    ltype,pl antandani mall i
    feandot hernat uralresources,t he
    peopl e’smot orski l
    lsandot herabi li
    ties,beliefs,technology ,phil
    osophical,religious,
    mor alandet hicalval
    ues,bel
    iefs,soci alorganization,andot hersoci alnorms.I ti snot
    onlyt heoccur renceandcombi nationoft hesef actorsinagi vensi t
    uationatagi vent ime
    thatbr i
    ngs aboutsoci alchange.I ti s al
    so i mpor t
    antt ot ake into accountt heir
    synchr onizati
    onhar mony,correlationorr eciprocity,coordi
    nat i
    onoruni ty
    ,andst rains,
    stresses, dysfuncti
    ons.

    Thephy sicalenv i
    ronmentdoesnotbyi t
    sel
    fcausesocialorculturechange.It
    provi
    descondi t
    ionst hatmayormaynoti ncludechange.Histor
    ygivesi nnumerable
    exampleoft hephy sicalenv i
    ronmentonchange.Nat uraldi
    saster
    shav eperi
    odicall
    y
    disr
    uptedlif
    ef orl argepopul ati
    ons– lossofl if
    e,dest
    ructi
    onofpr operty,migr
    ation
    patt
    erns,andreorientationtodiff
    erentl
    i
    fest
    yles.

    TheSour
    cesofSoci
    alChange

    Cult
    urechangesnotonl ybyt hesimpleaccumul at
    ionofelement s.Changesar e
    alsobroughtaboutbyt heselecti
    veacceptance/addit
    ionorrej
    ecti
    on/disregar
    dingofor
    thechangedemphasi sonexi sti
    ngelements.Throughoutthehist
    oryofhumani t
    y,gains
    aswel laslosesincul tur
    ehav ebeent her esul
    tofasel ecti
    verathert hatar andom
    process.Anelementofcultureisaccept
    ed, r
    esist
    ed,orrej
    ectednotmer elybecauseitis
    fundamental
    lyusefuloruselessbutbecausei tsrel
    ati
    onshi
    pwi t
    hther estoftheculture
    whichmaynotassimi l
    ateit.

    Changesi ncult
    ureal waysinvolv
    ei nnovat
    ions.Ani nnovati
    oni s“anythought
    ,
    behav i
    or,orthingt hatisnew becausei tisquali
    tativ
    edi f
    ferentf r
    om existi
    ngforms”
    (Barnet1953: 7-10).Iti
    st hedev el
    opmentorr ecognitionoft heelementsorpat t
    ern
    (ei
    thermat er
    ialornon- material
    )inacul t
    ure.Iti
    nvolvesdiscov eryandinvent
    ionaswell
    asmi norchangest oosmal ltobecl assi
    fiedasinvention.I
    ti salwaysdependentupon
    knowledgeoft heexisti
    ngculturetr
    aitsorcomplexes, orselectionofelementsfr
    om old
    patter
    nst ocreat enewpatterns.

    Iti
    sst i
    mulatedbythere-examinat
    ionofknowl edget
    hroughcult
    urecontact,f
    or
    example.Innovat
    ionisit
    sel
    fastimulustofur
    therinnov
    ation(
    Theodor
    son1969:204-205).
    Thus,the mosti mport
    antpointaboutan i nnovati
    on isthe r
    ear
    rangementoft he
    i
    nterr
    elati
    onshi
    psofi t
    selement
    sandnott heincreaseordecr
    easeoftheseel
    ement s.

    TheOr
    derofSoci
    alChange

    243
    Bet
    weenorwi thinthesocieties,asawhol eorinpar
    ts,t
    hereisconti
    nuous“ str
    ain
    forconsistency”betweenf orcest hateitherpr omoteorpreventchange.Thoset hat
    preventchangestruggletopreservet hestatusquo.Becausechangeisinherentinevery
    cultur
    e,thechange-promot i
    ngf orces,inthel ongrun,winoverthechange- pr
    ev ent
    ing
    forces.Inthedevelopmentofsoci alchange,t heordersofaseriesofaccept anceof
    i
    nnov ati
    onsbymember sofacer tainsocietyatagi venti
    mehav ebeeni dentif
    iedby
    l
    ionberger(1960)as:

    Onani
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    basi
    s,t
    heaccept
    anceofi
    nnov
    ati
    onsmayt
    aket
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ngor
    der
    :

    1.TheI nnov at
    ors-thefirsttoadoptanewpr acticei nalocalit
    ytheyar ewil
    li
    ngand
    ablewilli
    ngandabl et
    ot aket her isk.
    2.TheEar l
    yAdopt ers-t
    hosewhowat chtheinnov atorsandacceptpr acti
    cesthatin
    thei
    rjudgment ,wor koutsuccessf ull
    y.
    3.TheEar l
    yMaj orit
    yAdopt ers-t hosewhof ollow t heleadoft heear lyadopters;
    theymustbequi tesuret hepr acticewi ll
    wor koutwel li
    nt hei
    rventure.
    4.TheLat eMaj ori
    tyAdopt ers-t hosewhof ollow t hepr acti
    cesandadv i
    seoft he
    earl
    ymaj ori
    tyadopters;theyar ewi l
    li
    ngtotaker isks.
    5.Laggar ds and Non- adopt ers-t hose who,because ofi sol
    ati
    on ornegat i
    ve
    mot i
    vation,areslow t oadoptt hepr acti
    ces,andt hosewhonev eradoptt hem
    becauseofaageorot herci r
    cumst ances(Polson1965: 73-74)

    Onansi
    tuat
    ional
    basi
    s,t
    heor
    derofsoci
    alchangei
    sasf
    oll
    ows:

    1. Changesi nt echnol ogy.Peopl ecangr aspt hesignificanceofanewobj ectmor e


    easi
    lyt hant heycangr aspanew i dea.A new obj ecti st angibleandai med
    pri
    mar i
    l
    yatt hesat i
    sfactionofacer tainimmedi ate,util
    it
    ar i
    an, andpr acticalneed.
    Anewi dea, ont heot herhand, isabst r
    act,andi softenv iewedasbei nginconf li
    ct
    wit
    ht hecur rentv al
    uesofsoci et y
    ,especi allyifthei deai tai mst or epl acei s
    deeplyingrai nedint hev alueofsy stem ofsoci ety.
    2. Applicationi nChangei nTechnol ogybyeconomi cinstitutions.Si nceeconomi c
    i
    nstituti
    onsexi stpr imarilyt opr oduceanddi stri
    butegoodsandser v
    ices,t hey
    usuallyaret hef ir
    sttof eel theef fectsofchangesi ntechnol ogy .
    3. The i mpactofchanges i n ot hersoci ali nsti
    tuti
    ons.Changes i n economi c
    i
    nstituti
    onsar eusual l
    yf ollowedbydi sr
    upt i
    onsi nthesoci alstructuresoft he
    family,church, school ,
    gov er nment ,andot herinstit
    utions.
    4. Thepenet rationoft hesoci alval ues.Soci alvalueswhi char edeeplyr oot edat
    the base ofsoci ali nstitutions and i n one and mor ei ndi vi
    dualper sonal it
    y
    str
    uct uresar et helatet obei nfluencedandt hehar dert ochange.Peopl er egard
    att
    empt stochangesoci alv aluesassubv ersiv
    eanddest ruct i
    veoft heexi st
    ing
    socialsy st
    em andsoci alor der.Thei rattr
    ibutesmayr angef r
    om suspi ciont o
    acti
    vehost ili
    t y.

    Bar
    ri
    ersandSt
    imul
    ant
    stoSoci
    alChanges

    Thesebar
    ri
    ersandst
    imul
    ant
    smaybecul
    tur
    al,
    soci
    al,
    orpsy
    chol
    ogi
    cal
    .

    Amongt hev al
    uesandat t
    it
    udesthati
    mpedesocialchangearet
    radit
    ional
    i
    sm,
    cult
    uralethnocent
    ri
    sm,pr i
    de and dignit
    y,and norms of soci
    ety
    .Traditi
    onal
    ism
    predi
    sposesthesoci et
    yto bel
    ievethatanyt
    hing t
    hathappensisthewillofsome
    supernat
    uralf
    orceandcannotbemodifi
    edbyhumanef f
    ort
    .

    Thesocialbar
    riostochangeinv
    olv
    e(1)patt
    ernsofcooperati
    on,(
    2)pat
    ter
    nsof
    competit
    ion,orconfl
    ict,(
    3)author
    it
    ypatter
    ns,and( 4)char
    acteri
    sti
    csofthesoci
    al
    str
    uct
    ure.

    Thepsy
    chol
    ogicalbar
    ri
    erstochangemaybe(
    1)di
    ff
    erencesi
    nper
    cept
    ion(
    2)
    pr
    obl
    emsofcommunicati
    onandlear
    ning.

    TheTy
    peofSoci
    alChange

    244
    Soci alchangemaybedi rected( guided,planned,st ructur ed)ornon- di
    rected
    (unplanned orunst ructured).Itt akes place through the mass medi a,t r
    ade,war ,
    i
    ntermar r
    iage,educat i
    onalexchange pr ograms,sci ence congr esses,conf erences,
    semi nars,ar texhi bi
    ts,tr
    av elmissionarywor k,beautycontest ,athleticmeet s,andmany
    othermeans.
    Whi leef fortsalongnon- di
    rectedchangear eundoubt edbei ngexer t
    edt ofacil
    i
    tate
    these, t
    her ehasbeenmor ei nf
    ormat i
    ongat heredont heeffortsexer tedthroughdirected
    change.Fori nst ance,int hePhi l
    ippines,communi t
    yagenci esi nbot hthepubl icand
    pri
    vat esect orshav ebeensetup.Eachdef i
    nesi t
    sownphi l
    osophy ,setsi t
    sgoal sand
    objectives,dr aws up i ts schedules,and sel ectsi tst argets ofchange wi thi
    na
    geogr aphical area.

    Soci
    alChangei
    nthePhi
    li
    ppi
    neSoci
    ety

    Phili
    ppinessocietyisi nafluxchange.Amaj orconsequenceofchangei nthe
    Phili
    ppineswhi chi salsotakingplaceint heot herpartsonthecontempor ar
    ywor l
    di s
    moder nizati
    on.Thisimpliesachangef rom t het radi
    ti
    onalwayofl i
    fet
    oamor ecomplex,
    technologicall
    yadv ancedrapidlychangingst y l
    eofl i
    fe.Thev ar
    iousel
    ement sofsocio-
    cult
    uralchangear eindustr
    iali
    zati
    on,ur banization,technol
    ogy,populat
    ion,educat
    ion,
    bureaucr acy,
    medi ci
    neandpubl i
    chealt
    h,andr ecreat
    ion.

    Randol
    phS.Davi
    d(1982:
    21)ci
    ti
    esasi
    gni
    fi
    cantsetofst
    udi
    esf
    ordev
    elopmenti
    nthe
    Phi
    li
    ppi
    nes,
    asfol
    lows:

    1.Clarifywhatki ndofsoci etywehav ebecomeasaf unctionofourcol onial


    exper ience;
    2.Def i
    net hesal i
    entf eat uresoft hegl obalandr egi onalenv i
    ronmentwi thinwhich
    oursoci etyismov i
    ngandbr ingoutt hebasi cconst raintsoft hesesupr a-
    natural
    sy stem;
    3.Rev ealt hepreci semechani sm bywhi chtheexi stingsy stem i sabl etor eproduce
    andper petuatei tself,andbr i
    ngoutway sandt echniquesoft hesepower saswel l
    asi dent i
    fyit
    smostv ulnerablepoi nt s;
    4.Ident i
    fyandunder standhowpeopl ear 6eablet oef fectivelyor ganizet hemselves
    i
    nor dert ogai ncont rolov erthei rl ives,orsi mpl yef fecti
    v el
    yi nsulatet hemselves
    from t heinstabiliti
    esofdai lyli
    f e;
    5.Const antl
    yassess t he possi bi l
    iti
    es ofr ealst ructur e change i n oursoci ety,
    speci all
    ybydef iningt hechar act eristicsoft heenv i
    ronmentwi thinwhi chpeopl e’
    s
    mov ementf orchangemustoper ateandf ormul atet hecondi ti
    onsunderwhi ch
    spont aneouspeopl e’ sor ganizat i
    onscanbecomepar tofal argerpr ocessof
    soci etalrevi
    vals; and
    6.Concept uali
    zeav ersionofal ternat i
    vest r
    ucturesi nconf ormitywi thourpeopl e’
    s
    desi reforaf ree, j
    ustandpr osper ousl if
    eforall.

    Ev
    olut
    ionar
    yTheor
    y

    Feat
    uresofCl
    assi
    cEv
    olut
    ionar
    yTheor
    y

     Assumedsocialchangeisunidir
    ect
    ional
     I
    mposedav aluejudgmentont heevolut
    ionar
    ypr
    ocess
     Assumed that the rate of soci
    alchange is slow,gr
    adual& pi
    ecemeal
    (ev
    olut
    ionar
    yNOTr ev
    olut
    ionary)

    Funct
    ional
    istTheor
    y

    TheFuncti
    onalImperati
    ves(
    AGI
    L)
     Adapt at
    ion
     Goal Att
    ainment
     Int
    egration
     Latency
    Homeostati
    cEqui l
    ibr
    ium

    245
    Par
    son’
    s“Pat
    ter
    nVar
    iabl
    e”

     Aff
    ectiv
    evs.Af f
    ective-
    neutr
    alrel
    ati
    onship
     Part
    icul
    arvs.Universalr
    elat
    ionshi
    p
     Coll
    ecti
    veorient
    ationvs.Self
    -ori
    ent
    ati
    on
     Ascri
    pti
    onv s.Achievement
     Functi
    onal
    lydiff
    usedv s.Functi
    onal
    lyspecif
    icr
    elat
    ionshi
    ps

    Mar
    lonLev
    y

    Rel
    ati
    vel
    yModer
    nizedSoci
    eti
    es

    Rost
    ow’
    sSt
    agesofEconomi
    cGr
    owt
    h

     Tradit
    ionalsoci
    ety
     Preconditi
    onfortakeoffgr
    owth
     Takeoff
     Driv
    et oMat ur
    it
    y
     Highmass- consumptionsoci
    ety

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion:

     Rostow’smodeli soneoft hemor est r


    uctural
    istmodelofeconomi cgrowth,
    par
    ticul
    arl
    yincompar isonwit
    ht hebackwardnessmodeldevelopedbyAlexander
    Gerschenkr
    on.
     Rostow’sbel
    ievesthatcountr
    ieswantmoder nizeashedescri
    besmoder ni
    zati
    on,
    andthatsociet
    ywil
    l assentt
    ot hemateri
    ali
    sti
    cnor msofeconomicgrowth.

    STAGESOFMODEL

    STAGEI
    -TRADI
    TIONALSOCI
    ETY

     Minimal
    Producti
    vity
     Fewexchangetransacti
    on
     Economicchange/technologicali
    mprovement
    sar
    enotsuf
    fi
    cientt
    osust
    ainany
    growthi
    npercapitaloutput,whichi
    slow.

    STAGEI
    I-TRANSI
    TIONALSOCI
    ETY

     Societyengagesi
    nseculareducati
    on
     Establi
    shesbanksandcurrency
     Emer gi
    ngentrepr
    eneuri
    alcl
    ass
     Conceptofmanuf act
    uri
    ngemer ges,wi
    thonl
    yfewf
    act
    ori
    esdev
    elopi
    ngatf
    ir
    st,

    STAGEI
    II
    -TAKEOFF

     Growth becomes the norm and i


    mpr
    ovementsin pr
    oducti
    on l
    ead t
    ot he
    emergenceofleadi
    ngsector
    s.
     Incomerisesacrosstheboard,andafew cl
    assofestabl
    i
    shedentr
    epreneur
    emerges.

    STAGEI
    V-THEDRI
    VETOMATURI
    TY

     Moderntechnologyisful
    l
    yadopt edinal
    leconomi
    cactiv
    ity
    .
     Newleadingsectorsemerge
     Economy demonst rat
    es technologi
    caland ent
    repr
    eneurialski
    l
    lst
    o pr
    oduce
    anyt
    hingitchoosesto.

    246
    STAGEV-HI
    GHMASSCONSUMPTI
    ON

     Leadi
    ngsect
    orsshi
    ftt
    owar
    ddurabl
    egoods
     Surgeoccur
    sinpercapi
    taincomeandincr
    easedal
    l
    ocat
    iont
    osoci
    alwel
    far
    e
    progr
    ams.

    CRI
    TICI
    SM MODEL

     Rostowi shi stor


    icalint hesenset hattheendr esul
    tisknownatt heoutsetandis
    derivedfrom thehi storicalgeogr aphyofasoci et
    y.
     Rostow ismechani cali nt hesenset hattheunder l
    yingmot orofchangei snot
    discl
    osedandt her eforet hest agesbecomel it
    tl
    emor ethanacl assifi
    cat
    ory
    system basedondat af rom dev elopedcount ri
    es.
     Hismodel isbasedonAmer i
    canandEur opeanhi st
    oryanddecl i
    nestheAmer i
    can
    norm ofhi gh massconsumpt ion asi nt
    egralt othe economi cdevelopment
    processofal l
    indust r
    ializedsoci eties.
     Hismodelassumest hei nevit
    abl eadopt i
    onofNeol i
    beraltradepolici
    eswhi ch
    all
    owt hemanuf acturingbaseonagi v
    enadv ancedpolit
    ytober el
    ocat
    edt olower
    -wager egions.

    Theor
    eti
    calAssumpt
    ionsofModer
    nizat
    ionTheor
    y

    Fr
    om Funct
    ional
    i
    stTheor
    y

     Moder
    nizat
    i sasy
    oni st
    emicprocess
     Moder
    nizat
    i sat
    oni r
    ansfor
    mativepr
    ocess
     Moder
    nizat
    i si
    oni mmanentpr
    ocess

    Fr
    om Ev
    olut
    ionar
    yTheor
    y

     Moder
    nizat
    i saphasedpr
    oni ocess
     Moder
    nizat
    i sahomogeni
    oni zi
    ngpr ocess
     Moder
    nizat
    i sanAmer
    oni icanization(orEur
    opeani
    zat
    ion)pr
    ocess
     Moder
    nizat
    i sani
    oni rr
    eversibleprocess
     Moder
    nizat
    i sapr
    oni ogressivepr ocess
     Moder
    nizat
    i sal
    oni engthyprocess

    UNDI
    RECTI
    ONALDEVELOPMENT

    4Cr
    it
    ici
    smsofModer
    nizat
    ionTheor
    y

    Needt
    oEl
    imi
    nat
    eTr
    adi
    ti
    onal
    Val
    ues

    I
    deol
    ogi
    calCr
    it
    ique

    4Epi
    stemol
    ogi
    cal
    SinsMT

     Beli
    efinthepossibili
    tyofanobjecti
    vesocialf
    reeideol
    ogy
    .
     Beli
    efinthecumul ati
    vequalit
    yofknowl edge
     Beli
    efintheuniversallawsofsocialsci
    ence
     Exportofthesebeliefstothethi
    rdwor l
    dcountri
    es.

    247
    Negl
    ectoft
    hei
    ssueofFor
    eignDomi
    nat
    ion

    Wor
    ldsSy
    stemsTheor
    yWal
    ler
    stei
    n

    WALLERSTEI
    N’SWORLD-
    SYSTEMS

     Theworld-
    system t heorystr
    essest hatworld-systemsshoul
    dbet
    hebasi
    cuni
    tof
    soci
    alanal
    ysisrefer stotheinter
    nationaldi
    visionoflabor
    .
     Cor ecountries
     Semi -
    peripher ycountri
    es
     Peripherycount ri
    es
     Modelmakeanat temptt oexplainonel ar
    gewor l
    deconomy
     3majorgroupings
     Cor e
     Peripheral
     Semi -
    peripher al

    EVALUATION
    -Appl
    yi
    ngt
    hemodelt
    other
    ealwor
    ldi
    simpor
    tantdet
    ermi
    nest
    hequal
    i
    tyof
    model.

    Weaknesses

     Const ant l
    ychangi ngstateoft
    hewor l
    deconomy .
     Fewerandf ewercountri
    esfal
    li
    ntothi
    scategoryastimegoesonangl obali
    zati
    on
    expands.
     Wal l
    erstein’s“ext
    ernal
    ”economylabelcanbenol ongerappli
    ed.
    - E. g.Chi na
    - Bef ore:cl
    osedeconomywi t
    hMaoZedong’ ssocialandeconomicrefor
    ms
    - Now:openeconomywi t
    hinternat
    ionalt
    radeundert henew opendoor
    policy
    Weaknesses

     Negati
    veexampl e
    - Col onialAmer i
    ca
     Exhi
    bitCharacterist
    icsfrom the“ peri
    pher
    y”and“ cor
    e”cat
    egori
    es
    - Semi -peripheryeconomy
     Lackofast rongcent ralgovernment
    - E. g.Communi ti
    es-v italroleinenfor
    cinglaw;l
    aborer
    sgett
    ort
    ureswhi
    l
    e
    gentl
    emengent ober eleasedonf i
    ne.

    St
    rengt
    hs

     Actasagui detodescr i
    bechangest hatledtoshapet heworl
    dintowhatiti
    s
    today.
     FocusesonWest ernEuropebet ween1450and1670
     Per i
    odofsi gnifi
    cantdev el
    opment
     Globali
    zati
    ont heor i
    stcanal soshowhowdependencyi snotaonewayprocess
     I nterdependency
     Waller
    steinwasoneoft hef i
    rsttor ecogni
    ze“globali
    zati
    on”oftheworld +
    i
    nternati
    onal di
    visionofl aborasbasisofglobali
    nequali
    ty.
     “semi-
    peripheral”
     Cor e
     Per i
    pheral
     All
    owsf orsy st
    emst hatareneithert
    hisnorthat
     Enought oencompassr egionsallov
    ert heworl
    dduringthist
    imeperi
    od

    248
    Wor
    ld-
    Syst
    em Theor
    y(WST)

    Whatshoul
    dper
    ipher
    alnat
    ionsdo?
    - Accor
    dingtoWSTScholars

    1.Peri
    pher
    alcount ri
    esmustav oidexploiti
    veeconomi crelati
    onswiththecore.
    - Bewar eoft radeandf oreigninvestment s,whi chcanl eadtoexpl oi
    tat
    ionand
    f
    orei
    gncont rol
    2.Tryt
    onurturedomest icI
    ndust r
    ies
    - Don’tsellcoffeeandr elyoncor eforhi gh-
    tech
    - Tr yt
    odev elopadv ancedindust r
    ieslocally
    - Concept :“Impor tantSubst it
    uti
    on”-dev eloping localindust
    ries to avoi
    d
    i
    mporti
    ngpr oduct s.
    3.Bondtogetherwi t
    hot herpoornat i
    ontof ightagainstthepoweroft hecor e
    - Tradewi t
    heachot her
     Per hapscreatecar t
    elstobar gainwi ththecoreandsomear guet
    o
    startglobalanti-
    capital
    istrevolut
    ion.

    HowdoesWSTv
    iewI
    nter
    nat
    ional
    Organi
    zat
    ion?

    Answer
    :Theydonotaf
    fectt
    hef
    unct
    ional
    economi
    cposi
    ti
    onsofcor
    eandPer
    ipher
    y.

     Clai
    m: MostInt
    ernati
    onal GovernmentOrganizat
    ions( I
    GOs)andInt
    ernat
    ional
    Non-governmentalOrganizat
    ions( I
    NGOs)arecreatedbycorecountr
    iesand
    neverfundamentall
    yunder mi
    net hedominanceoft hecore.
    - I GOsandI NGOst endtoper pet
    uat
    ecor edomi nance
    Example:WTOhasnotgi venbi
    gconcessiontoper i
    pher
    y.

    I
    swor
    ld-
    syst
    em t
    heor
    yri
    ght
    ?
     WSTmakesmanyclai
    ms.Ther
    eisnosi
    mpl
    eanswer

    1.AnalysisofLatinAmer icaisgener
    all
    ythoughttobecompel l
    ing
    2.Rapi
    di ndust
    rial
    izati
    onofSout hKorea,Tai
    wan,etc.-Majorexcepti
    onst
    oWST
    3.Evi
    denceoff oreign/
    tradeinvest
    mentismi xed,
    butoftencontradi
    ctWST.

    Cr
    it
    ici
    sm ofWST:

     Researchfindingsaremixedatbest
    - Thespecifi
    cWSTpr edi
    cti
    onsaboutsour
    cesofgl
    obali
    nequal
    i
    ty/pover
    tyhav
    e
    beenwr ong
    - Itist
    ruethattherei
    shorri
    blepover
    tyi
    ntheworl
    d..
    - BUT: Ar
    epeopl eworseoffthani
    fther
    ewasnoglobal
    economy ?Thati
    sless
    clear
    .

    FewConcept
    s

     Devel
    opment:Condit
    ionofli
    festyl
    eandeconomi csit
    uati
    onisi
    ncreasi
    ng.
     Under-
    devel
    opment:Condit
    ionoflifesty
    leandeconomicsit
    uat
    ionisdecr
    easi
    ng.
     Undevel
    opment:unchangedsituat
    ion
     Now-devel
    oped:Developmentisonst abl
    epoint
    .

    GunderFr
    ankDev
    elopmentTheor
    y

    Cr
    it
    icalHi
    stor
    ical
    Approach
     Rupt ur
    ewitht
    hecapital
    i
    stwor
    ld-
    econmy

    249
     SamirAmi n,Delinki
    ng:
    Towardsapol ycentr
    icwor
    ld(
    1985)
     Sel
    f-
    reliancethroughsoci
    ali
    sm (Tanzania)
     I
    mpor tSubst i
    tut
    ionorDependentDevelopment-Car
    doso
     Soci
    al Revoluti
    on-GunderFrank

    HI
    STORI
    CALFORMSOFDEPENDENCE

    1.ColonialDependence-t hecommer ci
    alandf i
    nancialCapitaloft hedomi nant
    countryi nal li
    ancewi thcolonialstatesmonopol i
    zedt hecontrolofland,mi nes,
    andhumanr esour ces( SerforSlav e)andtheexpor tofgold,silverandtropical
    productsf rom t hecol onizedcountry.
    2.Financial-Indust ri
    alDependence-t heeconomi esoft hedependentcount r
    ywer e
    thencent eredupont heexpor tofr aw materi
    alsandagr i
    cult
    uralproductsf or
    consumpt ioninEur opeanCount ri
    es.
    3.Technol ogi cal
    -I ndust r
    ialDependence-emer gedi nthepost -Wor l
    dWarI Iera,
    when I ndust ri
    aldev elopmentbegan t ot ake place in manyunder developed
    countri
    es.

    FUNDAMENTALSTRUCTURALLI
    MITATI
    ONSPLACEDONTHEI NDUSTRI
    AL
    DEVELOPMENTOFUNDERDEVELOPEDCOUNTRI
    ES

     I
    ndustri
    aldev elopmentnow dependentont heexist enceofanexpor tsect or
    .
    Underdev eloped nat i
    on must mai ntain the preexi sti
    ng r el
    ation bet ween
    product
    ionandt hemai ntenanceofpowerbyt hetraditionaldecadentol igarchy.
     I
    ndustri
    aldev elopmenti sst ronglyinfl
    uencedbyt hesi tuati
    onsoft hebalanceof
    payment s, l
    eadi ngt oadef icit
    .Thecausesoft hedeficitar ethree:
    1.A hi ghl ymonopol i
    zedi nternationalmarkett endst ol owert hepr i
    ceof
    indust rial products.
    2.Si nce,f oreign capi t
    alr etai
    ns cont r
    oloft he economy ofdependent
    count ri
    es; itcarri
    esof fahi ghvol umeofprofi
    t.
    3.Ther esul tis“ ForeignFi nancing”– inthef orm off orei
    gncapi t
    aland
    for eignai d– becomesnecessar ytocov ert heexi st
    ingdef ici
    tandt o
    financef ur t
    herdev elopment .

     Indust
    ri
    aldev
    elopmentisstr
    onglycondi
    ti
    onalont
    het
    echnol
    ogi
    calmonopol
    y
    exerci
    sedbyt
    heimperi
    alcent
    ers.

    TheseFactorsobli
    gethegovernmentoft
    hedependentcount
    ri
    estofaci
    li
    tat
    ethe
    entryoffor
    eigncapi
    tali
    ntothei
    rdomesti
    cmarket
    sinordertoobt
    aintheneeded
    technol
    ogyandpatentedrawmat er
    ial
    s

     Whatar et he ef f
    ects oft hislat estform oft echnol ogicalindustr
    ial
    dependenceont heproduct i
    vest r
    uct ur
    eofunder developedcount ri
    es?
     Fi r
    st ,theunequalcapi tali
    stdev el
    opmentatt heinternati
    onallevel
    i
    sr eproduced i nternall
    yi n an acut efor m,wi tht hepr oducti
    ve
    structur eofunder developedcount ri
    estornbet weena“ tr
    adit
    ional”
    agrar i
    anexpor tsect oranda“ moder n”sect oroftechnologicaland
    economi cfinancialconcent rati
    on.
     Second,t hecont extofal ocalcheapl abormar ketcombi nedwith
    theut il
    izati
    onofacapi tal-
    intensiv
    et echnologyhasl edtoprofound
    dif
    f erencesamongv ariousdomest icwagel evels.
     Thi rd,t hisunequalpr oduct i
    onst ructur
    ehasi mposedl i
    mitsinthe
    growt hofi nter
    nal mar ketsinunder developedcount r i
    es.

    250
    SOCI
    ALCHANGE

    Def
    ini
    ti
    on
     I tis a pr
    ocess ofpl anned orunplanned modifi
    cat
    ion/
    alt
    erat
    ions i
    nvalues,
    att
    it
    udes and behaviorofpeopl e on one hand,and tr
    ansmissi
    on ofsocial
    syst
    emsandst ruct
    uresont heotherhand.
     Soci al
    Changerelat
    iveto:ti
    meandspace

    Sel
    ect
    edSCTheor
    ies/
    Per
    spect
    ives

     Evolut
    ionary Perspecti
    ve -Human Soci et
    ies have pr
    ogr
    essed fol
    lowi
    ng a
    succession ofstagesf rom rel
    ati
    vel
    ysimplepatter
    nsto morecompl exand
    div
    ersepat t
    ernofli
    fe.
     Economy -ori
    ent
    edPer specti
    ve-fr
    om tr
    adi
    ti
    onalagri
    cul
    tur
    esoci
    etytotheageof
    hi
    ghmassconsumpt i
    on.

    SCTheor
    ies/
    Per
    spect
    ive

     SystemsTheor y-A soci alsy stem iscomposedofcomponentpar t


    st hatare
    i
    nt er
    related.Tosur vive,asy stem mustengagei nfoursetsofact i
    vit
    iesaimedat
    meet ing i ts needs: adapt ati
    on, goal at tai
    nment,i ntegrat
    ion ( regul
    ate
    i
    nt er
    relatednessofi t
    spar t
    s),andpatternmai ntenance.
     Mar xistPer spect i
    ve-Asoci etyi nwhateverst ageofdev el
    opmentr est sheavil
    y
    oneconomi cf oundat ion-Modeofpr oducti
    on.Usi nghist
    ori
    calmat erial
    ism,the
    stagesofdev elopmentgoest hrought r
    ibalowner shi
    pt oancientorsl avemode
    ofpr oductiont ocapi tali
    sm, t
    hencommuni sm.
     Femi nistPer spective-Genderi nthepat t
    erni
    ngofr el
    ati
    onshi
    pbet weenmenand
    women.Femi nist theories include G-diff
    erence,G- i
    nequalit
    y,G- oppressi
    on,
    structuraloppr ession.

    Howdoeschangecomeabout
    ?

    1.CATACYLYSMIC
    - resul
    tsofnat ur
    aldi
    saster
    s
     Ear thquake
     Er uptionofVol
    cano
     Ty phoons
     Floods
     Simi larcat
    astr
    ophicev
    ent
    s

    2.SOCIAL-
    CULTURALDRI FT
    - changecomesinahaphazardway
     theyarenotsought
     from i
    nteract
    ionbet
    weenandamongpeopl
    e

    Soci
    alChange-Pl
    annedChange

     Usual
    l
    ymani f
    estedinthechangingv
    aluesofpeopl
    easar
    esul
    tof
    - Urbani
    zation
    - Migrat
    ion
    - Coloni
    zation
    - Exposuret oot
    hercul
    tures

    251
    3.PLANNED
     somepeopl econsci
    ouslysetoutt
    omodi fysegmentsofcommuni
    tyli
    fe.
    Thisimpli
    est hatchangecanbei nf
    luenced and i
    tcanbeplanned -
    processofchangeisi
    ntenti
    onal
    .

    3basi
    cpl
    annedchangest
    rat
    egi
    es

    ……changei
    sacont
    inuouspr
    ocess

     RATI
    ONAL-EMPI
    RICAL

     Basedont heassumpti
    ont hatmanisrati
    onalandwil
    lfol
    l
    owhisr
    ati
    onal
    sel
    f-i
    nter
    estoncethi
    sisrev eal
    edt
    ohim.
     Manwi l
    ladoptchangeifitcanber at
    ional
    lyj
    usti
    fi
    edandshownt
    hathe
    wil
    lbenef
    itfr
    om thechange.

     NORMATI
    VERE-
    EDUCATI
    VESTRATEGY

     Based on t he assumpt i
    on t hatpat ter
    ns ofact i
    on and pr acti
    ces are
    supportedbysoci o-cul
    tur alnor msandbycommuni ti
    esont hepar tofthe
    i
    ndivi
    dual t
    ot hesenor ms.
     Rel ationshipbet weenmanandenv i
    ronmenti sguidedbynor ms,
    culture,hencechangesi nbehaviorarechangesi nv aluesand
    habits.
     Changesi nnor mat iv
    est ructur
    eandinsti
    tuti
    onal r
    olesarechanges
    atthesoci o-cul
    tural level.
     The indivi
    duali s encour aged tdev el
    op and grow wi tht he help of
    supporti
    vemechani smsl iket raini
    nggroups,encount ertechniquesand
    otherforms ofpeopl et echnol ogywher etherei s di
    alogicalrelat
    ion
    betweentrainersandt rainees, teachersandstudents.

     POWER–COERCI
    VESTRATEGY

     Basedont heconceptt hatpoweri sani ngredientt oallhumanact ion,a


    wayinwhichpoweri sgener atedandappl i
    edint hechangepr ocess.
     Strategyofnon- violencer emi niscentoft heEDSA Rev ol
    ut i
    oni n
    1986char acteri
    zedbypr ay erralli
    es,peacef uldemonst r
    ationof
    cour ageanduni tybef oreadv ancingmi li
    taryuni t
    sandot herf orms
    ofact iv
    enon- vi
    olentact i
    onst hatpreventedl ossofliv
    es.
     Theuseofpol i
    ti
    cali nsti
    tutionst oachi evechange.Ex.l obby ingin
    congr ess,Init
    iat
    iv e according t o Articl
    e VI ,Secti
    on 32 oft he
    Phili
    ppineConst itution,Petiti
    onssentt ogov ernmentmachi neries,
    etc.
     Changet hroughr e-composi tionandmani pulat
    ionoft hepower
    el
    ite.Ex .Armedst rugglebyt hepeasant rytoef fectsocio-cultural
    changes.

    PURPOSEOFGUI
    DINGFORCHANGE

    1.Thepersondi scov erstheneedf orhel


    p, sometimeswitht
    hechangeagent .
    2.Thehelpingr elationshipisest abli
    shed:
     Capaci tyandmot ivationofper son.
     Resour cesofchangeagent
     Cl arifyingexpect ations
     Ant icipat i
    ngdi f
    ficulties
    3.Probl
    em isi dent i
    fiedandcl arif
    ied
    4.Alt
    ernat
    ivepossi bili
    ti
    esf orchangear eexami ned;goal
    sareest
    abli
    shed
    5.Changeef fortsi nthereal i
    tysi tuati
    onoft hecli
    entsyst
    em ar
    eattempted.
    6.Change i s st abili
    zed by assessi ng the effect
    s ofchange,sust ai
    ning t
    he
    moment um oft hechangeef for t
    .

    252
    7.Thehelpi
    ngr
    elat
    ionshi
    psendsoradi
    ff
    erentt
    ypeofcont
    inui
    ngr
    elat
    ionshi
    pis
    def
    ined.

    SUSTAI
    NABLEDEVELOPMENTGOALS

    1.NOPOVERTY
     Endpover
    tyi
    nal
    li
    tsf
    ormsev
    ery
    wher
    e

    2.ZEROHUNGER
     Endhunger,achi
    evefoodsecur
    it
    yandi
    mpr
    ovednut
    ri
    ti
    onandpr
    omot
    e
    sust
    ainabl
    eagri
    cul
    tur
    e.

    3.GOODHEALTHANDWELL-BEI
    NG
     Ensur
    eheal
    thyl
    i
    vesandpr
    omot
    ewel
    l
    -bei
    ngatal
    lages.

    4.QUALI
    TYEDUCATI ON
     Ensureexclusi
    veandequi
    tabl
    equal
    i
    tyeducat
    ionandpr
    omot
    eli
    fel
    ong
    oppor
    tuni
    ti
    esforal
    l
    .

    5.GENDEREQUALITY
     Ensur
    egenderequal
    i
    tyandempoweral
    lwomenandal
    lgi
    rl
    s.

    6.CLEANWATERANDSANI TATI
    ON
     Ensur
    eav
    ail
    abi
    l
    ityandsust
    ainabl
    emanagementofwat
    erandsani
    tat
    ion
    atal
    l.

    7.AFFORDALEANDCLEANENERGY
     Ensuretoaccesst
    oaf
    for
    dabl
    e,r
    eli
    abl
    e,andsust
    ainabl
    eandmoder
    n
    energyf
    oral
    l
    .

    8.DECENTWORKANDECONOMI CGROWTH
     Pr
    omotesustai
    ned,i
    ncl
    usi
    ve,andsust
    ainableeconomi
    cgr
    owt
    h,f
    ulland
    pr
    oduct
    iveempl
    oymentanddecentwor
    kf orall
    .

    9.I
    NDUSTRY,INNOVATI ONANDI NFRASTRUCTURE
     Build r esi
    li
    ent i
    nfr
    astr
    uctur
    e, promot
    e i
    ncl
    usi
    ve and sust
    ainabl
    e
    i
    ndustr
    iali
    zati
    onandfost
    eri
    nnovat
    ion.

    10.
    REDUCEDINEQUALITY
     Reducei
    nequal
    it
    yamongcount
    ri
    es

    11.
    SUSTAI
    NABLECI TIESANDCOMMUNI TI
    ES
     Make ci t
    ies and human sett
    lement i
    ncl
    usi
    ve,saf
    e,r
    esi
    l
    ient and
    sust
    ainable.

    12.
    RESPONSIBLECONSUMPTI ONANDPRODUCTI ON
     Ensuresust
    ainabl
    econsumpt
    ionandpr
    oduct
    ionpat
    ter
    ns

    13.
    CLI
    MATEACTI
    ON
     Takeur
    gentact
    iont
    ocombatcl
    i
    mat
    echangeandi
    tsi
    mpact
    .

    14.
    LIFEBELOW WATER
     Conser veandsust
    ainabl
    yuseoft
    heoceans,seas,mar
    iner
    esour
    ces,f
    or
    sust
    ainabl
    edevel
    opment.

    15.
    LIFEONLAND
     Prot
    ect
    ,rest
    oreandpr
    omot
    euseoft
    err
    est
    ri
    alecosy
    stem,sust
    ainabl
    e

    253
    manage for
    est
    ,combat,desert
    if
    icat
    ion,and hal
    tand r
    ever
    se l
    and
    degr
    adat
    ionandhal
    tbi
    odi
    ver
    sit
    yloss.

    16.
    PEACE,JUSTICEANDSTRONGI NSTI TUTI
    ON
     Promotepeacefulandinclusivesoci
    eti
    esforsust
    ainabledevel
    opment
    ,
    provi
    deaccesst ojust
    icef orallandbuil
    deffect
    ive,account
    abl
    e,and
    i
    nclusi
    veinst
    it
    uti
    onsatalll
    ev el
    s.

    17.
    PARTNERSHIPFORTHEGOALS
     Str
    engt
    hen t
    he means ofi mplement
    ati
    on and r
    evi
    tal
    i
    ze t
    he gl
    obal
    part
    ner
    shi
    pforsust
    ainabl
    edev
    elopment
    .

    MI
    LENNI
    UM DEVELOPMENTGOALS

     The Mill
    ennium Dev elopmentGoal s( MDGs)wer et he eighti nternat
    ional
    devel
    opmentgoal sf ort hey ear2015t hathadbeenest abl
    ishedf ol
    lowingthe
    Mill
    enni
    um Summi toft heUni t
    edNat i
    onsi n2000,thefoll
    owingadopt ionofthe
    Unit
    edMi l
    lennium Declarati
    on.All 189UnitedNationsmemberst atesatthetime
    (t
    hereare193cur rentl
    y ),andatl east23i nter
    nat
    ionalorgani
    zations,commi tt
    ed
    tohelpachievethefoll
    owi ngMi l
    lennium Dev el
    opmentGoal sby2015.

    1.Toeradicateextremepov ertyandhunger
    2.Toachieveuniver salpri
    mar yeducation
    3.Topromot egenderequal i
    tyandempowerwomen
    4.Toreducechildmor tal
    ity
    5.Toi
    mpr ov emat ernalhealth
    6.TocombatHI V/ AI DS,malaria,andotherdi
    seases
    7.Toensur eenvi
    ronment alsustainabi
    li
    ty
    8.Todevelopagl obalpar tnershi
    p

     Each goalhad specifi


    ct arget s,and dates f orachievi
    ng those tar
    gets.To
    accelerat
    eprogress,t
    heG8f inancemi nistersagr eedinJune2005t oprovide
    enoughf undstot heWor l
    dBank,t heInternationalMonetar
    yFund( I
    MF)and
    Afri
    canDev el
    opmentBank( Af DB)t ocancel$40t o$55bil
    li
    oni ndebtowedby
    member softheheavi
    lyindebt edpoorcount r
    ies( HIPC)t
    oallow them redir
    ect
    resourcestoprogramsf orimpr ov
    ingheal t
    handeducat i
    onandf orall
    eviat
    ing
    poverty.

     Cri
    ti
    csoft heMDGscompl ai
    nedofal ackofanal y
    sisandj ust
    if
    icati
    onbehindthe
    chosenobj ecti
    ves,andt hedif
    ficult
    yorl ackofmeasur ementsf orsomegoal s
    and uneven pr ogr
    ess,among ot hers.Although dev el
    oped countri
    es’aidfor
    achi
    evingt heMDGsr osedur i
    ngt hechallengeper iod,morethanhal fwentfor
    debtreli
    efandmuchoft heremai ndergoingt owardsnaturaldisast
    errel
    iefand
    mili
    tar
    yaid, r
    atherthanfurt
    herdev elopment.

     Asof2013,progresst owardst hegoal swasunev en.Somecountri


    esachieved
    manygoals,whil
    eot herswer enotont racktoreali
    zeany .AUNconfer
    encei n
    September2010reviewedpr ogr esstodateandconcl udedwit
    htheadoptionof
    aglobalpl
    antoachiev etheei ghtgoalsbyt hei
    rtar
    getdate.Newcommi t
    ment s
    tar
    getedwomen’sandchi l
    dr en’shealth,andnew i ni
    ti
    ati
    vesintheworldwide
    batt
    leagai
    nstpovert
    y ,
    hungeranddi sease.

     Amongt henon-gover
    nmentalorgani
    zat
    ionsassisti
    ngweretheUnit
    edNations
    Mil
    lennium Campaign,theMill
    enni
    um PromiseAlli
    ance,I
    nc.
    ,thegl
    obalpover
    ty
    pr
    oject,theMicahChall
    enge,TheYouthi
    nAct i
    oninEUPr ogr
    amme,“Car
    toonsin
    Action”v i
    deoproj
    ectand8visi
    onsofHopegl obalar
    tproj
    ect
    .

    254
     From 2016onwar
    ds,t
    heSust
    ainabl
    eDev
    elopmentGoal
    s(SDG’
    s)hav
    erepl
    aced
    theMDGs

    BACKGROUND

    Mi
    ll
    enni
    um Summi
    t

     Preparationsfort he2000Mi ll
    enni um Summi tlaunchedwi t
    ht her eportofthe
    Secretary-Gener
    alent i
    tl
    ed“Wet hepeopl e:TheRol eoftheUnitedNat i
    onsinthe
    Twent y-f
    irstCentury”
    .Additi
    onalinputwaspr eparedbyt heMi ll
    ennium Forum,
    whichbr oughtt ogetherrepr
    esentat i
    vesov er1,000non- government alandcivil
    societyor gani
    zati
    onsf rom moret han100Count r
    ies.Theforum meti nMayt o
    conclude a t wo-yearconsult
    ation pr ocess covering i
    ssues such as pov ert
    y
    eradicati
    on,env ir
    onment alprotect i
    on,human r ight
    s and pr otecti
    on oft he
    vulnerable.

     MDGsder i
    vef r
    om earl
    ierdevel
    opmenttar
    gets,wher
    ewor l
    dleader
    sadoptedthe
    Uni
    ted Nations Mill
    ennium Declar
    ati
    on. The approvalof the Mil
    lenni
    um
    Decl
    arat
    ionwast hemai nout
    comeoftheMi l
    l
    ennium Summit/

     The MDGs or i
    ginated fr
    om t he Uni
    ted Nations Mi l
    lenni
    um Declarat
    ion.The
    declarat
    ionasser t
    edt hatev eryindiv
    idualhaddi gnity;andhence,ther ightt o
    fr
    eedom,equal i
    ty,abasi cstandar dofli
    vingthatincludesfreedom f
    rom hunger ,
    vi
    olenceandencour agest ol
    er anceandsol i
    dar
    ity.TheMDGssetconcr etet argets
    andi ndi
    cator
    sfoepov ertyreduct i
    oninordertoachi evetheright
    ssetforthint he
    Declarat
    ion.

    Pr
    ecur
    sor
    s

     TheBr
    ahi
    miRepopr
    ovi
    dedt
    hebasi
    soft
    hegoal
    sint
    hear
    eaofpeaceandsecur
    e.

     TheMi llennium Summi tdecl arati


    onwas,howev er,onlypartoftheoriginsoft he
    MDGs.Mor eideas came f rom Adam Fi guer
    oa,Or gani
    zati
    on ForEconomi c
    Cooper ationandDev elopment( OECD) ,theWor ldBankandt heI nternati
    onal
    Monet aryFund.Aser iesofUN- l
    edconf er
    encesint he1990’sfocusedoni ssues
    suchaschi ldr
    en,nutr
    iti
    on,humanr i
    ghtsandwomen.TheOECDcr iti
    cizedmaj or
    donorsf orreduci
    ngt heirlevelsofOf fi
    cialDevelopmentAssistance( ODA) .UN
    SecretaryGener alKofiAnnansi gnedar eportti
    ted,wet
    l hepeoples:TheRol eof
    st
    Unit
    ed Nat ions in 21 Cent ury. The OECD had f ormed itsi nternati
    onal
    DevelopmentGoal s(I
    DGs) .Thet woef f
    ortswerecombi nedfortheWor l
    dBank’ s
    2001meet i
    ngtoformt heMDGs.

    HumanCapi
    tal
    ,I
    nfr
    ast
    ruct
    ureandHumanRi
    ght
    s

     TheMDGsemphasi zedthreeareas:HumanCapi t
    al,Infrastr
    uctur
    eandHuman
    Rights(social
    ,economi c and polit
    ical)
    ,wi t
    ht he intentofi ncreasi
    ng li
    vi
    ng
    standar
    ds.HumanCapi t
    alobject
    ivesincludenutri
    ti
    on, healt
    hcare(i
    ncludi
    ngchild
    mor t
    ali
    ty,HIV/AI
    DS,t uber
    culosis and mal ar
    ia,and r eproduct
    ive heal
    th)and
    educati
    on.Infr
    ast
    ructureobject
    ivesincludeaccesstosaf edr i
    nki
    ngwat er
    ,energy

    255
    and moder ni nformat i
    on/communicati
    on t echnology;increased far
    m out puts
    using sustainable practi
    ces;tr
    ansportat
    ion;and env ir
    onment .Human r ights
    objecti
    vesi ncludeempower i
    ngwomen,r educingv i
    olence,incr
    easingpoliti
    cal
    voice,ensur i
    ng equalaccess t o publi
    c ser vi
    ces and i ncr
    easing secur
    ityof
    propert
    yr ights.Thegoal swerei nt
    ended t oi ncreasean i ndi
    vidual
    ’shuman
    capabil
    iti
    esand“ advancethemeanst oapr oducti
    v eli
    fe”.TheMDGsemphasi ze
    thateachnat i
    on’spolici
    esshouldbet ail
    oredt othatcount ry’
    sneeds;therefore
    mostpol i
    cysuggest ionsaregeneral
    .

    Par
    tner
    shi
    p

     MDGsemphasi zether oleofdev el


    opedcountriesinaidingdevel
    opingcount r
    ies,
    as outli
    ned in GoalEi ght,which sets obj
    ectives and tar
    getsfordev eloped
    countr
    iest oachievea“ gl
    obalpartner
    shipfordev el
    opment”bysuppor ti
    ngf air
    tr
    ade,debtr el
    ief,i
    ncreasingaid,accesst oaffordableessenti
    almedicinesand
    encouragingtechnologyt ransf
    er.Thus,developingnat i
    onsostensibl
    ybecame
    part
    nerswi t
    hdev el
    opednat i
    onsinthestr
    ugglet oreduceworldpovert
    y.

    GOALS

     The MDGs were dev el


    oped outofsev er
    alcommi t
    ments setf or
    thinthe
    Mill
    enni
    um Decl
    arati
    on,si
    gnedinSept
    ember2000.Therear
    eeightgoalswi
    th21
    tar
    gets,
    andaseriesofmeasurabl
    ehealt
    hindi
    cat
    orsandeconomicindi
    cat
    orsf
    or
    eachtar
    get
    .

    Goal1–Er
    adi
    cat
    eext
    remePov
    ert
    yandHunger

     Tar
    get1A:Halve,bet
    ween1990and2015,t heproporti
    onofpeopl
    eli
    vi
    ng
    onl
    essthan$1.25aday
    - Pov ert
    yGapr ato[
    i i
    nci
    dencexdepthofpoverty]
    - Shar eofpoorestqui
    nti
    l
    einnat
    ionalconsumpt i
    on

     Target1B:Achi ev
    eDecentEmpl oymentforWomen,Men,andYoung
    People
    - GDPGr owthperemployedper
    son
    - Empl oy
    mentRate
    - Pr oporti
    onofemployedpopulati
    onbelow $1.
    25perday(PPP
    values)
    - Pr oporti
    onoff
    amily
    -basedworker
    sinemploy
    edpopul
    ati
    on

     Tar
    get1C:Halve,between1990and2015,t heproporti
    onofpeoplewho
    suf
    ferf
    rom hunger.
    - Preval
    enceofunderweightchil
    drenunderf
    iveyearsofage
    - Proport
    ionofPopulati
    onbel ow mini
    mum levelofdietar
    yener
    gy
    consumption

    Goal2-
    --Achi
    eveUni
    ver
    salPr
    imar
    yEducat
    ion

     Target2A:By2015,al lchi
    ldr
    en can compl
    etea f
    ullcour
    sepr
    imar
    y
    school
    ing,
    gir
    lsandboys
    - Enroll
    mentinPri
    maryEducati
    on
    - Compl et
    ionofpr
    imaryEducat
    ion

    Goal3-
    --Pr
    omot
    egenderequal
    it
    yandempowerwomen

     Tar
    get3A:El
    i
    minat
    egenderdi
    spar
    it
    yinpr
    imar
    yandsecondar
    yeducat
    ion

    256
    pr
    efer
    abl
    yby2005,andatalll
    evel
    sby2015.
    - Rati
    osofgir
    lstoboysi
    nprimar
    y,secondar
    yandter
    tiar
    yeducation
    - Share ofwomen in wage employmentinthe non-agr
    icul
    tural
    sector
    - Proport
    ionofSeat
    sheldbywomeni nnati
    onal
    parl
    iament

    Goal4-
    --Reducechi
    ldmor
    tal
    it
    ycases

     Tar
    get4A:Reducebyt wo-thir
    ds,between1990and2015,theunder
    -f
    ive
    mort
    ali
    tyrat
    e
    - Under -f
    ivemortal
    ityrate
    - I nf
    ant(under1)mor t
    ali
    tyrat
    e
    - Pr oport
    ionof1-year-ol
    dchil
    drenimmunizedagai
    nstmeasl
    es

    Goal5-
    --I
    mpr
    ovemat
    ernalheal
    th

     Tar
    get5A:Reducebyt hreequart
    ers,
    bet
    ween1990and2015,t
    he
    mater
    nalmortal
    ityr
    ati
    o
    - Mat ernalmortali
    tyrat
    io
    - Pr oporti
    onofbirthsatt
    endedbyski
    l
    ledheal
    thper
    sonal

     Tar
    get5B:
    Achieve,by2015, uni
    versalaccesst
    orepr
    oduct
    iveheal
    th
    - Cont r
    acepti
    vePrevalencerate
    - Adolescentbirt
    hrate
    - Antenatalbi
    rthrate
    - Unmetneedf orFamilyPlanning

    Goal6-
    --CombatHI
    V/AI
    DS,
    mal
    ari
    a,andot
    herdi
    seases

     Target6A:Hav ehal tedby2015andbegunt or ever sethespr eadof


    HIV/AIDS
    - HI Vpr evalenceamongpopul ati
    onaged15- 24y ears
    - Condom useatl asthi gh-ri
    sksex
    - Pr oportionofpopul ationaged15- 24y earswi thcompr ehensiv
    e
    correctknowl edgeofHI V/AIDS
     Target6B:Achi eve,by2010,uni versalaccesst ot reatmentf orHIV/ AI
    DS
    foral
    lthosewhoneedi t
    - Pr oportionofpopul ationwi thadvancedHI Vinfectionwithaccess
    toant i
    retr
    ov i
    raldrugs
     Target6C:Hav ehal t
    edby2015andbegunt or everset heincidenceof
    malari
    aandot hermaj ordiseases
    - Pr evalenceanddeat hr atesassociatedwi thmal ari
    a
    - Pr oportionofchi ldrenunder5sl eepi ngunderi nsecti
    cide-t
    reat
    ed
    bednet s
    - Pr oportionofchi l
    dr enunder5wi t
    hf everwhoar et
    reatedwi t
    h
    appropr i
    ateant i
    -malar iadrugs
    - I nci
    dence, pr evalence and deat h r ates associ ated wi t
    h
    tuberculosis
    - Pr oportionoft ubercul osiscasesdet ectedandcur edunderDOTS
    (Dir
    ectlyObser vedTr eatmentCour se)

    Goal7-
    --Ensur
    eenv
    ironment
    alsust
    ainabi
    li
    ty

     Target7A:Int
    egratetoprincipl
    esofsustai
    nabledevel
    opmentint
    ocountry
    poli
    ciesandprograms;reverselossofenvir
    onmentalresour
    ces
     Target7B:Reducebi odiversi
    tyloss,achi
    ev i
    ng,by2010,asi gni
    fi
    cant
    reducti
    onintherateofloss
    - Pr oport
    ionoflandar eacoveredbyforest

    257
    - CO2emi ssions,total percapi taandper$1GDP( PPP)
    - Consumpt ionofozone- depl etingsubstances
    - Proporti
    onoff ishst ockswi thinsafebiol
    ogicalli
    mits
    - Proporti
    onoft otal wat err esour cesused
    - Proporti
    onoft errestrialandmar i
    neareaspr ot
    ected
    - Proporti
    onofspeci est hr eatenedwi t
    hextincti
    on
     Target7C:Hal ve,by2015,t he pr oporti
    on oft he populat
    ion wit
    hout
    sustai
    nableaccesstosaf edr i
    nki ngwat erandbasi csani
    tati
    on
    - Pr oport
    ionofPopul at i
    onwi thsust ai
    nableaccesst oani mproved
    watersource, urbanandr ural
    - Pr oport
    ionofur banpopul ationwi thaccesst oimprovedsanit
    ati
    on
     Target7D:By2020,t ohav eachi ev edasi gnif
    icantimprovementint he
    li
    vesofatleast100mi lli
    onsl um- dwel l
    ers
    - Pr oport
    ionofur banl ivingi nsl ums
    Goal8-
    --Dev
    elopaglobalpartnershipf ordev elopment

     Target 8A:Dev elop f urther an open,r ul e-based,pr edictabl e,non-


    discri
    mi natoryt radi ngandf i
    nanci alsystem
    - I ncl
    udesacommi t
    mentt ogoodgov ernance,dev elopment ,and
    pover tyreduct i
    on–bot hnat ionallyandi nt ernat i
    onal ly
     Target8B:Addr esst hespeci alneedsoft hel eastdev elopedcount ri
    es
    (LCDs)
    - I ncl
    udes:Tar iffandquot af reeaccessf orLCDexpor ts;enhanced
    progr ammeofdebtr elieff orHI PC andcancel lat i
    onofof f
    icial
    bil
    ater aldebt ;and mor egener ousODA ( Of fi
    ci alDev elopment
    Assist ance)f orcount riescommi ttedt opov ertyr educt ion
     Target8C:Addr esst hespeci alneedsofl andl ockeddev el opingcount ri
    es
    andsmal li
    slanddev elopi ngst ates
    - Thr ough t he Pr ogramme of Act i
    on f or t he Sust ainabl e
    Dev elopmentofSmal lIslandDev elopi ngst atesandt heout come
    ofthet went y-secondspeci alsessi onoft hegener al assembl y
     Target8D:Dealcompr ehensi velywi tht hedebtpr obl emsofdev el oping
    countries t hrough i nt ernat i
    onal measur es i n or der t o make debt
    sustainableint hel ongt er m.
    - Someoft hei ndi cat orsl istedbel ow ar emoni toredsepar at elyf or
    the l east dev eloped count ri
    es ( LCDs) , Af rica, l andl ocked
    developi ngcount riesandsmal lislanddev elopi ngst ates.
    - Of fi
    ci aldev elopmentassi stance( ODA):
    o NetODA,t otalandt oLCDs,ar eper cent ageofOECD/ DAC
    donor s’ GNI
    o Pr opor t i
    onofbi l
    at eralODAofOECD/ DACdonor st obasi c
    soci alser v i
    ces ( basi c educat i
    on,pr imar y heal th car e,
    nut riti
    on, saf ewat erandsani tation)
    o Pr opor t i
    onofbi l
    at eralODA ofOECD/ DAC donor st hati s
    uni ted
    o ODAr ecei vedi nl andl ockedcount ri
    esaspr opor tionoft heir
    GNI s
    o ODA r ecei ved i n smal li sl and dev elopi ng st ates as
    propor tionoft hei rGNI s
    - Mar ketaccess:
    o Pr opor tionoft otaldev elopedcount ryimpor ts( byv alueand
    excl udi ngar ms)f rom dev elopingcount ri
    esandf rom LDCs,
    admi ttedf reeofdut y
    o Av erage t ariff
    s i mposed by dev el oped count ries on
    agr i
    cul tur al pr oduct s and t ext i
    les and cl othing f rom
    dev el opi ngcount r
    ies
    o Agr icult ural suppor t est imat e f or OECD count ri
    es as
    per cent ageoft hei rGDP
    o Pr opor tionofODApr ov i
    dedt ohel pbui l
    dt radecapaci ty
    - Debtsust ai nabi lit
    y :
    o Tot alnumberofcount r
    iest hathav er eachedt hei rHI PC

    258
    decisionpoi nt sandnumbert hathav ereachedt heirHIPC
    compl et
    ionpoi nts(cumulati
    ve)
    o Debtr eliefcommi t
    tedunderHIPCiniti
    ati
    ve,US$
    o Debtser vi
    ce as per centage ofexpor ts ofgoods and
    serv i
    ces
     Target8E:I n co- operation wi t
    h pharmaceuticalcompani es,pr ovi
    de
    accesstoaffordabl e,essentialdrugsindevel
    opingcountri
    es
    - Pr oportionofpopul ationwi t
    haccesst oaf f
    ordabl
    eessent i
    aldrugs
    onasust ainablebasi s
     Target8F:Inco- oper ati
    onwi ththepr i
    vatesector,makeav ail
    ablethe
    benefi
    tsofnewt echnol ogies,especi
    all
    yinfor
    mat i
    onandcommuni cat
    ions
    - Tel ephonel i
    nesandcel lul
    arsubscri
    bersper100popul at
    ion
    - Per sonal comput ersinuseper100popul ation
    - I nt
    ernetuser sper100popul ati
    on

    CRI
    TICI
    SM

    Gener
    al

     Gener alcr i
    ticismsi ncl udeaper ceiv
    edl ackofanal yti
    calpowerandj usti
    ficati
    on
    behindt hechosenobj ect i
    v es.
     The MDGsl ackst rong obj ectivesand i ndicatorsf orwi thin-countryequal ity
    ,
    despi tesi gni f
    icantdi spar i
    tiesinmanydev elopingnat ions.
     Furthercr iti
    queoft heMDHsi st hatthemechani sm bei ngusedi sthattheyseek
    toi ntroducel ocalchanget hroughext ernali nnov ationssuppor tedbyext ernal
    fi
    nanci ng.Thecount erpr oposalbei ngt hatt hesegoal sar ebet terachievedby
    communi t
    yi niti
    ative, bui l
    dingf r om resour cesofsol idar i
    tyandl ocalgrowthwi thin
    existingcul turalandgov ernmentst r
    uctur es;it
    erat i
    onsofpr ov enlocalsuccesses
    canscal eupt oaddr esst hel argerneedt hroughhumanener gyandexi sti
    ng
    resour cesusi ng met hodol ogiessuch asPar t
    icipat oryRur alAppr aisal,Asset
    BasedCommuni tyDev elopment ,orSEED- SCALE.
     MDG 8 uni quelyf ocuses on donorachi evement s,r athert han dev el
    opment
    successes.TheCommi tmentt oDev elopmentI ndexpubl ishedannual lyby 7the
    Cent erf orGl obalDev elopmenti n Washi ngton,D. C. ,isconsi dered the best
    numer i
    cali ndicatorf orMDG8.I tisamor ecompr ehensi vemeasur eofdonor
    progr esst hanof ficialdev elopmentassi stance,asi tt akesi nt oaccountpol icies
    on a numberofi ndi cat or st hataf f
    ectdev elopi ng count ries such as t rade,
    migr ationandi nvest ment .

    Al
    legedLackofLegi
    ti
    macy

     Theent ireMDG pr ocesshasbeenaccusedofl ackinglegi


    timacyasa
    resultoffail
    uretoinclude,oft
    en,thevoicesofthev erypart
    ici
    pant
    st hat
    theMDHsseekt oassist.TheInt
    ernati
    onalPl
    anningCommi t
    teeforFood
    Sovereignty
    ,initspost2015t hematicconsul
    tat
    iondocumentonMDG1
    states “The maj orLi mit
    ati
    on oft he MDGs by t he mostaf fected
    constit
    uencies”.

    HumanRi
    ght
    s

     Accordi
    ng t o Deneul i
    n&Shahanit he MDGs under -
    emphasized local
    part
    ici
    pation and empower ment( othert han women’sempower ment).
    FIANInternational
    ,ahumanr ightsor ganizati
    onfocusingont heri
    ghtto
    adequatef ood,contri
    butedtothepost2015pr ocessbypoi nti
    ngouta
    l
    ackof“ primacyofhumanr i
    ghts;qual i
    fyingpoli
    cycoherence;andof
    human r ights based moni t
    oring and account abi
    li
    ty.Wi t
    hout such
    accountabil
    ity
    , nosubst
    anti
    alchangei nnat i
    onalandint
    ernat
    ionalpol
    ici
    es.

    259
    I
    nfr
    ast
    ruct
    ure

     TheMDGswer eat t
    ackedforinsuf
    fi
    cientemphasi
    sonenv i
    ronmental
    sust
    ainabi
    li
    ty.Thus,t
    heydonnotcaptureallel
    ement
    sneededtoachi
    eve
    thei
    dealssetoutintheMil
    lenni
    um Decl
    arat
    ion
     Agri
    cult
    urewasnotspeci f
    ical
    lymenti
    onedi ntheMDGsev enthough
    mostofthewor l
    d’spoorar
    ef ar
    mers.

    HumanCapi
    tal

     MDG 2f ocusesonpr imar yeducat i


    onandemphasi zesenr ollmentand
    compl et i
    on.I n some count ries,pr imar y enr ollmenti ncr eased att he
    expenseofachi ev ementl ev els.I nsomecases,t heemphasi sonpr imar y
    educat ion has negat iv ely af fect ed secondar y and post -
    secondar y
    educat ion.
     Apubl icat i
    onf rom 2005ar guedt hatgoal sr elat edt omat er nalmor tality,
    mal ar iaandt uber culosi sar eimpossi blet omeasur eandt hatcur rentUN
    estimat esl acksci ent i
    ficv al i
    dityorar emi ssi ng.Househol dsur vey sar e
    thepr imar ymeasur ef ort heheal thMDGsbutmaybepooranddupl icat ive
    measur ement st hatconsumel i
    mi tedr esour ces.
     Fur ther mor e,count r
    ies wi tht he hi ghestl ev els oft hese condi t
    ions
    typical lyhav et hel eastr eliabledat acol lect ion.Theamountofpr ogr ess,
    l
    eav i
    ngMDGsasl ittlemor et hanar het orical cal ltoar ms.
     MDG pr oponent ssuchasMcAr t
    hurandSachscount eredt hatset ti
    ng
    goal si sst il
    lval iddespi temeasur ementdi fficul ties,ast heypr ov idea
    politicalandoper ationalf ramewor kt oef forts.Wi thani ncr easei nt he
    quant ityandqual ityofheal thcar esy stemsi ndev elopi ngcount ri
    es,mor e
    dat acoul dbecol lect ed.Theyasser tedt hatnon- heal thr el atedMDGswer e
    oftenwel lmeasur ed,andt hatnotal lMDGswer emademootbyl ackof
    dat a.
     Theat tentiont owel l-bei ngot hert hani ncomehel psbr ingf undi ngt o
    achi ev ing MDGs. Fur ther MDGs pr ior i
    tize i nt er vent i
    ons, est abl ish
    obt ainabl e object ives wi t
    h usef ulmeasur ement s ofpr ogr ess despi te
    measur ementi ssuesandi ncr easedt hedev elopedwor ld’si nv olvementi n
    wor ld- wi depov er tyr educt i
    on.MDGsi ncl udegenderand r epr oduct ive
    ri
    ght s, env i
    ronment alsust ai nabi li
    ty ,andspr eadoft echnol ogy .Pr i
    or iti
    zing
    i
    nt erv ent ionshel psdev elopi ng count ri
    eswi thl imi t
    ed r esour cesmake
    deci sionsaboutal l
    ocat ingt hei rr esour ces.MDGsal sost rengt hent he
    commi tmentt ot hegoal sl ikel yi ncr easest hel i
    kel ihoodoft heirsuccess.
    Theynot ethatMDGsar et hemostbr oadl ysuppor tedpov ertyr educt i
    on
    target si nwor ldhi story .
     Achi ev ingt heMDGsdoesnotdependoneconomi cgr owt hal one.I nt he
    caseofMDG 4,dev el opi ngcount r i
    essuchasBangl adeshhav eshown
    thati ti spossi blet or educechi ldmor tali
    t ywi thonl ymodestgr owt hwi th
    i
    nexpensi vey etef fectiv ei nt erv ent ions,suchasmeasl esi mmuni zat ion.
    Still
    , gov ernmentexpendi tur einmanycount ri
    esi snotenought omeett he
    agr eedspendi ngt arget s.Resear chonheal thsy st emssuggest st hata
    “onesi zef it
    sal l”modelwi llnotsuf fi
    cient lyr espondt ot hei ndi v i
    dual
    heal thcar epr ofilesofdev elopi ngcount ries;howev er,t hest udyf ounda
    commonsetofconst r aint si nscal ingupi nter nat ionalheal th,i ncl uding
    the l ack absor pt iv e capaci t
    y ,weak heal th sy stems,human r esour ce
    l
    imi tat ions,and hi gh cost .The st udyar gued t hatt he emphasi s on
    cov er ageobscur est hemeasur esr equi redf orexpandi ngheal thcar e.
    These measur es i ncl ude pol itical, or gani zat ional , and f unct i
    onal
    dimensi onsofscal ingup, andt heneedt onur t
    ur el ocal or gani zat i
    ons.
     Fundament al issues such as gender ,t he di v ision bet ween t he
    humani t ari
    an and dev elopmentagendas and economi c gr owt h wi l
    l
    det ermi ne whet her or not t he MDGs ar e achi ev ed,accor di ng t o
    resear cher satt heOv erseasDev elopmentI nstitut e( ODI )
     Accor di ngt oD+CDev elopmentandCooper ationmagazi ne, MDG7i sst il
    l

    260
    farfr
    om beingreached.Sincenationalgovernmentsoft
    encannotprovi
    de
    thenecessaryi nf
    rast
    ructure,ci
    vilsocietyinsomecount r
    iesorgani
    zed
    and wor ked on sani t
    ation. For instance,in Ghana an umbr ella
    organizat
    ioncal
    ledCONI WAS( Coali
    ti
    onofNGOsi nWaterandSanit
    ati
    on),
    enli
    stedmor ethan70memberor ganizat
    ionstoprovi
    deaccesstowat er
    andsani t
    ati
    on.

     TheI nternat
    ionalHeal thPar tnership( I
    HP+)ai medt oaccel erateMDG
    progr ess by apply i
    ng i nt
    ernat i
    onalpr i
    nciples f oref fecti
    ve aid and
    devel opmenti nhealthsector.I ndev el
    opingcount ri
    es,signifi
    cantfunding
    for heal th came f r
    om ext ernalsour ces r equiri
    ng gov ernment st o
    coor dinatewithinternati
    onaldev el
    opmentpar tner
    s.Aspar tnernumber s
    i
    ncr eased v ari
    ati
    ons i nf undi ng streams and bur eaucratic demands
    foll
    owed.Byencour agingsuppor tforasi nglenat ionalhealthstrategy,a
    singlemoni t
    oringandev al
    uat i
    onf ramewor k,andmut ualaccountabili
    ty,
    IHP+at temptedt obui ldconf idencebet weengov ernment ,civ
    ilsociety,
    devel opmentpar t
    ner sandot herheal thstakehol ders.

    EQUI
    TY

     Furtherdev elopment si nr et hinkingst rat


    egiesandappr oachest heMDGs
    i
    ncluder esearchbyt heOv erseasDev el
    opmentI nst
    itut
    ei ntot her oleof
    equity.Resear chersatt heODIar guedt hatprogr esscouldbeaccel erated
    duet orecentbr eakthr oughsi nt her oleequitypl aysincreatingav irt
    uous
    cir
    clewher er i
    singequi tyensur est hepoorpar tici
    pateint heircount ry’
    s
    developmentandcr eat esr educt ionsi npovertyandf i
    nancialstabi l
    ity.Yet
    equityshoul dnotbeunder stoodpur elyaseconomi c,butalsoaspol i
    tical
    .
    Exampl es abound, i ncl uding Br azil
    ’
    s cash t r
    ansfers, Uganda’ s
    eli
    mi nati
    onsofuserf eesandsubsequenthugei ncreaseinv isit
    sf r
    om t he
    verypoor estorel se Maur i
    tius’s dual -
    tr
    ackappr oach tol i
    ber ali
    zation
    (i
    nclusivegr owt handi ncl usivedev el
    opment )ai dingitonitsr oadi ntot he
    Wor l
    dTr adeOr ganizat ion.Resear chersattheODIt huspr oposeequi tybe
    measur edi nl eaguet abl esi nor dert opr ovi
    deacl earerinsighti ntohow
    MDGscanbeachi ev edmor equi ckly;theODIi swor kingwi thpar tnerst o
    putforwar dleaguet abl esatt he2010MDGr eviewmeet i
    ng.
     Theef f
    ect sofi ncreasi ng dr ugsusewer enot ed bytheI nternational
    Journal ofDr ugPol i
    cyasadet errentt othegoal oftheMDGs

    Women’
    sIssues

     Increasedf ocusongenderi ssuescoul daccel erateMDH pr ogress,e. g.


    empower i
    ngwoment hroughaccesst opai dwor kcoul dhel pr educechi l
    d
    mor tali
    ty.Insout hAsi ancount ri
    esbabi esof tensuf f
    eredf rom l ow bir
    th
    wei ghtand hi gh mor tali
    tydue t ol imited accesst o heal t
    h car e and
    mat ernalmalnut ri
    ti
    on.Pai dwor kcoul di ncr easewomen’ saccesst o
    heal th car e and bet ternut rit
    ion,r educi ng chi l
    d mor tali
    ty.Increasing
    femal eeducat ionandwor kfor
    cepar t
    icipationi ncreasedt heseef fects.
    Impr ovedeconomi coppor tunit
    iesf orwomenal sodecr easedt hespr ead
    ofAI DS, MDG6A.
     Althought her esour ces,t echnol ogyandknowl edgeexi stt o decrease
    pov er tyt hrough i mpr ov ing genderequal it
    y,t he pol it
    icalwi l
    lis often
    mi ssi ng.I fdonoranddev elopingcount riesf ocusedonsev en“ pri
    ority
    areas” ,greatpr ogresscoul dbemadet owar dst heMDG.Thesesev en
    prior i
    tyar easi ncl ude:i ncreasinggi rls’compl et i
    onofsecondar yschool ,
    guar ant eeing sexual and r eproduct ive heal th r ights, i mprov i
    ng
    i
    nf rast ructuret o easewomen’ sandgi rl’st imebur dens,guar anteeing
    women’ spr oper t
    yr ight s,reducinggenderi nequal it
    iesi nempl oyment ,
    i
    ncr easi ngseat shel dbywomeni ngov er nment ,andcombat ingv i
    olence
    agai nstwomen.
     Itist houghtt hatthecur r
    entMDGst arget sdonotpl aceenoughemphasi s

    261
    ontr
    ackinginequal
    i
    tiesinpov er
    tyreduct
    ionandemploymentasthereare
    onl
    y gender goal s r elat
    ing to heal t
    h, educati
    on, and polit
    ical
    empower mentandpr ogresstowardsMDGs,i ncr
    easedemphasisshould
    beplacedongendermai nst
    reamingdevelopmentpoli
    ciesandcol
    lecti
    ng
    dat
    abasedongender .

    Pr
    ogr
    ess

     Gr aphofgl obalpopul ati


    onl i
    vingunder1,1. 25and2equi valentof2005
    USdol larsaday( r
    ed)andasapr opor ti
    onofwor ldpopul ati
    on( blue)f rom
    1981t o2008basedondat af r
    om theWor l
    dBank.
     Pr ogr esst owar dsr eachi ngt hegoal shasbeenunev enacr osscount ri
    es.
    Br azilachi evedmanyoft hegoal s, whileot hers,suchasBeni n, ar enoton
    trackt or eali
    zeany .Themaj orsuccessf ulcount ri
    esi ncludechi na( whose
    pov er typopul at
    iondecl i
    nedf rom 452mi ll
    iont o278mi l
    li
    on)andI ndi a.
    TheWor ldBankest imat edt hatMDG1A( hal vi
    ngt hepr oportionofpeopl e
    l
    iv i
    ngonl esst an$1aday )wasachi evedi n2008mai nlyduet ot her esult s
    from t heset wocount r
    iesandEastAsi a.
     Int heear l
    y1990’ sNepalwasoneoft hewor l
    d’spoor estcount ri
    esand
    remai nsSout h Asia’ spoor estcount ry.Doubl i
    ng heal th spendi ng and
    concent rati
    ngoni tspoor estar eashal v
    edmat ernalmor tali
    tybet ween
    1998and2006.I t
    sMul t
    idimensi onalPov ertyIndexhasseent hel argest
    fallsofanyt r
    ackedcount ry.Bangl adeshhasmadesomeoft hegr eatest
    i
    mpr ov ement sininf antandmat ernalmor t
    alityeverseen, despi temodest
    i
    ncomegr owth.
     Bet ween1990and2010t hepopul ati
    onl i
    v i
    ngonl esst han$1. 25adayi n
    dev el opingcount r
    ieshal v edt o21%,or1. 2bi l
    li
    onpeopl e,achi ev ingMDG
    1A bef oret het ar
    getdat e,althought hebi ggestdecl inewasi nChi na,
    whi ch t ook no not ice oft he goal .Howev er,t he chi l
    d mor t ali
    tyand
    mat ernalmor tali
    tyar edownbyl esst hanhal f.Sanitationandeducat ion
    target swi l
    lalsobemi ssed.

    Mul
    ti
    lat
    eraldebtr
    educt
    ion

     G-8FinanceMi ni
    stersmeti nLondoni nJune2005i npr epar ati
    onf ort he
    GleneaglesSummi tinJul yandagr eedt opr ovi
    deenoughf undst ot he
    Wor l
    dBank,I MFandt heAf r
    icanDev elopmentBank( AfDB)t ocancelan
    additi
    onalt he remaining HI PC mul ti
    l
    ater aldebt( $40 t o $55 bi lli
    on).
    Recipi
    ent swoul dtheor eti
    call
    yr e-
    channeldebtpay ment st oheal thand
    education.
     TheGl eaneaglesplanbecamet heMul t
    il
    ater alDebtRel i
    efI ni
    tiati
    ve( MDRI ).
    Countriesbecameel igibl
    eoncet heirleadi ngagencyconf i
    rmedt hatt he
    countri
    eshadcont i
    nuedt omai ntaint heref ormst heyhadi mpl ement ed.
     Whilet heWor l
    dBankandAf DBl i
    mi tedMDRIt ocount r
    iest hatcompl ete
    theHIPCpr ogram, theI MF’seli
    gibil
    itycr i
    teriawer eslightlylessr estri
    ctive
    soast ocompl ywi t
    ht heI MF’suni que“ uni for
    mt r
    eatment ”requirement .
    Inst
    eadofl i
    mi ti
    ngeligibil
    i
    tytoHI PCcount ries,anycount rywi thpercapi ta
    i
    ncomeof$380orl essqual ifi
    edf ordebtcancel lati
    on.TheI MFadopt ed
    the$380t hresholdbecausei tcloselyappr oximatedt heHI PCt hreshold.

    Sub-
    Sahar
    anAf
    ri
    ca

     Onesuccesswast ost r
    engthenr i
    cepr oducti
    on.Byt hemid-
    1990sr i
    ce
    i
    mpor t
    sr eached nearl
    y $1 bill
    ion annually.Far mers had notfound
    suitablespeciest
    hatproducehighy i
    elds.NewRi ceforAfr
    ica(
    NERICA),a
    high-yi
    eldi
    ngandwel ladaptedstrai
    nwasdev elopedandi nt
    roducedin
    areasi ncl
    udingCongo,Brazzavi
    ll
    e,Coted’Ivoir
    e, theDemocrat
    icRepubli
    c
    oft heCongo,Gui nea,Kenya,Mal i
    ,Nigera,TogoandUganda.Some18
    vari
    et i
    esoft hehybri
    dspeci esbecameav ai
    lable,enabl
    ingfarmersto

    262
    produceenoughr icetofeedt heirfamili
    esandhav eextr
    atosel l
    .
     Ther egion al so showed pr ogresst owardsMDG 2.Schoolf eest hat
    i
    ncluded Par ent-
    Teacher Associ ati
    on and communi ty contributi
    ons,
    text
    bookf ees,compul soryuniformsandot herchangestookupnear l
    ya
    quarterofapoorf ami l
    y’
    sincomeandl edcountri
    esincl
    udingBur undi,the
    Democr atic Republ i
    c oft he Congo,Et hiopi
    a,Ghana,Keny a,Mal awi,
    Mozambi que,Tanzani a,andUgandat oeliminat
    esuchf ees,increasing
    enrol
    ment .Fori nstance,inGhana,publ i
    cschoolenr ol
    l
    menti nt hemost
    depri
    v eddi st
    ri
    ctssoar edfrom 4.2mi ll
    i
    ont o5.4mill
    i
    onbet ween2004and
    2005.I nKeny a,primaryschoolenr ol
    lmentadded1. 2mill
    ionin2003and
    by2004, thenumberhadcl i
    mbedt o7.2mi l
    li
    on.

    Gr
    aphsf
    rom t
    heMi
    ll
    enni
    um Dev
    elopmentGoal
    sRepor
    t2010

     Mal ari
    adeathsdecli
    nedbymor ethanone-thi
    rd,savingmi l
    li
    onsoflives.
     Alt
    houghdev el
    opedcount ri
    es’financi
    alaidr osedur i
    ngt heMillennium
    Chal l
    enge,mor et han halfwentt owards debtr el
    ief.Much oft he
    remai nderaid money wentt owards disast
    err eliefand mili
    tary aid.
    Accor dingtotheUni tedNat i
    onsDepar tmentofEconomi candSoci al
    Affairs(2006)
    ,the50l eastdevel
    opedcount ri
    esr eceivedaboutonet hird
    ofal l
    aidflowsfrom devel
    opedcount ri
    es.

    Fundi
    ngcommi
    tment

     Overthepast35y ears,UNmember shav erepeat


    edly“commi tted0.7%of
    ri
    ch-
    countries’gr oss nationalincome ( GNI)to OfficialDev el
    opment
    Assi
    stance”Thecommi t
    mentwasf irstmadei n1970byt heUNGener al
    Assembly.
     Thetextoft heCommi tmentwas:
    - Eacheconomi callyadvancedcount rywil
    lprogr essi
    velyincrease
    i
    tsof f
    ici
    aldev el
    opmentassi stancetodev el
    opi ngcount r
    iesand
    wil
    lexer titsbestef for
    tstor eachami ni
    mum netamountof0. 7
    percentofi t
    sgr ossnat ionalpr oductatmar ketpricesbyt he
    middl eofthedecade.

    Eur
    opeanUni
    on

     I
    n 2005 European Uni
    on reaffi
    rmed i
    tscommi t
    mentt ot he0. 7% aid
    tar
    5get
    s,notingthat“fouroutoff i
    vecountr
    ies,whichexceedt heUN
    tar
    getforODAof0.7%,ofGNIar ememberstat
    esoft heEuropeanUni on”
    .
    Furt
    her
    mor e,t
    heUN“ beli
    evesthatdonor
    sshouldcommi tt
    or eachingthe
    l
    ong-st
    andingtar
    getof0/7percentofGNIby2015”.

    Uni
    tedSt
    ates

     Howev erthe United Stat


    es as wel las ot hernat i
    ons di sput
    ed the
    Mont er
    reyConsensusthaturged“ dev
    elopedcountriesthathav enotdone
    sotomakeconcr eteeffort
    st owardsthetargetof0. 7%ofgr ossnational
    product(GNP)asODAt odev elopi
    ngcount r
    ies”
     TheUSconsi st
    entl
    yopposedset t
    ingspeci
    ficforei
    gn-ai
    dt ar
    get ssi
    ncethe
    UNGener alAssemblyfi
    rstendorsedthe0.7%goal in1970.

    OECD

    263
     ManyOr ganizati
    onf orEconomicCo-operati
    onandDev elopment( OECD)
    nati
    ons,didnotdonat e0.7%oftheirGNI.Somenations’contr
    ibut
    ionsfel
    l
    farshor
    tof0. 7%.
     The Austral
    ian governmentcommi tt
    ed to provi
    ding 0.5% ofGNIi n
    I
    nternat
    ionalDevelopmentAssistanceby2015-2016.

    Rev
    iewSummi
    t2010

     Amaj orconf
    erencewashel datUNheadquartersinNew Yorkon20- 22
    September2010t orevi
    ewpr ogr
    esstowardstheeightanti
    -pover
    tygoals.
    Majornew commi t
    ment s on women’s and chi
    ldr
    en’s heat
    h,poverty,
    hungeranddiseaseensued.

    I
    mpr
    ovement
    s

     Impr ov i
    ng l i
    ving condi t
    ions in dev el
    oping countries may encour age
    healthywor kersnott omov etoot herplacesthatofferabet t
    erlif
    estyl
    e.
     Cuba,i tsel
    fadev elopi
    ngcount ry,playedasi gni
    ficantroleinpr ovi
    ding
    medi calper sonnelt ootherdev elopingnat i
    ons;ithast rai
    nedmor ethan
    14,500medi calst udent
    sf r
    om 30di f
    fer
    entcountri
    esati t
    sLat i
    nAmer ican
    SchoolofMedi cineinHav anasi nce1999.Mor eover,some36, 000Cuban
    Phy sicians wor ked in 72 count ries,from Europe t o SoutheastAsi a,
    i
    ncludi ng31Af ricancount ri
    es,and29count ri
    esinAmer i
    cas.Count ri
    es
    such as Hondur as,Guat emala,and Ni caragua benef i
    tf r
    om Cuban
    assist ance.

    Post2015dev
    elopmentagenda

     Although t here has been maj or adv ancement s and i mpr ovement s
    achi evingsomeoft heMDGsev enbef oredeadl ineof2015,t hepr ogress
    has been unev en bet ween t he count ri
    es.I n 2012 t he UN Secr etary-
    Gener alest abli
    shedt he“ UN Sy st em TaskTeam ont hePost -2015UN
    Dev elopmentAgenda” ,br i
    ngingt oget hermor et han60UNagenci esand
    i
    nt ernat i
    onal or gani zations t o f ocus and wor k on sust ai
    nable
    dev elopment .
     Att he MDG Summi t,UN MemberSt at es discussed t he Post -
    2015
    Dev elopmentAgenda and i niti
    at ed a pr ocess ofconsul tat i
    ons.Ci vil
    soci etyor ganizat i
    onsal soengagedi nt hepost -2015pr ocess,al ongwi th
    academi aandot herr esearchi nstitutions, incl
    udi ngthinktanks.
     The Sust ainabl
    e Dev el
    opmentGoal s( SDGs)hav e been pr oposed as
    target sr elati
    ngt of uturei nter
    nat ionaldev el
    opmentoncet heyexpi r
    eat
    theendof2015.
     OnJul y31, 2012, Secr etary-Gener alBanKi -moonappoi nted26publ i
    cand
    privatel eader stoadv isehim ont hepost–MDGagenda.
     In 2014,t he UN; s Commi ssion On St atus ofWomen agr eed on a
    documentt hatcal l
    edf ortheaccel erationofpr ogresst owar dsachi ev i
    ng
    theMi ll
    enni um Dev elopmentgoal s,andconf i
    rmedt heneedf orast and-
    alonegoalonGenderequal it
    yandwomen’ sempower menti npost -
    2015
    goal s.

    Rel
    atedact
    ivi
    ti
    es/
    organi
    zat
    ions

     The Unit
    ed Nations Mi
    l
    lennium Campaign is a UNDP campaign t
    o
    i
    ncreasesupportfort
    heMill
    ennium Devel
    opmentGoals.TheMil
    l
    ennium
    Campaign t ar
    gets int
    ergov er
    nmental
    , government, ci
    vi
    l societ
    y
    organi
    zat
    ionsandmediaatglobalandregi
    onal
    level
    s.

    264
     TheMi llennium Pr omi seAl li
    ance,Inc.( orsi mpl ythe“Mi l
    lennium Promi se”)
    i
    saU. S- basednon- profitorganizationf oundedi n2005byJef fr
    eySachs
    and RayChamber s.Mi ll
    ennium Pr omi se coor di
    nat ed t he Mil
    lennium
    Vil
    lagesPr ojecti npar tnershipwi thCol umbi a’sEarthI nstitut
    eandUNDP;
    i
    taimst odemonst r
    at eMDGf easibil
    it
    yt hroughani ntegr ated,communi ty
    -
    l
    edappr oach.Asof2012t heMi llennium Vi l
    lagePr ojectoper atedi n14
    sit
    esacr oss10Sub- Sahar aAf ri
    ca.
     TheGl obalPov ertyPr ojectisani nternat ionalcampai gnt hatencour ages
    MCsuppor tinEngl i
    sh- speakingCount ries.
     The Mi cah Chal l
    enge i s an i nt
    er nationalcampai gn t hatencour ages
    Christ
    ianst o suppor tMi l
    lennium Dev elopmentGoal s.Thei raim i st o
    “encour ageourl eader st ohalvegl obal pov ertyby2015. ”
     TheYout hinAct i
    onEUPr ogramme“ Car toonsi nAct ion”pr oj
    ectcr eated
    animat edv ideosaboutMDGs,andv ideosaboutMDGst argetsusi ng
    ArcadeC64v i
    deogames.
     TheWor ldWeWant2015i sapl atf
    or m andj oi
    ntv entur ebetweent he
    United Nat ions and Ci vilSoci et
    yOr gani zat i
    ons thatsuppor ts citi
    zen
    parti
    cipat i
    oni ndef i
    ninganewgl obaldev elopmentf ramewor ktor eplace
    theMi l
    lenni um Dev elopmentGoal s.

    Educat
    ion

     Accessi ngDev elopmentEducat i


    oni sawebpor tal
    .Itpr ovidesr elevant
    i
    nf ormat i
    on about dev elopment and gl obal educat i
    on and hel ps
    educat orsshar er esourcesandmat eri
    alsthatar emostsui t abl
    ef ort hei
    r
    wor k.
     TheTeachMDGsEur opeanpr oj
    ectaimst oincreaseMDGawar enessand
    publicsuppor tbyencour agingteachert r
    aini
    ngi nsti
    tutes,t eachersand
    pupilsindev elopingl ocalteachi
    ngresourcest hatpromot etheMDGswi th
    af ocusi nsub- SaharaAf ri
    ca.
     GlobalEducat i
    onMagazi nei sanini
    tiat
    ivelaunchedbyt het eachingt eam
    thatf ormul ated t he proposalmostv oted int he gr
    oup “ Sustainable
    Dev el
    opmentf orEr adicati
    onofPov ert
    yi nRi o20” .Itissuppor t
    edby
    UNESCOandUNHCRandai mst ocreateacommonpl acet odi ssemi nate
    transcultural,
    transpol i
    ti
    cal,tr
    ansnat
    ionalandt ranshumani stknowl edge

    UNGoal
    s

     UNGoalsisagl
    obalproj
    ectdedi
    cat
    edtospreadi
    ngknowl
    edgeofMDG
    thr
    oughv
    ari
    ousi
    nter
    netandoff
    li
    neawar
    enesscampai
    gns.

    Li
    brar
    iesandMi
    ll
    enni
    um Dev
    elopmentGoal
    s

     Li
    br ariansand ot hersint hei nformat i
    onpr ofessionsar ei nauni que
    posi ti
    ont ohel pachievetheMi ll
    ennium Dev el
    opmentGoal s.Itisoftent he
    dissemi nat ionofkeyi nformat i
    on,e.g.,aboutheal t
    h,thatchangesdai ly
    l
    ifeandcanaf f
    ectanent i
    recommuni ty
     Mi l
    lennium Dev el
    opmentGoal sarenotonl yf ort hedev elopingwor ld.
    Mar et( 2011)speci fi
    call
    yaddr esseshowU. Spubl i
    clibr
    ariescanhel pthe
    UnitedSt atesmeett hegoal s.Thewor kofU.S.l i
    brari
    anshasev olvedina
    mannert hati ncorporates human r ightv alues and pr ecepts wi thout
    havinggener al
    lyusedt helanguaget hatchar acteri
    zest hephi losophi cal
    andet hicalgoal sofhumanr ightsandhumandev el
    opment .Libr
    ariansar e
    ablet of ur thertheMi l
    lennium Dev elopmentGoal sand cont ri
    but eby
    prov i
    dingi nformationandser vicestoal lpeopl einv aryi
    ngf ormat sand
    l
    anguages.
     AlbrigthandKwooy a(2007)r eportthatcul t
    uralandf i
    nanci albarriersin
    sub- Sahar anAf ri
    cai mpedeLI Seducat i
    onpr ogr ams.Asar esult,MDG

    265
    goal
    sf orpovert
    y,heal
    thcare,and educationfallshort
    .Highr at
    esof
    HIV/
    AIDS,andescal
    ati
    ngchildandmat ernalmortal
    it
    yarethedir
    ectresul
    t
    of pover
    ty and substandard medicalcar e. Limit
    ed inst
    ructi
    on in
    i
    nformati
    onaccessandexchangecontributestothi
    songoingdil
    emma.

    SOCIALWELFARE
    POLICIES,
    PROGRAMSAND
    SERVICES

    Rev
    iewer
    :

    266
    Dr
    .Mar
    cel
    inaG.Car
    pizo,
    RSW

    Def
    ini
    ti
    onofSoci
    alPol
    icy

     Isagui def
    orasetl edcourseofact ioncomposedofcol lecti
    vedecessi
    ons
    dir
    ectl
    yconcernedwithpromotingthewel l
    -beingofallorapar
    toft hepopul
    ati
    on
     Rulesthegovernpeople'
    sli
    vesanddi ct
    ateex pectati
    onforbehav i
    or
     Pri
    nciples that gov ern act i
    on di r
    ect ed t oward gi ven ends-chargi
    ng
    si
    tuati
    ons,sy
    stems,practi
    ces,
    behav i
    or;i
    spr oblem andacti
    onor i
    ented

    Soci
    alWel
    far
    ePol
    icy

     Lawsandr egulati
    onst hatgover nwhi chsocialwelfar
    eexi st, whatcategori
    esof
    cl
    ientsareservedandwhoqual if
    iesf oragivenprogram; soi ncl
    udesstandards
     Socialwelfare pr
    ogr am ar e put t
    ing into act
    ion ori mpl ement at
    ion ofsocial
    welfar
    epolicy
     Socialwelf
    arepolicymustembodyempower ment&t hedel i
    v eryofpubli
    c
    welfar
    eserv i
    cesmustef fectani ntenttoempowert heindiv idual
     Asapr ocessconsi stofconsequent i
    alstepsproblem-solving
     Asapr oduct:l
    aws, judi
    cialdecisions,admi ni
    str
    ati
    v edir
    ect i
    v es

    Soci
    alWor
    kandSoci
    alPol
    icy

     Provideper specti
    vesonthecontextinwhichsocialworkispracticed
     Poli
    cyi nfusespracti
    ce&practi
    ceaf f
    ectspoli
    cyincompl ex&div erseways
     Int
    egr ati
    onofSW pr act
    ice&pol i
    cy:pol
    icyinf
    luencespractice&pr acti
    ceinforms
    poli
    cy
     SWr s as pol i
    cymaker s:can & should be commi tt
    ed a pr omot i
    ng cit
    izen'
    s
    enti
    tlement sthatpowersocialstr
    uctur
    e,enhancesocialf unct
    ioningandensur e
    j
    usticeal ll
    evels

    Pol
    i
    cyPr
    act
    ice&Pol
    icyAdv
    ocacy

     4thdimensi onofSW pr act i


    ce
     Policypr actice:ef fortst ochangepol i
    ciesi nl egisl
    ati
    ve,agency&communi t
    y
    settingswhet herbyest abli
    shingnewpol icies,i
    mpr ovingexi
    stingonesor
    defeat i
    ngthepol icyiniti
    at i
    vesofot herpeopl e
     Policyadv ocacy :policypr act
    icet hataimst ohel pr el
    ati
    vel
    ypower l
    essgr oups
    i
    mpr ovetheirr esources&oppor t
    uniti
    es
     Processofwor ki
    ngwi thand/ oronbehal fofclientstoobtainserv ices/r
    esources
    thatwoul dnotot herwi sebepr ovi
    ded;modi fyi nfl
    uencepol i
    cies,pr ocedures,
    pract i
    ces t hat adv ersely af fect groups/ communi ti
    es promot el egi
    slati
    ons
    poli
    ci es thatwi l
    lr esulti
    nt heprovision/mushneededr esour ces/servi
    ces.

    267
    Val
    uePerspect i
    veonSoci alResponsi bili
    ty
     Conser vati
    sm:philosophyt hatindivi
    dualsar er esponsibl
    ef orthemselves;that
    gov ernmentshouldpr ovidemi nimal i
    nterf
    erencei npeopleliv
    esandt hatchange
    i
    sgener all
    yunnecessar y;pr omotecapi tal
    isti
    cf ree-
    mar keteconomyt r
    aditi
    onal
    values,ruggedi ndiv
    idual i
    sm,compet iti
    on,adv ocate,pr i
    vat
    izi
    ngsoci alwelfare
    serv i
    cesthruNGOs, self-
    helpor ganizati
    ons&busi nessventures
     Li berali
    sm:philosophyt hatsuppor ts governmenti nv
    olvementi nt he social,
    politi
    cal&economi cst ructuresot hatallpeopl e'
    sr i
    ght&pr ivi
    l
    egear eprotected
    i
    nt henameofsoci aljustice;socialwel f
    arei st hecol l
    ect
    iveresponsibi
    lit
    yof
    society;championsoci alpolici
    est hatupholdf undament alhumanr i
    ghts&soci al
    equi t
    y

    Per
    specti
    vesonSoci alWel f
    ar e
     Resi dual:Concei ves soci alwel f
    are st
    ructure as tempor ar
    y,of fered duri
    ng
    emer gencysituations&wi thdrawnwhent her egul
    arsoci alsystem- famil
    y&t he
    economy -
    isagai nwor ki
    ngpr operl
    y;general
    lyreact
    iveandcar ri
    est hest i
    gmaof
    "dol
    es"or" charity
    "
     I nst
    ituti
    onal:seessoci alwel far
    easapr operlegi
    timat ef uncti
    on ofmoder n
    society;t
    hatsomei ndividual
    swhoar eunabletomeett hei
    rneedsi sconsi dereda
    "normal"condition&hel pingagenciesareacceptedas" regular"i
    nsti
    tut i
    ons
     Phi l
    ippines:Combi nati
    onoft hetwoperspecti
    vesinviewoft henatureofpeopl e'
    s
    problemsandneeds.

    Changi
    ngCont
    ext
    sAf
    fect
    ingSoci
    alPol
    icy&Soci
    alWor
    k

     I
    deascont ext:values&i deasshapepol ici
    es&t hedeliv
    erysocialservices:v i
    ew
    towar dt hepoor :exper i
    ences&bel i
    efs
     Demogr aphi ccont ext:popul ationincr ease&mi gr
    ati
    on:ov er
    seasempl oy ment&
    technol ogy
     Organi zationalcont ext:t ensionsbet weent henat i
    onalandl ocalgover nment&
    gov ernment&nongov ernment / pr
    ivatesect ors
     I
    nt ernationalcont ext:gl obalizati
    on ( economi c,social
    ,cul t
    ural
    );inter nat
    ional
    peace&secur it
    y/terrorism: humanr ight s&f undamental f
    reedoms;

    Soci
    alPol
    icyFor
    mul
    ati
    on

     Ident i
    fi
    cat
    ion&definit
    ionofthepr obl
    em
     Anal ysi
    softheproblem
     Dev elopmentofpoli
    cygoal sincl
    udingthei
    nvol
    vementofot
    heragenci
    es
     Buildingofpubli
    csuppor t
     Legislati
    onorenunciationofpolicy
     Impl ementat
    ionandadmi ni
    strat
    ion
     Assessment&ev al
    uation

    Cl
    assi
    fi
    cat
    ionofSoci
    alPol
    ici
    es

     Publ i
    cpol i
    cy:act i
    onusual l
    yunder takenbygov ernmentdi r
    ectedatapar ti
    cular
    goal &legi t
    imat edbyt hecommi t
    mentofpubl i
    cresour ces
     l
    egi sl
    ativepol i
    cy :Congr ess/ Sangguni an
     Execut i
    v epol i
    cy :Of fi
    ceoft hePr esi dent -
    executiveor der
    s,proclamations,local
    chiefexecut ive'smemor anda, di
    rectives.
     j
    udi ci
    al poli
    cy: courtdeci sionsatal llev els
     Admi nistrati
    ve pol icy:pol ices wi thint he cont extofa par ti
    cularpr obl
    ems,
    program- admi nistrativeor der s,guidelines, dir
    ecti
    v es
     Agencypol icy:policiesgov erningt hesoci alagencyf rom whi chrules,
    procedures
    &r egulationsar ebasedi .e.t argetclient el
    e, pr
    ograms/ servi
    ces,
    met hodsofi mpl ement ation&ev al
    uat ion

    268
    POLI
    CIESONCHI
    LDRENANDYOUTH

    UNConvent
    ionont
    heRi
    ghtoft
    heChi
    ld

     AdoptedbytheUni
    tedNati
    onson20November1989
     Rat
    ifi
    edbythePhil
    i
    ppinesi
    nJuly
    ,1990

    RI
    GHTOFTHECHI
    LD

     Survi
    val -name&nat i
    onali
    ty,t
    obebor nwell,
    basi
    cneeds,famil
    y,et
    c.
     Development-health,educati
    on,r
    ecreat
    ion,pl
    ay,
    etc.
     Prot
    ect i
    on-abuse,neglect,
    exploi
    tat
    ion
     Part
    icipati
    on-expr
    essownv iewsandopinionsonmatter
    saf f
    ecti
    nghi
    s/herl
    i
    fe

    Gui
    dingPr
    inci
    ples

     Non-di scrimi
    nation(Ar
    t.2)
     Bestinterestofthechil
    d( Ar
    t.3)
     Surv
    ival &development(Ar t
    .6)
     Part
    icipation(Art
    .12)

    UNConvent
    ionont
    heRi
    ghtoft
    heCHI
    LD

     Set
    souttheseri
    ghtsi
    n54ar t
    icl
    esandt woOptionalProt
    ocol
    s:
     ontheinvol
    vementofchil
    dreninarmedconf l
    ict
     onthesaleofchi
    ldr
    en,chil
    dprosti
    tut
    ion,andchil
    dpornogr
    aphy

    Bar
    angay-LevelTot
    alDevel
    opment&Pr
    otect
    ionofChi
    ldr
    enAct
    (
    RA6972)

     ApprovedNov ember20, 1990


     Establ
    ishmentofadaycar ecenteri
    nev
    erybarangayf
    orchi
    ldr
    enupto6y ear
    sof
    ageofwor ki
    ngmot hers
     Incl
    udesmoni tor
    ingofregist
    rati
    onofbi
    rth&immunizat
    ionofchi
    l
    dren,
    growth&

    269
    nut
    ri
    ti
    onalwit
    hsuppl
    emental
    nutr
    it
    ionalf
    eedi
    ng
     DSWDt osetst
    andar
    dsandaccr
    editdaycar
    eworker
    s/cent
    ers

    Ear
    lyChi
    ldhoodCareandDevel
    opmentAct
    (RA8990)

     Prov
    idesacoher ent&compr ehensi
    venati
    onalpolicyf
    orthei
    mplementat
    ionof
    ECCD
     Prov
    ideoftheinstit
    uti
    onal
    izati
    onofanat i
    onalsystem f
    orECCDforchi
    l
    dren0-6
    year
    sofaget hatiscomprehensive,i
    ntegr
    ati
    ve,sustai
    nabl
    e&inv
    olvesmulti
    -
    sect
    oral&int
    er-agencycol
    laborati
    onatalll
    evel
    s
     Approvedon5December2000

    ECCDObj
    ect
    ives

     Improv einf ant&chi l


    dsur viv
    al rates
     Enhancet hehol isticdev el
    opmentofy oungchi l
    dren
     Facil
    itate a smoot ht ransition f rom car e & educat ion provided athome t o
    communi tyt oschool -
    basedset ting
     Ensuret haty oung chi l
    dren ar eadequat elypr epar ed fort hef ormallearning
    system
     Establish an ef ficientsy stem f orear lyi dentifi
    cat i
    on,pr eventi
    on,r ef
    erral&
    i
    ntervent i
    onf ordev el
    opment al disorders&di sabili
    ti
    esi nearlychil
    dhood
     Enhancet her oleofpar ents& ot hercar egi v
    er sast hepr imaryeducat ors&
    caregiversoft heirchi l
    drenf rom bi rthonwar ds
     Enhancet hecapabi l
    i
    tiesofser vicepr oviders&t heirsuperv i
    sorst ocompl ywith
    qualit
    yst andar dsf orv ari
    ousECCDpr ograms
     Enhance&sust aint heef f
    or tsofcommuni tiest opr omoteECCD pr ograms&
    ensuret hatspeci al suppor tispr ov i
    dedf orpoor&di sadvantagedcommuni ti
    es
     Improv edt hequal itystandar dsofpubl icandpr ivateECCDpr ograms

    ECCDSyst
    em Pr
    ogr
    ams

     Creat
    edt henat i
    onalECCDCoor dinat
    ingCouncil
    int
    heCouncilfort
    heWel f
    are
    ofChil
    drenupt otheprovi
    nci
    al,ci
    ty,munici
    pal&bar
    agay
     Acti
    vepar t
    icipati
    onoftheparents&communi ti
    es
     BRIGHTCHI LD-packageofheal t
    h,educati
    onandpsychosoci
    alser
    vices
     Li
    censing&accr edi
    tat
    ionofECCDpr ograms&centers

    Domest
    icAdopt
    ionActof1998
    (
    RA8552)

     Prov i
    sionofper
    manentf amil
    ytoachi l
    dwhoi sabandoned,neglect
    ed&wi thout
    af amily
     Adopt i
    onisasoci o-l
    egalprocesswher eaper manentparent-
    chil
    d&r el
    ationship
    i
    sf ormedandt hechi l
    dacqui r
    est hesamer ight
    s& pr iv
    il
    egesast hatofa
    biologi
    calchi
    ld
     Prov i
    sionofservicestobiologicalparentstoassistthem keeptheirchil
    dunder
    theircareandotheroptionsinconsi derat
    ionofthebestint
    erestofthechild

    Chi
    l
    drenf
    orAdopt
    ion

     Anyper sonbelow 18y


    earsol
    dwhohasbeendeclaredavai
    l
    ableforadopt
    ion
    (DVC/DA
     I
    llegi
    ti
    mat echi
    l
    dbyaquali
    fi
    edadopt
    ert
    oimpr
    ovest
    atustot
    hatoflegi
    ti
    macy

    270
     Personofl egalagei f
    ,pri
    ortoadopt i
    on,saidper
    sonhasbeenconsi
    stent
    ly
    considered&treat
    edbytheadoptersastheirchi
    ld
     Chil
    dwhoseadopt i
    onhasbeenrescinded
     Anor phanedchil
    d

    WhoMayAdopt

     AnyFi li
    pinocit
    izenofl egal age,i
    npossessionoffullci
    vilcapaci ty&legalr ights,
    ofgoodmor alchar acter ,hasnotbeenconv i
    ctedofanycr imei nvol
    vi
    ngmor al
    turpi
    tude,emot ionally&psy chol
    ogi
    cal
    lycapable,atleast16y ear solderthant he
    adopt ee&whoi sablet osuppor t&careforhis/herchil
    dr eni nkeepi ngwi ththe
    meansoft hefami ly
     Anyal i
    enpossessi ngt hesamequal i
    fi
    cati
    onspr ovidedhe/ shehasl iv
    edi nthe
    Phili
    ppinesf oratl east3cont i
    nuousyear& wi llmaint ainr esidenceunt i
    lthe
    compl etionoftheadopt ion
     A guar dianwithr espectt ot hewardafterthet erminat i
    onofguar dianship&
    clearanceofall account abiliti
    es.

    Pr
    ocessofAdopt
    ion

     Appli
    cati
    onincludingatt
    endancetoanadopti
    onforum
     Conductofadopt i
    onhomest udybyasocialwor
    ker
     Matchingwithachi l
    d,i
    fapproved
     Pl
    acementl eadingtosupervi
    sedtri
    alcust
    ody
     Courtheari
    ng
     I
    ssuanceofadopt iondecreeincl
    udi
    ngchangeofname

    Ef
    fectofAdopt
    ion

     Chil
    dunderthepar
    entalauthor
    it
    yofadopti
    veparent
    s
     Chil
    dconsider
    edal egi
    ti
    mat echil
    dofadopter
    s-useoff ami
    l
    ynameandot
    her
    ri
    ghts
     Chil
    dhassamer i
    ghtsinsuccessi
    onasthatofalegi
    ti
    mat
    echil
    d

    I
    nter
    -Count
    ryAdopt
    ionAct
    sof1995(
    RA8043)

     I
    nter-count r
    yadopt i
    on-soci o-l
    egalprocessofadopt ingaFi l
    ipinochildbya
    forei
    gneroraFi li
    pinocit
    izenspermanent lyr
    esidingabr oadwheret hepeti
    ti
    onis
    fi
    eld,super visedt ri
    alcustodyisunder taken&t hedecr eeofadopt i
    onisissued
    outsidethePhi li
    ppines
     I
    CASast helastr esort-whenchi l
    dcannotbeadopt edinthePhil
    ippines
     State Par tyt ot he Hague conv ent
    ion on t he protect
    ion ofchi l
    dren and
    Cooper ationi nrespectofInter-
    CountryAdoptionin1995
     Createdt heI nter-
    CountryAdopt i
    onBoar d
     Samer equirement s&pr oceduresasdomest i
    claw

    Compr
    ehensi
    veJuveni
    leJust
    ice&Wel
    far
    eActof2006
    (
    RA9344)

     Increaset
    heageofcr i
    mi nalresponsi
    bil
    ityofachi
    ld
     Usest hef
    ramewor kofrestorati
    vejusti
    ce
     Diversi
    onfrom t
    hejusti
    cesy stem thr
    ucommuni ty-
    basedprogr
    ams/ i
    nter
    vent
    ions
     CreatedtheJuv eni
    leJust i
    ce&Wel fareCouncil&aj uveni
    lejust
    ice&wel far
    e
    system

    Si
    l
    entPr
    ovi
    sions

    271
     Rest orati
    vej ust i
    ce-pr inciplewhi chr equi resapr ocessofr esol vingconf li
    ctswi th
    themaxi mum i nv olvementoft hev ictim,r econci li
    ati
    onoft heof fended&t he
    communi t
    y&r eassur ancet ot heof f
    endert hathe/ shecanber eintegr atedi nto
    soci ety.
     Juv enil
    eJust ice& Wel fareSy stem -sy stem deal i
    ng wi thchi l
    drenatr isk&
    childreni nconf lictwi tht hel aw whi chpr ov i
    deschi ld-appr opriatepr oceedi ngs,
    i
    ncl uding pr ogr ams & ser v ices f orpr ev ention,di version,r ehabi li
    tation,r e-
    i
    ntegr ati
    on&af tercar et oensur etheirnor mal growt h&dev el opment
     Childi n conf li
    ctwi tht he l aw ( CICL)used i nstead oft he t erm " youthf ul
    offender "
    inPD603; ri
    ght sofCI CL( Sec.5)
     Max imum ageofcr imi nal responsi bil
    ity
     Chi ld15y r
    s.Ol dorunderatt het imeoft hecommi ssi onoft heof f
    ensei s
    exemptf rom cr imi nal r
    esponsi bili
    tybutsubj ectt ointerv entionpr ogram
     Chi ldabov e15y rs.Butbel ow 18y rs.Ol di sal soexemptf rom cr i
    mi nal
    responsi bili
    ty&besubj ect edt oani ntervent i
    onpr ogr am unl ess
    he/sheact ed wi th di scer nment i n whi ch case be subj ected t o
    appropriat epr oceedi nge. g. diver sionpr ogr am ofsuspendedsent ence
     Deter mination of age - bi rth cer tifi
    cat es,bapt i
    smal cer tifi
    cat e,phy sical
    appear ance, school recor ds, ect .
     Prev enti
    onofj uv eni l
    edel i
    nquency
     f amily:nur turing&car i
    ngchi ldren
     educat ional sy stem t owor kwi ththecommuni ties&agenci es, NGOs
     massmedi a: pr omot iononchi ld'
    sr ight s&messages
     est abli
    shment /strengt heni ngofl ocal counci lsf orthepr ot ectionofchi ldren
     Sangguni angkabat aanf ori mpl ement ationofi nterventionpr ograms
     appoi ntmentofl ocal Soci alWel f
    ar e&Dev el
    opmentOf fi
    cer

     Comprehensivej uvenil
    ei nt
    erventionpr ogram
     primaryinterv enti
    on-gener al measur est opromotesoci
    alj
    ustice&equal
    opportunitywhi cht ackl
    er ootcauses
     secondaryi nter v
    ent i
    on-measur etoassi stchi
    ldr
    enatri
    sk( OSY,st
    reetchil
    d,
    abandoned, abused, exploit
    ed, ect.
    )
     tert
    iaryi
    nt ervention-measur est oavoi dunnecessar
    ycontactwitht
    hef or
    mal
    justi
    cesy stem &ot hermeasur est opr eventre-
    off
    endi
    ng

     Fact
    orsi ndetermi ni
    ngdi versi
    onpr ogram
     nat ure&ci rcumst ancesoft heoffense
     frequency&sev erit
    yoft heact
     circumst ancesofchi l
    d(age, maturit
    y,i
    ntel
    li
    gence,
    ect.
    )
     influencesoff ami ly&env i
    ronmentonchi l
    d'
    sgrowth
     repar at
    ionofi njurytothev i
    ctim
     wei ghtofev i
    denceagai nstthechild
     saf etyoft hecommuni ty
     besti nterestoft hechild

     SW determineswet herchi
    l
    dactedwithdi
    scernmentornot
     Whichmay bechallengedbyv i
    cti
    m,pr
    osecutor&others
     SW formulatesdiv
    er si
    onprogr
    am wit
    hchil
    d,fami
    ly,vi
    cti
    m
     Courtproceedings

    Yout
    hinNat
    ion-
    Bui
    ldi
    ngAct
    (RA8044)

     Youth-personwhoi sfrom 15to30y rsofage


     Creat
    edtheNat ionalYout
    hCommi ssionwhichformulatedthemedium-Term
    Youth DevelopmentPl an & the Nat i
    onalCompr ehensive & Coor
    dinat
    ed
    Program onYout hDevelopment
     Consti
    tut
    edt he"YouthParl
    iament"convenedevery2y ears

    272
     Est
    abli
    shedanAdv
    isor
    yCounci
    l
     Approv
    edonJune1995

     NYCPr
    ograms&Ser vi
    ces
     Yout hEntr
    epreneurshi
    pPr ogram (YEP)
     TenAccompl i
    shedYouthOr ganizati
    on(TAYO)
     PANGAnt i
    -DrugCampai gn
     President
    ialYouthFell
    owshi pProgram (
    PYFP)
     Gov ernmentInt
    ernshipProgram

    MAGNACARTAforDI
    SABLEDPERSONS
    (RA7277)

    Def
    ini
    ti
    onoft
    erms

     Disabledpersonsarethosesuf f
    eringf r
    om restri
    cti
    onordi f
    ferentabi l
    it
    ies,asa
    resultofament al
    ,physi
    cal orsensor yimpairment,t
    operform andact iv
    ityin
    themannerorwi thi
    nther angeconsi derednor malf
    orahumanbei ng
     Impairmenti sanylossdi mi nutionoraber rati
    onofpsy chological,anatomical
    structur
    eorfuncti
    on
     Disabili
    tyshal
    lmeana)phy sicalorment alimpair
    mentthatsubst anti
    allyli
    mits
    oneormor epsychol
    ogical,psy chologicaloranatomicalf
    unctionofani ndivi
    dual
    oract ivi
    ti
    esofsuchani ndividual;b)ar ecordofsuchi mpairment ;c)bei ng
    regardedashav i
    ngsuchani mpai rment

    Ri
    ght
    sandPr
    ivi
    legesofDi
    sabl
    edPer
    sons

     Empl oyment : equal oppor tunity f or empl oy ment ; shel tered empl oy ment;
    vocat i
    onal rehabi l
    itat i
    on, guidance&counsel i
    ng;incent i
    v est oempl oy ers
     Educat ion:accesst oqual i
    tyeducat i
    on;speci aleducat ion,v ocat ional/technical
    tr
    aining, non-formal educat i
    on; assistancet odisabledst udent s, SUCs
     Heal t
    h: national heal thpr ogr am, medi calrehabili
    tationcent er s, healthser vices
     Auxi l
    i
    arysoci al ser vice: DSWD
     Assistancei nt heacqui siti
    onofpr ostheticdev ices& medi alintervent ionof
    specialtyser vices
     Prov i
    sionofspeci alizedt rainingact ivit
    iesrelat
    edt ocommuni cat i
    onski l
    ls
     Dev el
    opmentamongPWDsaposi ti
    vesel f
    -imaget hr ucounsel i
    ng, orientation &
    mobi li
    ty&st r
    engt heni ngdai lylivingcapabi l
    ity
     Prov i
    sion of f ami ly car e ser v i
    ces gear ed t owar ds dev el opment f amili
    es'
    capabi l
    itytor espondt oneeds
     Prov i
    sionofsubst it
    ut ef ami lycar eser vi
    ces&t hef aci l
    i
    tiesf orabandoned,
    neglected, abused&unat tachedPWDs
     Prov i
    sionofaf tercar e&f oll
    ow- upser vi
    ces
     Prov i
    sionofdaycar eser vi
    cesf orchildrenofpr e-school age
     Telecommuni cat i
    ons:si gn l anguage i n broadcastmedi a,speci alt elephone
    de4v i
    ces, f
    reepost al ser v
    ices
     Accessi bili
    ty( BP 344) :bar ri
    er -
    free env i
    ronmentf oraccess t o private/publi
    c
    buil
    dings& est abl i
    shment s;mobi l
    it
    y( dri
    v i
    ngmot orv ehi cle) ;accesst opubl i
    c
    tr
    anspor tati
    onf aci l
    ities
     Politi
    cal &ci vi
    l r
    ight s-righttov ote,assembl eandt oor gani ze

    Ot
    herPr
    ovi
    sions

     Prohi
    bit
    ion ofdi
    scri
    minati
    on on employ
    ment,transpor
    tat
    ion,use ofpubl
    i
    c
    accommodat i
    on&serv
    ices;
    freeuseofgovt
    .Spor
    tsfaci
    li
    ti
    es

    273
     Prohibiti
    onofhousingprogram
     Taxi ncenti
    vesfordonors
     Suppor ttoNGOs&v ol
    unteerserv
    ice
     National Counci
    lfort
    heWel far
    eofDisabl
    edPer
    sons-pol
    i
    cy-
    maki
    ngcoor
    dinat
    ing

    Amendi
    ngRA7277
    (RA9442)

     AnActAmendi ngRA7277si gnedon30Apr il2007


     PWDsar eent it
    ledt opr i
    v i
    leges& i ncent
    ives( 20% discountinland,ai
    r,sea,
    tr
    ansport
    ati
    on;medi cines,medi cal& dental,diagnosti
    c& l abor
    ator
    yservi
    ces;
    l
    eisur
    e,cult
    ural&amusement ;hotel
    s,lodgi
    ng, ect
    .expresslanes)
     I
    ncenti
    vesforcar i
    ng&l i
    vingwi thPWD
     Penal
    ti
    esincludi
    ngv il
    i
    fication/publi
    cridi
    cul
    eofPWDs
     Changefrom "di
    sabledper sons"t oPWDs

    Execut
    iveOr
    der709

     EO709-Redef i
    ningtheFunct i
    ons&Or ganizati
    onalStruct
    ureofNCWDPwhi chis
    renamedNat ionalCounci lonDi sabil
    it
    yAf fair
    s&at tachedt ot
    heOf f
    iceoft he
    Presidenti ssuedon26Febr uary2008
     Funct i
    ons:pol i
    cy& pr ogr am dev el
    opment ,monit
    oring ofimplement at
    ion of
    nati
    onal l aws & commi tments,r esearches,data-banking coordinat
    ion &
    networ king
     Gov erningBoar d-NGAs&6pr i
    vateindi
    viduals(2NGOs,2PWDs,2ci vicgroups)
    assistedbysecr etar
    iat
     LGUsencour agedt ocr eatel ocalcommi tteesondisabili
    tyaff
    airs/
    designatea
    coor di
    nat or

    I
    nter
    nat
    ionalI
    nst
    rument
    s

     UNConv enti
    onont heRightsofPWDsadopt edinDecember2006
     Standar
    dRul esontheEqualizati
    onofOpportuni
    ti
    esforPWDsadoptedbytheUN
    on20December1993
     Wor l
    dProgrammeofAct ionConcerni
    ngDisabledPersonsadopt
    edbyUNon3
    December1982
     Agendaf orActionforAsia&t hePacifi
    cDecadeofDi sabl
    edPer
    sonsbasedon
    theBiwakoMi l
    lenni
    um Framewor kact
    ion

    Bi
    wakoMi
    ll
    enni
    um Fr
    amewor
    kforAct
    ion

     Topr omot eaninclusi


    ve,
    bar r
    ier-
    free&r i
    ghts-basedsociet
    yforPWDs
     "i
    nclusive"soci
    etymeansasoci etyf oral
    l
     "bar
    rier-
    free"soci
    etymeansasoci etyfreef r
    om physical&atti
    tudi
    nalbar
    ri
    ersas
    wellasoci et
    y,economic,&cul t
    ural barri
    ers
     ri
    ghts-based"societymeansasoci etybasedont heconceptofhumanr i
    ghts,
    i
    ncludingt heri
    ghttodevelopment

    Pr
    ior
    it
    yAr
    easf
    orAct
    ion

     Self
    -hel
    por gani zati
    onsofPWDs&r el
    atedfami l
    y&parentassoci
    ati
    ons
     Womenwi t
    hdi sabil
    iti
    es
     Earl
    ydet ecti
    on, earl
    yinterventi
    on&educat i
    on
     Trai
    ning&empl oyment ,
    includi
    ngself
    -employment
     Accesst obuiltenv i
    ronment&publ i
    ctranspor t
     Accesst oinfor ms&communi cat
    ions,incl
    udinginf
    ormati
    on,communi cati
    ons&
    assi
    stivetechnol ogies
     Poverty all
    eviat i
    on through capacit
    y -
    buil
    ding,socialsecuri
    ty & sustai
    nabl
    e

    274
    l
    i
    vel
    i
    hood

    St
    rat
    egi
    est
    oAchi
    eveTar
    get
    s

     Nati
    onal pl
    anofact i
    onondisabil
    it
    y
     Pr
    omot ionofrights-
    basedapproachtodisabi
    li
    tyissues
     Di
    sabil
    itystat
    isti
    cs/commondef i
    niti
    onofdisabi
    li
    tiesforpl
    anni
    ng
     St
    rengthened communi ty-
    based approaches tot he pr
    event
    ion ofcauses of
    di
    sabil
    i
    ty ,r
    ehabil
    it
    ation&empower mentofPWDs

    Convent
    ionont
    heRi
    ght
    sofPer
    sonswi
    thDi
    sabi
    li
    ti
    es

     Adoptedbyt heUNGener al Assembl yon13December2006


     Openedf orsi gnaturebymembercount rieson30Mar ch2007si gnedbyPhil.in
    Sept.
     2001AdHocCommi t
    teecr eatedbyt heGAdr aftedtheconv ention
     650 M PWD' s wor l
    dwi de,about10% oft he world's populati
    on lack the
    opportuni
    tiesoft hemai nst ream populati
    on
     Purpose:topr omot e,prot ect&ensur ethef ull&equalenj oymentofal lhuman
    ri
    ghts&f undament alfreedomsbyal lPWDs&t opromot erespectforthei
    r
    i
    nherentdigni t
    y
     PWDsi ncludet hosewhohav elong-t
    erm physical,mental,
    intel
    lect
    ualor
    sensoryimpai rment swhi chi ni nt
    eracti
    onwi thv ari
    ousbar ri
    ersmayhi ndert
    heir
    ful
    l&ef f
    ect i
    vepar ti
    cipationi nsociet
    yonanequal basi
    swi thothers.
    Gener
    alPr
    inci
    ples

     Respectf ort heinherentdignity


    ,i ndiv
    idualautonomyincl
    udingt
    hef r
    eedom to
    makeone' sownchoi ces&i ndependenceofper sons
     Non-di
    scr i
    mi nati
    on
     Ful
    l&ef fecti
    v eparti
    cipati
    on&i nclusioninsociety
     Respectf ordi f
    ference& accept anceofPWDsaspar tofhumandi ver
    sit
    y&
    humanity
     Equali
    tyofoppor tunit
    y
     Accessibil
    it
    y
     Equali
    tybet weenmen&women
     Respectf ortheinvolvingcapaciti
    esofchi ldr
    enwi thdi
    sabi
    l
    iti
    es&respectf
    orthe
    ri
    ghtsofCWDst opreservetheiridentit
    ies

    Sal
    ientPr
    ovi
    sionsoft
    heConvent
    ionont
    heRi
    ghtofPWDs

     Countri
    est odev el
    op&car ryoutpolici
    es,l
    aws&admi ni
    str
    ati
    vemeasuresf or
    securi
    ngt herightsrecogni
    zedi ntheConv enti
    on& abol
    ishlaws,regul
    ati
    ons,
    customs&pr acti
    cesthatconsti
    tut
    ediscri
    minati
    on
     Countri
    esaret ocombatst er
    eotypes&pr ej
    udices&promoteawarenessofthe
    capabil
    i
    tiesofPWDs

    Sal
    ientPr
    ovi
    sions

     Countriest oguar ant eethatPWDsenj oytheirinherentrighttolifeonanequal


    basiswi thot hers;ensuret heequalrights&adv ancementofwomen&gi r
    lswith
    disabil
    i
    ties&pr otectCWDs
     CWDsshal lhaveequalr i
    ghts,shallnotbesepar atedf r
    om theirparentsagainst
    theirwill,exceptwhent heaut horit
    iesdeterminet hatt hi
    si sthechi ld'
    sbest
    i
    nt er
    est&i nnocaseshal lbesepar atedfr
    om t heirparentsont hebasi sofa
    disabil
    i
    tyofei t
    hert hechil
    dort heparents
     Countriesar etor ecogni
    zet hatallpersonsareequalbef orethelaw,topr ohibit
    discri
    mi nationont hebasisofdisabil
    it
    y&guar anteeequal protect
    ion
     Countriest oensur etheequalr i
    ghttoown&i nheritproperty,t
    ocont r
    olfinancial
    affai
    rs&t ohav eequal accesstobankl oans,credit&mor tgages

    275
     Count ri
    est oensur eaccesst oj ust iceonequalbasi swi thot her&t hatPWDs
    enj oyt her i
    ghtt ol iber ty&secur ity&ar enotdepr ivedofl iber tyunl awf ully&
    arbi trarily
     Count i
    esmustpr ot ectt hephy si cal&ment ali nt egr i
    tyofPWDsj ustf orev er yone
    else,guar ant ee f reedom f rom t or tur e& f r om cr uel ,i nhuman ordegr ading
    treat mentorpuni shment&pr ohi bi tmedi calorsci ent i
    ficexper i
    ment swi t houtt he
    consentoft heper sonconcer ned
     Laws& admi nist rativ emeasur esmustguar ant eef reedom f rom expl oitation,
    violence & abuse;i n case ofabuse,count r i
    es shal lpr omot et he r ecov er y,
    rehabi li
    tat i
    on&r eint egr ationoft hev ictim &i nv est igat et heabuse
     PWDsar enott obesubj ect edt oar bi traryori llegali nter ferencewi tht hei rpr i
    v acy ,
    fami l
    y ,home, cor respondenceorcommuni cat ion; pr ivacyoft hei rper sonal ,heal th
    &r ehabi litationi nfor mat ioni st obepr otect edl iket hatofot her s
     Count ri
    esshal lident ify&el i
    mi nat eobst acl e&bar rier&ensur ePWDscanaccess
    thei renv ir
    onment ,t r
    anspor tat ion,publ icut iliti
    es& ser vices& i nf ormat i
    on &
    communi cat i
    ont echnol ogi es.
     PWDsmustbeabl et ol ivei ndependent ly ,t obei ncl udedi nt hecommuni ty,t o
    choosewher e&wi thwhom t ol ive&t ohav eaccesst oi n-home,r esident i
    al&
    communi ty suppor tser v i
    ces,per sonalmobi l
    ity& i ndependence ar et o be
    fost er edbyf aci l
    itatingaf for dabl eper sonalmobi li
    ty ,t rainingi nmobi l
    ityski l
    ls&
    accesst omobi l
    ityai ds, dev ices, assi stivet echnol ogi es&l iveassi stance
     Count ri
    est or ecogni zet her ightt o anadequat est andar d ofl iving & soci al
    prot ect ion;i ncl udi ngpubl ichousi ng,ser vices&assi stancef ordi sabi lityr elated
    needs, aswel l asassi stancewi thdi sabi lity-r elat edexpensesi ncaseofpov erty
     Count ryt opr omot eaccesst oi nfor mat ionbypr ov i
    di ngi nfor mat ioni ntendedf or
    thegener alpubl i
    ci naccessi bl ef or mat s&t echnol ogi es, byf aci litatingt heuseof
    Br aill
    e,si gnl anguage&ot herf or msofcommuni cat i
    on&byencour agi ngt he
    medi a&i nter netpr ov ider st omakeon- linei nf ormat ionav ailabl ei naccessi ble
    for mat s
     Discr i
    mi nat i
    on r elating t o mar riage,f ami ly & per sonalr elat ions shal lbe
    elimi nat ed.PWDsshal lhav et heequaloppor tuni tyt oexper i
    encepar ent hood,t o
    mar ry&t of oundaf ami l
    y ,todeci deont henumber&spaci ngofchi l
    dr en, t
    ohav e
    tor epr oduct ive&f ami lypl anni ngeducat ion&means,t oenj oyequalr i
    ght s&
    responsi bilit
    iesr egar dingt heguar di anshi p, trust eeshi pandadopt i
    onofchi ldren
     Count ri
    es ar et o ensur e equalaccess t o pr imar y & secondar y educat ion,
    vocat ionalt rai ning,adul teducat i
    on&l i
    f elongl earni ng;educat ioni st oempl oy
    appr opr iatemat er ials, techni ques&f or msofcommuni cat i
    on; pupi lswi t hsuppor t
    needsar et or ecei vesuppor tmeasur es; pupi lswhoar ebl i
    nddeaf&deafbl indar e
    tor ecei v et hei reducat i
    oni nt hemostappr opr i
    at emodesof
    communi cat i
    on f rom t eacher s who ar ef luenti n si gn l anguage & Br aille;
    educat i
    onofPWDsmustf ost ert hei rpar ti
    ci pat i
    oni nsoci ety,t hei rsenseof
    digni ty&sel f-wor th&t hedev elopmentoft hei rper sonal i
    ty, abi l
    ities&cr eativ i
    ty
     PWDs hav et he r ightt ot he hi ghestat tai nabl e st andar d ofheal th wi thout
    discr imi nat ionont hebasi sofdi sabi li
    ty ;t heyar et or ecei v et hesamer ange,
    qual ity&st andar doff reeoraf for dabl eheal thser vi
    cesaspr ov idedot herper sons,
    recei v et heseheal th ser vicesneeded becauset hei rdi sabi l
    iti
    es& nott o be
    discr imi nat edagai nsti nt hepr ov isionofheal thi nsur ance
     Toenabl ePWDst oat tai nmaxi mum i ndependence&abi l
    ity,count ri
    esar et o
    prov i
    decompr ehensi vehabi li
    tat ion&r ehabi litat i
    onser v i
    cesi nt hear easofheal th,
    empl oy ment&educat ion
     Count ri
    esar et oensur eequalpar tici pationi npol itical&publ icl ifei ncl udingt he
    ri
    ghtt ov ot e,tost andf orel ect ions&t ohol dof fice
     PWDs hav e equalr ight st o wor k & gai nal ivi
    ng,count ries ar et o pr ohibi t
    discr imi nat ioni nj ob- relat edmat ter s, promot esel f-empl oy mentent repr eneur shi p
    &st ar ti
    ngone' sownbusi ness,empl oyPWDsi nt hepubl icsect or ,pr omot et hei r
    empl oy menti nt hepr ivat esect or&ensur et hatt heyar epr ov i
    dedwi th
    reasonabl eaccommodat ionatwor k
     Count ri
    esar et opr omot epar ti
    ci pat ioni ncul tur al l
    ife, recr eat i
    on, leisur e&spor t
    s
    byensur i
    ngofTV pr ogr ams,museums,ci nemas& l ibr ariesaccessi ble& by
    guar ant eei ngt hatPWDshav et heoppor t uni tyt odev el op&mobi li
    zet hei rcr eat ive
    pot ent ialnotonl yf ort hei rownbenef i
    tbutal sof ort heenr ichmentofsoci et y.

    276
    Countriesar etoensur etheirparti
    cipati
    onbutal sof ortheenrichment&di sabil
    it
    y
    specif
    icspor ts.
     Countriesar eprov i
    dedev elopmentassi st
    ancei nef for
    tsbydev elopi
    ngcount ri
    es
    putint
    opr act i
    cet heconv enti
    on
     To ensur ei mplement ati
    on & moni t
    oring oftheconv ent
    ion,countriesar eto
    desi
    gnat eaf ocalpoi ntint hegov ernment&cr eateanat ionalmechani sm to
    promot e&moni torimplement at
    ion
     ACommi t
    teeont heRightsofPWDsmadeupofi ndependentexper t
    swi l
    lrecei
    ve
    peri
    odicr eportsf rom count r
    ies on pr ogress made i ni mplementing the
    convent i
    on
     An18- arti
    cleOpt ionalProtocolonCommuni cationsal l
    owsi ndiv
    iduals&gr oups
    topeti
    tiont heCommi tteeonceal lnati
    onalresour ceprocedureshav e
    beenex hausted

    LegalBasesofDi
    sabi
    l
    ityRel
    atedCel
    ebr
    ati
    ons

     Procl amat i
    on No. 711- Decl ar i
    ng t he Thi rd week of Januar y as Aut i
    sm
    Consci ousnessweek
     Procl amat i
    on No. 157-Decl ar i
    ng t he mont h ofFebr uar y as " Nat ionalDown
    Sy ndr omeConsci ousnessMont h"
     Procl amat i
    onNo.1385_ Desi gnat ingt heper i
    odf rom Febr uar y14t o20, 1975, and
    Ev eryYearTher eaf ter,as" Ret ar dedChi l
    dren'sWeek"
     Procl amat i
    onNo.467- Decl ari
    ngt hel astweekofFebr uar yofEv er yYearas
    Lepr osyCont rolweek
     Procl amat i
    onNo.744- Decl ar i
    ngt hel astMondayofMar chEv er yYearas
    Womenwi t
    hDi sabi l
    iti
    esDay
     Procl amat i
    onNo.1870- Decl ar i
    ng t heThi rd WeekofJul yEv er yYearast he
    Nat ional Disabi li
    tyPr event ionandRehabi l
    itationWeek"
     Procl amat i
    onNo.110- Decl ar i
    ngt heSecondWeekofNov emberofEv eryYear
    as" Nat ional skinDi seaseDet ect i
    onandPr ev ent ionWeek"
     Presi dent i
    alPr ocl amat ionNo.829- Decl ari
    ngt hePer iodf rom Nov ember10- 16
    ofEv eryYearas" Deafawar enessWeek"
     Procl amat i
    onNo.1157- Decl ari
    ngDecember3, 2005andEv eryYearTher eafter
    as" International DayofPer sonswi thDi sabi l
    iti
    esi nthePhi lippi nes"
     Procl amat i
    on No. 657-Decl ar i
    ng t he Year2000- 2010 as t he " Bone and Joi nt
    Decade"
     Procl amat i
    onNo. 92-Decl aringt heThi rdweekofAugustofEv er yYearasBr ain
    At t
    ackAwar enessweek.
     Procl amat i
    onNo.230-Decl aringt heFi r
    stWeekofSept emberofEv eryYearas
    "Nat ional EpilepsyAwar enessWeek"Pr oclamat i
    onNo.588Decl aringt hePer i
    od
    from Sept ember16t o22, 2004andEv eryYearTher eAf terasCer ebr al
    Pal syAwar enessandPr otect i
    onWeek.
     Procl amat i
    onNo.452- Decl aringt heSecondWeekofOct oberofEv er yYearas
    Nat ionalMent alHeal thWeekPr ocl amat ionNo.658Decl aringt he3rd Weekof
    Oct oberofEv eryYearas" BoneandJoi nt( Muscul o-Skel etal )Awar enessWeek
     Procl amat i
    onNo.472- Decl ar i
    ngt heThi rdWeekofOct oberofEv eryYearas
    "Nat ional Attent i
    onDef icit/Hy per act ivit
    yDi sor der( AD/ HD)awar enessweek
     Procl amat i
    onNo.361- Decl ar i
    ngt heThi r
    dweekofJul yast heNat ionalDi sabi li
    ty
    Prev ent i
    onandRehabi l
    itationWeekwhi chshal l Culmi nat eont he Bi rth dat e
    Subl imePar aly t
    ic: Apolinar i
    oMabi ni onJul y23EachYear
     Admi nistrati
    v e Or derN. 35- Direct ing Al lDepar tment s,Bur eaus,Gov ernment -
    Ownedand/ orCont roll
    edCor por at ions,Gov er nmentFi nanci alI nst i
    tut i
    ons,Local
    Gov ernment Uni ts, St ate Uni v ersities/Col leges and School s, and Ot her
    Gov ernmentAgenci es/ Instrument aliti
    es t o Pr omot e and ConductRel evant
    Act ivit
    iesdur ingt heAnnualObser vanceoft heNat ionalDi sabi li
    tyPr ev entionand
    Rehabi l
    itati
    onWeek
     Republ icActNo.6759- AnActDecl ar i
    ngAugustOneofEachYearaswhi teCane
    Saf etyDayi nt hePhi l
    ippinesandf orot herpur poses

    277
    TheFami
    lyCode,
    TheFami
    lyCour
    tsAct
    ,Supr
    emeCour
    tRul
    es&Ot
    herLaws

    TheFami
    lyCodeof1987

    Mar
    ri
    age-speci
    alcont
    ractofper
    manentuni
    onbet
    weenaman&awomanent
    eredi
    nto
    i
    naccor
    dancewi
    thl
    awf
    ort
    heest
    abl
    i
    shmentofconj
    ugal
    &fami
    l
    yli
    fe.

    Essent
    ialr
    equi
    sit
    esofmar
    ri
    age:
     Legalcapacit
    yofcontr
    acti
    ngpar t
    ieswhomustbeamale&af emal
    eofatl
    east
    18yearsofage
     Consentfreel
    ygi
    veninthepresenceofthesol
    emni
    zi
    ngof
    fi
    cer

    For
    malr
    equi
    sit
    esofmar
    ri
    age:
     Author i
    tyofthesolemni zingof f
    icer
     Validmar ri
    agelicense-
    wi thexempt i
    onsprovi
    ded
     Amar ri
    agecer emonywhi cht akesplacewit
    htheappearanceoft hecontract
    ing
    partiesbeforet hesolemni zingof f
    icerandthei
    rpersonaldeclarati
    onthatthey
    takeeachot herashusbandandwi f
    eint hepresenceofnotl essthantwo
    witnessesofl egalage
     Fami ly
    ,thef oundationoft henat i
    on,isabasicsocialinst
    it
    utionwhichpubl i
    c
    policycheri
    shesandpr otects

    Fami
    l
    yrel
    ati
    ons:
     Bet
    weenhusbandandwif
    e
     Bet
    weenparent
    sandchil
    dren
     Amongbr
    otherandsi
    ster
    s,wetheroft
    hef
    ull
    orhal
    fbl
    ood

    Typesofchi
    l
    dren:
     Legi
    ti
    mate;
     Il
    l
    egi
    timat
    e;and
     Legi
    ti
    matedchi
    ldr
    en

    Par
    ent
    alaut
    hor
    it
    y-t
    hemassofr
    ight
    s&obl
    i
    gat
    ionswhi
    chpar
    ent
    shav
    einr
    elat
    iont
    othe
    person&proper
    tyoft
    hei
    rchi
    l
    drenunt
    ilt
    hei
    remanci
    pat
    ion&ev
    enaf
    terundercer
    tai
    n
    ci
    rcumst
    ances

     natural
    right&dutyofpar ents
     cannotber enounced,tr
    ansf er
    redorwaivedexceptinthecasesaut
    hori
    zedby
    l
    aw
     j
    ointl
    yexer ci
    sedbythef ather&mot her
     purel
    yper sonal&cannotbeexer ci
    se4dthruagents
     stempor aryandwillendchi l
    disemancipated,cantakecar
    eofhim/her
    selfof
    parentunabletoproperl
    yexer cisetheauthor
    it
    y

    Subst
    it
    utepar
    ent
    alaut
    hor
    it
    y-whenpar
    ent
    sar
    eunabl
    etoexer
    cisepar
    ent
    alaut
    hor
    it
    y
     survi
    vinggr andparent
     oldestbrotherorsisterov
    er21y
    ear
    sol
    d
     chil
    d'sactual cust
    odian

    Foundl
    i
    ngabandonedchi
    l
    dren-DSWDt
    hruj
    udi
    cial
    proceedi
    ngs(
    PD603)

    Republ
    icAct9225

    AnActAl l
    owi
    ngI l
    l
    egiti
    mateChil
    dtoUsetheSurnameofthei
    rFat
    herAmendi
    ng
    Art
    icle176ofExecut
    iveOrderNo.209,
    Other
    wise Knownast heFamilyCodeofthe
    Phi
    lippi
    nes

    278
    Convent
    ionont
    heRi
    ght
    soft
    heChi
    ld

    Ar
    t.8.
     StatePartiesundertaketor espectt herightoft hechil
    dtopr eservehisorher
    identi
    ty,
    includi
    ngnat i
    onali
    ty,nameandf amilyrel
    ati
    onsasr ecognizedbythelaw
    wi t
    houtunlawfuli
    nterfer
    ence
     Wher eachi l
    disill
    egallydepr i
    vedofsomeoral ltheelementsofhi sorher
    identi
    tyStatesPart
    iesshallprovideappropriateassi
    stanceandpr otect
    ionwi
    tha
    viewtospeedi l
    yre-
    establi
    shinghi s/
    heridentit
    y.

    Ci
    vi
    lRegi
    str
    yLaw

    Sec.5 Requir
    esthatthebir
    thcert
    ifi
    cat
    eoft hei
    ll
    egiti
    matechil
    dshallbesi
    gned
    andswor ntojoi
    ntl
    ybyhis/herpar
    entsoronlybythemot herift
    hefatherr
    efusesi
    nthe
    l
    attercase,
    itshal
    lnotbepermissi
    bletost
    ateorreveali
    nt hedocumentthenameofthe
    fat
    herwhor ef
    usestoacknowledgethechi
    ld.

    Pr
    ovi
    sionofRA9225

    Ar
    t.176Fami
    l
    yCode:I
    ll
    egi
    ti
    mat
    echi
    l
    drenshal
    l
    :

     usethesur
    nameandundert heparent
    alaut
    hor
    ityofthei
    rmother
     ent
    it
    ledtosuppor
    tinconfor
    mitywitht
    hefamil
    yCode
     l
    egit
    imateofeachil
    l
    egit
    imatechi
    ld-1/
    2ofthelegi
    ti
    meofl egi
    ti
    matechi
    l
    d

    I
    ll
    egi
    ti
    mat
    echi
    l
    drenmayuset
    hesur
    nameoft
    hei
    rfat
    heri
    f:
     thei
    rfi
    li
    ati
    onshasbeenexpresslyrecogni
    zedbythefat
    hert
    hroughtherecor
    dof
    bir
    thappeari
    ngintheci
    vi
    lregi
    steror
     whenanadmi ssi
    oninpubl i
    cdocumentorpr i
    vat
    ehandwritt
    eninstr
    umentis
    madebyt hefat
    her

    Fat
    her'
    srightt
    oinst
    it
    uteanact
    ionbef
    oret
    her
    egul
    arcour
    tst
    opr
    ovenon-
    fi
    li
    ati
    on
    dur
    inghisl
    if
    etime.

    AnActEst
    abl
    ishi
    ngFami
    lyCour
    t(1997)
    (
    RA8369)

     FCinev er
    ypr ov
    inceandcity
     FCjudgehav edirectcont
    rol&supervi
    sionofyouthdetenti
    onhomes
     SocialSer
    vices&Counsel i
    ngDivi
    sionineachjudici
    alr
    egion
     SocialWorkAdv i
    serundertheOffi
    ceoft heCourtAdminist
    rat
    or
     Alt
    ernati
    vesocialservi
    ce-DSWD&LGU

    Jur
    isdi
    cti
    onofFami
    lyCour
    ts
     Cri
    minalcasewher eoneormor eoft heaccusedi sbel ow18y earsofagebutnot
    l
    esst han9y earsofageorwher eoneormor eoft hev i
    cti
    msi sami noratt he
    ti
    meoft hecommi ssionoft heoffense;
     Peti
    ti
    onsf orguar dianshi p,custodyofchi ldren,habeascor pusi nrel
    ationtot he
    l
    ater;
     Peti
    ti
    onsf oradopt ionofchi ldr
    en&r evocationthereof;
     Compl aintsf orannul mentofmar ri
    age,declarati
    onofnul l
    ityofmar ri
    age&t hose
    rel
    ati
    ngt omar i
    talst atus&pr opertyrelat
    ionsofhusband&wi feli
    vi
    ngt ogether
    underdi fferentst at us & agr eement s,& pet i
    ti
    on f ordissoluti
    on ofconj ugal
    part
    ner shipofgai ns;
     Peti
    ti
    onsf orsuppor tand/ oracknowl edgment
     Summar yj udici
    alpr oceedi ngsbroughtaboutundert heprovisionsoft hefami l
    y
    code;
     Peti
    ti
    onsf ort hedecl arati
    onofst at
    usofchi l
    drenasabandoned,dependentor

    279
    neglected chil
    dren,pet i
    tionsf ort hevoluntaryori nvol
    untar
    ycommi t
    mentof
    chil
    dren;thesuspensi on, t
    ermi nat
    ionorrestorati
    onofpar ent
    alauthor
    it
    yorother
    casescogni zabl
    eunderPD603, EO56&ot herrel
    atedlaws;
     Peti
    tionfortheconst i
    tutionoft hefamilyhome;
     Casesagai nstmi nor
    scogni zableundertheDanger ousDrugsAct,asamended;
     Viol
    ationsofRA7610, asamendedbyRA7658;
     Casesofdomest icviolenceagai nstwomenandchi ldr
    en

    Supr
    emeCour
    trul
    eonChi
    ldWi
    tnessExami
    nat
    ion
     A.
    M.NO.004- 07- SC: RuleonExami nationofachi l
    dwitnesseffect i
    ve
    December15,2000
     appointmentofguar di
    anadl i
    tem
     exami nationofachi ldwi t
    ness;i nt
    erpreterforthechil
    d; facil
    it
    atortopose
    quest ion tot hechi l
    d suppor tper sons;separ atewai ti
    ng area,
    courtenv ironment
     li
    ve-l
    inkt elevisiont esti
    monyofchi l
    d; screens,one-waymi rrors&ot her
    dev icest oshi eldchil
    df rom accused,
     admi ssi
    bi l
    ity of v ideotaped & audi o-taped in-
    depthi nvesti
    gative or
    discl
    osur e i
    nter vi
    ewsinchi ldabusecases
     Protecti
    onofpr ivacyandsaf ety-
    confidential
    i
    tyofr ecor ds&pr otect
    ive
    order f orv ideo-taped/ audio-
    t apetestimonyofchi l
    d

    Supr
    emeCour
    tRul
    eonNul
    li
    tyandannul
    mentofMar
    ri
    ages
     A.M.No.02-11-10-
    SC:Rul eonDecl arationofAbsol uteNullit
    yofVoidMar ri
    ages
    andAnnulmentofVoi dableMar ri
    agesef fect
    iveonMar ch15, 2003
     Void mar r
    iage isi nexistentf r
    om t he beginning due to absence of
    essent i
    al(age&consent )orf ormalrequisit
    es( authori
    tyofsolemnizi
    ng
    officer,val
    idmar r
    iagel icense;appear anceofpar ti
    esdur i
    ngmar ri
    age
    ceremonybef ore solemnizi
    ngof f
    icer&per sonaldecl
    arati
    on
    inthepr esenceof2wi tnesses)
     Voidabl emar r
    iageisv aliduntilannull
    ed( absenceofessent i
    alrequi
    sit
    es
    only )
     SW i stoconductasoci alcasest udyreportbeforethef r
    ee-
    tri
    al

    Supr
    emeCour
    tRul
    eonLegalSepar
    ati
    on
     A.
    M.No.02- 11-11- SCRul eonLegal Separ ati
    onef f
    ect i
    veMar ch15, 2003
     groundsf orl egalsepar ation:tobef i
    l
    edwi t
    hi n5y earsf r
    om t het i
    meof
    occur rence
     repeat edphy sicalv i
    olenceorgr osslyabusiv econductdi rectedagai nstt he
    petiti
    oner ,acommonorchi ldofpet it
    ioner
     mor al pressur etocompel pet i
    ti
    onert ochanger eli
    giousorpol it
    ical af
    fi
    liat
    ion;
     Attemptofr espondentt ocor ruptori nducepet i
    ti
    oner ,acommonchi l
    dor
    childof pet i
    tionert o engagei n prost
    ituti
    on,orconni vancei n such
    corrupt i
    onori nducement ;
     Finalj udgmentsent encingt her espondentt oi mprisonmentofmor et han6
    years, ev eni fpardoned;
     drugaddi cti
    onorhabi t
    ualalcohol ism ofrespondent
     lesbianism orhomosexual ityofr espondent ;
     Cont ractingbyr espondentofasubsequentbi gamousmar riage,wi thi
    nor
    outside Phi l
    .
     sexual i
    nfidelityorper ver
    sionofr espondent ;
     attemptont hel i
    feofpet it
    ionerbyr espondent ;or
     abandonedofpet iti
    onerbyr espondentwi thoutj ustifi
    abler easonf ormor e
    than1 year

    SW t
    oconductsoci
    alcasest
    udyr
    epor
    tbef
    orepr
    e-t
    ri
    al

    280
    Supr
    emeCour
    tRul
    eonCust
    odyMi
    nor
    s
     A.M.03- 04-
    04-SC RuleonCust odyofMi nor
    sandWr i
    tofHabeasCor
    pusi
    n
    Relat
    iontoCust odyofMinor
    seffecti
    veonMay15,
    2003
     Fact orstoconsideri
    ndeter
    mi ni
    ngcust
    ody;

    o any ext rajudicial agr eement whi ch t he par t


    ies may hav e bound
    themsel vest ocompl ywi threspectingt her ight soft hemi nortomai ntain
    dir
    ectcont actwi thnon- custodialpar entonar egularbasi s,exceptwhen
    ther
    ei sanex i
    sti
    ngt hreator dangerofphy sical,ment alsexualor
    emot i
    onalv i
    olencewhi chendanger st hesaf etyandbesti nterestsoft he
    minor;
    o thedesi re&abi li
    tyofonepar enttof osteranopen&l ov i
    ngr elat
    ionship
    between minorandt heot herpar ent ;
    o theheal th, safety&wel far eofthechi ld;
    o anyhi stor yofchi l
    dorspousalabusebyt heper sonseeki ngcust odyor
    who hashad anyf il
    ialr elat
    ionship wi tht hemi nor
    ,i ncluding anyone
    courti
    ngt hepar ent;
    o thenat ure, frequencyofcont actwi t
    hbot hpar ent s
    o habit
    ual useofal cohol ,danger ousdr ugsorsubst s
    o marital mi sconduct ;
    o mostsui tablephy sical,emot ional
    ,spi r
    itual,psy chol
    ogi cal,educat i
    onal
    envir
    onmentf orthehol i
    st i
    cdev .&gr owt hofchi ld;
    o pref
    er enceofmi nor,7y earsofage&ofsuf fi
    cientdiscer nment ,unless
    chosenpar entsi sunf i
    t

    SW toconductofsoci
    alcasest
    udyr
    epor
    tont
    hemi
    norandpar
    ti
    es
    concer
    ned

    Sol
    oPar
    ent
    sWel
    far
    eActof2000

     Anactprov
    idingfort
    hebenef
    it
    sandPriv
    il
    egestosol
    oparentsandt
    hei
    rchi
    l
    dren
     Si
    gnedintolaw onNovember7,2000andbecameef fecti
    veonNovember28,
    2000
     I
    RRwasf ormulat
    edandapprovedonApri
    l10,
    2002

    Whoi
    saSol
    oPar
    ent
    ?

     A womanwhogi vebi rthasar esul tofr apeorcr i


    mesagai nstchast i
    ty,ev en
    withoutf i
    nalconv icti
    onoft heof fender:Pr ovided,thatt hemot herkeepsand
    rai
    sest hechild
     Parentl ef
    tsolooral onewi t
    ht her esponsi bili
    tyofpar ent hoodduet odeat hof
    spouse
     Parentl eftsolooral onewithther esponsi bi l
    ityofparent hoodwhi l
    ethespousei s
    detained, orisservingsentencef oracr i
    mi nal convict
    ionf oratleastone( 1)y ear
     Thel awappl i
    estot hespousesofpr i
    soner s,whet herornotaf i
    naljudgmenthas
    beenr endered,providedtheyarei ndet entionf orami nimum per iodofone( 1)
    year
     Parentl ef
    tsolooral onewi t
    ht her esponsi bili
    tyofpar ent hoodduet ophy sical
    and/orment alincapacityofspouseascer tifiedbyapubl icmedi calpracti
    ti
    oner
     Parentl eftsolooral onewithther esponsi bili
    tyofpar enthoodduet olegal
    separ ationordef actoseparationf rom spousef oratleastone( 1)year:pr
    ov i
    ded,
    thatheorshei sent rustedwiththecust odyoft hechildren
     Parentl eftsolooral onewi t
    ht her esponsi bilit
    yofpar ent hoodduet odeclaration
    ofnul lit
    yorannul mentofmar ri
    ageasdecr eedbyacour torchur ch:Provided,
    thatheorshei sent rustedwiththecust odyoft hechildren

    281
     Parentl eftsolooral onewi ththeresponsibleofpar enthoodduet oabandonment
    ofspousef oratl eastone( 1)year
     Unmar ri
    ed mot her/father who has pr efer
    red t o keep and r ear his/
    her
    chil
    d/ chil
    dreni nsteadofhav ingotherscaref orthem orgi vethem uptoawel f
    are
    i
    nst i
    tution.
     Anyot herper sonwhosol elyprovidespar entalcar eandsuppor ttoachi ldor
    chil
    drenpr ov i
    dedhe/ sheisdul yli
    censedasaf osterpar entbytheDSWDordul y
    appoint edlegal guar dianbyt hecourt
     Anyf ami lymember( r
    elat
    ivebyconsangui nit
    yw/ in4th civi
    ldegreeuncle/aunt
    ,
    grandpar ent ,niece/ nephew,cousi n)whoassumest her esponsibi
    li
    tyofheadof
    familyas a r esul toft he death,abandonment ,di sappearance orprolonged
    absence oft he par ents orsol o parent:Pr ovided,t hatsuch abandonment ,
    disappear ance, orabsencel astforatleastone( 1)y ear.

    Achangei nthestat
    usorci r
    cumst anceoft
    heparentcl
    aimingbenef
    it
    sundert he
    Act,sucht hathe/sheisnol ongerl
    eftalonewitht
    heresponsi
    bil
    it
    yofparenthood,shal
    l
    ter
    mi natehis/herel
    igi
    bil
    i
    tyforthesebenefit
    s

    TheCompr
    ehensi
    vePackageofSer
    vicesf
    orSol
    oPar
    ent
    sandt
    hei
    rChi
    ldr
    en

    Al
    lSol
    opar
    ent scanavail
    oft hef
    oll
    owi
    ng:
     Workr el
    atedBenefit
    s
     HousingBenefit
    s
     Psychosocial
    Services

    Soloparentswhoar eli
    vi
    ngbel
    owthepov er
    tyl
    inecanav
    ailoft
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ng:
     Li vel
    i
    hoodDev el
    opmentSer
    vices
     Educat i
    onalServi
    ces
     Heal thSer
    vices
    Procedureofavai
    lment

     Appli
    cati
    onattheCi
    ty/
    Munici
    pal
    Soci
    alWel
    far
    eandDev
    elopmentOf
    fi
    ce
     Assessment
     I
    nsuranceoftheSol
    oParentI
    D

    Mi
    grantWor
    ker
    s&Over
    seasFi
    li
    pinoActof1995
    RA8042

     Prot
    ectandenhancet her ightsofFil
    ipi
    nomigrantwor kersbothdocument edand
    undocumented
     Regulat
    edrecruit
    mentagenci est
    hruPOEAt oensur ethatmigrantworkersare
    notabusedandexpl oit
    ed&j obplacementi
    sappr opri
    atel
    ymat chedwithtrai
    ning
    &skill
    s
     I
    nsti
    tutedmechani sm i
    nt hecountryandabroadf ortheprotect
    ionoftheright
    sof
    migrantworkerswhil
    et heyar eemployedi
    nforeigncount r
    ies

    Mechani
    sm f
    ort
    hePr
    otect
    ionofMi
    grantwor
    ker
    s
     Creationoft heDFA' sOf f
    iceoftheUndersecret
    aryforMigrantWorkersAffai
    rs
    (OUMWA)-pr ovi
    sion&coor di
    nati
    onofal lassi
    stancetomi gr
    antwor ker
    sand
    Fil
    ipi
    noi ndistr
    ess;
     EstablishmentofAssistancetoNationalf
    und
     EstablishmentofMi grantWorkers&OtherOverseasFil
    i
    pinoResour
    ceCent ers
    i
    nsel ectedcountri
    eswi thalawyer&SW
     Repatr i
    ati
    onofwor kersundercer t
    aincondit
    ionsbyOWWAi ncoordinati
    onwith

    282
    otheri nt
    ernati
    onal/nati
    onalagencies wit
    ht he Phil
    ippi
    ne Embassy & St
    aff
    workingasone- countryteam
     Establi
    shmentofr e-
    placement&moni t
    ori
    ngcent erbyTESDA&TLRCandt he
    Migrantwor ker
    s'Guarant eeFund
     I
    ssuanceoft r
    aveladvisories,
    inf
    ormat
    iondisseminati
    on

    I
    ndi
    genousPeopl
    e'
    sRight
    sActof1997
    RA8371

     Recognizes,pr ot
    ect & pr omotet he ri
    ght s of IPs & cul
    tural
    /i
    ndi
    genous
    communi ties
     Promulgat edonOctober29, 1997
     Creat
    ed t heNat i
    onalCommi ssi
    on on IndigenousPeoplesand implementi
    ng
    mechanism
     Provi
    def ortheconversi
    onofcer t
    ifi
    catesofancest r
    aldomaincl
    aimsheldbyIPs
    i
    ntoCertifi
    catesofAncest r
    al DomainTitl
    es( CADT)
     Requir
    est he"fr
    eeandi nformedconsent "oft heIP communit
    iesbefor
    eany
    proj
    ectscanbeunder takenbyout siderswithinancestr
    all
    ands

    Ri
    ght
    s&Aspi
    rat
    ionsofI
    Ps

     Righttoancest r
    aldomain-ownership&possessi on
     Rightt oself-
    governance&empower ment( self-det
    erminati
    on)&guar ant
    eethe
    ri
    ghtofI Ps/communi t
    iestofreel
    ypursuetheireconomi c,soci
    al&cultural
    development
     Socialjusti
    ce& humanr i
    ghtsandt hatempl oymentofanyf orm ofcoer ci
    on
    againstIPs/communi ti
    esshallbedealtwithbyl aw
     Culturalint
    egri
    ty-
    preserve&pr otectthei
    rculture,tr
    adit
    ions&i nst
    it
    utionswhich
    shouldbeconsi deredintheformulati
    on&appl icati
    onofnat i
    onalpl
    ans&pol ici
    es

    Compr
    ehensi
    veDanger
    ousDr
    ugsActof2002
    RA9165

     Int
    ensi v
    e&unr elentingcampai gnagainsttr
    affi
    cki
    ng&useofdanger ousdrugs
    &ot hersi mil
    arsubst ances
     Provideef fect
    ivemeasur estore-i
    ntegrat
    eintosoci
    etydrugdependentsthru
    sustai nablepr
    ogr amsoft r
    eatment&r ehabil
    i
    tati
    on
     Creat ed the Phi l
    ippine Drug EnforcementAgency( PDEA)whi ch ist he law
    enfor cementar m oft heDanger ousDr ugBoar d(DDB)-t hepol i
    cy-making&
    str
    at egy -
    formulati
    ngbodyi ntheplanningandformul
    ationofprogr
    ams&pol ici
    es
    ondr ugpr eventionandcont r
    ol

    Pi
    ll
    arsofAct
    ion

     Suppl yr eduction-unl awf ulact sofi mpor t


    ation,sal e,trading,admi ni
    strati
    on,
    delivery,dispensat i
    on,distribut i
    on,t ranspor tation,manuf acture,possessi onof
    danger ousdr ugs( 10gr ams) ,contr
    ol l
    edpr ecur sor&ot heressent i
    alelement sas
    wel lasmanuf act ure,deli
    veryorpossessi onofequi pment ,instrument,appar atus
    oranypar apher naliafordanger ousdr ugsi ncludi ngmai nt
    enanceofaden, div
    eor
    resor tusedfordr ugtraffi
    cki ngoruse.
     Higherpenal ti
    esupt odeat h/ li
    feimpr isonment
     Demandr educt i
    on-f amilyabusepr ev entionpr ogr am,integrationofdr ugabuse
    prev enti
    oni nschoolcur ri
    cul a,establishmentofspeci aldr ugeducat i
    oncent ers
    foroutofschool y outh&st reetchi l
    dr en, publicat i
    on&di stri
    but i
    onofmat erial
    son
    danger ousdr ugs,pr omot ionofdr ug- freewor kplaces,localgov ernmentuni ts,
    mandat ory&r andom dr ug-test i
    ng,tr
    eat ment&r ehabil
    i
    tati
    onofdr ugdependent s
     Alternativedev elopmentofl andsusedf orraisingmar i
    juanasuchaspr ovisionof

    283
    l
    ivel
    ihood,IGPs
     Civi
    cawar eness,I
    ECondangerousdrugsandthel
    aw
     Regionalandinter
    nat
    ional
    cooperat
    ion-Drug-
    fr
    eeASEANi
    n2010

    RA9231(
    2003)

    AnActpr ovi
    dingfortheEli
    minati
    onoftheWorstFormsofChi l
    dLaborand
    Af
    for
    dingSt
    rongerProtect
    ionf
    ort
    heWor ki
    ngChi
    l
    d,amendi
    ngfort
    hispur
    poseRA7610

    Empl
    oymentofChi
    ldr
    en

    Chi
    l
    drenbel
    ow15y
    ear
    sol
    dshal
    lnotbeempl
    oyed,
    except
    :

     Whenachil
    dworksdirectl
    yundersoleresponsibi
    li
    tyofparent
    sorguar
    diansand
    onl
    ymembersofthefami l
    yareemployed
     employmentdoesnotendangerhis/herl
    if
    e/safety,
    heathandmoral
    s
     prov
    idechi
    ldwithprescri
    bedpr
    imaryand/ orsecondar
    yeducat
    ion

     Where a Chil
    d's employ
    ment or part
    icipat
    ion i
    n publ
    ic ent
    ertai
    nment or
    i
    nformati
    on t
    hrough ci
    nema,r
    adio,theater,TV orotherforms ofmediai s
    essent
    ial

     Employmentcontractconcludedbypar ent
    swithexpressedagreementof
    chi
    l
    dandwi t
    happr ovalofDOLE
     Fol
    lowi
    ngrequi
    rement sinal
    l i
    nstancesar
    etobecompli
    edwi t
    htheemployer
    :
    o ensuresprotecti
    on,health,safety
    ,moral
    sandnor maldevelopmentof
    chi
    l
    d

    Requi
    rement
    stobemetbyEmpl
    oyer
    s(cont
    'd)

     Insti
    tut
    es accountthe system and levelofr emunerat
    ion and durat
    ion &
    arrangementofworki
    ngti
    me
     formulates&implement
    ationssubjecttoapproval&supervisi
    onofcompetent
    authori
    ti
    es,aconti
    nui
    ngprogram f
    ortrai
    ning&skil
    lsacqui
    sit
    ionofchi
    ld
     fir
    stsecureaworkpermi
    tfrom DOLEengagi ngt
    hechild

    Hour
    sofwor
    kofWor
    kingChi
    ld

     Bel
    ow15y r
    s.-20hoursaweekbutnotmor ethan4hoursaday
     15yrsbutbelow18yrs.-8hr s.adaybutnotmorethan40hrs.aweek
     Bel
    ow15y r
    s.-noworkbet ween8pm to6am
     15yrs.butbel
    ow18y rs.-nowor kbet
    ween10pm to6am

    Owner
    shi
    p,Use&Admi
    nist
    rat
    ionofChi
    ld

     Workingchil
    d'sincomebel ongtohi m orheri nowner shi
    p
     Setasidepri
    mar il
    yforhis/hersuppor t
    ,educat i
    on,ski
    ll
    sacquisit
    ion
     Secondarytot hecollecti
    veneedsoft hef amil
    ybutnotmor et han20%ofchi
    ld
    i
    ncome
     I
    ncome&pr oper t
    yofchi l
    dadmi nist
    eredbybot hparents
     absenceori ncapacit
    yofonepar ents,theotheradmi ni
    ster
    s
     ifbot hpar entsabsentori ncapacitated,orderofpr eferenceonparent
    al
    author
    it
    yundert hef amilyCodeappl ies

    284
    Tr
    ustFundt
    oPr
    eser
    vePar
    tofChi
    ld'
    sIncome

    Chi
    ldbel
    ow18- t
    rustfundf oratl
    east30%ofearningsofchi
    ldwhi
    chamountt
    oatl
    east
    P200,
    000/
    year
     semi-
    annual accounti
    ngoffundtoDOLE
     uponreachingageofmaj ori
    ty-
    ful
    lcont
    rol
    oftrustf
    undbychi
    l
    d

    Pr
    ohi
    bit
    ionagai
    nstwor
    stFor
    msofChi
    ldl
    abor

     Allformsofsl averyinRA9208orpr acti


    cessimil
    art oslaver
    ysuchas:sal eand
    traf
    ficki
    ngofchi l
    dren;debtbondage&ser fdom;forcedorcompul sorylabor;and
    recruit
    mentofchi l
    drenf oruseinarmedconf li
    ct
     Usepr ocuring,of
    feri
    ngorexposi ngofachi l
    dforprostit
    uti
    on,fort
    hepr oducti
    on
    ofpor nographyorforpor nographi
    cperformances
     Use,pr ocuri
    ng orof fering ofchil
    df orill
    egalori l
    li
    ci
    tact i
    vit
    ies incl
    uding
    productionandt r
    affi
    cki
    ngofdr ugsandv ol
    ati
    lesubstances

    Wor
    stFor
    msofChi
    ldLabor

     Workwhi chbyi tsnat ureorci rcumst ancesi nwhi chi ti scar riedouthazar dousor
    l
    ikel
    yt obehar mf ul totheheal th,saf et
    yandmor alsofchi ldrensucht hatit:
     debases, degr adesordemeanst heint ri
    nsicwor t hofchi l
    dasahumanbei ng
     exposest hechi ldi nphy sical,emot ional ,orsexualabuseori sf oundt obe
    l
    ight l
    yst ressf ul psy chologi call
    yormaypr ejudi cemor als
     isper f ormedunder gr ound, under wat eroratdanger oushei ghts
     inv olvest heuseofdanger ousmachi ner y,equipment ,tool ssuchaspower
    drivenorexpl osi vepower -actuatedt ool s
     exposest hechi ldt ophy sicaldangersuchasbutnotl imi tedt o:danger ous
    featsofbal anci ng,phy sicalst rengt horcont ortion,orwhi chr equirest he
    manual transpor tofheav yloads
     isper f ormedi nunheal t
    hyenv i
    ronmentexposi ngchi ldt ohazar douswor ki
    ng
    condit i
    ons, element s, subst ances, co- agent sorpr ocessesi nvolvi
    ngi onizi
    ng,
    radiation,fi
    re, fl
    ammabl esubst ances
     Noxiouscomponent set c/ort oext remet emper at
    ur e, noisel ev elsorv i
    brati
    ons
     I sper formedunderpar ticularlydiffi
    cul tcondi t
    ions
     exposest hechi ldt obi ol
    ogi calagent ssuchasbact eri
    a,f ungi,protozoans,
    nemat odesandot herpar asites
     inv olvest hemanuf act ureorhandl ingofexpl osi veandot herpy r
    otechnic
    product s
     no chi ldshal lbeempl oyedasamodeli nanyadv ertisementdi rectl
    yor
    i
    ndi r
    ect l
    ypr omot ingal cohol icbev erages,i ntoxicat ingdr inks,t obaccoandi ts
    bypr oduct s,gambl ingoranyf or m ofv iolenceorpor nogr aphy

    Accesst
    oEducat
    ion&Tr
    aini
    ngf
    orWor
    kingChi
    ldr
    en

     Nochil
    dshallbedeprivedofformalornon-f
    ormaleducati
    on
     Employert
    opr ovi
    deaccesstoatleastpri
    mar y&secondaryeducat
    ion
     Toensureandguar anteeaccesstoeducation&trai
    ning,DepEdshallf
    ormul
    ate,
    promul
    gate,implement& conductr el
    evant& ef f
    ectiv
    e course desi
    gns &
    educat
    ionprograms,incl
    udi
    ngnon-formalprogr
    am

    Whomayf
    il
    eaCompl
    aint
    ?

     Off
    endedpar ty
     Parentsorguar di
    ans
     Ascendantorcol l
    atedrelat
    ivewit
    hinthe3rddegreeofconsangui
    nit
    y
     Off
    icer,socialworkeror
     r epresentati
    veofalicensedchil
    dcari
    ngi nst
    itut
    ion
     Of fi
    cerorsoci alworkerofDSWD

    285
     Bar
    angayChai rper
    sonoft heplacewherethev
    iol
    ati
    onoccurr
    ed,wherethe
    chi
    l
    di sresi
    dingoremployed
     Atleast3 concerned responsi
    bleci
    ti
    zenswherethechil
    disr esi
    ding of
    employed

    Jur
    isdi
    cti
    on

     Famil
    yCourts
     I
    nciti
    esandpr ovi
    nceswheretherear
    enoFami l
    yCour
    ts,
    RTCandtheMTCsshal
    l
    havecur
    rentjuri
    sdi
    cti
    ondependingonthepenal
    ti
    espr
    escri
    bedf
    ort
    he
    off
    ensecharged

    Pr
    ocedur
    e

     Preli
    mi nar
    yinvest
    igati
    onwit
    hinaperiodof30daysfrom dateoffi
    ll
    ing
     I
    fpr imaf aci
    ecase,infor
    mationfil
    edwithin48hrsf r
    om theterminati
    onoft he
    i
    nv esti
    gati
    on
     Tri
    al ofcasesshallbeter
    minatedbycourt
    -90daysfr
    om thefil
    li
    ngofinformat
    ion
     Decisiononsaidcaseshallberenderedwit
    hin15daysfrom dateofsubmissi
    on
    ofthecase

    Ri
    ghtofVi
    cti
    m ofChi
    ldLabor

     Exemptionfrom paymentoff i
    ll
    i
    ngfeeschil
    dvicti
    mi nst
    it
    utesasepar
    ateci
    vil
    acti
    onfortherecover
    yofci
    vildamages
     Righttof ree legal
    ,medicaland psycho-
    socialservi
    ces pr
    ovi
    ded by t
    he
    government

    Cl
    osur
    eofFi
    l
    m byDOLE

     I
    fv i
    olat
    ionar emor ethan3t i
    mes, af
    terduenot
    ice&heari
    ng,ordercl
    osureof
    fi
    rm orestablishment
     I
    mmedi atecl osureifviol
    ati
    onr esul
    tedinthedeat
    h,i
    nsanit
    yorser i
    ousi nj
    uryof
    thechil
    dempl oy
    edorsuchf i
    rmi sengagedoremployedi nprosti
    tut
    ionori n
    obsceneandbol dshow
     I
    ncaseofcl osure,employerrequir
    edt opaytheemployee/sseparati
    onpay&
    othermonet arybenefit
    sprovidedbylaw

    Tr
    ustFundf
    rom Fi
    nes&Penal
    ti
    es

     Finesimposedbyt hecourtshall
    bet r
    eatedasTrustFundadmi nist
    eredbyDOLE
     Disbursedexclusi
    velyfortheneedsi ncludi
    ngt hecostsofr ehabil
    i
    tat
    ionand
    reint
    egrat
    ionintot
    hemai nstream ofsocietyoftheworkingchil
    drenvict
    imsand
    fortheprograms&pr oj
    ectthatwill
    preventactsoflabor

    OTHERLAWS/
    INSTRUMENTS

    AnActPr
    ohi
    bit
    ingt
    heEmploymentofChi
    ldr
    enbel
    ow15yearsofagei
    nPubl
    ic
    &Pri
    vat
    eUndert
    aki
    ngsAmendingSec12RA7610
    RA7658

     I
    LOConvent
    ion138(
    1973)set
    stheminimum ageofempl
    oymentorworkat15
    y
    ear
    sofage
     I
    LOConv
    enti
    on183(1999)ont
    heEli
    minati
    onoftheWor
    stFor
    msofChil
    dLabor

    286
    SPECI
    ALPROTECTI
    ONOFCHI
    LDREN
    RA7610

    AnActPr ov
    idi
    ngforStr
    ongerDefer
    enceandSpecialProt
    ecti
    onAgainstChi
    ld
    Abuse,Expl
    oit
    ati
    onandDiscr
    imi
    nat
    ion,
    Provi
    dingPenal
    ti
    esf
    oritsViol
    ati
    onandforot
    her
    Purpose
    Si
    ngedonJune17, 1992

    Chi
    l
    dAbuse

     Chil
    d- personsbel ow18y earsofageort hoseoverbutareunablet of ull
    ytake
    care of t hemsel ves or pr otect themselves from abuse,negl ect,cruelt
    y,
    exploitati
    onordi scr i
    mi nationbecauseofphy si
    cal,mentaldi
    sabil
    i
    t yorcondi t
    ion
     Chil
    dabuser eferstot hemal -
    treatment,wetherhabit
    ualornot,oft hechi l
    dwhich
    i
    ncludesanyoft hef oll
    owi ng:
     Psychol ogicalphy si
    cal abuse, neglect,
    cruelt
    y,sexualabuse&emot ional
    maltreatment ;
     Anyactbydeedsorwor dswhi chdebases,degr adesordemeanst heintr
    insi
    c
    worth&di gnityofachi l
    dasahumanbei ng:
     Unreasonabl edepr ivationofhi sbasi cneedsf orsur vi
    valsuch asf oodand
    shelter;or
     Fail
    ur etoimmedi atelygi v
    emedi caltr
    eatmenttoani njur
    edchil
    dr esul t
    ingin
    seri
    ousi mpai rmentofhi sgr owt handdev el
    opmentori nhis/ herper manent
    i
    ncapaci tyordeat h

    Compr
    ehensi
    vePr
    ogr
    am

     Compr ehensiveprogr
    am againstchi
    ldexploi
    tati
    on&di scri
    minati
    onrefer
    st othe
    coordinatedprogr
    am ofservi
    cesandf aci
    l
    iti
    estopr ot
    ectchil
    drenagai
    nst:a)chil
    d
    prosti
    tuti
    onandot hersexualabuse;b)chil
    dtraff
    icki
    ng;c)obscenepublicat
    ions
    &i ndecentshows;d)otheractsofabuse;ande)ci r
    cumstanceswhichthreaten
    orendangert hesurvi
    valandnormaldevel
    opmentofchi l
    dren

    Chi
    l
    dPr
    ost
    it
    uti
    on&ot
    herSexualAbuse

     Chil
    dren,maleorf emale,whof ormoney ,profi
    toranyotherconsi der
    ati
    onor
    duetocoer ci
    onori nf
    luenceofanyadul t
    ,syndicateorgr
    oup, indul
    geinsex ual
    i
    ntercourseorlascivi
    ousconduct ;penal t
    iestot hosewho:
     engagei norpromot e,faci
    l
    itateori nducechi l
    dprost
    itut
    ion
     commi tt heactofsexuali ntercourseorl asci
    vi
    ousconductwi thachi l
    d
    exploit
    edinprostit
    utionorsubj ectedt oothersexualabuse
     dr i
    vepr ofitoradv antaget herefrom wet herasmanagerorowneroft he
    establi
    shmentwher et heprost i
    tutiontakespl aceoroft hesauna,disco,bar,
    servi
    ngasacov er

    Chi
    l
    dTr
    aff
    icki
    ng

     Tradinganddeal i
    ngwi thchildren, i
    ncludingbutnotl imited,t
    otheactofbuy i
    ng&
    sell
    ingofachi l
    df ormoney ,orforanyot herconsiderati
    on, orbarter
     Attemptt ocommi tchil
    dt r
    afficking:
     whenachi l
    dt ravel
    sal oneabr oadwi thoutcl earancef r
    om t heDSWD or
    wri
    ttenpermitf rom t
    hechi l
    d'
    spar ent
    s/guar di
    an
     whenapr egnantmot herexecut esandaf f
    idavi
    tofconsentf oradopt i
    onf ora
    consider
    ati
    on
     when a per son,agency ,est abli
    shmentorchi ld-
    caring i
    nst i
    tuti
    on recruit
    s
    women/ coupl est obearchi l
    dren
     whenadoct or, hospit
    alorcl i
    nicof fi
    cial
    /empl oyee,nurse,midwi fe,
    localci
    v i
    l

    287
    r
    egist
    raroranyot
    herpersonsi mulat
    esbi
    rt
    h
     whenaper sonengagesi nt heactoff i
    ndi
    ngchi
    ldr
    enamonglow-i
    ncome
    famil
    i
    es,hospit
    als,etcwhocanbeof
    fer
    edfort
    raf
    fi
    cki
    ng

    Ot
    herAct
    sofAbuse
     Obscenepubl i
    cati
    onsandi ndecentshows
     Anyper sonwhoshal luse,coer
    ceori ntimidateast r
    eetchi
    ldoranyotherchi
    l
    dt o
    begorusebeggi ngasameansofl i
    vi
    ng; asacondui tormi
    ddl
    emani ndrug
    tr
    affi
    ckingorpushingorconductanyi llegalacti
    viti
    es
     Sancti
    onsf orest
    abl i
    shmentsorenter pri
    seswhi chpr omot
    e,faci
    l
    itat
    eorconduct
    acti
    vi
    ties:I
    mmedi atel
    yclosedandl i
    censecancel led

    Chi
    l
    drenofI
    ndi
    genousCul
    tur
    alCommuni
    ti
    es
     Surviv
    al,protect
    ion&dev el
    opmentconsi
    stentwi
    thcust
    om &t
    radi
    ti
    onoft
    hei
    r
    communi ti
    es
     System andaccesst oeducat
    ion
     Healthandnut ri
    ti
    on
     Discri
    mination
     Parti
    cipat
    ion

    Chi
    l
    dreni
    nsi
    tuat
    ionofAr
    medConf
    li
    ct
     Chi
    l
    drenasZonesofPeace
     Childrenshal lnotbet heobj ectofat tack&shal lbeent it
    ledt ospeci alrespect
    from torture,threat ,assault,orot hercr
    uel, i
    nhumanet reat ment
     Childrenshoul dnotber ecr uit
    edt obecomemember soft heAFPori tsci vi
    li
    an
    unitsorot herar medgr oupnotbeal l
    owedt ot akepar ti
    nt hef i
    ghti
    ngr tused
    asgui des, cour i
    ers,spies, etc.
     Deliveryofbasi csocial ser vi
    cessuchaseducat i
    on,pri
    mar yheal t
    h&
    emer gencyr eli
    efservicesshal l
    bekeepunhamper ed;
     The saf ety& pr otection oft hose who pr ovide services i ncl
    uding t hose
    involvedi nfact-fi
    ndingmi ssi
    onofgov ernmentandNGOsshal l beensur ed;
     Publ i
    ci nfr
    astructuresuchasschool s,hospit
    als,ruralhealthuni tsshallnotbe
    util
    ized f ormi l
    itary pur poses such as command post s,bar racks,
    detachment , suppl ydepot s,etc;
     Allstepsshal l beunder takent ofacilit
    atethereuni onoff ami l
    iestempor ari
    ly
    separ atedduet oar medconf l
    ict.

    WhoMayf
    il
    eCompl
    aint
    ?

     Off
    endedpar t
    y
     Parents&guardi
    ans
     Ascendantorcoll
    ateralr
    elat
    ivewit
    hinthe3rddegr
    eeofconsanguini
    ty
     Off
    icerorsoci
    alwor kerofDSWD
     Barangaychai
    rperson
     Atleast3concernedresponsibl
    ecit
    izenswherethevi
    olat
    ionoccurr
    ed

    Ot
    herPr
    ovi
    sion

     Prot
    ectiv
    ecust odychildbyDSWD; peti
    ti
    onf orcommi t
    mentofchi l
    dOD603
     DSWD of ficer free f r
    om admi nist
    rati
    ve,ci v
    ilor cri
    mi nalliabil
    i
    tyi nthe
    perf
    ormanceoff uncti
    on
     Confi
    dentiall
    y:not ocauseundue&sensat ionali
    zedpubli
    cit
    y
     Specialcourtproceedi ng: casehear dint hechamber soft heFami l
    yCourt
    ;
    pref
    erencet othehearingordisposit
    ionofcasesi nv
    olvi
    ngviolat
    ionviol
    ati
    ons

    288
    TheChi
    ldandYouthWel
    far
    eCode
    (PD603)

     Signon10December1974
     Sev eralpr ov i
    sionsamendedl ikeadopt ion( RA8552&RA8043) ,daycar e( RA
    6972)andy outhf ulof fender s(RA9344)
     Prov isi
    onsonchi l
    dpr otect ionenhancedt hruRA7610&RA9231
     Right&r esponsi bili
    tiesofchi ld
     Right ,dut ies, li
    abi lit
    iesandassi stancet opar ent s
     Speci al cat egoriesofchi ldren
     Dependentchi ld-wi thoutapar ent,guar dian/ cust odian; oronewhose
    par ent s/guar di
    an f orgood r eason desi res t o be r el
    ieved of
    his/ hercar e& cust ody & i s dependentupon t he publicf or
    suppor t
     Abandoned chi ld -has no pr operpar ent alcar e/guar dianship,orwhose
    par ent s/ guar dians hav e deser ted hi m/ herf ora per i
    od ofatl eastsi x
    cont inuous mont hs
     Negl ect edchi l
    d-hi s/ herbasi cneedshav ebeendel i
    ber atel
    yunat t
    endedor
    inadequat elyat tended-phy sical andemot ional
     Commi tmentofachi l
    d-l egalactofent rust ingachi ldt oDSWD;r esult
    si nthe
    termi nat ionofpar ent alaut hor i
    ty,
     i nvol unt ar
    ycommi tment-j udi cialprocessofdecl ari
    ngachi ldabandoned&
    dependent
     v olunt ar ycommi tment-r eli
    nqui shmentofpar entalrightsaf t
    ercounsel ingby
    asoci al wor ker
     Fost ercar e-f ami li
    esbechosen,l icensedandsuper v
    isedbyDSWDorl icensed
    chil
    dpl acementagency ;t empor arynat ureofpl acement& notal i
    enatechi l
    d
    f
    r om par ent s; preferredthani nst it
    ut i
    onal care
     Institutional /r
    esi dent ialcar e-24hourr esidentgr oupf ort hephy sical
    ,ment al,
    social &spi rit
    ual wel l
    -beingofni neormor echi ldren
     Licensi ngofchi l
    dwel fareagenci esr equiredf rom DSWD
     Organi zat i
    onofBar angayCounci lforthePr otect ionofChi l
    dr en
     Creat edt heCounci lfort heWel fareofChi ldr en( CWC)-pol icyandcoor dinati
    ng
    bodyonchi ldren'swel f
    are

    Ant
    i-
    Mai
    l-
    OrderBr
    ideLaw
    (
    RA6955)

     Republi
    cAct6955oft hePhilippines,commonl yknownast heAnti-
    Mail-
    Order-
    BrideLaw,prohibi
    tsthebusinessofor ganizi
    ngorfaci
    li
    tat
    ingmarriagesbetween
    Fil
    ipi
    nasandf orei
    gnmen, orMai l-OrderBri
    des.
     ThePhi l
    i
    ppinecongressenact edi n1990asar esul
    tofstori
    esinthelocalmedia
    aboutFil
    ipi
    nasbeingabusedbyt heirforei
    gnhusbands.Becauseofthis,
    Fil
    ipi
    nas
    often use "rever
    se publicati
    ons" – publ i
    cati
    ons in which men adv er
    ti
    se
    themselves–t ocont
    actforeignmenf ormarri
    agetoFil
    ipi
    nawomen.

     TheRepublicActNo.6955wasappr ov edonJune13,1990.I
    tdeclaredill
    egal
    :
     Foraperson,naturalorjuri
    dical
    ,associ ati
    on,cl
    uboranyotherentit
    yt ocommit
    ,
    di
    rectl
    yorindi
    rectl
    y,anyofthef ol
    lowi ngacts:
     Toestabl
    ishorcar ryonabusi nesswhi chhasfori
    tspurposethemat chi
    ngof
    Fi
    li
    pinowomenf ormar r
    iaget oforeignnat i
    onal
    seit
    heronamai l-orderbasi
    sor

    289
    thr
    oughper sonal int
    roduct ion;
     Toadv er t
    ise,publ i
    sh,pr intordi stribut eorcauset headv ert
    isement ,publi
    cati
    on,
    pri
    nting ordi stri
    bution ofany br ochure,f l
    ier,orany pr opaganda mat eri
    al
    cal
    cul atedt opr omot et hepr ohibitedact si
    nt hepr ecedi ngsubpar agraph;
     Tosol icit,enli
    stori nanymannerat tractorinduceanyFi l
    ipi
    nowomant obecome
    amemberi nanycl uborassoci at i
    onwhoseobj ectiv
    ei stomat chwomenf or
    mar r
    iaget of oreignnat i
    onalsei t
    heronamai l-
    or derbasi sort hroughper sonal
    i
    ntroduct i
    onf oraf ee;
     Touset hepost alservicet opr omot et heprohibitedact s..
    .
     Forthemanagerorof ficer-i
    n-char georadv ertisingmanagerofanynewspaper ,
    magazi ne, t
    elevisi
    onorr adiost ati
    on, orothermedi a,orofanadv ert
    isingagency,
    pri
    ntingcompanyorot hersi mi l
    arent i
    ti
    es,toknowi nglyall
    ow,orconsentt o,t
    he
    actspr ohibitedint hepr ecedi ngpar agr aph.'
    '

    Womeni
    nDevel
    opmentandNat
    ionBui
    ldi
    ngAct
    (RA7192)

    AnActknownast he“ Womeni nDev elopmentandNat ionBui l


    di ngAct ”,pr omot est he
    i
    ntegr
    ationofwomenasf ul landequalpar tner sofmeni ndev elopmentandnat ion
    bui
    ldi
    ng.
     Al lgov er nmentdepar t
    ment s shal lensur et hatwomen benef itequal ly and
    par t
    ici pat edi r
    ect lyint hedev elopmentpr ogr amsandpr oj ect sofsai ddepar tment ,
    speci fical lyt hose f unded underof fi
    ci alf or eign dev elopmentassi stance,t o
    ensur et hef ullpar ticipat ionand i nv olv ementofwomeni nt hedev el opment
    process; and
     Al lgov er nmentdepar tment s and agenci es shal lr ev iew and r ev ise al lt hei r
    regul at i
    ons, circulars, issuancesandpr ocedur est or emov egenderbi ast her ein.
     Responsi ble Agency .
    — The Nat ionalEconomi c and Dev elopmentAut hor it
    y
    (NEDA)shal lpr i
    mar i
    lyber esponsi blef orensur ingt hepar ticipat i
    onofwomenas
    recipient si nf or eignai d, gr ant sandl oans.I tshal ldet ermi neandr ecommendt he
    amountt obeal l
    ocat edf ort hedev elopmentact ivityi nv olv i
    ngwomen.
     .Mandat e. — TheNEDA,wi tht heassi st anceoft heNat ionalCommi ssionont he
    Rol eofFi lipinoWomen,shal lensur et hatt hedi fferentgov er nmentdepar tment s,
    i
    ncl udi ngi tsagenci esandi nst rument alitieswhi ch, direct lyori ndi r
    ect ly,af fectt he
    par t
    ici pat ionofwomeni nnat ional dev elopmentandt hei rint egr ati
    ont her ein:
     For mul ateandpr i
    or itizer ur alorcount rysidedev el opmentpr ogr amsorpr oj ect s,
    prov idei ncomeandempl oy mentoppor tuni ti
    est owomeni nt her ur alar easand
    thus, pr ev entt heirheav ymi gr ationf rom r ural t
    our banorf orei gncount ri
    es;
     I ncludeanassessmentoft heex tentt owhi cht hei rpr ogr amsand/ orpr oj ects
    i
    nt egr at ewomeni nt hedev el opmentpr ocessandoft hei mpactofsai dpr ogr ams
    orpr oj ect sonwomen,i ncl udi ngt heiri mpl i
    cat ionsi nenhanci ngt hesel f-
    rel iance
    ofwomeni ni mpr ovingt hei ri ncome;
     Ensur et heact i
    vepar ticipat ionofwomenandwomen’ sor ganizat ionsi nt he
    dev elopmentpr ogr ams and/ orpr oj ect si ncludi ng t hei ri nv olvementi nt he
    planni ng,desi gn,i mpl ement ation,management ,moni tor i
    ng and ev al uat ion
    thereof ;
     Col l
    ectsex -disaggr egat eddat aandi ncl udesuchdat ai ni tspr ogr am/ pr oject
    paper ,pr oposal orst rat egy ;
     Ensur et hatpr ogr amsand/ orpr oject sar edesi gnedsot hatt heper cent ageof
    womenwhor ecei veassi st ancei sappr oximat elypr opor tionat et oei thert hei r
    traditionalpar ti
    cipat ion i nt he t arget ed act iv i
    ties ort hei rpr opor ti
    on oft he
    popul ation,whi chev eri shi gher .Ot her wi se,t hef ollowi ngshoul dbest atedi nt he
    progr am/ pr ojectpaper ,pr oposalorst rategy ;
    ( a)Theobst acl ei nachi ev ingt he
    goal ;
    (b)Thest epsbei ngt akent oov ercomet hoseobst acl es; and( c)Tot heext ent
    thatst epsar enotbei ngt akent oov er comet hoseobst acl es,whyt heyar enot
    beingt aken.
     Assi stwomeni nact i
    v itiest hatar eofcr it
    icalsi gni fi
    cancet ot heirsel f-
    rel iance

    290
    anddev
    elopment
    .

     Equal
    ityi
    nCapacit
    ytoAct.—Womenofl egalage,r
    egardl
    essofci
    vi
    lst
    atus,
    shal
    l
    havethecapaci
    tytoactandenteri
    ntocontr
    actswhichshal
    linev
    eryr
    espectbe
    equal
    tothatofmenundersimil
    arci
    rcumstances.

     I
    nallcont
    ractualsit
    uati
    onswher emar r
    iedmenhav ethecapaci tytoact,married
    womenshallhav eequalri
    ghts.Tot hisend:
     Women shal lhav et he capaci tyt o borr
    ow and obt ai
    nl oans and
    execut esecuri
    tyandcr editar r
    angementundert hesamecondi ti
    ons
    asmen;
     Womenshal lhav eequalaccesst oallgovernmentandpr iv
    atesect or
    programs gr anting agr icultural credit
    ,l oans and non- mat erial
    resourcesandshal lenjoyequalt reatmentinagr ari
    anr ef
    orm andland
    resettl
    ementpr ograms;
     Womenshal lhav eequalr ightst oactasi ncorporatorsandent erinto
    insurancecontracts;and
     Mar ri
    edwomenshal lhav er ightsequalt ot hoseofmar ri
    edmeni n
    applying forpasspor t,secur ev isas and othert raveldocument s,
    withoutneedt osecur etheconsentoft heirspouses.

     Inallothersi mil
    arcont ractualr elati
    ons, womenshal lenjoyequalr ightsandshal l
    havet hecapaci tyt oactwhi chshal li nev eryrespectbeequalt ot hoseofmen
    undersi milarcircumst ances.
     .EqualMember shi pi nCl ubs. —Womenshal lenjoyequalaccesst omember ship
    i
    nal lsoci al,ci
    vicandr ecreat ionalcl ubs,commi t
    tees,associ ati
    onsandsi mi l
    ar
    otheror ganizati
    onsdev ot edt opubl icpur pose.Theyshal lbeent itledt ot hesame
    ri
    ghtsand pr i
    vil
    egesaccor ded t ot heirspousesi ft heybel ong t ot hesame
    organization.
     .Admi ssion to Mi l
    itarySchool s.— Anypr ovi
    sion oft hel aw tot hecont rary
    notwithstanding,consi stentwi tht heneedsoft heser vi
    ces,womenshal lbe
    accordedequaloppor tuni ti
    esf orappoi ntment ,admi ssion,t r
    aining,gr aduat ion
    andcommi ssioni ngi nal lmi litaryorsi mi l
    arschool soft heAr medFor cesoft he
    Phil
    ippinesandt hePhi li
    ppi neNat i
    onalPol icenotl at
    ert hant hef our t
    hacademi c
    yearfol l
    owingt heappr ovaloft hi sActi naccor dancewi tht hestandar dsr equired
    for men except f or t hose mi nimum essent i
    aladj ustment sr equi red by
    physiologicaldifferencesbet weensexes.
     .Volunt aryPag- IBIG,GSI SandSSSCov erage.—Mar ri
    edper sonswhodev otef ul
    l
    ti
    met o managi ng t hehousehol d and f ami l
    yaf fair
    sshal l,upont hewor king
    spouse’ s consent ,be ent i
    tled t ov oluntary Pag- I
    BIG ( Pagtut ulungan—I kaw,
    Bangko, I
    ndustriyaatGoby erno) ,Gov ernmentSer vi
    ceI nsuranceSy stem ( GSIS)or
    SocialSecur it
    ySy stem ( SSS)cov eraget otheext entofone- hal
    f( ½)oft hesal ary
    andcompensat ionoft hewor kingspouse.Thecont ri
    but i
    onsduet her eonshal lbe
    deduct edf r
    om thesal ar yoft hewor kingspouse.

    TheGSISortheSSS,asthecasemaybe,shalli
    ssuerul
    esandr
    egul
    ati
    onsnecessar
    yto
    eff
    ect
    ivel
    yimplementt
    heprovisi
    onsoft
    hissecti
    on.

    TheI
    nter
    -Count
    ryAdopt
    ionActof1995
    (
    RA8043)

     "ANACTESTABLI SHINGTHERULESTOGOVERNI NTER-COUNTRYADOPTI ON


    OFFI LI
    PINOCHI LDREN, ANDFOROTHERPURPOSES"
     Itisherebydecl aredthepol i
    cyoft heStatetopr ovideeverynegl ect
    edand
    abandonedchi l
    dwi thaf amil
    ythatwil
    lpr
    ovidesuchchi ldwit
    hl oveandcareas
    wellasopportunit
    iesforgrowthanddevel
    opment .Towar dst
    hisend, ef
    for
    tsshal
    l
    beexertedtoplacet hechil
    dwi t
    hanadoptivefamilyinthePhil
    ippines.However
    ,
    recogni
    zingthatinter
    -countr
    yadopti
    onmaybeconsi der
    edasal lowingali
    ensnot

    291
    presentl
    yal l
    owedbyl aw toadoptFil
    i
    pinochil
    drenifsuchchil
    drencannotbe
    adoptedbyqual i
    fi
    edFili
    pinoci
    ti
    zensorali
    ens,theStat
    eshallt
    akemeasurest o
    ensuret hatinter-
    countr
    yadopt i
    onsareallowed when thesameshal lprove
    benefici
    alt othe chil
    d's besti
    nter
    ests,and shal
    lserve and pr
    otecthi
    s/her
    fundament alr
    ights.

     .Def
    ini
    ti
    onofTer ms.—Asusedi nt hi
    sAct.Thet erm:
     Inter -countryadopt i
    onr eferst othesoci o-l
    egalpr ocessofadopt i
    nga
    Fil
    ipi nochi ldbyaf or
    eigneroraFi li
    pi noci t i
    zenper manent l
    yr esi
    ding
    abr oad wher et he petition isf i
    led,t he super vised trialcust ody is
    under taken, andt hedecreeofadopt i
    oni si ssuedout sidethePhi l
    i
    ppines.
     Chi l
    dmeansaper sonbel ow fif
    teen( 15)y earsofageunl esssooner
    emanci patedbyl aw.
     Aut hor izedandaccr edi
    tedagencyr eferst otheSt atewelf areagencyora
    li
    censedadopt i
    onagencyi nt hecount ryoft headopt i
    ngpar entswhi ch
    prov idecompr ehensivesoci alservicesandwhi chisdul yr ecognizedby
    theDepar tment .
     Legal ly-
    freechi l
    dmeansachi ldwhohasbeenv oluntar
    il
    yori nvoluntar
    il
    y
    commi ttedt ot heDepar tment ,inaccor dancewi tht heChi ldandYout h
    Wel f areCode.
     Mat chingr eferst othej udici
    ouspai r
    ingoft headopt ivechi l
    dandt he
    appl icantt opr omot eamut ual
    lysatisfy
    ingpar ent-chil
    drelationship.

     TheI nter
    -Countr
    yAdopt ionBoar d.— Thereisherebycr eatedt heInter-Country
    Adopt i
    on Board,her einafterr efer
    red t
    o as the Boardt o actas t he central
    authorit
    yinmat ter
    sr elatingt ointer-
    countr
    yadoption.Itshallactast hepol i
    cy-
    making body f orpur poses ofcar ryi
    ng outthe pr ovisi
    ons oft his Act,in
    consultati
    onandcoor dinationwi ththeDepartment,thedi f
    ferentchild-careand
    pl
    acement agenci es, adopt i
    v e agencies, as wel l as non- gov ernmental
    organizati
    onsengagedi nchi l
    d-careandplacementactivi
    ti
    es.Assuch, itshall
    :

    a.Pr otectt heFi l


    ipinochi ldfrom abuse,expl oit
    ation,tr af fi
    ckingand/ orsale
    oranyot herpr actice in connect i
    on wi th adopt i
    on whi ch i
    s harmf ul,
    detriment al
    , orpr ejudicialtot hechi ld;
    b.Col lect,mai nt ain,andpr eser v econf ident i
    alinfor mat ionaboutt hechi l
    d
    andt headopt i
    vepar ents;
    c. Moni tor,f ollow up,andf acilit
    atecompl etionofadopt i
    onoft hechi l
    d
    throughaut hor i
    zedandaccr editedagency ;
    d.Pr ev enti mpr operf i
    nancialorot hergai ni nconnect ionwi thanadopt ion
    anddet eri mpr operpr acti
    cescont rarytot hisAct ;
    e. Promot et he dev elopmentofadopt ion ser vices i ncl uding post-l
    egal
    adopt ion;
    f. Licenseandaccr edi tchild-caring/ placementagenci esandcol laborate
    witht hem i nt hepl acementofFi li
    pinochi l
    dren;
    g.Accr editand aut hor i
    ze for eign adopt i
    on agencyi nt he placementof
    Fil
    ipinochi l
    dr eni nt heirowncount ry;and
    h.Cancelt hel icenset ooper ateandbl acklistthechi ld-car ingandpl acement
    agencyoradopt iveagencyi nvolvedf rom t heaccr edit at
    ionli
    stoft he
    Boar duponaf indingofv i
    ol ationofanypr ovisionundert hisAct
    .

     .Composi ti
    onoft heBoar d.—TheBoar dshallbecomposedoft heSecr etaryof
    the Departmentas ex of f
    icio Chai
    rman,and si x( 6)othermember st o be
    appointedbyt hePr esidentforanon- renewableterm ofsix(6)y ears:Pr ovi
    ded,
    Thatt here shallbe appoi nted one (1)psychiatr
    istorpsy chologist,t wo ( 2)
    l
    awy erswhoshal lhaveatl eastthequal i
    fi
    cat
    ionsofar egi
    onaltri
    alcour tjudge,
    one ( 1)registered socialwor kerand t wo (2)r epresentat
    ives from non-
    governmentalor ganizati
    onsengagedi nchil
    d-cari
    ngandpl acementact i
    vi
    ties.
    Themember soft heBoar dshallrecei
    veaperdi em al l
    owanceofOnet housand
    fi
    vehundr ed pesos( P1,500)f oreach meet ing att
    ended byt hem:Pr ovi
    ded,
    fur
    ther,Thatnocompensat i
    onshallbepai dformor et hanfour( 4)meet i
    ngsa
    mont h.

    292
    Sec.6.
    Power sandFunct
    ionsoft
    heBoar
    d.—TheBoar
    dshal
    lhav
    ethef
    oll
    owi
    ngpower
    s
    andfunct
    ions:

    a.t opr escr i


    ber ul esandr egul at ionsasi tmaydeem r easonabl ynecessar y
    to car ryoutt he pr ov i
    si ons oft hi s Act,af terconsul tation and upon
    favor abl er ecommendat ionoft hedi ff
    erentagenci esconcer nedwi t
    ht he
    child- car ing, placement ,andadopt ion;
    b.t o sett hegui del inesf ort heconv ening ofan I nt er-count ryAdopt i
    on
    PlacementCommi tt
    eewhi chshal lbeundert hedi rectsuper v i
    sionoft he
    Boar d;
    c. tosett hegui del inesf ort hemannerbywhi chsel ect i
    on/ mat chingof
    prospect iveadopt ivepar ent sandadopt i
    vechi ldcanbemade;
    d.t odet ermi near easonabl eschedul eoff eesandchar gest obeexact edi n
    connect i
    onwi tht heappl icat ionf oradopt i
    on;
    e. todet er minet hef orm andcont ent soft heappl icat ionf ori nter-count ry
    adopt i
    on;
    f.t oi nst itutesy st emsandpr ocedur est opr eventi mpr operf inanci algai ni n
    connect i
    onwi thadopt i
    onanddet eri mproperpr act i
    ceswhi char econt rary
    tot hi sAct ;
    g.t opr omot et hedev elopmentofadopt i
    onser vi
    ces,i ncl udingpost -legal
    adopt i
    onser vices,
    h.t oaccr editandaut hor i
    zef or eignpr i
    vateadopt i
    onagenci eswhi chhav e
    demonst r
    at ed pr ofessi onal ism,compet ence and hav e consi stent l
    y
    pur sued non- pr of i
    tobj ect iv est o engagei nt hepl acementofFi lipi
    no
    childr eni nt heirowncount ry: Pr ov i
    ded, Thatsuchf or eignpr i
    vat eagenci es
    aredul yaut hor i
    zedandaccr edi tedbyt heirowngov er nmentt oconduct
    i
    nt er -count r y adopt ion:Pr ov ided,howev er,Thatt he t otalnumberof
    aut hor i
    zedandaccr edit edf oreignpr ivateadopt ionagenci esshal lnot
    exceedonehundr ed( 100)ay ear ;
    i
    .t ot akeappr opr iatemeasur est oensur econf ident iali
    tyoft her ecordsof
    thechi ld,thenat ural par ent sandt headopt i
    vepar ent satal l ti
    mes;
    j
    .t o pr epar e,r ev i
    ew or modi fy,and t her eafter,r ecommend t ot he
    Depar tmentofFor eignAf fairs, Memor andaofAgr eementr espect ingi nter
    -count ryadopt ionconsi st entwi t
    ht heimpl ement ationoft hisActandi ts
    stat edgoal s,ent eredi nt o,bet weenandamongf or eigngov er nment s,
    i
    nt er nat ional or gani zat ions and r ecogni zed i nt ernational non-
    gov er nment al or gani zations;
    k. toassi stot herconcer nedagenci esandt hecour tsi nt hei mpl ement ati
    on
    oft hi sAct ,par ti
    cul arlyasr egar dscoor dinat i
    onwi thf or eignper sons,
    agenci esandot herent itiesi nv olvedi nt hepr ocessofadopt ionandt he
    phy si cal transf eroft hechi ld; and
    l
    .t o per form such ot herf unct i
    onson mat tersr el ating t oi nter-count ry
    adopt i
    onasmaybedet er mi nedbyt hePr esident .

    PROCEDURE

    Sec.7Inter-Countr
    yAdopt i
    onast heLastResor t.— TheBoar dshal
    lensur ethatall
    possi
    bil
    iti
    esf oradoptionoft hechildundert heFami l
    yCodehav ebeenexhaust edand
    thati
    nter-countryadopt i
    onisi nthebesti nterestofthechild.Towardst hi
    send,the
    Boardshal lsetupthegui del
    inestoensur et hatstepswi l
    lbetakentoplacethechil
    din
    thePhil
    ippinesbeforet hechildisplacedf ori nt
    er-
    countryadopti
    on:Pr
    ov i
    ded,however,
    Thatthemax i
    mum numbert hatmaybeal lowedf orfor
    eignadopti
    onshallnotexceedsi
    x
    hundred(600)ay earforthef i
    rstf
    ive(5)year s.

    Sec.8WhoMaybeAdopt ed.— Onlyalegall


    yfr
    eechi
    ldmaybet hesubj
    ectofint
    er-
    countr
    yadopti
    on.I
    n or
    derthatsuch chi
    ld maybe consi
    der
    ed forpl
    acement
    ,the
    fol
    lowi
    ngdocument
    smustbesubmit
    tedtotheBoar
    d:

    293
    a)Chi l
    dst udy;
    b)Bi r
    thcer ti
    fi
    cate/ foundli
    ngcer t
    if
    icate;
    c) Deed ofv olunt arycommi tment/decree ofabandonment/death cer
    ti
    ficat
    e of
    parents;
    d)Medi calevaluation/ hi
    story;
    e) Psychological ev al
    uati
    on, asnecessar y
    ;and
    f) Recentphot ooft hechild.
    Sec.9WhoMayAdopt .—Anal ienoraFi li
    pinocit
    izenper
    manentl
    yr esi
    dingabroadmay
    fi
    l
    eanappl icati
    onf orint er
    -countryadoptionofaFi l
    ipi
    nochi
    ldi
    fhe/she:

    a.isatl eastt went y


    -sev en( 27)y earsofageandatl eastsi xteen( 16)y ears
    oldert hant hechi ldt obeadopt ed,att het imeofappl icationunl esst he
    adopt erist hepar entbynat ureoft hechi l
    dt obeadopt edort hespouseof
    suchpar ent :
    b.ifmar ried, his/herspousemustj oint l
    yfil
    ef ort headopt i
    on;
    c. hast hecapaci tyt oactandassumeal lr i
    ghtsandr esponsibilit
    iesof
    parent alaut hor ity underhi s nat ionall aws,and has under gone t he
    appropr i
    atecounsel i
    ngf rom anaccr edi
    tedcounsel orinhis/hercount r
    y ;
    d.hasnotbeenconv i
    ctedofacr i
    mei nv ol
    vingmor alturpi
    tude;
    e. i
    sel i
    gi blet oadoptunderhi s/ hernat ional l
    aw;
    f.isi naposi tiont opr ovi
    det hepr opercar eandsuppor tandt ogi vet he
    necessar ymor alv al
    uesandexampl et oallhischildren,incl
    udi ngthechi l
    d
    tobeadopt ed;
    g.agr ees t o uphol dt he basi cr i
    ght s oft he child as embodi ed under
    Phili
    ppi nel aws,t heU. N.Conv entionont heRi ghtsoft heChi ld,andt o
    abidebyt her ulesandr egul ati
    onsi ssuedt oimplementt hepr ov i
    sionsof
    thisAct ;
    h.comesf rom acount rywi thwhom t hePhi l
    i
    ppi neshasdi plomat icrelations
    andwhosegov ernmentmai ntainsasi milarlyauthor i
    zedandaccr edited
    agencyandt hatadopt i
    oni sal l
    owedunderhi s/hernat i
    onallaws; and
    i
    . possesses al lt he qual if
    ications and none of t he disqual if
    ications
    providedher einandi not herappl icabl ePhilippinelaws.

    Sec.10Wher etoFi
    leAppli
    cati
    on.—Anappl icat
    iontoadoptaFili
    pinochil
    dshal lbefi
    led
    eit
    herwi ththePhil
    ippi
    neRegionalTr
    ialCourthavingjuri
    sdi
    cti
    onov erthechild,orwith
    theBoar d,t
    hroughaninter
    mediateagency,whethergovernmentaloranaut hori
    zedand
    accredi
    tedagency,inthecountr
    yoftheprospectiveadopti
    veparents,whi
    chappl icat
    ion
    shallbeinaccordancewiththerequi
    rementsassetf ort
    hintheimplementingr ul
    esand
    regulat
    ionstobepromulgatedbytheBoard.

    Theappli
    cat
    ionshal
    lbesuppor
    tedbyt
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ngdocument
    swr
    it
    tenandof
    fi
    cial
    l
    y
    tr
    ansl
    atedi
    nEngl
    ish.

    a.Bi rt
    hcer ti
    fi
    cateofappl icant (s);
    b.Mar ri
    agecont ract ,i
    fmar ried, anddivor cedecr ee,i
    fappl i
    cabl
    e;
    c. Wr i
    ttenconsentoft hei rbi ologicaloradopt ivechildrenabov eten(10)
    yearsofage, int hef orm ofswor nst atement ;
    d.Phy sical,medi caland psy chologicalev al
    uat i
    on by a dul yl i
    censed
    physicianandpsy chologi st;
    e. Incomet axretur nsoranydocumentshowi ngt hefinancialcapabi
    li
    tyof
    theappl i
    cant(s);
    f. Policecl earanceofappl icant (s);
    g.Char acterr efer ence f rom t he localchur ch/ mini
    ster,the appli
    cant'
    s
    empl oy erandamemberoft hei mmedi atecommuni t
    ywhohav eknown
    theappl i
    cant(s)f oratl eastf ive(5)y ear s;and
    h.Recentpost card- si
    ze pi ctures oft he applicant(s)and hi simmediate
    fami l
    y ;

    TheRul
    esofCour
    tshal
    lappl
    yincaseofadopt
    ionbyj
    udi
    cial
    proceedi
    ngs.

    294
    Sec.11. FamilySelection/Matchi
    ng.— Nochi l
    dshal lbemat chedt oaf orei
    gnadopt i
    ve
    famil
    yunl essi tissat isf
    act
    oril
    yshownt hatt
    hechi ldcannotbeadopt edlocally.The
    clear
    ance,asi ssuedbyt heBoar d,wi
    ththecopyoft heminut
    esoft hemeet ings,shall
    form partofther ecordsofthechi l
    dtobeadopt ed.Whent heBoar disreadyt ot r
    ansmit
    thePlacementAut horit
    yt ot
    heaut hor
    izedandaccr editedi
    nter
    -countryadoptionagency
    andal lthetraveldocument soft hechil
    dar er
    eady ,theadopti
    vepar ents,oranyoneof
    them, shall
    personallyfetcht
    hechi l
    dinthePhil
    ippines.

    Sec.12.Pre-adopti
    vePl
    acementCosts.— Theappl
    i
    cant
    (s)shal
    lbeart
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ng
    cost
    sincidentalt
    othepl
    acementoft
    hechi
    ld;

    a.Thecostofbr i
    ngingthechildfrom thePhili
    ppinestot
    her esi
    denceoft he
    appl
    icant
    (s)abroad,includingalltr
    av elexpenseswithi
    nt hePhil
    ippines
    andabroad;and
    b.The costofpasspor t,visa,medi calexami nati
    on and psychological
    eval
    uati
    onrequired,andotherrelat
    edexpenses.

    Sec.13.Fees,ChargesandAssessments.—Fees,charges,andassessmentscoll
    ected
    bytheBoar dintheexerci
    seofi
    tsfunct
    ionsshal
    lbeusedsol el
    ytoprocessappl
    i
    cations
    fori
    nter
    -countryadopt
    ionandtosuppor
    ttheacti
    vi
    ti
    esoftheBoar d.

    Sec.14. Supervi
    sionofTrialCustody .—Thegov ernment alagencyort heauthorizedand
    accreditedagencyi nthecount r
    yoft headopt i
    vepar entswhichf i
    ledtheappl i
    cationf
    or
    i
    nter-countryadoptionshallberesponsibleforthet r
    ialcustodyandt hecar eofthechild.
    Itshallalsoprovidefamil
    ycounsel i
    ngandot herrelatedservices.Thet ri
    alcustodyshall
    bef oraper i
    odofsi x(6)mont hsfrom theti
    meofpl acement.Onl yafterthelapseofthe
    peri
    odoft r
    ialcustodyshalladecreeofadopt i
    onbei ssuedinthesai dcountryacopyof
    whichshal lbesentt ot
    heBoar dtof orm par
    toft herecor dsofthechild.

    Duringthet ri
    alcustody ,
    theadopt ingparent(
    s)shallsubmi ttothegov ernmentalagency
    ortheaut hori
    zedandaccr edit
    edagency ,whichshalli
    nt urntransmitacopyt otheBoard,
    apr ogressr eportoft hechi l
    d' sadjust
    ment .Thepr ogressr eportshallbet akeninto
    considerati
    oni ndecidingwhet herornottoissuethedecr eeofadopt i
    on.
    TheDepar t
    mentofFor eignAf fai
    rsshallsetupasy stem bywhi chFi
    li
    pinochi l
    drensent
    abroadf ortri
    alcust odyar emoni tor
    edandcheckedasr eport
    edbyt heaut hori
    zedand
    accredit
    edi nter
    -countryadoptionagencyaswel lasther epatri
    ationt
    ot hePhili
    ppinesof
    aFili
    pinochi l
    dwhoseadopt ionhasnotbeenappr oved.

    Sec. 15.Execut
    ive Agreements. — The Depar tment of Forei
    gn Affai
    rs, upon
    repr
    esentati
    onoftheBoard,shallcauset
    hepreparati
    onofExecuti
    veAgreementswith
    countr
    iesoftheforei
    gnadopti
    onagenciestoensurethel
    egit
    imateconcur
    renceofsaid
    countr
    iesinuphol
    dingthesaf
    eguardsprov
    idedbythisAct
    .

    PENALTI
    ES

    Sec.16.
    Penal
    ti
    es.

    (
    a)Anyper sonwhoshal lknowi nglyparti
    cipateintheconductorcar r
    y i
    ngoutof
    ani l
    l
    egaladopt ion,inv iol
    ationoft hepr ovi
    sionsoft hi
    sAct ,shal
    lbepunishedwi tha
    penaltyofi
    mpr i
    sonmentr angingf rom six(6)y earsandone( 1)daytotwelv
    e( 12)years
    and/oraf i
    neofnotl esst hanFi f
    tyt housandpesos( P50,
    000),butnotmor ethanTwo
    hundredthousandpesos( P200.000) ,atthediscreti
    onoft hecourt.Forpur
    posesoft his
    Act,anadoptioni sill
    egalifitiseffect edinanymannercont r
    arytotheprovi
    sionsofthis
    Actorest ablished St atepol i
    cies,i t
    si mplement ing rul
    esand r egul
    ati
    ons,executive
    agreements,andot herlawsper tainingt oadopt i
    on.Il
    legali
    tymaybepr esumedf rom the

    295
    f
    oll
    owi
    ngact
    s:

    1.consentforanadopt ionwasacquiredthr ough,oratt


    endedbycoerci
    on,fr
    aud,
    i
    mpr opermaterial
    inducement;
    2.ther
    eisnoaut hori
    tyfr
    om theBoardtoeffectadopti
    on;
    3.theproceduresandsaf eguar
    dsplacedundert helaw foradopti
    onwerenot
    compliedwit
    h; and
    4.Thechi l
    dt o beadopt ed issubj
    ected to,orexposed to danger
    ,abuseand
    expl
    oitat
    ion.

    (b)Anyper sonwhoshal lv i
    olateestabl
    ishedregulat
    ionsr el
    ati
    ngtotheconf i
    dent i
    ali
    ty
    and i
    ntegri
    tyofr ecor
    ds,document sand communi cationsofadopt i
    on applicati
    ons,
    casesandpr ocessesshallsuffert
    hepenal t
    yofimpr i
    sonmentr angi
    ngfrom one( 1)year
    andone( 1)dayt ot wo( 2)years,and/oraf i
    neofnotl essthanFivethousandpesos
    (P5,
    000),butnotmor ethanTent housandpesos( P10,000),att
    hediscr
    etionofthecour t
    .

    Apenaltyl
    owerbytwo( 2)degr
    eesthanthatpr
    escr
    ibedf
    ortheconsummat
    edf el
    ony
    undert
    hisArt
    icl
    eshal
    lbeimposeduponthepri
    nci
    pal
    softheatt
    empttocommitanyof
    theact
    sherei
    nenumerat
    ed.

    Actspuni
    shabl
    eunderthi
    sArti
    cle,whencommit
    tedbyasy ndicateorwhereitinvol
    ves
    twoormorechil
    drenshal
    lbeconsider
    edasanoff
    enseconsti
    tutingchi
    l
    dtraff
    ickingand
    shal
    lmeri
    tthepenal
    tyofr
    ecl
    usionperpet
    ua.

    ActspunishableunderthisArt
    icl
    earedeemedcommi t
    tedbyasyndicateifcar
    riedoutby
    agroupoft hree(3)ormor epersonsconspiri
    ngand/orconf
    ederati
    ngwi thoneanother
    i
    ncar r
    yingoutanyoft heunlawfulact
    sdefinedunderthi
    sArt
    icl
    e.Penalti
    esasar eherei
    n
    provi
    dedshal lbeinadditi
    ontoanyotherpenalti
    eswhichmaybei mposedf orthesame
    actspunishableunderotherl
    aws,ordi
    nances,execut
    iveor
    der
    s,andpr ocl
    amations.

    Sec.17. Public Of f
    icers as Offenders.— Any gov er
    nmentof fi
    cial
    ,empl oyee or
    functi
    onarywhoshal lbefoundguilt
    yofv i
    olati
    nganyoft heprovisi
    onsoft hisAct ,
    orwho
    shallconspir
    ewi thprivatei
    ndivi
    dualsshal
    l,inadditi
    ontotheabov e-
    prescribedpenal t
    ies,
    be penalized i
    n accor dance with exi
    sti
    ng civi
    lser v
    ice laws,rules and r egul
    ati
    ons:
    Provided,Thatupon t he fi
    l
    ing ofa case,ei theradmi nist
    rat
    ive orcr iminal,sai d
    governmentof f
    icial
    ,empl oyee orf unct
    ionary concerned shallautomat icall
    y suffer
    suspensionuntiltheresolut
    ionofthecase.

    FI
    NALPROVI
    SIONS

    Sec.18. I
    mplementingRulesandRegul ati
    ons.— TheInter-
    countryAdopt i
    onBoar d,in
    coordinat
    ionwit
    ht heCounci lfort
    heWel f
    areofChil
    dren,theDepar t
    mentofFor ei
    gn
    Aff
    airs,andtheDepartmentofJustice,af t
    erdueconsul
    tati
    onwi thagenci
    esi nvolvedin
    chi
    ld-careand placement
    ,shal lpromul gatethenecessaryrulesand r egulat
    ionst o
    i
    mpl ementtheprovisi
    onsofthisActwithinsix(6)mont
    hsaf t
    erit
    sef f
    ecti
    vi
    t y
    .

    Sec.19.Appr opri
    ati
    ons.— TheamountofFi vemil
    li
    onpesos( P5,000,
    000)ishereby
    appropr
    iatedf r
    om thepr oceedsoft heLottofort
    heini
    ti
    aloperat
    ionsoftheBoardand
    subsequentlyt he appropriat
    ions oft he same shal
    lbe i ncl
    uded int he Gener
    al
    Appropri
    ationsActforthey earfol
    lowingit
    senactment

    Di
    sast
    erRi
    skReduct
    ionandManagement(
    DRRM)Actof2010
    (RA10121)

    Whydoweneedtogivei
    mpor
    tancet
    odisast
    ers?
     Disast
    erscauset
    hedestr
    uct
    ionofcommuni
    ti
    es,deat
    hofmi
    l
    li
    ons,andcol
    l
    apse

    296
    ofpeopl e’sl ivelihoods.Di sast ersl eav ei ndel i
    blei mpact sonphy sicallandscapes
    andonpeopl e'smi nds.
     Indev el
    opmentt erms,di sast erscanmeanser iouseconomi cimpactonnat ions,
    communi t
    ies, andhousehol ds.
     Foradev elopi ngnat i
    onl i
    ket hePhi l
    ippines, di
    sast ersal soposemaj orhur dl
    esf or
    theachi evementoft heMi ll
    enni um Dev elopmentGoal s( MDG) .
     ThePhi lippi nesi soneoft hewor ld'smostdi sast erpronenat i
    ons.Theexposur e
    oft hePhi li
    ppi nest odi saster scanbeat tributedt oitsgeogr aphicalandphy sical
    char acter i
    st ics.
     Earthquakesar ecommonandv olcanoesaboundbecauset hecount ryi sinthe
    Paci fi
    cRi ngofFi re.ThePhi li
    ppinesal soabsor bsthef ullstr
    engt hoft yphoons
    thatdev elopi nt hePaci f
    icOcean.
     Asidef rom nat uralcauses,t hePhi li
    ppi nesal so exper ienceshuman‐ induced
    disast ers.These ar e broughtaboutby hazar ds t hatar e ofpol i
    t i
    caland
    soci o‐economi cor igi
    nsandi nappr opr i
    ateandi ll
    ‐appliedt echnologies.Manyar e
    forced t o ev acuat e during t imes ofconf l
    ict.Peopl e dief rom ear thquakes
    primar il
    ybecauseoft hecol lapseofsubst andar dbuildings.
     The heal th of peopl e i s sev erely af fected because of i ndustrial and
    domest icwast et hatpol lutest hewat er, l
    andandai r.
     Hazar dsbecomedi sastersonl yifv ulner ablepeopl eandr esourcesar eexposed
    tothem.
     Peopl ewhol ivei npov ertyandadv ersesoci o‐economi ccondi ti
    onsar ehi ghly
    vulner ablet odi sast ers.
     Themostv ul ner ablesect or sincl udet hepoor ,thesi ck,peopl ewi thdi sabil
    iti
    es,
    theel der ly,womenandchi ldren.Al thoughmanypeopl emaybeaf fected,these
    vulner ablesect or swi llhav et hel eastcapaci tyt orecov erf r
    om t hei mpactofa
    disast er.
     Inthi scont ext ,itisi mportantf orsoci etyt ost rengthent hecapaci t
    yofv ulnerable
    sect ors.
     Indoi ngso,t hev ulnerablesect or sceaset obev ictimsofdi sast ersandwi l
    l
    becomeagent sofchangef ormeani ngf ul developmentofcommuni t
    ies.

    Whati
    stheDRRM Act
    ?
     Republi
    c Act No.10121 or t he Phili
    ppi
    ne Disast
    er Risk Reducti
    on and
    ManagementActof 2010 (DRRM Act)is a new law which tr
    ansforms the
    Phil
    i
    ppines’di sast
    ermanagementsy stem fr
    om disasterrel
    iefand response
    towardsdisasterri
    skreduct
    ion(
    DRR).
     I
    twasappr ovedonMay27, 2010.I
    trepeal
    edPresi
    denti
    alDecreeNo.1566whi ch
    wasenactedwaybacki n1978.

    I
    nfant
    sandChi
    ldr
    enHeal
    thI
    mmunizat
    ionActof2011
    (RA10152)
    ANACTPROVIDI
    NGFORMANDATORYBASICIMMUNIZATIONSERVI
    CESFORI NFANTSAND
    CHI
    LDREN,REPEALI
    NGFORTHEPURPOSEPRESI
    DENTIALDECREENo.996,
    ASAMENDED.

    Beitenactedbyt
    heSenat
    eandHouseofRepr
    esent
    ati
    vesoft
    hePhi
    l
    ippi
    nesi
    nCongr
    ess
    assembled:

    Sect
    ion1.Tit
    le.-Thi
    sActshal
    lbeknownast
    he"
    Mandat
    oryI
    nfant
    sandChi
    l
    drenHeal
    th
    I
    mmuni zat
    ionActof2011"
    .

    297
    Secton 2.Decl
    i ar
    ati
    on ofPol icy.-I n accor
    dance with Arti
    cleII
    ,Secti
    on 15 oft he
    Consti
    tuti
    on,I
    ti sherebydeclaredt obet hepolicyoft
    heStatetotakeapr oacti
    v erol
    ein
    thepreventi
    veheal thcareofi nfantsandchi l
    dren.Towardst hi
    send,theSt ateshal
    l
    adoptacompr ehensi
    ve,mandat oryandsustainablei
    mmuni zat
    ionprogr
    am f orvacci
    ne-
    prev
    entablediseasesforal
    linfant sandchildr
    en.

    Secton3.Cov
    i erage.-Themandat orybasici mmunizat
    ionforallinf
    antsandchi
    ldr
    en
    prov
    idedunderthisActshal lcoverthefoll
    owi ngvacci
    ne-
    prev
    entabledi
    seases:
    a.Tuber cul osis;
    b.Di pht her i
    a,tetanusandper tussis;
    c. Pol i
    omy elit
    is;
    d.Measl es;
    e. Mumps;
    f. Rubel laorGer manmeasl es;
    g.Hepat it
    is-B;
    h.H.I nfluenzat ypeB( HIB);and
    i. Suchot hert y
    pesasmaybedet er
    minedbytheSecr et
    aryofHeal
    thina
    depar tmentci rcul
    ar.

    Themandat or
    ybasicimmuni
    zat
    ionshallbegivenforfreeatanygov
    ernment
    hospi
    talorheal
    thcentert
    oinf
    ant
    sandchil
    drenuptof
    ive(5)year
    sofage.

    Hepat i
    ti
    s- Bv accineshal lbeadmi ni
    st eredbyanydul yli
    censedphy sician,nurseor
    midwi fetoal li nfant sborni nhospi tal
    s,heal thi nfirmar i
    es,healthcent ersorl yi
    ng- i
    n
    centerswi thobst et ricalandpedi atri
    cser vices,whet herpublicorpr ivate,wi thi
    nt went y-
    four( 24)hour saf terbi rt
    h:Pr ovi
    ded,however ,
    Thati ncasesofi nfantsbor ninpl aces
    othert hant heabov e,anydul ylicensedphy si
    cian,nur seormi dwi fewhodel iv
    er s,or
    assistsint hedel i
    v er yofthenewbor nshal lber esponsi bleforadmi nisteringt hev accine
    tothel at
    ter:Provi ded,f urther,Thatf ordel i
    veriesassi stedbyper sonsot herthant he
    healthpr ofessional sment ionedabov e,thei nfantshoul dbebr oughtt oanyav ai
    lable
    healthar ef aci
    litysoast obei mmuni zedagai nstHepat iti
    s-Bwi t
    hi nt went y-
    four( 24)
    hoursaf t
    erbi r
    thbutnotl at erthansev en( 7)day s: Provi
    ded,f i
    nally,Thatsubsequent
    dosesofHepat it
    is-Bv accinationshal lbecompl et edaccor dingt ot her ecommended
    schedul eofHepat itis-Bimmuni zation,asmaybepr ov i
    dedi ntheimpl ement i
    ngr ul
    esand
    regulati
    onst obei ssuedbyt heDepar t
    mentofHeal th( DOH) .

    Secton4.Educat
    i i
    onandInformat ionCampaign.–Allheal
    thcarepracti
    ti
    oner
    sorheal
    th
    careworkerswhoareadministeri
    ngpr enat
    alcar
    eshalleducateal
    lpregnantmot
    herson
    theimportanceofgi
    vi
    ngt heirinfantsthebasicimmunizati
    onservicesaswellasany
    possi
    bleeffect
    sofi
    mmunizat i
    on.

    The DOH, ot her government agenci


    es, nongov
    ernment organi
    zat
    ions,
    prof
    essionalandacademicsociet
    ies,andl
    ocalgover
    nmentunit
    eshal
    lmakeav ai
    labl
    e
    appropr
    iateinfor
    mati
    onmat er
    ialsandshallhaveasy st
    em ofitsdi
    str
    ibut
    iontothe
    publ
    ic.

    Secton5.Obl
    i igat
    iontoInform.-Anyphysi ci
    an,nur
    se,midwife,nursingaideorski l
    led
    bi
    rthattendant,whodel i
    vers,orassistsint hedeli
    ver
    yof ,anewbor nshal l
    ,priorto
    del
    iver
    y,inform parent
    sorlegalguardianofthenewbornoft heav ail
    abili
    ty,natur
    eand
    benefi
    tsofI mmunizati
    onagainstHepat i
    ti
    s-Bandothervacci
    ne-preventabl
    edi seasesat
    bi
    rth.

    Section6.Cont inuingEducat i
    onandTr ai
    ningofHeal t
    hPersonnel.-TheDOH,wi tht he
    assistance of l ocal gov ernment uni t
    s, academe, professional societi
    es and
    nongov ernmentalor ganizat
    ions,shallundert
    akecont i
    nui
    nginformation,educati
    onand
    tr
    ainingpr ogramsf orallhealthpersonnelont herati
    onal
    eandbenef i
    tsofaswel las
    moder n pr ocedures f or immunization of infant
    s and children against vaccine-
    preventablediseases.

    Sect
    ion7.Appr
    opr
    iat
    ions.-Theamountnecessar
    ytocar
    ryoutt
    hei
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    onof

    298
    thi
    sActshal lbechargedagai
    nstthecurr
    entyear
    'sappropri
    ati
    onsforexpandedpr
    ogr
    am
    onimmuni zat i
    onoft heDOH.Ther eaft
    er,suchsumsasmaybenecessar yf
    orthe
    conti
    nued impl ementat
    ion of t
    his Actshallbe i ncl
    uded int he annualGeneral
    Appropri
    ati
    onsAct .
    ThePhili
    ppineHealthInsur
    anceCorporat
    ion(PHI
    C)shallincl
    udethebasicimmuni
    zati
    on
    serv
    icesinitsbenefi
    tpackage.

    Secton8.I
    i mpl
    ementingRul
    esandRegul ations.– TheDOH,i nconsul
    tat
    ionwiththe
    Nati
    onalI
    mmunizati
    onCommi t
    tee,shal
    lissuet heimplement
    ingrul
    esandr egul
    ati
    ons
    wit
    hinni
    net
    y(90)daysaft
    ert
    heapprovalofthisAct.

    Secton9.Separ
    i abi
    li
    tyCl
    ause.-If
    ,foranyreason,anypar torprov
    isi
    onofthi
    sActshal
    l
    bedeclar
    edunconstit
    uti
    onalorinval
    id,theremaini
    ngpr ovisi
    onshereofwhi
    charenot
    aff
    ectedt
    herebyshal
    lconti
    nuetobeinf ul
    lfor
    ceandeffect.

    Sect
    ion10.Repeali
    ngClause.-Al
    ll
    aws, decrees,execut
    iveor
    der
    s,rul
    esandregul
    ati
    ons
    orpart
    sthereofwhichareinconsi
    stentwiththisActareherebyrepeal
    ed,amendedor
    modifi
    edaccordi
    ngl
    y.

    Secton11.Ef
    i fect
    ivi
    ty.-Thi
    sActshal
    ltakeef
    fectf
    if
    teen(15)daysaft
    eritspubl
    i
    cat
    ioni
    n
    theOffi
    cialGazett
    eori natl
    eastt
    wo(2)newspapersofgeneralci
    rcul
    ati
    on.
    Approved,

    Cyber
    cri
    mePrevent
    ionActof2012
    (
    RA10175)

    An ActDefi
    ning Cyber
    cri
    me,Pr event
    ion,Invest
    igat
    ion,Suppr
    essi
    on and t
    he
    I
    mposit
    ionofPenalt
    iesTher
    eforandforOtherPurposes

     TheCy ber crimePr ev ent i


    onActof2012,of fi
    cial l
    yr ecor dedasRepubl i
    cActNo.
    10175, isal awi nt hePhi l
    ippinesappr ov edonSept ember12, 2012.
     Itaimst oaddr essl egali ssuesconcer ni ngonl inei nter act i
    onsandt heInternetin
    the Phi lippines.Among t he cy bercr ime of fenses i ncluded i nt he bi llare
    cyber squat t
    ing,cy ber sex,chi l
    dpor nogr aphy ,ident i
    tyt hef t,il
    legalaccesst odata
    andl ibel.
     TheAct ,dividedi nt o31sect ionsspl i
    tacr ossei ghtchapt ers,cri
    mi nalizessev eral
    typesofof f ense,i ncl udi
    ngi l
    legalaccess( hacki ng) ,dat ai nterference,dev i
    ce
    mi suse,cy ber squat ting,comput er-relat ed of fenses such as comput erf raud,
    cont ent -
    relat edof fensessuchascy ber sexandspam, andot herof fenses.
     Thel awal sor eaffirmsexi stingl awsagai nstchi l
    dpor nogr aphy ,anof fenseunder
    Republ i
    cActNo.9775( theAnt i
    -ChildPor nogr aphyActof2009) ,andl ibel,an
    offenseunderSect ion355oft heRev isedPenalCodeoft hePhi l
    ippines,also
    crimi nalizingt hem whencommi ttedusi ngacomput ersy stem.
     Finally,t he Acti ncl udes a " cat ch-all"cl ause,maki ng al lof fenses cur rently
    puni shabl eundert heRev isedPenalCodeal sopuni shabl eundert heActwhen
    commi tt
    edusi ngacomput er, wi thsev ererpenal ti
    est hanpr ov i
    dedbyt heRev i
    sed
    Penal Codeal one.
     TheActhasuni ver saljurisdi ction:i tspr ovisionsappl yt oal lFili
    pinonat i
    onals
    regar dlessoft hepl aceofcommi ssion.Jur i
    sdi ctional sol ieswhenapuni shable
    acti sei thercommi ttedwi thint hePhi l
    ippi nes, whet hert heer ri
    ngdev i
    cei swhol ly
    orpar tl
    ysi tuat edint hePhi l
    ippi nes,orwhet herdamagewasdonet oanynat ural
    orj uridicalper sonwhoatt het imeofcommi ssionwaswi thint hePhi l
    ippines.
    Regi onalTr ialCour tsshal lhav ej uri
    sdi ct i
    onov ercasesi nv olvingv i
    olationsoft he
    Act .

    Responsi
    blePar
    ent
    hoodandReproduct
    iveHeal
    thActof2012
    (RA10354)

    299
    TheResponsi bl
    ePar ent
    hoodandRepr oduct
    iveHeal
    thActof2012( Republ
    icAct
    No.10354) ,i
    nformall
    yknownast heRepr oducti
    veHealthLaworRHLaw, i
    sal awinthe
    Phil
    i
    ppines,whi chguaranteesuniv
    ersalaccesst omethodsofcontracepti
    on,fert
    il
    it
    y
    contr
    ol,sexualeducati
    on,andmaternalcare.

    Whil
    et hereisgeneralagreementaboutitsprovisi
    onsonmat ernalandchil
    d
    health,ther
    ei sgreatdebateoni tsmandatethatthePhi l
    ippi
    negov er
    nmentandt he
    privatesect
    orwi l
    lfundandundert
    akewidespr
    eaddistr
    ibuti
    onoffamilyplanni
    ngdevi
    ces
    such as condoms,bi rt
    h cont
    rolpil
    ls,and I
    UDs,as t he governmentcont i
    nues t
    o
    disseminateinfor
    mat i
    ononthei
    rusethroughal
    lheal
    thcarecenters.

    Passageoft helegisl
    ati
    onwascont roversialandhi ghl
    ydivi
    siv
    e,withtamabys,
    academics,rel
    igiousinsti
    tuti
    ons,andmaj orpol i
    ticalfigur
    esdeclari
    ngt hei
    rsuppor
    tor
    oppositi
    onwhi l
    ei twaspendi ngint helegislat
    ur e.Heat eddebatesandr al
    li
    esbot h
    supporti
    ngandopposi ngtheRHBi lltookplacenat i
    onwi de.
    The Supr eme Cour tdelayed implement ation oft he l
    aw in March 2013 in
    response t
    o chal l
    enges.On Apr i
    l3,2014,t he Cour truled t
    hatthe law was "not
    unconsti
    tut
    ional"butstr
    uckdownei ghtpr
    ov i
    sionspar t
    iall
    yorinful
    l.

    TheSenat ePol i
    cyBrieftitl
    ed"Promot ingReproducti
    veHeal t
    h",t
    hehi storyof
    reproducti
    v ehealthint hePhil
    ippi
    nesdat esbackt o1967whenl eadersof12count ries
    i
    ncludingt hePhi l
    ippines'Fer
    dinandMar cossi gnedtheDeclarat
    iononPopul ati
    on.The
    Phil
    ippinesagr eedt hatthepopul ati
    onpr obl
    em shouldbeconsi deredast hepr i
    ncipal
    elementf orlong-term economi cdev el
    opment .Thus,t
    hePopul ationCommi ssionwas
    createdtopushf oral owerfamilysizenor m andprovideinf
    ormat i
    onandser vicest o
    l
    owerf erti
    li
    tyrates.

    ExpandedAnt
    i-
    Traf
    ficki
    ngi
    nPersonsActof2012
    (RA10364)

    ANACTEXPANDINGREPUBLI
    CACTNO.9208,ENTITLED"ANACTTOINSTITUTEPOLICIESTO
    ELI
    MINATETRAFFI
    CKI
    NGI NPERSONSESPECI
    ALLYWOMENANDCHI LDREN,ESTABLISHING
    THENECESSARYI
    NSTITUTI
    ONALMECHANISMSFORTHEPROTECTI ONANDSUPPORTOF
    TRAFFI
    CKEDPERSONS,PROVIDI
    NGPENALTI
    ESFORI TSVI
    OLATI
    ONSANDFOROTHER
    PURPOSES"

    SALI
    ENTFEATURES:

    Sect
    ion3ofRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208i
    sher
    ebyamendedt
    oreadasf
    oll
    ows:

    "
    Sec.3.
    Def
    ini
    ti
    onofTer
    ms.–Asusedi
    nthi
    sAct
    :

    (
    a)Tr aff
    icki nginPer sons–r ef erst ot her ecruitment, obtaining,hir
    ing, provi
    ding,
    offering,t r
    anspor tati
    on,t ransf er,mai ntaining,har boring,orr ecei ptofper sonswi thor
    withoutt hev ict
    im’ sconsentorknowl edge,wi t
    hinoracr ossnat i
    onalbor dersbymeans
    oft hreat,oruseoff orce,orot herf ormsofcoer cion,abduction,f raud,decept i
    on,abuse
    ofpowerorofposi ti
    on,taki ngadv antageoft hev ulnerabi
    lit
    yoft heper son,or ,
    t hegivi
    ng
    orr eceivingofpay ment sorbenef i
    tst oachi ev et heconsentofaper sonhav i
    ngcont rol
    overanot herper sonf orthepur poseofexpl oitationwhi chi ncludesatami nimum,t he
    exploitati
    onort hepr ostitutionofot hersorot herf ormsofsexualexpl oi
    tation,forced
    l
    abororser vi
    ces, slavery,ser vit
    udeort her emov al orsaleofor gans.”
    "Ther ecruitment, transport ation,transf er,har bor i
    ng, adoptionorr eceiptofachi l
    dforthe
    purposeofexpl oitat i
    onorwhent headopt ioni sinducedbyanyf or m ofconsider ati
    onf or
    exploitati
    v epurposesshal lal sobeconsi der edas‘ tr
    affi
    ckingi nper sons’ev eni fitdoes
    noti nvolveanyoft hemeanssetf orthi nthepr ecedi ngpar agraph.

    (
    b)Chi
    l
    d–r
    efer
    stoaper
    sonbel
    owei
    ght
    een(
    18)y
    ear
    sofageoronewhoi
    sov
    er

    300
    ei
    ghteen( 18)butisunabletof
    ullyt
    akecareoforprot
    ecthi
    mself/
    hersel
    ffrom abuse,
    negl
    ect,cruel
    ty,expl
    oit
    ati
    on,
    ordiscr
    imi
    nat
    ionbecauseofaphysi
    calormentaldi
    sabil
    it
    y
    orcondi
    tion.

    (c)Prost
    it
    uti
    on–r efer
    stoanyact ,transact
    ion,schemeordesi gninvol
    vingt
    he
    useofapersonbyanother,f
    orsexualint
    ercourseorlasci
    viousconductinexchangefor
    money,
    profi
    toranyotherconsi
    derat
    ion.

    (
    d)For
    cedLabor–r eferstotheextr
    acti
    onofwor korser vi
    cesfrom anyperson
    bymeansofent i
    cement
    ,violence,int
    imi
    dati
    onort hreat,useof ,f
    orceorcoer cion,
    i
    ncludi
    ngdepr
    ivati
    onoffr
    eedom, abuseofauthor
    ityormor alascendancy,debt
    -bondage
    ordecept
    ioni
    ncludi
    nganywor korservi
    ceextr
    actedfrom anyper sonunderthemenace
    ofpenal
    ty.

    (
    e)Slavery–refer
    stothestat
    usorcondi
    ti
    onofapersonov
    erwhom anyoral
    lof
    t
    hepowersattachi
    ngtother
    ightofowner
    shi
    pareexer
    cised.

    (
    f)Involunt
    aryServitude– ref
    erst oacondi tionofenf orcedandcompul sory
    servi
    ceinducedbymeansofanyscheme, planorpattern,i
    ntendedtocauseaper sont o
    bel
    ievet hatifheorshedi dnotenterintoorcont i
    nuei nsuchcondi ti
    on,heorsheor
    anotherpersonwoul dsufferseri
    ousharm orot herf
    ormsofabuseorphy sicalrest
    raint
    ,
    orthreatofabuseorhar m,orcoer ci
    oni ncl
    udingdepr i
    vingaccesst otr
    av eldocument s
    andwi t
    hholdingsalar
    ies,
    ort heabuseorthreatenedabuseoft helegalprocess.

    (g)SexTouri
    sm –refer
    stoapr ogram organizedbytravelandtourism-r
    elat
    ed
    est
    ablishmentsandindi
    vi
    dualswhi
    chconsi stsoftouri
    sm packagesoractivi
    ti
    es,ut
    il
    izi
    ng
    andoff eri
    ngescor
    tandsexualser
    vicesasent i
    cementf ort
    our
    ists.Thisi
    ncl
    udessexual
    ser
    vicesandpr acti
    cesoff
    eredduri
    ngr estandr ecreationper
    iodsf ormember softhe
    mil
    it
    ary .

    (h)SexualExpl oitat
    ion – r
    efersto part
    ici
    pati
    on byaper son i
    n prosti
    tuti
    on,
    pornographyort hepr oducti
    onofpor nography
    ,inexchangef ormoney ,profi
    torany
    otherconsi der
    ati
    onorwher et hepart
    ici
    pat
    ioniscausedorf aci
    li
    tatedbyanymeansof
    i
    ntimidat i
    on orthreat,use off or
    ce,orot herforms ofcoer ci
    on,abduct i
    on,fraud,
    deception,debtbondage,abuseofpowerorofposi tionorofl egalprocess,taki
    ng
    advantageoft hev ulnerabi
    lit
    yoft heperson,orgi vi
    ngorr ecei
    vingofpay ment sor
    benefit
    st oachievet heconsentofaper sonhav i
    ngcont r
    oloveranotherperson;ori n
    sexualintercour
    seorl ascivi
    ousconductcausedorf aci
    li
    tat
    edbyanymeansaspr ovi
    ded
    i
    nt hi
    sAct .

    (i
    )DebtBondage– r eferstothepl edgingbyt hedebt orofhis/herpersonal
    serv
    icesorlabororthoseofaper sonunderhis/hercontrolassecuri
    tyorpaymentfora
    debt,whenthelengthandnat ur
    eofservicesisnotcl ear
    lydefi
    nedorwhent hevalueof
    theservi
    cesasreasonablyassessedisnotappli
    edt owardtheli
    quidat
    ionofthedebt.

    (
    j)Por
    nogr
    aphy– r
    efer
    stoanyr
    epr
    esent
    ati
    on,t
    hroughpubl
    i
    cat
    ion,exhi
    bit
    ion,
    ci
    nemat ogr
    aphy,i
    ndecentshows,infor
    mat i
    ontechnology,orbywhat
    evermeans,ofa
    personengagedinreal
    orsimulat
    edexplici
    tsexualact
    ivi
    ti
    esoranyr
    epresent
    ati
    onoft
    he
    sexualpart
    sofapersonforpri
    maril
    ysexualpurposes.

    Sect
    ion4ofRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208i
    sher
    ebyamendedt
    oreadasf
    oll
    ows:

    "
    Sec.4.ActsofTr
    aff
    icki
    nginPersons.–I
    tshal
    lbeunl
    awf
    ulf
    oranyper
    son,nat
    uralor
    j
    uri
    dical
    ,tocommi
    tanyofthef
    oll
    owingact
    s:

    (
    a)Tor ecr
    uit
    ,obtai
    n,hir
    e,provi
    de,of
    fer,t
    ransport
    ,transf
    er,maintai
    n,har
    bor,or
    recei
    veaper sonbyanymeans,i ncl
    udi
    ngthosedoneundert hepretextofdomesti
    cor
    overseasempl oymentort r
    aini
    ngorappr enti
    ceship,forthepur poseofpr ost
    it
    uti
    on,
    pornography
    ,orsexualexpl
    oit
    ation;

    301
    (
    b)Toi nt
    roduceormat chformoney ,profi
    t,ormateri
    al,economicorot her
    consi
    derat
    ion,anyper sonor,aspr ov
    idedforunderRepubli
    cActNo.6955,anyFi li
    pino
    womant oaf orei
    gnnat ional
    ,formarri
    ageforthepurposeofacquiri
    ng,buyi
    ng,off
    eri
    ng,
    sel
    li
    ngort radi
    nghi m/ hertoengagei nprosti
    tut
    ion,por
    nography,sexualexpl
    oit
    ati
    on,
    for
    cedlabor,sl
    avery
    ,inv ol
    unt
    aryservi
    tudeordebtbondage;

    (c)Toof ferorcontr
    actmarriage,realorsi
    mulat
    ed,forthepurposeofacquiri
    ng,
    buyi
    ng,offer
    ing,sell
    ing,ortr
    adingthem toengagei nprost
    itut
    ion,pornogr
    aphy,sexual
    expl
    oit
    ati
    on,forcedlabororslav
    ery,
    inv ol
    untaryser
    vit
    udeordebtbondage;

    (d)To undert
    ake ororganize t
    our
    s and t
    rav
    elplans consi
    sti
    ng oftouri
    sm
    packagesoracti
    vi
    ti
    esf ort
    hepur poseofut
    il
    izi
    ngandoff
    eri
    ngpersonsforprost
    it
    uti
    on,
    pornogr
    aphyorsexualexpl
    oit
    ati
    on;

    (
    e)Tomai
    ntai
    norhi
    reaper
    sont
    oengagei
    npr
    ost
    it
    uti
    onorpor
    nogr
    aphy
    ;

    (
    f)Toadoptpersonsbyanyform ofconsiderat
    ionforexpl
    oit
    ati
    vepurposesorto
    f
    acil
    i
    tatethesameforpurposesofprost
    itut
    ion,pornography
    ,sexualexpl
    oit
    ati
    on,f
    orced
    l
    abor,sl
    aver
    y,i
    nvol
    untaryser
    vit
    udeordebtbondage;

    (g)Toadoptorfacil
    i
    tat
    et headopt
    ionofpersonsfort
    hepurposeofprost
    it
    uti
    on,
    pornogr
    aphy,sexualexploi
    tat
    ion,for
    cedlabor
    ,slavery,i
    nvol
    unt
    aryservi
    tudeordebt
    bondage;

    (h)Tor ecr
    uit
    ,hire,adopt,transpor
    t,t
    ransf
    er,obt
    ain,harbor
    ,maint
    ain,provi
    de,
    off
    er,recei
    veorabductaper son,bymeansoft hreatoruseoff orce,f
    raud,deceit
    ,
    vi
    olence,coer
    cion,orint
    imidati
    onf orthepurposeofremov alorsal
    eoforgansofsaid
    person;

    (
    i)Tor ecr
    uit
    ,transpor
    t,obt
    ain,t
    ransf
    er,har
    bor,mai
    ntai
    n,of
    fer
    ,hir
    e,prov
    ide,
    r
    ecei
    veoradoptachil
    dtoengageinarmedacti
    vit
    iesi
    nthePhi
    l
    ippi
    nesorabr
    oad;

    (j
    )Tor ecrui
    t,t
    ransport,t ransfer,harbor,obtain,maintai
    n,offer,hi
    re,prov i
    deor
    receiveapersonbymeansdef inedi nSect ion3oft hisActf orpurposesoff orcedl abor,
    slavery,debtbondageandi nv oluntaryser vi
    tude,includi
    ngascheme,pl an,orpat tern
    i
    nt endedtocauset hepersonei ther:
    1.Tobel i
    evethati ftheper sondi dnotper f
    orm suchl abororser vices,he
    orsheoranot herper sonwoul dsufferseri
    ousharm orphy sicalrestraint
    ;
    or
    2.Toabuseort hreat ent heuseofl awort helegalprocesses;and

    (k)Tor ecruit,transport,har bor,obtai n,transf er


    ,mai ntain,hi re,of f
    er,pr ovide,
    adoptorr ecei
    veachi l
    df orpur
    posesofexpl oitat
    ionort radingt hem,i ncludingbutnot
    l
    imitedto,theactofbar ingand/ orsel l
    ingachi ldforanyconsi der ati
    onorf orbar terf or
    purposes ofexpl oit
    ation.Tr af
    ficking f orpur poses ofexpl oitation ofchi l
    dren shal l
    i
    nclude:
    1.Al lformsofsl av eryorpr acti
    cessi milartoslav er y
    , i
    nv oluntaryserv i
    tude,
    debtbondageandf orcedl abor ,includingr ecr uitmentofchi l
    drenf or
    usei nar medconf l
    i
    ct ;
    2.The use,pr ocur i
    ng orof fering ofa chi l
    df orpr ostit
    ution,f ort he
    product ionofpor nography ,orf orpor nographi cper formances;
    3.The use,pr ocur i
    ng orof fer i
    ng ofa chi l
    df ort he pr oduction and
    traf
    fickingofdr ugs; and
    4.Theuse,pr ocur i
    ngorof f
    eringofachi ldf ori ll
    egalact ivi
    ti
    esorwor k
    which,byi t
    snat ureort heci rcumst ancesi nwhi chi tiscar r
    iedout ,is
    l
    ikelytohar mt heirheal th,
    saf etyormor als;and

    (
    l)Toorgani
    zeordir
    ectot
    herper
    sonst
    ocommi
    ttheof
    fensesdef
    inedasact
    sof
    t
    raf
    fi
    cki
    ngunderthi
    sAct.
    "

    302
    Secti
    on5.Anew Sect
    ion4-
    Aisher
    ebyi
    nser
    tedi
    nRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208,t
    oreadas
    fol
    lows:

    Sec.4-A.Attempt edTr aff


    icki
    ngi nPer sons.– Wher ethereareact stoini
    ti
    atethe
    commi ssi
    onofat r
    affi
    ckingoff
    ensebutt heof f
    enderfai
    ledtoordidnotexecuteallthe
    el
    ement soft hecrime,byacci dentorbyr easonofsomecauseot herthanvol
    untary
    desi
    stance,such ov er
    tact sshallbedeemed asan at temptto commi tan actof
    tr
    aff
    ickingi
    nper sons.Assuch,anat tempttocommi tanyoftheoffensesenumerat
    edi n
    Sect
    ion4oft hisActshallconst
    ituteatt
    empt edtr
    aff
    icki
    nginpersons.

    "I
    ncaseswher
    ethevi
    cti
    misachild,
    anyoft
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ngact
    sshal
    lal
    sobedeemedas
    att
    emptedt
    raf
    fi
    cki
    ngi
    npersons:

    a.Faci l
    it
    atingt hetrav elofachi l
    dwhot rav el
    salonet oaf orei
    gncount r
    yor
    terri
    torywi thoutv alidreasont hereforandwi thoutther equiredcl
    earance
    orper mi tfrom theDepar tmentofSoci alWel fareandDev elopment,ora
    wr it
    tenper mi torjustifi
    cationf r
    om thechi l
    d’sparentorl egalguar
    dian;
    b.Execut i
    ng,f ora consi deration,an af fidavitofconsentora wr i
    tt
    en
    consentf oradopt ion;
    c. Recr uit
    ingawomant obearachi l
    dfort hepur poseofsel l
    ingthechil
    d;
    d.Si mul ati
    ngabi rt
    hf ort hepur poseofsel lingthechild;and
    e. Sol i
    cit
    ingachi ldandacqui ri
    ngt hecust odythereoft hroughanymeans
    from amonghospi tals,clini
    cs,nur series,day car
    ecent ers,ref
    ugeeor
    ev acuationcent ers,andl ow- i
    ncomef ami li
    es,forthepur poseofselli
    ng
    thechi l
    d. "

    Secti
    on6.Anew Sect
    ion4-
    Bisher
    ebyi
    nser
    tedi
    nRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208,t
    oreadas
    fol
    lows:

    "Sec.4-B.AccompliceLi
    abi
    li
    ty.– Whoeverknowingl
    yaids,abets,cooper
    atesi
    nthe
    executi
    onoftheoffensebyprevi
    ousorsimult
    aneousactsdefinedinthi
    sActshal
    lbe
    punishedi
    naccordancewi
    ththeprov
    isi
    onsofSecti
    on10(c)ofthisAct
    ."

    Secti
    on7.Anew Sect
    ion4-
    Cisher
    ebyi
    nser
    tedi
    nRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208,t
    oreadas
    fol
    lows:

    "Sec.4-
    C.Accessor ies.–Whoev erhast heknowl edgeofthecommi ssionoft hecrime,
    andwi t
    houthav i
    ngpar t
    icipat edt herei
    n,eitheraspr i
    nci
    palorasaccompl ices,takepart
    i
    ni t
    scommi ssi
    oni nanyoft hef ollowingmanner s:
    a.Bypr of i
    ti
    ngt hemsel v
    esorassi stingt heoffendertopr of
    itbyt heef f
    ects
    ofthecr ime;
    b.By conceal i
    ng ordest royi
    ng t he body oft he crime oref f
    ects or
    i
    nst r
    ument sther eof,i
    nor dertoprev entit
    sdiscovery;
    c. Byhar bor ing, conceal i
    ngorassi stingintheescapeoft hepr i
    ncipalofthe
    crime,pr ov i
    ded t he accessor yact s wit
    h abuse ofhi s orherpubl i
    c
    functi
    onsori sknownt obehabi t
    ual lygui
    lt
    yofsomeot hercrime.
    Actsdefinedint hi spr ov i
    sionshallbepuni shedinaccordancewi ththepr ovi
    sion
    ofSecti
    on10(d)asst atedt her eto."

    Sect
    ion8.Sect
    ion5ofRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208i
    sher
    ebyamendedt
    oreadasf
    oll
    ows:

    "Sec.5.
    Actst hatPromot eTraffi
    cki
    ngi nPersons.–Thef oll
    owingactswhi chpromot e
    orfaci
    li
    tat
    etraffi
    ckinginpersonsshallbeunlawful:
    1.Topr oduce,pri
    ntandi ssueordi st
    ri
    buteunissued,tamper edorfakecounsel ing
    cert
    if
    icates,regist
    rati
    on sti
    ckers,overseas employ mentcer t
    if
    icates orot her
    cert
    if
    icatesofanygov ernmentagencywhi chissuest hesecertif
    icates,decals
    andsuchot hermar kersasproofofcompl i
    ancewithgov ernmentregul at
    oryand

    303
    pre-departurerequirement sfort hepurposeofpr omot ingt r
    aff
    icki
    nginpersons;
    2.Tot amperwi t
    h,dest r
    oy ,orcauset hedestructi
    onofev idence,ortoinfl
    uenceor
    attemptt oinfl
    uencewi tnesses, inani nvesti
    gati
    onorpr osecuti
    onofacaseunder
    thi
    sAct ;
    3.To dest roy,conceal ,remov e,conf i
    scate orpossess,orat temptt o destroy,
    conceal ,remov e,confiscateorpossess,anyact ualorpur portedpasspor tor
    othertrav el
    ,immi grati
    onorwor kingpermi tordocument ,oranyot heractualor
    purportedgov ernmenti dent i
    fi
    cat i
    on,ofanyper soni nor dertopreventorrestri
    ct,
    orat t
    emptt opr eventorr estri
    ct,withoutlawfulauthor i
    ty,theperson’sli
    bertyto
    mov eort ravelinordertomai ntainthelabororservicesoft hatperson;or
    4.Tout il
    izehisorherof fi
    cet oi mpedet heinvest
    igation,prosecuti
    onorexecut ion
    oflawful ordersinacaseundert hisAct .
    "

    Sect
    ion9.Sect
    ion6ofRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208i
    sher
    ebyamendedt
    oreadasf
    oll
    ows:

    "Sec.6.Qual ifi
    edTr affi
    ckingi nPer sons.–Violati
    onsofSect ion4oft hisActshal lbe
    consideredasqual ifi
    edt r
    afficki
    ng:
    1.Whent heof fenderi saspouse,anascendant ,parent ,sibl
    ing,guar di
    anora
    personwhoexer cisesaut horit
    yoverthetraffi
    ckedper sonorwhent heoffensei s
    commi ttedbyapubl icoff
    icerorempl oy
    ee;
    2.Whent heof fenderisamemberoft hemi l
    it
    aryorl awenf orcementagenci es;
    3.Whenbyr easonoronoccasi onoftheactoft raffi
    ckingi npersons, theoffended
    party dies,becomes i nsane,suf f
    ers mut i
    lation ori s af fl
    i
    ct ed wi t
    h Human
    Immunodef iciencyVi rus( HIV)ort heAcqui redI mmuneDef iciencySy ndr ome
    (AIDS);
    4.Whent heof fendercommi tsoneormor ev i
    olationsofSect i
    on4ov eraper iodof
    sixty(
    60)ormor eday s,whet hert
    hoseday sar econtinuousornot ;and
    5.Whent heof fenderdi rect
    sort hr
    oughanot hermanagest hetraf f
    ickingvictimi n
    carryi
    ngoutt heexpl oit
    ati
    v epurposeoftraff
    icking."

    Sect
    ion10.Sect
    ion7ofRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208i
    sher
    ebyamendedt
    oreadasf
    oll
    ows:

    "Sec.7.Conf i
    denti
    al i
    ty.–Atanyst ageoft heinv esti
    gat i
    on,r escue,prosecuti
    onandt ri
    al
    ofan of fenseundert hisAct,law enf orcementof fi
    cers,pr osecutors,judges,cour t
    personnel,socialwor kersandmedi calpractiti
    oner s,aswel laspar tiestothecase, shal
    l
    protectther i
    ghttopr ivacyofthet r
    aff
    ickedper son.Towar dst hisend,lawenf orcement
    offi
    cers,pr osecutors and judges to whom t he compl ainthas been r ef
    erred may ,
    whenev ernecessar yt oensureaf ai
    randi mpar ti
    alpr oceeding,andaf t
    erconsider i
    ngall
    cir
    cumst ancesf ort hebesti nter
    estoft hepar ti
    es,or deracl osed-doorinvestigati
    on,
    prosecutionort ri
    al.Thenameandper sonalci rcumst ancesoft het r
    aff
    ickedper sonor
    anyot herinfor
    mat iontendingtoestabli
    sht hei dent i
    tyoft het r
    affi
    ckedper sonandhi sor
    herfami l
    yshallnotbedi scl
    osedtothepubl i
    c.

    "
    Itshallbeunlawfulf
    oranyedi t
    or,publ
    isher,andr eport
    erorcolumni stincaseof
    pri
    ntedmat er
    ial
    s,announcerorpr oducerincaseoft elev i
    sionandr adio,producerand
    dir
    ectorofaf il
    mi ncaseofthemov i
    eindustry
    , oranyper sonut i
    l
    izi
    ngt r
    i-mediafacili
    ti
    es
    or electronicinfor
    mat i
    on technology to cause publ icity of t
    he name,per sonal
    ci
    rcumst ances,oranyi nfor
    mat i
    ont endingtoest ablisht heidenti
    tyoft het raf
    ficked
    person exceptwhen t he tr
    affi
    cked person in a wr i
    tten statementdul y notar i
    zed
    knowingly,vol
    untari
    l
    yandwi ll
    ingl
    ywai v
    essaidconf i
    dent iali
    ty.

    "
    Lawenf orcementof f
    icers,prosecut
    ors,j
    udges,courtpersonnel
    ,soci
    alworkers
    and medi calpractit
    ioners shallbe t rai
    ned on t he importance of maintai
    ning
    conf
    identi
    ali
    tyasameanst oprot ecttheri
    ghttoprivacyofv i
    cti
    msandt oencourage
    vi
    cti
    mst ofil
    ecompl ai
    nts."

    Sect
    ion11.Sect
    ion8ofRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208i
    sher
    ebyamendedt
    oreadasf
    oll
    ows:

    304
    "
    Sec.8.I
    nit
    iat
    ionandPr
    osecut
    ionofCases.–

    a)Initi
    ati
    on ofI nvestigation.– Law enf or
    cementagenci es ar e mandat ed t o
    i
    mmedi at
    elyi ni
    ti
    atei nvesti
    gat
    ionandcount er
    -tr
    affi
    cking-
    intel
    ligencegat hering
    upon r eceiptofst atement soraffidavi
    tfrom v i
    cti
    msoft raffi
    cking,mi gr
    ant
    wor kers,ort heirfami l
    ieswhoar einpossessi onofknowl edgeori nf
    or mation
    aboutt raffi
    ckinginper sonscases.
    b)Pr osecuti
    on ofCases.– Anyper son who has per sonalknowl edge oft he
    commi ssionofanyof fenseunderthisAct,suchast het raff
    ickedper son,t he
    par ent
    s,spouse,si bli
    ngs,chil
    drenorl egalguardianmayf i
    leacompl aintfor
    traffi
    cking.

    c) Aff
    idavitofDesistance.–Casesi nv
    olvi
    ngt r af
    fi
    ckinginpersonsshouldnotbe
    di
    smi ssedbasedont heaf fi
    dav
    itofdesi
    st anceexecut edbythev i
    cti
    msort hei
    r
    par
    ent sorlegalguardians.Publ
    icandpri
    v ateprosecutorsar
    edirect
    edt ooppose
    andmani festobj
    ectionstomot i
    onsfordismi ssal.

    "Anyactinvol
    vi
    ngthemeansprovi
    dedinthisActoranyat
    temptther
    eoffort
    he
    purposeofsecuri
    nganAf f
    idav
    itofDesi
    stancefr
    om thecomplai
    nantshal
    lbe
    punishabl
    eundert
    hisAct
    ."

    Sect
    ion12.Sect
    ion10ofRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208i
    sher
    ebyamendedt
    oreadasf
    oll
    ows:

    "Sec.10.Penalt
    iesandSancti
    ons.–Thefoll
    owi
    ngpenal
    ti
    esandsanct
    ionsar
    eher
    eby
    establ
    ishedfortheoff
    ensesenumer
    atedi
    nthi
    sAct:

    a)Anyper sonf oundgui l


    tyofcommi tt
    inganyoft heactsenumer atedi
    nSect i
    on4
    shallsufferthepenal t
    yofi mprisonmentoft went y(20)yearsandaf i
    neofnot
    l
    esst hanOnemi l
    li
    onpesos( P1,
    000,000.00)butnotmor ethanTwomi ll
    ionpesos
    (P2,000,
    000.00);
    b)Anyper sonfoundgui lt
    yofcommi tti
    nganyoft heact
    senumer atedinSection4-A
    ofthisActshal lsufferthepenal tyofi mpri
    sonmentoff ift
    een( 15)yearsanda
    fi
    neofnotl essthanFi vehundr edt housandpesos( P500,000.00)butnotmor e
    thanOnemi l
    lionpesos( P1,000,
    000.00);
    c) Anyper sonf oundgui lt
    yofSect i
    on4- Boft hi sActshallsufferthepenaltyof
    i
    mpr i
    sonmentoff i
    fteen( 15)year sandaf ineofnotl esst hanFivehundr ed
    thousand pesos ( P500,000.00) but not mor e than One mi l
    li
    on pesos
    (P1,000,
    000.00);

    d)I nev erycase,conv ictionshal lcauseandcar r


    yt heaut omat i
    cr evocat ionoft he
    l
    icenseorr egi strati
    onoft her ecr ui
    tmentagencyi nvolvedi ntrafficking.The
    l
    icenseofar ecruit
    mentagencywhi cht r
    af f
    ickedachi ldshal lbeaut omat i
    call
    y
    revoked.
    e) Anyper sonf ound,gui ltyofcommi tti
    nganyoft heact senumer at
    edi nSect i
    on5
    shallsuf ferthepenal tyofi mpr i
    sonmentoff i
    ft
    een( 15)y earsandaf ineofnot
    l
    esst hanFi v ehundr edt housandpesos( P500, 000. 00)butnotmor et hanOne
    milli
    onpesos( P1,000,000. 00);
    f) Anyper sonf oundgui ltyofqual i
    fiedt raff
    ickingunderSect i
    on6shal lsuf ferthe
    penaltyofl ifei mpr isonmentandaf i
    neofnotl esst hanTwomi lli
    onpesos
    (P2,000,000. 00)butnotmor ethanFi vemilli
    onpesos( P5,000, 000.00) ;
    g)Any per son who v iolates Sect ion 7 her eof shal lsuf fer the penal ty of
    i
    mpr i
    sonmentofsi x( 6)y earsandaf i
    neofnotl esst hanFi vehundr edt housand
    pesos( P500, 000. 00)butnotmor et hanOnemi ll
    ionpesos( P1, 000,000.00) ;
    h)I ftheof f
    enderi sacor porati
    on,par tnership,associ at i
    on,club,est abli
    shmentor
    anyj uridicalper son,t hepenal tyshal lbei mposedupont heowner ,pr esident,
    partner,manager ,and/ orany r esponsi ble of f
    icerwho par ti
    cipated i nt he
    commi ssionoft hecr imeorwhoshal lhav eknowi ngl yper mitt
    edorf ai
    ledt o
    preventi t
    scommi ssion;
    i
    ) Ther egist r
    ationwi t
    ht heSecur iti
    esandExchangeCommi ssion( SEC)andl icense
    tooper ateoft heer r
    ingagency ,cor porati
    on,associ at ion,religiousgr oup,t ouror

    305
    travelagent ,club orest abli
    shment ,oranypl ace ofent er
    tai
    nmentshal lbe
    cancel ledandr ev okedper manent ly.Theowner ,president ,part
    nerormanager
    thereofshal lnotbeal lowedt ooper atesimi l
    arest abli
    shment si nadi f
    ferent
    name;
    j
    )I ftheof fenderi saf or eigner,heorsheshal lbei mmedi at
    elydepor t
    edaf ter
    serv inghi sorhersent enceandbebar redpermanent l
    yf r
    om ent eri
    ngt hecount ry ;
    k) Anyempl oy eeorof fi
    ci alofgov er
    nmentagenci eswhoshal lissueorappr ovet he
    i
    ssuanceoft ravelexi tcl earances, passpor ts,regist
    rationcer ti
    fi
    cates,counsel ing
    certificat es,mar riagel icense,andot hersimi l
    ardocument st opersons,whet her
    j
    ur i
    di calornat ural,recr uitmentagenci es,establi
    shment sorot herindiv i
    dualsor
    groups,whof ailt oobser v ethepr escr i
    bedpr ocedur esandt her equirementas
    prov idedf orbyl aws,r ulesandr egul at i
    ons,shallbehel dadmi nistr
    ativelyli
    abl e,
    wi t
    houtpr ejudicet ocr iminall i
    abili
    tyundert hisAct .Theconcer nedgov ernment
    officialorempl oy eeshal l,uponconv iction,bedismi ssedf rom theser vi
    ceandbe
    barr edper manent lytohol dpubl icof fice.Hisorherr eti
    rementandot herbenef i
    ts
    shal llikewi sebef orfeited; and
    l
    ) Conv iction,byf i
    nalj udgmentoft headopt erforanyof fenseundert hisActshal l
    resul tint hei mmedi ater escissi
    onoft hedecr eeofadopt i
    on."

    Sect
    ion13.Sect
    ion11ofRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208i
    sher
    ebyamendedt
    oreadasf
    oll
    ows:

    "
    Sec.11.UseofTr
    affi
    ckedPersons.–Anyper sonwhobuy sorengagestheser
    vicesof
    atr
    aff
    ickedper
    sonforprost
    it
    uti
    onshallbepenali
    zedwiththefol
    lowing:Pr
    ovi
    ded,That
    t
    heProbati
    onLaw(Presi
    dent
    ialDecreeNo.968)shal
    lnotappl
    y:

    a)Pri
    sionCor reccionali ni tsmaxi mum per iodt opr isionmay ororsi x( 6)y earsto
    twelve(12)y earsimpr isonmentandaf ineofnotl esst hanFi ftyt housandpesos
    (P50,000.
    00)butnotmor et hanOnehundr edt housandpesos( P100, 000.00):
    Provided,howev er,Thatt hef ollowi ngact sshal l beexempt edt her et o:
    1.I fan of fense underpar agraph ( a)i nv olves sexuali nter course or
    l
    asci vi
    ousconductwi thachi ld,thepenal tyshal lber eclusi ont empor al
    i
    ni tsmedi um per iodt or eclusionper pet uaorsev ent een( 17)y earsto
    forty(40)y ear simpr isonmentandaf ineofnotl esst hanFi vehundr ed
    thousandpesos( P500, 000.00)butnotmor et hanOnemi l
    lionpesos
    (P1,000,000. 00) ;
    2.I fanof fenseunderpar agraph( a)i nv olvescar nalknowl edgeof ,or
    sexuali ntercour sewi t h,amal eorf emal et rafficki ngv ictim andal so
    i
    nv olvest heuseoff orceori nt i
    mi dat i
    on,t oav i
    ct im depr iv edofr eason
    ort oanunconsci ousv ictim,orav ictim undert wel v e( 12)y ear sofage,
    i
    nst eadoft hepenal typr escribedi nt hesubpar agr aphabov et hepenal ty
    shallbeaf ineofnotl esst hanOnemi l
    li
    onpesos( P1, 000, 000. 00)but
    notmor et hanFi vemi lli
    onpesos( P5, 000, 000.00)andi mpr i
    sonmentof
    reclusionper pet uaorf or ty(40)y earsi mpr isonmentwi thnopossi bil
    ity
    ofpar ole;exceptt hati faper sonv iolatingpar agr aph( a)oft hissect i
    on
    knowst heper sont hatpr ovidedpr ost itutionser v icesi si nf actav i
    ctim
    oft raffi
    cking,t heof fendershal lnotbel ikewisepenal izedundert hi
    s
    sectionbutunderSect ion10asaper sonv iol
    at i
    ngSect ion4;andi fin
    commi tti
    ng such an of fense,t he of f
    enderal so knowsa qual i
    fyi
    ng
    cir
    cumst ance f ort rafficking,t he of fendershal lbe penal i
    zed under
    Sect i
    on 10 f orqual i
    fied t rafficking.I fi nv i
    olat ing t his sect i
    on the
    offenderal sov i
    olatesSect i
    on4,t heof fendershal lbepenal izedunder
    Sect i
    on10and,i fappl icable,f orqual i
    fiedt r
    afficki ngi nst eadofunder
    thissect i
    on;

    b)Deport
    ati
    on–I faforeignercommi tsanyof f
    ensedescri
    bedbyparagraph(
    1)or
    (2)oft
    hissect
    ionorviolatesanyperti
    nentprovi
    sionoft
    hisActasanaccompli
    ce
    oraccessoryt o,orby at t
    empting any such off
    ense,he orshe shallbe
    i
    mmedi at
    ely depor
    ted af ter ser
    ving hi
    s or her sentence and be barr
    ed
    permanent
    lyfr
    om enteringthecountry
    ;and

    306
    c) Publi
    cOf f
    ici
    al–Ift
    heoffenderi
    sapublicoffici
    al,heorsheshal lbedi
    smi
    ssed
    fr
    om serviceandshal
    lsuff
    erperpet
    ualabsolutedisqual
    i
    ficati
    ont ohol
    dpubli
    c,
    offi
    ce,inaddit
    iont
    oanyi mpri
    sonmentorf i
    ner eceiv
    edpur suanttoanyother
    provi
    sionofthi
    sAct
    ."

    Sect
    ion14.
    Sect
    ion12ofRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208i
    sher
    ebyamendedt
    oreadasf
    oll
    ows:

    "Sec.12.Prescri
    pti
    vePeriod–Tr aff
    ickingcasesundert
    hisActshal
    l prescri
    beint
    en(10)
    years:Prov
    ided,however,thattr
    affi
    ckingcasescommi tt
    edbyasy ndicateorinalarge
    scaleasdefinedunderSection6,oragai nstachi
    l
    d,shal
    lprescr
    ibei
    nt wenty(20)y
    ears.

    "Thepr escri
    pti
    veper i
    odshal lcommencet or unf r
    om thedayonwhi chthe
    tr
    aff
    ickedpersoni sdeliv
    eredorreleasedfrom thecondit
    ionsofbondage, ori
    nthecase
    ofachi ldvict
    im,f rom thedayt hechildreachestheageofmaj ori
    ty,andshallbe
    i
    nter
    ruptedbyt hefili
    ngoft hecompl aintorinfor
    mationandshal lcommencet orun
    agai
    nwhent hepr oceedingsterminatewithoutt
    heaccusedbei ngconvict
    edoracquitt
    ed
    orar
    eunj ust
    ifi
    ablystoppedforanyr easonnotimputabl
    et otheaccused."

    Sect
    ion15.Sect
    ion16ofRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208i
    sher
    ebyamendedt
    oreadasf
    oll
    ows:

    "Sec.16.Programs t hatAddress Traf


    ficki
    ng in Per
    sons.– The gover
    nmentshall
    establ
    ishandi mplementprevent
    ive,
    protecti
    veandrehabi
    l
    itat
    ivepr
    ogr
    amsfortr
    aff
    icked
    persons.Forthispurpose,
    thefol
    lowingagenciesar
    eherebymandatedtoi
    mplementthe
    fol
    lowingprograms:

    a.Depar tmentofFor eignAf fai


    rs( DFA)–shal lmakeav ai
    l
    abl ei t
    sr esour cesand
    facil
    iti
    esov erseasf ortraffi
    ckedper sonsr egardlessoft hei rmannerofent ryt o
    ther eceiv i
    ngcount r
    y ,andexpl oremeanst of urtherenhancei tsassi st ancei n
    eliminating t raff
    icking act i
    vi
    ties through cl osernet wor king with gov er nment
    agenci esi nt hecount ryandov erseas,par t
    icularl
    yi nthef ormulationofpol i
    cies
    andi mpl ement ationofr elevantpr ograms.I tshal lprovideFi l
    ipinov ict i
    msof
    traff
    ickingov erseaswi t
    hf r
    eel egalassistanceandcounselt opur suelegalact i
    on
    againsthi sorhert raff
    ickers,repr esenthi sorheri nt
    er estsi n anycr iminal
    i
    nv estigationorpr osecution,andassi stint heappl icat
    ionf orsocialbenef its
    and/ orregul arimmi grati
    onst atusasmaybeal lowedorpr ov i
    dedf orbyt hehost
    count ry.TheDFA shal lrepat ri
    atet raf
    f i
    ckedFi li
    pinoswi tht heconsentoft he
    victi
    ms.

    "TheDFA shal ltakenecessarymeasur esf ort


    heef f
    ici
    entimplementat
    ionofthe
    El
    ectronicPassporti
    ngSystem toprotectt
    hei nt
    egri
    tyofPhil
    i
    ppinepassport
    s,vi
    sasand
    othertraveldocument stor educe the i
    ncidence oftr
    affi
    cki
    ng through t
    he use of
    fr
    audulentident
    if
    icati
    ondocument s.

    "I
    ncoordinati
    onwiththeDepartmentofLaborandEmployment,i
    tshallprov
    idefree
    temporaryshel
    tersandotherservi
    cestoFil
    ipinov
    ict
    imsoft
    raf
    fi
    cki
    ngov erseasthr
    ough
    themigrantworkersandotheroverseasFi
    l
    ipinosr
    esour
    cecent
    ersestabl
    i
    shedov erseas
    underRepubli
    cActNo.8042, asamended.

    b.Depar t
    mentofSoci alWel fare and Dev elopment( DSWD)– shal limplement
    rehabil
    itativeandpr otecti
    vepr ogr amsf ort r
    aff
    ickedper sons.Itshallprovi
    de
    counsel i
    ngandt emporaryshel t
    ertot raf
    fickedper sonsanddev elopasystem for
    accreditationamongNGOsf orpur posesofest ablishi
    ngcentersandpr ograms
    forinter venti
    on inv ari
    ous l evels oft he communi t
    y.Itshallestabl
    ish fr
    ee
    tempor aryshel ter
    s,fort hepr otection and housi ng oft r
    affi
    cked personst o
    providet hefoll
    owingbasicser vicestot r
    af f
    ickedper sons:
    1.Tempor aryhousingandf oodf acili
    ti
    es;
    2.Psy chol
    ogicalsuppor tandcounsel i
    ng;
    3.24- hourcallcent erforcr i
    siscal l
    sandt echnol
    ogy-basedcounseli
    ng

    307
    andr
    eferr
    alsyst
    em;
    4.Coor
    dinat
    ionwit
    hlocal
    lawenf
    orcemententi
    ties;
    and
    5.Coor
    dinat
    ionwit
    htheDepar
    tmentofJust
    ice,amongother
    s.

    TheDSWDmustconducti nf
    ormationcampaignsi ncommuni t
    iesandschool
    s
    teachingparentsandf amil
    i
    est hatr
    ecei
    vingconsi
    derati
    oni nexchangeforadopt
    ioni
    s
    punishableunderthelaw.Furt
    hermore,i
    nformat
    ioncampai gnsmustbeconductedwit
    h
    thepol i
    cethattheymustnotinducepoorwoment ogivetheirchi
    l
    drenupforadopt
    ioni
    n
    exchangef orconsider
    ati
    on.

    c. Depar tmentofLaborand Empl oy ment( DOLE)– shal lensur et he st ri


    ct
    i
    mpl ement at ionandcompl iancewi tht her ulesandgui delinesr elat ivet ot he
    empl oy mentofper sonsl ocal lyandov er seas.I tshal llikewi semoni tor ,document
    and r epor tcases oft rafficki ng i n per sons i nv olv i
    ng empl oy er s and l abor
    recrui ter s.
    d.Depar tmentofJust ice( DOJ)–shal lensur et hepr osecut ionofper sonsaccused
    oft raf fickinganddesi gnat eandt rainspeci alpr osecut or swhoshal lhandl eand
    prosecut ecasesoft raffi
    cki ng.I tshal lal soest abl ishamechani sm f orf reel egal
    assi stancef ort raffi
    ckedper sons,i ncoor di
    nat ionwi tht heDSWD,I ntegr at edBar
    oft hePhi li
    ppi nes( IBP)andot herNGOsandv ol unt eergr oups.
    e. Philippi ne Commi ssion on Women ( PCW)– shal lact ively par ticipat e and
    coor di nat ei nt hef ormul ationandmoni tor i
    ngofpol i
    ci esaddr essi ngt hei ssueof
    trafficki ngi nper sonsi ncoor dinationwi t hr el
    ev antgov ernmentagenci es.I tshall
    l
    ikewi seadv ocat ef ort hei ncl usionoft hei ssueoft raf fi
    ckingi nper sonsi nbot h
    i
    tsl ocal andi nternat ional adv ocacyf orwomen’ si ssues.
    f. Bur eauofI mmi grat i
    on( BI )–shal lst ri
    ct l
    yadmi nist erandenf or cei mmi gration
    andal i
    enadmi nistrat i
    onl aws.I tshal ladoptmeasur esf ort heappr ehensi onof
    suspect edt rafficker sbot hatt hepl aceofar ri
    v alanddepar tureandshal lensur e
    compl i
    ancebyt heFi li
    pinof iancés/ fi
    ancéesandspousesoff or eignnat ionals
    wi t
    ht hegui danceandcounsel ingr equi rementaspr ov idedf ori nt hisAct .
    g.Phi lippi neNat i
    onalPol i
    ce( PNP)andNat i
    onalBur eauofI nv est i
    gat ion( NBI )–
    shal lbe t he pr imar yl aw enf or cementagenci es t o under take sur vei ll
    ance,
    i
    nv est igat ionandar restofi ndi vidual sorper sonssuspect edt obeengagedi n
    trafficki ng.Theyshal lcl osel ycoor dinat ewi theachot herandwi t
    hot herl aw
    enfor cementagenci est osecur econcer tedef for tsf oref fect i
    v einv est igationand
    appr ehensi onofsuspect edt raffickers.Theyshal lal soest ablishasy st em t o
    recei vecompl aintsandcal lst oassi stt r
    af f
    ickedper sonsandconductr escue
    oper at ions.
    h.Phi lippi neOv erseasEmpl oymentAdmi nistration( POEA)andOv erseasWor kers
    andWel fareAdmi nistration( OWWA)–POEAshal limpl ementPr e-Empl oy ment
    Or i
    ent at ionSemi nar s( PEOS)whi lePr e-Depar tur eOr ientationSemi nar s( PDOS)
    shal lbe conduct ed byt he OWWA.I tshal ll ikewi se f or
    mul ate a sy st em of
    prov idingf reel egal assi stancet ot raffickedper sons, i
    ncoor dinationwi tht heDFA.

    "ThePOEA shal lcr eateabl acklistofr ecrui


    tmentagenci es,ill
    egalr ecruit
    ersand
    personsf acingadmi nistrat
    ive,civ i
    landcr iminalcompl aint
    sf ortraff
    ickingf il
    edinthe
    recei
    v i
    ngcount r
    yand/ ori nt hePhi lippi
    nesandt hoseagenci es,ill
    egalr ecruit
    ersand
    personsi nvolv
    edi ncasesoft raff
    ickingwhohav ebeenr escuedbyt heDFAandDOLEi n
    ther eceivi
    ngcount r
    yori nt hePhi lippinesev enifnof ormaladmi ni
    strati
    v e,ci
    vi
    lor
    cri
    minalcompl ai
    ntshav ebeenf il
    ed:Pr ovided, Thattherescuedv i
    ctimsshal lexecutean
    affi
    dav i
    tattesti
    ngt ot heact sv i
    olati
    veoft heant i-
    tr
    affi
    ckinglaw.Thi sblacklistshal
    lbe
    postedi nconspi cuouspl acesi nconcer nedgov ernmentagenci esandshal lbeupdated
    bi-
    mont hly.

    "
    Thebl ackli
    stshallli
    kewisebeposted byt
    hePOEA i nt heshared government
    i
    nfor
    mationsy stem,whichismandatedt
    obeestabl
    ishedunderRepubl
    icActNo.8042,
    asamended.
    ThePOEAandOWWAshal laccr
    edi
    tNGOsandotherserv
    iceprovi
    derst
    oconductPEOS
    and PDOS,r especti
    vel
    y.The PEOS and PDOS shouldincl
    ude the di
    scussion and
    di
    str
    ibut
    ionoft hebl
    ackli
    st.

    308
    Theli
    censeorr
    egi
    str
    ati
    onofarecr
    uit
    mentagencythathasbeenblackl
    i
    stedmay
    besuspendedbythePOEAuponarevi
    ewofthecomplai
    ntsfil
    edagai
    nstsaidagency
    .

    i
    . Depar tmentoft heInt eri
    orand LocalGov ernment( DILG)– shal linsti
    tutea
    systemat i
    ci nformationandpr eventioncampai gnincoor dinati
    onwi thper ti
    nent
    agenci esofgov ernmentaspr ovidedf orint hi
    sAct .Itshal lprovidet r
    aining
    progr amst ol ocalgov er nmentuni ts,incoordinationwiththeCounci l,inensuring
    wideunder standi ngandappl i
    cat i
    onoft hi
    sActatt helocallevel
    .
    j
    . Commi ssiononFi l
    ipinosOv erseas– shal lconductpr e-departurecounsel ing
    servicesf orFi l
    ipi
    nosi ni nt
    ermar ri
    ages.I tshalldevel
    opasy stem foraccredit
    ation
    ofNGOs t hatmaybe mobi lized forpur poses ofconduct i
    ng pr e-
    departure
    counsel ingser v i
    cesf orFi l
    i
    pinosi ni ntermarri
    ages.Assuch,i tshallensuret hat
    the counsel ors cont empl at
    ed under t his Act shal l hav e the mi nimum
    qualificati
    onsandt rainingofgui dancecounsel orsasprov i
    dedf orbylaw.

    "I
    tshal ll i
    kewise assi stint he conductofi nf
    or mat
    ion campai gns agai nst
    tr
    affi
    cki
    ng i n coordinat
    ion wi thl ocalgov ernmentuni t
    s,t he Phi
    lippine Information
    Agency,andNGOs.
    k. Localgov ernmentuni ts( LGUs)– shal lmoni torand documentcases of
    traff
    icki
    ngi nper sonsi nt heirar easofj uri
    sdicti
    on,effectt hecancel lat
    ionof
    l
    icensesofest abli
    shment swhi chv i
    olat
    et hepr ovisi
    onsoft hisActandensur e
    effecti
    vepr osecutionofsuchcases.Theyshal lalsoundertakeani nformation
    campai gn againstt r
    affi
    cking i n per
    sons t hr
    ough t he establishmentoft he
    Mi gr
    antsAdv i
    soryandI nformat i
    onNet wor k(MAI N)desksi nmuni cipali
    ti
    esor
    provincesi ncoor dinati
    onwi t
    ht heDI LG,Phi l
    i
    ppi neInformat i
    onAgency( PIA)
    ,
    Commi ssi
    ononFi li
    pinosOv er
    seas( CFO),NGOsandot herconcer nedagenci es.
    Theyshal lencour ageandsuppor tcommuni ty-
    basedi nit
    iat
    iveswhi chaddr ess
    thetraffi
    ckinginper sons.

    "I
    nimplement
    ingt
    hisAct
    ,theagenci
    esconcer
    nedmayseekandenl i
    stthe
    assi
    stance ofNGOs,peopl
    e’
    s or
    gani
    zat
    ions (
    POs)
    ,civi
    c or
    gani
    zat
    ions and ot
    her
    vol
    unteergr
    oups.
    "

    Secti
    on16.AnewSect
    ion16-
    Aisher
    ebyi
    nser
    tedi
    ntoRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208,
    tor
    eadas
    fol
    lows:

    "Sec.16-
    A.Anti
    -Tr
    affi
    cki
    nginPersonsDat abase.–Anant i
    -t
    raff
    icki
    nginpersonscent
    ral
    databaseshal
    lbeestabli
    shedbytheInter-AgencyCouncilAgainstTraff
    icki
    ngcreat
    ed
    underSecti
    on20oft hi
    sAct .TheCouncilshallsubmitareporttothePresidentoft
    he
    Phil
    ippi
    nesandtoCongress,onorbeforeJanuar y15ofev eryyear
    ,withrespecttot
    he
    precedi
    ngyear
    ’sprogr
    amsanddat aontraffi
    cking-
    rel
    atedcases.

    "Allgovernmentagenci estasked underthel aw t o under


    takeprogramsand
    renderassi stance to address t
    raf
    ficking i
    n per
    sons shal ldevel
    op thei
    rr espect
    ive
    moni tori
    ng and dat a col
    lect
    ion sy
    stems,and dat abases,f orpurposes ofensuri
    ng
    effi
    ci
    entcol lecti
    onandst orageofdat aoncasesoft raf
    fickinginpersonshandledby
    thei
    rr espectiv
    eof f
    ices.Suchdatashal lbesubmit
    tedtot heCouncilforint
    egrati
    onina
    centraldatabasesy stem.

    "
    Forthispurpose,theCouncili
    sherebytaskedtoensuretheharmonizat
    ionand
    standardi
    zati
    on of dat abases,incl
    uding mini
    mum dat ar equir
    ements,defi
    niti
    ons,
    report
    ing formats,dat a col
    lect
    ion syst
    ems,and dat averif
    icat
    ion syst
    ems.Such
    databasesshallhave,attheminimum, t
    hefol
    lowi
    ngi nf
    ormat
    ion:

    a.Thenumberofcasesoft raff
    icki
    nginper sons,sort
    edaccordingtostat
    us
    ofcases,includingthenumberofcasesbei nginvesti
    gated,
    submitt
    edfor
    prosecuti
    on,dr opped,andfil
    edand/ orpendingbeforethecourtsandthe
    numberofconv icti
    onsandacquitt
    als;
    b.Thepr of
    il
    e/informationoneachcase;
    c. Thenumberofv ict
    imsoft r
    affi
    cki
    ngi npersonsr ef
    err
    edt otheagencyby

    309
    desti
    nati
    oncount
    ri
    es/
    areasandbyar
    eaofor
    igi
    n;and
    d.Disaggr
    egat
    eddataontraf
    fi
    cki
    ngvi
    cti
    msandtheaccused/
    def
    endant
    s.

    Sect
    ion17.Sect
    ion17ofRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208i
    sher
    ebyamendedt
    oreadasf
    oll
    ows:

    "Sec.17. LegalProt ecti


    on to Traffi
    cked Per sons.– Tr affi
    cked per sons shallbe
    recognizedasv i
    cti
    msoft heactoractsoftraffi
    ckingandassuch, shallnotbepenal i
    zed
    forunlawfulactscommi t
    tedasadi r
    ectresultof,orasanincidentori nrelat
    ionto,being
    traf
    fi
    ckedbasedont heactsoftraf
    ficki
    ngenumer at
    edinthisActori nobedi encetot he
    ordermadebyt hetraffi
    ckeri
    nrelat
    ionthereto.Inthi
    sregard,theconsentofat raf
    ficked
    persont otheint
    endedexpl oi
    tat
    ionsetfort
    hi nthisActshal
    l beirr
    elevant.

    "
    Vict
    imsoft r
    affi
    ckingforpurposesofprost
    it
    uti
    onasdefi
    nedunderSecti
    on4of
    thi
    sActarenotcoveredbyAr ti
    cle202oft heRevi
    sedPenalCodeandassuch,shal
    lnot
    beprosecut
    ed,
    fined,orotherwi
    sepenalizedundert
    hesaidl
    aw."

    Secti
    on18.AnewSect
    ion17-
    Aisher
    ebyi
    nser
    tedi
    ntoRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208,
    tor
    eadas
    fol
    lows:

    "Sec.17- A.Tempor aryCust odyofTr affi


    ckedVi cti
    ms.–Ther escueofv ict
    imsshoul d
    bedoneasmuchaspossi blewiththeassi stanceoft heDSWDoranaccr edit
    edNGO
    thatser vicestr
    aff
    ickedv ictims.Al aw enfor cementof fi
    cer,onar easonablesuspi ci
    on
    thataper sonisav icti
    m ofanyof fensedef i
    nedundert hi
    sActi ncl
    udingat tempted
    traf
    ficking,shalli
    mmedi at elyplacethatper soni nthet emporar
    ycust odyoft hel ocal
    socialwel fareanddev el
    opmentof fi
    ce,oranyaccr edit
    edorl i
    censedshelterinsti
    tuti
    on
    devot edtopr ot
    ect
    ingt r
    affickedpersonsaf terther escue."

    Secti
    on19.AnewSect
    ion17-
    Bisher
    ebyi
    nser
    tedi
    ntoRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208,
    tor
    eadas
    fol
    lows:

    "Sec.17- B.Ir
    rel
    evanceofPastSexualBehav i
    or,Opi ni
    onTher eoforReput ati
    onof
    Victims and ofConsentofVi cti
    ms in Cases ofDecept i
    on,Coer ci
    on and Ot her
    Pr ohi
    bited Means.– The pastsexualbehav i
    orort he sexualpredisposi
    tion ofa
    traffi
    cked per
    son shal
    lbeconsi dered i
    nadmissiblein evidencefort hepur poseof
    prov i
    ngconsentofthevicti
    mt oengageinsexual behavior
    ,ortoprovethepredisposit
    ion,
    sexualorot herwi
    se,ofat raf
    fi
    ckedper son.Furthermore,theconsentofav ict
    im of
    traffi
    cki
    ngt otheint
    endedexpl oi
    tati
    onshal lbeirr
    elevantwher eanyoft hemeansset
    forthinSecti
    on3(a)ofthisActhasbeenused. "

    Secti
    on20.AnewSect
    ion17-
    Cisher
    ebyi
    nser
    tedi
    ntoRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208,
    tor
    eadas
    fol
    lows:

    "Sec.17- C.I mmuni tyfrom Sui t,Prohibit


    edAct sandI njuncti
    veRemedi es.–Noact i
    on
    orsui tshal lbebr ought,insti
    tutedormai ntainedinanycour tort ri
    bunalorbef oreany
    otheraut hor i
    tyagai nstany :(a)lawenf or
    cementof ficer;(b)socialworker;or( c)person
    acti
    ngi ncompl i
    ancewi thal awf ulorderf rom anyoft heabov e,forlawfulact sdoneor
    statement s made dur i
    ng an aut horized r escue oper ati
    on, r ecovery or
    rehabili
    tation/interventi
    on,orani nvestigationorpr osecut ionofanant i-
    traffi
    ckingcase:
    Prov i
    ded, Thatsuchact sshal lhav ebeenmadei ngoodf aith.
    Thepr osecut i
    onofr etal
    iatorysuitsagai nstv i
    ctimsoft raff
    icki
    ngshal lbeheldin
    abey ancependi ngf i
    nalresolutionanddeci sionofcr i
    mi nalcompl ai
    ntfort r
    afficki
    ng.
    Itshallbepr ohi bi
    tedf ort heDFA,t heDOLE,andt hePOEAof fi
    cial
    s,law enf orcement
    offi
    cers,pr osecut orsandj udgest our gecompl ai
    nant st oabandont heircriminal,ci
    vil
    andadmi nistrativecompl aintsfort r
    affi
    cking.

    "
    Ther
    emedi
    esofi
    njunct
    ionandat
    tachmentofpr
    oper
    ti
    esoft
    het
    raf
    fi
    cker
    s,

    310
    i
    l
    legalr
    ecr
    uit
    ersandper
    sonsi
    nvol
    vedi
    ntr
    aff
    icki
    ngmaybei
    ssuedmot
    upr
    opr
    ioby
    j
    udges.
    "

    Sect
    ion21.Sect
    ion20ofRepubl
    i
    cActNo.9208i
    sher
    ebyamendedt
    oreadasf
    oll
    ows:

    "
    Sec.20.Inter
    -AgencyCouncilAgai
    nstTr af
    fi
    cki
    ng.–Ther eisherebyestabl
    ishedan
    I
    nter-
    AgencyCouncilAgainstTraf
    fi
    cking,to be composed ofthe Secr
    etar
    yoft he
    Depart
    mentofJust i
    ceasChairper
    sonandt heSecr etar
    yoftheDepartmentofSoci al
    Welf
    areandDev el
    opmentasCo-Chai
    rpersonandshallhavet
    hefol
    l
    owingasmember s:

    1.Secr etar y,Depar t


    mentofFor eignAf f
    air
    s;
    2.Secr etar y,Depar t
    mentofLaborandEmpl oyment ;
    3.Secr etar y,Depar t
    mentoft heInter iorandLocal Government;
    4.Admi nistrator,Philippi neOv erseasEmpl oymentAdmi nist
    rat
    ion;
    5.Commi ssioner ,Bur eauofI mmi gr at i
    on;
    6.Chi ef,Phi l
    ippineNat ional Poli
    ce;
    7.Chai rper son,Phi l
    ippi neCommi ssi ononWomen;
    8.Chai rper son,Commi ssi ononFi l
    ipinosOv erseas;
    9.Execut iv eDirector ,Phi li
    ppineCent erf orTransnationalCri
    mes; and
    10.Three( 3)r epr esent ativesf r
    om NGOs,whoshal lincludeone( 1)representat
    ive
    each fr om among t he sector sr epresenting women,ov erseas Fi
    li
    pinos,and
    chil
    dren,wi t
    hapr ovenr ecordofi nv olvementint hepr ev
    entionandsuppr essi
    on
    oft r
    aff i
    cking i n per sons.These r epresentat
    ives shallbe nomi nat
    ed byt he
    governmentagencyr epresent ativ es oft he Council,forappointmentbyt he
    Presidentf orat erm oft hree( 3)y ear s.

    TheAnt
    i-
    Bull
    yi
    ngAct
    (RA10627)

     Itai mst opr ot ectchi l


    drenenr olledi nki nder gar ten,el ement ary,andsecondar y
    school s and l ear ning cent er s(collecti
    v ely ,“ School s”)f rom bei ng bul lied.I t
    requi r
    esSchool st oadoptpol i
    ciest oaddr esst heexi stenceofbul lyingi nt heir
    respect iveinst itutions.
     Bul l
    ying,asdef inedundert heAct ,isanysev er eorr epeat edusebyoneormor e
    student sofawr itten, verbalorel ectronicexpr essi on, oraphy si calactorgest ure,
    oranycombi nat iont hereof ,di r
    ectedatanot herst udentt hathast heef fectof
    act uall
    ycausi ngorpl acingt hel atterinr easonabl efearofphy sicaloremot i
    onal
    har m ordamaget ohi spr oper t
    y;creatingahost ileenv i
    ronmentatschoolf ort he
    otherst udent ;inf r
    ingi ngont her ightsoft heot herst udentatschool ;ormat er i
    ally
    andsubst ant i
    al l
    ydi srupt i
    ngt heeducat i
    onpr ocessort heor der l
    yoper ati
    onofa
    school ;suchas, butnotl imitedt o, t
    hef ollowi ng:
     Anyunwant edphy sicalcont actbet weent hebul lyandt hev ict i
    ml ikepunchi ng,
    pushi ng,shov ing,ki cking,sl appi ng,t i
    ckling,headl ocks,i nflict i
    ngschoolpr anks,
    teasing, fi
    ght ingandt heuseofav ai
    lableobj ect sasweapons;
     Anyactt hatcausesdamaget oav i
    ctim’spsy cheand/ oremot i
    onal wel l
    -being;
     Anysl anderousst at ementoraccusat i
    ont hatcausest hev ict im undueemot i
    onal
    distressl ikedi rect i
    ng f oull anguageorpr of anityatt het arget ,name- calling,
    torment ingandcomment i
    ngnegat i
    velyonv i
    ct im’sl ooks, clot hesandbody ;and
     Cy ber-bull
    y i
    ng oranybul lying done t hr ough t he use oft echnol ogy orany
    electronic means.The t er m shal lal so i nclude any conductr esul ti
    ng t o
    har assment ,i ntimi dat ion,orhumi l
    iati
    on,t hr ough t he use ofot herf ormsof
    technol ogy ,suchas, butnotl imitedt otext ing, emai l
    ,inst antmessagi ng, chatting,
    i
    nt ernet,soci al medi a, onli
    negames, orot herpl atformsorf ormat s.
     Soci albul lying,oranydel iberate,r epet iti
    ve and aggr essi v e soci albehav ior
    i
    nt endedt ohur tot her sort obel i
    ttl
    eanot heri ndi vidual orgr oup.
     Gender -
    basedbul ly i
    ng,oranyactt hathumi l
    iatesorexcl udesaper sonont he
    basi sofper cei v edoract ual sexual orientat i
    onandgenderi dent i
    ty.
     Assuch, anyper sonwhocommi tsanyoft hef oregoi ngact s, isconsi der edabul ly.

    311
    Furt
    hermore,anyactofr et
    ali
    ati
    onagainstapersonwhor epor
    tsbul
    ly
    ing,who
    provi
    desinf
    ormationdur
    inganinvesti
    gati
    onofbull
    ying,orwhoisawit
    nesstoor
    hasreli
    abl
    einfor
    mat i
    onaboutbull
    yi
    ng,isl
    ikewi
    seprohibi
    ted.

    Bul
    ly
    ingmayhappenatt
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ng:

    Schoolgr
    ounds:
     Proper
    tyimmedi atel
    yadjacentt oSchool grounds;
     School-
    sponsoredorSchool -rel
    atedactiviti
    es,functi
    onsorprogramswhet heron
    oroffSchoolgrounds;
     Schoolbusstops;
     Schoolbusesorot hervehi
    clesowned, l
    easedorusedbyaSchool ;
    or
     SchoolbusesorSchool servicesprivat
    ely-ownedbutaccr edi
    tedbytheSchool.
     Bull
    yi
    ngmayal sooccuratunr elatedlocations,functi
    onsorprograms,through
    theuseoftechnologyoranel ectr
    onicdev i
    ceorot herformsofmedi a,
    regardl
    ess
    i
    fsuchisowned, l
    eased,orusedbyt heSchool .

    SchoolObl
    i
    gat
    ions
     Schoolsar edirectedt oadoptpolicies,whi charet ober egular
    lyupdated,t o
    addresst heexist
    enceofbul l
    yi
    ngi nt heirrespecti
    veinsti
    tut
    ions.Thesepol i
    cies
    aret o ber eport
    ed tot heappropriateschooldi v i
    sionsuperint
    endentoft he
    DepartmentofEducat ion(“
    Department ”)duringthefir
    stweekofev eryacademi c
    year.Dur i
    ng this per
    iod,the Schoolshal lalso submita reportofr elevant
    i
    nformat i
    onandst ati
    sti
    csonbul l
    yingandr et
    ali
    ati
    onculledf r
    om thepr evi
    ous
    academi cyear.

    Whatmustt hesepolici
    escont ain?
     Fi r
    stofal l
    ,thepol i
    ciesmustpr ohibitbul l
    yi
    ngasal r
    eadydef i
    ned.School smust
    l
    ikewisedefinet herangeofadmi nistr
    ativedi scipl
    inaryacti
    onst hatmaybet aken
    againstabul ly,oraper sonwhocommi tsr etal
    iati
    on.Theseact ionsmustbe
    commensur atewi ththenat ureand gr avi
    tyoft heof f
    ensecommi tted.Such
    acti
    ons may i nclude wr it
    ten r epri
    mands,communi ty service,suspensi on,
    exclusionorexpul sion,ast hecasemaybe.I naddi t
    iontoanyact iontaken
    againsta per petr
    atorofbul lyi
    ng orr etal
    iation mustnecessar il
    yi ncludethe
    requirementthattheper petr
    at orenterintoar ehabili
    tat
    ionprogram admi ni
    ster
    ed
    bytheSchool .

     TheSchoolshal lalsoeducat epar


    ent sandguardiansaboutbullyi
    ng,itseffect
    s,
    theanti
    -bull
    yi
    ngpol i
    ciesoftheSchool ,andhow suchpar entsorguar di
    anscan
    provi
    desuppor tini mpartingupont heirchar
    gest hegravit
    yofbul l
    ying,andto
    rei
    nfor
    cet hepoliciesoft heSchool.TheSchoolshal lprovi
    dethest udentsand
    thei
    rparentsorguar dianswi t
    hcopiesoft hesepolici
    es,whichshallli
    kewisebe
    i
    ncludedinthest udentandempl oy
    eemanual oft
    heSchool .

     TheSchool
    shal
    ll
    ikewi
    seest
    abl
    i
    shcl
    earpr
    ocedur
    esandst
    rat
    egi
    esf
    or:

     Repor t
    ingact sofbul ly
    ingorr et
    al i
    ati
    on.TheSchoolmustpr ovi
    dean
    av enuewher einstudent smayanony mouslyreportactsofbul l
    yingor
    retaliat
    ion;
     Respondi ngprompt lytoandi nv esti
    gat i
    ngreport
    sofbully
    ingorr etal
    iat
    ion;
     Rest oringasenseofsaf etyforav i
    ctim andassessi
    ngthest udent’sneed
    forpr otecti
    on;
     Prot ectingfrom bul l
    yingorr etali
    ationofaper sonwhor eportsact sof
    bul l
    ying,prov i
    desi nformat i
    ondur ingani nvesti
    gati
    onofbul lying,oris
    wi tnesst oorhasrel i
    ableinformat ionaboutanactofbul l
    ying;and
     Prov idi
    ngcounsel ingorr efer
    r altoappr opri
    ateservi
    cesforper petrat
    ors,
    victimsandappr opriatefami l
    ymember sofsaidstudent
    s;

    312
    I
    nallcaseswher einapenal t
    ymaypossi blybei mposed,duepr ocessmustbe
    obser
    vedtoprev entfalseaccusat ionsofbul lying.Atami nimum,t heSchoolcompl ies
    wit
    htherequi
    rement sofduepr ocessby :
     I nformingt hestudentandpar entorguar dianoft hecomplainti
    nwr i
    ti
    ng;
     Gi v i
    ngt hest udent,witht heassi stanceofhi spar entsorguar di
    an,an
    oppor tuni
    tytoanswert hecompl ainti
    nwr it
    ing;
     Requi ri
    ngt heSchoolheadt oi ssuet hedecision,inwriti
    ng,andstating
    thef actsandr easonst hereof;and
     Al lowinganappeal forthedeci sionwi ththeappr opr
    iat
    edivisi
    onoffi
    ceof
    theDepar tment .
     Anyst udent,afterduei nv est
    igation,foundt ohav eknowi ngl
    ymadea
    falseaccusat ionofbullyingshal lbesubjectedt oappropri
    atedisci
    pli
    nary
    act i
    onori ntervent
    ioni naccor dancewi t
    ht herulesoft heSchoolort he
    Depar tment .

    Whowi
    lli
    mpl ementt heseant i-
    bull
    yingpol i
    ciesoft heSchool ?
     TheSchool ’sChi l
    dProtecti
    onCommi tt
    ee( “Commi ttee”)shallser
    v east hebody
    whi chwi llhandl eallbully
    ing casesi nt heSchool .TheCommi tt
    eeshal lbe
    composedof :
     theSchool headoradmi nistr
    atoraschai rperson;
     theSchool guidancecounselor/teacherasv i
    cechairperson;
     ar epresentati
    v eoftheSchool steachersasdesi gnatedbyt heSchool f
    aculty;
     ar epresentative of the par ents as desi gnated by t he Par ents-Teachers
    Associ ati
    on;
     ar epresentativeoft hestudent s,excepti nkindergar t
    en,asdesi gnatedbyt he
    studentcounci l;and
     Ar epresentati
    v e ofthe communi tyas desi gnated byt he barangaycapt ain
    wher eintheschooli slocated.Thei nclusionofacommuni t yrepr
    esentativ
    emay
    bedi spensedwi t
    hbypr i
    vateSchool s.

    Undert
    heAct
    ,theyshallperf
    ormt hef oll
    owing:
     Conductawar eness-r
    aisingpr ogramswi thschoolstakehol
    dersinprev ent
    ing
    andaddressingbully
    ing;
     Ensurethattheanti-
    bull
    y i
    ngpol i
    cyadoptedbyt heSchooli
    simplement ed;
     Monitorall
    casesori ncident srel
    atedtoallreport
    edcasesofbull
    ying;and
     Maket henecessaryr eferralstoappropriat
    eagencies,offi
    cesorpersons,as
    mayber equiredbytheci rcumst ances.

    HowdoestheSchooltreatt heinformati
    oninbully
    ingcases?
     Anyi nf
    ormati
    onr elati
    ngt otheidenti
    tyandper sonalcircumstancesoft hebully
    ,
    vict
    im,orpersonwhor eportedorwi t
    nessedt heincidentshallbet reatedwith
    utmostconfidentiali
    tybyt heCommi t
    teeand t heSchool ,provi
    ded,t hatthe
    namesmayonl ybeav ail
    abletotheSchoolheadoradmi ni
    strat
    or,teacheror
    guidancecounselordesi gnatedbytheschoolhead,andpar entsorguar diansof
    studentswhoareorhav ebeenv i
    cti
    msofbul ly
    ingorr etali
    ati
    on.

    Whathappensi ftheSchool ,oritspersonnel,fai


    lstocomplywi t
    htheAct ?
     Schoolper sonnelofpubl i
    cSchool sshallbesubjectt
    oadmi nistrati
    vediscipli
    nary
    proceedings undert he r ul
    es oft he CivilServi
    ce ort he Depar tment .Er ri
    ng
    personnelofpr i
    vat
    e School s shallbe subjectto appr opriate administrati
    ve
    discipl
    inarypr oceedi
    ngsi mposedbyt heprivat
    eSchool .Copiesofsuchdeci sions
    shallbesubmi ttedbyt hepri
    v at
    eSchool totheDepartment ’
    sdi visi
    onof f
    ice.
     Pr ivateSchool swhichf ailt
    ocompl ywi t
    ht heActandi t
    sI RRshal lbeshal lbe
    givennot iceofsuchf ail
    urebyt heDepar t
    ment ’
    sdivi
    sionof f
    ice.TheSchoolshal l
    begi vent hirt
    y( 30)day swithinwhicht ocompl y.Afur t
    herext ensionofone( 1)
    mont hmaymebegr antedbyt heDepar t
    ment’sRegionalDirect orinmer i
    torious

    313
    cases.Fail
    ureto complywit
    ht he Actori
    tsI
    RR maycause t
    he School
    ’
    s
    suspensi
    on,orr
    evocat
    ionofl
    i
    cense.

    CHI
    LDREN’
    SEMERGENCYRELI
    EFANDPROTECTI
    ONACT
    (
    RA10821)

    SALI
    ENTFEATURES:

     Firstofi t
    ski ndany wher eint hewor l
    d.
     Wi l
    l impr ov et hecar eandpr ot ecti
    onofchi l
    dr enaf fectedbydi sast
    er s,
     Itwi llincreaseaccount abil
    ityt ocommuni ties–andwi llbui l
    donbestpr act
    ices
    andl essonsl ear neddur ingr ecentemer gencyr esponsesi nt hePhilippines.
     Thisl egislationi st her esultofwor kwi t
    ht hechi ldrenofYol andat oget herwith
    childr en’schampi onsi nt heHouseandSenat e.
     Thisl awest ablishesanewgl obalstandar df oraccount abili
    tyt ochildren:
     A Compr ehensi veEmer gencyPr ogram t o pr otectchi l
    drenand suppor tt
    heir
    i
    mmedi ater ecov ery.
     Hei ght ened sur veillance agai nstchi ldt raf f
    icking and ot herv iolence agai nst
    childr eni ntheaf termat hofdi sastersandcal amities.
     Asy st em ofr est oringci v
    ildocument sf orchi l
    drenandt heirfami liest obet t
    er
    accessser vi
    cesandpr otectagai nstexpl oitation.
     Increasedpar ticipat ionofchi ldrenindi sast err i
    skr educt i
    on( DRR)pl anningand
    post -disast erneedsassessment s.
     Lessdi srupt ion ofeducat i
    on act i
    vi
    tieswi tht her educed useofschool sas
    evacuat ioncent ersandt hepr operuseoft empor arylearningspaces.
     Impr ov edcar eandst epsf orf amilytracingandr euni f
    icati
    onf orunaccompani ed
    andsepar at edchi ldren.
     Bet terdat acol lect i
    onandr epor t
    ingr elatedt ot heaf fectedchi ldr en—t obet t
    er
    under standandr espondt ot heirspecificneeds.
     Chi l
    d- cent eredt rainingofal lresponder sf orcommuni t
    y /
    bar angayl eader s,school
    per sonnel andr escuer s.

    ANACTTOSTRENGTHENANDPROPAGATEFOSTERCAREANDTOPROVI
    DE
    FUNDSTHEREFOR
    (
    RA10165)

     Section2.Decl arat ionofPol i


    cy.–Ar ticleXVoft heConst ituti
    onpr ov i
    dest hat
    theSt at eshalldef endt her i
    ghtofchi l
    dr ent oassi stance,i ncludingpr opercar e
    andnut riti
    on,andspeci alprotecti
    onf rom al lf ormsofnegl ect,abuse,cr uelt
    y,
    exploitationorot hercondi ti
    onspr ej
    udici altotheirdev el opment .
     Itisher ebydecl ar ed thepol icyoft heSt atet o prov ideev erychi ld who i s
    neglect ed,abused,sur rendered,dependent ,abandoned,undersoci ocult
    ural
    dif
    fi
    cul ties,orwi thspeci alneedswi thanal ternativef ami lythatwi llpr ov i
    delov e
    andcar easwel lasoppor t
    uniti
    esforgr owt handdev el
    opment .
     TheSt ater ecogni zest hati nmostcases,achi ldwi llbenef itmor ef rom f oster
    caret hani nst
    itutionalcar e.Towar dst hisend,t heSt at eshal lsyst emat i
    zeand
    enhancet hefost ercar eprogram int hecount r
    y .Itshal lensur et hatt hef oster
    familyshal lpr
    ov i
    deawhol esomeat mospher etot hef osterchi l
    d.Fur thertot his
    end,theSt aterecogni zesthatfostercar ei sani mpor t
    antst ept owar dst hechild’s
    ret
    urnandr ei
    ntegr ationt ohisbiologicalpar entsorpl acementwi thanadopt ive
    family.
     TheSt at eshal lalsopr otectther i
    ghtsoft hebi ologicalchi ldoft hef ost erfamily

    314
    andensur et hati nnocaseshal lt hechi l
    dbedi sadv ant agedasar esultoft he
    pl
    acementofaf ost erchi ld.
     Secti
    on3.Def initionofTer ms.–Forpur posesoft hisAct ,thef ollowi ngterms
    aredefi
    ned:
    a.Agencyr ef erst oanychi ld- car ingorchi l
    d- placi ngi nstitutionl icensedand
    accr editedbyt heDepar tmentofSoci al Wel fareandDev elopment( DSWD)
    toi mpl ementt hef ost ercar epr ogr am.
    b.Chi ldr ef erst oaper sonbel owei ght een( 18)y earsofage,oronewhoi s
    ov erei ght een( 18)buti sunabl etof ul l
    yt akecar eoforpr otectonesel f
    from abuse,negl ect ,cr uel ty,expl oi tationordi scriminat ionbecauseofa
    phy si cal orment al disabi lityorcondi ti
    on.
    c. Chi ldCaseSt udyRepor tr ef er st oawr ittenr epor tpr epar edbyasoci al
    wor kercont aini ngal lthenecessar yi nformat ionaboutachi ld.
    d.Chi ldwi thSpeci alNeedsr ef erst oachi l
    dwi thdev elopment alorphy si
    cal
    disabi l
    ity.
    e. Fami l
    yr ef erst ot hepar ent sorbr other sandsi sters, whet heroft hefullor
    hal f-blood, oft hechi ld.
    f. Fost erCar er ef erst ot he pr ov i
    sion ofpl anned t empor ar ysubst it
    ute
    par ent al car et oachi l
    dbyaf ost erpar ent .
    g.Fost erChi ldr efer st oachi ldpl acedunderf ost ercar e.
    h.Fost erFami lyCar eLi censer ef erst ot hedocumenti ssuedbyt heDSWD
    aut hor izingt hef ost erpar entt opr ov idef ost ercar e.
    i
    . Fost erPar entr eferst oaper son,dul yl icensedbyt heDSWD,t opr ovide
    fost ercar e.
    j
    . Fost erPl acementAut hor ity( FPA)r ef erst ot hedocumenti ssuedbyt he
    DSWD aut hor i
    zi ngt hepl acementofapar ti
    cul archi ldwi tht hef oster
    par ent .
    k. HomeSt udyRepor tr ef erst oawr i
    ttenr epor tpr eparedbyasoci alworker
    cont ainingt henecessar yi nf or mat iononapr ospect ivepar entorf ami ly
    member .
    l
    . Mat chi ngr efer st ot hej udi ci ouspai r i
    ngofachi l
    dwi thf osterpar entand
    fami lymember sbasedont hecapaci tyandcommi tmentoft hefoster
    par entt o meett he i ndi v idualneeds oft he par ti
    cul archi ld and t he
    capaci tyoft hechi ldt obenef itf rom t hepl acement .
    m.Par entr ef erst ot hebi ologi caloradopt ivepar entorl egalguar di
    anofa
    child.
    n.Pl acementr efer st ot hephy sicalt ransf eroft hechi l
    dwi tht hef oster
    par ent .
    o.Rel at i
    vesr efert ot her el at i
    v esofachi l
    d,ot hert hanf ami l
    ymember s,
    wi thint hef our thdegr eeofconsangui nityoraf f i
    nity.
    p.Soci alWor kerr efer st ot her egi steredandl icensedsoci alwor keroft he
    DSWD, local gov ernmentuni t( LGU)oragency .

    ARTI
    CLEI
    I

    ELI
    GIBI
    LITY
     Sect i
    on4.WhoMayBePl acedUnderFost erCar e.– Thef oll
    owingmaybe
    placedinf ostercare:
    a.Achi l
    dwhoi sabandoned, sur r
    endered, neglected,dependentororphaned;
    b.Achi l
    dwhoi sav i
    ctim ofsexual,phy sical,oranyot herfor
    m ofabuseor
    exploi
    tati
    on;
    c. Achi l
    dwi t
    hspeci alneeds;
    d.Achi l
    dwhosef amilymember saret empor ar
    il
    yorper manentlyunableor
    unwill
    ingtopr ovidethechildwi t
    hadequat ecare;
    e. Achi l
    dawai tingadopt iveplacementandwhowoul dhavet obeprepared
    forfamilyli
    fe;
    f. Achi l
    dwhoneedsl ong-ter
    m car eandcl osef amilyti
    esbutwhocannotbe
    placedfordomest i
    cadopt ion;
    g.Achi l
    dwhoseadopt i
    onhasbeendi srupt ed;

    315
    h.A chil
    dwhoi sundersoci al
    lydif
    fi
    cultci
    rcumstancessuchas,butnot
    l
    imitedt o,
    astreetchil
    d,achil
    dinarmedconfli
    ctorav i
    cti
    m ofchil
    dlabor
    ortr
    afficki
    ng;
    i
    . Achi l
    dwhocommi t
    tedami noroff
    ensebutisreleasedonrecogni
    zance,
    orwhoi sincustodysupervi
    sionorwhosecaseisdi smi
    ssed;and
    j
    . A chil
    dwhoi si nneedofspeci alprot
    ecti
    onasassessedbyasoci al
    worker,anagencyort heDSWD.

    Pr
    ovided,Thati
    nthecaseof(b),(c)
    ,(f)
    ,(h)
    ,(i
    ),and(
    j)
    ,thechi
    l
    dmusthav
    eno
    f
    ami
    l
    ywil
    li
    ngandcapableofcar
    ingandprovi
    dingforhi
    m.

     Secti
    on5.WhoMayBeaFost erPar ent.–Anappl i
    cantwhomeet sal lofthe
    fol
    l
    owingqual if
    icationsmaybeaf ost erparent:
    a.Mustbeofl egal age;
    b.Mustbeatl eastsi xteen( 16)y earsolderthanthechi l
    dunlesst hef oster
    parentisar el ati
    ve;
    c. Musthav eagenui nei nterest ,capacityandcommi tmentinpar enti
    ngand
    i
    sabl etopr ov ideaf amilialat mospher eforthechil
    d;
    d.Musthav e a heal thy and har moni
    ous relat
    ionship wit
    h each f amily
    memberl i
    vingwi thhi m orher ;
    e. Mustbeofgoodmor alchar act er;
    f. Mustbephy sicallyandment allycapableandemot ionall
    ymat ure;
    g.Musthav esuf f
    icientr esour cest obeabl etopr ovidefort hef ami l
    y’s
    needs;
    h.Mustbewi llingt of urtherhoneorbet rai
    nedonknowl edge,attit
    udesand
    ski
    llsincaringf orachi l
    d; and
    i
    . Mustnotal readyhav et hemaxi mum numberofchi l
    drenunderhi sf oster
    careatt het imeofappl icat i
    onorawar d,asmaybepr ov i
    dedi nt he
    i
    mpl ement ingr ulesandr egulat ions(I
    RR)oft hi
    sAct .

    Provided,Thatindetermi ni
    ngwhoi sthebestsui
    tedfosterparent,t
    herelat
    ivesof
    thechil
    dshal lbegivenpr i
    ori
    ty,solongast heymeettheabov equalifi
    cati
    ons:Provided,
    fur
    ther,Thatanal i
    enpossessi ngtheabov equali
    fi
    cati
    onsandwhohasr esi
    dedi nthe
    Phil
    ippi
    nesf oratleasttwel ve( 12)cont
    inuousmont hsandmai nt
    ainssuchr esidence
    unti
    ltheterminati
    onofpl acementbyt heDSWDorexpi r
    ati
    onoft hefosterfamil
    ylicense,
    mayqual i
    fyasaf osterparent.

    ARTI
    CLEI
    II

    PARENTALAUTHORI TYOFFOSTERPARENTS
     Section6.Par entalAuthori
    tyofaFost erParent.–Fost erparent sshallhavet he
    ri
    ghts,dutiesandl iabi
    li
    ti
    esofper sonsexercisingsubsti
    tutepar entalauthori
    ty,as
    maybepr ovidedundert heFamilyCodeov erthechil
    drenundert heirf
    ostercare.
     Section7.Limi t
    at i
    onsonPar entalAuthorityofFosterPar ents.–Fost erparents
    shallonlyhav ether i
    ghtsofaper sonwi thspecialparentalauthoritytodiscipl
    ine
    thefosterchildrenasdef i
    nedunderSect i
    on233oft heFami l
    yCode, insofarasit
    prohibi
    tsthei nfl
    icti
    onofcorporal puni
    shmentupont hechild.

    ARTI
    CLEI
    V

    PROCEDURE
     Section 8. Recr
    uitmentand Dev elopmentofFost erPar ents.– To r ecr
    uit
    appli
    cat i
    onsf orfostercar
    e,theDSWDshal lreachoutt ov ari
    ouscommuni t
    ies
    andLGUsandwor kpr ef
    erabl
    ywi ththeLocalCounci lf orthePr otectionof
    Chil
    dr en(LCPC) .
     Section9. SubmissionofHomeSt udyReport.–Thesoci alwor kershallmakea
    detai
    ledHomeSt udyRepor tofanappl i
    cant’
    sbackgr oundandci r
    cumst ances,
    carri
    edouti naseri
    esofplannedvisi
    tsandintervi
    ews,inor dertodetermi neifthe
    appli
    cantmeet sthebasicrequi
    rementsforfostercar
    eandi ssui t
    abl
    etobecome
    afost erparent.

    316
     Sect ion10. IssuanceofLi cense.–TheDSWDshal li ssueaFost erFami l
    yCar e
    Licensebasedont heHomeSt udyRepor tsubmi t
    tedbyt heagencyt odet ermine
    themot i
    vations,capaci tiesandpot entialsf ordev elopmentofappl i
    cant s.The
    l
    icensei srenewabl eev eryt hree( 3)y ear sunl essear lierrevokedbyt heDSWD.
     Sect ion11. Mat chi ng.–Mat chingshal lbedonebyt heagencyonl yaf t
    ert hechi l
    d
    casest udyandt hehomest udyhav ebeenconduct ed,sav ef orexcept ionst obe
    deter minedbyt heDSWD, taki ngi nt oconsi der ationt hebesti nterest soft hechi l
    d.
     The chi l
    d case st udy r epor tshal lest abl ish t he needs of t he chi ldf or
    consi derati
    oni nt hesel ectionoft hef ost erpar ent .Likewi se,t heHomeSt udy
    Repor tshallest ablishsai df ost erpar ent ’scapaci tyandr esour cest opr ovidea
    safe, secureandl osi nghomet ot hechi ld.
     Sect ion12. Pl acement .–Thephy sicalt ransf eroft hechi ldt othef osterpar ent
    shallbeal l
    owedonl yaf t
    ert heFPAhasbeeni ssued,sav ef orexcept ionst obe
    deter minedbyt heDSWD, taki ngi nt oconsi der ationt hebesti nterestoft hechi l
    d.
     Sect ion13. Super vi
    si onofFost erPl acement .– Super visedf ost erpl acement
    begi nsassoonast hef osterpar entr ecei v est hechi l
    di ntohi scar e.Dur i
    ngt he
    fosterpl acement ,thesoci alwor kershal lconductr egul arhomev i
    sitst omoni t
    or
    thechi l
    d’sadj ust menti nt hef ost erhomeandshal lsubmi tpr ogr essr epor t
    st o
    theDSWD.
     I ncaseofi nci dent ,injur yordeat hofaf ost erchi l
    d, ori fher unsawayorget slost,
    suchcaseshal lber epor tedi mmedi at elyt ot heagency ,whi ch,i nt ur n,shal l
    i
    mmedi atelyrepor tthesamet ot heDSWD.
     Sect ion14. Ter mi nat ionofPl acement .–Ter mi nati
    onofpl acementshal lbedone
    byt heDSWD, uponr ecommendat i
    onoft heagency , ont hef oll
    owi nggr ounds:
    a.Ret ur noft hechi ldt obi ologi cal par ent s;
    b.Pl acementf oradopt ionoft hechi ld;
    c. Deat hoft hechi ld;
    d.Deat hofbot hf ost erpar ent s;
    e. Expi rat i
    onoft heFPA; and
    f.I nallcaseswher epl acementbecomespr ej udicialt ot hewel far eoft he
    chil
    d,suchas,butnotl imit edt o,abandonment ,mal t
    reat ment ,sexual
    assaul t,violenceorot herf ormsofabuse.
    Prov ided,t hati nt hecaseof( f),t hef ost erchi l
    d,wi t
    ht heassi stanceofa
    r
    egi
    ster
    edsoci alwor ker ,shal l hav et heopt i
    ont oappl yf orter mi nationofpl acement .

    ARTI
    CLEV

    LONG- TERM FOSTERPLACEMENT


     Sect i
    on15. Long- Ter m Fost erPl acementAut hor i
    ty.–I fachi l
    dhasbeenunder
    thecar eofaf ost erpar entf oraper i
    odofatl eastsev en( 7)y ears,t
    hesai dfoster
    parentmayappl yf orLong- Term Fost erPl acementAut hor ity(LTFPA) ,subjectt o
    thef ol
    lowingcondi ti
    ons:
    a.Thechi l
    d’ sr et urnt ohi sbi ologi calpar entsorpl acementi nanadopt ive
    familyisnoti mmi nent ;
    b.Thef ost erpar entcont inuest opossesst hequal ificationsrequi redunder
    tinsActandav al
    idf ost erf ami lycar el i
    censef ort heent i
    redur ationofthe
    fostercar e;
    c. Thechi ld, iften( 10)y earsofageorov er,dulyassi stedbyasoci alworker,
    giveswr ittenconsentf orl ong- ter m st
    aywi tht hef ost erparent;and
    d.Asi def rom t her egul armoni toringv isits,theDSWDshal lreassessand
    reevaluat et hef ost erhomesi tuat i
    onev eryt hree( 3)y ears,todet ermine
    whet heri tisi nt hebesti nt erestoft hechi ldtocont inuelivi
    ngint hefoster
    homeonal ong- term basi s.
    LTFPA gr antst he f osterpar entcust ody ov ert he f ost erchi ld withoutt he
    requi
    rementoft heev ent ual i
    tyofadopt ionoft helatterbyt hef or mer .Dur i
    ngt hisperiod,
    thefost erchildshal lenj oyt her i
    ght sofachi ldunderAr t
    icle3oft heChi ldandYout h
    WelfareCode, andunderot herl aws.Pr ov ided, thatther eshal lbenomandat oryr i
    ghtsof
    successi oninf avoroft hef ost erchi ld.

     Sect
    ion16.
    Long-
    Ter
    m Fost
    erCar
    eCommi
    tment
    .– Taki
    ngi
    ntoconsi
    der
    ati
    on

    317
    thestabil
    ityandbesti nterestofthefosterchil
    d,af osterparent,whounilat
    erall
    y
    ter
    mi nat
    est heLTFPA bef or
    et hefosterchildr eachest heageofmaj or
    it
    yor
    fi
    nishest ert
    iaryeducat i
    on,shallmakepr ovi
    sionsf ortheeducat ionandbasi c
    needsoft hef ost
    erchild,inaccordancewi t
    hthest andardsinwhi chthechil
    dhas
    beenr ai
    sedorhasbecomeaccust omedt o,wit
    hint hesaidperiod:Provi
    ded,That
    thefasterpar enthast hemeanst osuppor tt
    hef ost
    erchi l
    dinkeepi ngwit
    ht he
    fi
    nancialcapacityofthef amily
    .

    ARTI
    CLEVI

    ADOPTI
    ONOFAFOSTERCHI LD
     Secti
    on17. Condi t
    ions.–Af ost
    erpar entmayadopthi sfosterchil
    dsubj ectto
    t
    hefol
    lowi
    ngcondi ti
    ons:
    a.Thef osterpar entmusthav eal lt
    hequal i
    fi
    cati
    onsaspr ovi
    dedf orby
    Republ icActNo.8552, ot
    herwiseknownast heDomest icAdopt i
    onActof
    1998orRepubl i
    cActNo.8043,ot herwiseknownast heInter-
    Count r
    y
    Adopt ionActof1995, asthecasemaybe;
    b.Thet rialcustody ,asrequi
    redinadopt i
    on, maybewai ved:Provi
    ded,Thata
    harmoni ousr elati
    onshipexist
    sbet weent hechil
    dandhi sfosterparent
    andf ami lymember s;and
    c. Thepr ocedur esf oradopti
    on,forpurposesoft hi
    sAct,shallbegov erned
    byDomest icAdopt ionActof1998orI nter-
    CountryAdoptionActof1995,
    asthecasemaybe.

    ARTI
    CLEVI
    I

    LOCALGOVERNMENTUNI TS
     Section18.RoleofLocalGov ernmentUni ts( LGUs).–LGUsshal lpromot ethe
    fost
    ercar esystem int heirrespect iv
    eterri
    torial j
    uri
    sdict
    ions.
     Section19.Fundi ng.– I naccor dancewi tht heLocalGov ernmentCode,LGUs
    shallprimari
    lyber esponsi bleforsoci alwel fareserviceswhichi ncl
    udef ost
    er
    careprograms.Howev er,thenat ionalgovernmentshal lprovi
    def i
    nancial support
    ,
    pri
    ority given t o t hird ( 3rd) , fourth ( 4th) and f if
    th ( 5t
    h) cl ass
    muni ci
    pali
    ti
    es.1âwphi 1
     Section 20.Semi nars and Tr aini ngs.– The DSWD,i n coordination wi t
    ht he
    Depar t
    mentoft heInteriorandLocalGov ernment( DILG),isherebymandat edto
    developandpr ovidepr ogramst oensur et heawar enessandr esponsi venessof
    l
    ocalgov ernmentof f
    icialsint hepr omot i
    onanddev elopmentoft hefost ercare
    system ineverycity,muni cipal
    ityorbar angay .

    ARTI
    CLEVI
    II

    ASSI
    STANCEANDI NCENTI VES
     Sect
    ion21. Assistancet oaFost erChi ld
    (
    a)Fost erChi l
    d Subsi dy .– A f ost erchi l
    d,t hrough theagency ,shal lbe
    enti
    tled to a mont hly subsi dy f r
    om t he DSWD,subj ectt o existi
    ng
    governmentaudi ti
    ngr ulesandr egulations.Thesubsi dyispr i
    maril
    yaimed
    atsuppor tingtheexpensesoft hechi ldtol essenthefinancialburdenon
    thef osterpar ent :Pr ovided,Thatsuppor tmaybewai vedi fthefoster
    parentiscapabl eofsuppor ti
    ngt hef osterchil
    d.
    (
    b)Heal thI nsurance.– A f osterchi ldshal lautomatical
    lybeaPhi l
    Health
    benef i
    ciar
    yoft hef ost erpar entandassuch,ent i
    tl
    edtoheal thinsurance
    benef i
    ts.Ifthef osterpar entisnotaPhi l
    Healthmember ,hemustseek
    enroll
    mentwi thPhi l
    Heal th.LGUsandagenci esshallprovideassistance
    tothef osterpar entst oensur eenr ol
    lment .

     Sect
    ion22.
    Assi
    stanceandIncent
    ivest
    oFost
    erPar
    ent
    .–
    a)Suppor
    tCar eServ
    ices.–TheDSWD,thesoci
    alser
    viceuni
    tsofLGUs

    318
    andagenci esshal lpr ov i
    desuppor tcar eser vi
    cest oi ncl
    ude,butnot
    l
    imitedt o,counsel ing,v i
    sit
    s,t r
    ainingonchi ldcar eanddev elopment ,
    respitecar e,ski
    llstrainingandl i
    velihoodassi st
    ance.
    b)Addi tionalExempt i
    onf orDependent s.–Forpur posesofcl ai mi ngt he
    Twent y-fi
    vet housandpesos( PhP25, 000. 00)addi t
    ionalexempt i
    onf or
    fosterpar entsf oreachdependentnotexceedi ngf our( 4)aspr ovi
    ded
    forbyRepubl icActNo.9504,t hedef ini
    tionoft het erm" dependent "
    underSect ion35( B)oft heNat i
    onalI nternalRev enueCode( NI RC)of
    1997shal lbeamendedt oinclude" fost erchi l
    d":Prov ided,Thatal lother
    conditionspr ovidedf orundert heaf oresai dsect i
    onoft heNI RCof1997
    must be compl i
    ed wi t
    h: Pr ovided,f urther. That t hi
    s addi t
    ional
    exempt i
    onshal lbeal lowedonl yiftheper iodoff ost ercar eisatl easta
    continuousper i
    odofone( 1)taxabley ear .
    Forpurposesoft hissect ion,onl yone( 1)fost erpar entcant r eatthef ost erchi l
    d
    asadependentf orapar t
    iculart axabley ear.Assuch,noot herpar entorf ost erpar ent
    cancl
    aimthesaidchi ldasadependentf orthatper i
    od.

     Sect
    ion23.Incentivest oAgencies.–Agenci esshal
    lbeentit
    ledtot hefollowing
    taxi
    ncent
    ives:
    (a)Exempt ionf rom I
    ncomeTax.–Agenci esshal
    lbeexemptf rom income
    taxon t he income deriv
    ed byi tassuch or gani
    zati
    on pur suantt o
    Section30oft heNIRCof1997, asimpl
    ementedbyRev enueRegul at
    ion
    (RR)No.13- 98;and
    (b)Qualifi
    cationasaDoneeI nsti
    tut
    ion.– Agenciescanal soappl yfor
    quali
    ficationasadoneei nstit
    uti
    on.

     Secti
    on24.Incenti
    vest oDonor s.–Donor sofanagencyshal lbeent i
    tl
    edt othe
    fol
    l
    owing:
    (a)All
    owableDeduct i
    ons.–Donor sshallbegrantedal
    lowabledeductions
    fr
    om itsgrossi ncometotheext entoftheamountdonat edtoagencies
    i
    naccor dancewi thSecti
    on34(H)oft heNIRCof1997; and
    (b)Exempt i
    on from Donor ’
    s Tax.– Donor s shallbe exempt ed fr
    om
    donor’
    st axunderSect i
    on101oft heNIRCof1997:Pr ov i
    ded,Thatnot
    mor ethant hi
    rtypercent(30%)oft heamountofdonat i
    onsshal lbe
    spentforadmi nist
    rat
    iveexpenses.

    ARTI
    CLEI
    X

    PENALTI ES
     Sect ion25. Penalties.–
    a)Anyf ost erpar ent,foundt obecommi tti
    nganyactofnegl ect,abuse,cr uel
    ty,or
    expl oitationandot hersi mi l
    aract sprejudicialtothechild’sdev elopment ,
    shallbe
    penal izedi naccor dancewi thRepubl icActNo.7610, other wiseknownas" AnAct
    Prov idingForSt rongerDet errenceandSpeci alProtectionAgai nstChi l
    dAbuse,
    Expl oitation and Di scrimi nation,Pr oviding ForI t
    s Vi olati
    on,and ForOt her
    Purposes" ,andot herappl icablel aws.
    b)Anagencywhi chv i
    olatesSect i
    ons11,12,13oranyot herpr ovisionoft hi
    sAct
    andi tsIRRshal lsufferthef ol
    lowi ngpenal ti
    es:
    1.Fort hefirstv i
    olati
    on,af i
    neofnotl essthanTwent y-fivethousandpesos
    (PhP25, 000. 00)butnotexceedi ngFi ft
    ythousandpesos( PhP50, 000.
    00);
    and
    2.Foranysubsequentv i
    ol ati
    on,af i
    neofnotl esst hanFi ftythousandpesos
    (PhP50, 000. 00)butnotexceedi ngOnehundr edt housandpesos( PhP
    100,000.00) ,andr ev ocat i
    onoflicenset ooperate.
    c) Anyper son,nat uralorj ur i
    dical,othert hant hef osterpar entoranyagency ,
    violating any pr ovisi
    on of t his Actand i tsI RR shal lbe penal ized with
    i
    mpr isonmentofone( 1)mont ht osix(6)y ears,dependi ngont hegr avit
    yoft he
    offenseoraf ineofnotl esst hanTent housandpesos( Php10, 000.00)butnot
    mor et han One hundr ed t housand pesos ( PhP 100, 000.00) ,orbot h,att he
    discr etionoft hecour t
    .
    d)I ftheof f enderisapubl icof fi
    ci al
    ,thecour tmayi mposet headdi tionalpenalt
    yof

    319
    di
    squali
    fi
    cat
    ionf
    rom of
    fi
    cei
    naddi
    ti
    ont
    othepenal
    ti
    espr
    ovi
    dedi
    nthepr
    ecedi
    ng
    par
    agraph.

    ARTI
    CLEX

    FI
    NALPROVI SI ONS
     Sect ion26.Fost erCar eCommi tt
    ee.– TheRegi onalChi ldWel fareSpeci ali
    st
    Groupoft heDSWDshal lserv east heFost erCar eCommi t t
    ee,whi chshal lhav e
    thef ollowingf unct ions:
    a)Rev iewanddel i
    ber atei ssuesaf f
    ect i
    ngt hepl acementofapar t
    icularchi l
    d;
    b)Maker ecommendat ionst or esolveanydi sput ebet weenandamongt heagency ,
    thepar ents, t
    hef ost erpar entsandt hechi l
    d;
    c) Moni tort he i mpl ement ati
    on,r eview,and r ecommend changes i n pol icies
    concer ningf ost
    ercar eandot hermat tersr elatedt othechi l
    d’swel fare;
    d)Submi tt ot heSecr etaryoft heDSWDandt oCongr essanannualr eportoft he
    policies, pr
    ogr amsandact i
    vit
    iesr el
    at i
    vet ot hei mpl ement ationoft hisAct ;and
    e) Per f
    or m suchot herf unctionsanddut i
    esasmaybepr escribedbyt heDSWD.
     Sect ion27. Appr opr iation.–Theamountnecessar yt ocar ryoutt hepr ovi
    sionsof
    thisActshal lbei ncludedi nt heGener alAppr opriationsActoft hey earfollowi ng
    i
    t senact menti nt ol aw andt hereafter.Ani nit
    ialamountofTwent y-f
    ivemi ll
    ion
    pesos( PhP25, 000, 000. 00)shal lbeal locat edf ort hef i
    rsty earofi tsoper ation.
    Suchsum shal lbei ntendedt osuppor tthef ost ercar epr ogramsoft heDSWD
    andagenci es.
     Sect ion28. Implement ingRul esandRegul at i
    ons.–TheDSWD,asl eadagency ,
    theDepar t
    mentofJust i
    ce( DOJ) ,theDepar tmentofHeal th( DOH) ,theBur eauof
    InternalRev enue( BIR) ,theCounci lonWel fareofChi ldren( CWC) ,theDI LGand
    otherconcer nedgov ernmentagenci es,inconsul tati
    onwi thagenci esar eher eby
    mandat edtopr epar eanddr afttheI RRt ooper ational i
    zet hepr ovisionsoft hisAct
    within( 3)mont hsf rom i tsef fect
    ivity.

    10THI
    NGSYOUNEEDTOKNOW ABOUTTHEDI
    VORCEBI
    LLI
    NCONGRESS

    ThePr
    oposedBil
    lTit
    led“
    AnActInst
    it
    uti
    ngDi
    vor
    ceAndAbsol ut
    eDi
    ssol
    uti
    onOf
    Mar
    ri
    ageInThePhil
    ippi
    nes”
    ,Subst
    it
    utedHouseBi
    ll
    s116,1062,2380And6027 And
    PassedCommitt
    eeLevelOnFebr
    uary21,2018.ForTheFi
    rstTi
    meInTheHist
    oryOfThe
    HouseOfRepr
    esent
    ati
    ves,ADi
    vorceBi
    llWil
    lReachTheHousePlenar
    yForDel
    iber
    ati
    on.

    TheneedforaDi
    vor
    ceLawisreal
    .Iti
    slongov
    er due.I
    tishi
    ghti
    methatt
    hestate
    gi
    veswomen,andmen,i
    nabusi
    veandir
    repar
    ablemar
    riagestheopti
    ontof
    il
    efordi
    vorce.

    Thereisprogress.TheHouseCommi tt
    eeonPopul at
    ionandFami lyRel
    ati
    ons
    unanimously appr
    oved t he pr
    oposed “An Act Insti
    tut
    ing Divorce and Absol
    ute
    Dissol
    uti
    onofMar ri
    agei nthePhil
    i
    ppines”
    .Aconsolidat
    ionoff ourseparat
    emeasures
    fi
    ledbyatleast30congressmen.Herearethehi
    ghl
    i
    ght softheproposedlaw:

    1.Spouseshav et heOpt i
    onof il
    ef oranabsol utedi v
    orce,al egalsepar ation,or
    annulmentofmar r
    iage.
    2.Thegov er
    nmentshoul dassur et hatthedi vorceshallbei nexpensi veandi ts
    process,eff
    icient.
    The“ I
    ndigents”,def i
    nedundert hebi l
    larethosewhodonothav er ealpropertyof
    mor ethanP5mi l
    li
    oncanav ailoft hecour t
    sser v
    icesforfr
    ee.Sect i
    on6( c)oft he
    bi
    llstatesthat“ Uponappl icationofaqual i
    fiedindigentpet i
    ti
    oner ,thepr oper
    courtshallwai vethepay mentoft hef i
    li
    ngf eesandt heothercost sofliti
    gati
    on,
    and shallappoi ntaCounseldeOf i
    ciof orsai d peti
    ti
    onerand assi gnsoci al
    workers,psy chologists,psy chiatrist
    spr eferablyf r
    om appr opriategov er
    nment
    agenciestoassi stthesai dpet i
    tionerandt hecour t
    .”
    3.Thebi l
    lalsopr ovidessummar yj udici
    alpr ocessoranexpedi tiousmannerof

    320
    resol
    vi
    ngthepet
    it
    ionofdi vor cebutonl yont hesegr ounds:
    a.Whent hespouseshav ebeensepar atedf oratl eastf i
    ve
    years;
    b.When oneoft hespouseshascont racted a bi gamous
    mar riage;
    c. Whent hespouseshav ebeenl egall
    ysepar atedbyj udicial
    decr eef ort woy ear sormor e;
    d.When one of t he spouses has been sent enced t o
    impr isonmentf orsixy ear ,ev eni fsubsequent lypardoned;
    and
    e. When one of t he spouses has under gone a sex
    reassi gnmentsur gery .Thesummar yJudi cialPr oceedings
    maybeconcl udedi nlesst hanay ear.
    4.Thegroundsf
    orabsoluteDi v or ceundersect ion5ar easf ollows:
    a.Phy sicalVi olence orgr ossl y abusi ve conductdi r
    ected
    againstt hepet iti
    oner ,acommonchi l
    dorachi l
    doft he
    petitioner ;
    b.Phy sicalVi olence or mor alpr essur et o compelt he
    petitionert ochanger eligiousorpol i
    ti
    cal affi
    liati
    on;
    c. Attemptofr espondentt ocor r
    uptori nducet hepetiti
    oner,a
    common chi ld or chi l
    d of pet i
    ti
    oner t o engage i n
    prost it
    ut ion;
    d.I mpr isonmentofr espondentf ormor et hansi xyears,even
    ifpar doned;
    e. Drugaddi cti
    onorhabi tualal coholism orChr onicgambl i
    ng
    ont hepar tofr espondent ;
    f. Respondent ’sHomosexual i
    ty
    g.Bi gamousmar ri
    agecont ract edbyr espondent
    h.Mar itali nfideli
    ty orper ver si
    on orhav ing a chi ld with
    anot herper sonot hert hanspousedur i
    ngmar ri
    age,except
    uponmut ualagr eement
    i
    . At temptagai nstt hel i
    f eoft hepet i
    ti
    oner ,commonchi ldor
    chil
    dofpet iti
    oner
    j
    . Abandonmentby pet it
    ionerorby r espondentwi t
    hout
    justi
    f i
    abl ecausef ormor et hanoney ear

    Undert
    heBi l
    l,t
    hegr oundsforaJudici
    alDecreeofAbsolut
    eDi v
    orcearethe
    gr
    ounds forlegalseparati
    on underart
    icl
    e 55 ofthe Famil
    y Code ofthe
    Phi
    li
    ppi
    nesandgr oundsforannul
    mentofmarri
    ageunderar
    ti
    cle45oftheFamil
    y
    CodeofthePhil
    ippi
    nes.

    5.Thef ili
    ngofj ointpet i
    ti
    onf orAbsol uteDi vor cebyspouseswhoar esepar atedf or
    fi
    vey ear sorlegallysepar at edbyj udicialdecl arati
    onf oratleastt woy ear s.
    6.Thepol icyoft hest atet opr otectandpr eser vemar riageasasoci alinst i
    tution.
    Oneoft hesei st hemandat orycool i
    ng-offper i
    od,buti tiswai vedi ncasesof
    domest icabuseori fther ei sdangeragai nstonespouseorachi l
    d.Ther e’salsoa
    provisioni nt hebi llthatmandat est hest atet oconductpr e-nupti
    alandpost -
    patri
    moni alactiv
    itiesi nor dert oemphasi zet hatmar r
    iagei sasoci alinstituti
    on.
    7.Peti
    tioner swhoar eOFWs( Ov erseasFi li
    pinoWor kers)shallbegi venpr eference
    bythepr opercour twi t
    hr espectt ot hehear i
    ngoft heirpetiti
    onsandt hecour t
    shallsett herecept i
    onofev i
    dence, upont heav ail
    abilit
    yoft hepet i
    ti
    oner s, fornot
    mor et hant woconsecut iveday s.
    8.Thepr oposali mposest hepenal t
    yofi mpr isonmentoff ivey earsandaf i
    neof
    P200, 000t oaspousewhoi spar tyt oapet i
    ti
    onf orabsol utedivorce,whoi s
    foundbyt hecour tt ohav eusedt hreat sorcoer ci
    ont ocompelt heot herspouse
    i
    nf i
    lingt hepet i
    ti
    on, andt hespouseswhoar egui l
    tyofcol l
    usion.
    9.Section2oft hepr oposedbi l
    lgi veust her ati
    onalef oradi vorcelaw,andt hat
    whilet he state“ Cont inues t o protectand pr eserve mar r
    iage as a soci al
    i
    nstitutionandast hef oundat ionoft hef ami ly,
    ”adi vorcewoul dgiveachancef or
    coupl est oterminat e“ Acont inuingdy sfunct i
    onofal ongbr okenmar ri
    age. ”The
    bil
    lhopest o“Savet hechi l
    dr enf rom pai n,st ressandagonyconsequentt ot heir

    321
    parentsconstantmar i
    talclashes”and“ Grantthediv or
    cedspousest her ightto
    mar r
    yagainforanotherchanceatmar i
    talbli
    ss.”
    10.The stil
    lunnumber ed billwas r ecommended bya t echnicalwor king gr oup
    headedbyAl bayRep.EdcelLagman.Thepr oposedBi l
    ltitled“Anacti nstituti
    ng
    DivorceandAbsol uteDi ssolut
    ionofmar r
    iageint hePhi l
    ippi
    nes”,“Subst it
    uted
    housebill
    s116, 1062,2380and6027.
    Ifyoufeelt
    hattheDi v
    or ceBilli
    simpor t
    antt oyou,showy oursuppor tforit.Ifyou
    areagainstit,thev oicey ouropi ni
    onaswel l.Thinkaboutt hebenef i
    t sand
    consequencescar ef
    ully.Thinkabouthowy ou,someoney ouknow,orev enhow
    yourownchildrenwillbeaf f
    ectedbyt hebillifi
    tbecomesl aw.

    322
    SOCIALWORK
    STATI
    STI
    CS

    Rev
    iewer
    :
    Asso.Pr
    of.Gl
    oryJeanG.Leoni
    n,RSW,
    MSW

    Basi
    cConcept
    s:

    323
    Stat
    ist
    ics–ist
    hetheoryandmet hodsofcol l
    ecti
    ng, t
    abulati
    ng, andanal y
    zi ngdata.
    (Rey
    es1996).
    - Isconcernedwi thscienti
    fi
    cmet hodsforcol l
    ecting,organizing,
    summar izing,presenti
    ngandanal yzi
    ngdat a,aswel lasdrawi ngv ali
    d
    conclusi
    onsandmaki ngreasonabledeci si
    onsont hebasisoft his
    analysi
    s.(Hannagan, 1982).Stati
    sti
    csi sconcer nedwi t
    hthesy stematic
    coll
    ecti
    onofnumer i
    caldataandi tsint
    erpretati
    on.
    Thewor d“ stat
    isti
    cs”isusedt oreferto:
    1.Numer i
    calfacts,suchast henumberofpeopl eli
    v i
    nginapar ti
    cular
    town;
    2.Thest udyofway sofcollecti
    ngandi nterpretingthesef acts.

    Mai
    nfunctionofst at
    isti
    cs
    1.Topr ov
    ideinf
    or mati
    onwhichwil
    lhel
    pinmakingdecisi
    ons.
    2.St atisti
    csprovidethi
    stypeofi
    nfor
    mationbyprovi
    dingadescr
    ipt
    ionoft
    he
    present,profi
    l
    eoft hepastandanesti
    mateofthefutur
    e.

    Useofst
    atisti
    cs:
    1.Stati
    sti
    cscanbeastabi
    l
    izi
    ngfor
    ce,
    dispell
    i
    ngr umouranduncer
    tai
    nty
    ;
    2.Helpingtosol
    vear
    gumentsar
    isi
    ngfr
    om indiv
    idualcases

    Obj
    ect
    iveofstat
    ist
    ics:
    1.Toacqui r
    est at
    ist
    icalt
    ool
    st hatcanbeusedt oint
    erpretanddata,whi
    ch
    ei
    therquantit
    ati
    ve(numeri
    cal
    )orquali
    tat
    ive(Cat
    egori
    cal)
    data.
    2.Theendr esul
    tsareusef
    ulinf
    ormati
    onorv al
    uabl
    econclusionsf
    romr
    awdata.

    Pr
    ocedur
    e:
    1.Toknowexact lywhati stobei nvesti
    gatedandtofor mul at
    et heproblem as
    preciselyaspossi ble.
    2.Decideont her elevantdatatobecol lect
    edbasedont hepr oblem.
    3.Collecteddataar ethear r
    angedi nreadablef
    orm usingt ables,graphs,or
    diagramsandadescr ipti
    vemeasur esuchaspropor ti
    ons, averagesor
    standar ddeviationsar ecalcul
    ated.
    4.Sampl ei suset or epresentthestateofthepopul
    ation, wher estati
    sti
    cstryi
    ng
    toansweront hebasi ssampl e.

    Var
    iabl
    e–i
    sanobser
    vabl
    echar
    act
    eri
    sti
    cofaper
    sonorobj
    ectwhi
    chi
    scapabl
    eof
    t
    aki
    ngsev
    eral
    val
    uesorofbeingexpressedinseveraldif
    ferentcat
    egor
    ies.
    - Aret
    herawmat eri
    alsofstati
    sti
    calanal
    ysis.(Reyes,
    1996)

    Exampl
    e:sex,
    eyecol
    or,
    wei
    ghtandage

    Ki
    ndsofVariables:
    1. Cont i
    nuousvari
    able–i sav ar
    iabl
    ewhi chtakeanyvaluewit
    hinaspecif
    ied
    rangeofv al
    ues.Betweenanytwov al
    uesofthevari
    able,
    aninf
    ini
    tenumberof
    valuesmayoccur .
    Cont i
    nuousvari
    able–whosepossiblevaluehasnobreakorgap.

    Exampl
    e:wei
    ghtofababy
    ,hei
    ght
    ,vol
    ume

    2. Disconti
    nuousordi
    scret
    evari
    abl
    e–cant
    akeaspeci
    fi
    cval
    uesonl
    y.I
    tisa
    vari
    ablewithbr
    eakorgaps,
    orj
    umps.

    Example:numberofcar
    abaosi
    nagi
    venf
    arm
    Pri
    ces
    No.ofrevi
    ewees
    Famil
    ysize

    Not
    e:Ingener
    al,measur
    ement
    sgi
    vesr
    iset
    ocont
    inuousdat
    a,whi
    l
    ecount
    inggi
    vesr
    ise
    t
    odiscr
    etedat
    a.

    324
    Measur
    ementScal
    e:

    1. Nomi nalmeasurement–li
    mit
    edt y
    peofmeasur ement
    .Iti
    smerel
    yusedt o
    diff
    erent
    iat
    eclassesorcat
    egori
    esf orpur
    elycl
    assi
    fi
    cat
    ionori
    dent
    if
    icat
    ion
    purposes.
    -codingpur
    poses

    Exampl
    e:Mal
    e,f
    emale(numberIf
    orf
    emaleand2f
    ormal
    e)
    NumberofPlayer
    susedi
    nbasket
    bal
    l

    2. Ordi
    nalmeasurement s – or
    dinaldo notonl
    ycl assi
    fybutalso orderthe
    cl
    asses.Expr
    essedi nranksi
    spossibleifadi
    ffer
    entdegreeofattri
    butesor
    pr
    opertyi
    spresent.
    Withordi
    nalmeasurementwecant al
    kofgreat
    erthanorlesst
    han.

    Exampl
    e:r
    anksi
    nthebeaut
    ycont
    est
    Rankofat
    eacher

    3. I
    nter
    valmeasurement–hastheat
    tri
    buteofordi
    nalmeasur
    eplusonemor e:
    i
    tcandif
    fer
    enti
    atebet
    weenanytwoclassesi
    nter
    msofdegreesofdi
    ff
    erence.

    Exampl
    e:mentalabi
    l
    ityt
    estscore
    Achi
    evementtestscor
    e

    4. Rati
    omeasurement–r at
    iomeasurementdiff
    ersfr
    om i
    nter
    valmeasurement
    onlyinoneaspect
    :ithasatruezerowhichindi
    cat
    esatotalabsenceofthe
    propert
    ybei
    ngmeasured.
    Rati
    omeasurements,mult
    ipl
    i
    cati
    on,anddiv
    isi
    onhavemeanings.

    Example:t
    emperatur
    e
    Cel
    sius
    Note:Itiscust
    omarytotr
    eatint
    erv
    alandr at
    ioscal
    esi
    nsamemanner.Thus,what
    ever
    stati
    sti
    calt
    reat
    mentsoranal
    ysesareappli
    edtorat
    iomeasur
    ement
    scanal
    sobeapplied
    tointer
    valmeasur
    ements.

    TABULARPRESENTATI
    ONOFDATA

    1.Fr
    equencyt
    abl
    eusi
    ngdi
    scr
    etedat
    a:

    Yearlevel Fr
    equency Percent
    age
    Fi
    rstyear 1,
    300 32.
    5%
    Secondy ear 1,
    100 27.
    5%
    Thir
    dy ear 900 22.
    5%
    Fourt
    hy ear 700 17.
    5%
    Total 4,
    000 100.0%

    Yearlev
    el-cat
    egor i
    es
    Frequency-numberofobservat
    ionorcases
    Percent
    age-frequencydi
    vi
    dedbythetotalno.ofcasesmul
    ti
    plybyonehundr
    ed
    1,300/4,000x100%=32.5%

    2. Ungroupedfrequencydist
    ri
    buti
    on–usedwhent her
    eisasmal lnumberof
    observat
    ions.Dataareusual
    lyarr
    angedfr
    om hi
    ghestt
    ot hel
    owestt hatshows
    thefr
    equencyofoccur r
    enceofthedif
    fer
    entv
    aluesofthevar
    iable.

    325
    Exampl
    e:
    Score Fr
    equency
    30 2
    29 3
    26 5
    25 20
    23 18
    21 6
    19 3
    16 2
    Total 59

    3. Groupedfr
    equencydist
    ribut
    ion-isanarrangementofdatathatshowsthe
    fr
    equencyofoccur
    renceofv aluesfal
    li
    ngwi t
    hint
    hearbit
    rar
    ydef i
    nedrangesof
    t
    hev ari
    abl
    eknownascl assinterval
    s.

    Scores Fr
    equency
    42-44 2
    39-41 2
    36-38 3
    33-35 4
    30-32 7
    27-29 8
    24-26 5
    21-23 2
    18-20 3
    15-17 1
    12-14 2
    9-
    11 1
    Total 40

    Note:42-44-classi nterval
    9-11-classl i
    mi t
    9-l
    owerlimit-
    smal l
    ernumber
    11-upperli
    mit-largernumber
    10-Classmar k,mi dpointwhichistheaverageofthel
    owerandupperli
    mit
    s.
    Range-hi ghestscor eminuslowestscore
    Classinterval-productoftherangeplusonemoredivi
    dedbyten.

    4. Relat
    ivef
    requencydist
    ri
    but
    ion–frequencyforeachclassobtai
    nedbydi
    vi
    ding
    thecl
    assfrequencybythet
    otalf
    requency.f
    /n=r el
    ati
    vefrequency

    5. Cumul
    ati
    vef
    requency-obtai
    nedbyaddi ngt
    hef
    requenci
    essuccessi
    vel
    y,st
    art
    ing
    fr
    om t
    hebot
    tom oftheindiv
    idual
    frequency
    .

    Gr
    aph–i
    sageomet
    ri
    cal
    orpi
    ctor
    ial
    imageofasetofdat
    a.I
    nfor
    mat
    ioncaneasi
    l
    ybe
    gr
    aspandmor
    eint
    erest
    ingt
    oreadwhendat
    apr
    esent
    edgr
    aphi
    cal
    l
    y.

    Met
    hodsofr
    epr
    esent
    ingadi
    str
    ibut
    ionofscor
    esgr
    aphi
    cal
    l
    y

    1. Histogram orcolumndiagr
    am isagraphconsi sti
    ngaseriesofvert
    icalcolumns
    orrectangleseachdrawnwithabaseequal tot heclassi
    nter
    valandahei ght
    correspondingtothecl
    assfrequency
    .
    Iti
    ssui t
    ablegraphforr
    epresenti
    ngdataobtainedf r
    om conti
    nuousv ar
    iables.
    Iti
    spl ott
    edwithaclassmarkinthehorizont
    al axis,
    andfrequencyonthev er
    ti
    cal

    326
    axi
    s.

    2. Bargraph–i spar t
    icul
    arl
    yusefuli
    npresentingdatagather
    edfr
    om discr
    ete
    var
    iablesthatar emeasuredonnominalscal e.
    I
    tusesr ectanglesorbarstorepr
    esentdiscretecl
    assesofdat
    a.Categor
    iesar
    ein
    tur
    nplacedei theri
    nhorizont
    alorver
    ti
    cal axisbasedontheposi
    ti
    onofthebars.

    3. Pi
    edi
    agr
    am –gr
    aphi
    cal
    l
    ytopr
    esentt
    heper
    cent
    age.

    PROPERTI
    ESOFFREQUENCYDI
    STRI
    BUTI
    ONS

    Fr
    equencydistri
    buti
    onsdi fferfr
    om eachot heri
    ntermsoff ourproperties:
    1. Centr
    allocati
    on–r eferstot heval
    uenearthecenteroft hefrequencydistri
    buti
    on.
    2. Vari
    ati
    ons-refertot heextentofspreadi
    ngoutofindividualmeasur esfrom the
    measureofcent raltendency .
    3. Skewness-referstot hesy mmetryorasymmetry(lackofsy mmet r
    y)ofa
    fr
    equencydistri
    bution.
    4. Kurt
    osis-ref
    erstot heflatnessorpeakednessofonedi stri
    butioninrel
    ationto
    anot
    her.

    Sampl
    ingandsampl
    ingdi
    str
    ibut
    ions

    I
    nfer
    ent
    ialst
    ati
    sti
    cs-maki
    nggener
    ali
    zat
    ionsaboutt
    hepopul
    ati
    onbasedonsampl
    edat
    a.

    Popul
    ati
    on–r
    efer
    stot
    het
    otal
    i
    tyoraggr
    egat
    eofobser
    vat
    ionsr
    egar
    dingpeopl
    e,obj
    ect
    s,
    r
    eact
    ions,
    orevenanimal
    shavingsomecharact
    eri
    sti
    csi
    ncommont
    hatper
    mit
    i
    dent
    ifi
    cat
    ioni
    nagivenprobl
    em si
    tuat
    ion.

    Sampl
    e–i
    sanysubgr
    ouporsubaggr
    egat
    eofobser
    vat
    ionsdr
    awnf
    rom t
    hepar
    ent
    popul
    ati
    onbysomeappropr
    iat
    emethodsot
    hatthechar
    acteri
    sti
    csofthepopul
    ati
    oncan
    beest
    imated.
    -r
    efer
    stot
    hepeopl
    ewechoosetorepr
    esentthepopul
    ation.

    Sampl
    esi
    ze–i
    sanumberofobser
    vat
    ionsi
    nagi
    vensampl
    e.n=i
    sdesi
    gnat
    edf
    ora
    sampl
    esi
    ze
    Sampl
    ingmet
    hods

    Ty
    pesofsampl
    i
    ng:

     Pr obabil
    it
    ysample
     Samplesel ect
    edonthebasisofr
    andomness.Whentheresear
    cherhasa
    probabi
    lit
    ysample.(Reyes,
    1996)
     Provi
    desev erymemberofthepopul
    ati
    on(N)achancetobechosenas
    partofthesample(n).

    1. Random sampl
    e–isonewhichissoselectedthatev
    erymemberoft
    he
    popul
    ati
    onhasequal
    chanceofbeingselected.

    Exampl
    e:“
    gol
    dfi
    shbowl
    ”pr
    ocedur
    eorl
    ott
    ery

    St
    ep:
    Simpl eRandom Sampl i
    ng
     Getal i
    stoft hetotalpopulat
    ionoruni ver
    se
     Cutpi ecesofpapert osmal l
    sizes( about1x1inch)thatcanberol
    led
     Putanumberoneachpi eceofpapercor respondi
    ngt oeachnumberofthet
    otal
    populationoruni v
    erse
     Rol leachsmal l
    pieceofnumber edpaper
     Putt her oll
    edpaper sinaboxorhat
     Shaket heboxorhatt ogiveequal chanceforeveryoneintheuni
    verset
    obe
    chosenassampl e
     Pi ckoutoner ol
    ledpaperatat ime

    327
     Unrol
    lthepaperandrecor
    dthenumber
     Repeattheprocessunt
    ilt
    hedesi
    redsampl
    esi
    zei
    sobt
    aine

    2. St
    rat
    if
    iedrandom sampl i
    ng
     Ist heprocessofsubdivi
    dingthepopulationintosubgroupsorstr
    ataand
    drawingmember satrandom from eachsubgr ouporstratum.P=n/N
     Ensur esthatthesampleisdrawnfrom ahomogenoussubsetoft he
    populat
    ion,thati
    s,f
    rom apopulati
    onwi thsimilarchar
    acteri
    sti
    cs.
    Homogenei t
    yhelpsresearcher
    stor educesampl ingerr
    ors.

    St
    ep:Thi
    sisusedwhent her
    ei sareadyli
    stoftheuniversewhosemembersare
    cl
    assi
    fi
    edint
    ocer t
    aincategori
    essuchasst udents,f
    armers,andfi
    sher
    men.The
    pr
    ocedurei
    nusingthisschemei sasf ol
    l
    ows:
     Getalistoftheuniverse
     Decideonthesampl ingsizeortheactualpercent
    ageoftheuni
    ver
    sethat
    shouldbeconsideredassampl e
     Getanequal proporti
    onofsampl efr
    om eachgr oup

    Exampl e:Supposethereare-
    200students x. 10=20
    300fisher
    men x. 10=30
    500farmers x. 10=50
    ̅
    Totalsample 100
     Selectthe100r espondent
    seitherbysi
    mpl
    erandom sampl
    i
    ngorsy
    stemat
    ic
    sampl i
    ng

    3. Systemati
    cr andom sampli
    ng
     I samodifiedform ofsi
    mplerandom sampli
    ng.I
    tinv
    olvessel
    ecti
    ngev er
    ykth
    elementi
    nt hepopulati
    onunti
    lthedesi
    rednumberofsubject
    sisatt
    ained.
    K=n/N

    St
    ep:Thi
    sisusedwhent hereisar eadyli
    stofthetotal
    uni
    v er
    seorpopulat
    ion.The
    pr
    ocedur
    esinusingthisschemear easf oll
    ows:
     Getal i
    stofthet otaluniverseorpopulat
    ion
     Di vi
    dethetotaluniverseorpopul at
    ionbythedesi
    redsamplesizetogetthe
    sampli
    nginterval
    Example:I
    fthet otalpopulati
    onoruniversei
    s5000andt hedesir
    edsampl ei
    s
    100

    =500=50
    100
     Getnumber50asthefir
    stsampl
    eandevery50thper
    soni
    nthel
    i
    stor100,
    150,
    200,et
    c.unti
    l100r
    espondent
    sar
    epickedout

    4. Clustersampl i
    ng
     I sresortedtowhent hepopul
    ati
    onisveryl
    argeandwi
    delyspreadoutovera
    widegeogr aphicalar
    ea.Themoreconveni
    entfr
    om ot
    hertypeofrandom
    sampl i
    ngpr esented.

    Step:Thisisusedwhent hereisanar eawher et her esultsofseveral surveysoncertai


    n
    i
    ssuesv i
    rtuallymatchedt henat ional results.Forexampl e,i
    ftheresul tsofseveral
    nati
    onalelectionsinMani l
    awer et hesamewi tht henat i
    onaloutcome, Manilacoul
    dbe
    thecenterofasur v
    eyusingclust ersampl i
    ng.Ther esul tsofthi
    ssur veycoul dbeusedto
    proj
    ectthenat ionalout
    come.Thest epsi nusi ngt hisschemear easf oll
    ows:
     Deci deont hesampl esi ze;
     Sel ectageogr aphical areat hathasshownt hesamesur veyr esult
    sast he
    national r
    esult
    sforsev eralpr evioussur vey s: and
     Sel ectt hesamplewi thint hi
    sar eabyf oll
    owi ngei t
    herthesy stemat i
    cor
    stratifi
    edsamplingdependi ngupont heav ailablei
    nformation

    328
    5. St
    agesampl i
    ng
     Extensi
    onofcl
    ustersampli
    ng.I
    tist
    heselect
    ionofasamplei
    nstepsor
    stage.
     Iscall
    edmult
    isamplingi
    nwhichhousehol
    dorpersonsar
    eselect
    ed
    rathert
    hangr
    oups.

    Step:
    Mul ti
    -stageSampling
    Thi
    si susedf ornati
    onal ,
    regional,
    orprovinciallevelstudies.Ast henamesuggest s,
    sampli
    ngi sdoneateachl ev el
    .Thest epsinusingt hisschemear e:
     Deci deont hel
    evelofanal ysi
    sthatshouldbest udiedsuchasnat ional,r
    egional,
    orpr ovi
    ncial
     Sel ectthesampl eatt henextlowerlevel.Forexampl e,ifthesurveyisregional,
    thesampl i
    ngshouldst ar
    tattheprovinciallevel.Useoneoft heear l
    iersampling
    techniques
     Fol lowthesamepr ocessunt i
    lsamplingr eachest her espondents’level

    Exampl
    e:1stlevel
    3pr ovi
    nces/regi
    on -3
    nd
    2 l evel2prov i
    nces -6
    3rdlevel2town -12
    4thlevel4vil
    lages/t
    owns-48
    th
    5l evel5respondents/vi
    l
    lage -240

     Non-Probabi
    li
    tysample–f r
    equent
    lyusedi
    nmassmedi aresear
    ch
    par
    ti
    cularl
    yinthefor
    m ofavail
    abl
    esamplessuchassamplesusing
    vol
    unteersubj
    ectsandpurposi
    vesamples.
    (Ar
    boleda,
    1998)

    1. Av ail
    abl esampl e-acol lect ionofr eadilyaccessi blesubj ectsf orst udy ,suchasa
    groupofst udent senr olledi nani ntroduct orymassmedi acour se.Av ail
    abl e
    sampl escanbeusef ul i
    npr etestingquest i
    onnai resorot herpr eliminar y( pi
    lot
    study )wor k.Theyof tenhel pel i
    mi natepot ential pr obl emsi nr esear chpr ocedur es,
    test i
    ng, andmet hodol ogybef oret hef i
    nal r
    esear chst udyi sat tempt ed.
    2. Vol unteersampl es-Subj ect swhoconst ituteav olunt eersampl eal sof or ma
    nonpr obabi lit
    ysampl e, sincet hei ndivi
    dual sar enotsel ectedmat hemat i
    cal l
    y .
    Ther ei sconcer ninal l areasofr esear chwi t
    hr egar dt oper sonwhowi ll
    ingly
    par ti
    cipat ei nresear chpr oject s;thesesubj ect sdi ffergr eatlyfrom nonv ol unteers
    andmayconsequent lypr oduceer roneousr esear chr esul t
    .
    3. Pur posi vesampl e-Apur posi vesampl ei ncludessubj ect ssel ect edont hebasi sof
    speci fi
    cchar acteristicsorqual i
    tiesandel i
    mi nat est hosewhof ai ltomeett hese
    cri
    t eri
    a.Pur posivesampl esar eof tenusedi nadv ertisingst udies; resear cher s
    selectsubj ectswhouseapar ticulart ypeofpr oductandaskt hem t ocompar eit
    withanewpr oduct .Itischosenwi ththeknowl edget hati tisnotr epresent at i
    veof
    thegener al popul ationr at heri tat t
    empt st orepr esentaspeci ficpor ti
    onoft he
    popul at i
    on.
    Step: Deci deont hesampl esi zebyl ooki ngatt het abl eofsampl esi zein
    stat i
    sticsbookandhandout s
    Deci deont hecr iteriai nchoosi ngt hesampl e.Thesecr iteri
    amayi ncludeage, sex,
    andeducat ion
    Chooset hesampl ebasedont hecr i
    teria.Forexampl e, iftheconsi der edcr iteri
    on
    i
    sagegr oup21t o30y ear sol d, t
    henonl yrespondent sbel ongi ngt ot hisage
    groupneedt obei nterviewed
    4. Quot asampl e-Inquot asampl e,subj ectsar esel ect edt omeetapr edeter minedor
    knownper cent age.Forexampl e,ar esear cheri nt erest edi nf i
    ndi ngouthowmany
    owns, VCRowner smayknowt hat10%ofapar ticularpopul ationownsaVCR.
    Ther efor et hesampl et her esear chersel ectedwoul dbecompr isedof10%VCR
    owner sand90%non- VCRowner s( tor eflectt hepopul ationchar act er
    istics).

    5.I
    nci
    dent
    aloracci
    dent
    al
     Deci
    deont
    hesampl
    esi
    ze

    329
     Lookf
    orpeopl
    ewhocanbeint
    erv
    iewed
     Ift
    hesampl
    esizedeci
    dedoni
    s100,i
    nter
    viewt
    hef
    ir
    st100peopl
    eyoumeet

    I
    ndeci
    dingwhethert
    ouseapr
    obabi
    l
    ityoranon-
    probabi
    l
    itysampl
    e,ar
    esear
    cher
    consi
    der
    sforpoi
    nts:

    1. Costversusval ue.Thesampl eshoul dpr oducet hegr eatestv al uef orthel east
    i
    nvestment .Ifthecostofapr obabilit
    ysampl eistoohi ghinr elat i
    ont othet y pe
    andqualit
    yofi nformationcollected, anon- probabili
    tysampl ei sapossi ble
    al
    ternati
    ve.
    2. Timeconst raints.Inmanycasesr esear cherscol l
    ectingpr el
    imi naryinformat i
    on
    operateundert imeconst r
    aintsimposedbysponsor ingagenci es, management
    dir
    ecti
    vesorpubl icati
    ongui deli
    nes.Si ncepr obabili
    tysampl ingi sof t
    entime
    consuming, anonpr obabil
    it
    ysampl emaypr ovidetempor aryr elief.
    3. Purposeoft hest udy.Somer esear chst udiesar enotdesi gnedf orgener alizati
    on
    onthepopul ationbutr athertoi nvestigatev ari
    ablerel ati
    onshi psort ocol l
    ect
    explor
    atorydat af ordesigningquest i
    onnai r
    esormeasur ementi nstrument s.A
    nonprobabili
    tysampl eisoftenappr opri
    at einsituati
    onsoft heset ypes.
    4. Amountofer roral l
    owed.Inpr eliminaryorpi lotstudies, wher eer r
    orcont rolisnot
    aprimeconcer n,anonpr obabi l
    itysampl ei susuallyadequat e.

    Measur
    esofCent
    ralTendency

     Average-measur esofcent r
    altendencyandmeasur esofl
    ocati
    on.Anaverage
    summar isesagroupoff iguresandr epresentsi
    tint
    hesensethatt
    heaverage
    prov
    idesani mmedi ateideaaboutt hegroup
     CentralTendency-anaver ageprovidesav aluear
    oundwhichasetofdat
    ai s
    l
    ocated( Hannagan,1982) .

    Themostcommonmeasur esofcent
    ral
    tendencyare:
    1. Ari
    thmeti
    cmean-simpl
    yknownas“mean”(popular
    lycal
    l
    edt
    heaver
    age)ist
    he
    sum oft
    hesepar
    atescor
    esormeasuresdivi
    dedbynumberoft
    hescores

     Theadvantagesofthear it
    hmeti
    cmean:
    1.Itiswidelyunderstoodandthebasiccalculati
    onisstr
    aightf
    orwar
    d
    2.Itmakeuseofal l t
    hedat ai
    nthegroupandi tcanbedeterminedwi
    th
    mathemat i
    calpr
    ecision
    3.Itcanbedet erminedwhenonl yt
    het ot
    al v
    alueandt henumberof
    i
    temsar eknown

     Thedisadvantagesoft hear i
    thmeti
    cmean:
    1.Af ewi t
    emsofav eryhighorverylowv aluemaymaket hemean
    appearunrepresentativ
    eoft hedistr
    ibuti
    on
    2.I tmaynotcor respondt oanactualvalueandt hi
    smaymakei tappear
    unreal
    i
    stic
    3.Whent her
    ear eopen- endedclassinterv
    als,assumpt
    ionshav
    et obe
    madewhi chmaynotbeaccur ate

     TheAr
    it
    hmet
    icMeanofaf
    requencydi
    str
    ibut
    ion
    For
    mul
    a:

    ̅ ∑f
    x
    x = ∑f
    Wi
    tht
    heuseoft
    heassumedmeant
    hisbecomes:

    ̅ ∑f dx
    x = ∑f

    Twomet
    hodsofcal
    cul
    ati
    ngt
    hear
    it
    hmet
    icmeanofaf
    requencydi
    str
    ibut
    ionwi
    thcl
    ass

    330
    i
    nter
    val
    s:
     Mi
    d-pointmet
    hod-
     Cl
    assinter
    val
    method-i
    sver
    yof
    tensi
    mpl
    ermet
    hodf
    orcal
    cul
    ati
    on

    2. Median-isthatpoi
    ntonthescal
    eofmeasurementt
    hatdiv
    idesaser
    iesofr
    anked
    observat
    ionsint
    ohalves,
    suchthathal
    foft
    heobser
    vat
    ionsfal
    labov
    eitandthe
    otherhal
    fbelowit

     Theadv antagesoft hemedi an:


    1.Ext remehi ghandl owv aluesdonotdi st or
    titasar epresentat
    ive
    average.Ther efor
    eitisusef ulfordescribi
    ngdistr
    ibutionsinareas
    suchaswageswher eaf ewext r
    emev alueswoulddi stortthe
    ari
    thmet i
    cmean
    2.I ti
    sst r
    aightforwardtocal culat
    eev enifnotallt
    hev al
    uesar eknown,
    orwher etherear eir
    regularclassinter
    v als
    3.I ti
    sof tenanact ualval
    ueandev enwheni tisnotitmay‘ look’
    representati
    veandr eali
    stic

     Thedisadv antagesoft hemedi an:


    1.I tgivesthev alueofonl yonei t
    em.Theot heritemsar eimpor t
    anti n
    ascer t
    ainingtheposi tionoft hemedi an,butt heirvaluesdonot
    i
    nf l
    uencet hev alueoft hemedi an.Ifthev aluesar espr eader r
    aticall
    y,
    themedi anmaynotbeav eryrepresentativef i
    gure
    2.I nacont inuousser ies, groupedincl assint er
    v al
    s,thev alueoft he
    medi anisonl yanest i
    mat ebasedont heassumpt iont hatt hev alues
    ofthei t
    emsi nt hecl assar edi
    stri
    but edev enlywi t
    hint hecl ass
    3.I tcannotbeusedt odet erminethev alueofal l t
    heitems; t
    henumber
    ofitemsmul t
    ipli
    edbyt hemedi anwi llnotgi v
    et het otalfort hedat a;
    thereforeitisnotsui tabl eforfur
    therar i
    thmet i
    calcalculations

    3. Mode-thepoi
    ntonthemeasurementscal
    ewi t
    hthemaxi
    mum frequencyi
    nthe
    gi
    vendist
    ri
    but
    ion.I
    tist
    hemidpointoft
    heclassint
    erv
    alt
    hathasthegreat
    est
    fr
    equency

     Theadv antagesoft hemode:


    1.I tisacommonl yusedav erage,alt
    houghpeopl edonotalwaysr eali
    ze
    thattheyar eusi ngit
    2.I tcanbet hebestr epresentativeofthetypical i
    tem,becauseitisthe
    valuethatoccur smostf requent l
    y
    3.I thaspr acticaluses.Fori nstance,employerswi llof
    tenadoptthe
    modal rat
    esofpay ,theratepai dbymostot herempl oyer
    s.Carsand
    clothesar emadet omodal sizes,housesar ebui l
    tonthebasisoft he
    modal averagesi zeofthef ami l
    y
    4.Modal i
    nformat ioncanof tenbesuppl iedqui ckl
    ybypeopl ewhohav e
    experiencei napar ti
    cularar ea
    5.Themodei sof t
    enanact ual val
    ueandt her
    ef oremayappeart obe
    reali
    sticand‘ sensibl
    e’

     Thedisadv
    antagesoft hemode:
    1.Itmaynotbewel ldefinedandcanof t
    enbeamat terofj
    udgement
    2.Itdoesnotincludeal l
    t heval
    uesinthedi
    str
    ibuti
    on
    3.Itisnotveryusefulitthedist
    ri
    butioni
    swidelydispersed
    4.Itisunsui
    tableforfurtherorotherki
    ndsofcalculati
    onbecauseofi
    ts
    l
    ackofexactness

    Measur
    esofVar i
    ati
    on, Skewness,andKur t
    osis
     Range-anev erydaymet hodofdescribingthedisper
    sionorspreadofdataitcan
    bedefinedast hehighestvalueinadist r
    ibut
    ionminusthelowest
     Int
    erquart
    il
    er ange-(orquart
    iledevi
    ation)canbedefinedasthediff
    erence

    331
    bet
    weentheupperquar
    ti
    leandt
    hel
    owerquar
    ti
    l Q3-
    e( Q1)
    .Ithel
    pst
    osummar
    ize
    andcl
    ari
    fyt
    hedist
    ri
    buti
    on.

    Twot
    ypesofr ange:
    - Exclusiverange-t hedif
    ferencebetweenthel
    argestandthesmal
    lestscores
    inagi vendi st
    ri
    but i
    on
    - Inclusiverange-thediffer
    encebet weent
    heexactupperli
    mitoft
    heclass
    intervalcontai
    ningt hel
    argestscoreandtheexactlowerl
    imi
    toftheclass
    intervalcontai
    ningt hesmallestscore
     Quarti
    leDev iat
    ion-thatdonotdependonsuchext remes

    ‘
    Thr
    ee’
    quar
    ti
    les:
    - Thelowerquart
    il
    e:Q1
    - Themi ddl
    equart
    il
    e:Q2(
    thi
    sist
    hesameast
    hemedi M)
    an:
    - Theupperquart
    il
    e:Q3

     AverageDev iati
    on-thesi mpl estmet hodoft akingi ntoaccountt hev ariat
    ionof
    allt
    heitemsi nseriesf r
    om t hepoi ntofcent r
    altendencywhi chmayei therbe
    themode, themedi an, orthemean
     Vari
    anceandSt andar dDev iati
    on
     Var iance–t heav erageoft hesquar eoft hedev i
    ations
     St andar dDev iat
    ion-ameasur eofdisper sionwhi chusesal lthev aluesi
    n
    adi st
    ributi
    oni nthesenset hatever yvaluecont r
    ibutestot hef inalresul
    t
    inthesamewayt hatev eryvaluecont r
    ibut est othecalculationoft he
    arit
    hmet icmean
     Coeffi
    cientofVar i
    ation-expr essest hestandarddev i
    ati
    onasaper cent ageof
    themean
     Skewness( sk)andKur tosi
    s( ku)-skewnessandkur tosi
    sdependont hedegr ee
    ofscatt
    eroft hescor esaboutt hemeasur eofcent rall
    ocation
     Kur tosis-ameasur eoft hedegr eeofpeakednessorf l
    atnessofa
    distri
    bution

    UsesofSkewnessandKurt
    osi
    s
    Themeasur
    esofskewnessandkurt
    osi
    sindi
    cat
    etheext
    entofdepart
    ureofa
    di
    str
    ibut
    ionf
    rom nor
    mali
    tyandper
    mitcompari
    sonoftwoormoredi
    stri
    bbuti
    ons.

    332
    SOCI
    ALWORK
    AGENCY
    ADMI
    NISTRATI
    ON

    Rev
    iewer
    :

    Dr
    .Jocel
    ynT.Gaas,
    RSW

    333
    Rev
    iewCour
    seOut
    li
    ne

    Par
    tI

    A.Over
    viewofSoci
    alWor
    kAdmi
    nist
    rat
    ion

    1.Theor eti
    cal concept sofsoci al workadmini
    str
    ati
    on
    1.1.Def i
    niti
    onsofconcept s, processandmethods
    2.Thet woel ement sofadmi nistration
    a.Or ganizationandmanagement
    3.Thesoci al wel f
    areagency
    4.Social wor kandmanagement
    4.1.Admi nistrati
    on’srootsi nmanagement
    4.2.Theor iesofmanagementandi t
    scontri
    but
    ioni
    nthef
    iel
    dofadmi
    nist
    rat
    ion.
    4.3.Admi nistrati
    on’srootsi nsocialwork
    5.Basicpr inciplesinSoci alwor kadmi ni
    str
    ati
    on

    B.Theadmi
    nist
    rat
    iveFunct
    ions:

    b.
    1.Pol icyFor mulat
    ions
    b.
    2.Planni ngandpr ogrammi ng
    b.
    3.Organi zation
    b.
    4.Staffing
    b.
    5.Directing
    b.
    6.Cont rolli
    ng
    b.
    7.Coor dinat i
    ng
    b.
    8.Communi cati
    on
    b.
    9.Budget i
    ngandf inancing
    b.
    10.Recor di
    ngandRepor ting
    b.
    11.Publ icrelati
    ons
    b.
    12.Ev aluationandr esearch

    C.Soci
    alSy
    stem

    1.Definit
    ionofasoci al system
    2.Component sofasoci alsyst
    em
    3.Closedandopenpr oper t
    ies
    4.Multipl
    esy stems
    5.Systemsequi l
    ibr i
    um
    6.Relati
    onsoft hesy stemsappr oachtot
    hemanagementpr
    ocess(Acompl
    exi
    nput
    -
    outputsystem, thepr ogr am asasystem)
    7.Levelsintheor ganization
    7.1.Pol i
    cylevel
    7.2.Admi nistrativeorexecut i
    ve
    7.3.Super vi
    sor ylevel
    7.4.Directserv icelevel

    Par
    tII–SocialWor
    kSuper vi
    sion
    A.Overvi
    ewofsuper
    visi
    on

    334
    1.Defi
    nit
    ionsandconcepts
    2.Hist
    ory,phi
    l
    osophy /
    ethi
    cs/
    assumpt
    ions
    3.Purposesofsupervi
    sion
    4.Typesofsupervi
    sion

    B.Funct i
    onsofsuper
    visi
    on
    1.Administ
    rat
    ive
    2.Teachi
    ng
    3.Helpi
    ng

    C.Basi
    cpr
    inci
    plesofsuper
    visi
    on
    D.Gamespeopl
    eplayinsupervi
    sion

    Par
    tI

    A.Ov
    erv
    iewofsoci
    alwor
    kadmi
    nist
    rat
    ion

    I
    ntroduci
    ngthest udentsto acour sei nadmi ni
    strat
    ionwhi l
    et heyar ebei
    ng
    preparedforcompet encei ndir
    ectpract
    icesuppor t
    st het heorythatadmi ni
    str
    ati
    onisa
    system ofcooper ative effor
    ts atalllevels oft he organizat
    ion and nott he sol
    e
    responsibi
    lit
    yofhighexecut i
    ves.Associ alwor kisgener all
    ypr acti
    cedi nanagency
    setti
    ng,thenewpr acti
    ti
    oneri sbroughti
    ntoanadmi nist
    rati
    vesit
    uat i
    onthatrequir
    esan
    understandingofitsprocessesandone’ spartici
    pationandcont ri
    buti
    onf orachi
    evi
    ng
    agencygoal s.

    Anot herconsi der at i


    on ist he factt hatBSSW gr aduates byv i
    rtue ofgood
    perfor
    manceory earsi ndi rectpr act i
    cegetpr omot edt osuper visoryoradmi ni str
    ative
    positi
    ons,whi ch i st ypicaldev elopmentofpr ofessi onalcar eersi n or gani zational
    setti
    ngs.Si ncei ti slikelyt hatpr act i
    tionerswi llcont inuet or i
    sef rom ther anksofdi rect
    practi
    cet oadmi nist
    rativ eposi t
    ionsev enwi thl i
    ttl
    eornoadmi nistr
    ativet raining,i tis
    deemedpr acticalt hatani nt r
    oduct or ycour sei nadmi nistrati
    onandsuper v i
    sionbepar t
    oftheirpr of essionalt raini ng.Abasi ccour sewi llnoty etfull
    yequi pt hegr aduat esf or
    supervisoryandadmi nist rat i
    ver esponsi bil
    iti
    esbutmaygi vethem awar enessoft he
    needf orcont i
    nui ngpr of essi onaleducat ionort rainingi nadmi nistrat
    ionespeci allywhen
    theystartoccupy ingadmi nistrat
    iv eposi ti
    ons.
    Ther ear echangesoccur ringi nsoci alwor kpr ofessionf oremostofwhi chi st he
    upgradingoft hepol iciesandst andar dsf ortheBachel orofSci encei nt heSoci alWor k
    Program byt he Commi ssi on on Hi gherEducat i
    on i n conj unct i
    on wi tht he “ Hi
    gher
    EducationActof1994”andt he345thRegul arCommi ssiononBasi cResol utionNo.499-
    2009dat edDecember23,2009.I tshoul dbeunder scoredf urthert hatt heacademi c
    requir
    ement sfort heBachel or’
    sdegr eeshoul dadher et ot hegl obalst andar dsf orSoci al
    Wor kEducat ionandTr ai ningaspr escr i
    bedbyt heI nt ernat i
    onalAssoci ationofSchool s
    ofSoci alwor k( IASSW)andt heI nternationalFeder ationofSoci alWor ker s( IFSW)i n
    2001.Anot hermaj ordev el opmentt hathasaf fectedt hesoci alwor kprof essioni st he
    passageoft heLocal Gov er nmentCode, whichsawt hedev olut
    ionofsoci al serv i
    ceswi th
    manyBachel orofSci encei nSoci al Wor k(BSSW)gr aduat esassumi ngt headmi ni str
    ative
    andsuper visoryposi tions.

    1.Theor
    eti
    calconcept
    sofsoci
    alwor
    kadmi
    nist
    rat
    ion:

    Thisunitisbasicall
    yapr esent ati
    onoft heor
    iesandconcept sonsocialwor k
    admi ni
    strat
    ion.Theyar edrawnf rom or gani
    zationaltheor
    y,socialworkconceptsand
    othersocialandbehaviouralsciencest hatserveasf oundat
    ionknowledgetosocialwork
    admi ni
    strat
    ion.I
    talsobr i
    ngsi ntof ocusdi st
    inctaspectsofsocialworkadministr
    ati
    on,
    thesocialwelfareagencyandt hesoci alsyst
    em asnecessar yforeff
    ici
    entandeffect
    ive
    socialservi
    cedeliv
    ery.

    WhyweneedAdmi
    nist
    rat
    ion?

    Admi
    nist
    rat
    ioni
    sani
    mpor
    tantar
    eai
    nor
    gani
    zedhumanser
    viceact
    ivi
    ty.I
    thas

    335
    beenconsideredaprocessorasetofr el
    ati
    onshipsbet
    weenandamongpeopl ewor ki
    ng
    toward common obj ecti
    ves in an or gani
    zati
    on. Ev
    ery organi
    zati
    on r equir
    es
    administr
    ati
    ontofunct
    ioneffect
    ivel
    ytoachieveit
    sgoal
    s.Admini
    str
    ati
    onisnecessaryto
    orchestr
    atethemyri
    adactiv
    iti
    esoftheorganizat
    ion.

    1.
    1. Def
    ini
    ti
    on:

    HermanSt ei
    ndescri
    bestheconceptofadminist
    rati
    on“asapr
    ocessofdefi
    ning
    t
    heobj
    ect
    ivesofanorgani
    zat
    ionthr
    oughasystem ofcoordi
    nat
    edandcooper
    ati
    veeff
    ort.

    Admi nist r
    ationasamet hodofpr acti
    ce,admi ni
    str
    ati
    oni
    ssai
    dtodealpr
    imar
    il
    y
    wi
    tht
    hefol l
    owi ng:
    1.Det ermi nat i
    onofgoal sandorset t
    ingofobjecti
    ves;
    2.For mul at i
    onofpol i
    cies
    3.Cr eatingandmai ntaininganor ganizati
    on
    4.For mul at i
    onofpl ans
    5.Secur ingr esources
    6.Sel ectingnecessar yt echnologiesf oroper
    ations
    7.Desi gni ngpr ogramsandser vi
    ces
    8.Opt imi zingor ganizationalbehav iour
    9.Ev aluat i
    ngr esultsfort heimpr ovementofser v
    ices;
    and
    10.Account i
    ngf orresour ceut i
    l
    izat i
    on

    Admini
    str
    ati
    onisacont inuouspr ocessthatl
    eadstoorgani
    zati
    onalgrowt hand
    devel
    opment .Administ
    rati
    on therefor
    ei sa phenomenon occurri
    ng i
    n gov ernments,
    schools,busi
    nessfi
    rms,laborunions,hospital
    sandinanyorgani
    zedgoalseekinggroup
    ofpersons.

    CHARACTERISTICS:
    Thebasiccharact
    eri
    sti
    csspel
    ledouti
    nper
    ti
    nentl
    it
    erat
    urei
    ncl
    udet
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ng:

    1. Admi nist
    rati
    onisahumanent er
    priset hatinvol
    vestheact i
    vi
    tyofpeopl
    einthe
    organizati
    on.
    2. I
    tisacont i
    nuous,dynamicprocessf oracommonpur poseorgoalt
    hati
    spusued
    throughuninterr
    upted,conti
    nuinginteracti
    veactivi
    tybetweenandamongpeople
    i
    nver ti
    calandhor i
    zontalposi
    ti
    onsint heor gani
    zati
    on.
    3.Ther esourcesoft hepeopl eandmat eri
    alsar ehar nessed& coor dinatedt o
    achiev eorganizational goals.
    4.Leader shipi simpl ici
    ti nadmi ni
    strat
    ion.Leader shiphasbeendef i
    nedast he
    abil
    ityofani ndividualt oi nfl
    uence,mot ivat
    eandenabl eother st ocont ribute
    towar dt heef fectivenessandsuccessoft heor gani
    zati
    onofwhi cht heyar e
    member s.Leader ship occur s atal llevels oft he organi
    zation.The t ask of
    l
    eader shipv ari
    eswi t
    ht heposi tionthatitoccupi esi ntheorganizationalhierarchy,
    beitatt het op-level,mi d-l
    evel,etc.
    5.Coor dinati
    on, cooper ation & par ti
    cipat
    ion ar e t he means f or achiev ing
    organizationalgoal s.Compl ement ati
    on–wor kingandact ingt ogether-i
    nv olves
    peopl etakingpar tinor ganizational t
    asksf orshar edgoal s.

    2.Two(
    2)pr
    imar
    yEl
    ement
    sofadmi
    nist
    rat
    ion:

    1.Or
    gani
    zat
    ion–i
    stheset
    ti
    ngupoft
    hef
    ramewor
    korst
    ruct
    ureoft
    hedi
    ff
    erent
    unit
    softhesyst
    em tocarr
    youtorper
    for
    m di
    sti
    nctt
    asksf
    ort
    heat
    tai
    nmentof
    thegoal
    sofadmini
    str
    ati
    on.

    Accor
    dingt
    oChest
    erI
    .Ber
    nar
    d,anOr
    gani
    zat
    ioncomesi
    ntobei
    ngwhen

    1.Ther
    earepersonsabletocommunicat
    ewi
    theachot
    her
    ,
    2.Whoarewil
    li
    ngt ocontr
    ibut
    eact
    ion,

    336
    3.Toaccompl
    i
    shacommonpur
    pose.

    These3arefoundinal
    ltypesoforgani
    zat
    i EFFECTI
    ons, VENESS&EFFI
    CIENCY–ar
    e
    necessar
    yfori
    tsconti
    nuedexist
    ence.

    2.Management–i
    stheact
    ivi
    tyt
    hatal
    l
    ocat
    esandut
    il
    izesr
    esour
    cest
    oachi
    evet
    he
    goalsoft heorganization.Mor especi ficall
    y,itist hescientif
    icuti
    lizati
    onof
    manpower ,money ,machi nes,mat erial
    s,met hods,t i
    me,spaceand al lother
    resourcesfortheat t
    ainmentofor ganizat i
    onalgoals.Itinvolvesthet askof
    establ
    ishi
    ngandmai ntaininganorgani zationalcl
    imat eori
    nternalenv
    ironmenti n
    whichpeoplewor ki
    ngt ogetheringroupscanper form eff
    ecti
    v el
    yandef fi
    cient
    ly
    towardstheatt
    ainmentofgr oupgoals.
     Managementi sessent i
    alinal
    lor gani zedactivi
    ty,aswellasatal llevelsof
    organi
    zationinanent
    erpr
    ise.I
    tisundert
    akenbyamanagerwhogetsthings
    donebywor kingwi
    thpeopleandot herresour
    cest
    oattai
    norgani
    zati
    onal
    object
    ives.
     I
    tcan be conceptual
    i
    zed as “v
    ari
    ous ways ofshapi
    ng and exer
    ti
    ng an
    i
    nfl
    uenceov ert
    heworkenv
    ironment
    .”Assuchiti
    sprimari
    l
    yaproacti
    vethan
    areact
    iveacti
    vi
    ty.
     Managementi
    sthefunct
    ionoft
    heuni
    versi
    typr
    esidentandthearmygener
    al,
    aswellast
    heshopf
    oremanandthesoci
    alwelf
    areagencysupervi
    sor

    Admi nist
    rationinhumanser vi
    ceorgani
    zati
    ons
    Social admi ni
    strati
    on, social welf
    are administ
    rat
    ion and social wor k
    admi ni
    strat
    ion aref ound in soci
    alworkl i
    ter
    atur
    e astheyappl yto human serv
    ice
    organizati
    ons.Concept uall
    ytheyneednotbedi f
    fer
    ent
    iat
    edast heyar
    enotseparatenor
    mut uall
    yexcl usi
    veentiti
    esalthoughtheyemphasizethemacrot omicrocont
    inuum in
    organizati
    onal devel
    opment .

    SOCI
    ALADMI
    NISTRATI
    ON-Accor
    dingt
    oHanl
    anf
    ocusesont
    hepol
    i
    cies,pl
    anni
    ng,and
    admi ni
    strat
    ion ofgoods and ser vices i
    nr elat
    ion to pol i
    ti
    cal,socialand economi c
    i
    nstituti
    onsandt othedet erminantsoft hedistri
    butionofnat ionalresourcestosocial
    welfareneeds.Thisconsiderst hesocialwor kprofessionasasubsy stem ofthel ar
    ger
    social,poli
    ticaland economi ci nsti
    tut
    ions ofsoci ety
    .Gener al
    l
    y,t he ter
    m “ soci
    al
    admi ni
    strat
    ion”isusedtor efertoadmi nist
    rati
    onint hef iel
    dsofheal th,educat
    ionand
    othersocialdevel
    opmentfields.

    SOCI
    ALWELFAREADMI
    NISTRATI
    ON – r
    efer
    smor
    especi
    fi
    cal
    l
    ytot
    headmi
    nist
    rat
    ive
    processesi nasoci alwel f
    areagency ,t
    hef or
    mul ati
    onofi tspoliciesandplansandt heir
    i
    mpl ement ati
    onintopr ogramsandser vi
    cesf orspecificcli
    entgr oups.I
    tisalsoreferred
    toassoci alagencyadmi nistr
    ati
    on.
    Edwar ds Schwar t
    z cl ai
    ms t hat the maj or obj ect
    ive of soci al welfare
    admi ni
    strat i
    onist heenhancementofsoci alfunct i
    oning.Boehm hasusedt het erm
    “socialfunct i
    oning”i nhi sdef i
    nit
    ionoft hepr ofessionofsoci alwork.Schwartzhas
    i
    mpl iedt herefor
    et hat“ socialwelf
    areasaf i
    eldofadmi nist
    rati
    onandsoci alwor kasa
    professionmaybeconsi deredtohaveashar edobj ecti
    ve”.

    SOCI
    ALWORK ADMI
    NISTRATI
    ON -i
    samet
    hodofsoci
    alwor
    kconcer
    nedwi
    tht
    he
    provisionanddi stri
    butionofsoci etalresour cessoast oenablecer taintypesofper sons
    andpeopl etomeett heirneedsandf ul
    fi
    l theirpotenti
    als.
    I
    tisassumedt hati ntransfor mingsoci alpol
    iciesintoprogr amsandser vi
    cesthe
    socialwor k admi nistrator appl i
    es a sy nthesis of soci alwor k met hods int he
    admi nistrat
    ivepr ocesses.
    As a secondar ymet hod i n soci alwor k,admi nist
    rat
    ion accor di ng to Walt
    er
    Fri
    edl anderisbasedupont hepr inciplesandt echniquesofadmi nistrati
    oni ngeneralbut
    addressedt ot hespeci fi
    csoci alwor kt asksofdef ining&sol vingandsol vinghuman
    problemsandsat isfyi
    nghumanneeds.
    Aspartofsoci alwor kpr actice,thecodeofEt hicsequall
    yappl i
    est oit.Thesame
    corev aluessuchast hewor thanddi gni tyofper sons,ser vi
    ce,soci aljusticeamong
    othersappl yt osoci alwor kadmi nistrat
    ion.I nadmi nistrat
    ion,t
    her ear egr eaterchances

    337
    ofethi
    calconf
    li
    ctsthanbeingadirectserv
    icewor
    ker
    ,becauseoft
    hegr
    eaternumberof
    st
    akeholder
    sinvolv
    edint heorganizat
    ionandtheneedtomeetnumerousobli
    gat
    ions
    wit
    hinandoutsi
    detheorganizat
    ion.

    Soci
    alwor
    kadmi
    nist
    rat
    ionasdef
    inedbysoci
    alwor
    kleader
    s:

    Kidneigh1950
    SocialWorkAdminist
    rat
    ion–istheprocessoftransf
    ormingsocialpol
    i
    cyi
    ntosoci
    al
    servi
    ces.Atwowayprocess:
     Tr ansf
    ormi
    ngpoli
    cyint
    oconcret
    esocial
    ser
    v i
    cesand
     Theuseofexper i
    encei
    nrecommendingmodifi
    cat
    ionofpol
    icy.

    Spencer
    Administ
    rat
    ion–istheconsci
    ousdir
    ect
    ionsoftheinter
    nalr
    elati
    onshi
    psandact i
    vi
    tiesof
    theenter
    pri
    setowardtheachiev
    ementofgoals.Itincl
    udes“theconsciousi
    nterv
    ent i
    on
    i
    nt heinter
    acti
    ngforcesoperat
    ingbet
    weent heagencyandt helargercommuni tyto
    whichiti
    sapart.

    Dunham
    Admi ni
    str
    ati
    onistheprocessofsupporti
    ngorfaci
    l
    itatingacti
    vi
    ti
    eswhi charenecessary
    andincident
    altot
    hegivingofdir
    ectservi
    cebyasoci alagency.Administ
    rat
    iveacti
    vi
    ties
    rangefrom thedeterminati
    onoff uncti
    onsandpol iciesandexecutiveleader
    shipt o
    routi
    neoperati
    onssuchaskeepingr ecor
    dsandaccount sandcarr
    yingonmai nt
    enance
    servi
    ces.

    Stei
    n
    Suggest
    sthatdef
    ini
    ti
    onsofadministr
    ati
    onar
    enumer ousbutcentr
    alt
    othosemost
    accept
    edistheconceptofadmi
    nistr
    atonasapr
    i ocessofdefi
    ningandat
    tai
    ningt
    he
    obj
    ect
    ivesofanor
    gani
    zat
    iont
    hroughasyst
    em ofcoor
    dinat
    edandcooper
    ati
    veef
    for
    t.

    Char
    act
    eri
    sti
    csofsoci
    alwor
    kadmi
    nist
    rat
    ion:

    1. Theuseoft
    hepr
    inci
    plesandt
    echni
    quesofadmini
    str
    ati
    oningener
    al.
    2. Theuseofthephil
    osophyai
    msandf unct
    ionsofsocialwork,i
    tsmet
    hodsof
    socialdiagnosi
    s,anal ysisandsynthesisofi ndivi
    dual,grouporcommuni tyneeds,
    andofgener ali
    zationsf orchangeordev elopmenti nagencygoal sandfuncti
    ons.
    It
    spr i
    mar yfocusisahel pi
    ngprocessf orindi v
    idual
    s,groupsandcommuni ti
    es.
    3. Wor ki
    ng wi t
    hpeopl ebased ont heknowl edgeand under standi
    ng ofhuman
    behav i
    our,humanr elationsandhumanor ganizati
    ons.
    4. Met hodsencompassi ngnotonl yi
    nt heser vi
    cespr ov
    idedbyt heagencybutal so
    i
    nt headmi nist
    rat
    ivepr ocessandst affrelati
    ons.
    5. Ethicsplayi
    ngasi gnifi
    cantr ol
    e.

    ACTI
    VITI
    ESUNDERTAKENI
    NSOCI
    ALWORKADMI
    NISTRATI
    ON

    Har
    lei
    ghTreckerspel
    lsoutt
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ngact
    ivi
    ti
    esasmaj
    orar
    easofadmi
    nist
    rat
    ive
    r
    esponsi
    bil
    it
    y:

    1.Studyandanal yzethecommuni ty
    .
    2.Determineagencypur poseasbasi sforcl
    ientel
    eselect
    ionorpeopletobeserved.
    3.Prov i
    definanci
    alresour ces,
    budget i
    ngandaccount i
    ng.
    4.Dev el
    opagencypol icies,programsandpr ocedur
    esf ortheimplementat
    ionof
    agencypur poses.
    5.Selectandwor kwithagencyl eadershi
    p,professi
    onal&nonprofessi
    onal
    ,boards,
    commi t
    tees,andserv i
    cev ol
    unteers.

    338
    6.Pr ovi
    de&mai ntainphysicalpl
    ant,
    equipment&suppl ies.
    7.Dev elop a plan,est abli
    sh and maintai
    n effecti
    ve communi t
    yr el
    ati
    ons,and
    i
    nterpretprograms.
    8.Keepf ul
    l&accur aterecordsofagencyoperat
    ionsandmaker egul
    arreport
    s.
    9. Pl
    an&conductr esearchonar egul
    arbasis.
    10.Continuouslyconductregulareval
    uati
    onofprogr am andper
    sonnel.

    I
    mpor
    tanceofSoci
    alWor
    kAdmi
    nist
    rat
    ion
    Soci
    alworkadminist
    rationisthekeystoneformaxi
    mizi
    ngtheeffect
    ivenessof
    socialworkprogr
    amsint hesolutionsofsoci
    alprobl
    emsandint
    hebetter
    mentofsoci al
    conditi
    ons.
    Soci
    alworkadminist
    rat
    ionpr ovi
    destheframeworkf
    orsoci
    alworkpracticethat
    rel
    atesi tto ot
    heragencyf unct i
    ons.Thequal i
    tyofsoci
    alworkpracti
    ceisgr eat
    ly
    i
    nfluencedbysocialworkadmi nistr
    ati
    on.

    Aspect
    s:
    Theaspect
    sofsoci
    alwor
    kincl
    udef
    unct
    ion,
    str
    uct
    ureandpr
    ocess.

    1.OfstructureconsistsFunct i
    ons
    Thef uncti
    onsofsoci alwor kadmi nist
    rationaret hefoll
    owing:
     I tisthemeansbywhi chidentif
    iedsoci alneedsar edealtwi
    thbyappr
    opr
    iate
    socialservi
    ces,whet herunderpubl icorpr i
    vat eauspices.
     I tissocietalactionf orimpr ovedornew ser vi
    cesneededbyspecifi
    ccl
    ient
    groupsort hecommuni t
    yasawhol e.
     I tisadecision-makingatev eryl
    evel ofadmi nist
    rati
    on

    2.Structure
    Thestudyof :
    1.St udyi
    ngiti
    nrelat i
    ontoorganizationasanel ementinadminist
    rat
    ion.
    2.Knowi ng thatt he socialwel fare agency representsthe organi
    zat
    ional
    struct
    urei
    nsocial workadministration.
    3.PROCESS: Soci alWor kAdmi nistr
    ationisacont inuesdynamic;andtotal
    processofbri
    ngi ngtogetherpeopl e,resour
    cesandpur posestoaccompli
    sh
    theagencygoalofpr ovi
    dingsocial servi
    ces.

    As a process,iti
    s based upon knowledge ofhuman nature and human
    organi
    zati
    ontoestabli
    shandmaintai
    nasy stem ofpar
    tici
    pat
    iveandcooperat
    iveef
    for
    t
    atalll
    evel
    softheorgani
    zat
    ion.

    Treckerpoi nt
    soutt hatasapr ocesssocialwor kadmi ni
    strat
    ionhasatl east3
    i
    mpor
    tantdimensi ons.
    1.Acent raldi mensionist hetaskofwor kassignmentwi thi
    nanagencyst ructur
    e.
    Thereiswi dedi str
    ibut
    ionofr esponsi
    bil
    it
    yint heagencywi ththeallocati
    onof
    tasks&f uncti
    onsf oreverylevelofwork.
    2.The communi tyi n which the agency wor ks af f
    ect
    s agency pur poses and
    programsasi tisthesour ceofsuppor taswell ast heobjectofservi
    ces.
    3.Thepsy chosocialdimensi oninwhi chpeopler eleasetheirfeel
    ingsandener gies
    –t hefeel i
    ngsandener giesofpeopl ewhenpr operlyharnessedbyadmi ni
    str
    ators
    constit
    ut ethehumanr esourcesf orachi
    evingagencygoal s.

    EVALUATI
    ON OF ORGANI
    ZATI
    ONAL MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHI
    PIN SOCI
    AL
    WORKADMI NI
    STRATI
    ON

    Basedonthefi
    eldpr
    act
    icum ev
    aluat
    iongui
    del
    i
    nesusedasr
    efer
    ence,
    her
    ear
    e10
    ar
    easofeval
    uat
    ion:

    1.Appropr
    iateuseofsel fi
    nr elat
    iont ot
    heagency ’
    sorganizat
    ionalstr
    uct
    ureand
    i
    ndivi
    dualstafffunct
    ions.
    2.Eff
    ecti
    vecommuni cati
    onandhandl ingofconf
    li
    cts.
    3.Abil
    it
    ytoinit
    iateandmai ntainsyst
    emsofi mpl
    ement i
    ngideas.
    4.Ski
    lli
    nassessi ngavail
    ableinfor
    mation,i
    ncl
    udi
    ngbudgetsf orplanni
    ng.

    339
    5.Init
    iati
    veinanal yzi
    nganddesi gningprogram component s.
    6.Skilli
    nut i
    l
    izingmanagementi nformati
    ont echnology.
    7.Capaci t
    iest ocoor dinateact iv
    iti
    es,dev el
    opl eadership,anddelegatetasksin
    worki
    ngwi thstaff,commi tt
    eesorcoal i
    ti
    ons.
    8.Abilit
    ytoov ercomest afforor ganizat
    ionalresi
    stancet otaskcompleti
    on.
    9.Abilit
    ytomoni t
    orandev al
    uateout comesanddet erminealter
    nat
    ivestrat
    egi
    es.
    10.Capacit
    yt ost r
    ategicall
    yutil
    izesel fandv ari
    etyofl eadershi
    pstyl
    est omobili
    ze
    ot
    hers.

    3.TheSoci
    alWel
    far
    eAgency

    The socialwelfar
    e agency i
    st he str
    uctured f
    ramework wit
    hin whi
    ch the
    admini
    strat
    ivet
    asksar ecarr
    iedout
    .Itisthei
    nstrumentofsoci
    etyestabl
    ishedt
    hrough
    gover
    nmentorv olunt
    aryeff
    ortst
    oachieveasoci
    al goal
    .

    PeterDruckerout l
    i
    neshow asoci alwel
    fareagencyinit
    ssi mplestfor
    m comes
    i
    nto beingwhen“ severalpeopleseeanunmetneed,wantt o meett hatneed,get
    communi t
    ypermi ssi
    ont omeett hatneedandacceptl egalr
    esponsibi
    l
    ityforseei
    ngthat
    theresour
    cessecur ed,ormadeav ail
    able,areusedforthespecifi
    cpur poseforwhich
    theyweregivenratherthanforsomeot herpurpose.

    Ty
    pesofsocial welf
    areagenci es:
    1.Gov er
    nment alorpubl i
    cagencieswhicharesuppor t
    edbyt axes.
    2.Priv
    ateorv oluntaryagenciessupportedbypr i
    vatecontr
    ibuti
    onsordonati
    onsor
    i
    ncomef rom services.Thesearepopularl
    yreferr
    edtoasNGOs( non-
    gover
    nment
    organizati
    ons).
    3.Semi -
    privat
    eorquasi -
    government
    alorganizati
    onsso-cal
    l
    edbecauset heyr
    ecei
    ve
    somesubsi dy,eitherincashorinkindfrom thegovernment.

    Charact
    eri
    sti
    csofpubl icagencies
    1.Theyar ecreat ed
     Byconst itutionalmandate
     Bylegislativeact
     Byexecut i
    v eorderofthePresi
    dentoft
    hePhi
    l
    ippi
    nes,pr
    esi
    dent
    ialdecr
    ee,or
    let
    terofi nstructi
    on.

    2.Theircreati
    on,functi
    ons,andprogramsar ecreatedbylawandcanbechanged
    onlybylaworexecut i
    veorderhencemayonl ybechangedormodi f
    iedbylawor
    executi
    veor der.
    3.Theiror ganizat
    ionalstr
    uctureis bur
    eaucrati
    c and l
    ess flexi
    blethan pri
    vat
    e
    agencies.
    4.Theymustconf orm to gover
    nmentpr oceduresespecial
    l
    yi naccounti
    ngand
    audit
    ingoff unds andpropert
    y.

    Char
    act
    eri
    sti
    csofPr
    ivat
    eAgenci
    es

    Pr
    ivat
    eWel
    far
    eagenci
    esar
    echar
    act
    eri
    zedbyt
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ng:

    1.Theyar eorganizedasar esponseofpr i


    v ateorgani
    zati
    onst omeett hepeopl
    e’
    s
    needsint hecommuni t
    y .
    2.Theymaybenat i
    onalchapt er
    sofi nt
    ernat i
    onalorganizationssuchast heRed
    Cross,YMCA, YWCA, etc.
    3.Theymayhav ebeenest abli
    shedbysect arianornon-sectarianorgani
    zati
    ons.
    4.Theyar egov erned byt heirownchar ters,consti
    tut
    ionand b y -l
    awsand by
    governi
    ngboar d.
    5.Theiror gani
    zationalst ructure does notf oll
    ow a bur eaucrat
    ic pat
    ter
    n,and

    340
    theref
    oret heyaremor ef l
    exibl
    einthei
    rpoli
    ciesandprogr
    ams,andcanrespond
    topeople’sneedsmor equickly
    .
    6.Privat
    eagenci escanpi oneerandhavedemonst r
    ati
    onproj
    ect
    swhichl
    atercanbe
    turnedov ertot hegov ernment.Thelatt
    ercanadoptt heprogr
    am onal arger
    scalewithmor er esour
    cesav ail
    abl
    e.

    Si
    ze

    Thesoci alwel fareagencymaybea smal lorganizat


    ion wit
    haf ew peopl
    e
    i
    nvol
    vedi nthepr ogram oracompl exsocialsyst
    em invol
    vingagr eatnumberorpeople.
    Foralargesoci alwelfarethepersonnelwoul dincl
    udeadmi nistr
    atorsatvar
    iouslevel
    s,
    member soft hedifferentrel
    atedpr of
    essions,andcleri
    cal,t
    echnicalandmanualst af
    f.
    TheDSWDi sagoodexampl eofal ar
    gesoci alwel
    fareagencywher ethestaffi
    smade
    upofadmi nistr
    ators,supervi
    sors,professi
    onals,t
    echnical
    ,cleri
    calandmanualwor kers
    aswellasvolunteersandpar aprofessi
    onals.

    Nat
    ureofsoci
    alwel
    far
    eagenci
    es

    Rosemar yC.Sar r
    iandRober tD.Vi ntersuggestt hatsoci alwelfar eagenci es
    “mustbev iewedasbot hasanadmi nistrati
    vebureaucraciesandassoci alsy st
    ems. ’
    Theyar eadmi ni
    strati
    vebur eaucraciesi nt hattheyar eestabli
    shedt oat tainspeci fi
    c
    goals,and t heirinternalst r
    uctures,t echnologi
    es and pr ocedures are desi gned to
    i
    mpl ementt hesegoal s.Anexampl ei st heSt andardOper ati
    ngpr ocedures( SOP)of
    agenciesmeantt ogui deagencywor ker sint heperformanceoft heirtaskst oserve
    part
    icularcli
    entgr oupsi naccordancewi thagencygoal s.Theyar esoci alsy stemst hat
    adapti
    v el
    yr espond t o ex t
    ernaland i nternalpressures,and t heygener atei nformal
    patt
    ernst hatmaybot hf aci
    li
    tat
    eandhampergoalat tai
    nment .Bei ngsoci alsy stems,
    soci
    al agenciesar esubj ecttopressuresf rom outsi
    deandwi thi
    ntheor ganizat i
    on.

    1.Poli
    ticalf actorsf ori nstance interfere with normaloper ati
    onsoft he public
    agenci esasi ntheappoi ntmentofst aff.
    2.Socio-cult
    ur alf actors such as “ Utang na l oob” ( debt of gr ati
    tude) and
    “Pakikisama” ( gett
    ing al ong wi th) of tenti
    mes char acteri
    zed t he infor
    mal
    rel
    ationshipst hatmaycont r
    avenet hef ormal t
    enetsorgani zati
    on.
    3.Theeconomi csi t
    uational soaffectsf undingandsuppor ttosoci alagenciesthat
    maycauset hecut ti
    ngdownand/ orel i
    minat i
    onofexistingpr ograms.
    4.Thepr of
    essi onalcultureinfl
    uencessoci alagenciesbyest abli
    shingstandardsof
    practicewhi char emandat edthroughl i
    censurerequirement sest abl
    ishedbylaw.
    R.A.4373hasmadeadi f
    ferenceint hest andardsofpr ofessionalstaff
    ingofbot h
    publi
    candpr iv
    ateagenci es.

    Ot
    hert
    ypesofSoci
    alAgenci
    es

    Ot
    hertypes ofsocialagencies maybe cr eated byf oundati
    ons setup by
    i
    ndivi
    dual
    s,busi
    ness corporati
    ons,r
    eli
    gious or
    ganizat
    ions,orev en univ
    ersi
    ti
    es.An
    exampleisthePBSP- Phi
    li
    ppineBusi
    nessf orSocialProgress,acor porat
    enon-profi
    t
    soci
    aldevel
    opmentfoundati
    oninthePhil
    i
    ppinesthatiscommi tt
    edt opovertyal
    l
    eviat
    ion
    andpeopl
    edevelopment.

    4.Soci
    alWor
    kandManagement

    Acrosst
    hecent
    uri
    es,l
    eadershav
    ebeenext
    oll
    edandleadershi
    put
    il
    izedt
    or eachgoal
    s
    andpromot
    eval
    ues.Morethan2,
    500y
    ear
    sago,Lao-
    tse,
    intheBookofTao,wrote:

    Aleaderisbest
    Whenpeopl ebarel
    yknowthatheexi sts….
    Butofagoodl eaderwhotal
    kslitt
    le
    Whenhiswor kisdone,hi
    saimf ulf
    il
    led,
    Theywill
    say ,
    “Wedi dt
    heseourselves.”

    341
    Thecur r
    entchal l
    engeinsocialwor ki
    stobl endt hepri
    ncipl
    esofmanagement
    eff
    ici
    encywi t
    hi nter
    estsi nhumanr el
    ati
    onstobr ingaboutt heef fect
    ivedel
    iveryof
    human services.Busi ness-or
    ient
    ed managementencompasses t he processes of
    pl
    anning,or
    ganizinganddi rect
    inginanattempttoincreaseandi mprovetheoperati
    ons
    andproductsofanor ganizati
    on.Insoci
    alwork,t
    hesesamepr ocessescanbeut i
    l
    izedto
    str
    engthenagencyoper ati
    ons.

    4.
    1.Admi
    nist
    rat
    ion’
    sroot
    sinmanagement

    KoontzandO’ donnelldefinemanagi ngast hecreati


    onofaninter
    nalenvir
    onment
    i
    nanent erpr
    isewher ei ndiv
    idualswor kingtogetheri
    ngroupscanper f
    orm ef
    fi
    cientl
    yand
    effecti
    velytowar dt he at t
    ainmentofgr oup goals.Managing couldthen be call
    ed
    “perfor
    mance env ironmentdesi gn.”Essenti
    all
    y managi ng i
    st he artofdoi ng and
    managementi sthebodyofor ganizedknowl edgewhichunderl
    inestheart
    .
    Inaddi ti
    on,theycl assi f
    yt hef i
    v emai nprocessesthatmakeup t headministrat
    ive
    met hod:
    1.Pl anning
    2.Or ganizing
    3.St affi
    ng
    4.Di recti
    ng
    5.Cont r
    oll
    ing

    Thesehav ebeengener al
    lyacceptedbymanager sandsocialworkersasbasic
    cl
    assi
    fi
    cati
    onsforstudyi
    ngandi mplementingthetotal
    admi
    nist
    rat
    iveprocess.
    Ther oot
    sofmanagementgobackal ongwayandinvol
    venumer ouswrit
    ersand
    l
    eader
    sandwewi lll
    ookintot
    heirbeginni
    ngconcept sofmanagement.Wewi l
    lhighl
    i
    ght
    afewofthepioneersi
    nthisfi
    eldandtheircontri
    buti
    ons:

    A.Char
    lesBabbagewhol
    i
    vedi
    ntheear
    lyni
    net
    eent
    hcent
    ury
    ,pi
    oneer
    edi
    nappl
    yi
    ng
    sci
    enti
    fi
    c methodol
    ogyt
    othe st
    udyand i
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    on ofpr
    oduct
    ion and
    admini
    str
    ati
    on.

    Ful
    mersummar
    izeshi
    scont
    ri
    but
    ionsas

    a)Fi
    rstt
    osuggestt hatv ar
    iouspartsoft het otaljobshouldbeassi gnedt oworker
    s
    onthebasisofwor kerskil
    ls.Di
    visionoflaborwasusef ulf
    orf ourreasons…
     Lear ni
    ngtimei sreducedbecauseonewor kermustlearnonl yoneskil
    l
     Lesst imeislostinchangi ngfrom oneski llt
    oanotherdur i
    ngpr oducti
    on.
     Wor kmen( workers)arel ikel
    yt odev eloppr of
    ici
    encybecauset heyare
    repeati
    ngthesameoper ationtimeaf terti
    me.
     Becauset hej obi sbrokendowni ntoitscomponentpar ts,specialt
    ool
    s
    andequipmentar elikel
    ytobedev eloped.

    b)Secondar eainwhichBabbagepi oneer edwaspr ovi


    dinggui del
    i
    nesbywhich
    managerscouldwei ghtherel
    ati
    vev aluesofmachi nepr ocessesver
    sushuman
    operat
    ions.Thenewestmachi neont hemar ketwasanaut omatedpinmaker.
    Babbageev al
    uated themachine’spr oductand costand gav ethefol
    lowi
    ng
    questi
    ons:
     Whatdef ect
    si sthemachi
    nepr oductl i
    abletohave?
     Whatadv antagesdoesthemachi neproductpossess?
     Whati stheprimecostofthemachi ne?
     Whati stheexpenseofkeepingt hemachi neinrepair?
     Whati stheexpenseofmov i
    ngandat t
    endingthemachi ne?

    CharlesBabbagehadami ssi
    ont omaket ediouscomputati
    onsandproduction
    easierforman.Today ,hi
    spioneeringtheori
    esareindailyuse.Consider
    eda"fatherof
    thecomput er"
    ,Babbageiscredi
    tedwi thinvent
    ingthefirstmechani
    calcomputerthat
    eventuall
    yledt omorecompl
    exdesi gns.

    342
    B.Fr
    eder
    ickW.Tayl
    or,t
    hef
    atherofsci
    ent
    if
    icmanagementof
    fer
    ednumer
    ous
    suggesti
    ons f
    or i
    mprovi
    ng effici
    ency and effect
    iveness.His st
    udies and
    recommendati
    onssuggest
    ed thatdi v
    isi
    on oflabor,piecewor
    kincenti
    veand
    caref
    uluseofti
    mecouldobtai
    nef f
    ici
    ency.Heusedthest opwat
    chtoassistwi
    th
    thi
    sattemptt
    obecomemor eproducti
    veandeffi
    cient
    .

    In1903,heproducedahandbook,“ ShopManagement ”publ


    ishedundert he
    auspices ofthe American Societ
    y ofMechani calEngineer
    s.His philosophy was
    i
    ndicatedbyt hedefi
    nit
    ionhepr esentedoft hear tofmanagement ,“
    Knowi ngexactl
    y
    whaty ouwantment odo, andthenseeingthattheydoi ti
    nthebestcheapestway ,
    ”.He
    al
    sosuggest ed“i
    tissafet osaythatnosy stem orschemeofmanagementshoul dbe
    consideredwhichdoesnoti nthel ongrungi vesat i
    sfact
    iontobothempl oyerand
    employ ee”
    .

    Tayloradv ocateddi v
    isionoflabor,get t
    ingawayf rom t he“singlegangboss” ,
    mili
    tar
    yt y
    pe of or ganization”,and mov ing towar d what he cal led “ Funct
    ional
    management ”
    .Thi smeantdi vidi
    ngt hewor ksot hateachman,f rom theassi stant
    superi
    ntendent,ondown, woul dhav eafewf uncti
    onsaspossi blesot hathecoul ddohi s
    workwel l
    .
    Taylor demonst rated t he practi
    cali
    ty of hi s philosophy and sy st
    em by
    experi
    ment i
    ngwi ththehandl i
    ngoft hepigironatt heBethlehem St eelCompanyar ound
    theturnoft henineteenthcent ury
    .Bysubst i
    tuti
    ngpi eceworkf ordaywor k,thewor kers
    wereablet oincreaset heirdailyearni
    ngsf r
    om $1.15t o$1. 88,andt heav eragecostf or
    handli
    ngat onofpi gironwasr educedf r
    om sevencent stothr eecents.

    C.Henr
    yFayol
    ,aFr
    enchmi
    ningengi
    neerwasadvocat
    ingnumer
    ouschangest
    o
    i
    mpr ovepr
    oducti
    oninhiscountr
    y .Hi
    sphil
    osophyandguidel
    i
    neswerepr
    esent
    ed
    i
    nabookpubl ishedin1916,“GeneralandIndust
    ri
    alManagement”i
    nwhichhe
    descri
    beandemphasizedthefol
    lowingpri
    nci
    plesofmanagement
    :

    14Pr
    inci
    plesofManagementdescr i
    bedbyHenr iFay ol
    .
    1.Divisi
    onofLabor
    a)Henr yFayolhasst r
    essedonthespeci ali
    zati
    onofjobs.
    b)Her ecommendedt hatworkofallkindsmustbedi vi
    ded&subdi videdand
    all
    ottedtovariouspersonsaccordi
    ngt ot hei
    rexpert
    iseinapar t
    icularar
    ea.
    c) Subdi v
    isi
    onofwor kmakesitsi
    mpl erandr esul
    tsineffi
    ciency
    .
    d)I t also helps t he indi
    vi
    duali n acqui ri
    ng speed,accur acy i n hi
    s
    performance.
    e) Speciali
    zati
    onl eadstoeff
    ici
    ency&economyi nspheresofbusiness.

    2.Par
    tyofAuthorit
    y&Responsi bi
    lit
    y
    a)Aut horit
    y&r esponsibili
    tyareco- exist
    ing.
    b)I fauthori
    tyisgiventoaper son, heshouldalsobemader esponsible.
    c) Inasameway ,ifanyonei smader esponsi
    bleforanyjob,heshoul dalso
    haveconcer nedauthor i
    ty.
    d)Aut horit
    yr eferstot her ightofsuper ior
    st ogetexact nessf rom their
    subordinates wher eas r esponsibil
    it
    y means obl igation f or t he
    performanceoft hejobassi gned.
    e) Thereshoul dbeabal ancebet weent hetwoi .e.t
    heymustgohandi n
    hand.
    f) Authorit
    ywi thoutresponsi bil
    ityleadst oir
    responsi
    blebehav iorwher eas
    responsibi
    lit
    ywithoutaut hor i
    tymakest hepersonineff
    ective.

    3.Pr
    incipl
    eofOneBoss( Unit
    yofCommand)
    a)Asubor di
    nateshouldreceiv
    eor der
    sandbeaccount
    abletooneandonl
    yone
    bossatat i
    me.
    b)Inot herwords,asubordinateshoul
    dnotrecei
    vei
    nst
    ructi
    onsfr
    om morethan
    onepersonbecause
    1.I tunder
    minesaut hori
    ty
    2.Weakensdi sci
    pli
    ne
    3.Di vi
    desloyalt
    y

    343
    4.Cr eatesconf usi
    on
    5.Del aysandchaos
    6.Escapi ngr esponsibi
    li
    ti
    es
    7.Dupl icat
    ionofwor k
    8.Ov er
    lappingofefforts
    c) Ther efore,dualsubor dinati
    on shoul
    d be avoi
    ded unless and unt
    ilitis
    absol utelyessent i
    al.
    d)Uni tyofcommandpr ovidestheenterpr
    iseadiscipl
    i
    ned,stable& order
    ly
    existence.
    e) Itcreateshar moniousrelati
    onshi
    pbetweensuperi
    orsandsubordi
    nates.

    4.Uni
    tyofDi r
    ecti
    on
    a)Fay oladv ocatesoneheadonepl anwhi chmeanst hatt
    her eshoul dbeone
    planforagr oupofact i
    viti
    eshav i
    ngsimil
    arobj ecti
    ves.
    b)Rel atedact i
    vit
    iesshouldbegr oupedtogether .Thereshouldbeonepl anof
    acti
    onf orthem andt heyshouldbeundert hechar geofapar ticularmanager.
    c) Accor di
    ngt ot hispri
    nciple,eff
    ortsofallthemember soft heor gani
    zati
    on
    shouldbedi rectedtowardscommongoal .
    d)Wi t
    houtunityofdi r
    ecti
    on,unityofacti
    oncannotbeachi eved.
    e) Infact,uni
    tyofcommandi snotpossibl
    ewi thoutunityofdirection.

    Basi
    s Uni
    tyofcommand Uni
    tyofdi
    rect
    ion

    Meani
    ng Itimpl i
    es t hat a subordi
    nat
    e Itmeansonehead,oneplanfor
    should receiv
    e or der
    s & a gr oup of activi
    ti
    es hav
    ing
    i
    nstruct
    ionsfrom onl
    yoneboss. simi
    larobj
    ect
    ives.

    Nat
    ure I
    tisrelat
    edt
    othef
    unct
    ioni
    ngof I
    tisrel
    atedtothefuncti
    oni
    ngof
    per
    sonnel
    . depar
    tments,oror
    ganizati
    onas
    awhole.

    Necessi
    ty I
    t i s necessary f or f i
    xi
    ng It is necessar
    y f
    or sound
    r
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tyofeachsubor
    dinate. or
    gani
    zat
    ion.

    Adv
    ant
    age Itavoi
    ds conf
    li
    cts,conf
    usi
    on & Itav
    oids dupl
    i
    cat i
    on ofeff
    ort
    s
    chaos. andwast
    ageofr esour
    ces.

    Resul
    t It leads to bet t
    er super
    ior Itl
    eadstosmoot
    hrunni
    ngoft
    he
    subordi
    nat
    erel
    ati
    onshi
    p. enter
    pri
    se.

    Theref
    oreiti
    sobviousthattheyaredi
    ffer
    entfrom eachot
    herbutt
    heyaredependenton
    eachotheri.
    e.uni
    tyofdirect
    ionisapre-r
    equisi
    teforuni
    tyofcommand.Butitdoesnot
    automati
    call
    ycomef r
    om theunit
    yofdirect
    ion.

    5.Equity
    a)Equi t
    ymeanscombi nati
    onoff airness,ki
    ndness&j usti
    ce.
    b)The empl oy eesshoul d be treated wi t
    h kindness& equi tyifdevoti
    on is
    expectedoft hem.
    c) Itimpli
    est hatmanager sshoul dbef ai
    randi mpar ti
    alwhi l
    edealingwit
    ht he
    subordinates.
    d)Theyshoul dgi vesimil
    art r
    eatmentt opeopl eofsimi l
    arpositi
    on.
    e) Theyshoul dnotdi scriminatewi t
    hr especttoage, caste,sex,rel
    i
    gion,
    relat
    ion
    etc.
    f) Equit
    yi sessent i
    alt o createand mai ntai
    n cordialr el
    ati
    onsbet ween the
    manager sandsubor dinate.
    g)Butequi t
    ydoesnotmeant ot
    al absenceofhar shness.
    h)Fay olwasofopi ni
    ont hat,“att imesf orceandhar shnessmi ghtbecome
    necessaryf orthesakeofequi ty ”
    .

    344
    6.Order
    a)Thi spr i
    ncipleisconcernedwithpr
    oper&sy st emati
    carrangementoft hi
    ngs
    andpeopl e.
    b)Ar r
    angementoft hingsiscal
    ledmateri
    alorderandpl acementofpeopl ei s
    cal
    ledsoci alorder.
    c) Mat er
    ialorder-Thereshouldbesaf
    e,appropriateandspecif
    icplaceforevery
    art
    icle and ev ery pl
    ace t
    o be ef
    fecti
    vely used forspecifi
    c acti
    vit
    y and
    commodi ty.
    d)Soci alorder -Selecti
    onandappointmentofmostsui t
    ableper sonont he
    sui
    tablej ob.Ther eshouldbeaspeci f
    icplacef oreveryoneandev ery
    one
    shouldhav easpeci f
    icpl
    acesothattheycaneasi lybecontactedwhenev er
    needar i
    ses.

    7.Di
    scipli
    ne
    a)Accor ding t
    o Fay ol,“ Di
    scipli
    ne means si nceri
    ty,obedience,respectof
    authori
    ty&observanceofr ulesandr egulat i
    onsoftheenterpri
    se”
    .
    b)Thi sprinci
    pleappliest hatsubor di
    nateshoul drespecttheirsuperi
    orsand
    obeytheiror
    der.
    c) Iti
    sani mport
    antrequisiteforsmoot hr unningoftheenterpri
    se.
    d)Di sci
    pli
    neisnotonl yrequir
    edonpat hofsubor di
    natesbutalsoont hepar
    tof
    management .
    e) Disci
    pli
    necanbeenf orcedif:
     Ther earegoodsuper iorsatalll
    ev els.
     Ther eareclear&f airagreement swi thworkers.
     Sanct i
    ons(puni shment s)arejudiciousl
    yapplied.

    8.Ini
    ti
    ative
    a)Wor kersshouldbeencour agedtotakeinitiat
    ivei
    nthewor kassignedtothem.
    b)I tmeanseager nesst oini
    ti
    ateacti
    onswi thoutbeingaskedtodoso.
    c) Fayoladv i
    sedthatmanagementshoul dpr ovideopport
    unitytoitsemployees
    tosuggestideas, exper
    iences&newmet hodofwor k.
    d)I thelpsindevelopinganatmospher eoftrustandunderstanding.
    e) Peopl ethenenjoywor kingintheor ganizati
    onbecausei taddst othei
    rzeal
    andener gy.
    f) Tosuggesti mpr ovementinformulati
    on&i mplement
    ationofplace.
    g)They can be encour aged witht he hel p ofmonet ary & non-monet ar
    y
    incenti
    ves.

    9.Fai
    rRemuner ation
    a)Thequant um andmet hodofr emuner ationt obepai dtothewor kersshould
    bef air
    ,reasonabl e,sati
    sfactory&r ewardingoft heeff
    ort
    s.
    b)Asf araspossi bleitshouldaccor dsat isfactiontobothempl oyerandt he
    empl oyees.
    c) Wagesshoul dbedet erminedont hebasi sofcostofl ivi
    ng,workassi gned,
    fi
    nanci alposi t
    ionofthebusi ness,wager atepr evai
    l
    ingetc.
    d)Logi cal& appr opri
    atewager at
    esandmet hodsoft hei
    rpay mentr educe
    tension&di ff
    erencesbet weenwor kers&managementcr eat
    eshar monious
    rel
    at i
    onshi pandpl easingatmospher eofwor k.
    e) Fayolal sor ecommendedpr ovisi
    onofot herbenef i
    tssuchasf reeeducat i
    on,
    medi cal &r esi
    dentialf
    acil
    iti
    est owor kers.

    10.St
    abi l
    i
    tyofTenur e
    a)Fay olemphasi zedthatempl oyeesshouldnotbemov edfrequentl
    yf rom one
    j
    obposi ti
    ontoanotheri.e.t
    heper i
    odofservi
    ceinajobshouldbef ixed.
    b)Ther eforeemploy
    eesshoul dbeappoi ntedaft
    erkeepinginv i
    ewpr incipl
    esof
    recruit
    ment&sel ecti
    onbutoncet heyareappointedthei
    rservicesshoul dbe
    served.
    c) Accor dingtoFayol.“Timeisr equi
    redforanempl oyeetogetusedt oanew
    wor k&succeedt odoi ngitwellbutifheisr
    emov edbeforethathewi l
    lnotbe
    ablet orenderwort
    hwhi l
    eser v
    ices”.

    345
    d)Asar esul
    t,thet
    ime,eff
    ortandmoneyspentontr
    ainingt
    hewor kerwi
    l
    lgoto
    waste.
    e) St
    abili
    tyofj obcreat
    est eam spi
    ri
    tandasenseofbel ongi
    ngnessamong
    workerswhichul
    timatel
    yincr
    easethequal
    i
    tyaswellasquanti
    tyofwor
    k.

    11.Scal
    arChai n
    a)Fay oldef i
    nesscal archain as“ Thechain ofsuper i
    orsranging fr
    om t he
    ult
    imat eauthor i
    tytothel
    owest”.
    b)Ev er yorders,instr
    ucti
    ons,messages,requests,expl
    anati
    onet c.hastopass
    throughScal archain.
    c) But,f orthesakeofconv eni
    ence&ur gency
    ,thispathcanbecutshor tand
    thi
    sshor tcutisknownasGangPl ank.
    d)A GangPl anki sat emporar
    yar rangementbet weentwodifferentpointsto
    facili
    tat
    equi ck&easycommuni cati
    onasexplainedbelow:

    I
    nt hefi
    gur egiven,ifD hast o communi cat
    ewi t
    h G hewillf
    ir
    stsend t
    he
    communicati
    onupwar dswiththehelpofC, BtoAandt hendownwardswit
    hthehel
    pof
    EandFt oG whichwi l
    ltakequit
    esomet i
    meandbyt hatti
    me,itmaynotbewor t
    h
    ther
    efor
    eagangpl ankhasbeendev el
    opedbet weenthetwo.

    e) GangPl ankclar
    if
    iest
    hatmanagementpr
    inci
    plesar
    enotr
    igi
    drathert
    heyare
    veryf
    lexibl
    e.Theycanbemouldedandmodi f
    iedaspert
    herequir
    ementsof
    sit
    uat
    ions

    12.SubordinationofI ndividual I
    nteresttoGeneralInterest
    a)Anor gani zationismuchbi ggerthant hei ndivi
    dualitconstitutestheref
    ore
    i
    nterestoft heunder takingshoul dprevai
    linal l
    circumstances.
    b)Asf araspossi ble,r econcil
    iati
    onshoul dbeachi evedbetweeni ndiv
    idualand
    groupi nterests.
    c) Butincaseofconf l
    ict,i
    ndividualmustsacrificeforbiggerint
    erests.
    d)Inor dert oachi evet hisatti
    tude,iti
    sessential t
    hat
     Empl oyeesshoul dbehonest&si ncere.
     Pr oper&r egularsuper vi
    sionofwor k.
     Reconci li
    ati
    onofmut ualdi f
    fer
    encesandcl ashesbymut ualagr eement.
    Forexampl e,forchangeofl ocationofpl ant,forchangeofpr of
    itshari
    ng
    ratio,etc.

    13.Espri
    tDe’ Corps( canbeachi evedt hr
    oughuni tyofcommand)
    a)Itr eferst ot eam spi ri
    ti.e.har mony i nt he wor
    k groups and mutual
    understandi ngamongt hemember s.
    b)Spi r
    itDe’ Cor psi nspireswor kerstowor kharder.
    c) Fayolcaut ionedt hemanager sagai nstdi
    vi
    dingtheemployeesint
    ocompeting
    groupsbecausei tmi ghtdamaget hemor al
    eoft heworkersandint
    erestof
    theunder takingi nt helongr un.
    d)Toi nculcat eEspr itDe’Corpsf oll
    owi ngst
    epsshouldbeundertaken
     Ther eshoul dbepr operco-ordinati
    onofwor katal
    ll
    evels

    346
     Subor dinatesshoul dbeencour agedt odev elopinformalrelat
    ionsamong
    themsel v es.
     Ef fort
    sshoul d be made t o create enthusiasm and keennessamong
    subor di
    nat essot hattheycanwor ktothemaxi mum abi l
    it
    y.
     Ef fi
    cientempl oyeesshouldber ewar dedandt hosewhoar enotupt othe
    mar kshoul dbegivenachancet oi mprovetheirperfor
    mance.
     Subor dinatesshoul dbemadeconsci ousoft hatwhat ev
    ert heyar edoi
    ng
    i
    sofgr eati mportancetothebusi ness&soci ety.
    e) Heal socaut i
    onedagai nstthemor euseofBr it
    aincommuni cationtothe
    subor dinatesi .
    e.facet of acecommuni cati
    on shoul d bedev eloped.The
    manager sshoul dinfuset eam spirit&bel ongingness.Thereshoul dbeno
    placef ormi sunderstanding.Peoplet henenjoywor kingintheor ganizat
    ion&
    offertheirbestt owardstheor gani
    zation.

    14.Central
    ization&De- Cent rali
    zati
    on
    a)Cent r
    alizationmeansconcent rati
    onofaut horit
    yatt het opl evel.Inot her
    words, cent rali
    zationi sasituat i
    oninwhi cht opmanagementr etainsmostof
    thedeci sionmaki ngaut horit
    y.
    b)Decent rali
    zat i
    onmeansdi sposalofdeci sionmaki ngauthorit
    yt oallthelevels
    of the or ganization.I n ot her wor ds,shar i
    ng authori
    ty downwar ds i s
    decent ral
    ization.
    c) Accor dingt oFay ol ,“Degr eeofcent rali
    zationordecent r
    ali
    zationdependson
    no.off actorsl i
    kesi zeofbusi ness,exper ienceofsuper i
    ors,dependabi li
    ty&
    abil
    ityofsubor dinat eset c.
    d)Any thing whi ch incr eases the r ole ofsubor dinat
    ei s decent r
    alizat
    ion &
    anythingwhi chdecr easesi tiscent r
    al i
    zati
    on.
    e) Fayolsuggest ed t hatabsol ute cent ral
    ization ordecent r
    alizat
    ion is not
    feasible.Anor ganizat ionshoul dst r
    ikeabal ancetoachieveal otbetweent he
    two.

    Fayolmai
    ntai
    nsstr
    ongconv i
    cti
    onsabouttheimport
    anceofhi
    spri
    ncipl
    eof
    managementand cl
    aimed hi
    s code isindi e.“
    spensabl BE ITIN THE CASE OF
    COMMERCE, POLI TICS, RELI
    GION, ETC. IN EVERY CONCERN, THERE I S A
    MANAGEMENTFUNCTI ONTOBEPERFORMED,ANDFORI TSPERFORMANCETHERE
    MUST BEPRI NCIPLES,THAT IS TO SAY ACKNOWLEDGED TRUTHS REGARDED AS
    PROVENONWHI CHTORELY.Andi ti
    sthecodewhi
    chrepr
    esent
    sthesum t
    otaloft
    hese
    tr
    uthsatanygi
    venmoment .
    ”

    D.HenryL.Gant
    t,acont
    empor
    aryofTay
    lor
    ,wasoneoft
    hefi
    rstper
    sonst
    opioneer
    i
    nt he “
    Humanizi
    ngoftheScienceofmanagement
    ”.Heopposeddict
    atori
    al
    decisions and aut ocr ati
    c domi nati
    on,and stated thatknowl edge ofhuman
    acti
    v i
    tieswasessent ialforef fecti
    v emanagement .In1910,hepubl i
    shedabook
    “Wor k,Wages and Pr ofit”in whi ch he presented practi
    cali deas about
    management ,incl
    udingappl icati
    onoft hescienti
    fi
    c met hodt olaborpr obl
    ems,
    uti
    li
    zat ionofl abor
    ,adv antagesanddi sadvant
    agesofdaywor kandpi ecewor k,
    andr ewar dsf orbothsuper vi
    sorsandwor kers.In1916,hewr oteI ndustr
    ial
    Leader ship,inwhichhest ressedhi sideasaboutt heimpor t
    anceoft hehuman
    el
    ement sandact i
    vi
    ti
    esi npr oduction.Hesuggestedt hefamouschar tt hatbears
    hi
    sname,t heGANTTCHART,at i
    mechar tthathelpwithef f
    ectivepr oducti
    on.
    Accor
    dingtoGanttt
    heory,
    aGanttchar
    tisabarchar
    tshowi
    ngt
    hepr
    ogr
    essi
    onof
    ti
    methroughthephasesofapr
    oject

    E. FRANKGI
    LBRETHi
    ntheear
    lydecadesoft
    het
    went
    iet
    hcent
    ury
    ,madesi
    gni
    fi
    cant
    contri
    buti
    ons tothe impr ovementofsci ent
    if
    ic management .He conduct ed
    mot i
    onstudiestoascert
    aint hei
    mpor t
    anceofv ari
    ouschar acter
    isti
    csofwor kers
    andoft hevari
    ousmov ement stheyperformed.Heendeav ouredt ofi
    ndthemost
    eff
    ici
    entandef f
    ecti
    vepatternsinproductionandformulatedsetsofr ul
    estohel p
    bri
    ng about i mpr
    ov ements.He suggest ed thi
    rty
    -four “GeneralRul es” for
    i
    mpr ovi
    ngproducti
    onandmanagement ,incl
    udi
    ngthef ol
    lowing:

    347
    1.Addr essal lcommuni cationst oFrankGi l
    brethandnott oanyot hername.
    2.Est imat esar enott obegi venbyany one,atanyt imewi thoutfi
    rstconsultingthe
    offi
    ce.
    3.Consul tof fi
    ceabouti temizingwor kman’ scost ssot hatcostmaybecompar ed
    withsimi larjobsandwi t
    hourest imatebook.
    4.Whenmenar ewant edaskt heof fi
    ce.
    5.Donotbot hertheoffi
    ceunnecessar y.
    6.Uni onl abour ersaretobegi venpreferenceatal ltimes, butnononsensei st obe
    takenbyt hem.
    7.Bl ow onebl astofwhi stl
    eat5mi nut esbef orest arti
    ngt ime.Twobl astsat
    starti
    ngt ime.
    8.Onebl astatqui t
    ti
    ngtime.Bl astsofwhi stlet
    obenotov erfoursecondsl ong.
    9.Al lmenar eexpect edt oqui twor katqui tt
    ingt i
    measpr ompt lyast heybegan
    wor k.
    10.Nosmoki ngi sall
    owedont hewor kexceptt of i
    nishnoon- smoke–notov erone
    halfhourandnor efi
    ll
    ingofpi pes.
    Frank and Li li
    an Gi l
    breth, husband and wi f e, made v arious addi t
    ional
    contr
    ibuti
    onst ot hefiel
    dsofsci entifi
    cmanagementandper sonnelmanagement .They
    gai
    nedr ecognitionasef f
    ici
    encyex per t
    s,inparticul
    arthrought hepopul arbookCheaper
    bytheDozen, whi chappearedi n1948andwaswr it
    tenbyt wooft heGilbrethchil
    dren.

    F.El
    tonMay
    o–r
    egar
    dedast
    heFat
    herofhumanRel
    ati
    ons.

    ELTONMAYO'
    SHAWTHORNEEXPERI
    MENTS

    Whatcauseswor kersto bemor epr oducti


    ve?Resear chershav easked t his
    quest i
    onforyears.I
    nfact, pi
    oneeringworkbegani nthe1920sasanat t
    empttodi scov er
    way stoincreaseproducti
    onef fi
    ciency–andt henledbotht othef oundingofthehuman
    relati
    onsschoolofmanagement ,andt othedev el
    opmentofmanyoft hemotivati
    onal
    toolsthatareusedtoday .
    Att hecenterofthi
    swor kwasEl tonMay o,aHar var
    dresearcher.Hel ookedatther esults
    ofear lymot i
    vat
    ionexper imentsandconcl udedt hatpsychologicalandsoci alfactor s
    playedalargerrolei
    npr oducti
    vit
    yt hanphysi
    cal el
    ements.

    Exper
    iment
    satHawt
    hor
    ne

    In1927,r esearchersweret ryingtodet ermi


    net heopt i
    malamountofl i
    ghting,
    temper atur
    e,andhumi dit
    yforassembl i
    ngelectroni
    ccomponent satWest ernElectr
    ic'
    s
    Hawt horne plant.The r esult
    s showed t hatlight
    ing had no consistenteffecton
    production.Resear cherswer efrustrated to di
    scoverthatincreasi
    ng li
    ghtincreased
    output,butr educinglightalsoincreasedout put.Thecommonf act
    or,i
    tseemed,was
    thatsomet hingint hewor kenv i
    ronmentwaschanged,andt hatposit
    iveeff
    ectswer e
    thenobser ved.

    Aft
    erthoroughlyexaminingt heresult
    s,EltonMayoandhi sf ell
    ow researchers
    determinedthatwor kersweren'trespondingt othechangeinlightingcondi t
    ions,but
    i
    nsteadwer ereactingtothef actthattheywer ebeingobserv
    edbyt heexper i
    ment er
    s.
    Thisphenomenonbecameknownast heHawt hor
    neeffect
    .Thewor kers'
    awar enessthat
    researcher
    swer emeasur i
    ngtheirproducti
    vit
    ywassuf f
    ici
    entt
    oincreasepr oductiv
    ity
    .

    Thi
    sideaissi
    milari
    nphil
    osophyt
    othePy
    gmal
    i
    onef
    fect
    ,whi
    chst
    atest
    hathi
    gh
    expect
    ati
    onsleadtohi
    ghoutcomes.

    The ident
    if
    icati
    on oft he Hawthorne effectl ed t ot he r
    ecogni
    ti
    on oft he
    i
    mportanceofpsy chologicalandsocialfactorsatwor k.Furtherexper
    imentsoverthe
    nextf
    iveyearsrevealedthathumanf actorsplayedal argerol
    ei nworkpl
    acemotivat
    ion
    andproducti
    vit
    y.Researchersmanipulatedfactorslikebr eakt
    imes,pay,andthet
    y peof
    super
    visi
    on.Eachtime,theyfoundincreasesinout put.

    348
    Thr ough t he t estr esults and i nter vi
    ews wi tht he wor ker si nvolv ed int he
    experiment s,r esear cher sdi scov eredt heef fectsonpr oduct ivi
    tyofwor kerat ti
    tudes,the
    peergr oup,andot hersoci alf orces,aswel lsuper visoryst yle.Inter estingly,andcont r
    ary
    to popul ar beli
    ef, the resear cher s concl
    uded
    htt
    ps://www. mindt ools.com/ pages/ ar t
    icle/newTMM_ May o.htm) t hat wor ker s wer e
    mot i
    vatedbypsy chol ogicalcondi tionsmor ethanphy sicalwor kingcondi tion.Heal so
    concludedt hatwor kerswer emot ivatedbymor et hansel fi nter estandi nsteadt he
    fol
    lowingappl i
    ed:
    1.Ther ei sanunwr i
    ttenunder standi ngbet weent hewor kerandempl oyerr egarding
    whati sexpect edf rom t hem; May ocal l
    edt histhepsy chol ogi cal contract.
    2.Awor ker’smot ivationcanbei ncreasedbyshowi ngani nt erestint hem.May o
    classi f
    iedst udyingt hewor kers( t
    hrought heexper iment s)asshowi ngani nt
    erest
    inthewor ker s.
    3.Wor ki sagr oupact i
    vit
    y ,t eam wor kcani ncreaseawor ker ’
    smot ivationasi t
    all
    owspeopl et of orm st rongwor kingr elationshipsandi ncr easest r
    ustbet ween
    thewor kers.Wor kgr oupsar ecr eat edf or mallybyt heempl oyerbutal sooccur
    informal l
    y.Bot hi nformaland f or malgr oups shoul d be used t oi ncrease
    product i
    vityasi nf ormal gr oupsi nfluencet hewor ker’shabi tsandat t
    itudes.
    4.Wor kersar emot ivatedbyt hesoci alaspectofwor k,asdemonst ratedbyt he
    femal ewor kerssoci al i
    singdur i
    ngandout si
    dewor kandt hesubsequenti ncrease
    inmot ivation.
    5.Wor kersar emot i
    vatedbyr ecogni t
    ion, secur it
    yandasenseofbel onging.
    6.The communi cation bet ween wor ker s and managementi nfluences wor kers’
    mor ale and pr oduct ivi
    ty.Wor kers ar e mot ivated t hr ough a good wor king
    relationshi pwi thmanagement .

    G.Dougl
    asMcgr
    egor
    ’sTheor
    yXandY

    Anotherimportantcontributorinshapingourconcept i
    onofman’ sbehav i
    ouri n
    anor ganizati
    onwasDougl asMcGr egor.InhisTheHumanSi deofEnt erprise( 1957) ,he
    describedt wot ypesofmanager shol dingoppositeassumpt i
    onsaboutman.Onei s
    Theor yXmanagerwhov i
    ewst heav eragemanasbasi cal l
    ylazy;whoav oidswor kif
    possible,isselfi
    sh,anddi shonestandcannotbet r
    ustedorr el
    iedupont ocar ryon
    responsibil
    iti
    es.Theor
    yXt hereforeexer ci
    sestightcontrolifhismen,dr ivingt hem t o
    workbyt hreatsofbei
    ngpenal ized( e.
    g.,salar
    ydeduction,terminati
    onofser vices)and
    acti
    ngi nbossyandaut ocrat
    icmanner .Theor yX describesthewor kingsi t
    uationi n
    whichl eadersareauthorit
    ativ
    e,aut ocraticandmai nt
    aincl osecontrol.Wor kerspl aya
    minorr oleindeci
    sion-
    maki ng.

    Theor yYont heot herhand,i st hereverseofTheor yX.I tbeli


    evest hatmani s
    basical
    l
    ypossessi ngsel f
    -direct
    ionandsel f
    -control;canbet rustedandr el
    iedupon,and
    i
    sseekingr esponsi bil
    it
    yandsel f-
    ful
    fil
    ment .Theor yYmanageri spermissive,supportive
    and encour ages i ndependent -
    mi ndedness,i ndividualdev elopmentand expr ession,
    all
    owingsubor dinatestof indf ul
    fil
    menti nt heirwor koft heset womanager si s.The
    pict
    urethatonecani maginei sthatoft hetheoryXmanagerhol di
    ngthepr overbi
    alstick
    (symboli
    zingt hreat)andt heoryYmanager ,t
    hecar rot(symbol i
    zingencouragement ),
    the
    purposeofbot hbei ngthesame,andt hatis,t omaket hesubj ect
    ,“horse”representi
    ng
    manpower ,orwor kfor
    ce,mov etowardsadesi r
    eddi rect
    ion.

    COMPARI
    SONOFMCGREGOR’
    STHEORYXANDTHEORYY

    THEORYX THEORYY
    1.Thet ypi
    calmanhasnat uraldi
    sli
    keof 1.Wor
    kisasnat
    ural
    aspl
    ayorr
    est
    .
    workandwi l
    lavoi
    ditifhecan.
    2.Mostpeopl e,theref
    ore need to be 2.Cont
    rolandpunishmentar
    enottheonl
    y
    coerced, cont r
    oll
    ed, di rect
    ed, and way to bri
    ng abouteffor
    tt owar
    ds t
    he
    thr
    eatenedwithpuni
    shmentt ogetthem t
    o companygoals.
    work.

    349
    3.The av erage person pr efer
    st o be 3.Peopl ear enotbynat urel azy– i tis
    dir
    ected,av oids r
    esponsibil
    i
    t y
    ,has lit
    tl
    e exper i
    encet hatt aughtt hem t obecomeso.
    ambition,
    andwant ssecur i
    tyaboveall
    . 4.Peopl eexer ci
    sesel f
    -di
    rect i
    onandsel f-
    controlt oachi evet heobject ivest owhi ch
    theyar ecommi tted;commi tmenthast odo
    with r ewar ds associ at
    ed wi th t hei
    r
    achiev ement .
    5.Theav erageper son l
    ear ns,gi ven the
    ri
    ghtcondi ti
    ons,notonl ytoacceptbutt o
    seekr esponsi bi l
    ity;theycanappl ytowor k
    thei
    ri magi nationi ngenuity
    , andcr eativi
    ty.
    4.Dependence, dominati
    onandcont r
    ol 4. I ndependence, f reedom and
    permi ssiveness
    5.Aut hori
    tari
    an,autocrati
    c.To t hr
    eaten, 5. Per missive,democr atic. To pr ov i
    de
    contr
    ol and mani pulate empl oyees env ironment f or r el
    easing empl oyee
    towardscompanygoal s potent i
    als so t hat i ndi vidual and
    organizat i
    onal goal sbecomecompat i
    ble.

    Inrecentyears,Theor
    yZhasbeenproposedal
    ongwi
    tht
    heot
    herappr
    oaches
    t
    hatsuggestamiddlegroundbet
    weent
    heor
    iesXandY.

    H. Wi
    ll
    iam Ouchi
    ’
    sTheor
    yZ

    Wil
    li
    am G.Ouchioft heUniversi
    tyofCal if
    orni
    aLosAngel espubl i
    shedthebook
    “TheoryZ( 1981) ”
    .I twast her esul
    tofhisext ensivest udyoft hemaj orcorpor
    ationsin
    Japanandt heUni tedSt ates.Hewast ryi
    ngt opi ecet ogetherwhatmadeJapanese
    producti
    vitythehi ghesti nt heworld,andwhatgener ali
    zationscanbemadef rom the
    Japaneseexper ienceandt hoseoft hesuccessf ulcorporationsinAmer ica.Hewasabl e
    toisolat
    eandcat egorizeonecl assoforganizationsasTy peZor ganizati
    ons,i
    ncont r
    ast
    withthetradi
    tional bureaucrati
    candhi er
    archicaltypeAor ganizat
    ions.

    TypeZcompani espr acti


    cetheoryZ.Theor yZisanappr oacht omanagement
    wheret he key to increased pr oducti
    vit
    yi s parti
    cipati
    on,inter
    dependence and
    i
    nv ol
    vementofallmember soft heor gani
    zation.I
    tisfoundedont rust,subt
    let
    yofthe
    supervi
    sorto know hi
    speopl e;and inti
    macyt hroughcl osesocialrel
    ati
    onsamong
    member softhecompany .Accor di
    ngt oOuchi,someoft hecharacter
    isti
    csofTheor
    yZ
    organi
    zati
    onsare:

    1.Thecompanyconsi stsofasetofmanager swhoseecl earl


    yt hatthei
    rcapacit
    yto
    achievecl osecooper at
    iondependsi npartont heirarguingonacent r
    alsetof
    objectives andway sofdoi ngbusiness.
    2. Abroadst at
    ementt hatcontempl at estheproperrelati
    onshipoft hebusinessto
    it
    sempl oyees, i
    tsowner s,
    itscust omer sandtot hepubl i
    cat-l
    arge.
    3.Thef reedom ofauni tmanagert osetgoal sandpur suethem t othei
    rconclusi
    on
    ischer i
    shed.
    4.Decision-maki ngprocessist ypicallyaconsensual ,
    par t
    ici
    pati
    v eact.
    5.Providesfort hebroaddi ssemi nationofi nf
    ormationandv alueswi thi
    nthe
    organizati
    on( Ouchi 1981).

    I
    . Pet
    erDr
    ucker
    ’sManagementbyObj
    ect
    ives(
    MBO)

    PeterDr uckerfi
    rstusedManagementbyObj ectiv
    es( MBO)i nhi
    spr acti
    ceof
    management ,i n1954,andsi ncewasadoptedbyot hermanagementt heori
    stsand
    admini
    strators.Theuseofthissyst
    em wit
    hsomemodi f
    icati
    ons,hasgai
    nedmoment um,
    bothingov ernmentalagenci
    es,andinthepr
    ivat
    esector.Odior
    ne,whohasi nter
    preted
    andpopul ari
    zedMBO,descr ibesthebasi
    cpremisesofManagementbyObj ecti
    vesas
    fol
    l
    ows:

    350
    1.Businessmanagementt akespl acewi thintheeconomi csy stem t hatpr ov i
    desthe
    env i
    ronment alsi tuation f ort hei ndi vidualf i
    rm.Thi senv i
    ronment ,whi ch has
    changed dr asticallyov ert he past30 y ear s,i mposes new r equirement s on
    compani esandoni ndividual manager s.
    2.ManagementbyObj ectiv esi sawayofmanagi ngai medatmeet ingt hesenew
    requirement s.Itpr esumest hatt hef i
    r ststepi nmanagementi stoi dentify,byone
    means oranot her ,t he goal s oft he or gani zat i
    ons.Al lot hermanagement
    met hodsandsubsy stemsf ollowt hispr eli
    mi nar yst ep.
    3.Once or gani zational goal s hav e been i dent i
    fied,or derly pr ocedur es for
    distr
    ibut i
    ngr esponsi bili
    tiesamongi ndi vi
    dualmanager sar esetupi nsuchaway
    thatthei rcombi nedef for tsar edi r ect edt owar dachi ev i
    ngt hosegoal s.
    4.Management by obj ect i
    v es assumes t hat manager ialbehav iour i s more
    i
    mpor tantt hanmanagerper sonal it
    y ,andt hatt hisbehav i
    ourshoul dbedef i
    nedin
    termsofr esul tsmeasur edagai nstest ablishedgoal s,rathert hani nt ermsof
    commongoal sf oral lmanager s,orcommonmet hodsofmanagi ng.
    5.Italsopr esumest hatwhi lepar ticipat ioni shi ghlydesi r
    abl eingoalset ti
    ngand
    decision- maki ng.I tspr inci palmer itl iesini tssoci alandpol it
    icalv aluesr at
    her
    thani nitsef fect sonpr oduct i
    on, t houghev enher ei tmayhav efav ourabl eimpact,
    andi nanycasesel dom hur ts.
    6.Itregar dst hesuccessf ulmanagerasamanagerofsi tuation,mostofwhi chare
    bestdef inedbyi dent ifyingt hepur poseoft heor ganizationandt hemanager ial
    behav iourbestcal culat edt oachi ev et hatpur pose.

    J.Her
    zber
    g’st
    wo-f
    act
    ort
    heor
    y

    Freder i
    ckHer zber gpr oposedanot heranI ndust r
    ialPsy chol ogicalTheor y–t he
    mot i
    vation-hygienet heor y.Thet heorywaspr esentedi n1959i nTheMot ivat
    iont owor k
    andwasf urtherdev el opedi nWor kandNat ureofMan,publ i
    shedi n1966.Her zber g,
    afterdoi ng studi esr egar ding j ob sat i
    sfact i
    on and di ssati
    sfact ion on empl oy eesi n
    numer ouswor kset tings,cl aimed t hatmanyoft he t r
    aditi
    onal lyr evered fact or si n
    wor kingsy stem suchassal ar i
    esandf ri
    ngebenef its-ar enotnear lyasi mpor t
    anti n
    relati
    ont omot i
    vationandpr oduct ionashasbeent hought . Heconcl udedt hatt he
    followingf actorscoul dl eadt oj obsat i
    sf acti
    on:companypol icyandadmi nistration,
    super vision,interper sonalr elations,wor kingcondi tions,sal ary,st atus,andsecur ity.On
    the ot herhand,j ob sat isfact i
    on and concomi t
    antmot i
    vation r elate especi al l
    yt o
    oppor tuni t
    iesf orachi evement ,recogni t
    ionf orachi ev ement ,wor ki t
    self,responsi bil
    ity,
    adv ancementandgr owt h.Hesuggest edt hatt hehy gienef actor snecessar ytopr ev ent
    discont entwi t
    haj ob;butt hesecondgr oupf act
    or s,whi chpr ov i
    def orpsy chol ogical
    growt har epar ticularlysi gnifi
    cantf ormot ivationandef fecti
    vepr oduct ion.

    Phil
    osophi
    call
    y,the basic posi
    ti
    on ofsoci alwork admi
    nistrati
    on i
    st hat–
    pri
    nci
    plesofmanagement ,eff
    ici
    ency,andeffect
    ivenessshouldbeut i
    l
    izedbutmust
    rel
    atetoaf ramework based on sound human r el
    ati
    ons.The “human”f actori
    n
    admini
    strat
    ionisofpart
    icul
    arconcerntosoci
    alwork.

    K.Masl
    ow’
    sHi
    erar
    chyofNeedTheor
    y

    Humanar eorganismst hatseekandpur suet hesati


    sfact
    ionoft hei
    rneeds.
    According t
    o Maslow,t hese needs are pr
    esentin a per
    son butv ar
    yi nintensi
    ty,
    dependingont heci
    rcumstances.Ingeneral
    ,onepr
    ogressesfr
    om onedomi nantneedto
    theotherfol
    lowingt
    hissuccession:

    1.Fir
    stl evel:Physiological.Thiscompr isessurvi
    valneedsforfood,dr i
    nk,sleep,
    mov ement ,ai
    r,warmt h,li
    ghtandt helike.Thisseti
    sbasictosust ai
    nhumanl i
    fe.
    Althought hisisdomi nantamongi nfants,t
    hereareinst
    ancesi nt headultlif
    e
    wher ethephy si
    ologicalneedsst andoutast hetoppri
    ori
    ty,
    e.g.whenonemi ssed
    oneormor emeal s,theur get oeatcanbecomet hemostpr essi
    ngconcer ns
    wher ever.Peopletendt orespondi mmedi atel
    ytopsychol
    ogicalneedbutonce
    thesear esati
    sfi
    edt oacer t
    ainextent,
    theyattendandseektosat i
    sfyotherneeds.

    351
    2.Secondl ev el
    :Saf etyandsecur i
    t y.Hav ingadequat elyprov i
    dedf orthef i
    rstl ev el
    needs, peopl ewoul dl iket ohav eanassur ancet hatt hisadequacywoul dcont inue,
    i
    fpossi blef oral ongt ime.Thuspeopl e,bui ldt heirhouseswi thst rongand
    durabl emat eri
    als.Thei rof f
    iceshav edev i
    cesandmeanst opr otectempl oyees
    from f i
    r e, acci
    dent s, cal ami t
    ies, thieves, poll
    ut i
    on, etc.Theyopenbankaccount s.
    Theyand/ ortheircompanypayf orinsur ance.Theyl ookf orwar df orr eti
    rement
    benef i
    t s.Al ltheser eflectpeopl e’sconcer nf orpr otect i
    onf r
    om possi blephy sical
    harm andeconomi cdi fficul t
    y .
    3.Thirdl ev el:social.Thi sr eferst oasetofneedst hatcausespeopl et oseekf rom
    otherpeopl eaf fil
    iation,compani onshi p,camar ader ie,orpl ainconv ersation,f or
    them t of eelt hattheybel ongandar epar tofagr ouport hatt heyar eneededbya
    group,company ,ori ndiv idual .Thi sneedmaybeanswer edf ull
    yout sideoft he
    organi zat ion,butconsi der ingt hatabogchi nkofaman’ swaki nghouri sspentat
    wor k,andwor kent ai l
    si nt eract i
    ngwi t
    hpeopl e,thisneedf i
    ndsansweral so,and
    somet imesmor esi gni ficant ly,int hewor kset ti
    ng.
    4.Four t
    hl ev el.Esteem.Ther ei saneedofaper sont obel ieveandf eelwi thin
    onesel ft hatot herswhoar ecr edi bleandr espect edbyt hatper son,l i
    kewi se,
    conf i
    rm suchv alueofonesel f
    .A wor kerf eelst hatwhat ev erhiswor ki s,hi s
    respectand di gnit ymustbe uphel d.Hi s aspi r
    ation and capabi l
    iti
    es as an
    i
    ndi vi
    dual must be r ecogni zed. Thi s need encompasses t he need f or
    i
    ndependence, self-conf idence, reput ati
    onandappr eciati
    on.
    5.Fift
    hl ev el.Sel f
    -act ual i
    zat i
    on.Ther ei sa t ime i nt he l
    ife ofa per son when
    satisfact ioni naccompl ishi ngi t.I tbecomesaneedwhenaper soncr avest o
    util
    izeand“ pusht ot hel imi t”al lhisorhernat uralendowment sorpot ent i
    als.Thi s
    needi snotcommonamongor di narypeopl east herear eonl yaf ewwhor each
    thislev el;manyar ef orev erpr eoccupi edwi t
    hl owerl ev elneeds.

    I
    tisimportanttonotethatwhi l
    et hefirsttwol ev el
    sofneedcanbesuppl i
    edtoa
    pointofdest r
    ucti
    on,higherneedsappar entlyarel imi t
    lessi nscope.Satisfyi
    nglower-
    l
    ev elneedscanext endbeyondt hephy si
    cal/biol
    ogicalr equirementsresul
    tinginaf at
    al
    overdose oratt imesa t rauma,whi ch are both di sastroust othe indivi
    dual.Over
    providing forsecur i
    tyand saf etycan r esultin ov erdependence,compl acencyand
    senselessconf ormity—sur
    edet errent
    st oself–dev elopment .Ontheotherhand, i
    tisnot
    easyt omeasur eandsayt hatonehasov erlysatisfiedhi ssocialesteemedorsel f-
    actualizati
    onneeds.Hewoul dt endtocont inueseeki ngt of ul
    fi
    lthem,andt herewil
    l
    al
    way sbeahi gherplaneoffulf
    ilment.

    One pi tf
    allof manager i st ot hi
    nk t hat by pr ovidi
    ng better wage and
    compensat ion,empl oyeescouldusethefinancialrewardst otakecareofsat i
    sfyingall
    theirotherneeds.Thi seconomicapproachdoesnothol dupwhenanal yzedintermsof
    thef i
    vebasicl evelsofneeds,si
    ncemoneyappl i
    esmost lytot hefir
    stt
    wo,accor dingto
    Dav i
    s( 1978).Furthermore,humanneedscannev erbef ull
    ymetandneedssat isfacti
    on
    willtheref
    ore,poseaper pet
    ualconcer
    nofanyor ganizat
    ion.Inmot i
    vat
    ingempl oyees,it
    willnotwor kmucht hatthemeansf ormot ivati
    ngar et hoseneedsal readysat i
    sfi
    ed
    ratherthanneedst hatar
    estil
    lwanti
    ngtobesat i
    sfied.

    F.Ski
    nnerOper
    antTheor
    y

    (Burr
    hausFr ederic),Skinner,ani nf
    luenti
    alex ponentofbehaviourism,cont ested
    thetheor ythathumanneedsar et hedet erminantofhumanbehav i
    our .Backedupby
    extensivescientifi
    cst udies,Skinner( 1953)bel i
    ev edthat“theenvir
    onmentdet ermines
    thei ndivi
    dualbehav i
    ourev enwhenheal t
    erst heenv ir
    onment”.Hecont ended that
    empl oyeescanbemot i
    v at
    edbypr operl
    ycr eati
    ngt hewor kenvir
    onmentandpr ovi
    ding
    rewar dorstimulusf ort hedesi rableempl oyeeper formance.Furt
    hermor e,t hatiti
    st he
    externalenvir
    onmentt hatinfluencest heexactbehav i
    ourpeopleexhibitratherthant hei
    r
    externalneedswant sanddesi r
    es.
    Inthi
    st heory,rewar dsoranyst i
    mul ithatserveasposi t
    iverei
    nf orcersofcer tai
    n
    behav i
    ouraref oundt obemor epower fulthannegat iveandneutralreinforcers,evenif
    bothset sofreinforcersmaybeused.
    Inacompany ,r
    ewar dort heprospectofi tcanl eadtoadesiredr esponsebyt he

    352
    employee when such response bri
    ngs aboutposit
    ive consequences to boththe
    employeeand themot i
    v at
    or( manager
    ).Negati
    veconsequencest end t
    o deter
    mine
    repeat
    edbehavi
    our.Examplesofreward/
    positi
    ver
    einf
    orcer
    sar e:

    1.Importantassignments
    2. Appeali
    ngcompensat i
    on
    3.Parti
    cipati
    onindecisi
    on-making
    4.Otherincenti
    vesandbenefit
    s

    Skinnerstat
    edt hat“usuall
    yt heul
    ti
    materei
    nfor
    cementissimil
    art
    othatpr
    est
    ige
    oresteem. ”
    Negative r einfor
    cers ( e.g. suspensi
    on f rom wor k) and neut ral
    rei
    nforcers(e.
    g.t
    ransferofwor kplace)mayalso beut i
    l
    ized t
    o di
    scour
    ageunwanted
    behaviourandencour agef avourableemploy
    eesbehavi
    our.

    Anof f
    shootofthestudiesonoper antcondi t
    ioningtheoryisitsapplicati
    ont o
    organi
    zati
    onal concerns through behav iour modi f
    icati
    on pr ograms. Behav ior
    modifi
    cati
    onistheprocessofsy st
    ematical
    lyrei
    nforci
    ngposi ti
    vebehav i
    ourwhi l
    eatthe
    same time ignor
    ing orexorcisi
    ng negati
    ver ei
    nforcement st o eli
    mi nat
    e unwanted
    behavi
    our.
    ..
    issometimesequat edwi t
    hl earni
    ngi t
    self,i.e.anychangei nbehav i
    our”
    (Harl
    ouandHanke1975) .

    Terryand Frankl
    in( 1982)Hammerand Hammer ,who studied i
    n 1976 ten
    companiesusingpositi
    vereinforcementorbehav i
    ourmodi
    fi
    cati
    onprograms,wereable
    toidentif
    y six consi
    derat
    ions f ort he use ofposi
    ti
    verei
    nfor
    cementi n modif
    ying
    moti
    vationalbehavi
    oursofempl oy ees.These:

    1.Don’trewar dequall
    y.I
    treinf
    orcesaverageandmedi ocr
    eperfor
    mance.
    2.Fai
    luretor einf
    orcemayencour agepoorsubsequentperfor
    mance.
    3.I
    nform empl oy
    eeswhatt heycandot ogetreinf
    orcement.
    4.Tel
    l employ eeswhenandwhatt heyaredoingwrong.
    5.Don’tpunishsubor di
    nateinfrontofother
    s.
    6.Befair.

    4.
    3.Admi
    nist
    rat
    ion’
    sroot
    sinsoci
    alwor
    k

    Socialwor kasapr ofessioni sr elat ivelyy oung.Al thought hedi sadv ant aged
    peopl ehav ebeenai ded,di rect lyori ndi rect ly ,forcent uriesbyi ndi viduals,gr oupsor
    organi zations,f or mal ized pr ofessi onalsoci alwor k educat i
    on ev olv ed f r
    om si mpl e
    begi nnings.Att het urnoft he19th cent ur y,shor tt er m cour seswer e1st of feredat
    Columbi aUni v ersity,theUni versityofChi cago,Bost onUni versity,andt heUni v ersityof
    Pennsy lvania.Educat ionalandPr ofessi onalassoci ati
    onscamei ntoexi stencegr adual ly,
    buti twasonl yi n1955t hatt heNat ionalAssoci ati
    onofSoci alWor ker swasf ormed,
    whensev endi fferentsoci al wor kassoci at ionsj oi
    nedt oget her.
    In1952,t heCounci lonSoci alWor kEducat ionwascr eatedandbecameav iable
    national ,educat ionalor gani zationf orpr ov idinggui delines,accr edi t
    at i
    on,st andar dsand
    reviews,andr esour cemat erialsf orschool sofsoci alwor k,agenci esandi ndi vidual
    member s.
    Ineducat ion,acour sei nadmi ni st rationwasof fer edbyaschoolofsoci alwor kin
    1914.By1944,t he r evised cur ri
    cul um st atementf ort he Amer ican Associ ation of
    School sofSoci alWor kl i
    stedadmi nist rat i
    onasoneoft hebasi cei ghtsubj ect st hat
    shoul dbeof feredi nal l school sofsoci al wor kwer edoi ngsoi n1992.
    Socialwor kli
    ter aturehasbeenl imi tedi ntheadmi nistrationar ea, alt
    houghmany
    publ i
    cat i
    onsaboutsoci alwor kknowl edgeandski l
    lshav ei ncludedmat erialsandcases
    i
    nt hisf i
    eld.Har lei
    gh Tr ecker ,Elwood St reet ,El la Reed,and ot her shav epr ov i
    ded
    i
    ntroduct orybooksonadmi nistration.Amaj ort heor eticalsoci alwor kcont ributionwas
    VolumeI IIoft hecur ri
    cul um st udyoft heCounci lonSoci alWor kEducat i
    onwhi ch
    appear edi n1959.Thi sst udyi ndicat edt hatadmi nistr ationhadr eachedasi gni fi
    cant
    l
    ev elinsoci alwor keducat ionandpr act ice,andi tsuggest edt hatgr aduat est udent s
    coul dr eceivesoundt rainingf oradmi ni strat ionposi tionswi tht woy ear sofgr aduat e
    study .Noat temptwasmadet odi st i
    ngui shbet weenadmi nist rationandcommuni t
    y

    353
    or
    gani
    zat
    ion.Thest
    udypoi
    ntedupt
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ng:

    1.Thei mpor t
    anceofadmi nistrati
    vepr acti
    cet ot heprof essionofsocial work;
    2.Thenecessi tyt hatal lgr aduat esofschool sofsoci alwor khav epr eparation
    suffici
    enttoenabl e t hem t of ulfi
    lt hei
    rr ol
    esappr opr i
    atel
    yi ntheadmi nistr
    ative
    structureandpr ocessesoft he agencyi nwhi cht heyar eemploy ed,
    3.Thatt hisprepar ationshoul dal sobeadequat etoser veast hebasisforfurtheron
    -t
    he-joband post gr aduat e l ev el traini
    ng i n admi ni
    strat
    ion t o facili
    tate
    promot i
    onstohi gherlev elpositionsand mor e adequat ef uncti
    oning atl ower
    l
    ev els;
    4.Thatt hepr epar ation ofper sonnelf ordi rectent ryi nto executiv
    eand sub -
    execut iv
    elev elposi ti
    onsi mmedi atelyaftergr aduationi sanappr opriat
    ef unction
    i
    nt heschool sofsoci al wor kwi t
    hi nt hemast er ’
    slevel curri
    culum;and
    5.Thatt hemat terofwhoshoul dbeadmi ttedtosuchpr ogram ofstudyi sacar eer-
    adv i
    singorst udentadv isingf unct i
    on.

    I
    n1970t heCSWEpubl ishedt wov olumesonadmi nistrati
    ont hati ndicatedi ts
    growi ng i nt er esti nt hi
    sf ield:Soci alWor k Admi ni
    st rati
    on:A Resour ce Book and
    casewor ki nSoci alWor kAdmi ni
    st r
    at i
    on.Thef irstv olumei ncludesf ortyar t
    iclesand
    reprintsf r
    om t hemat eri
    alsrelevantt oadmi nist r
    at i
    onandwasdev elopedasar esour ce
    bookf orst udent sandpr acti
    tioners.Up- to-dat ear ti
    clesar eincluded, aswel las, writ
    ings
    from t hepast , suchasMaxWeber ’s“ Bureaucr acy”andHenr iFay ol’
    s“ Gener alPr inci
    pl es
    ofmanagement ”
    .TheCasebook,acompani onv olume,cont ainst wenty-fiveexampl es
    ofpr act ical exper i
    encef rom av arietyofset tings.
    Amaj orst ept ookpl acei nt hespr ingof1977wi tht heappear anceoft hei nitial
    i
    ssueofapr of essi onaljournal,Admi nistrat i
    oni nSoci alWor k.I tisar eputabl equar ter ly
    publicat iondev otedt ot he“theoryandpr act i
    ceofmanagementandadmi nistrati
    on,i n
    social wor kandr el atedhumanser vicesf i
    el ds” .
    Philosophi cal ly,the basi c posi t
    ion ofsoci alwor ki n admi nist
    r ation i st hat
    principlesofmanagement ,ef f
    ici
    encyandef fectivenessshoul dbeut il
    i
    zedbutmust
    relatet ot hef r amewor kbasedont hesoundhumanr el ati
    ons.The‘ “human”f actori n
    admi ni strationi sofpar t
    icul
    arconcer ntosoci alwor k.Not ,onlywhatt hewor kerdoesi s
    i
    mpor t
    ant ,butal sohow heorshef eelsabouti t,bot hi nr elationt operf ormanceand
    ment al well-bei ng.Thef ocusofadmi nist
    rat ioni sr espectf orthei ntegri
    tyofeachper son,
    sot hateachwor kerwi l
    lbeakeyper soni nt het otaladmi nistrati
    onofanagency .

    5.Basi
    cpr
    inci
    plesi
    nSoci
    alwor
    kadmi
    nist
    rat
    ion

    Thef ol
    lowi
    ng pr
    inci
    plesar
    esi
    gni
    fi
    canti
    nrel
    ati
    on t
    o ef
    fect
    ivesoci
    alwor
    k
    admi
    nist
    rat
    ion:

    1.Accept
    ance
    Leadersandstaffmembersareencour
    agedandexpect edt
    oacceptoneanother
    andt oactaccordi
    ngly.Thegoalistodraw from eachstaffmemberhisorherbest
    resour
    cesandabi l
    it
    iesinhel
    pingtheagencyinthedeliver
    yofservi
    ces.Thi
    sdoesnot
    ruleoutevaluat
    ionandsuggestionsforimprovementsbutdoesmeant hatallst
    aff
    member sfeelabasi
    csecuri
    tyasindi
    vi
    dualswi
    thr i
    ghtsaswellasr
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    ties.

    2.Democr
    ati
    cinvol
    vementi
    nfor
    mul
    ati
    onofagencypol
    ici
    esandpr
    ocedur
    es
    Socialworksuggest
    st hatastaffmember
    sbecomeapar tofpar
    ti
    cipat
    ory
    admi
    nist r
    ati
    on,t
    heyper
    form bet
    ter
    ,andsodoest
    heagency
    .Theyf
    avourt
    hephi
    losophy
    ofMcGr egor’
    sTheor
    yY.

    3.OpenCommuni
    cat
    ions
    Meanst hatthewor kermay ,atalmostanyt i
    me,shareideasandf eelingswi
    th
    otherst affmember s and actand r eactwi th honesty and i
    ntegri
    ty.Two-way
    communi cat
    ionsprov i
    desasoundf r
    amewor kf orthedev el
    opmentofef fi
    ciencyand
    effecti
    venessinadmi ni
    strat
    ivepoli
    ciesandprocedures.
    A succinctstatementofbasi cpri
    nciplesofsoci alworkadmi ni
    strationwas
    offeredbyTrecker,apioneersocialworkadministrat
    or:
     The Pr inci
    ple ofsocialwor kv al
    ues:The v al
    ues ofthe prof
    ession arethe

    354
    foundat ionuponwhi chser v i
    cesar edev el opedandmadeav ailabl et oper sons
    whoneedt hem.
     Thepr inci pl eofcommuni tyandcl ientneeds:Theneedsoft hecommuni tyand
    thei ndi v idual swi thinitar eal way st hebasi sf ort heexi st enceofsoci alagenci es
    andt hepr ov isionofpr ogr ams.
     Thepr i
    nci pl eofagencypur pose:Thesoci alpur poseoft heagencymustbe
    clear lyf or mul ated, stated, under stoodandut i
    lized.
     The pr inci ple ofcul tur alset ting:The cul ture oft he communi t
    y mustbe
    under st oodi nasmuchasi tinf luencest hewayt heneedsar eexpr essedandt he
    wayser vicesar eaut hor ized, suppor ted, andut il
    izedbypeopl ewhoneedt hem.
     The pr inci ple of pur posef ul r el ationshi ps: Ef fect i
    v e, pur posef ul wor king
    relationshi psmustbeest abl ishedbet weent headmi nist rator,theboar d,thest aff,
    andt heconst i
    tuency .
     Thepr inci pleofagencyt ot ality: Theagencymustbeunder stoodi ni tst otal i
    tyand
    whol eness.I tmustbeseenasal ivingi nst rument alitymadeupofi nter relat ed
    par ts.
     Thepr inci pl eofpr ofessi onalr esponsi bility:Theadmi nistratori sr esponsi blef or
    the pr ov i
    si on ofhi gh-qual itypr of essi onalser v i
    ces based on st andar ds of
    prof essi onal pract ice.
     Thepr inci pleofpar t
    icipat ion:Appr opr i
    at econt ri
    but ionsofboar d,st af f,and
    const i
    t uencyar esoughtandut ilizedt hr ought hecont inuouspr ocessofdy nami c
    par ti
    ci pat ion.
     Thepr inci pleofcommuni cat ion:Openchannel sofcommuni cationar eessent ial
    tot hecompl et ef unct i
    oni ngoft hepeopl e.
     Thepr inci pleofl eadershi p.Theadmi ni stratormustcar rymaj orr esponsi bi li
    tyf or
    thel eader shi poft heagencyi nt er msofgoalat tainmentandt hepr ov isionof
    prof essi onal serv ices.
     Thepr inci pleofpl anning:Thepr ocessofcont inuouspl anni ngisf undament alt o
    thedev el opmentofmeani ngf ul ser v i
    ces.
     Thepr inci pl eofor ganizat i
    on:Thewor kofmanypeopl emustbear rangedi nan
    organi zed manner and must be st ruct ured so t hat r esponsi bili
    ties and
    relationshi psar ecl earlydef ined.
     Thepr inci pleofdel egat ion: Thedel egat ionofr esponsi bilityandaut hor i
    tyt oot her
    prof essi onal per sonsi sessent ial .
     Thepr inci pleofcoor di nat ion:Thewor kdel egat edt o manypeopl emustbe
    proper lycoor dinat edsot hatspeci ficcont ri
    but i
    onsar ebr oughtt obearupont he
    maj ort asksoft heagencyandal lener gyi sr ight l
    yf ocusedupont hemi ssi ont o
    beaccompl ished.
     Thepr inci pleofr esour ceut ilizat ion:Ther esour cesofmoney ,f acili
    ties,and
    per sonnelmustbecar eful lyf ost ered,conser v ed,andut ili
    zedi nkeepi ngwi tht he
    trustgr ant edt ot heagencybysoci ety .
     Thepr inci pl eofchange:Thepr ocessofchangei scont inuous,bot hwi thint he
    communi tyandt heagency .
     Thepr inci pleofev al
    uat ion:Cont inuousev aluat i
    onofpr ocessesandpr ogr amsi s
    essent ial tot hef ul fi
    l
    mentoft heagency ’sobj ect ives.
     Thepr inci pleofgr owt h:Thegr owt h and dev elopmentofal lpar ticipant si s
    further ed byt he admi ni strat orwho pr ov ides chal lengi ng wor kassi gnment s,
    thought ful super v i
    sion, andoppor t
    uni tiesf ori ndi vidual andgr oupl ear ning.

    B. Theadmi
    nist
    rat
    iveFunct
    ions:
    B.
    1.Pol
    icyFor
    mul
    ati
    ons

    Apol
    icyi
    sastat
    edcourseofacti
    onadopt
    edandf
    oll
    owedbyt
    heor
    gani
    zat
    ioni
    n
    doi
    ngi
    tswor
    k.Exampl
    e:RA5416creat
    ingtheDSWD.

    AnAgencyPoli
    cyi
    sawr i
    tt
    enst
    atementfor
    mal l
    yadopt
    edbyt heboardorl
    egal
    author
    it
    yandpubl
    icl
    ymadeknowntogui
    detheprovi
    sionofserv
    ice.Sti
    l
    lR.
    A.5416also
    contai
    nspol
    ici
    esorgui
    del
    i
    nesastowhatser
    viceswil
    lbeoffer
    edbyt heDepar
    tmentto

    355
    at
    tai
    nthepur
    poset
    owhi
    chi
    tiscr
    eat
    ed.

    Thest
    agesofpol
    icyf
    ormul
    ati
    onasi
    dent
    if
    iedbyHar
    rySpechtar
    easf
    oll
    ows:

    1.Ident i
    fi
    cat
    ionofthepr obl
    em orissue
    2.Anal ysi
    softheproblem
    3.Informingthepubli
    caboutt hepr obl
    em
    4.Dev elopmentofpoli
    cygoal sincl
    udingthei
    nvol
    vementofot
    heragenci
    es
    5.Buildingofpubli
    csuppor t
    6.Legislati
    onorenunciationofpolicy
    7.Impl ementat
    ionandadmi ni
    strat
    ion;and
    8.Assessmentandev aluati
    on

    I
    mpor
    tanceofPol
    icy

    As a st at
    ed course ofacti
    on f
    oragencywor k,a socialpol
    i
    cyshould be
    consi
    der edthecontextofallsoci
    alworkpracti
    ce.Thismakesi timpor
    tantf
    orsocial
    workpr acti
    ti
    onerstobet rul
    yfamil
    iarwi
    ththepolici
    esgoverningtheagency
    ,andon
    whichrules,pr
    oceduresandregul
    ati
    onsarebased.

    Thear
    easofpol
    icyconsi
    der
    ati
    oni
    ncl
    ude:

    1.Pol
    icyval
    uesandobjecti
    ves
    2.Pol
    icytar
    getgrouporcli
    ent
    ele
    3.Methodsofimplementat
    ion
    4.Env
    ironmental
    impact

    Poli
    cyawar enessont hesecrucialareaswoul dencour aget heengagementand
    parti
    cipati
    onoft hepract i
    ti
    onerinpolicyformul at
    ion,analysisandchange.Thi sisalong
    thethirdobjecti
    veint heBSSW cur ri
    culum,whi chexpectst hest udentstobet r
    ainedto
    documentt heef f
    ecti
    v eness,aswel last hegapsi nser vicesf orpoli
    cychangeand
    development .I
    thasbeensai dthatt
    he“ frontl
    inepracti
    tionerswhoseet hedaily
    ,inti
    mate
    rel
    ati
    onshipsbet weenpol icyandservicet oclient
    scanbet hesour ceofperti
    nentpoli
    cy
    recommendat i
    ons.”

    Thepr
    inci
    plesofpol
    icydet
    ermi
    nat
    ionsummar
    izedbyHar
    lei
    ghTr
    eckerar
    easf
    oll
    ows:

    1.Pol icymustbebasedonanddev elopoutofagencypur pose.


    2.Pol iciesmustbesoundl ybasedonadequat elyev aluatedf actsandexper i
    ence.
    Per sonsaf f
    ectedbypol icyespeci all
    ycl ient elegr oupshoul dbei nv olvedi nt he
    process.
    3.Uni t yandconsi stencybet weent hev ari
    ouspol iciesoft heagencyandbet ween
    policiesand pur posei sessent ial.Conf lictbet weenand among pol icieswi l
    l
    conf uset hestaffandwi l
    lhav eadv erseef fect sonagencyser vice.
    4.Al thought heboar di sr esponsi blef ort heenact mentoft hepol icy ,theent i
    re
    agencyshoul dpar t
    icipatei nt hef ormul ati
    onpr ocess.Di rectser v i
    cewor kers
    hav eser i
    ousr esponsi bili
    tyforpol icyenact mentandchange.
    5.Pol icyi mpliesfocusanddi recti
    onf ort heat t
    ainmentoft heagencypur pose.
    6.Pol icyshoul drelatetheagencypur poset ot her eal i
    tiesoft hecommuni tysetting
    (i
    ncl udingot heragenci esandspeci alneeds)andoft heagency ’
    sownf acil
    it
    ies
    andr esources.
    7.Pol icy -
    maki ng,pl anning,and oper ationsar ei ntegr all
    yr elated andcannotbe
    separ ated.
    8.Newpol i
    ciesshoul ddev elopanev aluationoft heexi sti
    ngpol ici
    esinpr act i
    ceas
    theysy st
    emat icall
    yrev iewedandst udi ed.
    9.Thor oughknowl edgeofpol i
    cyont hepar tofev er ystaffmember .Iti st he
    admi ni
    strator’
    sr esponsi bili
    tytomakepol icyst atement sav ail
    abletot hest affin
    writtenf orm.Thesepol i
    ciesshoul dbedi scussedi nmeet ings,conf er encesand
    consul tati
    ons.
    10.Policiesshoul dbeexpr essedi nposi tivef ormssot hatt heirconst ruct i
    veusei s
    emphasi zed.

    356
    11.Thecar r
    yingoutofthepolici
    esinthespiri
    toft
    hei
    rintenti
    samajorr
    esponsi
    bil
    it
    y
    oftheadmi ni
    str
    ation.
    12.Confl
    ictbetweent hestat
    ementoft hepoli
    cyandactualpr
    act
    icei
    sasignalt
    othe
    administr
    atoroftheneedtoev al
    uateboth.

    B.
    2.Pl
    anni
    ngandPr
    ogr
    ammi
    ng

    A plan i
    sacourseofaction f
    orreachi
    ng agoalbeginni
    ng now oratany
    pr
    edet
    erminedti
    mei
    nthefut
    ure.Aplanmaybeshortr
    ange,
    medium ter
    m orl
    ongter
    m.

    “Planni ngi sthepr ocessofant i


    cipati
    nggoal sortargetsandt henprepari
    nga
    planf orr eachi ngt hem.”Iti sapr ocessofmappi ngoutone’sact i
    vi
    ti
    est owardsthe
    accompl ishment sofgoal sandpr oject i
    ngt hemeansorr esourcesofachievingthem.
    Thisi sapr ocesswhi chshoul dbepar ti
    cipatedinbyt hoseinvolvedinimplementati
    on
    (e.g.,t
    hesoci alwor kerindi r
    ectpractice),byt herecipi
    ent
    soft heservi
    cesort ar
    getsof
    planning( e.g.,t hecl i
    ents),andbyt hepol i
    cy -makers.A meansoff eedbackand/or
    reviewispar toft heplaninor dert
    odet erminewhet herornotthegoalsareachiev
    ed.

    A plan maybe shor t/ medi


    um ter
    m orl ong range/medium term,orl ong
    range/long t er
    m.For exampl e,and agency may hav e a one- y
    ear plan (
    short
    range/medium t erm)ofr eaching outt
    of rom 50 t o 100 youths i
    n some specifi
    c
    barangayi nadr ugprevent
    ionpr ogr
    am.Thisplani sonl
    yapar tofi
    tslongrange/
    long-
    termt hreey earplanoforganizingandconduct i
    ngadr ugpr event
    ionprogram i
    nt he
    enti
    re communi tywit
    hat argetof300 hundr ed yout
    hsoraboutt he whol
    ey outh
    population.

    I
    nor
    dert
    oachi
    evet
    heobj
    ect
    ives,
    JosephHungat
    est
    ressest
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ng:

    1.ThatPl
    ansmustbeconsistentwit
    hhumanneeds.
    2.I
    tmustbebasedonthephi l
    osophyoftheprof
    essionoft
    heagency
    3.I
    tmustbebasedonresearch
    4.I
    tmustbefl
    exi
    bleenought ogiveroom f
    orwhatev
    erchangeshavet
    obemade
    5.I
    tmustbeeasi
    lycommuni cated
    6.I
    tmustcont
    ri
    butetothei
    mpr ov
    ementofservi
    ce.

    Reasonsf
    orpl
    anni
    ng

    ASthesayi
    nggoes,“
    Wepl anorweperi
    sh”
    .Planni
    ngisneededinal
    llev
    elsof
    oper
    ati
    onandev
    erywor
    kershoul
    ddohisaspar
    tofher
    /hisdai
    l
    yrout
    ine.

    Accor
    dingt
    oRexSki
    dmor
    e,t
    her
    easonsf
    orpl
    anni
    ngar
    easf
    oll
    ows:

    1.Effi
    ciency–Thi smeanst oachievegoalswi t
    hami ni
    mum ofcostandef fect.
    2.Effecti
    v eness–Thi smeanst oachievethedesi redresultwhichist ohel ppeople
    i
    nneed.
    3.Account abil
    it
    y– Pl anni
    ngi sneededf orev al
    uat i
    onandaccount abil
    itytot he
    public,tof amili
    es,andt othecli
    ents.
    4.Mor ale–Ev erystaffmemberneedst ounderstandexact l
    ywhatt odoandhowt o
    dot hej ob.Thesecanbeachi evediftheadmi nistrat
    orandst affmember sj
    ointl
    y
    plant het otaloper ati
    onoft heagency .Suchi nv olv
    ementofev eryonewi l
    lgive
    them thef eel
    ingsofachi evementandsat isf
    act i
    onaswel lasthef eeli
    ngofbei ng
    neededandef fecti
    ve.Theirfeel
    ingswi l
    lmaket hedi ffer
    enceint hesoci alservi
    ce
    deliveryandcont r
    ibutetohighmor ale.

    Essent
    ialpl
    anni
    ngEl
    ement
    s

    I
    nshor
    t,apl
    an,
    accor
    dingt
    oRayj
    ohns,
    mustcont
    aint
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ngel
    ement
    s:

    1.Goalort
    hewhat
    2.Resour
    ces,
    means,
    procedur
    es,
    andmet
    hodsort
    hehow

    357
    3.Peopl
    ei nv
    olvedinachi
    evingthegoal
    sorthewho
    4.Methodofevaluati
    onandr ev
    iewand
    5.Condit
    ionsunderwhichtheplanwil
    lbei
    mplemented

    Theprocessofsett
    ingobject
    ivesi
    sact uall
    yt hestar
    tingpoi
    ntofpl
    anning.The
    objectiv
    esarelikemapaspoi nt
    edoutbyTr ecker.Theyshowuswher ewewantt ogo
    andpoi ntoutsomeoft heroadswhichwemayt aket ogettoother
    s.Obj
    ecti
    vesmake
    concr et
    eandr ealthi
    ngsforwhi chwest r
    ive.Obj ecti
    vesmakei tpossi
    bleforust o
    evaluatetheext entt
    owhichwehav eappr oachedar eali
    zati
    onofourfundament al
    aspirati
    ons.

    NewmanandSchat
    zgav
    ethef
    oll
    owi
    ngst
    epsi
    npl
    anni
    ng,
    thus:

    1.Recogniti
    onoft heneedf oract i
    on– t hismayar i
    sefrom demandsf ornew
    programsandser vi
    cesorot heract i
    onf rom av ari
    etyofresourceswhereinsome
    kindofactioniscall
    edf or.
    2.Investi
    gati
    onandanal ysi
    s–f actsoft hepr esentsituat
    ionarest udi
    edsot hat
    possibleal
    ternati
    veplansmaybei dentif
    ied.
    3.Proposalforact i
    on–basedont hei nvesti
    gation,theadmi ni
    str
    atordevelopsor
    proposescour sesofaction.Hei ni
    tiatesaplan.
    4.Decision–i nvol
    vestwost eps:thet entati
    vedeci si
    onandt hefi
    naldecisi
    on.

    Basi
    cpl
    anni
    ngst
    epsaccor
    dingt
    oSki
    dmor
    e

    AccordingtoSkidmor e,“insoci
    alworkandi nsoci alservi
    ceanagency,planning
    i
    srecognizedasnev erbefore,tobeanessent i
    ali ngredientintheeff
    ectiv
    edeli
    v eryof
    ser
    v i
    ces.Theplanningprocessi nmanagement,butt herear esomediff
    erentemphases.”
    Headdst hat“plannersi
    nanagencyneedt ounder standcl ear
    lytheai
    msandpur poses
    oftheagencychar t
    erandpol i
    cies.
    ”Ev er
    yorganizationhashopesandaspi rat
    ionsor
    vi
    sionswhi chinvolvesanex pl
    icitval
    uebase.Suchv isi
    onneedsst r
    ategytober eal
    ,
    whichinturn,
    hast obetranslatedintoanoper
    ational plan.

    Ski
    dmoregiv
    essev enstepswhi
    char
    epar
    ti
    cul
    arl
    yimpor
    tanti
    nthepl
    anni
    ng
    pr
    ocessi
    nsoci
    alwork.Theyar
    easfol
    l
    ows:

    1. Sel
    ectobj
    ecti
    ves–obj ecti
    vesaredesti
    nati
    on,goal
    sort ar
    gets.Theyr el
    atet
    o
    pur
    posesandpoli
    ciesoftheagenci
    es.Ther
    earetwokindsofobject
    ives,
    namely:

    a)Overal
    landl ongrange–Thi sbasedont heaimsandpur posesofthe
    agencycharterandpol
    ici
    es.
    b)Specif
    icandshor trange– Thi sinvolvesthepresentandimmediate
    fut
    ure.Planni
    ngasanant i
    cipator
    yprocessshoul
    dhav et
    arget
    swhichare
    specif
    ic,
    simpleandatt
    ainable.

    Skidmorest atesthatsoci
    alworkhasal sodev elopedast ronginteresti
    nManagement
    byObj ecti
    ves( MBO)mustl ikethebusi nesssectorhas.Accor dingt ohim,‘MBO i sa
    system appr oachtoimpr ov
    ingoper at
    ions.Itincludesinputs( beginni
    ngs,resources,
    goals,object
    ives,andrel
    atedoperat
    ion);acti
    vi
    ties(theactualdoingandachi evi
    ng);and
    output(resul
    ts).

    ManagementbyObj
    ect
    ives

    I
    nput
    s(Obj
    ect
    ives) Acti
    vit
    ies Out
    put
    s
    (Act
    ions) (
    Resul
    ts)

    Twomai
    nki
    ndsofgoal
    saccor
    dingt
    oSki
    dmor
    e:

     St
    rat
    egi
    cgoal
    s,whi
    char
    econcer
    nedwi
    thdev
    elopi
    ngnewi
    deasandwi
    thov
    eral
    l

    358
    orl
    ongrangepl
    anningand
     Oper
    ati
    onalGoal
    s,whichar
    especi
    fi
    candmeasur
    abl
    e.

    Anot
    hernew conceptwhichisbei
    ngusedinsoci
    alser
    viceagenci
    esaswel
    lasi
    n
    busi
    ness,
    theconceptofst
    rat
    egi
    cpl
    anni
    ng.

    St
    rategi
    cplanni
    ngaccordingtoSkidmore,putsmajorf ocusonlookingahead
    real
    ist
    icall
    yasmuchaspossi bleandincl
    udesspeci
    ficl
    ong-rangegoals.Furt
    her,soci
    al
    workeducat ionandpracti
    ce hvefocusedrecent
    lyon“behav i
    ouralobj
    ecti
    vewhi chis
    specif
    ic,usuall
    ysi
    mple,obser
    vabl
    e,measurabl
    eandreali
    sti
    c.”

    2. Consi deragencyr esour ces–Consi dert heagency ’seconomi cresour ces( budget
    andmoni esav ail
    abl e),thephy sicalr esour ces( agencyf acil
    iti
    es),t heper sonnel
    andst aff( numberav ailable, theirqual it
    yorcompet enci es,atti
    tudesandf eelings).
    3. Enumer at et heal ternat i
    ves–Consi dernumer ouspat hs,car eful
    lydescr i
    bet hese
    andant icipat eeach.Cr eativity, f
    reewi l
    l
    ingdi scussi onsandt alkswi thindiv i
    dual s
    willhel pi ncomi ngoutwi thal ternat i
    v es.
    4. Anticipat et he out comes ofeach al ternative – Thi sincludes t he fol l
    owi ng;
    anticipat eandest imat ewhati sl ikelyt ohappenwhenanact i
    onoccur s,l ooksat
    vari
    ousv ant agepoi ntswhati slikelyt ohappen,wei ght hechoi cesandcomeup
    withwhati sbest .
    5. Deci deont hebestpl an–Set tingt hepr iori
    tiesi sneeded.Wei ght heal ternat i
    ves
    andchoi cesofobj ect ivesf ort heirsi gnif i
    canceandf easibil
    it
    yandsomear emor e
    i
    mpor tantt han ot her s,some need i mmedi ate act ion,whi le ot hers can be
    post poned.
    6. Planaspeci fi
    cpr ogr am f oract i
    on–Tor eacht heagr eedupont arget sabl ueprint
    ormapmaki ngshoul dbepr epar edwher eint hest ep- bystepact ioni sout l
    ined
    and r ecor ded.Af terdeci ding on t he pr i
    orities,a t ime char tt o achi ev et he
    object i
    v esi sessent ial.Thet imet abl ewi l
    lhelpi nmaki ngthebl uepr intcomeal ive
    andt oimpl ementt hepl ansef f
    ect ively.
    7. Beopent ochange– Fl exibi l
    ityi sf undament alinpl anning.Theor iginalpl an
    shoul dbef ollowed.Howev er,changeof t
    enoccur saspl anni ngispr ogr ammed
    andi mpl ement ati
    ont akespl ace.

    Compet entadmini
    st r
    ator
    sadv ocat
    echangingplansatanymomentifthechangewi
    ll
    bri
    ng inf acil
    it
    ati
    ver esources orbet terprocedur
    ef ormoving ahead.Rigidi
    tyi
    s
    unaccept
    abl ei
    nplanning.
    Amongt heti
    met ablemechanismsbei ngusedinscalworkist heGanttChar
    t.
    Thisi
    susedasapl anningandcont r
    oltechni
    que.

    CaseManagement

    Fastbecomi nga“ majorcomponentinsocialworkpract


    iceespeci al
    lyi
    nl ar
    ger
    agenci
    esandi nint
    ervent
    ionwithcomplexandf r
    agmentedservi
    ces“ .Skidmorefurt
    her
    ci
    tesanddi scussestheemphasi sofcasemanagementwhi chisonef fecti
    veplanni
    ng.
    Alt
    houghr ootedincasework,groupworkandcommuni tyorganizat
    ion,itsapproachis
    uni
    que.CaseManagementi slikewi
    seconsideredasawayt o achi evebettercost
    eff
    ecti
    venessandcostcont rol
    .

    CaseManagement–i samet hodofpr ovidingser


    viceswherebyaprof
    essi
    onal
    soci
    alwor kerassesses the needs oft he cl
    ientand the cli
    ent’
    sf ami
    l
    yand when
    appr
    opri
    ate,arranges,coordi
    nates,moni t
    ors,evaluatesandadv ocat
    esapackageof
    mult
    ipl
    eser vi
    cestomeetthespeci f
    iccl
    ients’
    scompl exneeds.

    Pr
    act
    iceKeyski
    l
    lssi
    gni
    fi
    cantt
    oCaseManagement(
    Vour
    leki
    s&Gr
    eene)

    1.Clientidenti
    fi
    cati
    onandoutreach
    2.Indivi
    dual andfamil
    yassessmentanddi
    agnosi
    s
    3.Planningandr esour
    ceidenti
    fi
    cati
    on
    4.Linkingclient
    stoneededresources

    359
    5.Serv
    iceimplementat
    ionandcoor
    dinat
    ion
    6.Monitor
    ingandservi
    cedeli
    ver
    y
    7.Advocacytoobtai
    nservi
    ces
    8.Eval
    uati
    on

    SummedupbySki
    dmor e,Casemanagementemphasi
    zespl
    anni
    ng,
    coor
    dinat
    ion,
    i
    ntegr
    ationofnet
    wor
    kser
    vices,
    moni t
    ori
    ngandfol
    l
    ow-up.
    ”

    Pl
    ansmay
    besubst
    ant
    iveorpr
    ocedur
    al.

    1. Subst anti
    vepl an – desi gned to achievepr ogr am objecti
    ves.Itcallsfort he
    formul ati
    onofbr oadi ssuesconf ronti
    ngt hepr ogram.Itcall
    sf ort
    heformulation
    ofbr oadi ssuesconf ronti
    ngt hepr ogram.Forexampl e,plansmaybemadef or
    thedifferentprogramsandact i
    vi
    tiestobeunder takentoachievetheobject
    ives.
    2. Procedur alplan– wheni ti sdesignedf ort heor ganizat
    ionalstr
    ucturewi t
    hin
    which ar e embodi ed the v ari
    ous admi nistr
    ative mechanisms such as rules,
    guidelines,SOP’s,reporti
    ngr equir
    ement s,etc.

    Accordi
    ngtoEhl
    ers,etal
    .,themajortypeofplanni
    nginanyorgani
    zati
    onis
    r
    esour
    ceplanni
    ngwhi
    chincl
    udefi
    nances,
    faci
    l
    iti
    es,
    equi
    pments,suppl
    i
    esandper
    sonnel
    .

    To make t
    he progr
    am mor e eff
    ecti
    ve,the wor kerhas tol ook bey
    ond the
    resour
    cesofhisownagency .Aftercaref
    ull
    yformul at
    inganddesigningapr oj
    ect
    ,itis
    equall
    yimpor
    tantt
    owrit
    eapr oposalwhichwillat
    tractt
    henecessaryfunding.

    Thef
    oll
    owi
    ngbr
    oadheadi
    ngsanddi
    vi
    sionsconst
    it
    utet
    hepr
    oposal
    for
    mat
    ;thus:

    1.Thet i
    tl
    epage
    2.Proposalsummar y
    3.Int
    roduction/Backgr
    ound
    4.Problem statementorassessmentofneed
    5.Program objecti
    ves
    6.Met hods
    7.Evaluati
    on
    8.Budget
    9.Futurefunding
    10.Or
    ganizati
    on

    Pl
    anni
    ngPr
    inci
    ples

    Accor
    dingt
    oHar
    lei
    ghTr
    ecker
    ,theseconst
    it
    utet
    hepr
    inci
    plesofpl
    anni
    ng:

    1.Planningshoul dgr ow outoft heexpr essedi nterest sandneedsoft heper sons


    whocompr iset heagency .Theagendaf orpl anningshoul dincludethei deasof
    allr
    atherthant hei mposi ti
    onofone.
    2.Thosewhowi l
    l bedi rectl
    yaf fectedbyt her esult
    sofpl anni ngshoul dhav eashar e
    i
    nt hemaki ngoft hepl an.Iti saxi omat icthatper sonsar emor eimpor tantt han
    plansandt hatt hemeani ngofpl anni ngi nt ermsofi tsdi r
    ecti mplicationsf or
    peoplemustbeaf irstconsider ation.
    3.Planningmusthav eanadequat ef act ualbasi s.Theext entt owhi chpl ansar e
    basedonf act sr ef l
    ect sther eali
    tyor ient ati
    onoft hepl anner s.
    4.Themostef fectiv epl anshav ecomeoutoft hepr ocesswhi chcombi nesf ace-t o-
    facemet hodswi thmor eformal met hodsofcommi tteewor k.
    5.The pl anning pr ocess mustbe i ndi viduali
    zed orpar ti
    cularized because of
    diff
    erencesi nsi t uat i
    ons.Goodpl anningcal l
    sf orv arietyandacombi nationof
    approachesi ndigenoust ot hesi tuationi nwhi chwear e.
    6.Planningr equirespr ofessionall eader shi p.Thepr of essi onalmustdef inehi sr ole
    andhel pot herst ounder st
    andi t.
    7.Planning r equir es t he effor t
    s ofv olunteers,non- professionals,communi ty
    l
    eader saswel laspr ofessional s.Thedi vi
    sionofr esponsi bi
    li
    tiesbetweent hese

    360
    groupst oasat isfact oryprosecut i
    onofapr ogr am.I tisnecessar ytoall
    ocateand
    coor dinatetheser esponsi bil
    iti
    esaswel last odi videandi ntegratethem.
    8.Pl anningcal lsfordocument ati
    onandf ullrecor dingsot hatresultsofdiscussi
    ons
    and del iberati
    onswi llbepr eser ved to pr ov idedi recti
    onand cont i
    nuity
    .Iti s
    impor tantt o ut i
    lize r ecords f orpur pose ofsummar y and f orpurpose of
    ev al
    uat i
    on.
    9.Pl anningshoul dmakeuseofexi stingpl ansandr esourcesr atherthanst ar
    ting
    from scr atchwi thev erynewpr oblem.I tisf undament altobui l
    dupont hatwhi ch
    weal r
    eadyhav e,pr ovidedi tissoundandf urnishesaf i
    rmf oundat i
    on.
    10.Planningi sdependentupont hinkingpr iort oact i
    on.“ Pl
    anningi sfundament all
    y
    ani ntell
    ectualpr ocess, ament alpr edi
    sposi tiont odot hi
    ngsi nanor derl
    yway ,to
    thinkbef oreact i
    on, andacti nt helightoff actsr atherthanguesses.
    Hungat edef i
    nesapr ogram asauni tofpl annedpur posi
    veact ion.Programmi ng
    i
    st hepr ocessofpr epar ingorset tingupt hepr ogr am i nvol
    vingaspeci fi
    ct ypeof
    ser
    vices.

    Sampl
    ePr
    ogr
    am For
    mat

    Tar ge
    I
    dent
    if
    ied Str
    ategic
    Pr
    ogr
    am Obj
    ect
    ives I
    ndi
    cat
    ors t Resources
    need Acti
    vit
    ies
    Dat es
    Wholesom Spor
    tsf
    es Topr
    ovide Less Meeting May Jay cees
    e t whol
    esom gambl ing wit
    h 1st

    recr
    eati
    on eact
    ivi
    ti
    es and Barangay Li
    ons
    forout-
    of- i
    ncr eased Leaders&
    school i
    nv olvemen Kabataang
    youth tinspor t
    s Barangay
    (OSY)
    Organizati
    o
    nof
    Commi t
    tees
    torecrui
    t
    parti
    ci
    pant s

    Trai
    ningof
    part
    ici
    pant
    s

    B.
    3. Or
    gani
    zat
    ion

    Or
    gani
    zat
    ioni hast
    sbot ruct
    ureandapr
    ocess.

    Astructure-isl i
    keaskel etonoft hehumanbodyort heframeworkofahouse.As
    apr ocessi tmeans,t heset tingupoft heindiv
    idualsandf unct
    ionsint
    opr oducti
    ve
    rel
    ati
    onshi pandai medt owar dst heaccompl i
    shmentofcer t
    aincommonobj ecti
    ves.The
    cooper at
    ivespiri
    tamongt heempl oyeeswor ki
    ngt oget
    herismor eimportantthanthe
    organizati
    onalst ructureitself.Nomat t
    erhow goodt hest r
    uctur
    ei sonpaperi fthe
    peoplecannotgetal ongwel l
    wi theachot her,
    thegoalscannotbeachieved.
    Theor ganizationalstruct ure-isthepat t
    ernornetwor kofrel
    ati
    onshipsbetween
    thevariousposi t
    ionsandt hei ndividualsholdi
    ngsuchposi t
    ions.

    Ther
    ear
    etwot
    ypesofor
    gani
    zat
    ional
    str
    uct
    urear
    e:

    361
    1.Formalorgani
    zationalst
    ructure–ref
    erstoonewhichi
    sestabli
    shedbylaw.
    2.I
    nformalorganizati
    onalstructur
    e–r ef
    erstotheoneest
    ablishedunconsci
    ousl
    y
    bythespont aneousgr oupingsofpersonsandconsist
    sofr ul
    es,senti
    ments,
    tr
    adit
    ionsandcust oms.

    Ki
    ndsofFor
    malOr
    gani
    zat
    ion

    1.Thelineor ganization–concer nedwi t


    hwor ki
    ngtowardspr i
    mar yservi
    cegoals–
    l
    ineaut horit
    yisf r
    om t opt obot tom orthesupervi
    sor
    -subordinaterel
    ati
    onshi
    p;
    2.Thefunct ionalor ganization–f ocusesont hefuncti
    onoract i
    vit
    iesineachunit
    witht he functionalspeci al
    istorst affsuperv
    isi
    ng the activi
    ti
    es ofa single
    subordinate.
    3.Theli
    neandst af forgani zati
    on–madeupofl i
    neandst af
    funi t
    sexerti
    ngauthori
    ty
    overtheirsubor dinates;
    4.Thecommi t
    teet ypeofor ganizati
    on–wher eagroupofper sonsactasbodyand
    perf
    ormf uncti
    onal ,stafforlineduties.

    Exampl
    eofl
    ineor
    gani
    zat
    ion:

    Exampl
    eoff
    unct
    ionalor
    gani
    zat
    ion

    362
    Exampl
    eofLi
    neandSt
    affOr
    gani
    zat
    ion:

    a.

    363
    b.

    Exampl
    eofacommi
    tt
    eet
    ypeor
    gani
    zat
    ion

    I
    n appr
    aisi
    ng the agency’
    sf ormaland inf
    ormalstruct
    ure,t
    her
    e ar
    ethr
    ee
    concept
    swhicharesi
    gnif
    icant
    lyspeci
    al.Thesear
    ethefol
    l
    owing:

    364
    1.Lines ofauthority– Aut horit
    yher e means t he speci f
    ic administrati
    ve and
    supervi
    soryresponsi bil
    i
    tiesofsuper v
    isorst otheirsuper vi
    sees.Agencypol i
    cy
    usuall
    yspeci
    fiest heselinesofaut hor i
    tyinwr i
    ti
    ng.”
    2.ChannelsofCommuni cation–I nf ormallineofaut hori
    ty,communi cationshould
    fl
    owhar moniouslyandsy nchr onistical
    lyalongthel i
    nesofaut hori
    ty.Forexampl e,
    supervi
    sees ar e supposed t o communi cat
    e pr i
    mar il
    y witht heiri denti
    fi
    ed
    supervi
    sorsfordi recti
    onandf eedback.Li kewise,“supervisorsaresupposedt o
    communi cat
    edi rectlywi t
    ht heirsuper vi
    seesandt hemanager swhosuper vi
    se
    them.”
    3.Dimensionofpower–AshmanandHul lJr.State,“Poweri sthepot enti
    alabil
    it
    y
    tomov epeopl eonachosencour set oproduceanef fectorachievesomegoal .
    ’
    Thesameaut horssay ,“Dimensi onsofpowerar esupposedt ofol
    lowt hel i
    nesof
    author
    ity.
    ’

    Model
    sofOr
    gani
    zat
    ion

    1.Bur
    eaucr
    ati
    cf or
    m or ganizat
    ion– thi
    si saformalonewhi
    chcanbeseenas
    pyr
    amid,
    thati
    s,thereisoneaut hor
    it
    yont opandt
    hebasei
    sunder
    .Thechai
    nof
    commandistheref
    oref r
    om toptobottom.

    a)El
    ements
    Accor
    dingt
    oor
    gan,
    bur
    eaucr
    acyi
    scomposedoft
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ng:

    1.A pre-set system of pr ocedures and r ul


    es f
    or deal
    i
    ng wi
    th al
    l
    cont
    ingenci
    esr elati
    ngtoworkactivi
    ti
    es;
    2.Adivi
    sionoflaborbasedonspeci ali
    zati
    on;
    3.Promotionandsel ecti
    onbasedont echni
    calcompet
    ence;
    and
    4.Impersonal
    it
    yinhumanr el
    ati
    ons

    b)Di
    sti
    nct
    iveChar
    act
    eri
    sti
    cs

    1.Theor gani zationoper atesaccor di


    ngt oabodyofl awsorr ules,whi char e
    consistentandhav enor mal l
    ybeeni ntentional lyestabli
    shed
    2.Everyof fi
    cialissubj ectt oani mper sonal orderbywhi chhegui deshi sact i
    ons.
    Inturn,hi sinst ructionshav eaut horityonl yi nsof arast heyconf ormt ohi s
    generallyunder stoodbodyofr ul
    es;obedi encei sduet ohi sof fi
    ce, nott ohim
    asani ndiv i
    dual .
    3.Eachi ncumbentofanof ficehasaspeci fiedspher eofcompet ence,wi th
    obli
    gations, aut horityandpowert ocompel obedi encestrictl
    ydef i
    ned.
    4.Theor gani zationofof fi
    cesf oll
    owst hepr incipleofhi erarchyt hatiseach
    l
    owerof fi
    cei sundert hecont rolandsuper v isionofahi gherone.
    5.Thesupr emeheadoft heor ganization,andonl yheoccupi eshi sposi t
    ionby
    appropriations,byel ection,orbybei ng desi gnated as successor .Ot her
    offi
    cesar ef i
    ll
    ed, i
    npr incipl e,byfr eesel ectionandcandi dat esar esel ectedon
    thebasi sof“ techni cal qual ifi
    cati
    ons” .Theyar eappoi nt
    ed, notel ected.
    6.Thesy stem al soser vesasacar eerl adder .Ther eispr omot i
    onaccor dingt o
    seniori
    tyorachi ev ement .Pr omot ioni sdependentuponhi sj udgement .
    7.Theof ficialwhoi npr i
    nci ple,isexcl udedf rom anyowner shi pr i
    ghtsi nt he
    concern,ori nhi sposi t
    ion,i ssubj ectt odi sci pl
    ineandcont rolint heconduct
    ofhisof fi
    ce.

    2.Democr
    aticfor
    m –whi
    chismorei
    nfor
    malandempl
    oyeespar
    ti
    cipat
    eandshar
    e
    i
    ndeci
    sion-maki
    ng,
    pol
    i
    cy,
    etc.

    a)Character
    isticsofdemocr ati
    corgani zati
    onsaccor dingtoJohns:
    1.Deci si
    onsr egar
    dinggoalsandobj ecti
    ves,plansandpr oceduresaremade
    byallconcer nedpersonsort heirselectedrepresent
    ati
    v es.
    2.Cooper ationofst aff,board and commi tteesi scul
    tivated i
    nor dert
    o
    establ
    ishasmoot hwor kingrelati
    onship.
    3.Pr omot ionorselectionfornewordi ff
    erentwor koppor t
    unit
    iesbasedon

    365
    thevari
    edabilit
    iesandexper
    iencesoftheworker
    s,withaneyetowards
    thei
    rpersonaldevel
    opmentaswellasthegoodoftheagency
    .
    4.Warm,fr i
    endl
    y,cooperati
    ver
    elati
    onshi
    psbasedongr ouporteam spi
    ri
    t
    concept
    sar eencouraged.

    3.Adhocr
    acy–whi chisamodi f
    iedor ganizati
    onalstructureandisabl
    endofthe
    bur
    eaucrat
    icanddemocrat
    iccharacteri
    stics;Treckerrefer
    stothi
    sasamodif
    ied
    bur
    eaucrat
    ichi
    erar
    chyandther
    eist heflatteni
    ngoft hepy r
    amid.

    a)Char
    act
    eri
    sti
    cs:
    1.Centr
    aladmini
    str
    ati
    vecontr
    oli
    ssti
    llr
    etai
    ned.
    2.Deci
    sionandservi
    cedeli
    ver
    yaredecentr
    ali
    zedandshar
    ed.
    3.Theli
    neofcommuni cat
    ionf
    rom t
    hetoptobottom i
    sshort
    er.

    4.Coll
    egi
    alorprofessionalteam model–whi chaccor
    dingt
    oTreckeremphasi
    zes
    the“gr
    oupofpr ofessionalcol
    leaguesor
    ganizedinacoll
    abor
    ati
    velif
    est
    ylet
    hat
    pri
    zeswell
    -usedchannelsofcommuni cat
    ion.”

    a)Characteristi
    cs:
    1.Mut ual t
    rustamongthegroupmember s
    2.Cl ari
    tyonhowandwher edecisionsaremadeaswel lasaccount
    abi
    l
    ity
    ,
    3.Inv olvementoftheteam member s
    4.Del egat i
    onofr esponsi
    bil
    it
    iesandaut horit
    ywi t
    hbuil
    t-i
    nev al
    uat
    ionto
    determi nehowresponsibi
    li
    ti
    esar ecarri
    ed-out.
    5.Maxi mum i nf
    ormalcommuni cation
    6.Recogni ti
    onofspecialr
    esourcesi ntheagencyandinthecommunit
    y
    7.St ressont hegrowthoftheper sonsinvolv
    ed.

    Ki
    ndsofor
    gani
    zat
    ional
    char
    t

    Anor ganizat
    ionalchar t– i
    sapi ctor
    ialpr
    esentat
    ionoftheform whichthe
    organi
    zati
    onstructur
    et akes.I
    tshowshowwor kisdivi
    ded,whatwor
    keachperson,uni
    t,
    secti
    on,et
    c.Isresponsiblefor
    ,whodir
    ect
    st heworkortheli
    neofaut
    hor
    it
    y,andtowhom
    oneistoreport

    Accor
    dingt
    oDav
    isandFi
    l
    ley
    ,thet
    hreecommonki
    ndsofchar
    tsar
    e:

    1.Ver t
    icalchart–t hi
    sshowst hepositi
    onofaut hor
    it
    yatt hetopwi ththedif
    fer
    ent
    l
    ev elsinahor i
    zontalposit
    ionandt hefuncti
    onsrunni
    ngv erti
    cal
    ly.
    2.Hor i
    zontalchar t– thisshowst heposi t
    ionofaut hor
    ityont hel eftsi
    deand
    presentst hediff
    erentlevelsinav er
    ticalposi
    ti
    onwhi l
    ethef uncti
    onsareshown
    horizontal
    ly.
    3.Circularchart–t hi
    sshowst heposit
    ionofauthori
    tyfrom themi ddl
    eofthecir
    cle
    andt hefunctionsflowfrom thecenter.

    Exampl
    eofver
    ti
    calor
    gani
    zat
    ionchar
    t

    366
    Exampl
    eofahor
    izont
    alor
    gani
    zat
    ionchar
    t

    a.

    367
    b.

    Exampl
    eofci
    rcul
    archar
    t
    a.

    368
    b.

    Pr
    inci
    pleofor
    gani
    zat
    ion

    1.Wor kspeci al
    izationordi vi
    sionofwor k–inor dertoachievei t
    sobj ect
    ives,the
    taskt obeaccompl i
    shedmaybedi vi
    dedandassi gnedtotheper sonnelqualif
    ied
    todot het ask.Thi swill
    pr omot eimprovedperformance.
    2.Unityofcommand–eachandev erymemberoft heorganizat
    ionshoul dreportto
    oneandonl yonesuper visor.
    3.Spanofcont rol– t herei sal i
    mitast othenumberofpeopl eaper soncan
    super visewel l
    ; usuall
    yfrom f iv
    et osevenisagoodnumber .
    4.Homogeneousassi gnment–j obsmustber elat
    edandal l
    ied,functi
    onsmustnot
    overlap;f unctionsmustbespeci fi
    c,cl
    ear
    -cut,everyassi
    gnmentort askmustbe
    withi
    nt her angeofaccompl i
    shmentoft heper sonassignedt odot hejob;all
    functionsofev eryuni tmustbeassi gnedtospecifi
    cpersons.

    369
    5.Del egat i
    on ofaut hori
    ty– r esponsi bili
    ti
    es assi gned mustcar ry wi tht hem
    correspondi ngaut horit
    yf ordeci sion-maki ng; scalarauthorityfrom t opt obot tom;
    l
    imitt henumberofdel egatedf unct i
    ons; delegat i
    onofaut hor i
    tyandr esponsi bi l
    ity
    stemsatt helowestoper ationall evel;commandr esponsibili
    tyr estwi t
    ht he
    admi nistrator.
    6.Hi erarchicalorscal arpr i
    nciple–menar eor gani zedi ngroupsunderl eader swi t
    h
    ascendi nganddescendi ngl ev elsofaut hor it
    y .Whenshowni nt hechar t
    ,t he
    hier
    ar chyassumest hef orm ofapy r
    ami d.
    7.Li ne and st aff pr i
    nciple – The l ine peopl e are directl
    yi nvolv ed i nt he
    i
    mpl ement ati
    onandaccompl i
    shmentofobj ect i
    ves.Thest affpeopl eassi stt he
    l
    ineper sonnelbyt heirspeci alizedknowl edgeandski ll
    s.Theaut hor i
    tyofst aff
    peoplei stheaut hor i
    tyofknowl edgeandi deas.Thei rwor kisal ongpl anni ng,
    advising,etc.
    8.Di vi
    sionofl abor–Fort hev astor ganizationt oachi eveitsobj ective,t heremust
    bedi v i
    sion ofl abor .Onl yt hosequal i
    f i
    ed f ort heper formanceofa speci al
    functionshoul dbeassi gnedt ot hejob.
    9.A shor tchai nofcommand– t hereshoul dbeasf ew l evelsofsuper vision
    between t he t op management and t he r ank and f i
    l
    e.The shor ter t he
    admi nistrati
    vedi stance,t hel esschancest her ear ef ordistorti
    onofor ders,and
    thebet teristhef lowofcommuni cati
    on.
    10.Balance– t heremustber easonabl ebal ancebet ween t hesi zeofdi fferent
    depar tment s,andcent rali
    zationanddecent ralizati
    oni ndecision-maki ng.

    B.
    4.St
    aff
    ingorper
    sonnelmanagement

    Accor
    dingtot heSociet
    yofPer sonneladmi ni
    str
    ati
    on,“
    Staf
    fi
    ngorper sonnel
    managementoradmi nist
    rat
    ionist hear
    tofacqui ri
    ng,devel
    opi
    ngandmai ntai
    ninga
    competentworkf
    orceinsuchamannerast oaccompl i
    shwit
    hmaximum ef
    fi
    ciencyand
    economythefuncti
    onsandobject
    ivesoft
    heorganizat
    ion“.

    Obj
    ect
    ivesofst
    aff
    ing

    1.Tosecureanddev elopadequat
    eandef fici
    entper
    sonnelt
    oaidmanagementi
    n
    accomplishi
    ngthegoal soft
    heorganizat
    ion.
    2.To aidev er
    ypersonnelt o dev
    elopandper f
    orm totheli
    mitofhiscapaci
    ty
    recogni
    zi
    nghi si
    nterestsandcompetency.

    Thest
    aff
    ingpr
    ocess

    1.Effective-r ecr uit


    ment ,sel ection,and hi r
    ing – ev ery agency usual ly has a
    per sonnelpol i
    cyandsel ect i
    onpr ocedur e.Thisi nvolv esf i
    rstaj obdescr iption
    prepar edaf teraj obanal y sishasbeendone.Thej obdescr iptionshouldincl ude:
    adescr ipti
    onoft heposi tion,whatt heposi ti
    oni sandt owhom t heper soni s
    responsi ble,dut i
    esandr esponsi bil
    it
    ies,qualif
    icati
    ons, rel ationships.
    2.Placement–oncet heappl icantishiredi ti
    sassumedt hathei sther i
    ghtper son
    fort herightjob.
    3.Orientation ori nduct i
    on and t rai
    ning – despi tet he new empl oyee’sfor mal
    educat ion,managementshoul dpr oceedont hepr emi set hatt henewempl oy ee
    knowsl itt
    leofwhatheneedst oknowaboutt heagency .I tist heresponsibili
    tyof
    the agency t o givet he empl oyee the needed i nfor mat ion int he form of
    orientation.
    Orientationori nduct ioni sthepr oceduref ori ntroduci ngthenew wor ker
    tot heagency ’shi story,objectives,organizati
    onandst andar doper ati
    ngpol icies
    andpr ocedur es, r
    ulesandr egul ati
    ons,benef i
    ts,serviceset c.I tisthefir
    stpar tof
    theov er al
    l t
    rainingpr ogram oft henewwor kersint heagency .
    4.Promot ion– Thi sr eferst ot headv ancementofawor kert oabet t
    erj obor
    posi ti
    oni ntermsofgr eaterr esponsibil
    it
    ies,mor epr est ige, andgr eaterskil
    lsand

    370
    usual lyi ncreasesi nsal ary .Fact orst obeconsi der edi npr omot ionar emer itand
    per formanceorseni orit
    y .
    5.Tr ansf er–t hisist hemov ementoft hewor kerf r
    om oneposi t
    iont oanot herwi th
    basi callyt he same r esponsi bili
    ti
    es and sal aryl ev el.Thi si s a hor izont al
    mov ementasagai nstt hev ertical mov ementofpr omot i
    on.
    6.Per formanceAppr aisalorr ating–Thi sist hesy stemat i
    cper i
    odi cinv entor yor
    appr aisalofaper son’ schar acteristics,pot ent ial
    ityandper formancet hrough
    obser vationbyar ateronabasi sofasy stemat i
    canduni for m per formance
    standar dorgoal s,madebyt heempl oyeeandempl oyer .Itisusedt oequi tabl y
    andwi selydeci def orpr omot ions,t ransfer ,reduct i
    onorl ay-offs,t odet ermi ne
    trainingneeds, andasi ncent i
    v eandbasi sf oref fectivesuper vi
    sion.
    7.Wageandsal aryadmi nistrati
    on–t hepayt hatt hewor kerr eceivesi sani ncent ive
    todohi sjobwel l
    .Thoughasoci alwor keri sexpect edt owor kbecauseofhi s
    commi tmentt oser v e,hemusthi msel fsurv i
    v e;hencehewor kst oear nal i
    ving.
    8.Di sci pline–t hisist hef orcet hatpr ompt sani ndi vi
    dualorgr oupt oobser ver ules,
    regul ationsandpr ocedur est hatar edeemednecessar yt ot heat tainmentoft he
    obj ectives.I tshoul dnotbeseenasapuni shmentbutr atherasaf orm of
    educat ion.I ti st he empl oyer ’
    s act ion agai nstempl oyees f ori nfract i
    on of
    companyr ulesandpol icies.Iti sapr ocessofcont r
    ol.
    9.Empl oy eebenef itsandser vi
    ces–I naddi tiont odi rectwageswhi cht hewor ker
    recei ves, asuppl ement alcompensat ionorser viceisgi venbyt heagencywhi chi s
    cal l
    edempl oy ee’
    sbenef it
    sorf ringebenef i
    ts.
    10.Tur n-ov er,separ ation,r etirement–t ur n-overr ef erst ot heshi ftandr eplacement
    ofper sonnel .Itmaybeduet osepar at i
    on, retirement ,deat handdi sabili
    ty .

    St
    affDev
    elopment

    Accor
    dingt
    oSki dmor e,t
    he“MethodsofStaffDev
    elopment
    ”ar
    ethef
    oll
    owi
    ng:
    1.Lectures
    2.Casepr esent ati
    on
    3.Roleplay ing
    4.Self
    -devel opmentpr ogram
    5.Groupact ions
    6.Gameexer cises
    7.Libr
    aryfaci l
    i
    ties
    8.Continuingpr ofessi
    onaleducat
    ion(
    CPE)
    9.Exchanges

    B.5.Di
    rect
    ing

    –isapr ocessofimplementingthet ot
    alplanandbr i
    ngingint
    obeingallt he
    necessar
    yandav ai
    labl
    eresourcestoachiev
    et heobject
    ives.I
    tisacondit
    ionstaskof
    makingdeci
    sionsandembody i
    ngthem i
    naspeci f
    icandgeneralor
    dersandi
    nstruct
    ions.

    Accor
    dingt
    oDav
    isandFi
    l
    ley
    :

     Iti
    sthef uncti
    onofconst r
    ainingandr egulati
    ngactionbyi nt
    erpr
    eti
    ng,explaini
    ng
    andinstr
    uct i
    ngsubor dinat
    esaboutt herequir
    ementsoft heplanorsomephases
    ofit
    .
     Iti
    sacommuni cationbyasuper visor,concerni
    ngtheper f
    ormanceexpectedand
    theauthori
    tygr antedt othesubor dinat
    ef orsuchperfor
    mance.
     Iti
    sdesignedt ogiv ether espondentbot hinfor
    mat i
    onandunder st
    andingoft he
    worktobedone.
     Iti
    salsoconcer nedwi ththewayanexecut i
    veorsupervisori
    ssuesinst
    ructionto
    thesubordinates

    Di
    rect
    ingmeans–

     Encour
    agi
    ng subor
    dinat
    es t
    o wor
    ktowar
    d achi
    evi
    ng company obj
    ect
    ives

    371
    (ReineckeandSchoel l1980)
     Iti
    st hehuman,peopl e-
    to-
    peopl
    easpectofmanagi ngbywhichsubor di
    natesare
    mot ivated,persuaded,andl edtoeffect
    ivel
    yandef f
    ici
    entl
    ycont r
    ibutetowards
    reali
    zingt hev eryreasonsf orwhichtheent er
    pri
    seort hecompanyhasbeen
    established.
     Thismanagementf uncti
    onissomet i
    mesr efer
    redtoasi nf
    luenci
    ng,act uat
    ing,
    guiding, orsi
    mplyleadingormotivati
    ng.

    Di
    recti
    ngisi
    ssui
    ngi
    nst
    ruct
    ions.Ev
    eryi
    nst
    ruct
    ionshoul
    dpossesst
    hesebasi
    c
    f
    eat
    uresaccordi
    ngt
    oNewmanandSchatz:

    1.Compli
    anceshoul
    dbereasonabl
    e
    2.I
    tshoul
    dbecompleteastowhatistobedoneandwhen.
    3.I
    tshoul
    dbecleart
    othepersonrecei
    vi
    ngi
    t.

    St
    epsi
    ndi
    rect
    ing:

    1.Setti
    ngupt hemaj orresponsi
    bil
    it
    ies,per
    sons, uni
    ts,branches
    2.Placingt hejobs,r esponsibi
    li
    ti
    es,andf unctionspr operl
    yinanor
    gani
    zat
    ional
    pattern.
    3.I
    ssui ngthedi
    r ecti
    ons, speci
    alassignmentsandor ders.
    4.Cont rol
    l
    ingordi r
    ectingclosel
    ybybasi cpoli
    ciesandpl ans.

    B.
    6. Cont
    rol
    li
    ng

    Contr
    oll
    i
    ngi sdefi
    nedaccordi
    ngt
    oDavisandFi
    l
    leyas“
    Theworkofconstr
    aini
    ng,
    coordi
    nat i
    ngandr egulat
    ingacti
    oninaccor
    dancewit
    hplansfort
    heachievementof
    specif
    iedobjecti
    ves.

    I
    tinv
    olv
    es:

     Itinvolvesest ablishingofstandar ds,guides,orr equirementsasabasisf or


    measur ingandev aluati
    ngperformanceagai nstobjecti
    ves.
     Italsoinv olvesmot ivati
    onofpeopl etoachi evethesest andar
    dsandnecessary
    correct
    iveact i
    onwhenper f
    ormancedev i
    atesfrom theplan.
     Itist he f unctions ofmaki ng acti
    on conf orm t o standar
    ds t
    hatassur e
    satisf
    act oryaccompl ishmentoftheobj ect
    ivesofapl an.

    Essent
    ialst
    epsi
    nthecont
    rol
    process:

    1.Sett
    ingstandar
    dsatstrat
    egi
    cpoint
    s
    2.Checkingandrepor
    ti
    ngonper f
    ormance
    3.Gett
    ingfeedbackori
    nformat
    ionaboutt
    her
    esul
    tsofper
    for
    mance;
    and
    4.Taki
    ngcor r
    ecti
    veacti
    on

    Somemet
    hodsofcont
    rol
    li
    ng:

    Contr
    olinvolv
    es:
    1.Repor ti
    ng
    2.Settingdeadli
    nes
    3.Inspection
    4.Pr i
    orapprovalofpr
    oject
    s

    B.7. Coor
    dinat
    ion

    372
    Coordinati
    on–i sthepr ocessofinterrel
    ati
    ngthevari
    ouspar tsofthewor kofan
    agencysot hatitfuncti
    onsasawhol e.
    Itisapr ocessbywhi chcooper ati
    on,agr eementandunder st
    andi ngar esecuredto
    suppor tacommonendeav our .
    Iti
    sal soapr ocesswher ebyasuper vi
    sor/executi
    vedevel
    opsanor derlypatt
    ernofgroup
    effortamonghi ssubor dinatesandsecur esuni t
    yofacti
    oninthepur suitofthecommon
    purpose.
    Ittherefor
    ecal l
    sf oreffectiveleadershi
    pt oassurecoordinat
    ionnotonl yoft hejobor
    functionbutalsooft heper sonnel’
    seffor
    ts

    Coordi
    nati
    ont
    akespl
    acebet
    weenpeopl
    e,l
    i
    nki
    ngor
    gani
    zat
    ion,
    funct
    ionsandt
    he
    gr
    oupsofpeople.

    Ty
    pesofcoor
    dinat
    ion

    1. Coor dinati
    onoft hought s–t hishast odowi t
    ht herelati
    onshipbet weenment al
    act i
    viti
    es.Thedev elopmentofst andar dsoft houghtandact ioni simportant
    sincei tai dsincommonunder st
    andi ngoft heact i
    ont obet aken.Common
    measur es,termi nology,speci ficat
    ionorphi losophyar eal lexampl esofsuch
    basi caidst ocoor di
    nat i
    onoft hought .Aunit
    yoft houghtisal soaprerequi
    sit
    ef or
    ameet ingofmi nds, hencei simpor tantindevelopingandmai nt
    aini
    ngmor aleas
    wel l
    .
    2. Coor dinati
    onofact i
    on–t hishast odopr i
    mar i
    lywithest abli
    shingharmonious
    relati
    onshipbet weenphy sicalactivi
    t i
    es.Thepr opert r
    ainingandsequenceof
    phy sicalacti
    vit
    iesar eest ablished.

    For
    msofcoor
    dinat
    ion

    1. Perpendi cularorver ticalcoor dinati


    on–t hi
    sisef fectedthrought hecompet ent
    delegationofr esponsi bi
    li
    tyandt hecor respondingaut hori
    tyfort heper f
    ormance
    ofev eryactf rom t helargestt ot hesmal lest
    .Thescal arpri
    nci
    pl eofor ganizati
    on
    whichext endsf rom topt obot tom wi t
    ht heauthor i
    tycomi ngfrom t hetopaswel l
    asmai ntainingr esponsibili
    tyf orseei ngt hatthej obi sdoneaf terithasbeen
    delegatedi sanexampl ewher ev ert
    icalcoor dinationisaf f
    ect ed.Ideall
    y ,thi
    s
    shouldbet wowaycoor di
    nat i
    on,t hatis,notonl yf rom topt obot t
    om butal so
    bottom t otop.
    2. Hor i
    zontalcoor dinati
    onorcr osscoor dinat
    ion– Thi srefer
    st osuper vi
    sor sor
    execut i
    ves on t he same l ev elcoor dinati
    ng and r el
    ati
    ng t heiract i
    vit
    ies or
    functionsamongt hemsel ves.Thi sisnecessar ysi ncetheact ionswi thi
    none’ s
    areaofr esponsi bili
    tywi l
    laffecttheot herpar t
    soft heagencyandv ice-
    versa.

    Waysofef
    fect
    ivecoor
    dinat
    ion:

    1.Cl
    earli
    nesofaut horit
    yandr esponsibi
    li
    ty
    2.Peri
    odicreport
    3.Eff
    ecti
    vecommuni cati
    onsystem throughtheuseof
    :
    3.
    1.Commi t
    tees
    3.
    2.Staffmeet i
    ngs/confer
    ences
    3.
    3.Groupdeci si
    on-makingtechniques

    Inaddi
    ti
    ontotheabove,
    “modernmanagementleansheavil
    yonanotherconcept
    ’,
    t
    hati
    s,coordi
    nat
    ionbyreasonoft
    hef actt
    hattheent
    ir
    estaffunderst
    oodandaccepted
    t
    heorgani
    zati
    on’
    sgoalsandobj
    ect
    ivesandresult
    s(MBOR).

    Cr
    it
    eri
    aofasuccessf
    ulcoor
    dinat
    ion:

    1.I
    tisnotforcedbyaut ocr
    ati
    cdi
    recti
    onbuti
    sf oster
    edbyl
    eaderswhounderstand
    t
    hevalueoft hepart
    ici
    pati
    vemanagement.
    2.I
    tisti
    melyandext endsinabalancedor
    ganizati
    onandoper
    ateshor
    izont
    all
    yand
    v
    erti
    call
    y.

    373
    3.RensisLi kertnotedi nhi sBookon“ TheHumanOr gani zation”thatt herear e
    conditi
    ons whi ch shoul d be metby an or gani zation i fi ti st o achi evea
    sati
    sfact orysolutiont othecoor di
    nationoff unctional pr oblems.
    a)I tmustpr ov i
    dehi ghlevelsofcooper ati
    v ebehav i
    ourbet weensuper visors
    andsubor dinatesandespeci allyamongpeer s.
    b)I tsmember sshoul dhaveconf idenceandt rustamongt hemsel ves.
    c) I tmusthav etheor gani
    zationalst r
    uctureandt hei nteracti
    onski llrequired
    tosol vedifferenceandconf l
    ictsandt oatt aincr eat i
    vesol ut
    ions.
    d)I t must possess t he capaci t
    yt o exer ti nf luences and t o cr eate
    mot i
    vati
    onsandcoor di
    nationwi thouttr
    adi ti
    onal formsofl i
    neaut hori
    ty.
    e) I ts decisi
    on- maki ng processes and super i
    or-subor dinater el
    at ionships
    mustbesuchast oenableaper sont oper form hi sjobwel landwi thout
    hazar dwhenhehast woormor esuper i
    ors.
    Teamwor
    k

    In administr
    ati
    on,Leadershi
    p and support
    iveteamwork can make a maj
    or
    di
    ffer
    ence i nt he servi
    ces off
    ered.Skidmore sayst hat “
    staf
    f worker
    s worki
    ng
    cooperat
    ivelyworkt oget
    hercanbr i
    ngresul
    tsthatsurpassi
    nquant i
    tyandqual
    it
    ythe
    mereadditionoft hecontri
    but
    ionofeach.Whent heydonotwor ktoget
    herther
    esult
    s
    maybenegat i
    veordimini
    shed.

    Fi
    vemaj
    orpr
    ocesses:

    1. Communi cat i
    on–shar i
    ngofi deasandf eelingsandi nvolvesl i
    steni
    ngaswel las
    i
    nt eract i
    ngandr efl
    ect i
    ngbacki deasandi nvolv
    ebot hv erbalandnon- ver
    bal
    component s.
    2. Compr omi se– duet oindividualdi f f
    erences,i tisexpect edt hatwhent woor
    mor epeopl ecommuni catewi theachot her ,thenextpr ocessi seit
    hert oaccept
    thepl ansorwor koutacompr omi se.
    3. Cooper ation–Thi sisapr ocesswher etwoormor epeopl ear eworkingt ogether
    and hel ping each ot her.Iti nvol ves doi ng one’ s own wor k eff
    icientl
    y and
    effectivelyand maki ng successf ulcont ri
    but i
    ons t ot he agencyas a whol e.
    Commi tmentoft imeandener gyi si nvolvedi ncooper ati
    on.Compet itionamong
    staffmember sistheenemyoft eamwor k.
    4. Coor dinat ion – thisr equir
    est hei nv olvementofal lstaffmember s.Her et he
    “strandsofanagencyar eint er t
    wi nedi nor ganizationandpr acti
    cesot hatt he
    agency ’sst rengt
    hscomet ot hef oreandf r
    ictionanddi ff
    iculti
    esar emi nimized.
    5. Consummat ion – the act i
    vities and pr ojects st arted wi t
    h ot hers mustbe
    compl eted.Amaj orpar tofthet eamwor kpr ocessi sbr ingingser vi
    ceact ivi
    tiesto
    aconcl usion.

    B.
    8. Communi
    cat
    ion

    Communi
    cat
    ionhasbeendef
    ined:

     Isthatphaseofamanager ialprocessthattr
    ansmi t
    sideasf r
    om oneper sont o
    anotherforuseintheper f
    ormanceofmanager i
    alfuncti
    ons.(
    Davis&Fi l
    ley)
     Thet r
    ansf erofmeaningf rom oneper sontoanot herthr
    oughsi gns,signals,or
    symbolsf rom amutuall
    yunder stoodlanguagesystem.(Al
    bers)
     Itisat wo-way channeldi rected to al
    lstaffand/ orboar d member sf or
    tr
    ansmi t
    tingideas,plans,commands,r eport
    sandsuggest i
    onsconcer ningall
    appropri
    at eagencyt
    asks,goal sandobjecti
    veswhicharetobemet .(Belows)

    Ski
    dmorepoi
    ntsoutt
    hat‘communi
    cat
    ioni
    nsoci
    alwor
    kadmi
    nist
    rat
    ioni
    sext
    remel
    y
    i
    mport
    antf
    orthr
    eemai
    nreasons,
    namel
    y:

    1. Effecti
    veness – communicati
    on i
    s basici nt he del
    i
    veryofservi
    ces i nt
    he
    formulati
    onofsoundpolici
    esandindecision-maki
    ng.Suchcommuni
    cat i
    onmust
    bet wo-wayandmustbeademocr ati
    cpr ocess.
    2. Effi
    ciency–st af
    fmember smustcommuni cateopenl
    yamongthemsel vest
    he
    procedures,met hods,cases,poli
    cies,goal s,and eff
    ici
    entt
    echniques for

    374
    expedi
    ti
    ngandi
    mprov i
    ngsoci
    alser
    vicesaswel
    lascer
    tai
    npr
    ocedur
    eswhi
    char
    e
    foundt
    obeinef
    fect
    ive.

    Essent
    ialcomponent
    sofcommuni
    cat
    ion
    1.Sourceorsender
    2.Messenger
    3.Receiv
    er– unlesst
    herecei
    verget
    sandunder
    standst
    hemessage,ef
    fect
    ive
    communicati
    onhasnott
    akenpl
    ace

    6maj
    orpur
    poseofadmi nist
    rati
    vecommuni cat
    ion
    1.Toclari
    fywhati st obedone, how, andbywhom
    2.Toreinf
    orceident i
    tywi t
    hagencypur poses
    3.Totransmitproblems, suggestions,ideas
    4.Toreportprogress
    5.Topromot eparticipati
    on,and
    6.Topromot esocial int
    erchangeort opr ovi
    derecogni
    ti
    on

    Twopat
    ter
    nsofcommuni
    cat
    ion

    1. FormalCommuni cat
    ion–t hi
    smeanst herati
    onal
    ,pl
    annedsy
    stem ofpr
    ocedures
    andchannelsbywhichi nf
    ormat
    ionflowsf r
    om thel
    inesofauthor
    it
    yasseeni n
    theorgani
    zati
    onalchart
    .Thismayi ncludenotonlydownwardcommuni cat
    ion
    butal
    soupwar dandcrosscommunication.

    2. Inf
    ormalcommuni cati
    on – Thismeansthatcommunicationdoesnotfol
    l
    ow
    channel
    sofauthori
    ty.I
    nst
    eadi ti
    schannel
    ledbyt
    hesocialcontact
    samongthe
    peoplei
    ntheagencyanditi
    scommonl yknownas“gr
    apevine”.

    Cr
    it
    eri
    aofEf
    fect
    iveCommuni
    cat
    ion

    Communicat
    ionismeanttofaci
    l
    itat
    esomet hingandfori
    ttobeef
    fect
    ive,
    cer
    tai
    n
    cr
    it
    eri
    amustbeconsider
    ed.Accor
    dingt
    oTr ecker
    ,theyareasfol
    l
    ows:

    1.Thepur poseoft hecommuni cat i


    onmustbecl earandmustbeunder standbythe
    personmaki ngitandbyt heper sonreceiv
    ingi t.
    2.Bothspokenandwr i
    ttenmat eri
    almustbeascl earaspossi bleandsubj ectto
    onei nt
    erpret
    ati
    on.
    3.Effecti
    ve communi cation i s a ser i
    es ofconsi stentact s.In ot herwords,
    subsequentcommuni cat i
    onsar econsistentlyrel
    atedt oear l
    i
    ercommuni cat
    ion
    andav oidthehazar dofnul l
    i
    ficati
    on.
    4.Goodcommuni cati
    oni st i
    mel yinthatthoughti sgivent ot het i
    mingatpoi ntof
    i
    ssueandt hereadinessont hepar tofther ecipi
    ent.
    5.Goodcommuni cati
    oni st i
    mel yinthatthoughti sgivent ot het i
    mingatpoi ntof
    i
    ssueandt hereadinessont hepar tofther ecipi
    ent.
    6.Ingoodcommuni cati
    on, thoughti sgiventot hechannel stobeut il
    izedandt othe
    distr
    ibuti
    onsot hatther ightper sonwillr
    eceiv ethemat eri
    als.

    Thef
    iveC’
    sofCommuni
    cat
    ion

    Asquoted bySkidmoref
    rom Ful
    mer
    ,theFi
    veC’
    swhi
    ch ar
    eimpor
    tantf
    or
    ef
    fect
    ivecommuni
    cat
    ionsare:

    1.Clar
    ity– ambi guitymakesi tpossibl
    eforpeopl
    et ogivediff
    erentsignalsand
    dir
    ectionev enatthesamet ime.Messagesshouldbesi mpl
    eandcl ear.
    2.Compl eteness–ani nst
    ructionthatisonl
    ypart
    ial
    l
    ycompl et
    eisdiff
    iculttofol
    low.
    3.Conciseness–t heshorterapr esent
    ati
    on,t
    hebet t
    er,aslongasi tcov ersthe
    subject.
    4.Concreteness–communi cationshouldbeontarget
    .Itshould bev eryspecif
    ic,

    375
    ci
    ti
    ngnamesandexpectati
    ons,sothatnomisunderst
    andingari
    ses.
    5.Corr
    ectness–Ifthefal
    seinformati
    onisreported,di
    ff
    icul
    ti
    esensuref
    rom t
    he
    out
    set.Accur
    acyi
    sessenti
    al.

    B.
    9.Budget
    ingandf
    inanci
    ng

    Budget

     I
    saf i
    nanci
    alplanwhetherforanagencyorapr ogr
    am.
     Aplanofact i
    onwhi chr epresent
    st heor ganizat
    ion’sblueprintf
    orthecomi ng
    monthsoryearsexpressedinmonet aryterms.(MalvinGross)
     “
    Inthemostlit
    eralsensethebudgeti sadocumentcont ainingwordsandfi
    gures,
    whi
    chpr oposesexpendi t
    uresf orcertai
    ni temsandpur poses”andaddst hat
    “budgetmaybechar acteri
    zedasaser iesofgoal swi thpr i
    cetagsatt
    ached.”
    (
    Widausky)

    Themainareasi nfi
    nanci
    aladminist
    rati
    onare:
    1.Securingoffundsorincome
    2.Using the funds i
    n accordance wi
    tht he object
    ives oft
    he organi
    zati
    on or
    budget i
    ng;and
    3.Maintainingappr
    opri
    aterecordsoffi
    nancialt
    ransact
    ionsoraccount
    ingandal
    so
    audit
    ing.

    Conceptstounderst
    and:
    1. Accounti
    ng – I
    ti sthe ar
    tofrecording,cl
    assif
    ying,and summarizing i
    na
    si
    gnifi
    cantmannerandintermsofmoneyt r
    ansacti
    onsorev entswhicharein
    partofafi
    nanci
    alchar
    act
    erandanal
    yzingandinter
    preti
    ngtheresul
    tst
    her eof
    .

    2. Recor di
    ng – incl
    udes making entr
    ies,cl
    assi
    fyi
    ng,includes sort
    ing mass of
    transacti
    onsinanor der
    lyandsystematicmanner,summar i
    zi
    ngmeansbr i
    ngi
    ng
    togetherofaccounti
    ngdatainaformt hatf
    urt
    herenhancestheinformati
    on.

    3. Auditi
    ng–i sthest at
    eofmaki nganaudi toranexami nat i
    onofsomeoral lofthe
    fol
    lowing document s,r ecords,r eportssy stem ofmut ualcont rol
    ,accounting
    proceduresandot herev i
    dencesf oroneormor eoft
    hef ollowingpurpose:
    a)To det ermine the pr opriety,legality
    ,and mat hemat i
    calaccuracy of
    proposedorconsummat edt ransacti
    on.
    b)Ascer tainwhet heralltransact i
    onshav ebeenrecor ded.
    c) Det erminewhet hertransact i
    onsar eaccur at
    elyr eflect
    edi ntheaccounts
    and int hest atement sdr awn,t hereforeinaccor dancewi thaccepted
    account i
    ngprocedur es.

    4.Fi
    nanci ng–i st heal l
    ocationofanor ganizati
    on’sli
    quidasset stoassur et hei
    r
    mostpr oducti
    veusewhi chmeans,t hel i
    mi tedsupplyofcapi t
    alavail
    ablet oan
    organizationmust ,iftheagencyi sgoi ngt obesuccessf ul
    ,beusedi nawayi n
    whichi tcandomostgoodi ntermsofpr ofit
    abili
    ty.
    5.Fi
    nanci alRecord–t hi
    si sanon- goingr ecordofwhatt hatagencyhasspenton
    whatandhow wel litisst ay
    ingwi thinitsbudget .Theagency ’
    sbookkeeperor
    account antentersintothison-goingrecor dorl edgerbookal lr
    ecei
    pts,cancel l
    ed
    checksandot hernecessar ydocument sorpaper sshowi ngwhathav ebeen
    spent.Al lsocialwor kerswhoar ewor kingont hepr ogram mustper iodicall
    y
    checkwi t
    hthebookkeeperoraccount anttoseehowt hemoneyf ort
    hatpr ogram
    i
    sbei ngspent .

    St
    epsi
    nBudgetpr
    epar
    ati
    on:
    1.Developi
    ngastat
    ementofgoalsandobj
    ect
    ives
    2.Wri
    tingaplanofact
    ion
    3.Set
    tingupachartofaccount
    s

    376
    Cost-benef i
    tanalysis
    Levi
    nesay st hatCost-benefit–meanst herelati
    onshipofther esour cesrequired
    orthecost -toattaincertai
    ngoal sorthebenef i
    ts.I
    ti sbasedont heeconomi cconcept
    thatmanyexecut ivedecisionsi nvolvetheal l
    ocati
    onorbestuseofl i
    mi tedr esources
    among compet ing r equir
    ement s. Cost-benefi
    t analysisi st hus a t oolf or the
    administrat
    orconf r
    onted wi t
    ht he need t o make choi cesamong v iable compet ing
    progr
    amsdesi gnedt oachi evecer tai
    nobj ecti
    ves.Itpr ovi
    desapackageofr el
    evant
    i
    nformat i
    ononwhi cht obasecer tai
    nki ndsofdecisions.Itdoesnotf avourt hecheapest
    orevent hebestpr ogram buttheopt i
    malpr ogram intermsoft heav ailableresources-
    money ,trai
    nedper sonnel,f
    acili
    ti
    es.

    Thebudget
    -maki
    ngpr
    ocess

    Accor
    dingt
    oSki
    dmor
    e,t
    hepr
    ocessi
    nvol
    vest
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ngst
    eps:

    1.Set t
    ingt hespeci f
    icneedsandgoal soft heagency .Thegoal sandobj ecti
    ves
    oughtt obemeasur ableandobser vable.
    2.Col l
    ect i
    ng and st udy i
    ng basi ci nformation r egar
    ding t
    he cur r
    entand past
    oper ationsoft heagency ,incl udingwhathasandhasnotbeenaccompl i
    shed.
    3.Looki ng atal ter
    nat i
    vesand di ff
    erentway sofusi ng t
    hemoneyt hatmay be
    availabl edur i
    ngthey ear .
    4.Decidi ngonpr i
    ori
    tiesf ort heagency .Lookatt heagencypolici
    esandgaol sto
    seewhi charemostf inanciallycompat i
    blewi ththeagency.
    5.Finalizing deci si
    ons r egardi ng t he budget .The needs and pot ent
    ial
    s oft he
    agencyasawhol eandt hei ndi vidualswhowor kther
    eshouldbeconsidered.Also
    thewel fareofcl i
    ents,al ongwi tht heef f
    iciencyoft he agency’soperati
    on,is
    i
    mpor tantmat ter
    st oconsi der
    6.Prov i
    di ngadequat ei nterpret ationandpubl icr el
    ati
    ons.Theadmi ni
    str
    atorshould
    i
    nt erprett hebudgett ot hosei nposi tionofpowersot heywil
    lfull
    yunderstandthe
    reasonsf orspecif
    icrequest s.

    Char
    tofAccount

    Theadmini
    str
    atorshoul
    dperi
    odi
    call
    ychecktheagency’
    sbudgett
    oascer
    tai
    nthe
    bal
    ancebet
    weenincomeandexpendi t
    ures.Sett
    ingupachar tofaccount
    swhichis
    basi
    cal
    lyal
    istofal
    litems,bot
    hincomeandexpenditur
    est obeaccount
    edforwil
    lbe
    hel
    pful
    .

    Ot
    herphasesofbudget
    ing

    Aftert
    hebudgethasbeenprepared,t
    henextphasewhi cht headministr
    atorhas
    todealwithistosubmiti
    tforahear i
    ngt otheappropr
    iat
    ebodyf orrat
    if
    icati
    onand
    aut
    hori
    zati
    on.Inthecaseoft hepubl
    icagencyinthePhi l
    ippines,itistheBat asang
    Pambansa,orifitisa pri
    vateagency ,i
    tisitsboard ofdi rectorsort hegener al
    membershipoft
    heorgani
    zat
    ion.

    ThebudgetCycl
    e

     BUDGETCALL
     STAKEHOLDERENGAGEMENT
     TECHNICALBUDGETHEARINGS
     EXECUTIVEREVIEW
     CONSOLIDATION,VALI
    DATI
    ONANDCONFIRMATI
    ON
     PRESENTATIONTOPRESIDENTANDCABI
    NET
     THEPRESIDENT’SBUDGET

    377
    PHASEI–THEBUDGETPREPARATI
    ON

    a)Thebudgetcal
    l

    Att hebegi
    nningoft hebudgetpreparat
    ionyear
    ,theDepartmentofBudgetand
    Management( DBM)i ssuestheNationalBudgetCalltoallagencies(i
    ncl
    udi
    ngstate
    uni
    ver
    sit
    iesandcoll
    eges)andasepar ateCorpor
    ateBudgetCal
    ltoallGOCCsandGFIs.

    TheBudgetCal lcontai
    nsbudgetpar ameter
    s( i
    ncludingmacr oeconomi cand
    fi
    scaltar
    getsandagencybudgetcei
    li
    ngs)assetbeforehandbytheDev el
    opment
    BudgetCoordi
    nati
    onCommi t
    tee(
    DBCC) ;
    andpoli
    cygui del
    inesandpr oceduresi
    n
    theprepar
    ati
    onandsubmi ssi
    onofagencybudgetproposals.

    b)St
    akehol
    der
    s’engagement

    A new f eat
    urei n budget pr epar
    ati
    ons which seeks t oi ncrease citi
    zen
    part
    ici
    pati
    onint hebudgetpr ocess,depart
    mentsandagenci esar etaskedt opar t
    ner
    withciv
    ilsoci
    etyorganizati
    ons( CSOs)andot herciti
    zen-
    stakeholder
    sast heyprepare
    thei
    ragencybudgetproposal s.Thisnewpr ocess,whi
    chwaspi l
    otedinthepr eparat
    ion
    ofthe2012NationalBudget,i
    snowbei ngexpandedtowardsinsti
    tuti
    onali
    zation

    Depar
    tment
    sandGOCCsMandat
    edt
    oConductCSOConsul
    tat
    ions

    ORI
    GINALSET(
    Pil
    otedi
    n2012 NEW SET(
    Star
    ti
    ng2013
    Depart
    mentofHealt
    h DepartmentofTour i
    sm
    Depart
    mentofEducati
    on Department of Tr ansportat
    ion and
    Depart
    ment of Soci al Wel f
    are and Communi cati
    on
    Devel
    opment Department of I nteri
    or and Local
    Depart
    mentofPubli
    cWor ksandHighways Government
    Depart
    mentofAgri
    cult
    ure DepartmentofJust ice
    Depart
    mentofAgrar
    ianReform DepartmentofLaborandEmpl oyment
    Nati
    onalFoodAut
    horit
    y DepartmentofEnv ironmentand Nat ur
    al
    Nati
    onalHousi
    ngAuthori
    ty Resources
    Nati
    onalHome Mor t
    gage and Finance Li
    ghtRail TransitAuthorit
    y
    Corp. Nati
    onal Electr
    if
    icati
    onAdmi nistr
    ati
    on
    Nati
    onal I
    r r
    igat
    ionAdmi ni
    str
    ati
    on

    Note:Al
    lot
    herdepar
    tment
    sand agenci
    esar
    ehi
    ghl
    yencour
    aged t
    o under
    taket
    he
    pr
    ocess.

    Bot
    tom-
    UpBudget
    ing

    Fort hef ir
    stt i
    mei nhi
    story,theNationalBudgetf or2013waspr eparedusingt he
    breakthrough “ Bot t
    om – up Appr oach”.As opposed t ot he conv enti
    onalway of
    al
    locating r esources f r
    om t op to bottom,gr assroots communi ti
    es are engaged i n
    designingt heNat ionalBudget.TheAqui noGov ernment,throughtheCabi netClusteron
    HumanDev elopmentandPov ertyReduction,hasi dent
    ifi
    ed300t o400oft hepoor est
    muni ci
    pal i
    ti
    esandengagedt hesei ncrafti
    ngcommuni ty–l evelpovertyreducti
    onand
    empower mentpl ans.Thi sinit
    ialsalvo of“ bottom up budget i
    ng f ocused orRur al
    DevelopmentPr ogr amsandt heCondi t
    ionalCashTr ansferPrograms.Agenci esinvol
    v ed
    aretheDA, DAR, DENR, DSWD, DepEdandDOH.Theseagenci esincludethecommuni ty
    pl
    ansi nt hepr oposedbudget .

    c) Techni
    cal
    BudgetHear
    ings

    Theseareconduct
    edaft
    erdepar
    tmentandagenciessubmitt
    hei
    ragencybudget
    proposal
    st otheDBM.Her e,theagenci
    esdefend theirpr
    oposebudgetsbeforea
    techni
    calpanelofDBM,based on per f
    ormance indi
    cator
    s on out
    putt ar
    get
    s on

    378
    absorpt
    ive capaci
    ty.DBM Bur
    eaus t
    hen r
    evi
    ew t
    he agencypr
    oposal
    s and pr
    epar
    e
    recommendat i
    ons.

    d)Execut
    iveRev
    iew

    Therecommendat i
    onsarepresent
    edbeforeaneExecuti
    veRev iew Boardwhich
    i
    scomposedoft heDBM Secr etar
    yandSeniorof f
    cial
    s.Deli
    berat
    ionsher eentai
    la
    caref
    ulpri
    ori
    ti
    zati
    onoft heprogramsandcor r
    espondingsupportvi
    s-a-vi
    st hepri
    orit
    y
    agendaoft henat i
    onalgover
    nment .I
    mplementat
    ionissuesarealsodi scussedand
    resol
    ved.

    e) Consol
    i
    dat
    ion,
    Val
    i
    dat
    ionandConf
    ir
    mat
    ion

    DBM t hen consol idates t he r ecommended agency budget s and


    recommendat i
    onsi ntoANat ionalExpenditureProgram andaBudgetofExpendi tures
    andSour cesofFi nancing(BESF) .Aspar toftheconsoli
    dati
    ngpr ocess,t
    hedeli
    ber
    ations
    byt heDBCC wi ldeterminet heagencyandsect oralal
    locati
    onoft heappr
    ovedtot al
    expendit
    ur eceil
    ing,inlinewi t
    ht hemacr oecnomi candfiscalprogram.Headsofmaj or
    department sareinvit
    edt othismeet i
    ng.
    f) Pr esent
    ationtoPr esidentandCabi net

    Thepr oposedbudgeti spr esnetdebtDBM,t ogetherwiththeDBCC,t othe


    Presi
    dentandCabi netf
    orf ur
    therr
    efinementsorrepri
    ori
    tizat
    ion.Af
    tert
    hePr
    esidentand
    Cabinetapprovet he proposed Nat i
    onalexpendi
    ture Plan,the DBM pr
    epares and
    fi
    nali
    zesthebudgetdocument stobesubmi tt
    edtoCongr ess.

    g)ThePr
    esi
    dent
    ’sBudget

    The budgetpreparat
    ion phase ends wi
    tht he submissi
    on oft he proposed
    nati
    onalbudget–the“Presi
    dent’
    sBudget”-t
    ocongress.ThePr esi
    dent’
    sBudgetconsists
    oft he f
    oll
    owing documents,which helps l
    egi
    slators anal
    yze the content
    s oft he
    proposedbudget:

     President’
    sBudgetMessage( PBM)–t hisi swher ethepr esidentexpl ainst he
    poli
    cyf r
    amewor kandpr iorit
    iesi nthebudget .
     BudgetofExpendi t
    uresandsour cesoff inancing( BESF)– mandat edbyt he
    constit
    uti
    on,t his cont ains t he macr o-economi c assumpt i
    ons,pubi c sector
    contextincludinhov erviewsofLGUandGOCCf inancialposi t
    ions, breakdownof
    theexpedi t
    uresandf undi ngsour cesf ort hef i
    sclay eareandt het wopr ev i
    ous
    years.
     NationalExpendi turePr ogr am ( NEP)–t hiscont ainst hedet ailofspendi ngf or
    eachdepar tmentandagencybypr ogr am,act iv
    ityorpr ojectandi ssubmi ttedin
    thef orm ofapr oposedGener alAppr opr i
    ationAct .
     Detail
    sofsel ectedPr ogr amsandPr ojects–t hi
    scont ainsamor edi saggregat i
    on
    ofkeypr ograms,pr ojectsandact ivi
    tiesi nt heNEPespeci all
    yt hosei nlinewi t
    h
    theNat i
    onalGov er nment sDev elopmentPl an.
     Staffi
    ngsummar y–t hiscont ainsasummar yoft hestaffi
    ngcompl ementofeach
    departmentandagencyi ncludi ngnumberofposi ti
    onsandamount sal l
    ocat edfor
    thesame.

    PHASEI
    I–BUDGETLEGI
    SLATI
    ON

    a)HouseDel
    i
    ber
    ati
    on

    TheHouseofRepr esentati
    ves,i
    nplenary,assignsthePresidentBudgett othe
    House Appr opri
    ati
    ons Commi ttee.The Commi t
    tee and its sub-Commi t
    tees then
    scheduleandconducthear ingsont hebudgetsoft hedepartmentsandagenci esand
    scruti
    nize theirr espect
    ive pr ograms and projects. Itthen cr aft
    st he Gener al
    Appropr i
    ati
    onsBi l
    l( GAB).I nplenar
    ysession,theGABi ssponsor ed,pr
    esentedand
    defendedbyt heAppropri
    ationsCommi t
    teeandSub-commi tt
    eeChairmen.Asi nallot
    her
    l
    aws,t heGABi sapprovedonSecondandThi r
    dReadi ngbef
    oret ransmi
    ssiont othe

    379
    Senate.(Note:i
    nthe Fi
    rstReadi
    ng,t
    he Pr
    esi
    dent
    ’s Budgeti
    s assi
    gned t
    othe
    Appropri
    ati
    onsCommi
    tt
    ee.
    )

    b)Senat
    eDel
    i
    ber
    ati
    ons

    Asinthehousepr ocess,thesenateconductsit
    sowncommi tteeheari
    ngsand
    plenarydel
    iber
    ationsontheGAB.Budgetdel i
    berat
    ionsintheSenateformallyst
    artaf
    ter
    theHouseofRepr esent
    ati
    vest r
    ansmitstheGAB.Forexpediency,howev er
    ,theSenate
    FinanceCommi t
    teeandSub- commi t
    teesusuall
    yst ar
    theari
    ngsont heGABev enas
    Husedel i
    berat
    ionsareongoing.

    c) Bi
    camer
    alDel
    i
    ber
    ati
    ons

    Oncebot
    hhousesofCongr esshavef ini
    shedt hei
    rdel
    iber
    ati
    ons,t
    heywi
    lleach
    constit
    uteapaneltothebicameralConferenceCommi tt
    ee.Thiscommitt
    eewil
    lthen
    discussandharmoni
    zetheconfl
    icti
    ngprovisionsoft heHouseandSenateVer
    sionsof
    theGAB.Ahar moni
    zedver
    sionoftheGABi sthuspr oduced.

    d)Rat
    if
    icat
    ionandEnr
    oll
    ment

    Thehar
    monizedor“Bicam”Versi
    oni st hensubmitt
    edtobot
    hHouses,whi
    chwil
    l
    thenvotet
    orati
    fyt
    hefinalGABf orsubmissiont othePresi
    dent
    .Oncesubmi
    tt
    edtothe
    Presi
    dentf
    orhi
    sapproval
    ,theGABi sconsideredenroll
    ed.

    e) TheVet
    omessage

    Thepresi
    dentandDBM t henreviewtheGABandprepareaVet oMessage, wher
    e
    budgetit
    emssubj ect
    edt odi
    rectvetoorconditi
    onali
    mplementati
    onareidenti
    fiedand
    wheregeneralobservati
    onsaremade.Undert heConsti
    tut
    ion,theGAB ist heonly
    l
    egisl
    ati
    vemeasurewher ethepresidentcanimposeali
    ne-v
    eto(inallot
    hercases,alaw
    i
    seitherappr
    ovedorv et
    oedinfull
    ).

    f
    ) Enact
    ment

    WhentheGAAi snotenact ed,beforethef iscalyearstar


    ts,t
    hepr eviousy ear
    ’s
    GAA is aut
    omat i
    call
    yr e-
    enacted.Thi s means t hatagency budget sf orpr ograms,
    proj
    ect
    sandact ivi
    ti
    esr emaint hesame.Fundi ngf orprogramsorpr oj
    ectst hathav e
    alr
    eadybeenterminatedisreali
    gnedf orotherexpendi t
    ures.Becausere-enactmentar e
    tedi
    ousandpronetoabuse, theAquinoAdmi nist
    ration–wi ththesupportofcongr ess–
    hascommi t
    tedtoensurethet i
    melyenactmentoft henewGAAev eryyear
    .

    REENACTEDBUDGETS

    WhentheGAAi snotenactedbef orethef i


    scalyear
    ’sstart
    ,theprev
    iousYear’
    s
    GAAi sautomaticall
    yre-
    enact
    ed.Thismeanst hatt heagencyprograms,proj
    ectsand
    acti
    vi
    ti
    esremaint hesame.Fundingf orprogramsandpr oj
    ectsthathavealr
    eadybeen
    termi
    natedisreall
    igendforot
    herexpenditures.Becauser e-enact
    mentaretediousand
    pronetoabuse,theAquinoadmini
    strati
    onwi tht hesupportofcongresshascommi t
    ted
    toensurethet
    imelyenactmentoft
    henewGAAev er
    yy ear
    .

    PHASEI
    II–BUDGETEXECUTI
    ON

    1.Rel
    easeGui
    del
    inesandPr
    ogr
    am
     Thebudgetexecut
    ionphasebegi
    nswi t
    hDBMsissuanceofgui
    del
    i
    neson
    ther
    eleaseontherel
    easeanduti
    l
    izat
    ionoff
    unds.
    2.Budgetexecut
    iondocument
    s(beds)
     Agencies ar
    erequir
    ed to submitt hei
    rBEDs att he star
    tofbudget
    executi
    on.These documents outl
    ine agency plans and per
    for
    mance
    tar
    gets.TheseBEDsi ncl
    udephy si
    calandf inanci
    alplan,monthl
    ycash

    380
    progr
    am,esti
    mateofmonthl
    yincome,andl
    i
    stofobl
    i
    gat
    ionst
    hatar
    enot
    yetdueanddemandabl
    e.
    3.Al
    lot
    mentandcashr
    eleasepr
    ogr
    ammi
    ng
     To ensur ethatrel
    eases fitthe approv ed Fi
    scalPr ogram,t he DBM
    prepares an All
    otmentRel ease Program ( ARP)t o seta l imitfor
    al
    lotmentsissuedtoanagencyandont heaggregate.TheARPofeach
    agencycor r
    espondst othet ot
    alamountoft heagency -specif
    icbudget
    undert heGAA,aswel lasAut omaticAppr opr
    iati
    ons.A CashRel ease
    Program (CRP)isal so for
    mul at
    ed alongsidethatt o seta gui defor
    di
    sbur sementl
    evel
    sforthey earandforev er
    ymont handquar ter.

    4.Al
    lot
    mentr
    elease
     Al lot mentwhi chaut hori
    zeanagencyt oenterint
    oanobl igation,areeit
    her
    releasedbyDBM t oallagenci escompr ehensi
    velythrought heAgency
    BudgetMat rix( ABM)and i ndivi
    duallyv i
    a SpecialAllotmentRel ease
    Or der s(SAROs) .
    ABM –Thi sdocumentdi saggregatesal lprogrammedappr opriationsforeach
    agencyi nt ot wo mai n expendi tur
    e cat egori
    es:“ notneeding cl earance”and
    “needi
    ngcl earance”
    .TheABM i st hecompr ehensiveall
    otmentreleasedocument
    forappropr i
    ati
    onswhi chdonotneedcl earance,ort hosewhi chhav ealready
    beenit
    emi zedandf leshouti ntheGAA.
    SARO – I temsi dentif
    iedas“ needingcl earance”ar ethosewhi chr equir
    et he
    approvaloft heDBM ort hePresident,ast hecasemaybe.Forsuchi t
    ems,an
    agencyneedst osubmi taSpeci alBudgetRequestt otheDBM wi thsuppor t
    ing
    document s.Onceappr ov ed,aSAROi sissued.
    5.I
    ncur
    ri
    ngobl
    i
    gat
    ions
     I nt hei mpl ementingpr ograms,act i
    v i
    ti
    esandpr ojects,agenci esi ncur
    l
    iabili
    tiesonbehal foft hegov ernment .Obl igati
    onsar el iabili
    ti
    esl egal ly
    i
    ncur red,whi chthegov ernmentwi llpayf or .Therear ev ariousway st hat
    anagency“ obligat
    es”:f orexampl e, wheni thi restaff(anobl i
    gationt opay
    salaries),receivesbilli
    ngf ortheuseofut iliti
    es,orent ersi ntoacont ract
    withanent ityforthesuppl yofgoodsorser vices.
    THEGAAALLOTMENT
     The Aqui no Admi nistration plans t o desi gn t he annual Gener al
    Appr opr i
    ationsActast hecompr ehensiveal lot
    mentr eleasedocument
    i
    tself.Thi sisbei ngpur suedi nordert osi gni fi
    cantlyspeed- upt hepr ocess
    ofreleasi ngt heBudgetandi mplement i
    ngt hepr ogramsandpr ojectst hat
    i
    tf unds.The2013Nat i
    onalBudget ,cur rent l
    ybei ngpr epar ed,i sbei ng
    designedi nsuchway .Thi sent ai
    lst hedi saggr egationofal lbudgeti tems
    i
    nt oful ldetail,
    aswel last heel i
    mi nationofal llump-sum f unds, sav efora
    few except ionssuchast heCalami t
    yFund.I not herwor ds,thisr eform
    significantlyreducest heneedf orSAROs.
    6.Cashal
    locat
    ion
     Toaut horizeanagencyt opayt heobl igat i
    onsi tincurs,DBM i ssuesa
    disbursementaut horit
    y.Mostoft het i
    me, i
    tt akest hef orm ofaNot iceof
    CashAl locati
    on( NCA) ;andi nspeci alcases,t heNon- CashAv ai
    lment
    Authority( NCAA)andCashDi sbursementCei li
    ng( CDC) .
    NCA – Thi si s a cash aut horit
    yi ssued per iodicall
    ybyt he DBM t ot he
    operati
    ng uni tsofagenci est o cov ert hei
    rcash r equi r
    ement s.The NCA
    specifi
    est hemaxi mum amountofcash t hatcan bewi thdrawn f r
    om a
    governmentser vi
    cingbankf ortheper i
    odindi cated.Ther eleaseofNCAsby
    DBM i sbasedonanagency ’ssubmi ssionofi t sMont hlyCashPr ogram and
    otherrequireddocument s.
    OtherDisbur sementAut hori
    ties–I ncont rastt oNCAs,NCAAsar eissuedt o
    authori
    ze non- cash di sbursement s. CDCs ar e meanwhi l
    e issued t o
    department s wi t
    h ov erseas oper ations,al lowi ng t hem t o use income
    coll
    ectedbyt hei
    rforeignpost sfortheiroperat ingr equirement s.

    7.Di
    sbur
    sement
     Thi
    si st
    hefinalstepoft
    hebudgetexecut
    ionphase,wher
    egov
    ernment
    moniesareactual
    l
    yspent
    .TheModifi
    edDisbur
    sementSchemei
    smostly

    381
    used,wheredisbur
    sementsofnat i
    onalgov
    ernmentagenci eschar geabl
    e
    againstt
    heTreasur
    yar emadet hroughgovernmentser
    v i
    cingbanks, such
    astheLandBankoft hePhil
    ippines.
     Thebudgetprocess,ofcourse,doesnotendwhengov ernmentagenci es
    spendpubli
    cfunds:eachandev erypesomustbeaccount edf ortoensure
    thatisusedproper
    ly,cont
    ri
    butingtotheachievementofsoci o-economic
    goals.

    PHASEI
    V–BUDGETACCOUNTABI
    LITY

    Thisphasehappensal
    ongsidetheBudgetExecut
    ionphase.Thr oughBudget
    Accountabi
    li
    ty,t
    heDBM monitor
    st heeff
    ici
    encyoffunduti
    l
    izati
    on,assessesagency
    perf
    ormanceandprovi
    desavi
    talbasisf
    orref
    ormsandnewpoli
    cies

    382
    383
    THEBUDGETI
    NGPROCESS

    1.Whati
    sgov
    ernmentbudget
    ing?

    Governmentbudget i
    ng isthe crit
    icalexerci
    se ofal l
    ocat
    ing rev
    enues and
    borr
    owedf undstoattai
    ntheeconomicandsocialgoalsofthecountr
    y.I
    talsoent
    ail
    sthe
    managementofgov ernmentexpenditur
    esi nsuchawayt hatwillcr
    eatethemost
    economici mpactf r
    om t he pr
    oduct
    ion and deli
    very ofgoods and servi
    ces whil
    e
    suppor
    tingahealthyfi
    scalposi
    ti
    on.

    2.Whyi
    sgov
    ernmentbudget
    ingi
    mpor
    tant
    ?

    Gov er
    nmentbudget ingi
    si mport
    antbecausei tenablest hegover
    nmentt oplan
    andmanagei tsfi
    nancialr
    esourcestosupporttheimplement ati
    onofv ar
    iousprograms
    andprojectsthatbestpromotethedevelopmentoft hecountry.Throughthebudget,t
    he
    gover
    nmentcanpr ior
    it
    izeandputintoacti
    onitsplans,programsandpol i
    cieswithi
    nthe
    const
    rai
    nt sofitsf
    inancial
    capabil
    it
    yasdictat
    edbyeconomi cconditi
    ons.

    3.Whatar
    ethemaj
    orpr
    ocessesi
    nvol
    vedi
    nnat
    ional
    gov
    ernmentbudget
    ing?

    Budget
    ingf
    ort
    henat
    ionalgov
    ernmenti
    nvol
    vesf
    our(
    4)di
    sti
    nctpr
    ocessesor
    phases:

    a)Budgetpr eparati
    on
    b)budgetaut hori
    zati
    on
    c) budgetexecution
    d)accountabili
    ty

    Whil
    edisti
    nctl
    yseparate,
    theseprocessesov er
    lapintheimplementat
    ionduri
    nga
    budgetyear.Budgetpreparat
    ionforthenextbudgety earproceedswhil
    egov er
    nment
    agenci
    esareexecuti
    ngt hebudgetforthecurrentyearandatt hesametimeengagedin
    budgetaccount
    abil
    it
    yandr evi
    ewoft hepastyear'
    sbudget .

    4.Howi
    stheannual
    nat
    ional
    budgetpr
    epar
    ed?

    Thepr epar at
    ionoft heannualbudgeti nvolvesaser iesofst epst hatbeginswi th
    thedeterminat i
    onoft heov eral
    leconomi ctar
    gets,expenditurel evel
    s, r
    evenueprojection
    andthef i
    nanci ngplanbyt heDev elopmentBudgetCoor di
    nat i
    ngCommi tt
    ee(DBCC) .The
    DBCCi sani nter-
    agencybodycomposedoft heDBM Secr etaryasChai rmanandt he
    BangkoSent r alGov ernor
    ,t heSecr etaryoftheDepar tmentofFi nance,theDi rector
    GeneraloftheNat i
    onal
    Economi candDev elopmentAut horit
    yandar epresentativ
    eoft heOfficeofthePr esident
    asmember s.Themaj oract iv
    iti
    esi nvol
    vedint hepr eparationoft heannualnat ional
    budgetincl
    udet hefoll
    owing:

    a)Det erminati
    onofov er alleconomi ct argets,expendi turel evelsandbudget
    framewor kbyt heDBCC;
    b)I ssuancebyt heDBM oft heBudgetCal lwhichdef inest hebudgetf ramewor k;
    set seconomi candf iscaltargets;pr escri
    bet hepriori
    t ythrustsandbudget
    l
    ev els;andspel l
    soutt heguidelinesandpr ocedures,t echnicalinstructi
    ons
    andt het i
    met ableforbudgetpr epar ati
    on;
    c) Pr epar ati
    on by v arious gov ernmentagenci es of t heir detail
    ed budget
    est imat es ranking pr ograms,pr ojects and act i
    vit
    ies usi ng t he capital
    budget ingappr oachandsubmi ssionoft hesamet oDBM;
    d)Conductabudgethear ingswer eagenci esar ecal l
    edtoj ustifythei
    rpr oposed
    budget sbefor eDBM t echnicalpanel s;
    e) Submi ssion of t he proposed expendit
    ur e pr
    ogr am of
    depar tment/agenci es/specialforconf ir
    mat ionbydepar tment /agencyheads.
    f) Pr esent ati
    onoft hepr oposedbudgetl evelsofdepar t
    ment /agencies/special

    384
    purposefundstotheDBCCf orapproval
    .
    g)Review and approvaloft he proposed budgetbyt he Presidentand the
    Cabinet;
    h)Submi ssi
    onbyt hePresidentofproposedbudgett oCongress.Tomeett he
    Constitut
    ionalr
    equi
    rementf orthesubmissionofthePresi
    dent'sbudgetwith
    30day sf rom t
    heopeningofeachr egul
    arsessionofCongr ess,thebudget
    preparati
    onphaseisguidedbyabudgetcal endar
    .

    5.Howdoest
    hebudgetbecomeal
    aw?

    Inaccor dancewi tht herequir ementsoft heConst itution,thePr esidentsubmi ts


    hi
    s/ herpr oposedannualbudgeti nt hef orm ofBudgetofExpendi tureandSour cesof
    Fi
    nanci ng ( BESF)suppor ted bydet ailsofpr oposed expendi turesi nt hef or m ofa
    NationalExpendi t
    ure Pr ogram ( NEP)and t he Pr esident's BudgetMessage whi ch
    summar i
    zest hebudgetpol i
    cyt hrustsand pr i
    or it
    iesf ort hey ear .InCongr ess,the
    proposedbudgetgoesf i
    rstt otheHouseofRepr esent atives,whi chassi gnst het askof
    i
    niti
    al budgetr eviewt oitsAppr opriati
    onCommi tt
    ee.
    TheAppr opr iati
    onCommi tt
    eet oget herwi t
    ht heot herHouseSub- Commi tteeconduct
    hearings on t he budget s ofdepar tments/agenci es and scr ut
    inize theirr especti
    ve
    programs/ projects.Consequent l
    y,theamendedbudgetpr oposali spr esentedt othe
    Housebodyast heGener al Appropr i
    at i
    onsBill
    .Whi l
    ebudgethear i
    ngsar eon-goi nginthe
    HouseofRepr esentatives,the
    Senat eFinanceCommi tt
    ee,t hr
    oughi tsdiff
    erentsubcommi tteesal sost art
    st oconduct
    i
    tsownr ev i
    ew andscr ut
    inyoft hepr oposedbudgetandpr oposesamendment stothe
    HouseBudgetBi l
    ltot heSenat ebodyf orapproval .Tot hreshoutdi f f
    erencesandar ri
    ve
    atacommonv ersionoft heGener alAppr opr i
    at i
    onsBi l
    l,t heHouseandt heSenat e
    createsaBi camer alConferenceCommi tt
    eethatf inalizestheGener al Appropr i
    ationsBil
    l.

    6.Whati
    stheGener
    alAppr
    opr
    iat
    ionsAct
    ?

    The GeneralAppr opri


    ations Act(GAA)i st he l
    egislat
    ive authorizati
    on that
    contai
    nst henew appr opr
    iati
    onsi ntermsofspecifi
    camount sforsalaries,wagesand
    otherpersonnelbenefi
    ts;maintenanceandotheroperati
    ngexpenses; andcapi talout
    lays
    authori
    zed to be spentf ort he implementat
    ion ofv ar
    ious programs/ projects and
    acti
    vit
    iesofalldepart
    ment s,bureausandoffi
    cesofthegovernmentf oragi veny ear.

    7.Howi
    sthebudgeti
    mpl
    ement
    ed?

    Budgeti mpl ement ationst art


    swi tht her eleaseoff undst ot heagenci es.To
    accel
    er atet hei mpl ement ati
    onofgov ernmentpr ogr amsandpr ojectsandensur et he
    j
    udici
    oususeofbudget edgov er nmentf unds,t hegov er nmentadopt edt heSi mpl i
    fied
    FundRel easeSy stem ( SFRS)begi nning1995.I ncont rastt ot hepr ev i
    oussy stem of
    rel
    easi ngf undsbasedoni ndi vidualagencyr equest s,theSFRSi sapol icy-
    dr i
    vensy stem
    whichst andar dizedt her el
    easeoff undsacr ossagenci eswhi char esi mi l
    ar l
    ysi tuatedi n
    l
    inewi thspeci ficpol icyi nit
    iativesoft hegov ernment .
    Followi ngt heSFRS,t heagencybudgetmat ri
    x( ABM)i spr epar edbyt heDBM i n
    consul tationwi ththeagenci esatt hebegi nningofeachbudgety ear,uponappr ovalof
    the annualGener alAppr opriations Act .The ABM i s a di saggr egat ion ofal lt he
    programmedappr opr iationsf oreachagencyi ntov ariousexpendi turecat egor i
    es.As
    such,t heABM ser vesasabl uepr intwhi chpr ovidest hebasi sf ordet ermi ningt het iming,
    composi tionandmagni t
    udeoft her el
    easeoft hebudget .Basedonupdat edr esour ces
    andeconomi cdev el opmentt hrust sandconsi stentwi tht hecashbudgetpr ogram,t he
    All
    otmentRel easePr ogr am ( ARP)whi chpr escr i
    best hegui delinesi nt hepr iorit
    izationof
    fundr eleasesi spr epar ed.TheARPser vesasbasi sf ort heissuanceofei theraGener al
    All
    otmentRel easeOr der( GARO)oraSpeci alAl l
    otmentRel easeOr der( SARO) ,ast he
    casemay be, toaut hor izeagenci est oincurobl i
    gations.
    Subsequent ly
    ,t heDBM r eleasest heNot i
    ceofCashAl l
    ocat i
    on( NCA)onamont hlyor
    quart
    er lybasi s.TheNCAspeci fi
    est hemaxi mum amountofwi thdrawalt hatanagency

    385
    canmakef rom agov ernmentbankf ortheperi
    odi ndicated.TheBur eauoft heTr easur y
    (BTr),repl
    enishesdailyt hegov er nmentser v i
    cingbankswi t
    hf undsequi valentt ot he
    amountofnegot iat
    ed checks pr esented tot he gov er
    nmentser vici
    ng banks by
    i
    mpl ementingagencies.Ther eleaseofNCAsbyt heDBM i sbasedon:1)t hef i
    nanci al
    requir
    ement sofagenciesasi ndicatedi nthei
    rABMs, cashpl ansandr eportssuchast he
    Summar yListofChecksI ssued( SLCI );and2)thecashbudgetpr ogram ofgov ernment
    andupdat esonpr oj
    ectedr esour ces.Agenci esut ili
    zet hereleasedNCAsf oll
    owi ngt he
    "CommonFund"concept .Undert hisconceptoff undr el
    ease,agenci esar egi vena
    maxi mum f l
    exibi
    l
    ityint heuseoft heircashal locat i
    onspr ovidedt hattheaut hor i
    zed
    all
    otmentf oraspecificpur posei snotexceeded.Pr ojectimplement ati
    onist husmade
    faster.

    8.Whyar
    eadj
    ust
    ment
    smadeont
    hebudgetpr
    ogr
    am?

    Adj
    ust
    ment sar emadeont hebudgetev endur ingi mplementationpr imar il
    ybecause
    oft
    hef
    oll
    owing:
     Enactmentofnewl aws
     Wi thi
    nt hef iscaly ear,newl egisl
    ati
    onswi thcorr
    espondi ngi dent i
    fi
    ednew
    revenuesour cesar epassedwhi chnecessi tat
    eadjust ment si nt hebudget
    progr am.
     Adjustment sinmacr oeconomi cpar amet ers
     The macr oeconomi ct argets considered i nthe budgetar e per i
    odicall
    y
    reviewedandupdat edt or efl
    ectt hei mpactofr ecentdev elopment sint he
    project ed perf ormance oft he nat i
    onaleconomyand on t he setf i
    scal
    progr am f or t he y ear.The r el
    evanti ndi
    cator
    s af fecting t he budget
    aggr egates i ncl ude the f oll
    owi ng:t he Gr oss NationalPr oduct( GNP) ,
    i
    nf l
    ationr ate,int erestrate,foreignexchanger at
    e,oilprices, andt hel evelof
    i
    mpor t
    s.Thus,asensi tivi
    tymeasur eont heimpactoft hesepar amet erson
    thebudgetwi lldet erminewhet herr ecentMacr o-economi cdev elopment s
    hav eanegat i
    v eorf avourableef fectont hebudget.

     Changeinresour
    cesav ai
    labi
    l
    iti
    es
     Budgetadj ustmentsar eundertakenwhenaddi t
    ionalresourcesbecome
    avail
    ablesuchasnew gr ants,proceedsf
    rom newlynegotiat
    edloansand
    grants.Cor
    respondingbudgetadjustment
    sarealsomadewhenr esour
    ces
    generati
    onfal
    lsbelowthetargets.

    9.Whatmechani
    sm ensur
    est
    hatf
    undshav
    ebeenpr
    oper
    lyal
    l
    ocat
    edandspent
    ?

    Cognizantoft hef actt hatnopr opi


    ti
    ousr esultscanbeobt ained, evenwithmax imum
    funding,ifagencyef f
    iciencyi sl ow and f unds ar e wastefullyspent ,systems and
    procedures ar e seti n pl ace t o moni t
    orand ev al
    uat ethe per formance and cost
    effecti
    venessofagenci es.Theseact i
    vi
    tiesar esubsumedwi thint hef ourt
    handt hel ast
    phaseoft hebudgetpr ocess- t
    hebudgetaccount abil
    i
    typhase.Att heagencyl evel,
    budgetaccount abil
    it
    yt akest hef orm ofmanagement 'srevi
    ewofact ualperf
    ormanceor
    wor kaccompl ishmenti nr el ati
    ont othewor ktargetsoft heagencyv is-
    à-vi
    sthef i
    nanci al
    resources made av ail
    abl e.Al so,det ail
    ed exami nati
    ons ofeach agency 's book of
    accountsar eunder takenbyar esidentrepresentati
    v eoftheCommi ssiononAudi t(COA)
    to ensuret hatal lexpenses hav e been di sbursed in accor dance wi t
    h account ing
    regulati
    onsandt hepur pose( s)forwhicht hefundshav ebeenaut hori
    zed.

    10.Istherol
    eoft
    heDBM i
    nthebudget
    ingpr
    ocessl
    i
    mit
    edt
    onat
    ionalgov
    ernment
    agenci
    es?

    No,ther ol
    eoft heDBM i nt hebudget ingpr ocessisnotl i
    mitedtonat i
    onal
    governmentagencies.Itcoordi
    nat
    esal lthreel
    evelsofgov er
    nment-nati
    onalgover
    nment
    department/agenci
    es,gov er
    nment-owned and cont roll
    ed cor
    porati
    ons (GOCCs)and
    l
    ocal gover
    nmentuni t
    s(LGUs)-inthepr eparat
    ion,ex
    ecut i
    onandcont r
    olofexpendi
    tures
    oftheircor
    respondingcomponentsent i
    ties.

    386
    TheDBM r ev
    iewst hecorporateoperat
    ingbudget sofGOCCsandensur est he
    properall
    ocati
    onofcash.TheDBM l i
    kewisefor mulatesandr ecommendst hebudget
    poli
    cycov eri
    ng the al
    lowable defi
    citand the crit
    eriafort he det
    ermi
    nation oft he
    appropri
    atesubsidyandequi tyofGOCCs.ForLGUs,t heDBM r evi
    ewstheannualand
    supplementalbudgetsofpr ov
    inces,
    andhighl
    yur banizedcit
    iesandmanagest heproper
    all
    ocati
    onandr el
    easeoft heInter
    nalRevenueAllotment(IRA)ofLGUsandt heirsharein
    theutil
    i
    zati
    onofnat i
    onalwealth.

    ht
    tp:
    //www.
    dbm.
    gov
    .ph/
    wp-
    cont
    ent
    /upl
    oads/
    2012/
    03/
    PGB-
    B2.
    pdf

    Factor
    si nidealbudget :
    1.I tiscompr ehensi
    ve–incl
    udesall
    plannedexpendi
    tur
    esandal
    lest
    imat
    edi
    ncome
    2.I tisclearandeasi l
    yunder
    stood
    3.I tisfl
    exible
    4.I tiswor kable
    5.I tisaccur ateandreal
    i
    sti
    c

    Ty
    pesofbudget

    1.Li
    ne-
    it
    em budget
    ing – mostused f
    ormat
    . For
    mati
    s based on l
    i
    ne-
    it
    em
    accountingandi ncrementalincr easesinpr oj
    ecti
    ngaheadf oray earormor e.I
    t
    i
    ndicateshowt hemoneyi stobespent ,butisdoesnotdepi ctwhatt heagency
    does.Itisnotpr ogram ori
    entedanddoesnotpr esentagencygoal s,targets,or
    resul
    ts.Itsmai nfeaturei
    si t
    sr eli
    anceonex pl
    ici
    tcategori
    esofexpendi tur
    est o
    i
    nsurejustif
    icati
    on.
    2.Program budget ing– Goalsandobj ectivesareasi gnif
    icantpar tandi nclude
    servi
    cesof feredbyt heagency .Itmaycov ersev er
    alyears,par ti
    cularlyasa
    program isof f
    eredandappr ov edf oraspeci f
    icamountoft i
    me.I talsoi ncludes
    costestimat esandspecificf oreachpr ogram.Thisf or
    mathasbeenf oundt o
    usefulmanagementt oolinmoni t
    ori
    ngtheef fectofkeyal l
    ocationdeci sionsas
    thi
    saf f
    ectthepr ogr
    am qualit
    y .Anexampl eofprogram budget i
    ngisPPBS.

    Pr
    ogram,Planni
    ngandBudget i
    ngSy st
    em (
    PPBS)isamanagementt ooltohel
    p
    focus on the main goals ofthe agency.As Ehl
    ers,et.
    al,says budget
    ing wher
    e
    administr
    ator
    ssimplyitemizedthei
    rbudgetar
    yneedsfortheyarinsuchcategori
    esas
    personnel,
    rent
    ,suppli
    es,t
    ravel
    ,andtheli
    ke.

    PPBSConsi
    stsoff
    ourbasi
    cpr
    ogr
    ammi
    ngel
    ement
    s,whi
    char
    easf
    oll
    ows:

    1.System
    2.Pl
    anni ng
    3.Programmi ng
    4.Budget i
    ng

    TheentirepackageofPPBSmustbeseenasasy stem andalsoasy st


    emat i
    c
    approacht othepr oblemsofbudget ing.Si ncet hePPBSi sembodi edint hesy stems
    theory,oneshoul dl ookintothei nter
    relatednessofpr ogramsandact i
    vi
    ti
    esasmeans
    and ends ( goals and obj ectiv
    es)al li nr elati
    on tot he crucialquest
    ion ofcost -
    effect
    iveness.
    PPBS–i nvolvesclassi
    fyingexpendi tur esbasedonananal ysi
    sofobjectiv
    esand
    resourcesandt hei nterr
    elati
    onsamongt hem,andar et akeni nt
    oaccountt oachi evea
    coherentandcompr ehensiveprogram ofact ion.Thisappr oachisat oolwhichcanhel p
    theadmi nist
    ratorsince,accor di
    ngt oGr eenber g,itstart
    swi t
    htheassumpt i
    ont hatan
    organizati
    onrarelyfindsitsresourcesadequat etofinanceal loft
    hev al
    idpr
    ogr am which
    areurgentlyneeded.Heci t
    estheel ement sint hebasi coper ati
    onofPPBS:

    a)Keepinganey eontheendproductnotj
    ustont
    hespecif
    icati
    vi
    ty.
    b)Takingalongr angevi
    ew,looki
    ngfiv
    eoreven10yearsinthefut
    ure–r
    ather
    thanjustayear-t
    o-y
    earrev
    iew.

    387
    c) I
    dentify
    ingal t
    ernat
    ivecourseofact
    ion–andi fnoneexi
    sts,
    inv
    enti
    ngsome.
    d)Anal yzi
    ng i ntermsofbot hitscontr
    ibut
    ionst owar
    dsachievi
    ng t
    he“end
    product”andi t
    scosts;
    e) Keepingt abonwhati shappeni
    nginthesystem.
    f) Beingflexibl
    e.

    3.Funct
    ionalBudget
    ing – t
    his sy
    stem encompasses pr
    ogr
    am ser
    vices but
    emphasizesthesuppor t
    ingadminist
    rat
    iveser
    vicesthatareneededf
    oroperat
    ing
    an agency.Rev enues and expendi
    tur
    es as theyr el
    ateto managementand
    generalfunct
    ions,fund-
    rai
    singfuncti
    ons,andi dent
    ifi
    abl
    eprogramsoff
    eredby
    theagencyareallli
    sted.

    Nowadays,si
    ncetheeconomi cprobl
    emsoccur r
    edi nmostcount r
    ies,i
    ncl
    udi
    ng
    thosewhower efundi
    ngmostPhi li
    ppineprogramsofNGOs,cur rentfundersarever
    y
    stri
    ngenton admi ni
    str
    ati
    ve cost
    s.Ifev erthere ar
    et hose who wil
    lallow thi
    sthe
    admi ni
    str
    ati
    vecostswhichusedtobeupt o30percentofthetot
    albudgetisnowdown
    ornoneatall.

    4.Zer
    o-basedbudget
    ing(
    ZBB)–Thi
    sisdonepar
    ti
    cul
    arl
    yingov
    ernmentagenci
    es.
    Heretheagencystar
    tswit
    hnomoneyeachy earanddescr
    ibesandjust
    if
    iesal
    l
    expendi
    tur
    esfort
    hecomingyear
    ,whet
    herornott
    heyhaveexist
    edbef
    ore.

    B.
    10.Recor
    dingandRepor
    ti
    ng

     Records–havebeendef inedas“ anaccounti nwr it


    tenorot herper
    manentf orm
    servi
    ngasamemor ialorauthenticevidenceofaf actorevent .
    ”
     Report–meanst omakeorgi veanaccountof ,oftenformallybasedonaccur ate
    recor
    ds,researchandi nvesti
    gation.
     Recordi
    ng–Ever ywor kerhasar esponsibi
    li
    tyforr ecordskeepingofwhicht here
    vari
    ousforms, thev ariati
    onar erelat
    edt otheagency ’
    spurposeandt heparti
    cular
    probl
    em ofthecl ientele.
    ’(LaragaretSchuber t
    ).
     Reporti
    ng–asapr ocessofmanagementi sbr oadlyinter
    pretedasapr ocessof
    communi cati
    on.I ti s notonl ya t wo- way flow ofi nf
    ormat i
    on upward and
    downwar dbutal soout war d,
    acrossandar ound.

    Pur
    posesofr
    epor
    ti
    ng:

    1.Forupwardandout wardpur poses,t


    oreportt
    hepr ogress,f
    utureneedsandpl ans
    andaccountf orone’sper f
    ormanceandj usti
    ficati
    onofapr ogr am.Therepor t
    upwardisalsomeantf orexecutiv
    econtrol
    andpl anning.
    2.Fordownwar dpurposes,reportsaremadet oinformt heworker saboutpol
    icies,
    progr
    ams,r esour
    ces,procedur eandothermat tersaf f
    ect
    ingt heoperati
    onsof
    theorgani
    zati
    on.

    Char
    act
    eri
    sti
    csofanef
    fect
    ivewr
    it
    tenr
    epor
    t:

     Cl
    ear
     Perti
    nent
     Bri
    efbutcompl ete
     Current
     Accurate
     I
    nformat i
    ve
     Compar ati
    ve
     Properl
    yclassif
    ied
     Attr
    acti
    v ei
    nf or
    mat
     Objecti
    ve
     Presentedonschedul
    e/t
    ime
     Datedandsi gned

    388
    B.11.Publ
    icr
    elat
    ions

    Publ
    icrel
    ati
    ons/communit
    yrel
    ationsareanessenti
    alpartofsoci
    alwor
    kadmini
    str
    ati
    on.
    Admini
    str
    ators who wanteffi
    cientand effect
    ive agenci
    es need t
    o be aware of
    communityresour
    cesandbeabletounderst
    andandut i
    li
    zethem.

    Or
    gani
    zedpubl
    icr
    elat
    ionspr
    act
    ice-ar
    ethecont
    inui
    ngef
    for
    ttoef
    fectahar
    moni
    ous
    adj
    ustmentbet ween an insti
    tut
    ion and its public.Exper
    ience has taughtt hatt his
    adj
    ustmentr equir
    es,among ot hert hi
    ngs,a t wo-way exchange ofopi nions and
    i
    nformati
    onwhi chcanr esulti
    nmut ualunderstandingandmut ualint
    erests.Thi sfree-
    fl
    owinginter
    changeofideasandi nformati
    onrequi respl
    annedeffecti
    vecommuni cati
    on.
    Inthisprocessthepr acti
    ti
    onerser ves,inturn,t heroleofcat al
    yst,counsellor,and
    communi cat
    or.

    Publ
    icr
    elat
    ions – i
    sthe managementf
    unct
    ion whi
    ch ev
    aluat
    es publ
    i
    c at
    ti
    tudes,
    i
    dentifi
    est hepoli
    ciesandproceduresofani ndi
    vi
    dualoranor ganizati
    onwiththepubli
    c
    i
    nterest,andexecutesaprogram ofactiont
    oearnpubl i
    cunderstandingandaccept
    ance.
    TheI nsti
    tuteofPubl i
    cRelationsdefinespubli
    cr elat
    ionsas“ plannedandsustained
    eff
    orttoest abl
    ishandmai nt
    ainmut ualunderst
    andingbetweenanor gani
    zati
    onandits
    publi
    c.”

    B.
    12.Eval
    uat
    ionsandResear
    ch

    Wholeypoint
    soutt hattheeval
    uati
    onhassever
    aldist
    ingui
    shi
    ngchar
    acter
    ist
    ics
    relat
    ing t
    of ocus,methodology,and f
    uncti
    on.The f
    oll
    owing oper
    ati
    onaldefi
    nit
    ion
    clari
    fi
    esthesecharacter
    ist
    ics.

    Eval
    uat
    ion:
    1.Assesses the eff
    ecti
    veness of an on- goi
    ng program in achi
    evi
    ng it
    s
    object
    ives;
    2.Reli
    esont hepri
    nci
    plesofr esear
    chdesigntodist
    ingui
    shaprogram’sef
    fect
    s
    fr
    om thoseofother
    swor kinginasituat
    ion;
    3.Aimsatpr ogr
    am’simprovementt hr
    oughamodi fi
    cati
    onofcur
    rentoper
    ati
    ons

    Thust hefuncti
    onofev al
    uat
    ionistoprovi
    def eedbackf r
    om resul
    tstoeff
    ect
    organizati
    onaldecisi
    ons.Itistheact
    ivi
    tyt
    hatl
    inksprogram operati
    onstoplanni
    ngand
    programmi ng,andi t
    sfindingscanbeusedt omodi fycurrentoperat
    ionsandtoplan
    futur
    epr ogramsandpol i
    cies.

    Evaluati
    onmaybeunder takenformanagementadmi ni
    str
    ati
    vepurposes,toassessthe
    appropri
    ateness ofpr ogram shi f
    ts,t oi dent
    if
    y wayst oi mprovet he del
    iver
    y of
    i
    nterventi
    onsandpr ogram resources.Theymaybeunder takenforplanni
    ngandpol i
    cy
    purposes,todecideonanot her
    ,fi
    nally,
    t heymaybeundertakentotestaparti
    cul
    arsocial
    sci
    encehy pothesisoraprofessi
    onal practi
    cepri
    ncipl
    e.

    Human service program – is def


    ined as a subdiv
    isi
    on ofthe agencywhi ch has
    administ
    rat
    ive di
    recti
    on to accompli
    sh a pr
    escribed setofobject
    ives t
    hrough the
    conductofspecif
    iedacti
    vi
    ti
    es.

    C.Soci
    alSy
    stem
    ASoci
    alSy st
    em –isawhol
    ewi
    theachpar
    tbear
    ingar
    elat
    iont
    oev
    eryot
    herpar
    t
    andal
    lar
    eint
    erdependent
    .

    Asy st
    em accordi
    ngtoWill
    i
    am Li
    nki
    s“apurposef
    ul,or
    gani
    zedi
    nter
    rel
    ati
    onshi
    ps
    ofcomponentsi
    nwhi chtheper
    for
    manceofthewhol
    eexceedsthei
    ndi
    vi
    dualoutput
    sof

    389
    al
    lt hepar t
    s.Whenappl iedt osocialworkadmi ni
    str
    ationitrefer
    st ot heconcept sof
    agency pur pose and inter
    relat
    ionship of di
    ffer
    entuni t
    s as sub- sy stems of the
    organizat
    ion.Thei nter
    relat
    ion and coordi
    nati
    on oft hev ar
    ioussub- sy stemsoft he
    organizat
    ionsarebr oughtaboutbyt heinf
    ormat i
    onandcommuni cat
    ionnet wor
    k,the
    decisi
    on-making mechani sm and ot herbuilt
    -i
    n mechanisms whi ch exi stin ever
    y
    organizat
    ion.

    Component
    soft
    hesoci
    alsy
    stems

    1. I
    nput–t heinputint
    ot hesystem maybehuman,met hodofwor k,orasetof
    beli
    efsfrom theenvi
    ronment.Theyfindawayofr elati
    ngwi theachotherwi
    thi
    n
    thesystem.Achangei noneinputmayaffectt
    heentiresystem.
    2. Output–r epr
    esentswhatthesy st
    em i
    sdoinginrel
    ationtoitsgoal
    s.
    3. Throughput–t heconversi
    onprocessofi
    nputstooutputs.

    Basi
    cSy
    stemsModel

    I
    nput
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    thr
    oughput
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    ..
    .out
    put
    (Conver
    sionpr
    ocess)

    St
    aff Management Pr
    ogr
    am and
    servi
    ces
    Budget
    Bui
    ldi
    ng

    Intheil
    lust
    rati
    on,thehuman,f i
    nanci
    alandphysi
    calr
    esour
    cesrepr
    esentt
    he
    i
    nputsthatar
    econv er
    tedintoprograms,andserv
    iceswit
    hthemanagementasthe
    mechani
    sm i
    ntheconversi
    onprocess.

    UNDERSTANDI
    NGSOCI
    ALSYSTEM

    Syst
    emsmayhav ecl osedandopenpr operti
    es.Assuchi tispermeabletoot her
    systemsandi saf f
    ectedbyt hem,( i.
    e.,thesoci alagencyi sinfluencedbyi tsext er
    nal
    environment,thecommuni ty).Thecl ienteleser vedcomesf r
    om t hecommuni tyaswel l
    asther esourceinput sforitssupportandmai nt enance.Mostsy stemsar eopen.
    Acl osedsystem –i sonet hatisnotaf f
    ect edbyi tsexternalenv ir
    onment .Iti
    sappl i
    cable
    i
    nt hesocio-economi cpoli
    ticalsit
    uation.Ther ear ev eryfewcl osedsy stems.
    Therear emanyl ev el
    sofsy stemsandsubsy st
    emsandaccor dingtoLi nk,the
    studyoft hemul tiplesystem mov esf rom asmal lview,i.
    e.,mi crocosm,t oalargev i
    ew
    macr ocosm ofsy stems.
    SystemsEqui l
    ibrium orst abil
    ity– i st het endencyofan or ganizati
    on (syst
    em)t o
    mai ntai
    n a uni form and benef i
    cialst abil
    ity within and bet ween i ts part
    s.The
    managementf unct ioninanor gani
    zat ionpr ov i
    desmechani sm f orsystem equil
    ibri
    um
    notonl ywit
    hinthesy st
    em butal sobet weensubsy stems.

    Rel
    ati
    ont
    othesy
    stemsappr
    oacht
    othemanagementpr
    ocess

    Thefol
    lowingfi
    gurewasil
    l
    ustrat
    edbySoymansTi
    ll
    esin”
    TheManager’sJob:A
    Sy
    stemsApproach”,
    torel
    atet
    hesyst
    emsapproacht
    othemanagementpr
    ocess.

    390
    ACOMPLEXINPUT-
    OUTPUTSYSTEM
    Thepr
    ogr
    am asasyst
    em

    MANAGER:

    Pl
    ans,
    Organi
    zes,
    cont
    rol
    s,admi
    nist
    ers

    Supplyof
    Outputsto
    ResourceInput Meet
    Demand

    Money FUNCTI
    ONALSUBSYSTEMS: Tr
    eat
    ment
    Labor Serv
    ices
    Management Wages
    Fi
    xed-use Ser
    vice(
    from ut
    il
    it
    y) Prof
    its
    Curr
    entuse Sati
    sfact
    ions
    Data Suppor
    t(t
    imeandspaceut
    il
    it
    y)

    I
    nfor
    mation
    Feedback

    Throughpl
    anni
    ng,or
    gani
    zi
    ng,contr
    oll
    i
    ngandadmi
    nister
    ing,t
    hemanagertakes
    cer
    tai
    nr esourcei
    nput
    sandconv er
    tsthem inor
    dert
    oachievesomev al
    ueutil
    i
    tyor
    out
    put.

    Lev
    elsi
    ntheor ganizat
    ion:
    1.Poli
    cylevel
    2.Administrati
    veorexecut
    ive
    3.Superv
    isor yand
    4.Dir
    ectser vi
    celevel
    s

    391
    PARTI
    ISUPERVI
    SIONI
    NSOCI
    ALWORK

    Super
    visi
    on

     Isady namicenabl ingpr ocessbywhi chi ndi


    vi
    dualwor kerswhohav eadi r
    ect
    responsibil
    it
    yforcar ryingoutsomeoft heagency’
    spr ogram plansar ehelpedby
    adesi gnatedstaffmembert omaket hebestuseoft heirabil
    it
    ysot hattheycan
    dot heirj
    obmor eef fecti
    vel
    yandwi thincreasi
    ngsatisfacti
    ontot hemsel vesand
    totheagency .
     Admi nist
    rati
    vepr ocessi ntheconductofdev el
    opmenti samaj orconcer n.Int hi
    s
    process, t
    hesuper visorhast hreefuncti
    ons:administ
    rative,t
    eachingandhel pi
    ng.
    (Charlott
    eTowl e)
     Traditi
    onalmet hodoft r
    ansmi tt
    ingknowl edgeofsoci alwor kskil
    lsi npr acti
    ce
    from t hetrai
    nedt ot heunt rai
    nedf rom theexper i
    encedt ot hei nexperienced
    studentandwor ker.(Amer i
    canEncy clopedia)

    The 1971 edi ti


    on of t he ency cl
    opaedi a defined super vi
    sion essentiall
    y
    organizati
    onalaccount abil
    it
    y.
    Alf
    redKadushi ncont endsthatt hesedef init
    ionsar eincorr
    ectast heyincl
    ude
    onlysomeaspect sofsuper visi
    on.Hef urt
    herclar i
    fi
    est hatmor eof t
    ent hannott he
    defi
    nit
    ionswoul donl yshow t headmi nistr
    ati
    veandeducat ionalcomponent si nt he
    funct
    ionsofsuper visi
    on.Ther eisanaddi ti
    onalresponsibil
    it
    y,whichhef eelsneedt obe
    i
    ncludedi nthedefinit
    ionandt hat,i
    sthe“ expressive-supporti
    ve-l
    eadership”functi
    onof
    supervisi
    on.Het husdef inesthesupervi
    sorasan“ agencyadmi nist
    rati
    vest af
    fmember
    towhom aut hori
    tyisdel egatedtodirect,coordi
    nat e,enhance,andev aluatetheon-the-
    j
    obper formanceoft hesuper vi
    seesforwhosewor khei sheldaccount able.

    Super
    visi
    on-ent
    ail
    sthef
    acemeet
    ingoft
    woormor
    eper
    sons–t
    heonewhosuper
    vises
    andt
    hesuper
    visees.Thi
    sleadst
    othesuper
    visor
    yrel
    ati
    onshi
    p,whi
    chi
    s:

    1.Ar elati
    onshipoft woormor epeoplewor ki
    ngt oget
    hernott omeeteachot her’
    s
    personal needsbutt oadmi ni
    stereff
    ecti
    veagencyser vi
    cestocli
    ents.
    2.Ani nterdependentrelat
    ionshi
    pwi thbot
    hpar ti
    escorrespondingr
    esponsi
    bil
    it
    ies.
    3.Apr ofessional,notasoci alr
    elati
    onshi
    p.Themai npur poseoftherel
    ati
    onshipis
    to hel p worker slearn how t o gi
    ve serv
    ices eff
    ectivel
    y and t
    of urt
    hert he
    professionalgr owthofeachot heri
    ncl
    udingt hesupervisorbyenhanci
    ngsoci al

    392
    wor
    kskill
    s,aswellast
    ryi
    ngt
    odi
    scov
    ernewerandmor
    eef
    fect
    iveway
    sof
    wor
    kingwit
    hpeopl
    e.

    Thesuper
    visor

     Isinthemi d-posi t
    ioninasoci alagencyori nadepar tmentwhosemai nfunction
    i
    st oprovideasoci alworkservice.
     Heorshei samemberofanagencyt eam ofallmember sofwhi char eemploy ed
    toaccompl isht heagency ’spurposeandf uncti
    on.
     Heorshecar r
    iesr esponsibi
    li
    tyforacer tainnumberofwor ker ’
    sand/ orstudent s.
    Itisinrelationt ot hesewor kersorst udent sthathehast her esponsibil
    it
    yf or
    seeingtoi tthatt hewor koft heagencyget sdoneanddonewel l
    ,thatservices
    areprovidedt ocl ients,thewor kersandst udentsareenabl edt oimpr ovethei r
    skil
    lstothel i
    mi tsoftheirabil
    it
    yatanygi v enstageandt hei
    rdev elopment .
     Thesuper visor’sr esponsibi
    li
    ti
    esl eadt ot heconclusiont hatt hesecanonl ybe
    accomplishedt hroughacombi nationofadmi nist
    ration,t eachi ngandhel ping
    functi
    onsenhancedt hroughoutbycl earcommuni cation.

    Thesuper
    visorexer
    ciseshi
    sadmi
    nist
    rat
    ivef
    unct
    ionsby:

     Holdingthewor kerstoaccountforacer t
    ainquali
    tyandquantit
    yofproducti
    on;
     Seeing toitt hatt he servi
    ce to cl
    ientis adequatel
    yr endered wi
    th agency
    regulati
    onsandpr oceduresproperl
    ycarri
    edout;
     Enablingthewor kertof ol
    l
    owpr oceduresandr egul
    ati
    ons-thesupervi
    sorhast o
    beclearinhiscommuni cati
    ontohim.

    Typesofsuper
    visi
    on

    1. Tutorialmodel– consi sts ofa super visorand a super visee i n one- to-
    one
    rel
    ationshi p.
    2.Gr oupsuper vision–t herei sadesi gnatedsuper visorandagr oupofsuper visees.
    Groupsuper visiont obeef fectiveisdoneonl ywi thahomogeneousgr oupandal l
    member s,mor eorl esshav esomef aci
    lityf orexpr ession.
    3. Caseconsul tation–t her ei sadesi gnat edconsul tantandt hewor kerschedul es
    thecont actswhenheneedst hem.Thewor keri spr imar i
    lyr esponsi blef orthe
    focusoft hemeet ing.Consul t
    ationsar ecasedf ocus.
    4. Peergr oupsuper vision-t her eisnodesi gnat edsuper visor ,andal lthemember s
    ofthegr ouppar ti
    ci pat easequal s.Consequent ly,oneoft her equirement sf orthe
    group’ssuccessi st hatt hemember sar emat ureandexper i
    encedenought o
    makev i
    talcont ri
    but ionst ocasedi scussi onsandmustshar ecommonar easof
    compet ence.
    5. Tandem super vi
    sion–t hisdev elopedoutoft hepeergr oupmodel .I
    nt hiscase
    two gr oup member s deci de tof unct ion apar tf r
    om t he gr oup.Nei t heri s
    designat edt hesuper v i
    sor .Bot har eexper i
    encedwor ker swhor espectt heabi li
    ty
    andopi nionsoft heot her .Asat andem,t heymeeti nfor mal lywhenev erei thera
    casef orconsi der ationhas.Deci sionsar et her esponsi bil
    ityoft heper sont o
    whom t hecasei sassi gned,butast het andem wor kt oget herf orawhi le,both
    member sbecomef ami li
    arwi theachot her ’
    scausesandt hedeci sionst endst o
    becomemor ecol labor ative.Att i
    mes, member scoul dcov ereachot her’scase.
    6. Thet eam –t hismodelconsi stsofv ariedmember swi thi nt heagencyst ructure.
    Theymeetonar egul arbasi s,witht heagendaf ordiscussi on.Itist het askoft he
    team t oar ri
    veatt hedi scussi onaboutacaset hrought hegr ouppr ocessdur i
    ng
    the meet ing.The deci sion i n ev er
    y case,r egardless ofwhi ch memberi s
    responsi blefori mpl ement ingit,i
    st het eams.

    Super
    visi
    onofst
    udent
    s

    Thegoali st oenablethest udent


    st odev el
    ophisknowl edgeandski l
    lasa
    professionalper
    son.Thesupervisor’
    schieffunct
    ionasast udentsuper
    visori
    stot each
    theelement sofprofessi
    onalpr
    actice.Averyimport
    antpartofthesupervi
    sor’
    steaching
    willi
    ncludeensuringthatthecl
    i
    ent’sneedsar emetandthatthestudentworkscorrectl
    y

    393
    wi
    thi
    nagency
    ’sf
    unct
    ionandpol
    i
    cies.

    St
    affsuper
    visi
    on:

    Staf
    fsupervisionisady nami
    candenabli
    ngprocesswheretheworker
    sar e
    hel
    ped t
    o perf
    orm t hei
    rfunct
    ionsef
    fect
    ivel
    yundert
    he gui
    dance ofa t
    rai
    ned and
    compet
    entsuperv
    isor.

    Super
    visi
    onandpar
    apr
    ofessi
    onal
    s

    Par
    apr
    ofessi
    onal

     Personwhoi shi ghlymot i


    vatedandcommi ttedt osharehisknowledge,skil
    l
    sand
    servicet osel ectedindiv i
    duals,specificgr oups, inagivenplaceorcommuni t
    yfor
    humani t ari
    ancauseandci v i
    cef f
    iciency.(Sy l
    v i
    aP.Mont es)
     Wor kerassi sti
    ngt hesoci alwor kst affi ndi r
    ectservicefunctionsundert he
    super v
    isi onoft hepr ofessionallytrainedwor ker .Hemaybeacommuni t
    yleader
    orav olunteer,agr aduateofacer tif
    icatecour sein communi t
    ywor k,ora
    professi onalofanot herdiscipli
    ne,whowor ksal ongsi
    deat rai
    nedsoci al
    ;worker
    hindert helatter’sdirectionandsuper visi
    on.( Ev eli
    naA.Pangalangan)
     Thesuper vi
    sor sofpar aprofessionalshav et hesamer oleandf uncti
    onsast he
    super v
    isor ’
    soft r
    ainedsoci alwor kers.Thesei ncludet
    headmi nistr
    ati
    ve,t
    eaching
    andhel pi ngfunct i
    ons.

    Super
    visi
    onofvol
    unt
    eer
    s

    Av ol
    unteeri
    sonewhogi vesofhisskil
    l
    s,knowledgeandser vicest oanagency
    withoutany pr ovi
    sion orconsiderat
    ion ofgetti
    ng remuner at
    ion f
    rom t he agency.
    Volunteersthoughnotremuneratedforthei
    rservi
    cestot heagencyareal soexpectedt o
    givetheirbest,toensurethatagencyprogramsar eeffecti
    vel
    ycarri
    edout ,bot
    ht ot he
    satisf
    acti
    onoft heagencyandt hev ol
    unteerhi
    msel f
    ;hencet hesupervisorcomesi nto
    play.

    Funct
    ionsofsuper
    visor

    Super vi
    sorsar eencour agedt othi
    nkt hrought hei
    rfuncti
    onsandt asks,toof f
    er
    somet heoreti
    calknowl edgeaboutlearners,t
    ogi veguidel
    inesforuseinpractice,
    andt o
    testhow t he principles ofsupervision operateint he presentorgani
    zations.Their
    functi
    ons,therefore,shoul dbediscipl
    ined,systematic,andobjecti
    ve,yetwil
    lst i
    mulate
    refl
    ecti
    vethinki
    ng, leadingtothedevelopmentofi ndiv
    idualstyl
    esandway sofwor king.

    1.Management

    a)St affsupervisionmustst ri
    vet o:
    b)Obt ainsui t
    ablewor kingconditionsf orthest aff;
    c) Seet oitthatther ei
    sanadmi nistrat
    iveback- upt oenabl esoundpr acti
    ce
    d)Decl arepoorcondi ti
    ons,ifany ,and wor kt owardsi mprov ementt hr
    ough
    communi cati
    ng upwar d t he consequences of unsat isfactory working
    conditi
    ons
    e) Ensureast eadyf l
    ow ofdat aaboutt hechangi ngneedsoft hecommuni t
    y
    towardt heagencyandi nteragencyr elations.Thesedat acanbeusedi n
    formulatingtheagency ’
    sprogr am andpol icy .
    f) Detectv ari
    ationsi nprocedureandassi stt hewor ker
    si nt headmi ni
    strati
    ve
    processbyencour agingwor ker stoexami net heef f
    ectsofpol i
    cyont hei
    r
    dail
    ypr acti
    ce, t
    ocont ri
    butethei ri
    deasaboutchangest hatareneeded; and
    g)Ev aluatewor kloadsandmakeappr opri
    at eadj ustmentsbetweent heneedsof
    theagencyandt hecapacityofeachwor kert omanageacasel oad.

    394
    2.Teachi
    ng

    Thesuper
    visorhastogetabal
    ancebet
    weenput
    tinginanddr
    awi
    ngout
    :putt
    ing
    i
    nwhati snotyetknownbutessenti
    altoi
    mmediat
    epracti
    ce;anddr
    awi
    ngoutwhatis
    al
    readyknowntothewor ker
    .

    3.Suppor
    t

    Lear
    ningcannotbeeasil
    yaccompl ishedwithoutsuppor
    t.Suppor tenablesthe
    l
    earnerto eval
    uat
    epastpr act
    ice,considerinnovati
    onsand alternat
    iveappr oaches.
    Supportmeansaski
    ngchall
    engi
    ngquestionsbyst i
    mulati
    ngthewor ker’
    sthinki
    ngandby
    thever
    yrecogni
    ti
    onthathehasthestr
    engt handthecapacit
    ytorespondanddev el
    op.

    GAMESPEOPLEPLAYI
    NSUPERVI
    SION

    Ongoingseri
    esofcompl ement ar
    yulter
    iortransact
    ionssuper fi
    cial
    l
    yplausibl
    ebut
    withaconcealedmot i
    vat
    ion.Iti
    saschemeorar tful
    nessutil
    izedi nthepursui
    tofsome
    object
    ivesorpurpose.Apl ayisasegmentofgame.Thepur poseofengagi nginthe
    game,ofusingthemaneuv er
    s,snares,thegimmi cksandpl oyst hatareintheessence
    theartofgamesmanshipliesinthepayof f
    .(Berne)

    Super
    visee’
    sgamesi nclude:
    1.Mani pul
    atingdemandl evel
    2.Redef i
    ningtherelati
    onshi
    p
    3.Reducingpowerdi spar
    it
    y
    4.Cont r
    oll
    ingthesituati
    on

    “I
    fyouwantsomeonet odoagoodjob, “Menandwomenwantt odoagoodj ob,a
    gi
    vethem a goodjobtodo.
    ” creat
    ivejob,andi ftheyareprovi
    dedt he
    —Frederi
    ck Her
    zberg, Management properenvir
    onment,t
    heywi l
    ldoso.”
    Theori
    st —BillHewlett
    ,Co-
    founder,
    Hewlett
    -Packard

    Bi
    bli
    ogr
    aphy
    :

    1.Trecker, Harlei
    gh,Soci alWorkAdmi nistration
    2.Cor dero,Pangal anganet .Al.Admi nistrationandsuper vi
    sioninsocialworkrevised
    edi
    tioncopy r
    ight2013
    3.Kadushi n,Albert,SocialWor kAdmi nistration
    4.Ski dmor e,RexA. ,SocialWor kAdmi nistrati
    on,Dy nami cManagementandHuman
    Relati
    onshi p
    5.http:/
    /www. edrawsoft.com/ example-st udent-orgchar t
    .php
    7. https:
    / /
    www. google.com.ph/sear ch? q=images+of +organi
    zat
    ional
    +char
    ts&ie=utf
    -
    8&oe=ut f
    -8&aq=t &rl
    s=or g.mozill
    a:en-
    GB: of f
    icial
    &client=fi
    refox-
    a&channel =np&sour ce=hp&gf e_rd=cr
    &ei =1OJRU6qf KNbBuASwg4CQDQ

    395
    SOCIALWORK
    COMMUNI TY
    EDUCATI
    ON
    AND
    396
    TRAI
    NING
    Rev
    iewer
    :
    Ms.I
    mel
    daF.Gat
    inao

    I
    . I
    ntr
    oduct
    iont
    oSoci
    alWor
    kCommuni
    tyEducat
    ionandTr
    aini
    ng

    A.Basi
    cConcept
    sonSoci
    alWor
    kCommuni
    tyEducat
    ionandTr
    aini
    ng

    The t
    heor
    yand pr
    act
    ice ofcommuni
    tyeducat
    ion i
    s al
    mostal
    way
    svi
    ewed as
    '
    educat
    ionf
    orcommuni
    tywi
    thi
    ncommuni
    ty'
    .Iti
    sapr
    ocessdesi
    gnedt
    oenr
    icht
    he
    l
    ivesofi ndi
    v i
    dual
    sandgroupsbyengagi ngwithpeopl
    etodev el
    opv ol
    untari
    l
    yar angeof
    l
    ear ni
    ng,act i
    on and ref
    lect
    ion opportuni
    ti
    es,deter
    mined by theirpersonal
    ,soci al
    ,
    economi candpol i
    ti
    calneeds.Communi tyeducat
    ionini
    tsstr
    ongersensehaspar al
    lels
    i
    nt hetradit
    ionofcommuni t
    yorganizat
    ion.

    “Communi t
    y educat i
    on,al so known ascommuni ty-
    based educat ion orcommuni ty
    l
    earning&devel opment ,isanor ganizati
    on'
    sprogramst opromotel earningandsoci al
    developmentwor kwithi ndi
    vidual sandgr oupsint heircommuni t
    iesusi ngar angeof
    formalandi nf
    ormalmet hods.A commondef ini
    ngf eatureisthatpr ogrammesand
    acti
    viti
    esaredevel opedi ndialoguewi t
    hcommuni tiesandpar t
    ici
    pant s.Thepur poseof
    communi t
    yl earninganddevel opmenti stodevel opt hecapacit
    yofi ndi
    vidualsand
    groupsofal lagest hrought heiractions,thecapacityofcommuni ties,toi mprovetheir
    quali
    tyofli
    fe.Cent r
    altothisist heirabil
    it
    ytoparti
    cipateindemocraticpr ocesses.

    Communi t
    yeducat i
    onencompassesal lthoseoccupat ionsandappr oachest hatare
    concer ned wi t
    h r unning educati
    on and devel opment pr ogr
    ammes wi thi
    n local
    communi ti
    es,ratherthanwithi
    neducationalinsti
    tuti
    onssuchasschool s,coll
    egesand
    universit
    ies.Thel at
    terisknownast heformaleducat i
    onsystem,wher eascommuni ty
    educat i
    oni ssomet i
    mescalledinfor
    maleducat i
    on.Ithaslongbeencriti
    calofaspectsof
    thef ormaleducat i
    onsystem forfai
    li
    nglargesect i
    onsoft hepopulat
    ioninallcountri
    es

    397
    andhadapart
    icularconcer
    nfort
    aki
    nglear
    ninganddevelopmentopport
    uni
    ti
    esoutt
    o
    poor
    erar
    eas,althoughitcanbeprovi
    dedmor ebroadly.
    ”(Communi t
    yEducat
    ion–
    Wi
    ki
    pedi
    a)

    Trai
    ningisthesystemati
    cacquisit
    ionofskil
    ls,r
    ulesandconcepts,andthefor
    mationof
    att
    it
    udesandval uesthatr
    esultinimprovedperformanceinvari
    ouswor kenvi
    ronments
    (Gol
    dstei
    n,1990ci t
    edbyOr t
    igas,Carmela,2012). Anotherdefi
    niti
    onseestrai
    ningas
    l
    earningtochanget heper
    for
    manceofpeopl edoingjobs(Fr
    anco1990ci t
    edbyOr ti
    gas,
    Carmela,2012). Theaim oft r
    ainingistoi mproveorhonet heski l
    l
    sofwor kersto
    i
    mpr
    ovet
    hei
    rper
    for
    manceoft
    hatgi
    venf
    unct
    ion.

    B.Sel ect edLear ningTheor i


    es
    1. Edwar dL.Thor ndike
    I
    s wi dely known f orhi s cont ri
    butions tot he st udy ofPsy chology.
    Ref erred to as“ Amer i
    ca’smostpr oduct i
    vepsy chologist”and t he“ f
    atherof
    moder n dayeducat ionalpsy chol ogy ,”he publ i
    shed r oughl y500 books and
    arti
    cles.I n1905hef or malizedt heLawofEf fectwhi chst ates:
    “Responsest hatar ei mmedi atelyf oll
    owedbyasat isfact oryout comebecome
    mor est r
    ongl yassoci atedwi tht hesi tuat i
    onandar et hereforemor elikelytooccur
    againint hef uture.Conv ersely,responsesf oll
    owedbynegat iveout comesbecome
    mor eweakl yassoci atedandl essl ikelyt or eoccuri nthef uture. ”TheLawofEf fect
    wast her esultofhisext ensi vest udywi thani mal s.Thor ndikecr eateddev i
    cescalled
    “puzzleboxes” . Theexper iment swer ebasedonani malsbei ngpl acedi ntothese
    contraptionsandcoul donl yescapef rom i tbymaki ngsomespeci ficr esponses. If
    theanimal i
    sr ewarded, byescapi ng, thebehav i
    ori sl
    earned.
    2. Andr agogy
    Andragogyl i
    ter all
    ymeansl eaderofman( andr-i sLat i
    nf or“man”and
    agogusi sLatinf or“leaderof ”
    ).
     Adul tsneedt oknowwhyt heyar elearning;howwi ll
    itaf fectt hem?
     Adul tsar eaut onomousandsel f-di
    rect ed
     Adul tshav eal i
    feti
    meofexper ience
     Adul tsuseahands- onpr obl em- solvi
    ngappr oacht ol earning
     Adul tswantt oappl ynewknowl edgeandski ll
    simmedi ately
     Adul tsneedt obeshownr espect
    .
    3.Al
    ber
    tBandur
    a’sSCT-
    Soci
    alCogni
    ti
    veTheor
    y
    Humanscanl earnbyobser vingandmodel i
    ngothers,especi
    allythosethatthey
    i
    dentif
    ywi t
    h.
    Classi
    c“BoboDol l
    ”studiesdemonst rat
    edobser
    vationallear
    ningandi mpacton
    vi
    olentbehavi
    orinchil
    dren.Banduraor i
    ginal
    lycal
    l
    edthi
    st heoryObser vat
    ionalLear
    ning
    TheoryorSocial
    Learni
    ngTheor y.Humanscanl earn by observi
    ng and model ing
    other
    s,especi
    all
    ythosethattheyidenti
    fywith.

    4. Malcolm Knowl es’


    FatherofAdul tLearning.DevelopedSi
    xFact
    orsasSour
    cesofMot
    ivat
    ionf
    or
    AdultLearning:
     Dev elopsoci alr
    elationshi
    ps
     Escape/ St i
    mulation
     Soci al wel f
    are
     Per sonal advancement
     Ext ernal expectations
     Cogni ti
    vei nter
    est

    5. Gardner’
    sMul ti
    pleIntell
    igence
    Thet heoryofmul ti
    pleintell
    igenceswasdev elopedi n1983byDr .Howar d
    Gardner,professorofeducat ion atHar vard Universit
    y.I tsuggest sthatt he
    tr
    aditi
    onalnotionofi ntell
    igence,basedonI .Q.testi
    ng,i sfartool i
    mited.I
    nstead,
    Dr.Gardnerproposesei ghtdifferentint
    ell
    igencest oaccountf orabroaderrange
    ofhumanpot entialinchi l
    drenandadul ts.”Thet heor yofmul t
    ipl
    eintell
    i
    gences
    proposesamaj ortransformationi nthewayourschool sar erun.Itsuggeststhat

    398
    teachersbetr
    ainedtopresentt
    heirl
    essonsi
    nawidev
    ari
    etyofwaysusi
    ngmusi
    c,
    cooperati
    vel ear
    ning,artacti
    vit
    ies,rol
    e pl
    ay,mul
    ti
    media,fi
    eldtri
    ps,i
    nner
    refl
    ecti
    on,andmuchmor e.

    TheMulti
    pleI ntell
    igencesar e:
     Ver bal /
    LinguisticI ntelli
    gence-“ wor dsmart
    ”
     Logi cal-mat hemat i
    cal I
    ntel
    l
    igence-“ number/reasoni
    ngsmar
    t”
     Visual /Spat i
    alInt ell
    igence-“ pi
    cturesmart
    ”
     Bodi ly/Kinesthet icInt el
    li
    gence-“ bodysmar t
    ”
     Musi cal/Rhy t
    hmi cI ntelli
    gence-“ musicsmar t
    ”
     Interper sonal I
    ntel l
    igence-“ peoplesmart”
     Intraper sonal I
    nt ell
    igence-“ selfsmar t
    ”
     Nat ur al
    istIntel
    ligence-“ naturesmar t”

    6.Davi
    dKol
    b’sLear
    ningTheor
    y-Exper
    ient
    ialLear
    ningCycl
    e
    Hehasani nteresti
    nt henatur
    eofindivi
    dual,andsoci alchangeandexper ienti
    al
    l
    earning,car eerdev elopmentandexecut i
    veandpr of
    essionaleducation.Kol b’stheory
    workson2l evels:Fi r
    stlevel: Concr
    eteexperience;refl
    ect i
    veobser v
    ation;abstract
    concept uali
    zati
    on;act i
    ve experi
    mentati
    on. The second l evel:each represent
    ing a
    combi nationoft he2pr ef
    erredstyl
    es.Di
    vergi
    ng:tomov eapar t
    ;assimil
    ati
    ng:t oabsorb;
    Conver ging:tocomet ogetherandAccommodat ing: adapt-makei tfi
    t-
    changet osui t
    newpur pose.

    Kolb’
    stheoryclari
    fi
    esbetweenExper
    ienceandExper i
    enti
    alLearni
    ng.Experience
    i
    susedt otestouti deasandassumpt i
    onsr at
    hert hantopassi v
    elyobtainpractice.
    Exper
    ient
    iall
    earningisnotthesameasdiscoveri
    nglearni
    ng.Act i
    vi
    ti
    esmustbecar efully
    desi
    gnedbyt heteacherandlear
    nersmustrefl
    ectontheirexper
    ienceincri
    ti
    calway.

    7.Popul arEducation( Paul


    oFreire)–communi t
    y-basededucati
    on
    PauloFreir
    e'sinvigorati
    ngcr i
    ti
    queofthedomi nantbankingmodelofeducat
    ion
    l
    eadst ohisdemocr at
    icpr oposalsofproblem-
    posingeducati
    onwher e"menandwomen
    devel
    optheirpowert oper cei
    vecrit
    icall
    ythewaytheyexisti
    ntheworldwit
    hwhichandin
    whichtheyfindthemsel ves;theycomet oseethewor l
    dnotasast at
    icr
    eal
    it
    ybutasa
    real
    it
    yintheprocessoft ransformation.
    "

    399
    I
    I. TheAdul
    tLear
    ning:Concept
    sandPr
    inci
    ples

    Adul teducati
    onisapracti
    ceinwhi chadult
    sengageinsystematicandsustained
    sel
    f–educat i
    ngact i
    vi
    ti
    esinordertogai nnew f or
    msofknowl edge,skil
    ls,at
    ti
    tudes,or
    [
    1]
    val
    ues. Itcanmeananyf orm ofl
    earningadultsengagei
    nbeyondt radi
    ti
    onalschooling,
    encompassi ngbasicli
    ter
    acytopersonalfulf
    il
    lmentasali
    fel
    onglearner.

    I
    npar ti
    cular,adul
    teducat i
    onr efl
    ectsaspeci fi
    cphil
    osophyaboutl earningand
    teachi
    ngbasedont heassumpt i
    onthatadul t
    scanandwantt olearn,thatt
    heyar eable
    andwi ll
    ingt otaker esponsibil
    i
    tyfort hatlearni
    ng,andthatthel earningitselfshould
    respondt ot heirneeds.Dr ivenbywhatoneneedsorwant st ol earn,t
    heav ai
    l
    able
    opportunit
    ies,and t he manneri n which one lear
    ns,adultlearning is affected by
    demogr aphics,global
    izat
    ionandt echnology.Thelearni
    nghappensi nmanyway sandi n
    manycont extsjustasal ladult
    s'li
    vesdi f
    fer.Adultl
    earni
    ngcanbei nanyoft hethree
    contexts,i
    .e.

     For
    mal–St ruct
    uredl
    ear
    ningt
    hattypi
    cal
    lytakesplacei
    naneducat
    ionort
    rai
    ning
    i
    nsti
    tut
    ion,
    usuall
    ywit
    hasetcurr
    icul
    um andcarri
    escredent
    ial
    s;

     Non-formal– Learni
    ngt hatisorganizedbyeducati
    onalinst
    it
    uti
    onsbutnon
    credenti
    al.Non-
    for
    mallearni
    ngoppor t
    unit
    iesmaybepr ov
    idedinthewor
    kpl
    ace
    andt hr
    oughtheacti
    vi
    ti
    esofcivi
    lsociet
    yorgani
    zat
    ionsandgroups;

     Informaleducati
    on–Learni
    ngthatgoesonal
    ltheti
    me,resul
    ti
    ngfr
    om dai
    l
    yli
    fe
    activi
    ti
    esrelat
    edt owor
    k,fami
    l
    y ,communi
    tyorlei
    sur
    e(e.g.communi
    tybaki
    ng
    class).

    Character
    isti
    csofAdul tEducation
    Definedast hesci enceandar tofhel pi
    ngadul t
    sl ear
    nt hepr act
    iceofadult
    educati
    onisr eferredt oasandr agogy ,t
    odistinguishi
    tfrom thetraditi
    onalschool
    -based
    educati
    onf orchildrenpedagogy .Unl
    ikechildren,adul
    tsareseenas:
     Mor eself-directed,r
    atherthanrelyi
    ngonot her
    sforhelp
     Mat ureandt herefor
    eexper i
    encedwi ththeexperi
    encepr ovidingar i
    chsour
    ce
    forlearning
     AnAdul t
    'sreadinesst olearnisli
    nkedt owhatoneneedst oknow
     Adul tor i
    ent ati
    ont olear
    ni sproblem centeredr
    atherthansubj ectcenter
    ed
     Adul tmot i
    vat i
    ont ol
    earni si
    nternal

    Chi
    l
    dandAdultLear
    ningChar
    act
    eri
    sti
    cs
    I
    NSTRUCTI
    ONBASEDONFI VEBASICPRINCI
    PLESOFADULTLEARNI
    NG
     Leadershi
    p
     Experi
    ence
     Appeal
     Respect
     NovelStyl
    es

     Pri
    ncipl
    e1:Leader
    ship.
    Theadultl
    ear
    nerenterst
    hetrai
    ningoreducati
    onalenvi
    ronmentwi
    thadeepneed
    t
    obesel
    f-
    dir
    ecti
    ngandtotakealeader
    shiprol
    einhisorherlearni
    ng.

     Pr i
    ncipl
    e2:Experience
    Thereisagr eat
    eremphasi sont heuseofexper i
    enti
    all ear
    ning t
    echniques
    (di
    scussi
    on met hods,case studies,problem-solvi
    ng exer
    cises)t hattap intot he
    accumulat
    edknowl edgeandski l
    lsoft helearnersandtechni
    quessuchassi mul at
    ion
    exerci
    sesandfieldexperi
    encesthatprovi
    del earner
    swithexperiencesfrom whichthey

    400
    canl
    ear
    nbyanal
    yzi hem.Ex.Gr
    ngt oupExer
    cises-
    boatr
    ide

    Rober
    tF.Mager(1992)
     Hepr ovidedt
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ngl
    i
    stofkeypoi
    ntsconcer
    ningexper
    ience:
     Everyone comes t othe l earning situati
    on withal i
    fetime ofexper i
    ence,
    regardlessofage.
     Thel i
    feti
    meexper iencesofeachl earnerar edif
    ferentf r
    om t hoseofot hers.
     Lif
    etimeexper iencesal soi ncludemi sconceptions,bi ases,pr ejudices,and
    preferences.I
    not herwor ds, someofwhatpeopl et hinktheyknowi sact uall
    y
    wrong.
     Studiesshowt hatov eraper iodofthr eeday s,l
    earningr etenti
    oni sasf ol
    l
    ows:
     10%ofwhaty our ead.
     20%ofwhaty ouhear .
     30%ofwhaty ousee.
     50%ofwhaty ouseeandhear .
     70%ofwhaty ousay .
     90%ofwhatyousayasyoudo( e.
    g.,or
    allywor koutapr oblem)( Pike
    1989).
     Theul t
    imateeducat orknowst hatexper iencei sar i
    chr esourcef oradult
    l
    earningandt hereforeact i
    velyinvol
    vesadul t
    sint helearningpr ocess.

     Pr i
    ncipl
    e3:Appeal .
    Appeali sthe powerofat tr
    acti
    ng orar ousi
    ng inter
    est
    .Adul tlear
    ner
    s are
    mot
    ivat
    ed tolearnwhent heyhav eaneed t o know.Theywantt o know how the
    i
    nst
    ruct
    ionwill
    helpthem andof t
    enaskthemsel v
    est hefol
    l
    owi ngquest
    ions:
     What 'si
    ni tf
    orme?
     WhydoIneedt hisi
    nformat
    ion?
     Howwi l
    lIbenefitfr
    om it
    ?
     HowcanImakeuseofi ti
    napr acti
    cal,
    realway?
     Howwi l
    lithelpmebeabet terpersonorpr of
    essional
    ?

    Tr
    aini
    nganddev el
    opmentexper tRobertF.Mager(1992)bri
    ngsthi
    spointhome
    wi
    thhi
    sfi
    rstt
    wor ul
    esoftrai
    ning:
     Rule#1:Trai
    ningisappropr
    iateonlywhentwoconditi
    onsarepresent
    :
     Thereissomethingthatoneormor epeopl
    edonotknowhowt odo.
     Theyneedt obeabletodoi t
    .
     Rule#2:Ift
    heyalreadyknowhow, mor et
    rai
    ningwon'thel
    p.

     Pr inciple4:Respect .
    Thewor dr especther eisdef i
    nedas" esteem. "Thei nst
    ruct orofadul t
    smust
    show deferentialregardf ort hel earnerbyacknowl edginganadul tlear nersexperience
    andcreati
    ngacl i
    mat einthel earningsettingthatconv eysrespect.
     Thef oll
    owi ngsuggest i
    onsar eof feredasway sinwhi cht hei nstr
    uctorcan
    helpf osteracomf ortable,product i
    vel earningclimatet hrought heat t
    itude
    thatheorshepr ojects:
     Showr espectf orthelearner '
    sindiv i
    duali
    tyandexper ience.
     Be sensi tivet ot he l
    anguage y ou use so t hatl earners are not
    inadvertentlyof f
    ended.
     Beopent odi fferentperspectives.
     Adoptacar i
    ngat ti
    tudeandshowi t.
     Tr eatthel earner sasindividualsr atherthanasagr oupofpeopl ewho
    areallalike.
     Suppor talllearnercomment sbyacknowl edgingt he" ri
    ghtness"thatis
    ineachcommentandeachper son.
     Take t he l earning process ser iously because i ti s ser
    ious and
    impor t
    ant( McLagen1978) .

     Est
    abl
    ishalear
    ningcli
    mat eof:
     Mutualrespect
    .
     Coll
    aborati
    onrathert
    hancompet
    it
    ion.

    401
     Suppor
    trathert
    hanj
    udgment
    .
     Mutualt
    rust.
     Fun

     Pr i
    ncipl
    e5:NovelSt yles
    Thelastpri
    ncipler eferstoi
    ndi
    v i
    dualornov elst
    ylesthatcharact
    eri
    zelearner
    s.
    Novelst y
    les are defined as di f
    fer
    ent,uni que lear
    ning styl
    es and pref
    erences.
    Mostadul tsprefertobet reat
    edasi ndi
    vidualswhoar euni queandhav epar t
    icul
    ar
    dif
    ferences.Thei nst
    ruct ormustkeep i n mi nd t
    hatalthough adul
    tshavecommon
    characteri
    sti
    csaslearners, adult
    sal
    sohav eindiv
    idualdi
    ffer
    encesandmostadul t
    shav e
    preferr
    edmet hodsforlearning.

     Tr
    ainingStrategies
     Oncet het rainingobjecti
    vehasbeeni dent
    ifi
    ed,thet r
    ainertr
    ansl
    atesit
    i
    ntospeci fi
    ct raini
    ngareasandmodules.Thet rai
    nerpreparesthepr
    iori
    ty
    l
    istofaboutwhatmustbei ncl
    uded,whatcouldbeincluded.
     Exampl e:Unl adKabat aanProgr
    amPopul at
    ionAwar eness&Fami lyLife
    Orient
    ation
     Modul e: Popul ati
    onandDev el
    opment

    12Pr
    inci
    plesf
    orEf
    fect
    iveAdul
    tLear
    ning

    Princi
    ple1:NeedsAssessment .Doinganadequat eneedsassessmenti sbothst andard
    practi
    ceandabasi cprincipl
    eofadul tlearning,whichhonor
    st hefactthatwhi l
    epeopl e
    mayr egi
    sterfort he same pr ogram theyal lcome with dif
    fer
    entexper i
    ence and
    expectati
    ons.Not wopeopl eper ceivethewor l
    di nthesameway .That’sast andard
    axiom ofquantum thinking.Howcanwedi scoverwhatthegroupr eal
    l
    yneedst ol earn,
    whattheyal r
    eadyknow, whataspect softhecour sethatwehavedesignedr eall
    yfittheir
    si
    tuati
    ons?Li st
    eningt ol ear
    ners’want sandneedshel psshapeapr ogram t hathas
    i
    mmedi at
    eusefulnesstoadul ts.

    Pri
    nciple2:Saf et
    y. Safetyisapr i
    ncipl
    elinkedtorespectforl ear
    ner
    sasdeci si
    on
    maker soft
    heirownl ear
    ning.Butithasanaddedconnot ati
    on.I
    tmeanst hatthedesi
    gn
    oflearni
    ngtasks,theatmosphereint heroom,andtheverydesignofsmal lgr
    oupsand
    mat er
    ial
    sconv eytot headultlearnersthatthisexper
    iencewi l
    lwor kforthem.The
    contexti
    ssafe.

    Pri
    ncipl
    e3:SoundRel at
    ionshi ps.Soundrelati
    onshipsforlearninginvolv
    erespect,saf
    ety,
    opencommuni cati
    on,li
    stening,andhumi l
    i
    ty.Zohar( 1997,p.134)of fersanewr eading
    ofdial
    ogue,di
    a+l ogos,asdi a“through”andl ogos“rel
    ati
    onshi p”
    :“thr
    oughrelat
    ionship.
    ”
    Sheteachesthatsuchdialoguei sacentraltoolinquantum thinki
    ng.

    Principle4:SequenceandRei nforcement .Sequenceandr ei


    nfor cementar ev i
    talbut
    oftenov erlookedaspr inciplesofadul tlearni ng.Sequenceshoul dst artfrom easyt o
    diff
    icult,from si mpl etocompl ex.Thi sseemssuchabasi cconcept .Fai l
    ingt ohonori t,
    howev er,canl eadt oadul t
    sdr oppingoutofcour ses,peopl eact ingoutanger ,fear,and
    disappoi ntment ,adul t
    sbel i
    ev ingt heycannotl ear n.
    Sequencemeanst hepr ogr ammi ngofknowl edge,ski l
    ls,andat ti
    tudesi nanor derthat
    goesf r om si mpl et ocompl exandf rom gr oupsuppor tedt osol oef forts.Learningt asks
    canber eadi lyexami nedf orsequence.Mani festationsofsaf etyandent husiasm and
    readinesst oachi evei nlear nersi ndicatethatsequencei sbeinghonor ed.Wheny ou,as
    teacher ,seef ear,conf usion, andr eluctancet ot r
    yi nthel earner,testt hesequenceoft he
    l
    ear ni
    ngt ask.Youmayf i
    ndy ouhav enothonor edt hei rneedf orsmal lstepsbet ween
    tasksandt heirneedf orrei nforcement .Reinf orcementmeanst her epetiti
    onoff acts,
    skil
    ls,andat t
    itudesi ndi verse, engagi ng,andi nterestingway sunt iltheyar elearned.The
    designofr ei nforcementi nadul tlearningi st hej oboft het eacher .Al t
    houghadul tsmay
    dot hei rownr einforcementt hroughpr acticalwor kandst udy,ourt eachingdesi gns,i f
    theyar et obeaccount able,mustcar ryadequat er einforcementwi thi
    nt hem t oensur e
    l
    ear ni
    ng.Thi si sthehear toft hemat ter.

    402
    Pri
    nci ple5:Pr axis.PraxisisaGr eekwor dthatmeans“ acti
    onwi t
    hr ef
    lection.”Therei s
    l
    it
    tledoubtamongeducat orsthatdoi
    ngist hewayadul tslearnanythi
    ng: concepts,skill
    s,
    orattitudes.Praxisisdoingwit hbui
    lt
    -i
    nreflecti
    on.Itisabeaut i
    ful
    danceofi nductiv
    eand
    deduct ivefor
    msofl ear
    ning.Asweknow, inductiv
    el ear
    ningproceedsf r
    om t hepar t
    icular
    tot hegener al,whereasdeduct i
    velearning mov esf r
    om a gener alpr incipl
    et ot he
    part
    icul arsit
    uation.Praxiscanbeusedi nt eachingknowl edge,skil
    l
    s,andat tit
    udesas
    l
    earner sdosomet hi
    ngwi t
    hthenew knowl edge,practi
    cet henew skill
    sandat ti
    tudes,
    andt henr efl
    ectonwhatt heyhavejustdone.

    Princi
    ple6:Respectf orLear ner
    sasDeci sionMaker s.Respectinglearnersasdecision
    maker softheirownlearningisaprinciplethatinv ol
    vest her
    ecogni t
    ionthatadult
    sar ein
    factdecisi
    onmaker sinal argepartoft hei
    rlives.Heal t
    hyadultsdesiretobesubj ect
    sor
    decisi
    onmaker sandr esistbeingt r
    eatedasobj ect
    s,somet hingthatcanbeusedby
    someoneel se.Indialogueeducat ion,weassumet hatpeoplear enotdesi gnedt obe
    usedbyot hers.Adul
    tsneedt ounderstandt hatt heythemselvesdeci dewhatoccur sfor
    them inthelearni
    ngev ent.Thedialogueofl earningisbetweent woadul ts:t
    eacherand
    student,
    learnerandlearner.

    Pri
    nci pl
    e7:I deas,Feel ings,ActionsLear ningwi t
    ht hemi nd,emot ions,andmuscl es
    andgi vi
    ngat t
    ent iont ot hecogni ti
    ve,affective,andpsy chomot oraspectsofadul t
    l
    ear ningisav i
    talpr i
    nciplethati
    sof t
    ennegl ected.Whent hef ormalit
    iesofteachingand
    l
    earningi nthecl assroom anduni versit
    ytakeov erwithoutr eflect
    ion,adultl
    earnerscan
    bef acedwi thamassofcogni t
    ivemat t
    er:information,dat a,andf actsthatmayseem
    i
    mpossi blet
    ocompr ehendorl earn.Ex.WhenIt ookmyf i
    rstcomput ercourse,Ihadt he
    personalexper ience ofbei ng deluged withf acts aboutt he hi st
    oryand emer ging
    compl exityofcomput ers.Isi mplywant edt oknow how t ouseone.Themassof
    i
    nfor mationfri
    ght enedmeawayandIbecameanot herst ati
    st i
    c:anotheradultlearner
    whobeganacour seandt hendroppedout .

    Principle 8:I mmedi acy.Research recognizes thatadul tlearners need to see t he


    i
    mmedi ateusef ulnessofnew l earni
    ng:t heski l
    ls,knowledge,orat t
    it
    udest heyar e
    wor kingt oacqui r
    e.Mostadul tsdonothav etimet owast e.Wewantt ospendourt ime
    study i
    ng cont entt hatwi llmake a di ff
    erence now.We ar e will
    ing to worki n an
    appr opr i
    atesequence, andwer ecognizetheneedf orreinf
    orcement ,butwewantt osee
    somet hingi nhandassoonaspossi ble.Al argeper cent
    ageofadul tlearnersst arta
    cour seandt hendecidet ogiveitupbecauset heycannotseet hei mmedi at
    eusef ulness
    ofwhatt heyarelearning.Suchimmedi acyisnotaqui ckfi
    xinamechani sti
    csense.I ti
    s
    percei vedusef ul
    ness,r el
    atedtorespectf orthelearner’scontext,sequenceofl ear ni
    ng
    tasks,andt hedat ashar edint heneedsassessment .Thei mmedi acyper ceivedby
    l
    ear nerswi l
    laff
    ecttheirdeter
    minationtocont i
    nuewor king.

    Principl
    e9:Cl earRoles.Anot hervitalprinci
    pleofadul tlearni
    ngi sr ecognit
    ionoft he
    i
    mpactofcl earrolesinthecommuni cationbetweenl earnerandt eacher.AsPaul oFr ei
    re
    puti tinconv ersati
    on:“ Onl
    yt hest udentcannamet hemomentoft hedeat hoft he
    professor.”Thatis,at eachercanbei nt
    entuponadi aloguewi thanadul tlearner,buti f
    thel ear
    nerseest het eacheras“ thepr ofessor”wi t
    hwhom t herei snopossi bil
    i
    tyof
    disagreement ,noquest ioni
    ng,nochal l
    enge,t hedialoguei sdeadi nthewat er.Adul t
    studentsneedr einf
    orcementoft hehumanequi t
    ybet weent eacherandst udentand
    amongst udents.Itt
    akest i
    mef oradul t
    st oseet hemselvesandt heteacherinanewr ole.

    Principle10:Teamwor k.Teamwor kisi t


    sel
    fbot hapr ocessandapr incipl
    e.Teams
    prov i
    de,int headultlearni
    ngexperience,aqual i
    tyofsaf etythatiseffecti
    v eandhel pful.
    Theassur anceofsaf etyandsharedr esponsibili
    tyav ail
    ableinteamshasal wayspr oved
    wel come,nomat terwhatt hecul t
    uralsetti
    ng.Teamwor kcannotbet akenf orgranted.
    Throught hel ear
    ningneedsandr esourcesassessment ,thet eachercant akeadv i
    ce
    aboutt hef ormati
    onoft eams.Peopl ecanbei nvitedtowor kwithfri
    endswhenpossi ble.
    Thispr ovidessaf etyforundertakingt hedifficulttasks.Theconceptofopt imalf i
    eld
    wor ksf orusher e.Anopt i
    malfieldisonedesi gnedf orev er
    yonet ogai nasmuchas
    possi bl
    e,one wher e we design f ora wi n-wi n situation by int
    ent i
    onallyincluding
    ever yt
    hingint hefi
    eldthatmakesf orsuccess.

    403
    Pr
    inci
    ple11:Engagement.Engagementi
    nt helear
    ningandacti
    onpl
    ansforastr
    ategi
    c
    pl
    anni
    ngsessioni
    sav i
    tal
    princi
    plet
    oensurethequalit
    yoft
    heteam’
    slear
    ning.

    Princi
    ple12:Account abili
    ty.Account abi
    li
    tyisoneoft hef oremostpr inciplesofadul t
    l
    ear ni
    ng.Whoi saccount ablet owhom?Fi rst,thedesi gnofl earningev entsmustbe
    accountabletot hel earners.Whatwaspr oposedt obet aughtmustbet aught ;whatwas
    meantt obel earnedmustbel ear ned;theskill
    si ntendedtobegai nedmustbev i
    sibl
    ei n
    allthelearners;theat ti
    tudest aughtmustbeseen;t heknowl edgeconv ey edmustbe
    mani f
    estinadul tlear ners’languageandr easoni ng.Second,t hel ear nersint eamsar e
    accountabletot heircol l
    eaguesandt otheteacher .Theyareaccount abletot hemsel ves
    torecreatethecont entsoi treallyisimmedi atel
    yusef uli
    nt heircont ext.Account abili
    tyis
    asy nt
    hesisprinciple—i tisther esultofusingal ltheotherprinciples.
    www. globall
    earningpar tners.
    com/ ..
    ./LTL_Sampl e_Chapter.
    pdf

    I
    II
    . Pr
    ofi
    li
    ngt
    heLear
    ner
    sinSoci
    alWor
    kCommuni
    tyEducat
    ionandTr
    aini
    ng

    A. Sect oralmov ement s:chi l


    dren,labor,urban poor
    ,ov erseas Fi
    li
    pinos,
    peopl ewithdisabil
    i
    t i
    es,indi
    genouspeopl es
    B. Issue-basedmov ement s:feminist
    ,freedom f
    rom debt,fairtr
    ade,LGBT,
    peaceandj usti
    ce,feministandecologicalmovements
    C. Faith-basedmov ement s
    D. Liberationmov ement

    I
    V. TheTr
    aini
    ngPr
    ocess

    A.Tr
    aini
    ngNeedsAssessment(
    TNA)

    Trainingneedsassessmentisthesystemat
    icef
    for
    tthatwemaketo
    gat
    heropinionsandideasfr
    om avar
    iet
    yofsour
    cesonper
    for
    mancepr
    obl
    emsor
    newsyst
    emsandt echnol
    ogies.
    ”

    Whati
    saTr
    aini
    ngneedsAnal
    ysi
    s?
    Atr
    aini
    ngneedsanal ysi
    sisasyst
    ematicappr
    oachf ordet
    ermini
    ngwhattrai
    ning
    needstotakeplace.At r
    aini
    ngneedsanaly
    sisconsi
    ders:agency
    /organi
    zat
    ion’
    sneeds;
    Curr
    entcompetencies;
    Traini
    ngmethods;
    Cost;Ef
    fect
    iveness

    A Trai
    ningNeedsAnal ysi
    s(TNA)isusedt oassessanor ganizati
    on’
    st r
    aini
    ng
    needs.Ther ootoftheTNA i sthegapanalysis.Thi
    sisanassessmentoft hegap
    betweentheknowledge,skil
    l
    sandat t
    it
    udest
    hatthepeoplei
    nt heorganizat
    ioncurr
    entl
    y
    possess and the knowledge,skil
    l
    s and at
    ti
    tudes t
    hatt hey r
    equiret o meett he
    organi
    zat
    ion’sobj
    ecti
    ves.

    WhydoweNeedTNA?
     Tomakesurewear eapplyi
    ngtherightsolut
    iontot
    heproblem
     Toi
    denti
    fywhatl
    earningwill
    beaccompl ished
     Toi
    denti
    fywhatchangesinbehaviorandper for
    manceareexpect
    ed
     Todet
    erminet
    heexpect edeconomiccost sandbenef
    it
    s

    Tr
    aini
    ngNeedsAnal
    ysi
    saddr
    esst
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ngquest
    ions:
     Whattr
    aini
    ngi sneededandwhy ?
     Wherei
    st r
    ainingneeded?
     Whoneedst raini
    ng?
     Howwilltr
    ainingbepr ov
    ided?
     Howmuchwi lltr
    aini
    ngcost?
     Whatwil
    lbet heimpactonbusi ness

    404
    WhyConductaTr
    aini
    ngNeedsAnal
    ysi
    s?
     Effect
    ivetrainingprogr amscor r
    ectl
    yi denti
    fyandaddressthetr
    aini
    ngneeds.
     Needt odet erminewhatorwhoneedst obetrai
    ned.
     Traini
    ngneedsanal y si
    swor kstoclarifytr
    aini
    ngneeds
     At rai
    ningneedsanal ysi
    sensur estrainingistarget
    ingthecorr
    ectcompetenci
    es,
    thecorrectempl oyeesandi saddressingabusi nessneed.
     Apoor lydesignedtr ainingneedsanal ysescanleadtotrai
    ningt
    hat:
     Addr essest hewr ongcompet encies
     Tr ai
    nst hewr ongpeopl e
     Usest hewrongt r
    ainingmethods

    Howt
    oConductaTr
    aini
    ngNeedsAnal
    ysi
    s?

    St
    ep1:Deter
    mi neDesiredOutcomes
     Clar
    if
    ygoal ofthetr
    ainingandexpect edout comes
     Trai
    ninggoalshouldcor r
    espondt otheobject i
    veoft heorgani
    zat
    ionoragency
    .
     Examplesoftraini
    nggoal s:
     I mprovedservicedeli
    v er
    yandclientsat i
    sfaction
     Decr easethetimei tt
    akest ocompl eteserv i
    cedeli
    very
     I mprove empl oyee/leaders mor ale t hrough better super
    visi
    on by
    managementorsuper v i
    sor
    s

    St
    ep2:LinkDesi redOut comeswi thEmploy ee’
    sBehav ior
     Identi
    fyt hecompet encies(behavi
    or s,skil
    l
    s,qualit
    iesandknowledge)t
    hatare
    l
    inkedt odesi redoutcome.
     Collectinfor mati
    onanddat af r
    om subj ectmat t
    erexpertstodeter
    minewhich
    compet enci esarecrit
    icalt
    oachievingt heoutcomes.
     Whatski ll
    sdoesoneneedt oachi evethisgoal?
     Whati nf
    ormationisnecessar ytomeett hi
    sobject
    ive?
     Whi chbehav i
    oriscrit
    icalt
    ocompl et
    ingthist
    ask?

    St
    ep3:Identi
    fyTr
    ainableCompet encies
     Ev al
    uatet
    hecr i
    ti
    calcompetenciesanddet erminei
    ftheyar
    e:
     Abili
    ti
    esoneshoul dpossesspr i
    ortojobentr
    y
     Abili
    ti
    esthatcanbel earnedonthej ob
     Listofcri
    ti
    calcompet enci
    est hatar
    eei t
    herelementsthatshoul
    dbeconsi
    der
    ed
    i
    nhi ri
    ngpracti
    cesorcompet enciesthatar
    eamenabl etotr
    aini
    ng.

    St
    ep4:
    Pri
    ori
    ti
    zeTraini
    ngNeeds
     Identi
    fytheper
    centageofempl
    oyeeswhoneedt
    rai
    ningont
    hecompet
    enci
    es.

    405
     Consi
    dertheimpor
    tanceoft
    hecompetenci
    estothebusi
    nessobject
    ives
     Together
    ,theneedandt heimpor
    tancewillal
    l
    ow y outoidenti
    fyt r
    aini
    ng
    pri
    ori
    ti
    es.

    St
    ep5:Deter
    mi neHowt oConductTr ai
    ning
     Consideradul tlearni
    ngt heoryandbestpr
    act
    icesi
    ntr
    aini
    ngont
    hepar
    ti
    cul
    ar
    compet enci
    es.
     Trai
    ningmet hodscanr angefrom:
     Ont hej obtrai
    ning(OJT)
     Ment or i
    ngandcoachi ng;
     Cl assr oom /lectur
    e
     Web- based/e- lear
    ning
     Readi ng/books
     Conf erences
     Academi cprograms

    St
    ep7:ConductaCostBenef i
    tAnalysis
     Considerthecost sassociatedwi t
    ht hetraini
    ngmet hods,t
    heext
    enttowhi
    cht
    he
    tr
    aini
    ngwi l
    l addresstheperformancegap, andt heimpactonbusiness
     Costfactorsinclude:
     Tr ainingtime
     Cont entdevelopmentt i
    me( ifdesignedin-house)
     Tr ainingproviderevaluati
    on( i
    fpurchasedf rom vendor
    )
     Tr ainingcontentdeliverymet hod
     Lostpr oducti
    v i
    tyfr
    om t i
    mespenti nt r
    aining
     Tr avel andlogisti
    calexpenses

    St
    ep8:Pl
    anningforTr
    aini
    ngEv aluati
    on
     Tr
    aini
    ngi sonl
    yeffectivei fthei nf
    ormati
    oni sret
    ainedandappl i
    edont
    hej
    ob.
    Eval
    uati
    onoftr
    aini
    ngi scr it
    ical
     Questi
    onstoconsi
    derinev aluati
    onincl
    ude:
     Howmuchdi dthet rai
    ningimprovethecompetenci
    es?
     Howdi dthetrainingi mproveemployees’j
    obperfor
    mance?
     Howdi dthetrainingsuppor tmeeti
    ngofbusinessobject
    ives?

    ThePr
    ocessofTNA

    406
    Met hodsofDet er
    mini
    ngTr ai
    ningNeeds-Questi
    onnair
    esur vey
    s;t estorexaminati
    on;
    personalrecor
    ds;busi
    nessandpr oduct
    ionr
    eport
    s;longrangeor ganizat
    ionalpl
    anni
    ng;
    observat
    ion;managementrequest
    ;int
    ervi
    ew;
    groupconferences;j
    obanal y
    sis

    B.Desi
    gni
    ngt
    heTr
    aini
    ngModul
    e

     Tr
    aini
    ngPr
    ogr
    am
    Thedesign ofthet
    rai
    ning pr
    ogr
    am can beunder
    taken onl
    ywhen acl
    eart
    rai
    ning
    obj
    ect
    ivehasbeenpr
    oduced.

     Tr
    aini
    ngObj
    ect
    ives
    Cl
    earswhatgoalhast
    obeachievedbytheendoftraini
    ngpr
    ogr
    am i
    .e.whatt
    het
    rai
    nees
    ar
    eexpect
    edt obeabl
    etodoattheendofthei
    rtr
    aining.
    Assi
    stt
    rai
    nerstodesi
    gnthet
    rai
    ningpr
    ogram

     Tr
    ainer
    Whoisthetrai
    neri
    nthetraini
    ng?
    Bef
    ore st
    arti
    ng a tr
    aini
    ng program,a tr
    aineranaly
    zes hist
    echni
    cal
    ,int
    erper
    sonal
    ,
    j
    udgmentalski
    ll
    sinordertodeli
    verqual
    i
    tycontentt
    otrai
    ner
    s.

     Tr
    ainees
    Whoar ethet r
    aineesi
    nthetrai
    ning?
    Agoodt r
    ainingdesignrequir
    esclosescr
    uti
    nyoft hetr
    aineesandthei
    rpr
    ofi
    les,age,
    experi
    ence,needsandexpect ati
    onsofthetr
    aineesaresomeoft hei
    mport
    antfactor
    s
    thataf
    fecttraini
    ngdesi
    gn.

     Tr
    aini
    ngCl
    imat
    e
    Agoodt
    rai
    ningcl
    i
    mat
    ecompr
    isesofambi
    ence,t
    one,f
    eel
    i
    ngs,posi
    ti
    veper
    cept
    ionf
    or

    407
    t
    rai
    ningprogram,etc.Ther
    efor
    e,whenthecl
    imat
    eisfav
    orablenot
    hinggoeswr
    ongbut
    whenthecli
    mat ei
    sunfavorabl
    e,al
    mostev
    ery
    thi
    nggoeswrong.

     Tr
    ainees’
    Lear
    ningSt
    yle
    Thelear
    ningstyl
    e,age,exper
    ience,educat
    ionalbackgr
    oundoft
    rai
    neesmustbekepti
    n
    mindinordert
    ogetther i
    ghtpit
    chtothedesignoftheprogr
    am

     Adul
    tLear
    ningPr
    inci
    ples
     Ast heymat ur e,adul tstendt opr efersel f-
    direction.Ther oleoft hei nstructor
    i
    st oengagei napr ocessofi nquiry,anal ysis,anddeci sion-maki ngwi thadul t
    l
    ear ner s,rathert hant otransmi tknowl edge.
     Adul ts'exper iencesar ear i
    chr esour cef orlearning.
     Act i
    vepar ti
    ci pati
    oni npl annedexper i
    ences—suchasdi scussi onsorpr oblem
    solvingexer ci sesananal ysisoft hoseexper i
    ences,andt heirappl icationt o
    wor korl i
    fesi tuations—shoul dbet hecor emet hodologyf ortrainingadul t
    s.
     Adul tsl earnandr et ai
    ni nformat ionmor eeasi l
    yift heycanr elatei ttot heir
    reserv oirofpastexper i
    ences.
     Adul tsar eawar eofspeci f
    iclearni ngneedsgener atedbyr eal-l
    ifeev entssuch
    asmar riage,di vor ce,par enting,t akinganew j ob,l osingaj ob,andsoon.
    Adul tl earner s'needsandi nterest sar et hest artingpoi ntsandser veas
    guidepost sf ort r
    ainingact i
    vi
    ties.
     Adul tsar ecompet ency -basedl ear ners,meani ngt hatt heywantt ol earnaski l
    l
    oracqui reknowl edget hatt heycanappl ypr agmat icall
    yt ot heiri mmedi ate
    circumst ances.Li feorwor k-relatedsi tuationspr esentamor eappr opriate
    framewor kforadul tlearningt hanacademi cort heor eti
    cal approaches.

    "
    Pike'
    sLawsofAdul
    tLear
    ning,
    "
     Law1:Adultsarebabi
    eswi thbigbodies
     Law2:Peopledonotarguewi ththei
    rowndat a
     Law 3:Learningisdir
    ectlyproport
    ionaltot heamountoff unyouar
    e
    havi
    ng.
     Law4:Learninghasnottakenplaceuntilbehavi
    orhaschanged

    1.Obj
    ect
    ive-
    Set
    ti
    ng
    Benj
    aminBloom (1956),i
    denti
    fi
    edthreedomai nsofeducat
    ionalact
    ivi
    ti
    es:
     Cogniti
    ve:ment al
    skil
    l
    s(Knowl edge)
     Aff
    ective:
    gr owthinf
    eeli
    ngsoremot i
    onalar
    eas(Att
    itude)
     Psychomot or:manualorphysi
    cal ski
    l
    ls(Ski
    l
    ls)

    Domai nscanbet houghtofascat egori


    es.Trainersoftenr ef
    ertotheset hree
    categor
    iesasKSA( Knowledge,Ski
    l
    ls,
    andAt t
    it
    ude).Thi
    st axonomyofl ear
    ningbehav i
    ors
    canbet houghtofas“t
    hegoalsofthelearni
    ngprocess.
    ”Thati s,
    afteralear
    ningepisode,
    thelear
    nershouldhaveacquir
    ednewski l
    l
    s,knowledge,and/oratti
    tudes.

    408
    Cognitive Dom ain

    Thecogniti
    vedomai n(Bloom, 1956)invol vesknowledgeandthedev elopmentof
    i
    ntel
    lectualskill
    s.Thisincludest herecallorr ecogniti
    onofspeci f
    icfacts,procedural
    patt
    erns,andconcept sthatser veinthedev elopmentofi ntell
    ect
    ualabil
    it
    iesandski l
    ls.
    Therear esixmaj orcategories,which arel isted i
    n orderbelow,start
    ing f r
    om the
    si
    mpl estbehav i
    ortothemostcompl ex.Thecat egori
    escanbet houghtofasdegr eesof
    di
    ffi
    culties.Thati
    s,thef
    irstonemustbemast eredbef or
    ethenextonecant akeplace.

    Cat
    egor
    y Exampl
    eandKeyWor
    ds(
    ver
    bs)

    Exampl es:Reciteapol i
    cy.Quot epricesfr
    om memor yto
    acust omer .Knowsthesaf etyrules.
    Knowledge:Recal
    ldat
    a or
    KeyWor ds:def i
    nes,describes,identi
    fi
    es,knows,labels,
    i
    nfor
    mat i
    on.
    l
    ists,mat ches,names,out li
    nes,r ecal
    ls,recognizes,
    reproduces, sel
    ects,
    states.

    Exampl es:Rewr it
    estheprinci
    plesoft estwr it
    ing.Explain
    Compr ehension:Under st
    and inone' sownwor dsthest epsforper formingacompl ex
    the meani ng, t r
    anslat
    ion, task. Tr anslates an equat i
    on i nt o a comput er
    i
    nterpolati
    on, and spr eadsheet .
    i
    nterpretati
    onofi nstr
    ucti
    ons Key Wor ds: compr ehends, conv ert
    s, def ends,
    and pr oblems. St ate a di sti
    nguishes,est i
    mates,explai
    ns,ext ends,gener ali
    zes,
    problem inone'sownwor ds. gi ves an exampl e, i
    nfers, inter
    pr ets, paraphrases,
    predict
    s, r
    ewr i
    tes,summar i
    zes,tr
    anslat es.

    Appl
    icati
    on:Useaconcepti n Exampl es:Use a manualt o cal
    culate an employee'
    s
    a new si
    tuati
    on or vacationt i
    me.Appl yl awsofst ati
    sti
    cst oev al
    uatethe
    unpr
    ompt ed use of an r el
    iabil
    it
    yofawr i
    ttentest.
    abst
    racti
    on. Appl i
    es what Key Wor ds:appl i
    es,changes,comput es,const r
    ucts,
    waslearnedintheclassr
    oom demonst rates, di scovers, mani pulat
    es, modi f
    ies,
    i
    nto novelsituati
    ons inthe operates,pr edi
    cts,prepares,produces,rel
    ates,shows,
    workplace. solves,uses.

    Exampl es:Tr oubleshootapi eceofequi pmentbyusi ng


    Analysis:Separatesmat erial
    l
    ogi cal deduct ion. Recogni ze l ogi
    cal fal
    lacies i n
    orconcept sintocomponent
    reasoni ng.Gat hersi nformationf r
    om adepar tmentand
    parts so that i
    ts
    select sther equiredtasksf ortrai
    ning.
    organizati
    onalstructur
    emay
    Key Wor ds: anal yzes, br eaks down, compar es,
    beunder stood.Disti
    nguishes
    cont rasts,diagrams, deconst r
    ucts, di ff
    erentiates,
    between facts and
    discriminat es,disti
    ngui shes,identi
    fi
    es,i
    ll
    ust
    rates,infers,
    i
    nferences.
    outlines, r
    elates,selects,separates.

    Exampl es:Wr ite a company oper ati


    ons or process
    Synt
    hesis:Bui
    ldsast ructure manual .Designamachi net oper form aspecifi
    ct ask.
    or pattern f r
    om di verse I
    nt egrat
    es training from sev er
    alsources to solvea
    el
    ements.Putpar t
    st ogether problem.Rev isesandpr ocesst oimprovetheoutcome.
    to form a whol e, wi th KeyWor ds:cat egori
    zes,combi nes,compil
    es,composes,
    emphasisoncr eat
    inganew cr eates,devises,designs,expl ai
    ns,generat
    es,modi fi
    es,
    meaningorstr
    ucture. organizes, pl ans, rearranges, reconstr
    ucts, rel
    ates,
    reorganizes,
    r evises,
    rewrites,summar i
    zes,t
    ell
    s,writ
    es.

    Exampl es:Selectthemostef fect


    ivesolution.Hirethe
    mostqual i
    fi
    ed candi date.Explai
    n and justif
    y a new
    Eval
    uati
    on:Make j
    udgments budget.
    aboutthev al
    ueofideasor KeyWor ds:appraises,compares,concludes,cont r
    asts,
    materi
    als. cri
    ti
    cizes,criti
    ques,def ends,descri
    bes,di scri
    minates,
    eval
    uat es, explains, i nt
    erpr
    ets, justi
    fies, r el
    ates,
    summar i
    zes,supports.

    409
    Affective Dom ain

    Theaff
    ecti
    vedomai n(Krathwohl ,Bl
    oom,Masia,1973)i
    ncl
    udesthemannerin
    which we dealwi t
    ht hings emot i
    onall
    y,such as feel
    i
    ngs,val
    ues,appr
    eci
    ati
    on,
    ent
    husiasms,moti
    vations,andat t
    itudes.Thefivemajorcat
    egor
    iesarel
    i
    stedf
    rom the
    si
    mplestbehav
    iort
    ot hemostcompl ex:

    Cat
    egor
    y Exampl
    eandKeyWor
    ds(
    ver
    bs)

    Exampl es:Listent oother


    swi t
    hr espect
    .Li stenf or
    and r emember t he name of newl yi ntroduced
    Recei
    ving Phenomena: Awareness, people.
    wil
    li
    ngnesst
    ohear,
    select
    edat
    tenti
    on. KeyWor ds:asks,chooses,descri
    bes,fol
    lows, gives,
    holds,identi
    fies,locat
    es,names,pointst o,selects,
    si
    ts,erects,repli
    es,uses.

    Responding t o Phenomena: Act i


    ve Exampl es:Par ti
    cipat
    esinclassdi scussions.Gi ves
    parti
    ci
    pation on t he part of t he a present ati
    on.Quest i
    ons new i deals,concept s,
    l
    earners.Attends and r eact
    s t o a model s,etc.inordertoful
    lyunderstandt hem.Know
    parti
    cular phenomenon. Lear ning thesaf etyrul
    esandpr acti
    cesthem.
    outcomesmayemphasi zecompl iance Key Wor ds: answers, assist
    s, ai ds, compl ies,
    i
    nr esponding,will
    i
    ngnesst orespond, conforms, di
    scusses,gr
    eets,hel
    ps, l
    abels, per
    forms,
    or sat isf
    action i n r esponding practi
    ces,pr esents,r
    eads,recit
    es,r eports,selects,
    (motivati
    on). tel
    ls,wr i
    tes.

    Exampl es:Demonst ratesbel i


    efi nthedemocr ati
    c
    Valuing:Thewor t
    horv alueaper son
    process.I ssensi ti
    vet owar dsindivi
    dualandcul tural
    attaches t o a par ticular object
    ,
    diff
    erences( val
    uedi versi
    ty).Showst heabi l
    ityto
    phenomenon,orbehav ior.Thisranges
    solve pr obl ems.Pr oposes a pl an t o soci al
    from si mpleaccept ancet othemor e
    i
    mpr ov ement and f ol
    lows t hr
    ough wi t
    h
    compl exst ateofcommi tment.Val
    uing
    commi tment .Informsmanagementonmat ter
    sthat
    i
    sbasedont heinter
    nali
    zat i
    onofaset
    onef eelsst rongl
    yabout .
    of speci f
    ied v al
    ues,whi le cl
    ues to
    KeyWor ds:compl etes, demonstrates,diff
    erenti
    ates,
    these v al
    ues ar e expr essed int he
    explains,f ol l
    ows,f orms,i nit
    iates,inv i
    tes,joins,
    l
    ear ner'
    sov er
    tbehav i
    orandar eoften
    j
    ustifies,pr oposes,r eads,r eport
    s,sel ects,shares,
    i
    dent i
    fiabl
    e.
    studies, works.

    Exampl es: Recogni zes t he need f or bal ance


    betweenf r eedom andr esponsi blebehav ior.Accepts
    responsibilit
    yf orone' sbehav i
    or .Expl ai
    nst heroleof
    Organization:Or gani
    zes values i nto
    systemat i
    c pl anning i n sol v i
    ng pr oblems.Accept s
    pri
    oriti
    es by cont r
    ast
    ing di fferent
    professionalet hi
    calst andar ds.Cr eatesal i
    feplanin
    values,r esolvi
    ng confl
    icts between
    harmony wi th abi l
    iti
    es, i nterests, and bel i
    efs.
    them,and cr eati
    ng an unique v alue
    Priori
    ti
    zest i
    meef fect i
    velyt omeett heneedsoft he
    system. The emphasi s i s on
    organization, famil
    y ,andsel f.
    compar ing,relat
    ing,and synthesizing
    Key Wor ds:adher es,al ters,ar r
    anges,combi nes,
    values.
    compar es, compl etes, def ends, explains,formulates,
    generali
    zes,i denti
    fies,i ntegr ates,modi fi
    es,or ders,
    organizes, prepares, relates, synt hesizes.

    Int
    ernalizing v alues( characterization): Exampl es:Shows sel f-r
    eli
    ance when wor king
    Hasav al uesy stem t hatcont rolst heirindependent ly.Cooperates in group
    behav i
    or.The behav i
    or is per vasive, acti
    vit
    ies( displaysteamwor k).Uses an obj ecti
    ve
    consistent , predi ctable, and most appr oach i n pr oblem sol ving. Di spl
    ays a
    i
    mpor tant ly
    , char acter i
    sti
    c of t he pr of
    essi onalcommi tmentt oet hicalpracti
    ceona
    l
    earner.I nstructi
    onal obj ectives ar e dai l
    y basi s. Rev i
    ses j udgment s and changes
    concernedwi tht hest udent '
    sgener al behaviorinl ightofnewev i
    dence.Val uespeoplefor
    patt
    erns of adj ustment ( personal , whattheyar e,nothowt heylook.
    social
    ,emot ional). KeyWor ds:act s,di
    scriminates,displ
    ays,i
    nfl
    uences,

    410
    l
    ist
    ens,modi f
    ies,per
    forms,pr act
    ices,proposes,
    qual
    if
    ies,
    questi
    ons,
    revi
    ses,ser
    ves,solves,
    veri
    fi
    es.

    Psychom otor Dom ain

    The psychomotor domain( Si


    mpson,1972) i ncludes phy si
    calmov ement,
    coordinati
    on,anduseoft hemot or-
    ski
    llar
    eas.Developmentoft heseski l
    l
    sr equi
    res
    practi
    ce and is measured i
    nt er
    ms ofspeed,pr ecision,distance,procedures,or
    techni
    quesi n execut
    ion.The sev
    en majorcategor
    iesar el i
    sted from the si
    mplest
    behaviortothemostcomplex:

    Cat
    egor
    y Exampl
    eandKeyWor
    ds(
    ver
    bs)

    Exampl es:Det ect


    snon- ver
    balcommuni cati
    oncues.
    Estimatewher eaballwilll
    andaf t
    eritist hrownand
    thenmov ingt othecorrectlocat
    iontocat cht heball.
    Percepti
    on:Theabi l
    i
    t ytousesensor y Adjustsheatofst ovetocorrecttemperaturebysmel l
    cues to guide mot oractiv
    ity. This andt asteoff ood.Adjuststheheightofthef orksona
    ranges f r
    om sensor y stimulati
    on, forkl
    iftbycompar i
    ngwher etheforksareinr elati
    onto
    throughcueselect
    ion, t
    otr
    anslati
    on. t hepal l
    et.
    Key Wor ds: chooses, descr i
    bes, det ects,
    diff
    erent i
    ates, disti
    nguishes, identi
    fi
    es, i sol
    ates,
    rel
    ates, selects.

    Exampl es:Knowsandact suponasequenceofst eps


    Set: Readiness t o act .I
    ti ncludes inamanuf act
    uri
    ngpr ocess.Recogni zeone'sabi l
    iti
    es
    ment al
    ,phy sical,andemot i
    onalset s. andlimi t
    ati
    ons.Showsdesi retolearnanewpr ocess
    Theset hreeset saredi sposit
    ionsthat ( motivati
    on).NOTE:Thi ssubdivi
    sionofPsy chomot or
    predetermineaper son'
    sr esponset o is cl osel y rel
    ated wi t
    h t he “ Responding t o
    di
    fferentsituations( someti
    mescal l
    ed phenomena”subdi visi
    onoft heAffectivedomai n.
    mindsets). Key Wor ds: begins, display
    s, expl ai
    ns, mov es,
    proceeds,react
    s,shows, st
    ates,volunteers.

    Exampl es: Performs a mat hematicalequat i


    on as
    Gui
    dedResponse:Theear l
    ystagesin
    demonst rated.Fol
    lowsinstr
    uctionstobui ldamodel .
    l
    earni
    ngacompl exskil
    lthati
    ncludes
    Respondshand- si
    gnal
    sofinst r
    uctorwhi l
    elearni
    ngto
    i
    mitat
    ionandt
    rialanderr
    or.Adequacy
    operateaf orkl
    if
    t.
    of perfor
    mance i s achieved by
    KeyWor ds:copies,tr
    aces,foll
    ows,r eact,repr
    oduce,
    pr
    acti
    cing.
    responds

    Mechani sm:Thisisthei nt
    ermediate Exampl es:Useaper sonalcomputer
    .Repairaleaking
    stage i n learni
    ng a compl ex faucet.Dr i
    veacar.
    skil
    l.Learnedr
    esponseshav ebecome Key Wor ds: assembl es, cal
    i
    brates, constructs,
    habitualandt hemov ementscanbe dismant les,di
    splays,f ast
    ens,fi
    xes,gr i
    nds,heat s,
    performedwi t
    hsomeconf i
    denceand mani pulates,measur es,mends,mi xes,organizes,
    profici
    ency. sketches.

    Compl exOv ertResponse:Theski llf


    ul Exampl es:Maneuv ers a car i ntoat i
    ghtpar allel
    performance of mot or acts t hat parking spot .Oper ates a comput er qui ckly and
    i
    nvol ve compl ex mov ement accur ately
    .Di splays compet ence whi le play i
    ng t he
    patterns.Pr
    ofici
    encyi si ndi
    catedbya pi ano.
    quick, accur ate, and hi ghly KeyWor ds:assembl es,bui
    lds,calibrates,const ruct s,
    coordinatedper formance,r equiringa di smant l
    es,di splays,f ast
    ens,f ixes,gr inds,heat s,
    minimum of ener gy
    .Thi s cat egor y mani pulates,measur es,mends,mi xes,or ganizes,
    i
    ncludes performing wi thout sket ches.
    hesitati
    on, and automat ic NOTE:TheKeyWor dsar et hesameasMechani sm,
    performance.Forex ample,playersar e butwi l
    lhav eadv erbsoradj ect i
    vest hatindi catet hat

    411
    oftenut t
    ersoundsofsat isfact
    ionor
    expleti
    vesassoonast heyhitat ennis
    ballorthrow afootbal
    l,becauset hey t
    heper
    for
    mancei
    squi
    cker
    ,bet
    ter
    ,mor
    eaccur
    ate,
    etc.
    cant el
    lbythefeeloftheactwhatt he
    resultwil
    lpr
    oduce.

    Examples:Responds ef f ecti
    vel
    y to unexpected
    experi
    ences.Modi fi
    esi nst ruct
    iontomeettheneeds
    Adaptation:Skil
    l
    sar ewelldeveloped oft helearners.Per f
    orm at askwi t
    hamachinethatit
    and t he i ndi
    v i
    dual can modi fy wasnotor iginall
    yi ntended t o do (
    machi
    nei snot
    mov ement pat terns t
    o fit special damagedandt herei snodangeri nperf
    ormingthe
    requir
    ement s. newtask).
    Key Wor ds: adapt s,al ters,changes,rear
    ranges,
    reor
    ganizes,revises,varies.

    Exampl es:Constructsanew t heory


    .Dev elopsanew
    Ori
    ginati
    on:Cr eat
    ing new mov ement
    andcompr ehensi
    vet rai
    ningprogrammi ng.Creat
    esa
    patt
    ernstof i
    tapar t
    icularsi
    tuati
    onor
    newgy mnasti
    croutine.
    specif
    icproblem.Lear ningoutcomes
    KeyWor ds:arranges,bui l
    ds,combi nes,composes,
    emphasize cr eat
    ivi
    ty based upon
    constructs, creates, desi gns, initi
    ate, makes,
    hi
    ghlydevelopedskil
    ls.
    ori
    ginates.

    2. Modul
    eandSessi
    onGui
    desDesi
    gni
    ng

     Sequencethecontents–Content
    sarethensequencedinafol
    l
    owi
    ngmanner
    :
     From si
    mpl etocomplex
     Topicsarearrangedinter
    msofthei
    rrel
    ati
    veimportance
     From knownt ounknown
     From speci
    fictogeneral
     Dependentrelati
    onshi
    p

     Char
    act
    eri
    sti
    csofef
    fect
    iveTr
    aini
    ngPr
    ogr
    am
     Itshouldbedesi gnedaft
    erident
    ify
    ingthetr
    ainingneedsorgoal
    s
     Itshouldbef lexibl
    e.Itshouldtakecar eoft hedi
    ff
    erenceintheabil
    it
    y,
    aptit
    ude,lear
    ningcapacity,emoti
    onalmake-upet c.
     Agoodt r
    aini
    ngpr ogram shoul
    dpreparethetraineesmental
    l
    ybefor
    etheyar
    e
    i
    mpar tedanyjobknowl edgeorskill
    s

     Pr
    inci
    plesoft
    rai
    ning
    Tr
    aini
    ngPr
    ogr
    am mustbebasedont
    hepr
    inci
    plesofi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    dif
    fer
    ences

     Theneedf orandt hedept handnat ureoftraini


    ngtobepr ovidedshoul dbe
    workedoutf rom theanalysi
    s
     Foref fecti
    vemot ivat
    ionoftrai
    nees,suitabl
    eincenti
    vesmustbepr ovided
     Botht heexecut iveandsuper vi
    sorsaswel last hetrai
    neesmustt akeacti
    v e
    partint hetraini
    ngact i
    vi
    ti
    es,sothatallconcernedtakegenuineinterestint
    he
    trai
    ning.
     Thet rainerselectedforimpart
    ingtraini
    ngshoul dundergospecialtraini
    ngfor
    thepur pose.

     Obst
    acl
    esi
    nthewor
    kenvi
    ronmentt
    hati
    nhi
    bitt
    ransf
    eroft
    rai
    ning:
     Work Condit
    ions (Trai
    nee has di
    ff
    icul
    tyusi
    ng new knowl
    edge,ski
    l
    ls,or
    behav
    ior
    )
    o Timepr essures
    o Inadequateequipment
    o Fewoppor tuniti
    est
    ouseskill
    s
    o Inadequatebudget

    412
     LackofPeerSupport(Peer
    sdonotsupportuseofnewknowl
    edge,ski
    l
    ls,or
    behav
    ior
    )
    o Discourageuseofnewknowledgeandski
    l
    lsonthej
    ob
    o Unwill
    ingtoprovi
    defeedback
    o Seet r
    aini
    ngasawast eofti
    me

     LackofManagementSuppor t(Managersdonotr einforcetr


    ainingorprov
    ide
    oppor
    tunit
    iestousenewknowl edge,
    skil
    ls,orbehav i
    or)
    o Donotaccepti deasorsuggest i
    onst hatarelearnedintraini
    ng
    o Donotdi scusstraini
    ngoppor tuni
    ties
    o Opposeuseofski ll
    slear nedi
    ntraini
    ng
    o Communi cat
    ethatt r
    ainingisawast eoft i
    me
    o Unwi l
    li
    ngt oprovidef eedbackandr ei
    nforcementf ortraineest
    ouse
    t
    rai
    ningcontent

     Char
    act
    eri
    sti
    csofaPosi
    ti
    veCl
    imat
    eforTr
    ansf
    erofTr
    aini
    ng:
    Super vi
    sorsandco- wor ker
    sencour ageandsetgoal sfort
    rai
    neestousenew
    ski
    l
    lsandbehav iorsacqui r
    edint r
    aini
    ng.
     Taskcues:
    Char acteristi
    csofat r
    ainee’sjobpromptorr emindhimtousenewski ll
    s
    andbehav iorsacqui redintrai
    ning.
     Feedbackconsequences:
    Supervisor ssuppor ttheappl i
    cationofnew skill
    sandbehav i
    orsacqui
    redin
    t
    rai
    ning.
     Lackofpuni shment :
    Traineesar enotopenl ydiscouragedfrom usingnewskil
    l
    sandbehav i
    ors
    acquiredi ntraining.
     Ex tr
    insicrei nfor
    cementconsequences:
    Traineesr eceiveext r
    insi
    cr ewar dsforusingnew skil
    lsandbehav i
    ors
    acquiredi ntraining.
     I ntri
    nsicr einforcementconsequences:
    Trai
    neesr eceiveintr
    insi
    cr ewardsf orusi
    ngnewski ll
    sandbehavi
    orsacqui
    red
    i
    ntrai
    ning.

     Begi
    nni
    ngofTr
    aini
    ngPr
    ogr
    am
    I
    ce-br
    eaking sessi
    on gener al
    ly conduct
    ed att
    he begi
    nni
    ng oft
    he t
    rai
    ning
    pr
    ogr
    am.Itisconductedforthefoll
    owingreasons:
     Toweakent hehesitati
    on
     Toi ncr
    easet heopenness
     Tohel pparti
    cipantsknoweachot her
     Toser veasawar m-upsession
     Tohel pparti
    cipantsrel
    axandease

     Sel
    ect
    ionofAppr
    opr
    iat
    eTr
    aini
    ngMet
    hodol
    ogi
    es
    Youhav
    eachoi ceofthefoll
    owi
    ngmethodst
    oprepar
    eforeff
    ect
    ivet
    raini
    ng:
     Lecture
     Lecture/di
    scussion
     Skil
    l
     On-the-j
    obtrai
    ning(thef
    our
    -st
    epmethod)ON-
    THE-JOBTRAINING

    (
    THEFOUR-
    STEPMETHODOFI
    NSTRUCTI
    ON)

    St
    ep1
     Pr
    epar
    ethewor
    ker

    413
     Puttheworkeratease
     Stat
    ethejobandf i
    ndoutwhatt heworkeral
    readyknowsabouti
    t
     Sti
    mulatetheworker'
    sint
    eresti
    nlearni
    ngthejob
     Pl
    acet heworkeri
    nthecorrectposi
    ti
    on

    St
    ep2
     Pr
    esenttheoperati
    ons·Tell
    ,showandi
    ll
    ustrat
    eoneimpor
    tantpoi
    ntatat
    ime
     St
    resseachkeypoint
     I
    nstr
    uctclear
    ly,complet
    elyandpati
    ent
    ly,butt
    eachnomorethanthewor
    kercan
    master

    St
    ep3
     Tr
    youttheworker
    'sperf
    ormance
     Havet
    heworkerdothejob,andcorrecter
    rors
     Havet
    heworkerexplai
    neachkeypoi ntt
    oy ouasheorshedoest
    hejobagai
    n
     Makesuret
    heworkerunderstands,
    andcont i
    nueunt
    ily
    ouarecer
    tai
    nofthi
    s

    St
    ep4
     Fol
    lowup
     Putthewor keronhisorherown
     Designatet
    owhom heorsheshoul dgoforhel
    p
     Checkf r
    equently
     Encouragequestions
     Taperoffextracoachi
    ngandreducef
    oll
    ow-up

    Therear eothermet hodsoftrai


    ning,butt
    hei
    reff
    ect
    iveuseisspeci
    fi
    ctospecial
    t
    rai
    ningsit
    uati
    onsandwi llnotbediscussedi
    nthisl
    ect
    ure.Someofthosemethods
    i
    ncl
    ude:
     Rol eplay
     Assi gnment
     Casest udy
     Tr ai
    ninggames
     Gr oupexercises
     Pr ogrammedl earni
    ng

    3. Logi
    sti
    cal
    Prepar
    ati
    ons
     Select
    ingandPrepar i
    ngI nstr
    ucti
    onalMateri
    als(
    mult
    i-
    media,i
    deacar
    ds,f
    li
    p
    charts,chalkt
    alketc)
     Select
    ingandEnsuringResour cePersons,
    VenueandAccommodati
    on
     BudgetPrepar
    ati
    on
     Traini
    ngEval
    uati
    onTool s
     Documentati
    onTempl at es

    4.Tr
    aini
    ngImpl ement
    ationandManagement
     TheTr aini
    ngTeam:TasksandFunct ions
     Activi
    ti
    esinTrai
    ningImplementati
    on
     ProcessObservati
    on
     MoodCheck/ Monitor
    ingTechniques
     Cli
    niquing/De-
    bri
    efing

    I
    nthei
    mplementati
    onoft het rai
    ningprogram thef
    oll
    owingar
    econsi
    dered:
     Decidingthelocationandor ganizi
    ngthetr
    aini
    ngandot
    herfaci
    li
    ti
    es
     Schedulethet r
    ainingpr ogr
    am
     Conduct i
    ngthepr ogram oftrai
    nees
     Moni t
    oringtheprogr ess

    5.Tr
    aini
    ngDocument
    ati
    on

    414
     ContentDocument
    ati
    on
     ProcessDocumentat
    ion
     Guidel
    inesf
    orDocumentat
    ion

    6.Needf
    orEvaluation
     Toident
    ifythepr ogram’sst r
    engthsandweaknesses
     Toassesst hecont ent,organi
    zat
    ionandadmi ni
    strati
    onoftheprogr
    am
     Toident
    ifywhi chtraineesbenefi
    tedmostorleastf r
    om theprogr
    am
     Togatherdata
     Todeterminet hefinancialbenef
    itsandcost
    soft heprogram
     Tocompar ecostandbenef i
    ts

    Pr
    inci
    plesofEval
    uat
    ion
     Goalsandpur poseofeval
    uationmustbecl ear
     Evaluati
    onmustbecont i
    nuous
     Evaluati
    onmustbespeci f
    ic
     Mustpr ovidemeansandf ocusf ort
    rai
    neesandt hei
    rpr
    act
    iceandt
    hei
    r
    products
     Mustbebasedonobj ect
    ivemet hodsandstandar
    ds
     Realist
    ictargetideas

    V. Trai
    ningTechniquesf orCommunit
    yEducat
    ionandTrai
    ning
     TechnologyofParti
    cipati
    on(TOP)–ORI
    D,Workshop,
    Acti
    onPlanni
    ng
     ZOPP/ Meta-
    Planni
    ng
     I
    ntelTeach(Multi
    -medi a/
    ICT)
     ADID

    VI
    . Howt oMakeTr ainingEf fect
    ive
     All
    ocatemaj orresour cesandadequat et i
    met otraining
     Ensurethatthet r
    ainingcont r
    ibutestothest r
    ategiesoft heorganization
     Ensuresy st
    emat i
    candcompr ehensiveapproach
     Makel earni
    ngasoneoft hefundament al v
    aluesoft heor ganizat
    ion
     Creat
    easy stem t
    oev aluatet
    heef fect
    ivenessoft het r
    aining
     Ensuret hereis a pr operli
    nkage among or gani zati
    onal,oper at
    ionaland
    i
    ndivi
    dual tr
    aini
    ngneeds

    VI
    I. TheSoci alWor kerasCommuni tyEducatorandTr ai
    ner
    A.Tradit
    ional vs.Exper i
    entialTrai
    ner
    B.RequisitesofanEf fectiv
    eCommuni t
    yEducator/Trai
    ner
     Under standingofhowpeopl elearn
     Cr eat iveI magi nation
     Wel lintegr atedper sonali
    ty
     Knowl edgeoft hesubj ectmat t
    er
     Abi litytocommuni cat eideasclearl
    y
     Bel iev eint hecapaci tyandpaceoft het
    rainees
    C.RolesandSki l
    lsofASW Communi tyEducator/Trai
    ner
     Pl anni ngRol e
     Tr ansmi tInfor mat i
    on
     I nstruct or
     Resour cePer son
     Model Role
     Co- Lear ner

    Popul
    arThi sonCommuni
    nker tyEducat
    ionandTr
    aini
    ng:

    Jane Addams.Wellknown forherworkatHul lHouse,Addamsmadea seminal


    cont
    ri
    buti
    ontothedev
    elopmentofset
    tl
    ementhousesandsoci
    alwor
    kinNor
    thAmer
    ica.

    415
    SaulAl
    insky,MikeSealexaminesAlinsky’
    sconti
    nui
    ngr el
    evancet
    otheact
    ivi
    ti
    esof
    i
    nfor
    mal educat
    ors,
    communit
    yor gani
    zersandani
    mateur
    s.

    Henr i
    ett
    aBarnett,soci
    alreform andcommuni tybui
    lding.Henriet
    taBarnet
    tis,per
    haps,
    bestknownf orthedev el
    opmentofHampst eadGardensubur b,butshe–wi t
    hSamuel
    Barnett– wasani mportantsocialrefor
    mer.Theirmostnot abl
    einnovati
    onwast he
    uni
    v ersi
    tyset
    tl
    ement–butt heywerealsoacti
    veinotherarenas.

    T.R.andMadgeBat tenandt henon-direct


    iveappr oacht ocommuni t
    ydev elopment .
    TheBat t
    ens,andparti
    cul
    arlyT.R. ,i
    ntr
    oducedt herevoluti
    onaryconceptofnon-directi
    vit
    y
    tothenewl yemergingdiscipl
    ineofcommuni tydev elopmentinthesecondpar tofthe
    20thcent ur
    y.Geor
    geLov elldescribestheirwor kandl i
    ves,andexplorest heor i
    ginsof
    the non-dir
    ecti
    ve concept in Thomas Regi nal
    d Bat ten’
    s compar ati
    vely unknown
    groundbreaki
    ngworkoneducat ionanddev el
    opmenti nAf ri
    ca1927-1949.

    MaryParkerFol l
    ett
    .With herconcernf orcreat
    ive experi
    ence,democr
    acyand f or
    devel
    opi
    nglocalcommunityorganizat
    ions,Mar
    yParkerFolletti
    sanoftenf
    orgot
    ten,
    but
    sti
    l
    ldeepl
    yinst
    ructi
    vethi
    nkerforeducator
    sandsocialanimateurs.

    PauloFr ei
    re.Per
    hapsthemostinfl
    uenti
    althi
    nkerabouteducat
    ioninthelatetwent
    iet
    h
    century
    ,Paul oFrei
    rehasbeenpart
    icul
    arl
    ypopularwithinf
    ormaleducatorsandsocial
    acti
    vist
    swi thhi
    semphasisondi
    alogueandhisconcernfort
    heoppressed.

    M.K.Gandhi.Hi
    scrit
    iqueofwester
    n,par
    ti
    cular
    lyEngl
    ish,educat
    ionwaspar
    tofhi
    s
    cr
    it
    iqueofWest
    ern‘
    ci
    vili
    zat
    ion’
    asawhol
    e.Barr
    yBurkeexplor
    eshisvisi
    on.

    GeorgeGoetschius.Knownforhi
    spartinest
    abli
    shi
    ngtheEngl
    ishStageCompany,t
    he
    Americansoci
    ologistGeor
    geW.Goetschi
    usalsomadeakeycontribut
    iont
    odeepeni
    ng
    thet
    hinki
    ngandpr acti
    ceofcommuni
    tydevel
    opment.Weexpl
    orehisworkandl
    i
    fe.

    Antonio Gramsci.Gramsci’
    s emphasis on cri
    ticalawareness,the import
    ance of
    i
    ntell
    ectual
    sbeingpartofeverydayl
    i
    fe,andont hepartplayedbyso-call
    ed‘common
    sense’inmai nt
    aini
    ngt hestat
    usquo hav ehelpedt o openupt hetransfor
    mati
    onal
    possibi
    l
    iti
    esofeducati
    onandcommuni t
    ydev el
    opment .

    Octavi
    aHi l
    l,housi
    ng,spaceandsocialreform.Weexplor
    eOctavi
    aHi
    llpi
    oneer
    ingof
    new for
    msofhousi ngforwor ki
    ngpeople,andherchampi
    onshi
    pofpl
    aygr
    ounds,and
    accessforall
    tocommonl andsandthecountrysi
    de.

    I
    van Il
    li
    ch.Known f orhis cri
    ti
    que ofmodernization and the cor
    rupt
    ing i
    mpactof
    i
    nsti
    tut
    ions,Iv
    anIl
    li
    ch’sconcer
    nwi t
    hdeschool
    i
    ng, learni
    ngwebsandt hedisabl
    ingeffect
    ofpr
    ofessionshasstruckachordamongmanyi nformal educator
    sandanimateurs.

    Eduar
    dLindeman.Perhapsbestknowntodayforhi
    sworkinadul
    teducati
    on,EduardC.
    Li
    ndeman(1885–1953)al sowroteoneoft hef
    ir
    stbooksoncommunitydevelopment
    wasanearl
    yexpl
    orerofgroupworkandworkedtoext
    endpopul
    areducat
    ion.

    Kar
    lMarx.Whatsigni
    ficancedoesMar
    xhav ef
    oreducat
    orsandani
    mat
    eur
    stoday
    ?An
    i
    ntr
    oduct
    ionandassessmentbyBarr
    yBurke.

    Jul
    iusK.Nyerere.OneofAfri
    ca’smostr espect
    edfi
    gures,Jul
    i
    usNy er
    ere( 1922–1999)
    wasapol i
    ti
    cianofprinci
    pleandi nt
    ell
    i
    gence.KnownasMwal imuort eacherhehada
    vi
    sionofeducat
    ionandsocialacti
    onthatwasr i
    chwit
    hpossibil
    i
    ty.

    RobertOwen.RobertOwen’seducati
    onalventur
    eatNewLanar khelpedtopi
    oneerinfant
    schoolsandwasanear l
    yexampl eofwhatwenowr ecogni
    zeascommuni t
    yschooling.
    Yeteducati
    onwasonl yasi ngl
    efacetofamor epower f
    ulsoci
    algospelwhichalr
    eady
    preachedcommunitybuil
    dingont heNewLanar kmodelasasol utiont
    ocont emporary
    evil
    sinthewiderworl
    d.I
    anDonnachieinvesti
    gates.

    416
    Robert.D.Put
    nam.RobertPutnam hasbeendescr i
    bedasthemosti nfl
    uenti
    alacademi
    c
    i
    nt hewor l
    dtoday.HisbookBowlingAl oneseemst ohavest r
    uckachor dwithmany
    concernedwiththestateofpubl i
    clife.Isthehy pejust
    if
    ied?Weexpl or
    ePut nam’
    s
    contr
    ibuti
    onandit
    ssigni
    fi
    canceforinf
    ormal educat
    orsandanimateurs.

    PeterWi l
    lmott– community
    ,famil
    yand publ
    icpoli
    cy.PeterWi ll
    mott(1923-
    2000)
    playedani mport
    antrol
    eindeepeni
    ngappreci
    ati
    onoft heexperiencesofpeoplein
    famili
    esandlocal
    communit
    ies.Weassesshi
    sworkandcontr
    ibut
    ion.

    RobertA.Woods.RobertArcheyWoodspl ayedapivot
    alrol
    eintheint
    roducti
    onand
    devel
    opmentofuniv
    ersi
    tyandsoci
    alsett
    lementsi
    ntheUnit
    edStat
    esofAmer i
    ca.I
    nthi
    s
    bri
    efassessmentweoutl
    inehi
    scontr
    ibut
    ion.

    Conrado Benit
    ez. Responsi
    ble f
    or el
    evati
    ng refor
    ms thr
    ough Phil
    i
    ppine Rur
    al
    Reconst
    ruct
    ionMovement(PRRM)andInt
    ernat
    ional
    MassEducat
    ionMovement(I
    MEM)

    417
    SOCI
    ALWORK
    RESEARCH

    Rev
    iewer
    :
    Ms.Emer
    it
    aBasi
    li
    o

    TOPI
    C1
    MEANI
    NGANDCHARACTERI
    STI
    CSOFRESEARCH

    Meani
    ngofResear
    ch

    Researchisdefi
    nedast hesci
    enti
    fi
    cinvest
    igat
    ionofphenomenawhi chincludes
    coll
    ect
    ion,present
    ati
    on,analysi
    sandi nt
    erpret
    ati
    onoff act
    st hatl
    inksani ndiv
    idual’
    s
    specul
    ati
    onwi threal
    it
    y.Inotherwords,researchisthesystemati
    cstudyoft r
    endor
    eventwhich invol
    vescarefulcoll
    ect
    ion,present
    ati
    on,analysi
    sand int
    erpretat
    ion of

    418
    quant
    it
    ati
    vedat
    aorf
    act
    sthatr
    elat
    esman’
    sthi
    nki
    ngwi
    thr
    eal
    i
    ty.

    Char
    act
    eri
    sti
    csofr
    esear
    ch

    1.Empi
    ri
    cal-i
    sbasedondi
    rectexper
    ienceorobser
    vat
    ionbyt
    her
    esear
    cher
    .The
    col l
    ect ionofdat ar eli
    esonpr act i
    calexper iencewi thoutgi v i
    ngconsi derati
    ont o
    scient ificknowl edgeoft heor y.
    2.Logi cal-i sbasedonv ali
    dpr ocedur esandpr i
    nci ples.Sci ent if
    icst udyi sdonei n
    an or der ly mannerso t hatt he i nvestigatorhas conf idence on t he result.
    Sy stemat i
    cexami nat ionoft hepr ocedur esusedi nt her esear chenabl est he
    i
    nv est i
    gat ortodr awv al i
    dconcl usi ons.Thus,t hel ogi cofv alidresear chmakesi t
    i
    mpor tantf ordeci sionmaki ng.
    3.Cycl i
    cal-i sacy clicalpr ocessbecausei tstartswi thapr obl em andendswi tha
    probl em.
    4.Anal ytical-Ut ili
    zespr ovenanal y t
    icalpr ocedur esi ngat her i
    ngt hedat a,whet her
    histor i
    cal ,descr iptive,exper iment al,andcasest udy.Hi stor ical,thedat agat hered
    focusi nt hepast .Descr i
    pt iver esearchi smostcommonamongf ourdesi gns
    conduct edbygr aduat est udent s.Exper i
    ment alr esear chi ssel dom appl iedby
    graduat est udent sduet ot imeconsumi ng.Casest udyi scommonl yconduct ed
    bygui dancecounsel l
    or s.
    5.Criti
    cal-exhi bitscar efulandpr ecisej udgment .Ahi gherl evelofconf i
    dencemust
    beest abl ished.
    6.Met hodi cal-i sconduct edi namet hodi calmannerwi thoutbi asusi ngsy stemat i
    c
    met hodandpr ocedur es.
    7.Repl icabi li
    ty.Ther esear chdesi gnandpr ocedur esar er epl icatedorr epeatedt o
    enabl et he resear chert o ar r
    iv e atv alid and concl usi ver esult s.The mor e
    replicat ionofr esear ches, themor ev ali
    dandconcl usivet her esul t
    swoul dbe.

    Qual
    it
    iesofaGoodResear
    cher

     Resear ch-or
    ient
    ed
     Effi
    cient
     Scienti
    f i
    c
     Effecti
    v e
     Active
     Resour ceful
     Creative
     Honest
     Economi cal
     Religi
    ous

    Char
    act
    er i
    sticsoftheResear cher
     I
    nt ell
    ectualcuri
    osity.Ar esear cherunder takesdeept hinki
    ngandi nquiryoft he
    thi
    ngs, probl
    ems, andsituat i
    onof tenduet ounusualnessandnewness.
     Prudence.Ther esearcheri scar efultoconducthi sr esearchst udyatt heright
    ti
    meandatt heri
    ghtplacewi sely,effi
    ciently,andeconomi call
    y.
     Heal thycri
    ti
    cism.Ther esear cheri salway sdoubt f
    ulast othet ruthf
    ulnessoft he
    results.
     I
    nt ell
    ectualhonesty.Anint el
    ligentr esearcheri shonestt ocollectorgatherdat a
    orf actsinordertoarri
    veathonestr esults.
     I
    nt ell
    ectualcreat
    ivit
    y.Apr oduct i
    veandr esourcef
    ulinvestigatoralwayscr eates
    newr esear
    ches.

    Val
    uesofResear
    cht
    oMan
     Resear
    chi
    mpr ovesquali
    tyofli
    fe
     Resear
    chi
    mpr ovesinst
    ructi
    on
     Resear
    chi
    mpr ovesstudent’
    sachiev
    ement
     Resear
    chi
    mpr ovesteacher
    ’scompetence
     Resear
    chsati
    sfi
    esman’ sneeds
     Resear
    chreducestheburdenofwor k

    419
     Resear
    chhasdeep- seatedpsychologi
    calaspect
    s
     Resear
    chimpr ov
    est heexport
    ationoffoodproduct
    s
     Resear
    chrespondst otheeconomi crecover
    yandaust
    eri
    ty
     Resear
    cht r
    ainsgraduatestobecomer esponsi
    vetot
    heeconomi
    cdev
    elopment
    ofthecountr
    yandcompet egl
    obally

    TypesofResearch
     Basicresear
    ch.Thi
    sisal
    socal
    l
    edt
    he“
    fundament
    alr
    esear
    ch’
    ’or“
    pur
    eresear
    ch”
    .
    Itseekst odi scoverbasi ctrut
    hsandpr i
    nciples.Examplesofbasi cresearches
    are:Boy le’slaw.Char leslaw.Ar chimedesl aw.Hooke’ slaw.Newton’sl
    aw.
     Appl i
    edr esearch.Thi st ypeofr esearchi nvolvesseekingnew applicat
    ionsof
    scientifi
    cknowl edget ot hesolutionofapr oblem,suchast hedevel
    opmentofa
    new sy stem orpr ocedur e,new dev i
    ce,ornew met hodinordert osolvet he
    problem.
     Dev elopment alresear ch.Thi si s a decision-ori
    ented resear
    ch invol
    ving the
    applicationoft hest epsoft hesci enti
    fi
    cmet hodinr esponsetoani mmedi ate
    needt oimpr oveexi st
    ingpr acti
    ces.

    Cl
    assi
    fi
    cat
    ionofResear
    ch
     Libr
    aryresear
    ch.Thi
    sisdonei
    nthel
    i
    brar
    ywher
    eanswer
    stospeci
    fi
    cquest
    ions
    orproblemsoft hestudyareav ail
    able.
     Fiel
    dr esearch.Resear chi sconduct edi nnaturalsetti
    ng.Nochangesi nthe
    envi
    ronmentar emade.Fi el
    dr esearchi sbothappl i
    cabletodescr i
    pti
    vesurv ey
    andexper i
    ment almet hods.
     Laboratoryr esearch.The r esearch is conduct ed i
    n ar t
    ifi
    cialorcont r
    oll
    ed
    condit
    ionsbyi solat
    ingthest udyi nat horoughlyspecifi
    edandequi ppedar ea.
    Thepur posesar e:(1)tot esthy pothesesder i
    vedf r
    om t heory,(
    2)tocont rol
    vari
    anceunderr esearchconditi
    ons,and( 3)todiscovertherelat
    ionsbetweenthe
    dependentandi ndependentvariabl
    es

    THEVARI
    ABLE

    Meani
    ngofvar
    iabl
    e
    Avari
    abl
    eisdefi
    nedasaquantit
    ysuscept
    ibl
    eoffl
    uct
    uat
    ionorchangeinval
    ueor
    magnit
    udeunderdiff
    erentcondi
    ti
    ons.Numeri
    calval
    uesorcat
    egori
    esrepresentt
    hese
    quant
    it
    ies.

    TypesofVar
    iabl
    e

     Independentvar iable.Thi si st he stimulusv ari


    abl e whi ch ischosen byt he
    resear chertodetermi nei t
    srelat i
    onshi ptoanobser vedphenomenon.
     Dependentv ari
    able.Thi si st he r esponse v ariable whi ch i s observed and
    measur edtodet ermi netheef fect soft hei ndependentv ariable.Itchangeswhen
    thei ndependentv ariablevaries.
     Moder atorvari
    able.Thi sisasecondar yorspeci alt y
    peofi ndependentv ari
    able
    chosenbyt her esear chertodet er minei fi
    tchangesormodi f
    iest herelat
    ionships
    bet weent heindependentanddependentv ari
    ables.
     Cont rolvari
    able.Thi si sav ariablet hatiscont rol
    ledbyt heinv esti
    gatorinwhi ch
    theef fectscanbeneut r
    ali
    zedbyel i
    mi nati
    ngorr emov ingt hev ari
    able.
     Interveningvariable.Thi sisav ariablewhichi nterfereswi t
    ht hei ndependentand
    dependentv ari
    ables,buti ts ef fectcan ei therst rengthen orweaken t he
    i
    ndependentanddependentv ariables.

    I
    ll
    ust
    rat
    ion1(
    Exper
    iment
    al)

    I
    ndependentVar
    iabl
    es I
    nter
    veni
    ngVar
    iabl
    es DependentVar
    iabl
    e

    420
    I
    ll
    ust
    rat
    ion2(
    Descr
    ipt
    ive)

    I
    ndependentVar
    iabl
    e I
    nter
    veni
    ngVar
    iabl
    e DependentVar
    iabl
    e

    Component
    soft
    heResear
    chPr
    ocess
    Thebasi
    ccomponent sofresear chprocessare:
     Problem/ Objectives
     Hypot heses
     Theoret i
    cal/
    Concept ualFramewor k
     Assumpt i
    ons
     ReviewofRel atedLiterature
     Resear chDesi gn
     DataCol lect
    ion
     DataPr ocessingandSt atist
    icalTr
    eatment
     AnalysisandI nterpretati
    on
     Summar y,Concl usi
    onsandr ecommendations

    General
    l
    yspeaking,aresearchpr ocessstart
    switharesearchproblem whichthe
    i
    nvesti
    gatorhasident
    if
    iedasr esearchableandhasi mpli
    cat
    ionstogover nmentthrusts.
    Basedont hemajorproblem i
    dentifi
    ed,hef ormulat
    esthespecifi
    cproblems/objecti
    ves
    ofthestudy.

    Usingt hesespecif
    icprobl
    ems/obj
    ect
    ivesasbasis,hetest
    st hehypot
    heses,
    eit
    hernull(
    H0)oral t
    ernat
    ive(
    H1),tohaveascient
    if
    icconcl
    usi
    onofthestudyei
    thert
    o
    rej
    ectoracceptit.

    Di
    agr
    am oft
    her
    esear
    chpr
    ocess

    TOPI
    C2
    RESEARCHPROBLEM ANDOBJECTI
    VES

    TheResear
    chPr
    obl
    em
    Fiv
    efact
    orstoconsi
    dert
    odet
    ermi
    newhet
    hert
    hepr
    obl
    em i
    sresear
    chabl
    eornot
    .
    Thesef
    actor
    sareasfol
    lows:

     Thepr obl
    em i
    sex
    ist
    ingi
    nthel
    ocal
    i
    tyorcount
    rybutnoknownsol
    uti
    ont
    o
    probl
    em.

    421
     Thesol uti
    oncanbeanswer edbyusingstat
    ist
    icalmet hodsandt echni
    ques.
     Ther eareprobablesolut
    ionsbuttheyarenotyettested.
     The occur rence ofphenomena r equi
    res scient
    ifi
    ci nvest
    igation t
    o arr
    ive at
    precisesoluti
    on.
     Seriousneeds/ pr
    oblemsoft hepeoplewhereitdemandsr esearch

    Basedont hef or
    egoingfactor
    s,t
    hei nvest
    igatorcanchoosear esearchable
    probl
    em.The research probl
    em mustbe st at
    ed vivi
    dlyand expl
    ici
    tl
    yexpr essed in
    i
    nterr
    ogati
    vefor
    mf or“questi
    onshavethev
    irt
    ueofposi ngaprobl
    em dir
    ectl
    y’
    ’.(
    Ker l
    inger
    ,
    1986)

    Char
    act
    eri
    sti
    csofaResear
    chPr
    obl
    em
    Thecharacter i
    sticofar esearchproblem hastheacr onym SMART
     Speci f
    ic.Thepr oblem shouldbespecifical
    lyst at
    ed.
     Measur able.I
    ti seasytomeasur ebyusi ngr esear
    chinstruments,apparat
    us,or
    equipment .
     Achi evabl e.Thedat aisachi evabl
    eusi ngcor r
    ectst
    atisti
    caltool
    st oar r
    iveat
    preciser esult
    s.
     Real isti
    c.Realr esul
    tsareat t
    ainedbecauset heyaregat her
    edscientif
    ical
    l
    yand
    notmani pulat
    edormaneuv ered.
     Ti me- bound.Ti me frame isr equir
    ed i n ev er
    y act
    ivi
    ty because the short
    er
    compl et i
    onoft heactivi
    ty,
    thebet t
    er.
    Sour
    cesofResear
    chPr
    obl
    em
    Therearesev eralsour
    cesofresearchpr
    obl
    em thatar
    esear
    chercani
    nvesti
    gate.
    I
    tissaidt
    hat“ Researchwasbor noutofman’ sprobl
    emsandaman’ smajorproblem
    demandsresearch.
    ’
    ’(GoodandScat es,1972)

    Sour
    cesofr
    esear
    chpr
    obl
    emsar
    e:
     Speciali
    zation.Special
    izati
    onoftheresearcheri sanimpetust owardsr esearch.
     CurrentandPastResear ches.Arerichsour cesofr esearchpr obl
    emsev enfor
    researchreplicati
    onbyusi ngthesamei nstr
    ument ,apparatus,orequipment .
     Recommendat i
    ons f r
    om t heses,di ssert
    ation,and r esearch jour nals.The
    researchersoft hesaidt heses,di
    ssertat
    ionsandr esearchj ournal
    sr ecommend
    forfutureresearchestobeconduct edassour cesalsoofresearchprobl em.
     Origi
    nalandcr eati
    veideasoft heresearcherbasedont hepr oblemsmeti nthe
    l
    ocalit
    yandcount ry.

    Cr
    it
    eri
    aofaGoodResearchPr obl
    em
     I nt
    erest
    ing.An i
    nter
    esti
    ng resear
    ch pr
    obl
    em at
    tract
    sthe at
    tent
    ion oft
    he
    resear cherand ot herpeopl eto conductt he resear ch pr ojectev en without
    i
    ncent i
    veorr esearchgr antatall.
     Innovat i
    ve.Thoughr epl
    icabi
    lit
    yinconduct i
    ngr esearchi sallowed,i tisadv i
    sable
    thatr esear chpr oblem i ssomet hingnov el,or i
    ginalanduni quet oattr
    actt he
    attent i
    onoft hepeopl eandcont ributet ot heeconomi cdev el
    opmentoft he
    count ry
     Cost -effective.Agoodr esearchproblem shoul dbeeconomi calandef f
    ecti
    v ein
    solving t he needs and pr obl
    ems oft he soci ety,itshoul d al so augment
    socioeconomi candheal thconditi
    onsoft hepeopl eandmanyot hers.
     Relevantt ot heneedsandpr obl
    emsoft hepeopl e.Resear chermustkeepi nmi nd
    thatt heyconductr esearchnotf ortheirper sonalaggr andizementbutt osolvet he
    needsoft hepeopl e.
     Relevantt ogover nment ’sthrusts.A r esear cherpr oblem mustr espondt ot he
    gov ernment ’
    sthrusts.
     Measur ableandt i
    mebound.Agoodr esear cherpr obl
    em i smeasur ablebyusi ng
    resear ch i nstrument ,as wel las st atisti
    calt oolst o arri
    ve atsci enti
    fi
    c and
    meani ngful resul
    ts.

    TheResear
    chObj
    ect
    ive
    Ar
    esear
    ch obj
    ect
    ivei
    s def
    ined as “
    stat
    ementofpur
    pose f
    orwhi
    ch t
    he

    422
    i
    nv est
    igati
    ontheinvest
    igati
    onistobeconduct ed’
    ’(
    Ardales,1992).
    StateofResearchProblem/Objecti
    ves
    Resear
    ch problem and r esear
    ch object
    ives havet he same charact
    eri
    sti
    cs
    (SMART)butt heydiff
    erinform becausetheformerisstatedinint
    err
    ogat
    iveorquesti
    on
    form andthelatt
    er,
    indeclarat
    iveform.

    Exampl
    e(Experi
    mental
    Resear
    ch)
    Letushav e a st
    udyenti
    tl
    ed “CULTI
    VATION OF EUCHEUMA IN MUNI
    CIPAL
    WATERS OF ZAMBOANGA CI TY,PHI LI
    PPINES USING LANTAY AND HANGI NG
    METHODS’’Basedonmajorpr
    obl
    em, t
    hespeci
    ficpr
    obl
    emsareasfol
    lows:

    Pr
    obl
    em.Themai
    npr
    obl
    em oft
    hisst
    udyi
    stocul
    ti
    vat
    eEucheumai
    nmuni
    cipal
    water
    s ofZamboanga ci
    ty,Phi
    l
    ippi
    nes,using and hangi
    ng met
    hods.Especi
    all
    y,i
    t
    at
    temptst
    oanswerthef
    oll
    owingquest
    ions:

     Which ofthe methods,l


    antay orhangi
    ng,is mor e effect
    ivei
    n cul
    ti
    vat
    ing
    Eucheumainmunici
    palwater
    sofZamboangacity,
    Phili
    ppines?
     Isthereasigni
    fi
    cantmeandi f
    ferenceontheweighti ncr
    ementofEucheuma
    cul
    turedi
    nmunici
    palwater
    sofZamboangacity,
    Phili
    ppines?

    Obj
    ect
    ives.Themainpurposeoft hisstudyistocul
    ti
    vat
    eEucheumai nmunici
    pal
    water
    sofZamboangacity,Phi
    l
    ippines,usinglantayandhangi
    ngmethods.Speci
    fi
    call
    y,i
    t
    at
    temptstoanswerthefol
    l
    owingr esearchobjecti
    ves:

     To identif
    ywhi ch ofthe met hods,lant
    ay orhanging,is mor e eff
    ecti
    vein
    cul
    ti
    v ati
    ngEucheumai nmunicipalwatersofZamboangacit
    y,Phili
    ppines.
     Todet er
    mi nei
    fther
    eissigni
    ficantmeani ndif
    fer
    enceonthewei ghtincr
    ementof
    Eucheumacul t
    uredinmunici
    pal watersofZamboangacity
    ,Phil
    ippines.

    Example(Descr
    ipt
    iveResearch)
    Letushaveadescr i
    ptiv
    estudyont
    he“ CORRELATIONBETWEENJOB-RELATED
    PROBLEMS AND JOB PERFORMANCE OF STAFF NURSES I N PRIVATE AND
    GOVERNMENT HOSPI TALS I N THE CITY AND PROVI NCE OF ZAMBOANGA,
    PHILI
    PPINES.’
    ’Basedonthemaj orpr
    obl
    em,thespeci
    fi
    cprobl
    emsareasf
    oll
    ows:

    Pr
    oblem.Themai nprobl
    em oft hestudyist ocorr
    elat
    ebet weenjob-
    rel
    ated
    probl
    emsandj obperfor
    manceofstaf
    fnursesinpri
    vateandgovernmenthospi
    tal
    sinthe
    cit
    yandpr ovi
    nceofZamboanga,Phi li
    ppines.Speci
    fi
    cal
    ly,i
    tattemptstoanswert he
    fol
    lowi
    ngquestions:

     Whati sthecor relationbetweenj ob-rel


    atedpr oblemsandj obper for
    manceof
    staffnursesi npr ivateandgov er
    nmenthospi talsint hecityandpr ovinceof
    Zamboanga, Phi l
    i
    ppi nes?
     Isthereasi gnifi
    cantdi ff
    erenceonj ob-rel
    atedpr oblemsasper cei
    vedbyst aff
    nurses in private and gov ernmenthospi talsi nt he cit
    y and pr ovi
    nce of
    Zamboanga i n r elati
    on to: (a) admi ni
    strati
    on of t op management ,( b)
    admi ni
    str
    ati
    onofmi ddlemanagement ,(c)admi ni
    strati
    onoflowermanagement ,
    (d)communi cati
    on,( e)
    fi
    nancialconditi
    on,( f)hospi t
    alfaci
    li
    ties,and (g)job
    hazardwhencl assi f
    iedastociv i
    lstat
    us,ageandl engthofnursingpracti
    ce?

    Objecti
    ves,t hemai npur poseoft hisst udyist ocor rel
    atebet weenjob-rel
    ated
    pr
    oblemsandj obper f
    ormanceofst affnursesi nthecityandpr ovinceofZamboanga,
    Phi
    li
    ppines.Speci f
    icall
    y,i
    tattempt stoanswert hefoll
    owingobj ecti
    ves:
     Tocor rel
    atebet weenj ob-rel
    atedproblemsandj obper for
    manceofst affnurses
    i
    nt hecityandpr ov i
    nceofZamboanga, Phi
    li
    ppines.
     Tot estthesi gnif
    icantdiffer
    enceonj ob-r
    elat
    edpr oblemsasper cei
    vedbyst aff
    nursei nt heci tyand pr ovi
    nceofZamboanga,Phi l
    ippi
    nesi nr el
    ati
    on t o( a)
    admi ni
    strati
    onoft opmanagement ,(
    b)admi ni
    str
    ationofmi ddlemanagement ,(c)
    admi ni
    strati
    onofl owermanagement ,(d)communi cat
    ion(e)financi
    alconditi
    on,
    (f
    )hospi t
    alf aci
    li
    ti
    es,and( g)jobhazar dwhencl assifi
    edasawhol e,civ
    ilstatus,
    ageandnur singpracti
    ce.

    423
    TheHypot
    heses
    A hy
    pothesisisdef i
    nedasawi seguessthati
    sf ormulat
    edandt emporar
    il
    y
    adoptedtoexplai
    nt heobservedfactscov er
    edbythestudy.Ahy pot
    hesisgui
    desthe
    resear
    cheri
    nthatitdescr
    ibestheproceduretofol
    l
    owinconducti
    ngthestudy.
    TypesofHypot
    heses
     Null
    hy pot
    hesis(
    H0)
     Al
    ternati
    vehypot
    hesi
    s(H1)

    Thenul lhy pot


    hesis(H0)isadeni alofanexist
    enceoft rai
    t,charact
    erist
    ic,qual
    ity
    ,
    value,correl
    ationordiffer
    enceoftheresult
    .
    Nullhypot hesis(H0)i s al
    ways on negat i
    veform.I n contrast he al
    ,t t
    ernat
    ive
    hypothesis( H1)i stheoppositeextr
    emeoft henul
    lhypothesisbecauset hef or
    meri s
    statedinposi ti
    v ef
    orm.
    Alt
    ernativehypothesis(H1)i
    sanaf f
    ir
    mat i
    onofexi
    stenceofobser vedphenomena.

    Exampl
    eofH0(
    Exper
    iment
    alResear
    ch)

    Speci
    fi
    cpr oblem.Ist hereasignifi
    cantdi
    fferenceont heyi
    eldofpeanut
    s
    pl
    antedinpot
    susingnightsoilandchi ckendungasf er
    ti
    lizers?
    Nullhypothesis(H0).Ther eisnosi gnif
    icantdi f
    fer
    enceont heyiel
    dof
    peanut
    splant
    edinpotsusingni ghtsoilandchickendungasf er
    ti
    li
    zers.

    Exampl
    eH0(
    Descr
    ipt
    iveResear
    ch)

    Speci
    fi
    cproblem.I
    sthereacorr
    elati
    onbet
    weenj ob-r
    elat
    edprobl
    emsand
    j
    ob perform asperceiv
    ed bystaffnursesint heci
    tyand pr ovi
    nceofZamboanga,
    Phi
    li
    ppines.
    Nullhypothesi
    s(H0) .Thereis no correl
    ati
    on bet ween j
    ob-r
    elat
    ed
    pr
    oblemsandj obperformanceofstaffnur
    sesintheci
    ty andpr ovi
    nceofZamboanga,
    Phi
    li
    ppines.

    Alt
    ernat
    iveHy
    pothesis
    Alt
    ernat
    ive hypot
    hesi
    s( H1) i
    s an aff
    ir
    mat i
    on of the exi
    stence of
    phenomena.I
    tisalwaysstat
    edinaff
    irmat
    ivef
    orm andi
    st heopposi
    tefnullhypothesi
    s
    (H0).

    Exampl
    eH1(
    Exper
    iment
    alResear
    ch)

    Speci f
    icproblem.Isthereasignif
    icantmeandiffer
    enceont hegeneral
    acceptabi
    li
    tyofluncheonmeatf rom bonemealofmi l
    kfi
    shandgoatfi
    sh?
    Alternati
    vehypothesi
    s(H1).Therei
    sasi gni
    fi
    cantmeandiff
    erenceonthe
    generalaccept
    abili
    tyofluncheonmeatf r
    om bonemeal ofmil
    kfi
    shandgoatfi
    sh.

    Exampl
    eH1(
    Descr
    ipt
    iveResear
    ch)

    Specif
    icproblem.I st her
    easi gni
    ficantdif
    ferenceont heeducational
    quali
    fi
    cati
    onandsoci oeconomi cstat
    usofpr ofessorsinstateuniversi
    ti
    esandcol l
    eges
    (SUCs)inthePhil
    ippi
    nes?
    Alt
    ernati
    ve hy pothesi
    s(H1). Therei s signi
    ficant dif
    ference on t he
    educati
    onalqualifi
    cati
    on and soci oeconomi c status of professorsi nt he state

    424
    uni
    ver
    sit
    iesandcol
    l
    egesi
    nthePhi
    l
    ippi
    nes.

    Theor
    eti
    calandConceptualFr
    amewor k
    Somet hesi
    s/di
    ssert
    ati
    onwr i
    ter
    susebot
    ht hetheoret
    icalandtheconceptual
    fr
    amework.However,i
    tisadvi
    sabl
    etouseonl
    yone,ei
    t het
    hert heoreti
    calorconcept
    ual
    fr
    amework.

    Theor
    eticalFramework
    Thet heor
    eti
    calFr
    amewor
    kshapest
    hej
    ust
    if
    icat
    ionoft
    her
    esear
    chpr
    obl
    em/
    r
    esearchobject
    ivesinor
    dert
    oprov
    idet
    helegal
    basisf
    ordefi
    ningi
    tspar
    ameter
    s.
    Theoret
    icalf
    ramewor
    kisasymbol
    i
    cconstruct
    ionwhi
    chusesabstr
    actconcept
    s,
    f
    actsorlaws.
    ConceptualFr
    amework
    Theconcept
    ualfr
    amewor
    kpr
    esent
    sspeci
    fi
    candwel
    l
    -def
    inedconcept
    swhi
    ch
    arecall
    edconstruct
    s.It
    sf unct
    ionsaresi mil
    artotheor
    eti
    calframewor kbecauset
    he
    const
    ructsusedareder
    ivedfrom abst
    ractconcept
    softhetheor
    eticalf
    ramework.

    Exampl
    e(Exper
    iment
    alResear
    ch)

    Exampl
    e(Descr
    ipt
    iveResear
    ch)

    Assumpt
    ions
    Assumpt
    ionsarepresumedtobet ruestat
    ement soffactsrel
    atedtother esearch
    problem.Theyarecl
    earl
    ystatedtogi
    v ereader
    sofr esearchpapers,t
    heses,dissert
    ations,
    researchproj
    ect
    sfoundati
    ont of
    orm conclusi
    onsresulti
    ngfrom assumptions.

    Si
    gni
    fi
    canceoft
    heSt
    udy
    Thesi gnif
    icanceofthest udyinresear chprojectisamust .Foraresear chpr oj
    ect
    seeking f orf i
    nancialassistance from ot heragency ,si
    gnif
    icance oft he st udy is
    present edcompr ehensivel
    yoft oconvincet hescreeni ngcommi tt
    eethei mpor t
    anceof
    thest udy.
    The r esearchershoul d pr
    ovet hatt he st
    udyhas i mportantcont r
    ibut i
    ons in
    rel
    ationt o( a)solvingproblemsandneeds( b)Bri
    dgingknowl edgegap( c)i mpr oving
    social,economi candheal t
    hcondi ti
    ons,( d)enr i
    chi
    ngr esear
    chinstrument,met hodsand
    strat
    egi es,(
    e)suppor ti
    nggov ernmentthr ust
    .

    Scopeandl
    i
    mit
    ati
    onsoft
    hest
    udy
    Thi
    si ncl
    udest hecov erageofthestudyar ea,subj
    ects,resear
    chappar
    atus,
    equi
    pmentori nstrument,t
    her esear
    chi
    ssuesandconcer ns,thedurati
    onoft
    hestudy
    andconstr
    aintsthathavedi
    rectbeari
    ngontheresul
    tofthestudy.

    Def
    ini
    ti
    onoft
    erms
    Ther
    ear
    etwoway
    sofdef
    ini
    ngt
    hekeyt
    ermsusedi
    nthest
    udy
    .

     Concept ualdef i
    nit
    ion.The defi
    nit
    ion oft erms are based on concept
    s or
    hypothetic ones which ar
    e usual
    lyt aken fr
    om dicti
    onary,ency
    clopedi
    a and
    publi
    shedj ournal
    s.
     Operati
    onaldef i
    nit
    ion.The defi
    nit
    ions oft erms are based on observabl
    e
    characteri
    sticsandhowitisusedinthest udy
    .

    TOPIC3
    REVI
    EW OFRELATEDLI
    TERATURE

    Ther
    evi
    ewofr
    elat
    edl
    i
    ter
    atur
    eisoneoft
    hecomponent
    sofar
    esear
    chpr
    ocess,

    425
    todet erminet hesi
    mi l
    arit
    iesanddi f
    fer
    encesoft hef i
    ndingsbetweent hepastand
    presentst udi
    es.Likewise itprovi
    des the invest
    igat
    ora backgr ound regar
    ding the
    aspectswhi chhavebeenst udi
    edandnoty etst
    udied.Thewor dr
    elatedmeanst helegal
    basesl i
    ter
    atureandstudieswhichhavedirectbeari
    ngorrelati
    ont
    ot hepresentstudy.

    Rel
    atedLegalbases.
    Todeter
    minether el
    evanceofthest udyt
    othegov er
    nmentsthr
    ust
    s.Major
    sourcesorr
    elat
    edlegalbasesarelawsanddepartmentdirect
    ivessuchasci
    rcul
    ars,
    orders,
    memoranda,
    andotherswhichar
    erel
    atedtot
    hepresentstudy.

    Rel
    atedLi
    ter
    atur
    e.
    Anywri
    tt
    enmater
    ial
    spubl
    ishedi
    nbooks,j
    our
    nal
    s,magazi
    nes,nov
    els,
    poetryand
    ency
    clopedi
    a.Thepr
    esentat
    ionofrel
    atedl
    i
    t.isinchr
    onol
    ogi
    calorderfr
    om recentto
    past
    .

    Rel
    atedSt
    udi
    es
    Publi
    shedandunpubl
    i
    shedr
    esear
    chst
    udi
    esar
    esour
    cesofmat
    eri
    alst
    hatar
    e
    i
    ncl
    udedinthi
    ssecti
    on.
     Local st
    udies
     For ei
    gnstudi
    es

    TOPI
    C4
    QUALI
    TIESOFAGOODRESEARCHI
    NSTRUMENT

    Resear
    cher
    -made i
    nst
    rument
    s such as quest
    ionnai
    res,t
    est
    s,obser
    vat
    ion

    426
    schedul
    e, checkli
    st,
    rati
    ngski
    ll
    s,i
    nterviewsandmanyot hersshoul
    dmeett hequali
    ti
    esof
    agoodr esearchinstr
    umentbefor
    et heyar eusedforgat
    heri
    ngorcoll
    ecti
    ngdata,andar e
    i
    mpor t
    antdev icesbecausethesuccessorf ail
    ureofastudyli
    esont hedatagathered.
    Therearet hr
    eequaliti
    esofagoodr esearchinstr
    ument.

    Val
    idi
    ty.Meanst
    hedegr
    eet
    owhi
    chat
    estormeasur
    ingi
    nst
    rument
    smeasur
    eswhati
    t
    i
    ntendstomeasur
    e.Li
    kewisetheval
    idi
    tyofameasur
    inginst
    rumenthastodowi t
    hi t
    s
    soundnesswhatt
    hetestorquest
    ionnai
    remeasur
    esitseff
    ecti
    venessandhow wellit
    coul
    dbeappli
    ed.

     Ty
    pesofVal idi
    ty
     Cont entval
    idity.Theext entt owhi chthecont entortopicoft hetestistrul
    y
    representat
    ive oft he contentoft he course.Iti
    nv ol
    ves,essent i
    all
    y,the
    systemat i
    cexami nati
    onoft het estcont enttodeter
    mi newhet heritcover
    sa
    representat
    ivesampl eofthebehav iordomai ntobemeasur ed
     Pr edicti
    vevalidity.i
    sdet er
    mi nedbyshowi nghowwel lpredicti
    onsmadef r
    om
    thet estareconf i
    rmedbyev i
    dencegat her
    edatsomesubsequentt i
    met he
    cri
    terionmeasur edagai nstt histy peofv al
    idi
    tyisimpor tantbecauset he
    outcomeoft hesubj ectispredicted.

     Reli
    abil
    it
    y.Rel i
    abi
    l
    itymeanst heextenttowhichar esearchinst
    rumenti s
    dependable,consi
    stent,andstabl
    e.Iti
    sconcernedwi t
    ht heconsistencyof
    responsesev enifaper sontakesthesamet esttwice,thetesty i
    eldsthe
    samer esult
    .Howev erarel
    iabl
    etestmaynotal
    way sbev al
    i
    d.

     Met
    hodsint
    esti
    ngt
    herel
    iabil
    i
    tyofagoodresearchinst
    rumentar e:
     Test-
    ret
    estmet
    hods.Thesamei nstrumentisadmi ni
    ster
    edtwicetothe
    samegr
    oupofsubject
    s.Andt
    hecorrelat
    ioncoeffi
    cientisdet
    ermined.

     St
    epsinappl
    y i
    ngtheformula
     Rankthescoresofsubj ectsfr
    om highesttolowest
     Rankthesecondsetofscor esi
    nthesamemanner
     Deter
    mi nethedi
    ffer
    encei nranksforeverypairi
    franks
     Squareeachdiff
    erencet ogettheD
     Sum thesquarediff
    erencet ofi
    ndsummat i
    onD
     Comput eSpearmanr ho(r)byapplyi
    ngt heformul
    a

    Usabi
    li
    ty.Thedegr
    eet
    owhi
    cht
    her
    esear
    chi
    nst
    rumentcanbesat
    isf
    act
    ori
    l
    yusedbyt
    he
    resear
    cher
    swithoutundueexpendi
    tur
    esoft
    ime,moneyandef
    for
    t.I
    not
    herwor
    ds
    usabil
    i
    tymeanspract
    icabi
    l
    ity
    .

     Fact
    orstoDet ermineUsabi l
    ity
     Easeofadmi ni str ation.Tof aci l
    it
    at et headmi nistrati
    onofar esearch
    i
    nst rument ,
    st ruct ur eshoul dbecompl et eandpr eci se.
     Ease ofscor ing.Resear ch i nstrumentdepends upon t he f oll
    owing
    aspect s.
     Const ructi
    onoft het esti ntheobj ect i
    v et y
    pe
     Answerkey sar eadequat elypr epared
     Scor ingdi r
    ect ionsar ef ullyunder stood
     Ease ofi nterpr et ation and appl ication.Resul ts oft ests are easyt o
    i
    nt erpr etand appl yi ft ablesar e prov i
    ded.Al lscor esmustbe gi ven
    meani ngf r
    om t het abl esofnor mswi t
    houtt henecessi tyofcomput ati
    on.
     Low cost .Iti smor epr act i
    cali fthet esti sl ow costmat erial
    -wise.Itis
    mor eeconomi calal soi ft heresear chi nstrumenti sofl ow costandcan
    ber eusebyf utur er esear chers.
     Pr opermechani calmake- up.Inst r
    umentshoul dbepr i
    ntedclearlyi na
    appr opr i
    atesi zef ort hegr adeory earlev elforwhicht heinstrumenti s
    i
    nt ended.Mor eov ercar eful at
    tent i
    onshoul dbegiv ent othequal i
    tyof
    pictur esandi l
    lust rationsont hel owergr adesassubj ectoft hest udy.

    427
    TOPI
    C5
    RESEARCHDESI
    GNS

     Fourki
    ndsofresearchdesigns:
     Hist
    ori
    cal.Thestudyisf ocusedinthepast(what,was).
     Descri
    pti
    ve.Thestudyisf ocusedinthepresentcondit
    ion(
    what
    ,is)
    .
     Experi
    mental.I
    sinthef uture(whatwil
    lbe)
     Casestudy.Isfort
    hepast ,
    present
    ,andfuture.
    HISTORICALDESI GN
    Nevins(1978)def i
    neshistoryas“anyi ntegrat
    ednarrati
    veordescri
    pti
    ve
    pastevent
    sorfactswritt
    eninaspi ri
    tofcrit
    icali
    nquiryforthewholetrut
    h.
    I
    not herwor d,histor
    icalresear
    chi sasci enti
    fi
    ccriti
    cali
    nquiryofthe
    wholet r
    uth ofpastev ents using the cri
    ti
    calmet hod int he under
    standi
    ng and
    i
    nterpr
    etat
    ionoffactswhichareapplicabl
    et ocurrentissuesandevents.

     UsesofHi
    stor
    icalResear
    ch
     Usefulin searchi
    ng through the pastf orsoluti
    ons t o cont
    emporary
    problemsandneeds.
     Usedt othrowli
    ghtonthepr esent.
     Givespeopleasenseofcont inui
    tyofthepastt othepresent.
     Enablescommuni ti
    estogr aspt hei
    rrelat
    ionshi
    pwi ththepasttocur r
    ent
    i
    ssues.
     Itchronicl
    eseventsofendur ingwor t
    hwhi chconf erupont heindi
    vi
    dual
    consciousness of unit
    y and t he f
    eeli
    ng of i mportance of human
    achievement.

     Maj
    orst
    epsofHi
    stor
    icalr
    esear
    ch(
    GoodandScat
    es,
    1972)
     Coll
    ect i
    onofdat
    a.
     Cri
    tici
    sm ofdatacol
    lected,Theprocessofexternalcri
    ti
    cism andint
    ernal
    cr
    iti
    cism.
     Presentati
    on of t
    he f act i
    nr eadablef orm involvi
    ng problems of
    or
    gani zati
    on,
    compositi
    on,exposi
    ti
    on,andinterpr
    etat
    ion.

     Sour
    cesofHi
    stor
    icalResear
    ch
    Pr
    imarysources
     Document s.Thisincl
    udesoffi
    cialdir
    ectiv
    es, cour
    tdecisi
    on, executiv
    eand
    otheroffi
    cialr
    ecords,per
    sonalmat eri
    als,newspapers,andper i
    odicals.
     Remai ns.Thisincl
    udesphysicalplant,equipment,appar at
    us,picturesof
    buil
    dings,dipl
    omaandcer ti
    fi
    cates,textsbooksandr ef
    er encebooks.

    Secondar
    ySources
     Hist
    ori
    esofeducat
    ion,
    bibl
    i
    ogr
    aphi
    es,
    ency
    clopedi
    as,
    andet
    c.

    DESCRIPTIVEDESI GN
    Thestudyfocusesatthepresentcondi
    ti
    on.Thepurposeistofi
    ndnewtruth.
    Thetruthmayhav edi f
    fer
    entf ormssuchasi ncr
    easequanti
    tyofknowledge,a
    newgenerali
    zati
    onoranewl aw,increasedi
    nsighti
    ntofact
    orswhichareoper
    ating,t
    he
    di
    scoveryofnew causalrelati
    onship,amor eaccuratefor
    mulati
    onoft hepr
    obl em t
    o
    di
    ssol
    ve.

     UsesofDescr
    ipt
    iver
    esear
    ch
     Prov
    idefact
    sonwhi chscient
    if
    icjudgmentsmaybebased.
     Prov
    ideessent
    ial
    knowl edgeaboutthenatureofobject
    sandpersons.
     For cl
    oser observ
    ation in the pr act
    ices, behavi
    or, met
    hods and

    428
    procedures.
     Playi
    ng a l arge parti nt he dev el
    opment of instr
    ument sf or the
    measur ementsofmanyt hi
    ngssuchasquest i
    onnair
    es,test,int
    erv
    iews,
    checkli
    st,scor
    ecards,rat
    ingscales,andobserv
    ati
    onschedules.
     Formulatingofpol
    iciesinthelocal,
    nati
    onal,
    orint
    ernati
    onallevel.

     TypesofDescr
    ipt
    iveResear
    ch
     Descri
    pti
    ve sur
    vey.Thi
    sty
    pe i
    s sui
    tabl
    e wher
    evert
    he subj
    ect
    svar
    y
    amongt hemsel v esandonei si nterest edt oknow t heext entt owhi ch
    differentcondi t
    ionsandsi tuat i
    onsar eobt ainedamongt hesubj ects.A
    surv eyi susef uli n 1)pr oviding t hev alueoff acts,and 2)Focusi ng
    attentionont hemosti mpor tantt hingst ober epor t
    ed.
     Descr ipt ive- nor mat i
    ve sur vey.St ressed t hat t he t erm nor mat ivei s
    somet imesusedbecausesur vey sar ef requent lymadet oascer taint he
    normalort ypi calcondi tionf orpr acticeort ocompar el ocalr esultswi t
    ha
    stateornat ional nor m.
     Descr ipt ive- status.Thi sappr oacht opr obl em sol vingseekst oanswer
    quest ionst or ealf actsr el ati
    ngt oexi stingcondi ti
    ons.Thi si sat echni que
    ofquant itativ edescr iptionwhi chdet er minest hepr evailingcondi ti
    onsi na
    groupofcaseschosenf orst udy .Itst ressescur rentcondi tionswi tht he
    assumpt i
    on t hat t hings wi ll change. They cov er many t r
    ai t
    s or
    char act er i
    st icsoft hegr oup.
     Descr ipt ive- eval uat i
    ve.Thi sdesi gni st oappr aisecar efullyt hewor thiness
    oft hecur rentst udy .e. g. ,ev aluationofani mpl ement ationofwaron
    wast epr oj ect .
     Descr ipt ive- compar ative.Thi si sadesi gnwher et her esear cherconsi ders
    twov ar iabl es( notmani pul ated)andest ablishesaf ormalpr ocedur est o
    compar eandconcl udet hatonei sbet tert hant heot her .Thest at i
    stical
    tooli sZ- test .I fsi gni f
    icantdi ff
    erenceexi sti tmeansoneappr oachi s
    bettert han t he ot heri ft her ei s no si gnificantdi ff erence,t he t wo
    appr oachesar eal mostt hesame.
     Cor relationalsur vey.Thi si sdesi gnedt odet ermi net her el ationshi poft wo
    variabl es( XandY)whet hert her elati
    onshi pi sper fect ,v eryhi gh,hi gh,
    moder at e, sl i
    ght /negl igible.
     Longi tudi nalsur vey.Thi si nv olvesmucht i
    meal l
    ottedf ori nv estigat i
    onof
    thesamesubj ect soft woormor epoi nt
    sandt ime.

    EXPERI MENTALDESI GN
    Isaproblem- solvingappr oacht hatthest udyi sdescri
    bedint hef utureonwhat
    willbewhenv ari
    abl esar ecar efull
    ycont r
    oll
    edormani pulat
    ed.Experi
    ment aldesigncan
    beaBASI C,APPLI ED, ORDEVELOPMENTALRESEARCH.
    Thisty
    peofr esear chi nvolvesthe7Ms,namel y:manpower( Compet ent)
    ,money ,
    met hods,materials,machi ner y,momentoft i
    me,andmar keti
    ng.Experiment alresearch
    i
    sgi venprior
    it
    ybyr esear chi nstituti
    onsingivingr esearchgrants-
    in-
    aidbecauser esearch
    out putcanbeconv er t
    edi ntoSmal landMedi um Ent erpri
    ses(SME’ s),thushel pr ural
    folksoutofschooly outhsunempl oyedadul tsandhousewi vesaugmentt hei
    ri ncome,
    all
    ev i
    atepoverty
    , andi mpr ov et heirqual
    ityoflif
    e.
    Eveniftheexper i
    menti sconduct edint hef il
    edorl aborat
    ory,itisexpect edto
    revealcauseandef fectr elationship.Thepr oblem ist oknowt hecondi t
    ionsunderwhi ch
    anev entoccursandt oobser vet hewhol et ransactioncloselysot hatonecanbe
    reasonabl ysuret hatcausat i
    oni spresent.

     TypesofExper
    iment
    alDesi
    gn

     Si
    ngl
    e-gr
    oupdesi
    gn.Thi
    sdesi
    gni
    nvol
    vesasi
    ngl
    etr
    eat
    mentwi
    tht
    woor

    429
    mor elev els.
     Two- groupdesi gn.Inthisdesign,twocompar ablegroupsar eempl oyed
    asexper iment alandcont r
    olgroupsort wocompar abl
    egr oupsarebot h
    exper i
    ment al.
     Pre-test-Postt estdesign.Thisdesigni nvol
    vestheexper i
    ment algroups
    andt hecont rolgroupwhicharecar efull
    ysel
    ectedthroughrandomi zati
    on
    procedur es bot h groups are given pre-t
    estatt he beginning oft he
    semest erandpost -t
    estattheendoft hesemesterbutt hecontrolgroup
    i
    si solatedf rom allexper
    imentalinf
    luences.

    CASESTUDYDESI GN
    Acasestudydesignisapr oblem solv
    ingtechni
    quewher ei
    nthestudyisdescribe
    fr
    om thepast,
    present,andf
    uture.Itisaintensi
    veinvesti
    gat
    ionofapar t
    icul
    arindiv
    idual
    ,
    i
    nstit
    uti
    on,communi t
    y,or any gr oup considered as a uni twhich incl
    udes t he
    devel
    opmental
    ,adj ust
    ment,remedi al,corr
    ecti
    vepr ocedur
    et hatsuit
    ablyfollowst he
    di
    agnoseofthecausesofmal adjustmentoroff avor
    abledevel
    opment.

     Cycl
    eofCaseSt
    udy
     Recogni t
    ionanddet erminati
    onofthestatusoft hephenomenont obe
    i
    nv esti
    gated.
     Collecti
    onofdatar elatedtothefact
    orsorcir
    cumst ancesassoci
    atedwith
    thegivenphenomenon.
     Diagnosisori dentifi
    cationofcausalfactor
    sasbasi sf orremedialor
    dev el
    opmentaltreatment .
     Appl i
    cati
    onofremedi aloradj
    ustmentmeasure
     Subsequentf oll
    ow- up to deter
    minetheef f
    ecti
    venessofcor r
    ecti
    veor
    dev el
    opmentalmeasur esappli
    ed.

    Casestudyt akesalongper
    iodoftimedueto casewor
    kthani
    ntensi
    vel
    y.
    I
    nfer
    encesar
    ediff
    icultt
    omakeduet
    olimi
    tedsampl
    i
    ng.

    TOPI
    C6

    430
    SAMPLI
    NGDESI
    GN

    Sampl ingi sappl i


    cablei fpopulati
    onoft hestudyistolargeespeci all
    ythe7Ms-
    manpower ,money ,mat erials,machi nery,met hods,moment ,and mar keting oft he
    resear cher-ar
    el imited.I tis adv ant
    ageous f orhi m to use sampl e surveyf oriti s
    economi cal r
    at herthant otalpopulati
    on.
    Howev er,theuseoft otalpopulati
    onisadv isabl
    eifthenumberofsubj ect
    si sless
    thanonehundr ed.Ifthepopul ati
    onisequalt oormor ethanonehundr editisadv i
    sable
    togett hesampl einor dert obeef f
    ect i
    ve,effi
    cientandeconomi calingat heri
    ngdat a,
    providedhowev er,thatthesampl eisar epresentati
    vecross-
    sectionoft hepopul ation
    andissci enti
    ficallyselected.
    Sampl ingmaybedef inedast hemet hodofget t
    ingarepresentativeporti
    onofa
    popul ation.Thet erm,popul at i
    on,ist
    heaggr egateortotalofobjects,persons,families,
    species, oror dersofpl antsorani mals.

     Advant
    agesofSampl
    ing
     I
    tsavesti
    me, money,andeffor
    t.
     I
    tismoreeffect
    ive.
     I
    tisfast
    er,
    cheaper,andeconomical
    .
     I
    tismoreaccurate.
     I
    tgiv
    esmor ecompr ehensi
    vesinf
    ormat
    ion.

     Di
    sadvant
    agesofSampl
    ing
     Ifsampl i
    ngdesi gnhasst rength,i
    talsohasi tsweaknesses.
     Sampl edat ainvol
    vemor ecarei npreparingdetail
    edsubcl assif
    icati
    ondueto
    smal l
    numberofsubj ects.
     Ifthesampl ingplanisnotcor r
    ect l
    ydesignedandf oll
    owed, theresultmaybe
    misleading.
     Sampl i
    ngr equiresanexper ttoconductt hestudyinanar ea.Ifthisi
    slacki
    ng
    theresultscanbeer r
    oneous.
     Thechar acteri
    sti
    cst obeobser vedmayoccurr arelyinapopul ati
    oneg.
    Teacher sov er30y earsoft eachingexper i
    enceort eacherswithoutstandi
    ng
    performance.
     Compl icatedsampl i
    ngplansar elabor
    ioust oprepare.

     Pl
    anni
    ngaSampl
    eSur
    vey
     Statet heobj ecti
    v esoft hesur vey.
     Definet hepopul ation.
     Selectt hesampl ingi ndiv i
    dual.
     Locat eandsel ectt hesour cel i
    stofparti
    cularindi
    vidual
    stobei ncl
    udedinthe
    sampl e.
     Decidet hesampl ingdesi gntobeusedt hatsuitstothestudy
    ,eithersci
    ent
    ifi
    c
    ornon- scientifi
    csampl ing.
     Determi nethesampl esi zebyusi ngtheformul a.
     Selectt hemet hodi nest i
    mat ingtherel
    iabil
    ityofthesampleeithertest
    -r
    etest,
    spli
    t-halforint ernal consi stency.
     Testt her el
    iabili
    tyoft hesampl einapilotinsti
    tuti
    on.
     Int
    erpr etther eli
    abi l
    ityoft hesampl e.
     Chooseexper ttoadmi nistertheresear
    chi nstrument.

     Det
    ermi
    nat
    ionofSampl
    eSi
    ze
    Ar
    bit
    rar
    il
    yt hemajor
    it
    ycri
    teri
    on(50% +1)i susedassuff
    icientsample.Others
    maychooseapr opor
    ti
    onlesserorgreaterthanthemajor
    itycr
    iteri
    onor51% oft he
    popul
    ati
    onandsomemayuseper cent
    age.Butthesei
    deasar
    enotscienti
    fi
    cal
    ly
    -ori
    ented.

     St
    epsi
    nDet
    ermi
    ningsampl
    esi
    zeusi
    ng(
    6.1)f
    ormul
    a(Cal
    mor
    in)
     Deter
    minethetot
    al populat
    ion(N)asassumedsubj
    ect
    soft
    hest
    udy
    .
     Gettheval
    ueofV( 2.58),Se(0.
    01),andp(0.50)
    .
     Computethesampl esizeusingfor
    mul a(
    6.1).

    431
    Exampl
    e;Sl
    ovin’
    sFormulaforAdequateSamplesi
    ze
    n=N/1+Ne
    Wheren=sampl esi
    ze
    N=populat
    ionsize
    e=er
    ror(desi
    redmarginoferr
    or/%allowanceofnon-
    preci
    sion)
    Sampl
    ingDesi
    gns
    General
    ly,t her
    e are t wo kinds of sampl ing design. These ar
    e (1)
    sci
    entif
    ic/pr
    obabil
    it
    ysampling,and (2)non scienti
    fi
    c/non probabil
    it
    ysampli
    ng.In
    sci
    entif
    icsampling,eachmemberi nthepopul
    ationisgi v
    enanequalchanceofbeing
    i
    ncluded inthesampl e.In non sci
    ent
    if
    icsampl i
    ng,notal lofthemember sinthe
    populat
    ionsaregivenanequalchanceofbei
    ngincludedinthesample.

     Sci
    ent
    if
    icSampli
    ng
     Simpler
    andom sampl
    i
    ng.Thi
    sdesi
    gni
    sappl
    i
    cabl
    eonl
    ywhenpopul
    ati
    on
    beingi nv esti
    gat edi shomogenous.Random sampl i
    ngi schosenbyusi ng
    eitheroft het wot echniques,namel y;lot t
    ery,ortabl eorr andom number s.
    Mor eov er,tabl e ofr andom number st echnique is applicabletoal arge
    numberofpopul ati
    on.
     Strat i
    fiedr andom sampl i
    ng.Thi st ypeofdesi gndividesf i
    rstthepopul at
    ion
    i
    nt ot woormor est rata.Foreachst r
    at um,t hesampl eitemsar edrawnat
    random.
     Syst emat i
    csampl ing.I nthi stypeofdesi gnt heindividualsinthepopul at
    ion
    are ar ranged i n a met hodical manner ,f or instance al phabetical or
    chr onol ogical(age,exper ienceoracademi cr ank)
    ,andt hent hnamemaybe
    select edi nt heconst ructionoft hesampl eeg.Ev erytent hoft heseti s
    select edaspar toft hesampl etil
    l t
    hecompl etenumberi sreach.
     Mul tistagesampl i
    ng.Thi sdesi gni sdonei nseveralst ages.Itcanbet wo-
    stage,t hree-stage,f our-stage,five-stage,andmanyot hersdependi ngont he
    numberofsampl i
    ngt obeused.Andt hisdesi gnthepopul ati
    oni ndi
    v i
    dual s
    aregr oupi ntoahi er archyofuni ts,andsampl ingisdoneconsecut ivel
    y.
     Clust ersampl i
    ng.Int hist ypeofsci enti
    ficsampl i
    ngdesi gn,thepopul ationi s
    grouped i nt
    o cl ust ers orsmal luni ts.e. g.,Blocks,muni ci
    pali
    ty orci ty
    composedofpopul ationi ndiv
    idual sandar eselectedei therbyr andom or
    syst emat icsampl ing.Thi sdesi gni sadv antageouswheni ndivi
    dualsandt he
    blockordi st
    rictbelongt oahet er ogeneousgr oup.

     Nonsci
    ent
    if
    icSampl
    ing
    I
    nnonsci entifi
    csampl i
    ng.Notal lofthei ndivi
    dualsi npopul ati
    onar egivenequal
    chanceofbei
    ngi ncludedassampl e,hencesubj ecti
    vit
    yoccur s.
     Purposi ve sampl ing.Thi st ype ofnonsci entif
    ic sampl i
    ng is based on
    select i
    ng t he individuals as sampl es accor ding tot he pur poses oft he
    resear cherashi scont r
    ols.
     Incident alsampl i
    ng.Thi st y
    peofsampl i
    ngdesi gn“ appl iedt othosesampl e
    whichar etakenbecauset heyar et hemostav ail
    able.”( Guilfor
    dandFr uchter
    ,
    1973) .
     Quot asampl ing.Thist ypeofdesi gnispopul arint hefieldofopi ni onresearch
    because i ti s done bymer elyl ooking fori ndivi
    dual s wi tht he requisi
    te
    char act eri
    sti
    cs.
     Refer ral/snowballsampl ing.I tist hepr ocessofsel ect i
    ngasampl eusi ng
    networ ks.Tost artwi t
    hf ewi ndivi
    dual sinagr ouporor gani zati
    onar eselected
    andt her equiredinformat ioni scol l
    ectedf r
    om t hem.Theyar ethenaskedt o
    identifyot herpeopl eintheor gani
    zat i
    on.e.g.,Druguser s.

    432
    TOPIC7
    MEASUREMENTSOFVARI
    ABLES

    Befor
    e measurementcan t ake pl
    ace,itis necessar
    yt o sel
    ectand defi
    ne
    v
    ari
    abl
    esformeasurementsanddecideupont heexactmethodsformeasuri
    ngthem t
    he
    t
    woprocessesar
    ereferr
    edtorespecti
    vel
    yasconceptuali
    zati
    onandoperati
    onal
    i
    zati
    on.

     Concept uali
    zati
    on.Entail
    ssel ect
    ingandspeci f
    y i
    ngwhatwebel i
    ev etobet he
    mosti mpor t
    antorrel
    evantv ari
    abl
    est omeasur eandst at
    ingt
    hevaluesthateach
    var
    iablecanassume.Speci fyi
    ngpr eciselywhatwemeanwhenwer ef
    ertothose
    var
    iables.
     Operationali
    zati
    on.Ref erst o speci fying t
    he act ualmeasuri
    ng dev i
    ces or
    methodst hatwillbeusedtomeasur et hev ar
    iablesthatwehaveconceptual
    ized.
    I
    tfurtherclari
    fi
    esthemeani ngofv ariables.

     Level
    sofMeasur
    ement
    s

    Levels( scales)r efert othedegr eeofpr ecisionwi thwhi chav ariabl


    ei sbel iev ed
    tobemeasur ed.I thel pst odet ermi net hemostappr opriat
    emet hodf orst at i
    stical
    anal
    ysi
    sofdat a.
    Thef ourmeasur ement sofl ev elsar e:
     Nomi nal .Themostbasi cf or m ofmeasur ement sitsimpl ysor t
    scasesi nto
    differ entmut uallyexcl usivecat egor i
    es( Values) .Eveni fanumber( pl ate
    number#190) , hasnoquant itati
    vesi gnifi
    cance.
     Or dinal .Levelofmeasur ement si mpl i
    est hecapaci tyt or ankor derpeopl e
    wi thr espectt ot hei
    rmeasur ement sofsomev ari
    ables.Thet er m ordinall ev el
    isappr opr i
    atel yassignedt ov ar i
    ablest hathav ebeenmeasur edusi ngar ange
    ofcat egor iessuchas:Al way s,Somet i
    mes,Nev er,Greatlyi mpr oved,sl i
    ght ly
    impr ov ed, andnoti mpr ov ed.
     I nter val.I thasal lthesamechar acteri
    sticsoft heordinall evelandaddi t
    ional
    onewhi chi st heex actdi stancebet weencat egor iesofthev ar i
    ablear eknown
    andar eequalt oeachot her .e.g.,thedi stancebet weenpoi ntsi nthescal ei s
    fixed, sot hatt hei nter
    v albet ween12degr eesand13degr eesand35degr ees
    and36degr eesar ethesamewhi chi s1degr ee.Intervalmeasur ementmay
    useazer oasoneofi tsv alues,butzer orepr esentanar bitrar
    ypoi ntona
    rangeofmeasur ementr at hert hant heabsenceofav ari
    abl e.
     Rat io.I ssi milart ot hei ntervalscal e,i nt hatcat egor i
    zedcanber anked
    or der ed wi t
    hf i
    xed equaldi stances bet ween cat egor ies.Howev er,an
    addi ti
    onal feat urecharact erizest her ati
    oscal e-zer ohasanabsol utemeani ng.
    Itr ef l
    ect sapoi ntwher et her eisnomeasur ablequant it
    yoft hev ariable.e. g.,
    Income/ zeroi n.

     Dat
    aCol
    lect
    ion
     Sour
    cesofSecondar yData
    o Censusdata
    o Universi
    tyl
    ibr
    aries
    o Laborstati
    sti
    cs
    o Publicheal
    thstati
    sti
    cs

     Met
    hodsofDat
    acol
    l
    ect
    ion
    I
    n-per
    soni
    nter
    viewi
    ng
    Adv
    ant
    ages:
    o Highcompleti
    onrat
    e
    o Accesstosupplement
    al i
    nfor
    mat
    ion
    o Indi
    vi
    dual
    izeddatacol
    lecti
    on

    433
    Di
    sadv
    antages:
    o I nf
    luenceoft
    hei nt
    ervi
    ewer
    o Pot enti
    alf
    orrecordi
    ngerr
    or
    Tel
    ephonei
    nter
    view
    o Usedwhenthepur
    posei
    stosol
    i
    citsmal
    lamountofi
    nfor
    mat
    ion
    o Fi
    ndti
    ming

    Mail
    -usedf orsel f-
    admi nist
    eredquestionnai
    re.Thepur
    poseoft
    hest
    udyi
    stosecur
    e
    dat
    afrom al argesampl eofpar t
    ici
    pants.
     Identityoft hepar ti
    cipants
     Ret urnr ate
     Av oidbadt imes
     Keepi tshor t
     Prov i
    dei ncenti
    ves
     Prov i
    depost -paidreturnenvel
    oped
     Useagoodcov erlett
    er
     User et urnaddr essandl ett
    erheads

    For
    msofQuest
    ions

     Open-
    endedquestions.Possi
    bler
    esponsesar
    enotgiven.
     Cl
    osed-endedquesti
    ons.Possi
    bleanswersar
    esetoutint
    hequest
    ionnai
    re.

    Indexesandscales
    Forvar
    iablesnoteasil
    ymeasured,suchasat
    ti
    tudesandper cept
    ionsgener
    all
    y
    cannotbeaccuratel
    ymeasuredbyaresponsetoasi
    nglequest
    ion.I
    trequi
    restheuseof
    multipl
    eit
    emstoaccuratel
    ymeasur
    et hem.

    I
    ndexesconsistofanumberthataretobeimportanti
    ndi
    cat
    orsoft
    hevari
    able
    bei
    ngmeasur ed.
    Scal
    easksf ormorepreci
    seanswer,suchaslinearorsummati
    vescal
    e.e.g.
    ,
    i
    ndicat
    ehowof teny
    ouexperi
    enceeachofthesesy
    mptomsbyencircl
    i
    ngtheappr
    opr
    iate
    number.

    Never Somet
    imes Of
    ten Ver
    yOft
    en
    1.Anxi
    ous 0 1 2 3
    2.Sad 0 1 2 3

    Li
    kertScal
    e.Itis a speci
    fi
    c ki
    nd ofsummat iv
    e scale.When atti
    tude are
    measured.A setofatt
    it
    udei t
    emsar esuppl
    ied.Part
    ici
    pantsindi
    catethei
    rl evelof
    agreementwit
    heachit
    em.e.g.,Li
    kert5poi
    ntscaleofstrongl
    yagree,agr
    ee,disagree,
    str
    onglydi
    sagr
    ee.

    BogardosSoci
    alDist
    anceScale.Itisaspecialf
    orm ofaGuttmanscal e.It
    measurestowhatdegreeanindi
    vi
    dualwouldbewil
    li
    ngtoi
    nter
    actwi
    thpersondif
    ferent
    fr
    om himselfsuchpeopleofdiffer
    entethni
    cgrouporpeoplewit
    hdifferentsexual
    ori
    ent
    ation.

    ADDI
    TIONALTOOLSFORDATACOLLECTI
    ONRECORDI
    NG

     FocusedI nter
    view.Allowst herespondent
    ssaysomethingt
    oat opi
    c,whi
    chheis
    guidedt hrough.
     Li
    feHi story.Respondentt alksabouthisli
    fehi
    stor
    yinhisownway ,athi
    sown
    pace, beginningwher ehechoosesandsay i
    ngwhathechooses.
     ProjectiveTechni que.Respondenti saskedt orespondverbal
    lyt
    osomet hi
    ng
    present edt ohim bytheresearcher
     Associ ati
    on
     Compl et
    ion

    434
     Construction
     Expansion
     Census.I
    nvol
    vest heent ir
    egr oupofi ndividual
    sofinterestinthest udy.
     Fiel
    dnotes.Cont ainsaday -t
    o-dayaccountofwhatt ranspired,thatiswhati s
    happeni
    ng,wheni thappenedt owhom i ti shappening.Whati sbei ngsaid,
    whoi s
    sayi
    ngitandtowhom.Whatchangesar eoccur ri
    ngi nthephy sicalsurr
    oundings?
     Fivecomponent soff ieldnote:
    o Runni ngdescr i
    ption( beconcr eteandbehav iouristi
    c)
    o Pr eviouslyforgottenhappeni ngthatarenowr ecalled
    o Anal y t
    icalideasandi nfl
    uences( i
    deasmustber ecordedast hey
    occur )
    o Per sonal impressi onandf eeli
    ngs
    o Not eforfurtherinf ormation

     Observati
    on isonewayt ocol l
    ectpr imar ydata.Obser vationi sapur poseful
    ,
    systematicandselectivewayofswi tchi
    ngandl i
    steningt oani nter
    acti
    onasi t
    takesplace.
     Twot ypesofobser vati
    on:
    o Parti
    cipantobser vation.When ar esear cherpar tici
    pated i
    nt he
    activ
    iti
    es oft he gr oup bei ng observed wi th orwi t
    houtt hei
    r
    knowledge, t
    hatt heyar ebei ngobserved.
    o Non-partici
    pant sobser v at
    ion.Whent her esearcherdoesnotget
    inv
    olvedi nt heact i
    viti
    esoft hegroupbutr emai nasapassi ve
    observer,wat ching and l isteni
    ng tot heact i
    vit
    iesand dr awing
    conclusionsfrom t hi
    s.

    435
    TOPI
    C8
    DATAANALYSI
    S/PROCESSI
    NGANDSTATI
    STI
    CALTREATMENT

    Dataarer
    esearchobserv
    ati
    onr
    ecor
    dedi
    ndi
    ff
    erentf
    ormssuchasr
    esponsest
    o
    t
    hequest
    ions,
    scoresandrat
    ings

     St
    epsi ndat aanal ysis/pr
    ocessi
    ng
     Est abli
    shi ngcat egori
    es
     Codi ng.Assi gni
    ngofnumber s/
    symbolstoeachcategor
    y.
     Tabul ation.Count i
    ngeachcasei neachcat
    egory.
     Anal ysis.Separ ati
    onofsoci alphenomenaintotheirconst
    it
    uentpar
    tsand
    examinat i
    onofr elati
    on.
     I nt
    erpret ati
    on.Concept uali
    zi
    ngt hedataforitsmeaningandst at
    ementof
    generalization.

    Cat
    egorizat
    ionofdat
    a-r
    efer
    stot
    hegr
    oupi
    ngofsubj
    ect
    sunderst
    udyaccor
    dingt
    othe
    obj
    ect
    ives.

    Codingofdata-af
    terthesubj
    ectshavebeencat
    egor
    ized,dat
    aarenextcoded.The
    codesmaybenumer i
    caloral
    phabet
    ical
    .Codi
    ngofdat
    ai smoreusef
    ulwithresear
    ch
    i
    nstrument
    shavi
    ngopenendedquest
    ions.

    Tabul at
    ionofdata-oncet herawdat ahavebeengivennumeri
    calcodes,t
    heyareready
    fortabulat
    ion.Thi
    sisdonebyt al
    lyi
    ngandcounti
    ngther awdat
    at oar
    ri
    veataf r
    equency
    dist
    ributi
    onandt ofaci
    li
    tat
    ei norgani
    zi
    ngthem i
    nasy stemat
    icorderi
    natableorsever
    al
    tabl
    es.Dat amat r
    ixpresentati
    onofdataisusuallyi
    nt abul
    arformrefer
    redtoasdat a
    matrix.

    Ty
    pesofdatamat ri
    ces:
     Uni
    variatematr
    ix.Involv
    esonlyonevar
    iabl
    e
     Bi
    vari
    at ematri
    x.I nvol
    vest wovari
    abl
    es. e.
    g.,Corr
    elat
    ionbet
    weenj
    ob-
    rel
    ated
    pr
    oblemsandj obper formance.
     Mult
    ivari
    atematrix.Hast hr
    eeormorevari
    abl
    esinthetable.

    Stati
    sti
    calanaly
    sis/ tr
    eat ment
    Dataanaly sisinvolv
    esinput,thr
    oughput ,andoutputmechanisms.Inputinv
    olves
    the responses fr om t he research instr
    ument ,thr
    oughout .Itincl
    udes stati
    sti
    cal
    proceduresandt echni quesandout put
    .Ther esul
    tofthestudywhi charepresentedin
    data mat r
    ixform.I n data processi
    ng,bot h quanti
    tat
    ive and qual
    it
    ati
    vef or
    ms ar e
    i
    nv ol
    vedtoarri
    veatexactanal ysi
    sandi nter
    pretati
    onofresul
    t.

    Exampl
    e:

     Wei ghted ari


    thmet i
    c mean.I st he appr opri
    ate st ati
    sti
    calt oolf orunivari
    ate
    problem, bothexperiment alanddescr ipti
    vedesigns, isweightedar i
    thmeti
    cmean
    forscaledopt i
    ons.(Ref er
    redt oCalmor inP.118-119)
     Bivari
    atest at
    ist
    icalt r
    eatmenti nexper i
    mentalr esearch.Thest at
    isti
    calt
    oolf or
    bivari
    ate( t
    wov ariables)problem inexper imentalr esearchar eT-testandl i
    near
    correlati
    on.Thestepsi nusi ngT-testar easfol
    lows:
     St ep1.Findt hearithmeticmeanofi tsvariables
     St ep2.Solv eforthev ari
    ance( SDsquar ed)foreachv ari
    able.

    Bi
    vari
    atestat
    ist
    icalt
    reatmenti
    ndescri
    pti
    ver
    esearchthestat
    ist
    icaltool
    s
    usedf
    orbi
    vari
    atedescr
    ipti
    veresear
    chprobl
    emsareZ-t
    estandli
    nearcorrel
    ati
    on.

    436
    Toapplythef ormul a(7.4)thestepsar easfoll
    ows:
     Rankt hevaluesf rom highestt ol
    owesti nt hefir
    stsetofvari
    abl
    e( X)and
    mar kthem Rx.Thehi ghestv alueisgivent herankof1;thesecond,2;and
    thi
    rd,3;andsoon.
     Rankt hesecondsetofv alues( Y)i
    nt hesamemannerasi nstep1andmar k
    them Ry.
     Determinethedifferenceinr anksforeverypairofranks.
     Squareeachdi f
    ferencet ogetD.
     Sum thesquaredi ffer
    encest of i
    ndSummat ionD.
     Comput eSpearmanr ho(rs)byappl yi
    ngf ormula(7.
    4).

    Mul
    ti
    var
    iat
    estati
    sti
    caltr
    eat
    ment
     Stati
    sti
    calt
    oolformul
    ti
    var
    iat
    edescr
    ipt
    iver
    esear
    ch.

    Chi
    -squar
    e-2x2orf our
    fol
    dt abl
    e,todiscret
    evari
    ablesar
    einvol
    vedtotestifthi
    s
    var
    iabl
    esareindependentfrom eachot her
    .Thev ar
    iabl
    esareusual
    lynominal
    .The
    val
    uesarear
    rangeintheform ofa2x2tablewit
    h2rowsand2columns.

    Toappl
    yf or
    mul a(7.
    14)or2x2t ablethest epsar easfol
    lows:
     Addt heobser vedf r
    equencyofr owsandcol umns.
     Mul t
    iplyt hesum ofr owsandcol umnsanddi vi
    debythetotalnumberofcases(N)
    togett heexpect edfrequency.
     Subt ractobser v edandexpect edf requenciesorO-E.
     Squar et hevaluei nStep3t oget( O-E)squared.
     Comput ebyusi ngf ormul a(
    7.14).
     Fi ndthedegr eesoff reedom (df)byusi ngformula,df
    =(R-1)(
    C-1).
     Choose t he lev elofsi gni
    fi
    cance,ei ther1 or5 percent,and compar ethe
    comput edchi squarev aluei
    nt hechi squaretable.

    Kruskal
    -Wal
    li
    s One-Way ANOVA (H)by Ranks as St
    ati
    sti
    calTooli
    n Mul
    ti
    var
    iat
    e
    Descri
    pti
    veResear
    ch(Ti
    edObservat
    ions)

    Whent i
    esoccurbetweentwoormor eobservat
    ions,
    eachobserv
    ationi
    sgiventhemean
    oftheranksforwhi
    chitisti
    ed.For
    mula(7.17)showsthedivi
    soristi
    edobserv
    ationsof
    Kruskal
    -Wall
    i
    sone-wayANOVAbyr anks.

    Toappl
    ythef ormula( 7.17)( 7.18)thestepsar easfoll
    ows:
     Pr epareacol umnt able.
     Ent erthedat ai nst ep1andr ankthesampl easwhol e.
     Addt her anksineachcol umn.
     Sol vefort het i
    escor esbyusi ngtheformula(T=t–t).
     Appl yf ormula( 7.17)f orthetiescoresasdivisor
    .
     Appl yf ormula( 7.18)Kr uskal-
    Wal l
    is(H)ti
    edobservations
     Comput efordegr eesoff r
    eedom ( df)byusingformula,df
    =K-1,wher
    eKstands
    forcolumns.
     Ref ertochi -squar etabul arvalueintheAppendixofanySt ati
    sti
    cbookifHval
    ue
    i
    ssi gnifi
    cantornot .

    437
    TOPI
    C9
    DATAANALYSI
    SANDI NTERPRETATI
    ON

    Analysisandi nterpret
    ationofresult
    sar enoteasyt asksfortheresear cherto
    undert
    akeespeci allyifhei snotanexper ttodiagnoset heappropri
    atest
    ati
    sticaltoolto
    answertheresear chpr oblems/ obj
    ecti
    ves.
    Analysisshoul dbedonef ir
    stbeforeinterpr
    etati
    on.Analysi
    sisuselesswi t
    hout
    i
    nterpr
    etati
    onandi nterpretati
    onisimpossibl
    ewi thoutanaly
    sis.
    Int
    erpretati
    oni simpor tanttohaveaclearermeani ngoftheresear
    chfindings.

    DataAnal ysi
    s
    Dataanalysi
    smaybedef i
    nedasanexami nati
    onofdat aorf acti
    nt ermsof
    quantity,
    quali
    ty,
    attr
    ibute,t
    rai
    t,pattern,
    trend,rel
    ati
    onshipamongot herssoastoanswer
    researchquesti
    onswhi chinvolvesstati
    stical
    techniquesandprocedures.
    The bases i n analyzi
    ng r esearch data ar e speci
    fi
    c pr obl
    ems/object
    ives,
    hypotheses,measuringinstr
    ument s,andst at
    isti
    caltool
    s.

     10TypesofDat
    aAnal
    ysi
    s
     Univ ariat eanal ysi s.Test sasi ngl ev ariablet odet ermi newhet hert hesampl e
    i
    ssi mi lart ot hepopul at i
    onf rom whi chi thasbeendr awn.
     Bivar i
    at eanal ysis.Test st wov ar i
    abl esonhow t heydi fferwi theachot her .
    Thecommonst atist i
    calt ool st ousei nbi variat eanal ysi sar ecor relati
    on
    coef ficienti s used i n bot h descr iptive and exper iment aldesi gns;z- t
    est ,
    descr ipt iver esear chonl y;andt -test ,exper iment al desi gnonl y .
     Mul tivar iat eanal y sis.Testt hr eeormor ei ndependentv ariabl esatat i
    meon
    thedegr eeofr elat i
    onshi pwi tht hedependentv ariabl e.Thest ati
    st i
    calt ool
    usedi nt hist y pear et heF- t
    estoranal ysi sofv ari
    ance( ANOVA) ,Fri
    edmant wo
    wayANOVA, andKr uskal -Wal li
    sone- wayANOVAf orexper iment aldesi gn.Chi
    squar ei susedf ordescr iptiver esear ch.
     Nor mat iv eanal y sis.I sat ypeofdat aanal y siswher ei nt her esul toft hest udy
    i
    scompar edwi tht henor m orst andar d.Thest atist i
    calt ool susedi nt histy pe
    aret hear ithmet icmeanandt hest andar ddev iation.
     Statusanal ysis.St ressesr ealf act sr elat i
    ngt ocur rentcondi tionsi nagr oup
    ofsubj ect schosenf orst udy .Thecommonst ati
    st icalt oolsusedi nt histy pe
    aret hear ithmet icmean, standar ddev iat i
    on, z-test ,andchi -squar e.
     Descr i
    pt ive anal ysis.Mer el y descr i
    bes t he char act eri
    st ics,composi t
    ion,
    struct ur es,andsubst ruct urest hatoccurasuni tswi thint hel argerst ructur e.
    Thest at isticalt ool scommonl yusedi ndescr ipt i
    v eanal y sist y
    pear et he
    arit
    hmet icmean, chi -squar e, andFr i
    edmant wo- wayANOVA.
     Classi ficat ionanal ysis.I susual lyempl oy edi nnat uralsci encesubj ectssuch
    asBot any ,Zool ogy ,Bi ology ,My cology ,andt hel ike.Howev er ,ifecol ogical
    paramet er ssuchast emper atur e,pH,sal ini ty,oxy gen,t ur bidityandmany
    other sar et akeni nt oconsi der ationi nt hest udyar ea.St atist icalt oolssuchas
    meanandt -testar eusedt ot estt hesi gnificantdi f ferencebet weenmeans.
     Evaluat iveanal y sis.I sat y peofdat aanal y sist hatappr aisescar efullyt he
    wor thinessoft hecur rentst udy .Thest atisticalt ool scommonl yusedi nt hi s
    typear ewei ght edar ithmet i
    cmean,per cent ages,Fr iedmant wo- wayanal ysi s
    ofv ar i
    ance, andz- test .
     Compar ativ eanal ysi s.Ther esear cherconsi dersatl eastt woent iti
    es( not
    mani pul at ed)andest ablishesaf or malpr ocedur ef orobt ai ningcr it
    er i
    ondat a
    ont hebasi sofwhi chhecancompar eandconcl udeonei sbet t
    ert hant he
    other .Thecommonst atistical tool susedi nt hi st ypear et hemean, v ari
    ances,
    andt -test .
     Cost -Ef fect iv eanal y sis.I sappl icabl ei ncompar i
    ngt hecostbet weent woor

    438
    mor evari
    abl
    es,andt
    odet
    erminewhi
    chofthevari
    abl
    esismostef
    fect
    ive.The
    stat
    ist
    icalt
    oolscommonl
    yusedint
    hist
    ypearethear
    ithmet
    icmean,v
    ariance,
    t-
    test,
    andf -
    test
    .

    TOPI
    C10
    PARTI
    CIPATORYACTI
    ONRESEARCH

    Isanattri
    but
    eofact i
    onr esearchinwhichtheprobl
    em isdeterminedbyt he
    peopl
    ewhobel i
    evedandfeelthattheprobl
    em i
    sreal
    lyapr
    oblem i
    nthelocalset
    ti
    ngand
    thesolut
    iont
    ot heprobl
    em iswithinthesamesetti
    ngwit
    houtint
    enti
    onofgener al
    i
    zing
    i
    tsresult
    .

     Char
    act
    eristi
    csofPAR
     Peopleor i
    ented
     Commi t
    teeinvolv
    ement
     Groupr esearch
     Bigcrowd
     Poli
    ti
    cal i
    nvolvement

     Fr
    amewor kofPAR
     Ident if
    icationofthepr oblem andcommuni
    ty.
     Stat ementofgoal sandobj ect
    ive.
     Ident if
    icationofparti
    cipant s.
     Organi zat i
    onoft heresear chtheme.
     Est ablishmentoft imet able.
     Conductoft heresearchpr oj
    ect.
     Eval uationofr esul
    ts.
     Interpret at
    ionoff i
    ndings.
     Impl icationsandr ecommendat ions.
     impl ement at
    ion

    TOPI
    C11
    CONTENTANDSTRUCTUREOFRESEARCHPROPOSAL

    Descr
    ipt
    ivedesi
    gn

    Chapt
    er1(ThePr obl
    em: Rati
    onal eandbackground)
    1.
    1St at
    ementoft hePr oblem/Object
    ives
    1.
    2Nul lHypotheses
    1.
    3Theor eti
    cal/
    Concept ualFramework
    1.
    4Signifi
    canceoft heSt udy
    1.
    5ScopeandLi mitat
    ions
    1.
    6Def i
    niti
    onofKeyTer ms

    Chapt
    er2(Rev
    iewofRel atedLit
    erature)
    2.
    1Reviewofr el
    atedlegalbases
    2.
    2Reviewofr el
    atedlit
    erature(LocalandForei
    gn)
    2.
    3Reviewofr el
    atedstudies( LocalandFor
    eign(i
    fany
    )
    2.
    4Justif
    icat
    ionoft hepresentstudy

    Chapt
    er3(Met
    hodol ogy)
    3.
    1ResearchDesi gn
    3.
    2Deter
    mi nationofSampl eSi
    ze(i
    fsamplesurv
    ey)
    3.
    3SamplingDesi gnandTechnique(i
    fsamplesurv
    ey)
    3.
    4TheSubj ects/Respondent
    s

    439
    3.
    5ResearchInstrument
    3.
    6Vali
    dati
    onoft heResearchInst
    rument
    3.
    7DataGatheringProcedure
    3.
    8DataProcessingMet hod
    3.
    9Stat
    ist
    icalTreatment

    Chapt
    er4(
    Resul
    ts,
    Anal
    ysi
    sandI
    nter
    pret
    ati
    on)

    Chapt
    er5(Summar yofFi
    ndi
    ngs,
    Concl
    usi
    onandRecommendat
    ions)
    5.
    1.Bibl
    iogr
    aphy
    5.
    2Appendix
    5.
    3Cur r
    icul
    um Vit
    ae

    Exper
    iment
    aldesi
    gn

    Chapt
    er1(ThePr obl
    em: Rati
    onal eandbackground)
    1.
    1St at
    ementoft hePr oblem/Object
    ives
    1.
    2Hy potheses
    1.
    3Theor eti
    cal/
    Concept ualFramework
    1.
    4Signifi
    canceoft heSt udy
    1.
    5ScopeandLi mitat
    ionsoft heStudy
    1.
    6Def i
    niti
    onofKeyTer ms
    1.
    7Gener alOrganizat
    ionandCov erageoftheSt
    udy

    Chapt
    er2(Rev
    iewofRelatedLit
    erature)
    2.
    1ReviewofRelatedLegal Bases
    2.
    2ReviewofRelatedLit
    erature
    2.
    3ReviewofRelatedStudies
    2.
    4Justif
    icat
    ionofthePresentStudy

    Chapt
    er3Methodol ogy
    3.
    1Resear chMet hod
    3.
    2Mat erial
    s
    3.
    3Equipment /
    ApparatusandUt
    ensi
    l
    s
    3.
    4Procedur es
    3.
    5Trainingoft hePaneli
    sts
    3.
    6Evaluat i
    onoft hePr
    oducts
    3.
    7Statisti
    calTreatment

    Chapt
    er4(
    Resul
    tsandDi
    scussi
    on)

    Chapt
    er5(SummaryofFi
    ndi
    ngs,
    Concl
    usi
    onandRecommendat
    ions)
    5.
    1Refer
    ences
    5.
    2Appendi
    x
    5.
    3Curri
    cul
    um Vit
    ae

    440
    TOPI
    CS12
    ETHI
    CSINRESEARCH

     I
    mpor
    tanceofEt
    hicsi
    nResear
    ch(
    Resni
    k,2007)
     Ethicspromot est hepur suitofknowl edgeandt r
    uthandav oi
    danceofer ror.I
    t
    alsofostersv aluesthatar eessent i
    alto coll
    aborative workr esear
    ch of ten
    i
    nv olv
    esagr eatdealofcooper at
    ionandcoor di
    nationamongmanypeopl ein
    diff
    erentf i
    elds ordi scipli
    nes.I mportantv alues aret r
    ust,accountabili
    ty,
    mut ualrespectandf air
    ness.
     Manyoft heet hicalnor mshel pensurethatr esearchersareheldaccountable
    tothepubl i
    c
     Adher encetoet hi
    calpr inci
    plesalsohel psbui l
    dpubl i
    csupportforresearch.
    Peoplear emor elikelytof unresearchest hatpromot eav ar
    iet
    yofi mpor t
    ant
    mor alandsoci alv aluessuchassoci alresponsibili
    ti
    es,humanr i
    ghts,animal
    welfare,healthandsaf ety.

     Et
    hicalCodesandPolici
    es
     Honest y.Mai
    ntai
    nhonest
    yinal
    lcommuni
    cat
    ions,e.
    g.,whenr
    epor
    ti
    ngdat
    a,
    results, andpr ocedur es.Nev erfabr i
    cat e,fal
    si fyormi sr
    epr esentdat a.
     Obj ecti
    vi ty. Avoi d bases i n t he exper i
    ment al desi gn, dat a anal ysi
    s,
    i
    nter pret ation,exper tt estimony ,andot heraspect sofr esear ch.
     Integrity.Keeppr omi sesandagr eement s.Actwi thsi ncerit
    yandst ri
    vef or
    consi stencyoft houghtandact ion.
     Car e.Avoi dcar elesser ror sandnegl igence.Cr i
    ti
    callyexami ney ourwor kand
    thewor ksofy ourpeer s.Keepr ecor dsofr esear chact i
    viti
    esi ngoodor der
    andcondi tion.
     Openness.Shar edat a,r esul t
    s,ideas,andr esour ces.Beopent ocr iti
    cisms
    andnewi deas.
     Respectf ori ntell
    ect ualpr operty.Honorpat entsandcopy ri
    ghts.Donotuse
    publ i
    sheddat a,met hods,orr esul tswi t
    houtper mi ssi
    on.Gi vepr opercr edit
    andacknowl edgementt oal lauthor sci tedandsour cesusedi ny ourr esear ch.
     Conf ident iali
    ty.Pr otectconf i
    dential communi cationsordocument s.
     Responsi ble publ i
    cat ion. Publ ish i n or der t o adv ance r esear ch and
    schol arshi p.Av oidwast eful anddupl icat i
    vepubl i
    cat i
    on.
     Responsi blement oring.Hel peducat e, ment or,andadv isest udent s.
     Respectf orcol l
    eagues.Tr eatpeer sf airl
    y.
     Soci alresponsi bil
    ity.St rivet opromot esoci al goodandpr ev entsoci al harm.
     Nondi scr i
    mi nat i
    on.Al lt hoseel igiblet o par t
    icipatei nr esear ch mustbe
    all
    owedt odoso.
     Compet ence.Mai ntainandi mpr ov ey ourownpr ofessionalcompet enceand
    exper ti
    se.
     Legal it
    y.Knowandobeyr elevantl awsandi nst it
    ut i
    onal andgov ernment .
     Human subj ects’pr ot ect i
    on.Mi nimi ze har ms and r isks to human l i
    ves;
    i
    nst ead, maxi mi zebenef its,andr especthumandi gnity,privacyandaut onomy .

     Ri
    ght sofResearchParti
    cipants(Tr
    ochim,2006;
    Smi th,
    2003;andPol
    it
    ,2006)
     Vol untar
    yparti
    cipat
    ion.Anypersonneednott obecoer cedtopart
    ici
    pat
    ein
    anyresearchundert
    aking.
     I nfor
    medconsent .Prospecti
    veresear
    chparti
    cipantsmustbeful
    lyinf
    ormed

    441
    aboutt he pr ocedur es and ri
    sks involv ed i
    nr esearch.Thei rconsentt o
    parti
    cipat
    emustbesecur ed.
     Risksofhar m.Har mt hati
    seitherphy sical
    ,fi
    nanci al
    ,orpsy chol
    ogicalmust
    notbeexper ienced
     Confidential.Par t
    icipantsmustbeassur edthatidentif
    yingi nf
    ormationwil
    l
    notbemadeav ailablet oanyonewhoi snotdi rectl
    yinv ol
    vedi nthestudy
    (Smith,2003)
     Anony mity.Itmeanst hattheparti
    cipantswi l
    lremai nanony moust hr
    oughout
    thestudy, somet imesev entotheresear chersthemselves.

     Unet
    hicalAct
    ivi
    ti
    es
    Commonbr eachesi nethics:
     Publ i
    shingt hesamepaperi nt wodi fferentjournalswi thouti nf ormingt he
    editor/s
     Fail
    ingt oi nform acol labor at
    orofone’ sintentt of i
    leapat enti nordert o
    becomet hesol ei nventor
     Incl
    udi ngacol leagueasanaut horofapaperi nreturnforaf av orev enthough
    he/shedi dnotcont r
    ibutet oit
     Discussi ngwi thy ourcol leaguesdat af r
    om t hepapert haty ouar er eviewing
    foraj ournal
     Trimmi ngout linesf rom adat asetwi thoutfirstgi v
    ingpeer st heoppor tunit
    y
    torev i
    ewt hewor k
     Usingi nappr opr iatestatisti
    calt echniquesi nor dertoobt ainf av orabler esul
    ts
    andenhancet hesi gnifi
    canceofone’ sr esearch.
     Maki ngt her esul tsoft hest udypubl iclyknownwi thoutfirstgi vingpeer sthe
    oppor tunitytor ev i
    ewt hewor k
     Fail
    ingt oacknowl edget hecont ri
    buti
    onsofot herpeopl eint he f
    iel
    d
    (Thisi ncludesr elevantpr iorwor kint her eview ofr elated l iteratureand
    studies.)
     Maki ngder ogat orycomment sandper sonalat tacksiny ourrev iewofaut hor’
    s
    submi ttedwor k
     Inj
    udiciousandi nhumaneuseofani mal sinresear ch

    442
    KNOWLEDGEAND
    PHILOSOPHI
    CAL
    FOUNDATIONOF
    SOCIALWORK
    Rev
    iewer
    :

    Ms.Wy
    lenL.Li
    pangl
    ipang,
    RSW,
    MSW

    443
    Modul
    eA1
    Hi
    stor
    icalPer
    spect
    ive:Evol
    uti
    onofSoci
    alWel
    far
    einEur
    ope,
    andUni
    tedSt
    ates

    Foundat
    ionofSoci
    alWel
    far
    e

     Chri
    sti
    anPr i
    nciples–f oundi
    nt heNew Test ament(Matt
    hew 25:
    40),“
    Itelly
    ou,
    wheneveryoudi dthisforoneoft hel
    eastimpor tantoft
    hesebrot
    hersofmi ne
    youdiditf
    orme. ”
     ( Luke10: 25–36)–Thest or
    yoft heGoodSamar i
    tanwhoshowed
    mer cy,i
    nsteadofPr
    iestandaLev i
    te.
     Ol d TestamentBook ( Jewi
    sh principl
    es)ofExodus,Deuteronomy,
    Leviti
    cusandI si
    aht
    aughtthefol
    lowi ng:

    - Possessionsheldinst ewardshi
    pfrom God.
    - Freeingofservantsandsl av
    es.
    - Subsidizi
    ngthepoor .
    - Condemnedsoci ali
    njusti
    ceandgreed
    - War nedagainstbuy i
    ngmor ehouseandf iel
    dst
    hus,depr
    ivi
    ngot
    her
    sofa
    pl
    acewher et
    ol i
    ve.
    - Commandmentofl ovethyneighbor

     I
    slami cPr inci
    ples– whi char ef oundi nt heHolyQur -
    an( no dif
    ferentfrom
    Chri
    stianity
    )
    - Qur anic precepts whi ch gov er n soci
    alrel
    ati
    ons ar e establ
    ished fort he
    promot ionofsoci alj
    ust ice,sot hatpeoplemayt akepar tinthebeaut i
    esof
    theear th.
    - Isl am placesmani ntheposi tionofhonorandi mpor tanceassigninghim as
    viceroyonear t
    h.
    - Thoughi nIslam menar econsi deredequal,i
    trecognizestheirdiff
    erencesas
    par toft hedi vi
    neor der;i nequal it
    iesareinevi
    table,duet odi ff
    erencesi n
    i
    nt ell
    ectualornat uralchar acteristi
    cs.
    - Tobal ancet his,Islam inst i
    tutedt hesystem of“Zakat”–apoort axi norder
    thatnomani sdisadvant agedbel owt hemini
    mum l evelofsurvi
    val.

    I
    . ANCI
    ENTTI
    MES

    Kinshi
    pisthebegi
    nni
    ngsoci
    alwel
    fareconcepti
    nanyci
    vil
    izat
    ionwhent
    hef
    ami
    l
    y
    t
    ookcareoftheconcer
    nsofthei
    ndi
    vi
    dualpersonsi
    nthei
    rsoci
    alunit
    .

    I
    I. EUROPEANBEGI
    NNI
    NGS

     Rel i
    giousmot i
    vationbecamet hemostpower fulincentiveforbenevolenceand
    char i
    ty.
     Char it
    ywasmot i
    v atedprimaril
    ybyt hedesireofmer itsingooddeedsf oret ernal
    l
    ife.
     Mi ssionari
    esdev otedt hei
    rt i
    met omi ssionarypr eaching,coll
    ect
    ingal ms,and
    distri
    butingrel
    i
    eft ot hedesti
    tuteandestablishedinsti
    tutions(XENODOCHI A)
     Lat eron,monaster i
    es,churchesandot herinsti
    tuti
    onsf orthepoorwer ereplaced
    by“ hospital
    s”fortheol dandt hesickpersons, or
    phans, abandonedchildren,and
    pregnantwomen.

    444
    BEGI
    NNI
    NGCONCEPTSOFSOCI
    ALWELFARE

     COMMONCHEST(
    1520)

    Thepr
    otot
    ypeofmoder
    ndaycommuni t
    ychest;Mar
    ti
    nLutherconcei
    vedthatt
    here
    shoul
    dbeacommonchestf ort
    herecei
    ptoffood,money,andclot
    hingtoassi
    stthe
    needy.

     I
    NDI
    VIDUALI
    ZATI
    ON

    Duri
    ngthe16th century,t
    heSpanishPhi
    losopher
    ,JuanLui sDeVivesadvancedthe
    i
    dea t hatt he fat
    e of t he indi
    vi
    dualpoordeser ved att
    enti
    on.There should be
    i
    nv esti
    gati
    onsoft hesoci alcondi
    ti
    onsofeverypauperfamily.Ai
    dshouldbepr ovi
    ded
    throughVocat i
    onalTr aini
    ngs,Employment
    ,and Rehabil
    itat
    ioninst
    ead ofcustomary
    distri
    buti
    onofalms.

     HAMBURGEXPERI
    MENT

    Pr
    of.Busch,Commi ssi
    onerforPubl
    i
    c Reli
    ef,i
    ntr
    oduced a di
    str
    ictsystem of
    i
    nvest
    igation and di
    str
    ibuti
    on ofrel
    i
    eftoindi
    vi
    dualpaupersthr
    ough the v
    olunt
    eer
    committees.

    Thefi
    rstt
    imet
    hatVi
    vesPl
    anwasputi
    ntopr
    act
    icewasi
    ntheCi
    tyofHambur
    g,
    Ger
    many
    .

     MI
    LITARYWORKHOUSE(
    1790)

    - Establi
    shedi
    nMunichbyBENJAMINTHOMPSON.
    Theworkhousemanufact
    uredcl
    othi
    ngf
    ort
    hearmybyut
    il
    izi
    ngt
    heempl
    oyabl
    epoor
    .

     ELBERFELDSYSTEM (
    1853)

    TheCi t
    yofEl
    ber
    fel
    dint
    roducedt
    hei
    deaoff
    inanci
    ngr
    eli
    efexcl
    usi
    vel
    ybypubl
    i
    c
    t
    axat
    ion.

     DAUGHTERSOFCHARI
    TY

    Thef
    orer
    unner
    sofsoci
    alwor
    k.

    Theorganizat
    ionwasfoundedbyFr
    .VINCENTdePAULwhorecrui
    tedyoungwomen
    ofthepeasantcl
    assforchar
    it
    ablewor
    k.Theywer
    etr
    ainedi
    nnur
    singthepoor.

    I
    II
    . ENGLAND’
    SSOCI
    ALWELFARE

    1.RELI
    GIOUSFOUNDATI
    ON(
    Phi
    l
    osophi
    cal
    Base)

    o I
    NMEDI
    EVALENGLAND,
    car
    efort
    hepoorwasanact
    ivi
    tyoft
    hechur
    ch.

    o Ear
    lyChar
    it
    ies:

    - Reli
    eftot hedesti
    tut
    ewasf i
    rstdist
    ri
    but
    edbyt
    hepriestwiththehelpofthe
    churchwar dens.
    - Inthe13thand14thcent
    uri
    es,rel
    i
    giousor
    der
    sandchurchinsti
    tut
    ionsrel
    i
    eved

    445
    theparishchurchesfrom mostoft
    hedut
    iesincar
    ingfort
    hepoor
    .
    t
    h t
    h
    - From the12 t o15 century,t
    heworkofthechurchwassuppl
    ement
    edby
    therel
    i
    efact i
    v i
    ti
    esofthegui
    lds.

    2.POLI
    TICALFOUNDATI
    ON

     TheENGLISHELIZABETHANPOORLAW OF1601r
    emai
    nedf
    oral
    ongt
    imet
    he
    basi
    sofEngl
    ishSoci
    alWel
    far
    e.

     I
    twasacodificat
    ionofpr
    ecedi
    ngpoorr
    eli
    efl
    egi
    slat
    ionst
    art
    ingwi
    tht
    heSt
    atue
    ofLabor
    ersi
    n1349.

     I
    tssal
    i
    entpoi
    ntsar
    e:

    a)PRI MARY RESPONSI BILI


    TY f orthecar eoft hepoorbal ancedt othe
    i
    ndividual’
    sf amilyandr el
    atives.
    b)THOSEWHOWI LLNOTBESUPPORTEDbyr el
    ati
    veshadt obecaredfor
    bythepar ishort helocalcommuni ty.
    c) ONLYTHEPOORWHEWEREBONAFI DERESI DENTSoft heparishwere
    el
    igi
    bl eforassistance.
    d)THE PARI SH MUST MAI NTAI Nt he impotentpoort hrough v
    olunt
    ary
    contri
    butionsoft hepari
    shionersandcollect
    ions.
    e) AGENERALTAXWASLEVI EDtoprovidethe“poortax”andwast hemain
    sourcefort hefinancingofpoorr el
    ief
    .

     Thepoorl
    awdi
    sti
    ngui
    shedt
    hreecl
    assesoft
    hepoor
    :

    a)Able-bodi
    edpoor
    b)Thei mpotentpoor
    c) Dependentchi
    ldr
    en

    3.EMERGI
    NGCONCEPTSOFSOCI
    ALWELFAREI
    NENGLAND

    o PRI
    NCI
    PLEOFI
    NVESTI
    GATI
    ON

     ThomasChalmers,aPar i
    shMi ni
    steri
    nScot
    land,i
    ntr
    oducedthePhi
    losophy
    ofper
    sonal
    ,par
    ochialr
    eli
    ef.
     Heorgani
    zedaprogram ofpr
    ivatechar
    it
    yonthepri
    nci
    pleofnei
    ghbor
    lyaid.

    o I
    NDI
    VIDUALAPPROACH(
    prot
    oty
    peofcasewor
    k)

     Fi
    ft
    y y ear
    s af t
    er Chalmer’
    s pioneer work, t
    he LONDON CHARITY
    ORGANI ZATION SOCIETYorgani
    zedapr ogr
    am ofrel
    i
    efbasedonhi
    sidea,
    andlaidthefoundat
    ionoftheindi
    vi
    dualappr
    oachinsoci
    alwor
    knowknown
    as“casework.”

    o SOCI
    ALREFORM

     Edwi
    nChadwick,t
    hefir
    stpi
    oneeri
    npubl
    ichygi
    enesupervi
    sedinv
    est
    igat
    ion
    i
    nthecauseofpov
    ert
    yandthemeansofanef
    fect
    ivesoci
    alref
    orm.

     Her ecommendedasystem ofgover


    nmentprovi
    dingundercentraldi
    rect
    ion
    decentaidtothepoor
    ,asoundpublicheal
    thprotect
    ion,adequatehousi
    ng,
    recr
    eation,
    andpubl
    i
    cschoolfort
    heenti
    repopul
    ati
    on.

    o CHARI
    TYORGANI
    ZATI
    ONSOCI
    ETY

     TheCOSencouragedt
    hegrowthofpr
    ivat
    echar
    it
    ies,t
    hegiv
    ingofdonati
    ons
    bequestont
    hei
    rbehal
    f,andt
    heini
    ti
    ati
    veamongt hevol
    unt
    eersf
    orbringi
    ng

    446
    i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    aidt
    ofami
    l
    iesi
    neconomi
    cdi
    str
    ess.

    o SETTLEMENTHOUSE(
    prot
    oty
    peoft
    hemoder
    ndaycommuni
    tycent
    er)

     I
    twasint
    roducedinLondondur
    ingt
    hel
    att
    erhal he19th cent
    foft uryandt
    he
    f
    ir
    stonewascall
    edTOYNBEEHALL.

     It
    sbasicpur posewast oestabl
    i
    shcontactbetweentheeducat
    edmenand
    womenandt hepoorf orthei
    rmutualbenef
    itsothatbycommonwor kand
    studi
    es,theycoul d exerci
    seacul t
    uralinf
    luencebeyond t
    heteachi
    ng of
    speci
    alsubjects.

    o SOCI
    ALRESEARCH

     SocialResear
    ch wasa thi
    rdimportantfact
    orthati
    nfl
    uencest
    he soci
    al
    phi
    losophyandthepr
    act
    iceofpoorr
    eli
    efinEngl
    and.

     Themostimport
    antamongthesurvey
    swast hatmadebyCharl
    esBooth
    st
    art
    edin1886.Thest
    udyshowedthatone-
    thi
    rdoft
    heLondonpopul
    ati
    on
    wasli
    vi
    ngonorbelowt
    he“pov
    ert
    yli
    ne”.

     Thesefi
    ndi
    ngsdi
    spr
    ovedt
    hepr
    evi
    oust
    heor
    ythatpov
    ert
    ywasal
    way
    sthe
    faul
    toft
    hei
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    .

    4.TWENTI
    ETHCENTURYDEVELOPMENTSI
    NENGLAND

    o THEBEVERI
    DGEREPORT(
    1941)

     TheBev eri
    dgeReport
    ,namedaf t
    erthemanwhoheadedt hecommit
    tee,which
    prepar
    edt her
    eport
    ,isthebasi
    softhepresentsoci
    alsecur
    it
    ysyst
    em progr
    ams
    ofEngland.

    o ENGLAND’
    SSOCI
    ALSECURI
    TYPROGRAM

     The pr
    esentstruct
    ure oft
    he BRI
    TISH Soci
    alSecuri
    tyPr
    ogr
    am f
    oll
    ows t
    he
    recommendat
    ionsoftheBev
    eri
    dgeRepor
    t.I
    tconsi
    stsof
    :

    a)SocialInsurance
    b)Fami l
    y/Chil
    dren’sAl
    l
    owance
    c) Publ
    icAssistance

    I
    V. AMERI
    CANSOCI
    ALWELFARE

    o AMERICANSOCIALWELFAREwasfoundedontheconcept
    soft
    heEngli
    shPoor
    Law,whi
    chremai
    nedt
    hebasisf
    orpubli
    cwelf
    arei
    ntheU.S.upt
    otheendofthe
    t
    h
    19 cent
    ury
    .

    o PAUPERS,BEGGARS, ANDVAGRANTSwer eregar


    dedascri
    minal
    s.Whatevert
    he
    causeofhi
    s/herdi
    str
    ess,
    thepauperwasr
    egardedasmoral
    lydef
    ici
    entper
    son.

    o HI
    STORI
    CALDEVELOPMENTOFAMERI
    CANSOCI
    ALWELFARE

    Fi
    rstPhase:
    PoorRel
    i
    ef-
    Almshouses

     Rel
    i
    efwasgi
    vent
    opauper
    sinv
    ari
    ousway
    s:

    447
    a)Out doorreli
    eft
    opauper si
    ntheirownhomes.
    b)Far mingoutt ot helowestbidderwhounder t
    ookt ocarefora
    si
    ngle“pauper.
    ”
    c) Contractusual
    l
    ywi ththel
    owestbidderforthecareofallpaupers
    i
    nagi venlocal
    i
    ty.
    d)Car ei nthealmshouseswhi chwasundert hedi r
    ectcontrolof
    off
    ici
    als.
    e) “I
    ndenture”or“
    bindi
    ngout,”asaform ofapprenti
    ceshi
    p.

     Thecostofpoorr
    eli
    efwasmetbyt
    hepoort
    axandl
    aterbypubl
    i
    ctaxes.

    SecondPhase:
    Stat
    e(Publ
    i
    c)I
    nst
    it
    uti
    onal
    Car
    eforSpeci
    alGr
    oups

     Thesepr
    ogramsweredesi
    gnedtoremovesomegr
    oupsofinmat
    esfrom.
     Theundi
    ff
    erent
    iat
    edmiser
    yofincar
    cer
    ati
    onint
    hel
    ocalal
    mshouses.

     I
    nst
    it
    uti
    onswer
    esetupf
    or:

    a)Careoft
    hei
    nsane
    b)Careoft
    hementall
    ydef
    ici
    ent
    c) Car
    eoft
    hebl
    ind
    d)Careoft
    hedeafanddeaf-
    mute

    Thi
    rdPhase:
    Stat
    eBoar
    dofChar
    it
    iesandCor
    rect
    ions

     Thepur
    posewasst
    atesuper
    visi
    onoft
    headmi
    nist
    rat
    ionofi
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons.

     Thef
    ir
    stst
    ateboar
    dwasor
    gani
    zedi
    nMassachuset
    tsi
    n1863.

     Itemphasizedthefamil
    ysyst
    em bypl acingchi
    ldr
    enandadult
    sinthe
    communitywheneveritwasnotnecessarytokeepthem i
    nal
    mshouses,
    hospi
    tal
    s,orasy
    lums.

    Four
    thPhase:
    Aidt
    otheNeedyWi
    thoutI
    nst
    it
    uti
    onal
    i
    zat
    ion

    Special
    measureswereenactedbystat
    elegi
    slat
    urest
    omeett
    heneedsof
    speci
    algr
    oupswithoutpl
    aci
    ngthem i
    ninsti
    tut
    ions,
    suchas:

    a)Pensionsfort
    heBli
    nd(Ill
    i
    nois,
    1903)
    .
    b)Mot her
    ’sAid(
    Missour
    i,1923)
    c) Ol
    dAgePension(Montana,1923)

    I
    n1909,Pr es.TheodoreRoosevel
    tcal
    l
    edtheFirstWhiteHouseConferenceon
    DependentChildr
    en.Iti
    nspir
    edthecreati
    onoftheUSChi l
    dren’
    sBureau.Thi
    swast he
    fi
    rstt
    acitassumpti
    onoffederalr
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tyf
    orsoci
    alwelf
    are.

    Fi
    ft
    hPhase:Feder
    alGov
    ernmentEnt
    ryt
    oSoci
    alWel
    far
    e

    Thei
    mpactoft
    heGr
    eatDepr
    essi
    onoft
    he1930si
    ntheUS.

    Adopt
    edaser
    iesofemer
    gencyr
    eli
    efmeasur
    es,
    suchas:

    a)Emer gencyReliefandReconst
    ruct
    ionAct(
    1932)
    b)Ci vi
    l
    ianConservati
    onCorps(1933)
    c) Federal
    Emer gencyRel
    iefAct(
    1933)
    d)Wor kProgressAdmi ni
    str
    ati
    on(1935)

    Si
    xthPhase:Soci
    alSecur
    it
    y

    448
    I
    n1935,t
    heSOCI
    ALSECURI
    TYACTwaspassedatt
    hei
    nst
    anceofPr
    es.
    Fr
    ankl
    i
    nRoosevel
    t.

    I
    tconsi
    stsofthr
    eepar t
    s:
    a)Cont ri
    butor
    ySoci al
    Insurance
    b)Publ i
    cAssistance
    c) Aidtothestateforservi
    ceprogr
    ams.

    Sev
    ent
    hPhase:
    WaronPov
    ert
    y

    o TheEconomi cOppor tuni


    tyActwaspassedand“ WaronPov erty
    ”becamet he
    ral
    l
    yingpoint.
    o TheActwasspeci f
    ical
    lygearedtodealwiththeprobl
    emsofpov erty
    ,educat
    ion,
    manpowert r
    aini
    ng,ment alheal
    th,vocat
    ionalrehabi
    li
    tat
    ion,publ
    ichealt
    hand
    medicalcare,housi
    ngandur bandevel
    opment.

    MAJORDEVELOPMENTSI
    NUSPRI
    VATESOCI
    ALWELFARE

     CHARI
    TYORGANI
    ZATI
    ONSOCI
    ETI
    ES

    o A“ f
    riendl
    yvisi
    tor
    ”wasi nst
    all
    edinor
    dertodeterminet heneedofev er
    y
    appl
    icantandthenecessarymeasur
    esf
    oreachcase(pioneer
    ingcasewor
    k).

    o Tr
    aini
    ngSchoolf
    orAppl i
    edPhi
    l
    anthr
    opywassetupi
    nNewYor
    kin1890by
    MaryRichmond(
    pioneeri
    nsoci
    alwor
    keducat
    ion)
    .

     SETTLEMENTHOUSE

    o HULLHOUSE(inChi
    cago)wast
    hefi
    rstsi
    gni
    fi
    cantset
    tl
    ementhousei
    ntheUS
    f
    oundedbyJaneAddamsandEl
    lenGatesSt
    arri
    n1889.

    Basi
    cPol
    icyofAmer
    icanSoci
    alWel
    far
    e

     BASI
    CPRI
    NCI
    PLE

     Theindi
    vi
    duali
    spr
    imari
    l
    yr esponsi
    bleforhiswel
    far
    ebutthecommunityshoul
    d
    est
    abli
    shabasi
    cmeasureofsecuri
    tyinareasbey
    ondthei
    ndiv
    idual
    ’
    scontr
    ol.

     BASI
    COBJECTI
    VE

     Thedev
    elopment
    ,achi
    evement
    ,andhappi
    nessoft
    hei
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    .

     SOMEBASI
    CIDEASTHATI
    NFLUENCESOCI
    ALWELFARE

    a)Pr otest
    antEt hic
    b)Lai ssezFair
    e( freeenterpr
    ise)
    c) SocialDarwinism (sur
    v i
    valofthef
    it
    test
    )

    449
    Modul
    eA2
    Hi
    stor
    icalPer
    spect
    ive:Evol
    uti
    onofSoci
    alWel
    far
    eint
    hePhi
    li
    ppi
    nes

    PHI
    LIPPI
    NESOCI
    ALWELFARE

    1.ThePRE-
    Spani
    shPer
    iod

    o Fi
    lipi
    noli
    vedinsmallscat
    ter
    edcommuni t
    iesal
    ongri
    ver
    sandBays
    o Barangayasthebasi
    cunitofcommuniti
    es
    o Noconceptofanat i
    on
    o SlaveSoci
    ety
    o Datuashead
    o SocialWel
    far
    ecenteredonmutualprot
    ecti
    onandeconomi
    csurv
    ival
    o conceptofBayani
    hanandDamay an
    o LegalBasi
    swasMar agtas&Kalant
    iaoCode

    2.SPANI
    SHTI
    MES(
    1521-
    1898)

    o BasicPhi l
    osophy: Reli
    gionwast hemot i
    vatingforceforchari
    ty.
    o FormsofChar i
    ty: Almsgivi
    ng,charit
    ableinsti
    tuti
    onsandhospi t
    als.
    o SourcesofFundi ng: Reli
    gious or ders, cont ri
    buti
    ons, and
    donationsofr i
    chi ndiv
    idual
    s,subsidyf r
    om r i
    chindividual
    s,andt heSpanish
    Government .
    o Si
    gnificantDevelopment s: Inst
    it
    utions est abli
    shed by r eli
    gious
    orders.(
    fi
    rsthospitalwasfoundedi nCebubyMi guelLopezdeLegaspi )

    3.FI
    RSTPHI
    LIPPI
    NEREPUBLI
    C(1896-
    1902)

    o TandangSoratookcareoft
    hesickandthewounded.
    o Hil
    ari
    aAguinal
    dointr
    oducedtheconceptofRedCr
    oss.

    4.AMERI
    CANCOLONI
    ALPERI
    OD

    o Birt
    hofVol untaryOrganizati
    onsforSocialWelfar
    e-TheAssociat
    edChar i
    ti
    es
    ofMani l
    a(1917) .
    o PublicWelfare-beginningassumptionbyt hegovernmentofi
    tsresponsi
    bil
    it
    y
    forsocialwelfare.
    o “ParensPatriae”-chil
    dwel f
    areconceptt hati
    tisthedutyofthegovernment
    topl acechil
    dr eninbet t
    ercircumstances,whenev ert
    heparentscouldnot
    provideadequat ecarethemselves.

    5.GOVERNMENTSOCI
    ALWELFARE

    450
    o Pre-wart rends,growth,and dev el
    opmentofchi l
    d welfar
    epr ogramsand
    servi
    ces.
    o PublicWel far
    eBoar d(1915)
    o Agov er
    nmentboar dsetupbyt hegovernmenttocoor di
    nate,supervi
    seand
    regulatethewor kofallchari
    tabl
    eagenciesandorganizati
    ons;indi
    vidual
    sand
    groups; publi
    candpr i
    vate,engagedi
    n“socialser
    vices”work.

    o Factor
    st hatprompt edgover
    nmentsoci
    alwel
    far
    e:Wor
    ldWarI
    IandSoci
    al
    Unrest
    .
    o WarReliefandRehabi l
    i
    tati
    on
     PACAU-( 1945)
     PRATRA-( 1945-1950)
     WRO- WarReliefOffi
    ce

    o Soci
    alAmel
    i
    orat
    ion

    PACSA-Pr
    esident’
    sActionCommi tt
    eeonSocialAmel
    iorati
    on(1948-1950)
     Est
    ablishedbyPr es.Elpi
    dioQuir
    inot
    ocounter
    actinsocialunrest.
     Considered the f or
    erunner of the Phil
    ippine Communi ty
    Devel
    opmentPr ogr am.
     AsuncionPerezwasappoi ntedit
    schai
    rmanandbecamet hefir
    st
    womanmemberoft hePresi
    dent’
    scabi
    net.

    o Publ
    i
    cWel
    far
    e

     TheBureauofPubl
    i
    cWelfar
    ewasreviv
    edin1946.
    Soci
    alWelfar
    eCommissi
    onwascr eat
    edabsorbi
    ngtheBureauofPubli
    c
    Welf
    are.TheWarReli
    efOffi
    cewasplacedunderthesuperv
    isi
    onofthe
    Soci
    alWelfar
    eCommissi
    on.

    o Pr
    ivat
    eSoci
    alWel
    far
    e

     CWAPI -CouncilofWel fareAgenciesoft hePhili


    ppines,Inc.(1949)-the
    coordinati
    ngandpl anningbodyf orsocialwelfare.It
    spr i
    memov erwas
    MinervaLaudi co.
     Communi tyChest( 1948)– Communi tyChestf orGr eaterMani l
    awas
    organized forj oi
    ntf und rai
    sing and coordi
    nated financing.It
    spr ime
    mov erwasI reneElli
    sMur phy,UNAdv i
    seronSocialWel f
    are.
     PASW- Phili
    ppine Associ at
    ion ofSoci alWor kers( 1948)– i ts main
    objecti
    v ewast oupgr adeandmai nt
    ainthest andardsofsoci alwork
    profession.

    o STABI
    LIZATI
    ONOFGOVERNMENTSOCI
    ALWELFARE(
    1950’
    s)

     SocialWelfar
    eAdmi ni
    str
    ati
    onwascr eatedbyPr es.El
    pidioQuir
    inoon
    January3,1951ast hegovernmentagencyforsoci
    alwelf
    are.I
    tabsorbed
    PACSAandSWC.
     I
    tspr ogramsi ncl
    ude:Child wel
    far
    e,Publi
    cAssi st
    ance,and Offi
    ceof
    Vocational
    Rehabil
    it
    at i
    on.

    o Gov
    ernmentChi
    l
    dWel
    far
    e

     GovernmentOr phanage (
    1917) – the f
    ir
    stGov er
    nmentOr phanage
    spurr
    ed.
     Bythepassageoft heUSJonesLawof1916.
     Chil
    dWel f
    areLaws–Wel arev
    il
    le(
    1925),
    theseatofal
    lgover
    nmentchil
    d-
    cari
    nginst
    itut
    ions.
     Duri
    ngthisperiod,DR.JOSEFABELLAwasacknowledgeasthe“
    Fatherof

    451
    Phi
    lippineSocialWelf
    are”.
     BureauofPubl icWelf
    are(1941)–pl acedundert
    heDepar t
    mentofHealt
    h
    andPubl i
    cWel far
    e.
     PublicAssistanceServ i
    ceOnMay31,1941;Pr es.ManuelL.Quezon
    i
    ssuedanExecut iveOrderabol
    ishingtheAssociatedChari
    ti
    esofManil
    a
    andcr eat
    ingi
    ti nt
    oaPubl i
    cAssistanceServ
    iceundertheBureauofPubl
    i
    c
    Welfare.

    o Pr
    ivat
    eSoci
    alWel
    far
    e

     Associ at
    edChar i
    ti
    esofMani l
    aInc.
    wasest abl i
    shedbyagr oupofManil
    a
    resi
    dent sin1917.
     I
    tsobj ecti
    vewastoassurecommunityresponsibil
    i
    tyforsoci
    alwel
    far
    e.
     I
    tbecamet hef
    ir
    stfami
    lywelf
    areagencyandt hef i
    rstt
    ousecaseworki
    nthe
    Phil
    ippines.

    6.JAPANESEOCCUPATI
    ON

    o Priv
    at ei
    ndivi
    dual
    s,groupsandor ganizati
    onsundertookrel
    iefforpr
    isoner
    sof
    war,displ
    acedpersons,et
    c.
    o Josef aLlanesEscoda,Pr esi
    dentoft heNat i
    onalFederationofWomen’ s
    Clubs undertook and organized reli
    efwor k was incarcerat
    ed in FORT
    Santiagoforunder
    groundact i
    vit
    ies.
    o Andsowi thAsuncionPerez,thent heDir
    ectoroftheBureauofPublicWelfar
    e.

    7.POSTLI
    BERATI
    ONYEARS(r
    eli
    efandr
    ehabi
    li
    tat
    ionper
    iod)

    o Fi
    rstassumpt i
    onbythegovernmentofmajorr
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tyforsoci
    alwel
    far
    e.
     Est abli
    shmentandgrowthofthePubl
    i
    cAssi st
    anceProgr
    am.
     Emer genceoft
    heNationalSoci
    alWel
    fareAgency.

     STRENGTHENI
    NGOFGOVERNMENTSOCI
    ALWELFARE(
    1960’
    s)

    o Revi
    tali
    zat
    ion ofChild Welfar
    e – UNICEF – assi
    sted soci
    alser
    vices
    proj
    ectwassetupi n1961.
    o I
    ncreasedprof
    essionali
    zat
    ionofsoci
    alwork.
    o I
    ntegrat
    edSocialWelfar
    ePr ogr
    am –setupin1966.

     CREATI
    ONOFTHEDEPARTMENTOFSOCI
    ALWELFARE

    o OnJune15, 1968.Pres.MarcossignedR.A.5416creati
    ngtheDSW.
    o Programs:fami l
    yandchi ldwel f
    are,yout
    hwel far
    e,rehabi
    li
    tat
    ionoft he
    handicapped,generalassi
    stanceinti
    mesofdi sast
    ersandcalamit
    ies.
    o OnSept .8,1976,theDSW’ snamewaschangedt oDepartmentofSoci al
    Servi
    cesandDev el
    opment( DSSD).

     OTHERDEVELOPMENTSDURI
    NGTHI
    SPERI
    OD

    o Boardexami nati
    onsforSoci
    alWor kwassignedintol
    aw onJune19,
    1965.Itseekstoregul
    atet
    hepracti
    ceofsoci
    alwor
    kandtheoper
    ati
    onof
    social
    welfareagenci
    esint
    hePhili
    ppines.
    o R.A.4373wasamendedbyR. A.5175onAugust4,1967.

     DEVELOPMENTofGov
    ernmentSOCI
    ALWELFARE

     1915–Publi
    cWelfar
    eBoar
    d
     1921–Off
    iceOfPubli
    cWelf
    areCommissi
    oner
     1932–BureauOfPubli
    cWel
    fare(
    UnderDepart
    mentOfI
    nst
    ruct
    ion)
     1939–Depart
    mentOfHeal
    thAndPubli
    cWel f
    are

    452
     1946–Bur eauOfPubl icWelfare
     1947–Soci alWel fareCommi ssion
     1948–PACSA( President
    ialActionCommi t
    teeOnSocialAmeli
    orat
    ion)
     1951–SWC+PACSA=SWA( E.O396)–Qui r
    ino
     1968–DSW ( R.
    A5416)–Mar cos
     Sept.8,1976 – DSW r enamed DSSD ( Dept.ofSocialServi
    ces &
    Development)
     1978–DSSDr enamedMSSDbyv i
    rt
    ueofPD1397( duetochanget o
    parl
    iamentarygov ernment.
    )
     1986– MSSD r enamedDSWD byv ir
    tueofE. O.123signedbyPr es.
    CorazonAquinoonJune30, 1987.

    *
    TheExecut
    iveLeader
    shi
    p

    1.Dr
    .JoseFabella–1915-1935
    - Publi
    c Wel f
    are Board Commi ssi
    onerand Bureau ofPubl
    i
    c Wel
    far
    e
    Dir
    ector
    - FatherofPhil
    ippi
    nesSocialWelfare
    - Divi
    sionofDependentChi l
    dren
    - Fir
    stSocialWorkpositi
    onswer efil
    ledbyNur
    ses
    - Establi
    shedWel f
    arev
    il
    leinsti
    tut
    ions.

    2.Mr s.Asunci onPer ez


    - Gr andLadyofPhi lippi
    neSoci alWelfare
    - HeadofAssoci atedChar iti
    es
    - Headedt hePACSAi n1948
    - Fi rstadmi ni
    stratoroft heSWA
    -
    3.Paci t
    aWar ns–1954- 1955
    4.Ampar oVi l
    lamor–1955- 1961
    5.Tecl aZi ga–1962- 1963( BecameSenat orin1963)
    6.Franci scoRemot i
    gue–1964- 1967
    7.Gregor i
    onFel i
    ciano–1967- 1968
    8.Estef aniaAl dabaLi m –1969- 1977
    9.Sy l
    viaMont es–1978- 1986
    10.
    Mi t
    aPar dodeTav er
    a–1986- 1992
    11.
    Cor azonAl madeLeon–1992- 1995
    12.
    LinaLai go–1995- 1998
    13.
    Glor i
    aMacapagal Arroy o–1998- 2000
    14.
    DulceSagui sag–2000- 2001
    15.
    DinkySol i
    man–2001
    16.
    Esper anzaCabr al–2006- 2010
    17.
    DinkySol i
    man–2010t o2016
    18.
    JudyM.Tagui alo-2017t opr esent

    453
    Modul
    eB
    TheDevel
    opmentoft
    heSoci
    alWor
    kPr
    ofessi
    oni
    nthePhi
    li
    ppi
    nes

    TheAssociatedCharit
    ieswhichwasf oundedin1917asaf amil
    ywel f
    areagencyis
    gener
    all
    yconsideredasa“mot her”ofthesocialwor
    kprofessi
    oni nt
    hePhili
    ppines.
     Thef i
    rsttousecasewor kasamet hodofhel
    pingpeopl
    e
     Thef i
    rsttousesocial
    wor kersasf ul
    l-
    ti
    me,paidemployees,
     thefirsttohir
    eat rai
    nedsoci alwor kerasit
    sexecuti
    v esecret
    ary(JosefaJar
    a
    Mar
    tinez-agov er
    nmentpensi onadawhohadobt ai
    nedasoci alwor kdipl
    oma
    f
    rom theNewYor kSchool ofSocialWorkin1921)

    1930s
     Byt he lat e 1930s the Associated Chari
    ti
    es was al
    readyempl oy
    ing coll
    ege
    graduatesashomev i
    sit
    ors
     Non- degreesoci alworkcourseswereof f
    eredattheUniv
    ersi
    tyofthePhi
    li
    ppines
     Civi
    lser vi
    ceexami nati
    onwasgi ventosocialwor
    kersshortl
    ybeforet
    heoutbreak
    ofWor l
    dWarI I
    .
     Priv
    at e Sector-Voluntar
    yOr ganizat
    ions employi
    ng tr
    ained soci
    alworkers as
    execut i
    vesecr etari
    es:
     CatholicWomen’ sLeague
     National FederationofWomen’ sClubs

    Dur
    ingWor l
    dWarI I
     Soci alwel farev ol
    unteersandpai dworker sdev otedtheireffort
    sinrespondingt o
    theneedsoft hewoundedsol di
    ersandci vi
    l
    ians,providingemer gencymedi cal
    andmat erialassistance
     WarRel i
    efOf ficewasest abli
    shedin1946t opr ovi
    der el
    iefandr ehabil
    i
    tation
    servi
    cest owarv ictimsr esul
    tedint heempl oy mentofmor esocialwor kers
    (“r
    eli
    efgr antees” )
     Thesuddeni ncreasei nnumberofunt r
    ainedpeopl eengagedi nsoci alwor k
    functionscausedPRATRAt oseekassi stancef r
    om t heUni tedNationsandt wo
    UNExper t
    sconduct edaser i
    esofsoci alcasewor kfort hewor kersofPRATRA,
    WarRel iefOf ficeandt heSoci alWel fareCommi ssionandf ell
    owshipswer e
    providedf orkeyper sonnelofsocialwel fareagenciesundert heUN Techni cal
    AssistancePr ogramme.

    1947
     Thesoci
    alwor
    ker
    swhohadgonet
    otheUni
    tedSt
    atesbef
    oret
    hewart
    opur
    sue

    454
    formalsoci alwor
    k educati
    on f
    ormed the Phi
    l
    ippi
    ne Associ
    ati
    on ofSoci
    al
    Wor kers,fort
    hemainpurposeofnur
    tur
    ingthedevel
    opmentofthesoci
    alwork
    profession.

    1948
     President’
    sAct i
    onCommi t
    teeonSoci
    alAmeli
    orat
    ion(PACSA)wasestabl
    ished
    byPr es.Elpi
    dioQuir
    ino-acommunit
    ydevel
    opmentagencytohel
    pthepr
    oblem of
    socialunrestinthecountr
    yside.

    June1950
     Phil
    ippi
    neSchoolofSoci alWorkwasest abl
    i
    shed,offeri
    ngaone- y
    eardegr ee
    program cal
    ledMasterofArt
    sinSoci
    alAdmini
    str
    ati
    on.Theschool’
    sfirstdir
    ect
    or
    was Josef a Jar
    a Marti
    nez who was abl
    et o conv
    ince the of
    fi
    cials ofthe
    Phil
    ippi
    neWomen’ sUniver
    sit
    ytoopenaschoolofsoci
    al work.

    1951
     Mast erofAr tsi nAdmi nistrationwasexpandedt otwoy earsandt hedegree
    changedt oMast erofSoci alWor k.
     Universityoft hePhi l
    ippi nesandCent roEscol arUni v
    er sit
    yal sost art
    edoffer
    ing
    socialwor kcour sesatt hegr aduat elevel.
    1956
     Civi
    lSer vice Commi ssion,r espondi ng t ot he r equestoft he SocialWel f
    are
    Admi nistrati
    on and t he Phi l
    i
    ppi ne Associ ation ofSoci alWor kers gav
    e an
    exami nationf orsocialwor ker s.Fi el
    dexper ienceorser vi
    cei nasoci alwelf
    are
    agencywasaccept edasqual ifi
    cat i
    onsf ortakingt heexami nations.
     Phil
    ippineSchoolofSoci alWor k,Cent r
    oEscol arUni v er
    sity,Uni ver
    sit
    yoft he
    Phil
    ippines,andUni versi tyofSant oTomaswer eof f
    eringaBachel or’
    sdegreein
    socialwor kasear lyast hef if
    ties.Theunder graduatecur r
    iculawasconsi dered
    pre-
    pr ofessional,howev er ,aspr ofessi
    onaleducat ionwassupposedt obegiven
    onlyatt hemast er’slev el,av ail
    abl einthef i
    rstthreeschool sment i
    oned.

    Lat
    e1950s
     Thehealt
    hf i
    eldwasamongthefewthatprovi
    dedj
    obstotr
    ainedsoci
    alworker
    s
    wit
    ht hepassageofal aw i
    nthelat
    ef i
    ft
    iesprov
    idi
    ngfortheemploymentof
    soci
    alworkersinpubl
    i
    chospi
    tal
    s.

    1960s
     Ther ecogniti
    onofmedi calsocialworkersasmember softhemedi calteam
    faci
    lit
    atedbydoct or
    swhoset r
    ainingabroadhadgiventhem suffi
    cientexposur
    e
    totrainedsocial
    worker
    s.
     Af ew socialworkersfoundempl oymentinthef i
    eldofment alhealth(mental
    healthcli
    nics,
    psychi
    atr
    icwardsofsomehospi tal
    s.

    1961
     Boosttot hePr ofessionalizati
    onofsoci alwor kt hrought hel aunchingoft he
    UNICEF-Assist edSoci alServicesPr oj
    ectoft heSoci alWel far eAdmi nist
    rat
    ionin
    Jul
    y1961.
     TheProjectgav eimpet ustoot herdevelopment s:
     Sal ariesofSWAper sonnel wereupgr aded
     New pr ograms,par t
    icularl
    yinchi ldwel fare,wer ei niti
    ated:fosterhome
    care,adopt i
    ons,chi ldr ecept
    ion and st udy cent ers,and communi t
    y
    center s,amongot hers.
     Thepr ojecthadposi ti
    veef f
    ectonpr i
    v atechild-caringi nst
    it
    utionswhose
    staffwasi ncludedi nt heSWA’ straini
    ngpr ograms.
     Thepr ojectal soencour agedsoci alwel fareresear chandt hepr oduct
    ion
    social wor klit
    er at
    urebymaki ngf i
    nanci algrantsav ailable.
    1965
     OnJune19,1965,R. A.4373waspassed,r egul at
    ingt hepr act i
    ceofsoci alwork
    andtheoper at i
    onofsoci al workagencies.T
     Thel awr equiredt hatonemustbear egisteredsoci al workertoqualif
    yfor

    455
    professionalpracti
    ce.
     Designat ed t
    heDepar t
    mentofSoci alWel far
    east heaccr edi
    ting and
    l
    icensing agencyf orthe r egistr
    ati
    on ofsoci alwor k agenci
    es int he
    country.
     Createdanewi nteresti
    nsoci al workandi nthef iel
    dofsoci alwelf
    are:
    a)Encour agedt hepur sui
    toff ormal educationinsoci alwork
    b)I mprovementofpr acti
    cest andardsbecauseoft heconsci ousness
    ofitbeingapr ofession
    c) Dev elopmentofmor er el
    evanteducat ionalcur ri
    cula(ser i
    esof
    nati
    onalwor kshopsonsoci alwor keducat i
    on(1967),sett
    ingupof
    AdHocCommi tteecomposedofr epresent ati
    vesofschool sof
    socialwor k,formal l
    yor ganizedi nt
    oaSchool sofSoci alWor k
    Associati
    onoft hePhi li
    ppinesin1969)

    ThePhi
    li
    ppi
    neAssoci
    ati
    onofSoci
    alWor
    ker
    s,I
    ncor
    por
    ated(
    PASWI
    )

     PASWIist henat ional organi zat i


    onf orpr ofessi onal soci alwor kersinthecount ry.
     FoundedonNov ember12, 1947, itwasi ncor por atedonApr il
    18, 1948.
     Re-i
    ncorporatedwi tht heSecur iti
    esandExchangeCommi ssi ononOct ober18,
    1988,changi ng i t
    s name t o Phi li
    ppi ne Associ ation of Soci al Wor kers,
    I
    ncorporated.
     PASWIisachar termemberoft hePhi l
    ippineSoci al ScienceCounci l
     Asof2007,t her ear e36act i
    v echapt ersi ndi fferentr egionsoft hecount ry,wi t
    h
    429li
    feti
    memember sand1, 036r egularmember s
     Amemberoft heI nt ernat i
    onalFeder ati
    onofSoci alWor kers(ther eare1.5mi l
    l
    ion
    prof
    essional soci al wor ker si npr act i
    cegl obal ly)
    TheAssoci ation’sobj ectivesar eto:
    1.Pr omot eandmai nt ainapr ofessional st andar dofsoci alwor kpr actice;
    2.St rengt hent hecompet enceofmember st hrought hepr ovisi
    onof
    oppor tuni ties f or t heir cont inui ng pr ofessi
    onal gr owt h and
    dev elopment ;
    3.Wor kf orbet terunder standing,accept ance,andr ecogni t
    ionofsoci al
    wor kasapr of essi on
    4.I nitiate and wor kf or soci all egi slation i n soci alwel f
    ar e and
    dev elopmentt hroughef fectiveact ion, and;
    5.Expand pr ofessi onalact ivi
    ties of t he associ at i
    on t hrough t he
    organi zat ion ofl ocalchapt er s and dev elopmentofl i
    nkages wi t
    h
    i
    nter nat ional or gani zationsdev otedt ohumanser vice.

    Theseobj ect
    ivesareaccomplished thr
    ough committeewor kand theacti
    ve
    par
    ti
    ci
    pat i
    onofi t
    smember s.Iti
    sadminist
    eredbyaBoar dconsist
    ingoff
    if
    teendir
    ect
    ors
    whoelectfrom amongt hemselv
    estheoffi
    cersoftheAssoci
    ati
    on.

    The Association isfi


    nanced t
    hrough member shipf ees,donati
    ons,sale of
    publi
    cati
    on,andfundcampai gns.I
    tpubl
    ishesaSocialWor kmagazine,andinadditi
    onto
    regul
    aracti
    vit
    iessuchassemi narsandworkshops,
    itholdsbiennialNat
    ionalConf
    erence
    onSocialWork.
    TheSchoolsofSoci alWor kAssoci
    ati
    onoft hePhili
    ppines(Nat i
    onalAssociat
    ionfor
    SocialWorkEducation,Inc.
    )

     In1965,whent heSoci alWor kLaw ( RA4373)waspassed,ar e-


    assessmentof
    the contentofbot h under gr
    aduat e and gr aduate schoolcur r
    icul
    a became
    necessarysincet helaw est abl i
    shedt hef ormerast heeducat i
    onalpreparati
    on
    requir
    edf orsoci alworkpr actice.Fort hisreason,threenat ionalworkshopson
    socialwor keducat ionwer ehel di n1967,1968,and1969t oall
    ow schoolsa
    transi
    ti
    onper i
    odt oeff
    ectt henecessar ychangesi ntheircurr
    icula.
     Theendoft het hirdwor kshopi n1969,t hef or
    malor ganizat
    ion tookpl ace,wi
    th
    the PASW t ur
    ni ng ov ert he f unctions ofi t
    s own Soci alWor k Educati
    on
    Commi tteetot henewl yf ormedgr oupwhi chdecidedont henameSchool sof
    SocialWor kAssoci ati
    onoft hePhi l
    ippines.

    456
     In1977,theProfessi onalRegul ationCommi ssi on,upont heendor sementoft he
    SocialWor k Boar d,appr oved SSWAP’ sr ecommendat i
    on t hat the board
    examinati
    oncov erthef ol
    lowingar easwiththeircor respondingwei ght :Human
    BehaviorandSocialEnv ironment–20%; SocialWel f
    arePol i
    cyandPr ogram-20%;
    SocialWor k Practice/Met hods-20%,and Fi eld Pr acti
    ce-40% .SSWAP al so
    succeededinwor ki
    ngf orthechangeofexami nationper i
    odf rom Mar chtoJune
    toenablenewgr aduat estot aket heexaminationsi ftheywantt o.
     Besidespubli
    shingt hepr oceedingsofsemi nar sandconf erencesf ortheuseof
    schoolsofsocialwor k,italsounder t
    ookthepubl icati
    onofsev eralbooks;among
    them theFundament alsofSoci alWor k(1983) ,Admi ni
    str
    ationandSuper vi
    sion
    (1985),Di
    cti
    onar
    yofSoci
    alWor
    k(1988)
    ,andt
    hePhi
    l
    ippi
    neEncycl
    opedi
    aof
    SocialWor
    k(2000)
     I
    nDecember1990,t heSSWAPr egisteredwasr egisteredandi ncorpor
    atedwith
    t
    he Secur i
    ti
    es and Exchange Commi ssi
    on,and assumed a new name,t he
    Nat
    ionalAssoci ati
    onf orSocialWorkEducat ion( NASWEI ).Thisdecadesawt he
    NASWEI
    a)Hol dingmor edialogueswi t
    ht hePr ofessionalRegul ati
    onCommi ssion
    Boardf orSoci alWor ker
    s,t hegov ernmentbodyt hatadmi ni
    ster
    st he
    annuallicensi
    ngexami nati
    onf orsoci alwor kgr aduatesandlooksintothe
    conditi
    onsaf f
    ectingthepracticeofsoci al work;
    b)Est abli
    shing st ronger l i
    nkages wi th i nternati
    onal social wor k
    organizati
    ons l i
    ke the Asean- Pacifi
    c Associ ation for Social Work
    Educat i
    on( APASWE)and t heI nt
    ernationalAssoci ati
    onofSchool sof
    SocialWor k(IASSW)ofwhi chmanyeducat orsar emember sservi
    ngas
    offi
    cersorboar dmember soft heseassoci ations.

    Theobj
    ecti
    v esofNASWEIatt hepr esentt i
    mear eto:
    1.Promot eandmai ntainhighst andar dofsoci alwor keducat ionand
    coordinate and col laborate wi t
    h duly aut hori
    zed agenci es for
    accreditat
    ion;
    2.Standar di
    zesoci alwor kcur riculadesi gnedt opr epar equal i
    fied
    professionalsocialwor kersandpar aprofessi onalsocialwor kers;
    3.Serveasanat i
    onalf orum oni ssuesr elatedt ot hepr ofessionof
    socialwor kingeneral andt osoci alworkeducat ioninpar ticul
    ar
    4.Facili
    tateint
    er-
    school shari
    ngofmanpowerandf acil
    iti
    es; and
    5.Encour age and pr omot er esear ch and t he dev elopment of
    i
    ndigenoust eachingmat eri
    alsandot herr elatedresources.

     OfAsof2007,t her
    ear e47school sof f
    eri
    ngt heprofessionaldegreeprogr
    am
    (BSSW)insoci alworkint hecountry,el
    evenofwhi chareof feri
    ngtheMasterof
    SocialWor k degree program.Thi r
    tyoft hese schools are member s ofthe
    NASWEI .Itisadmi nist
    eredbyanel even-personBoar d/Officer
    s.Fundscome
    from member shipfees,per sonaldonati
    ons,andf rom gov ernmentandsocio-
    civi
    corganizat
    ions.

    457
    Modul
    eC1
    Concept
    sofSoci
    alWel
    far
    e,Soci
    alSer
    vicesandSoci
    alWor
    k

    SOCI
    ALWELFARE

     SocialWel far ei sanor gani zedconcer nofal lpeopl ef oral lpeopl e( Ger trude
    Wilson)
     SocialWel farei st he or gani zed sy stem ofsoci alser v i
    ces and i nst itut i
    ons,
    designedt oai di ndiv i
    dual sandgr oupst oat tai
    nsat isfy i
    ngst andar dsofl i
    feand
    health,andper sonalandsoci alr elationshi pswhi chper mi tthem t odev el opt heir
    ful
    lcapaci ti
    esandt opr omot ethei rwel lbei ngi nhar monywi ththeneedsoft heir
    fami l
    iesandt hecommuni ty.(Wal terFr iedl ander )
     SocialWel farei ncludes t hose l aws,pr ogr ams,benef its and ser vi
    ces whi ch
    assur eorst rengt henpr ov i
    si onsf ormeet i
    ngsoci alneedsr ecogni zedasbasi cto
    thewel l
    -beibgoft hepopul at i
    onandt hebet terfunct i
    oni ngoft hesoci al or der .
     SocialWel far er ef erst oal lt heor gani zedsoci alar rangement swhi chhav ea
    pri
    mar yobj ect i
    veoft hewel l
    -bei ngofpeopl einasoci al cont ext.
    (ICSW) .
     SocialWel farei ncl udesal lthosef ormsofi nt ervent ionst hathav eapr imar yand
    dir
    ectconcer nwi thpr omot ingbot ht hewel l
    -beingoft hei ndi vi
    dualandofsoci ety
    asawhol e.Soci alWel farei ncludest hosepr ov isionsandpr ocessesdi rectly
    concer ned wi th t he t reat ment and pr ev ention of soci al pr obl ems,t he
    developmentofhumanr esour ces,andt hei mpr ov ementoft hequal ityofl i
    fe.
    (Romany shy n)
     Int he Phi li
    ppi ne cont ext ,soci alwel farei s def ined as an aggr egat ion of
    specializedi nstitutions,pr ogr amsandser vicest omeetcer tainr esidualneeds
    notcov eredormetbyot hert y pesofsoci al measur esorgov ernmentser vices.
     SocialWel far ei sabodyofor gani zedact i
    v i
    ti
    eswhi char ebasi callymeantt o
    enablei ndiv iduals,f ami li
    es,gr oups,and communi ties t o cope wi th soci al
    problemsofchangi ngcondi tions,wi t hint hebr oaderar eaofacount ry ’
    ssoci al
    development .Pl ayamaj orr ol eincont ribut ingt ot heef fect i
    vemobi li
    zat ionand
    development of human and mat er i
    alr esour ces of t he count ryt o deal
    successf ul
    lywi tht hesoci alr equi rement sofchanget her ebypar ti
    ci pat ingi n
    nation-bui l
    ding.
     Social Wel fareencompassest hewel l-bei ngofal l themember sofhumansoci ety,
    i
    ncludi ngt hei rphy sical,ment al,emot ional ,soci al,economi candspi ritualwel l
    -

    458
    being
     SocialWelfar
    ealsocut sacrosst heconcer nofv ariousagencies,i
    nsti
    tut
    ionsand
    organizat
    ionswhichhav epar t
    icularareasofi nterestand/orresponsibi
    l
    ity,such
    ast hoseinhealth,nutr
    it
    ion,educat i
    on,housi ng,laborandi ndustr
    y,communi t
    y
    development,social
    insurance,familyplanning,et
    c.

    SOCI
    ALSERVI
    CES

     SocialSer vicesr efert othepr ograms,ser vi


    cesandot heract i
    vi
    tiesprov i
    ded
    underv ariousauspi ces,toconcr et elyanswert heneedsandpr oblemsoft he
    member sofsoci ety.
    o Ser vicestoi ndivi
    dualsandf ami l
    ies
    o Ser vicestogr oups
    o Ser vicestopeopl ewithspeci alpr obl
    ems( t
    hehandi capped,thement al l
    y
    r
    etar ded,etc.)
    o Communi tyser vi
    ces
     Socialwel fare woul d be a meani ngless ter
    m unl ess there are concr ete
    demonst rationsofi ts“concer nf ort hewel l-
    beingofhumansoci ety”through
    actualsoci alservices,thent het wot ermsar einseparableandf ort hi
    sreason,
    oft
    enusedi nterchangeabl y
    .
     Socialservicesar eneededbecauseatal l t
    imeseverywhere,therearepeoplewho
    haveneedsandpr obl emsbey ondt heirowncapaci tyforsoluti
    on.

    SOCI
    ALWORK

     SocialWor kist hepr ofessiont hati spr imar il


    yconcer nedwi thor gani zedsoci al
    serviceact ivi
    tyai med t of acilit
    at eand st rengt henbasi cr elat i
    onshi psi nt he
    mut ualadj ustment sbet weeni ndi vi
    dual sandt heirsoci alenv ironmentf ort he
    goodoft heindividual andsoci etybyt heuseofsoci al wor kmet hods( R.A.
    5175)
     Socialwor ki sthepr ofessionalser vicewhi chusessoci alwel farepr ogramsand
    services“ t
    of oster ,facilitat
    eandst r
    engt henbasi csoci alr el
    ationshi psi nor dert o
    achievet hef ulldev elopmentoft hei ndi vi
    dualandsoci etybyt heuseofsoci al
    workmet hods.
     Socialwor kseekst oenhancet hesoci alf unct i
    oni ngofi ndi vi
    dual s,singlyandi n
    groups, byact i
    vitiesf ocusedupont hei rsoci alr elati
    onshi ps,whi chconst i
    tutet he
    i
    nteractionbet weenmanandhi senv ironment .(USCSWE)
     Theseact i
    v i
    tiescanbegr oupedi ntot hreef unct i
    ons:
    a)Rest or at
    ionofi mpai redcapaci ty
    b)Pr ov isionofi ndividual andsoci al resour ces
    c) Pr ev ent i
    onofsoci al dy sfunct i
    on
     SocialWor ki sthepr of essiont hati spr act i
    cedi ndependent l
    yoraspar tofat eam
    i
    nmanydi fferentf ields- health(medi calsoci alwor ker),educat ion( schoolsoci al
    worker )
    ,cor rections( courtsoci alwor ker ,pr obat ionwor ker),and communi ty
    development( communi tyor ganizer)amongmanyot hers.

    SOCI
    ALWORKAGENCY

    Asocialwor kagencyisaperson,corporati
    on,oror gani
    zat
    ion,pri
    vateorgovernmental,
    thatengagesmai nl
    yandgenerall
    y,orrepresentsitsel
    ftoengageinsocialwelfarework,
    whethercasework,groupwork,orcommuni tywor k,andobt
    ainsit
    sf i
    nance,ei
    thertot
    all
    y
    orinpar t,fr
    om anyagencyori nstrumentali
    tyoft hegovernmentand/ orf r
    om the
    communi tybydir
    ectandindi
    rectendowment .(R.A.4373)

    Asocialwelf
    areagencyist
    heoperationaltr
    anslat
    ionofasoci
    alpoli
    cywhichhasbeen
    setupbythefounder
    sand/oror
    ganizers,orbythegover
    nmenti
    tself
    .
    Thesocialwelf
    areagencyi
    sthestructuredframeworkwit
    hinwhichtheadmini
    str
    ati
    ve

    459
    t
    asksar
    ecar
    ri
    edout
    .

    Theagencyi
    sahumanser v
    iceinst
    rumental
    it
    ywhi chhasbeensetuptohel
    phuman
    bei
    ngswhoar eexperi
    encingsomedi ff
    icul
    tyinthemanagementofthei
    rownaff
    air
    s
    ei
    therasi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    s,famil
    ies,gr
    oupsorcommuni t
    ies.

    TYPESOFAGENCI ES:
    1.Accordingt oi tssour ceofsuppor t
    a.Gov ernment( GO) -fundedmai nlybyt hegov ernment
    b.Non- gov ernment al( NGO) -der i
    ves i t
    s suppor t primaril
    yf rom pr iv
    ate
    cont r
    ibut i
    ons and donat ions ofi ndi viduals,gr oups and ev en priv
    ate
    fundingor ganizations.Ex. CCF( nowCFP) .
    c. Semi -private-der ives i tsf unding f rom pr iv
    at e sources through fund
    campai gnsbuti ti ssuppor t
    edbyt hegov ernmentwheni tsfundsar e
    i
    nsuf ficienttooper atemassi vereli
    efoper ations
    2.Accordingt oi t
    spr of essionalaut hor i
    ty
    a.Publ i
    c-der i
    vesi tspr ofessionalaut hor itybyl aw asi nt hecaseoft he
    DSWDwhi chwascr eatedbyR. A.5416.
    b.Pr ivate-pr ivateagenci esar ef ir
    stincor poratedandr egister
    edwi thSEC
    thenaccr editedbyDSWDandal l
    owedt ooper ateassuch.
    3.Accordingt ocat egor yofcl i
    ent st heyser ve
    a)Mul ti
    funct i
    onalagency -TheDSWDi samul ti
    f unctionalagencybecausei tserves
    alltypesofcl ients,fami l
    ies,chi l
    dr enandy outh,t heper sonswi thdi sabi
    li
    ty,
    disadv antagedwomen, v
    ict i
    msofnat uraldisast ers,amongot hers.
    b)OneCat egoryAgency /
    Uni funct i
    onal agency

    SOCI
    ALWORKER

    Accordingtothesoci alworklaw,thesoci
    alwor kerisapr acti
    ti
    onerwhobyaccepted
    standardsoftraini
    ngandsoci alworkprof
    essionalexperi
    ences,possessestheski
    l
    lto
    achievetheobj
    ect i
    vesasdefinedandsetbyt hesocialworkprofessi
    onthrought
    heuse
    ofthebasicmet hodsofcasework,groupworkandcommuni tyorgani
    zat
    ion.

    Tobeabl et opracti
    cethesoci
    alworkgraduate,af
    terf
    ini
    shi
    ngtheBSSW degr
    eemust
    takethelicensureexaminat
    ionannual
    l
    ygi venbyt heBoardofSoci
    alWorker
    softhe
    Professi
    onalRegulat
    ionCommissi
    on.

    SOCI
    ALWORKPRACTI
    CE

    Soci
    alwor kpracti
    ceref
    erst
    otheacti
    vi
    ti
    escar
    ri
    edoutbyt
    hesoci
    alwor
    keri
    nvar
    ied
    i
    nsti
    tut
    ionalset
    tings,
    communi
    ti
    esandpri
    vat
    e

    Soci
    alworkpract
    icedescri
    beswhatwor
    kers-do and how theyappl
    ypr
    ofessi
    onal
    knowl
    edgeandval
    uestothemanypr
    obl
    em si
    tuat
    ionst
    heyencounter
    .

    Soci
    alwor
    kset
    ti
    ngs:
     Pr imarysetti
    ng-socialagencieswhosepr ogramsandser vi
    cesarethe
    dir
    ectpurvieworscopeofsoci alwork.
     secondar y set t
    ing- agencies, instit
    uti
    ons, or ganizati
    ons whose
    pri
    mar yfuncti
    onsi stoprovideser vi
    cesot herthansoci alwelf
    arebut
    whichempl oysoci alworkerst osuppor t
    ,strengthen,orcompl ement
    thei
    rownser vi
    cessuchashospi t
    als,schools,housingagenciesand
    evenr egi
    onaltri
    alcourtswhichi ncl
    udeundert heirj
    urisdi
    cti
    onfamily
    ,
    chil
    drenandy outh.

    SOCI
    ALDEVELOPMENT

    Anot
    hert
    erm whi
    chi
    scl
    osel
    yrel
    atedwi
    thsoci
    alwel
    far
    eissoci
    aldev
    elopment
    .Iti
    s

    460
    commonl
    yusedint hedevel
    opi
    ngcount
    ri
    esi
    nconnect
    ionwi
    thnat
    ionaldev
    elopment
    pl
    anni
    ngandsoci
    alpol
    icyf
    ormul
    ati
    on.

    Soci
    aldevelopmentref
    erstot
    heprocessoffost
    eri
    ngthegrowt
    handdev
    elopmentof
    thecapaci
    ti
    esofthepeopl
    einor
    dertohaveabett
    erl
    if
    eforal
    l
    .

    Interms ofpr ograms and services,itembr aces the pr ovisi


    ons fir
    st,ofadequat e
    measur esfortheconser vat
    ion,protect
    ion,andimpr ovementofhumanr esources;and
    second,ofsuf f
    ici
    entresourcesandoppor t
    unit
    iesforraisingt helevel
    sofl i
    ving,andfor
    ensuri
    ngamor eequi t
    abledist
    ri
    butionofgoodsandser vices.Forsoci aldevel
    opmentt o
    takeplace itshouldbeaccompani edbybasicinsti
    tuti
    onalandst ruct
    uralchanges.This
    defi
    nit
    ionissimi l
    artothatofsocialwelf
    areandsoci alservices.

    InthePhi
    l
    ippines,
    healt
    h,educat
    ion,
    wel
    far
    eandl
    aborr
    egar
    dedast
    hecor
    epr
    ogr
    amsf
    or
    social
    devel
    opment .

    SOCI
    ALPOLI
    CY

    Br
    uceJanssonusedasimpl
    e,pr
    obl
    em-
    sol
    vi
    ngdef
    ini
    ti
    onofsoci
    alpol
    i
    cy,asacol
    l
    ect
    ive
    st
    rat
    egyt
    oaddresssoci
    alpr
    obl
    ems.

    Pol
    icyisaver
    balorwrit
    tenorimpl
    i
    edexpr
    essi
    onofagencypur
    poset
    hatpr
    ovi
    dest
    he
    gui
    deli
    nesf
    orexecut
    ionact
    ion.

    Eveli
    naA.Pangalagandefi
    nedpol i
    cyasast atedcourseofacti
    onadopt edandfol
    l
    owed
    bytheagencyindoingit
    swor k.Forinst
    ance,R.A.
    5416whi chcreatedt
    heDepartmentof
    SocialWelf
    arenowtheDepar t
    mentofSocial Welf
    areandDev el
    opment.
    Anagencypol i
    cyontheotherhandisawr it
    tenstatementformall
    yadaptedbytheboard
    orlegalaut
    hori
    tyandpubli
    clyknownt ogui
    det heprovi
    sionofservi
    ces.

    Soci
    alPol
    i
    ciesarestandi
    ngpl
    answhicharetransl
    atedint
    opr
    ogr
    amsandser
    vicesand
    usedasatoolf
    ortheimpl
    ementat
    ionofsoci
    alserv
    ices.

    Socialpoli
    cyisagui deforaset tl
    edcour
    seofacti
    oncomposedorconsist
    ingof
    col
    lecti
    vedeci
    sionsdi
    rect
    lyconcer
    nedwi
    thpromot
    ingt
    hewel
    l
    -bei
    ngofal
    lorpar
    tofthe
    populat
    ion.

    NEED/
    PROBLEM

    Needisacondi
    ti
    onorsi
    tuati
    oni
    nwhichsomet
    hingnecessar
    yordesi rabl
    eiswant
    ed.
    Probl
    em iswhenaper son’
    sneed hasnotbeenmetort here’sanobstacl
    et oi
    ts
    ful
    fi
    ll
    mentsothattheperson’
    scapabi
    li
    tytofunct
    ionsatisfactori
    l
    yi sthr
    eat
    enedor
    i
    mpaired.

    461
    Modul
    eC2
    Gl
    obalDef
    ini
    ti
    onofSoci
    alWor
    k

    Thef
    oll
    owi
    ngdef
    ini
    ti
    onwasapprovedbytheI
    FSW Gener
    alMeet
    ingandt
    heI
    ASSW
    Gener
    al Assembl
    yinJul
    y2014:

    Gl
    obalDef
    ini
    ti
    onoft
    heSoci
    alWor
    kPr
    ofessi
    on

    “
    Socialworki sapr acti
    ce-basedpr ofessi
    onandanacademi cdi sci
    pli
    nethatpr
    omot es
    socialchangeanddev elopment ,soci alcohesi
    on,andtheempower mentandl i
    berati
    on
    ofpeople.Principl
    esofsoci aljustice,humanr i
    ghts,
    coll
    ectiv
    er esponsibil
    i
    tyandrespect
    fordiversi
    ti
    esar ecentraltosoci alwor k.Underpi
    nnedbyt heoriesofsocialwork,social
    sciences,humani ti
    es and i ndigenous knowl edge,socialwor kengages people and
    str
    ucturestoaddr esslif
    echal l
    engesandenhancewel lbei
    ng.

    COMMENTARYNOTESFORTHEGLOBALDEFI
    NITI
    ONOFSOCI
    ALWORK

    Thecommentaryser
    vestounpackthecor
    econcept
    susedint
    hedefini
    ti
    onandis
    det
    ail
    edinr el
    ati
    ont
    othesocialwor
    kprofessi
    on’
    scor
    emandates,
    pri
    nci
    ples,knowl
    edge
    andpracti
    ce.

    COREMANDATES

    Thesoci
    alworkprofessi
    on’scoremandat
    esincl
    udepr
    omotingsocialchange,
    soci
    aldevel
    opment
    ,soci
    alcohesion,andt
    heempower
    mentandli
    ber
    ationofpeople.

    Soci
    alwor
    kisapr
    act
    icepr
    ofessi
    onandanacademi
    cdi
    sci
    pli
    net
    hatr
    ecogni
    zes

    462
    thatinter
    connect
    edhistori
    cal,soci
    o-economic,cul
    tur
    al,spat
    ial,pol
    it
    icalandpersonal
    factor
    sser v
    easoppor tunit
    iesand/orbarri
    erstohumanwel lbei
    nganddev elopment.
    Struct
    uralbarri
    ers contr
    ibutet ot he perpet
    uati
    on of inequali
    ti
    es,discri
    minati
    on,
    exploi
    tati
    onandoppressi
    on.

    The dev elopmentofcr it


    icalconsciousness t
    hrough refl
    ecti
    ng on str
    uctural
    sourcesofoppr essi
    onand/orpr iv
    ilege,ont hebasi
    sofcr it
    eri
    asuchasr ace,class,
    l
    anguage,r el
    igion,gender,di
    sabili
    ty,cultur
    eand sexualor i
    entat
    ion,and devel
    oping
    acti
    onst r
    ategiest owardsaddressingst r
    ucturalandpersonalbarri
    ersarecentralto
    emancipatorpracticewheret
    hegoal sar et
    heempower mentandl i
    berat
    ionofpeople.

    Insol
    idar
    it
    ywi
    ththosewhoar
    edisadv
    antaged,t
    heprof
    essi
    onstri
    vest
    oall
    evi
    ate
    povert
    y,li
    ber
    atethev
    ulner
    abl
    eandoppr
    essed,andpromotesoci
    alincl
    usi
    onandsoci
    al
    cohesi
    on.

    Thesoci alchangemandat eisbasedont hepremiset hatsocialwor kint


    ervent
    ion
    takespl acewhent hecurrentsituati
    on,bet hi
    satt heleveloft heper son,famil
    y,smal l
    group,communi tyorsociety,
    isdeemedt obeinneedofchangeanddev elopment.
    Iti sdri
    venbyt heneedt ochallengeandchanget hosest r
    ucturalconditi
    onsthat
    contri
    but etomar ginal
    izat
    ion,socialexclusi
    onandoppr ession.Soci alchangeiniti
    ati
    ves
    recognize the place ofhuman agencyi n advanci
    ng human r ights and economi c,
    envir
    onment al
    ,andsoci alj
    usti
    ce.

    Theprof
    essi
    on isequal
    lycommi
    tt
    ed t
    ot hemai nt
    enanceofsoci
    alst
    abi
    li
    ty,
    i
    nsof
    arassuchstabi
    li
    tyisnotusedt
    omargi
    nal
    ize,excl
    udeoroppr
    essanypar
    ti
    cul
    ar
    gr
    oupofper
    sons.

    Socialdev elopmenti s concept ualized to mean st rategi


    es f ori nterventi
    on,
    desir
    edendst atesandapol icyframewor k,thelatterinaddi ti
    ont othemor epopul ar
    resi
    dualand t he insti
    tuti
    onalf r
    amewor ks.I tis based on hol i
    sti
    c bio-psy chosocial
    ,
    spir
    it
    ualassessment s and i nterventi
    ons t hat transcend t he mi cro-macr o divi
    de,
    i
    ncorporati
    ng mul ti
    ple sy st
    em l evel
    s and i nter-sect
    orial and i nt er-
    professional
    coll
    aborati
    on,ai med atsust ainable development .I tpr i
    orit
    izessoci o-structuraland
    economi cdevelopment ,anddoesnotsubscr i
    betoconv enti
    onalwi sdom t hateconomi c
    growthisaprer equi
    siteforsocialdevelopment .

    PRI
    NCI
    PLES

    Theoverar
    chi
    ngprincipl
    esofsoci
    alworkarerespectfort
    hei
    nher
    entwort
    handdigni
    ty
    ofhumanbeings,doingnoharm,respectf
    ordiver
    sit
    yanduphol
    dinghumanr
    ight
    sand
    soci
    alj
    usti
    ce.

    Advocatinganduphol di nghumanr ightsandsoci aljust


    icei sthemot i
    vat
    ionand
    j
    ust i
    fi
    cati
    onf orsoci alwor k.Thesoci alwor kpr ofessi
    onr ecognizest hathumanr i
    ghts
    needt ocoexistal ongsidecol lectiveresponsibil
    ity
    .Thei deaofcol l
    ect i
    veresponsibil
    it
    y
    highli
    ghtsther ealit
    ythati ndiv i
    dualhumanr i
    ghtscanonl yber eali
    zedonaday -t
    o-day
    basisi fpeopl et ake r esponsi bil
    it
    yf oreach ot herand t he env ironment ,and t he
    i
    mpor tanceofcr eati
    ngr eciprocalr el
    ationshipswi thi
    ncommuni ti
    es.Ther eforeamaj or
    focusofsoci alwor kist oadv ocat eforther i
    ghtsofpeopl eatal llevels,andt ofacil
    it
    ate
    outcomes wher e peoplet ake r esponsibi
    li
    tyf oreach ot her’
    s wel lbeing,r eal
    i
    z e and
    respecttheinter-dependenceamongpeopl eandbet weenpeopl eandt heenv ir
    onment .

    Socialwor kembr acesf i


    rst,secondandt hirdgenerationrights.Fir
    stgenerati
    on
    ri
    ghtsr efertocivi
    landpol it
    icalri
    ghtssuchasf r
    eespeechandconsci enceandfreedom
    from tortureandar bi
    trarydetention;secondgener ati
    ont osocio-economi candcultural
    ri
    ghtst hatincludether i
    ghtst oreasonablelevelsofeducat i
    on,heal t
    hcare,andhousing
    andmi nor i
    tylanguager i
    ghts;andt hir
    dgener at
    ionrightsfocusont henaturalworl
    dand
    therightt ospeciesbiodiversit
    yandi nter-
    generati
    onalequity.Theser ight
    sar emutually
    reinf
    orcingandi nter
    dependent ,andaccommodat ebot hindi
    vidualandcol l
    ecti
    veri
    ghts.

    463
    I
    nsomei nst
    ances“ doi
    ngnohar m”and“r
    espectfordi
    ver
    sit
    y”mayr epr
    esent
    confl
    icti
    ngandcompet i
    ngvalues,f
    orexampl
    ewhereinthenameofcul t
    uretheright
    s,
    i
    ncludingther
    ightt
    olif
    e,ofgroupssuchaswomenandhomosexual
    s,arevi
    olat
    ed.

    TheGlobalStandardsforSoci
    alWorkEducat
    ionandTrai
    ningdeal
    swit
    ht hi
    s
    complexissuebyadvocati
    ngthatsoci
    alworker
    sareschool
    edi
    nabasichumanright
    s
    appr
    oach,withanexplanat
    orynot
    ethatr
    eadsas:

    Suchanappr oachmi ghtfaci


    lit
    ateconstructi
    veconfront
    ati
    onandchangewher e
    cer t
    aincultur
    albeliefs,v aluesandt radit
    ionsv i
    olat
    epeoples’basichumanr i
    ghts.As
    cultureissociall
    yconst r
    uct edanddy namic,iti
    ssubjecttodeconstr
    uct
    ionandchange.
    Suchconst ructiv
    econf r
    ontati
    on,deconstructi
    onandchangemaybef aci
    li
    tat
    ed
    throughat uninginto,andanunder standingofpar ti
    cul
    arcultur
    alvalues,beli
    efsand
    tradit
    ionsandv i
    acrit
    icalandr efl
    ecti
    vedialoguewithmember softhecultural
    groupv i
    s-à
    -visbroaderhumanr i
    ghtsi ssues.

    KNOWLEDGE

    Soci
    alworkisbothint
    erdi
    sci
    pli
    naryandtr
    ansdi
    sci
    plinar
    y;anddr
    awsonawi dear
    rayof
    sci
    enti
    fi
    ctheori
    esandresear
    ch.‘Sci
    ence’
    isunder
    stoodinthi
    scont
    exti
    nit
    smostbasic
    meaningas‘knowl
    edge’
    .

    Socialworkdrawsonitsownconstantl
    ydevelopingtheoreti
    calfoundati
    onand
    resear
    ch,aswel lastheor
    iesfr
    om otherhumansciences,incl
    udingbutnotl imitedto
    communi t
    y dev el
    opment,soci
    alpedagogy,admi nist
    rati
    on,ant hropol
    ogy,ecol ogy
    ,
    economics,educati
    on,management
    ,nursi
    ng,psychi
    atry
    ,psychology,publi
    chealth,and
    sociol
    ogy.

    Theuniquenessofsocialworkresearchandtheori
    esisthatt
    heyareappl
    i
    edand
    emancipat
    ory.Muchofsoci alworkr esear
    chandt heoryi
    sco-const
    ruct
    edwithserv
    ice
    user
    si nani nter
    acti
    ve,di
    alogicprocessandt herefor
    einfor
    medbyspeci fi
    cpract
    ice
    envi
    ronments.

    Thisproposeddefinit
    ionacknowledgest hatsoci
    alwor kisinformednotonl yby
    specifi
    c pr act
    ice envir
    onment s and West ern theor
    ies,but al so by indigenous
    knowledge.Par tofthelegacyofcol oni
    ali
    sm ist hatWesterntheoriesandknowl edge
    have been excl usi
    velyv al
    orised,and indigenous knowledge hav e been devalued,
    discounted,andhegemoni sedbyWest erntheori
    esandknowl edge.

    The pr oposed defi


    nit
    ion attemptst o halt and r everse that process by
    acknowledgingthatIndi
    genouspeopl esineachr egi
    on,countryorar eacarrytheirown
    val
    ues,way s ofknowing,way s oft r
    ansmitt
    ing thei
    rknowl edge,and hav e made
    i
    nvaluablecont r
    ibut
    ionsto science. Soci
    alwor kseekst or edresshi st
    ori
    cWest er
    n
    sci
    entif
    ic coloni
    ali
    sm and hegemonybyl i
    stening to and l
    earning fr
    om Indigenous
    peoplesaroundthewor l
    d.

    I
    nt hi swaysoci alwor kknowledgewi llbeco- createdandi nf ormedbyI ndigenous
    peoples,and mor eappr opr
    iat
    elypr acticed notonl yi nl ocalenv ir
    onment sbutal so
    i
    nternationally.Dr awi ngont hewor koft heUni t
    edNat ions,theIFSW def i
    nesindigenous
    peoplesasf ol lows:
     Theyl iv ewi thin( ormaintainattachment sto)geogr aphicallydi
    stinctancestral
    terr
    it
    or ies.
    Theyt endt omai ntai
    ndi sti
    nctsoci al,economi candpol iticali
    nsti
    tuti
    onswi thi
    n
    thei
    rt errit
    ories.
     They t ypically aspire t o r emai n di sti
    nct cul t
    urall
    y, geographical
    ly and
    i
    nstitutionally,rathert
    hanassi milatef ul
    lyint
    onat ionalsociety.
     Theysel f-
    identifyasindi
    genousort r
    ibal.

    PRACTI
    CE

    464
    Socialwor
    k’slegiti
    macyandmandat elieini t
    si nt
    erventionatthepoi ntswherepeople
    i
    nteractwi
    ththei renv i
    ronment.Theenvironmenti ncludest hevarioussocialsystems
    thatpeopl
    ear eembeddedi nandt henat ural,geographicenv i
    ronment ,whi
    chhasa
    prof
    oundinfl
    uenceont heli
    vesofpeople.
    Thepartici
    pat or
    ymet hodol
    ogyadvocat edinsoci alworkisrefl
    ectedin“Engages
    peopleandst r
    uct urest oaddressli
    fechallengesandenhancewel lbei
    ng.”Asf aras
    possibl
    esoci
    al wor ksupport
    swor ki
    ngwithratherthanf orpeople.

    Consi stentwit
    hthesoci aldevelopmentpar adi
    gm,soci alworkersut
    il
    izear ange
    ofski l
    ls,techniques,str
    ategies,pr i
    ncipl
    es and activ
    iti
    es atv ari
    ous system levels,
    di
    rectedatsy stem maintenanceand/ orsy st
    em changeef fort
    s.Socialworkpr acti
    ce
    spansar angeofact ivi
    ti
    esi ncl
    udingv ariousf or
    msoft herapyandcounsel ing,group
    work,andcommuni t
    ywor k;poli
    cyf or
    mul ati
    onandanal ysi
    s;andadv ocacyandpol it
    ical
    i
    nterventi
    ons.

    From anemanci pat


    oryperspecti
    ve,thatt hi
    sdef ini
    ti
    onsuppor tssocialwor k
    strat
    egiesar eai
    medati ncr
    easingpeople’
    shope,sel f
    -esteem andcr eat
    ivepotenti
    alto
    confrontandchal l
    engeoppr
    essivepowerdynami csandst ruct
    uralsourcesofinjust
    ices,
    thusincor por
    ati
    ngintoacoherentwholethemi cro-macro,personal
    -poli
    ti
    caldimension
    ofinter
    v enti
    on.

    Theholi
    sti
    cf ocusofsoci
    alwor kisuni
    versal
    ,butthepr
    ior
    it
    iesofsoci
    alwor
    k
    pr
    acti
    cewi l
    lvaryfrom onecountr
    yt othenext,andf r
    om ti
    metotimedependi
    ngon
    hi
    stor
    ical
    ,cul
    tur
    al,
    pol i
    ti
    cal
    andsoci
    o-economiccondit
    ions.

    I
    tistheresponsi
    bil
    it
    yofsocialwor kersacrosst hewor l
    dt o def
    end,enrich
    andreal
    izet
    heval
    uesandpr i
    nci
    plesr
    eflect
    edint hisdef
    ini
    tion.Asoci
    alworkdef i
    nit
    ion
    canonlybemeani
    ngfulwhensoci
    alworkersacti
    velycommitt oit
    sval
    uesandv i
    sion.

    ADDITI
    ONAL MOTI
    ONS THAT WERE PASSED AT THE I
    FSW GENERAL MEETI
    NG
    RELATI
    NGTOTHEGLOBALDEFINI
    TIONOFSOCIALWORK

    “
    Nopartofthi
    sdef
    ini
    ti
    onshal
    lbeconst
    ruedi
    nawayt
    oint
    erf
    erewi
    thanyot
    herpar
    tsof
    t
    hisdef
    ini
    ti
    on”

    “
    Ampl
    ifi
    cat
    ionsonnati
    onaland/
    orr
    egionall
    evel
    sshal
    lnoti
    nter
    fer
    ewi t
    hthemeani
    ngof
    t
    heel
    ementsofthedef
    ini
    ti
    onandwit
    ht hespi
    ri
    toft
    hewholedefi
    nit
    ion”

    “Ast hedef
    ini
    ti
    onofsocialwor kist hekeyelementf orest
    abli
    shi
    ngt heident
    it
    yofan
    occupati
    onalgroup,afuturerevisionofthisdefini
    ti
    onhast obei ni
    ti
    atedonlyaf
    ter
    preci
    seevaluati
    onofthei mplement ati
    onprocessandt heneedf orchange.Addi
    ng
    furt
    hercomment si
    stobef i
    rstchoicebefor
    ealter
    ingthedefi
    nit
    ion.

    465
    Modul
    eD
    Concept
    s,Goal
    s,Funct
    ions,
    andObj
    ect
    ivesofSoci
    alWel
    far
    e

    A.CONCEPTI
    ONSOFSOCI
    ALWELFARE

    1.RESIDUAL–t heresidualfor
    mul ati
    onconcei v
    esofsoci alwelfar
    estructureas
    temporar
    y,offer
    eddur ingemergencysituati
    ons,andwithdr
    awnwhent heregul
    ar
    soci
    alsystem-thef ami l
    yandtheeconomi csystem-isagainwor ki
    ngpr oper
    ly.
    SocialWelfar
    eactivit
    iesofthiski nd,becauseoft hei
    rresidualchar
    acteri
    sti
    cs
    oft
    encarrythesti
    gmaof“ dol
    eout ”orchari
    ty.

    2.INSTITUTIONAL–t heinsti
    tut
    ionalfor
    mulati
    on,incontr
    ast,seessocialwelf
    are
    asapr operlegi
    timat ef
    unctionofmoder nsociet
    y.Thatsomei ndi
    vi
    dualsarenot
    abletomeetal ltheirneedsisa“ nor
    mal”conditi
    on,andhelpingagenciesare
    acceptedas“ r
    egular”sociali
    nsti
    tut
    ions.

    CULTURALPERSPECTI
    VEOFSOCI
    ALWELFARE

    1.EQUITY – Soci
    alWel
    far
    econceptwhi
    chsuggestst
    hatthewellbei
    ngofall
    soci
    ety’
    smember smustbeanequalfoot
    ingwit
    hotheri
    nst
    it
    uti
    onandother
    aspecti
    nsociet
    y.

    Thr
    eepropert
    iesofequit
    y
    a)Compr ehensi
    veness–av ai
    labi
    lit
    yofcomprehensiveandwidev
    ari
    etyof
    servi
    ces
    b)Uni versal
    ian–everyoneisentit
    ledtocer
    tai
    nservi
    ces
    c) Preventiv
    e–r ecognizesthatmanyneedsar epr edi
    ctabl
    eandt
    heref
    ore

    466
    soci
    etyshoul
    ddosomethingtoei
    therpr
    eventt
    heneedorpl
    anf
    orhow
    bestt
    omeetitwheni
    toccurs.

    2.PRI
    MACY–t heneedsofmanandthensat
    isf
    act
    ionshoul
    dtakepr
    ecedenceov
    er
    ot
    herar
    easoraspect
    sofsoci
    ety
    .

    3.DEPENDENCY–socialwel
    far
    easani
    nst
    it
    uti
    onoper
    atesi
    nti
    meandi
    mpor
    tance
    af
    tert
    heotheri
    nst
    it
    uti
    on.

    B.GOALSOFSOCI
    ALWELFARE

    Ther
    earemanymot i
    vati
    onsorreasonsforprovi
    dingsoci
    al(
    welf
    are)servi
    ces.
    However
    ,amongthemanylegit
    imateandvi
    tal
    lyimport
    antgoal
    sofsoci
    alwelf
    are,
    whi ch
    of
    tencompetef
    orscar
    ceresourcesar
    ethefoll
    owing;

    1.Humani
    tar
    ianandSoci
    alJust
    iceGoal
    s

    Thisgoalofsoci
    alwelfareisr
    ootedi
    nt hedemocr at
    ici
    deal
    sofsocialj
    ust
    iceandis
    basedont hebeli
    efthatmanhast hepotent
    ialtoreali
    zehi
    mself
    ,exceptthephysi
    cal
    ,
    soci
    al,economic,psychol
    ogical
    ,andotherfactorssometimeshinderorpreventhi
    m
    fr
    om real
    izi
    nghispotenti
    al.

    Thisconceptsubmi tsthati
    tisrightandj ustformant ohel pman,hencesocial
    serv
    ices.Thisgoalinvol
    vesthei
    denti
    fi
    cati
    onoft hemostaf f
    li
    cted,t
    hemostdependent,
    themostnegl ected,andthoseleastabletohel pt hemsel
    ves,andmakingt hem t
    he
    pri
    ori
    tytargetf
    ortheinvest
    mentofscarceresources.

    2.Soci
    alCont
    rol
    Goal

    Thi
    sgoali
    sbasedont her
    ecogni
    ti
    onthatneedy,depr
    ived,ordi
    sadvant
    agegroups
    maystri
    keout,i
    ndivi
    dual
    l
    yand/orcol
    l
    ecti
    vel
    y,agai
    nstwhatt heyconsi
    deranali
    enati
    ng
    oroff
    endi
    ngsociet
    y.

    Societ
    yther
    eforehast osecur
    eitsel
    fagainstthethreat
    stolife,pov
    ertyandpolit
    ical
    stabili
    tyinthecommuni tywhichar eusual
    lypr esent
    edbyt hosewhoar edepriv
    edof
    resourcesandoppor t
    unit
    iestoachieveasat isfyi
    nglif
    e.Socialservi
    cesar eopent o
    dissidentsandt
    oj uveni
    leandadultoff
    ender
    ’sexempl i
    tythesocialcont
    rolgoalofsocial
    welfare.

    Funct
    ionsofSocial
    Contr
    ol
    a)Separ at
    ion–isol
    ati
    ngaprobl
    emati
    cpopulat
    ionthatar
    eatv
    ari
    ancewi
    tht
    he
    dominantgr
    oupsandhav
    et het
    endenci
    esofrevol
    ti
    ng.

    b)Contai
    nment–r efer
    st obenefitprovisi
    onst
    hatwoul
    damel
    ior
    atethel
    i
    ving
    condit
    ionsofthesepar atedpopul at
    ionso t
    hatt
    heywoul
    dhav eagreat
    i
    ncentivet
    ochal
    lengetheirseparat
    ion.

    c) Resoci
    ali
    zat
    ion–ref
    erst
    otheef
    fortt
    oreabsor
    bthepopul
    ati
    oni
    nquesti
    on
    i
    ntotheexpect
    ati
    onsoft
    hedominantsoci
    etybymeansofeducat
    ionand
    assi
    mil
    ati
    on.

    3.Economi
    cDev
    elopmentGoal

    The economi
    c dev
    elopmentgoalgi
    ves pr
    ior
    it
    ytot
    hose pr
    ogr
    ams desi
    gned t
    o

    467
    supporti
    ncr
    easesint
    hepr
    oducti
    onofgoodsandser
    vices,
    andot
    herr
    esour
    cest
    hatwi
    l
    l
    contr
    ibut
    etoeconomi
    cdev
    elopmentgoal
    sare:

    a)Certai
    ntypesofsoci alservi
    ceswhichdirectl
    ycontri
    butetoi
    ncreaseproducti
    vit
    y
    amongi ndi v
    iduals,groupsandcommuni ti
    es,suchascounsel i
    ngservicesfor
    youthandf ort headj ust
    mentofwor kerst oi
    ndustri
    alset
    ti
    ngs;laborwel f
    are
    servi
    cesandf aci
    li
    ti
    es,servicesforther ehabi
    li
    tat
    ionofhandicappedwor kers,
    skil
    l
    st r
    ainingfort heunempl oyedandunder employ
    ed,int
    egr
    atedsocialservi
    ces
    forfar
    mer s,etc.

    b)Cert
    ainsocialserv
    iceswhichpreventorr eli
    evet heburdenofdependenceon
    adul
    tworkersofsuchdependentsast hev eryyoung,aswellast
    hev er
    yol d,t
    he
    si
    ck,thedisabl
    ed,etc.
    ,whichhampert hei
    rpr oducti
    vi
    ty.
    (exampl
    esoft heseare
    daycarecenter
    s,oldagehomes,healt
    hcl i
    nics,r
    ehabil
    it
    ati
    oncent
    ers,
    etc.)

    c) Certai
    nsocialserv
    iceswhi chpr ev
    entorcount er
    actthedisrupti
    veef f
    ectsof
    urbani
    zati
    onandindustr
    iali
    zati
    ononf amil
    yandcommuni t
    yli
    fe,andhelpident
    if
    y
    anddev el
    oplocall
    eadershipincommuni ti
    es(exampl
    esoft hesearef amilyl
    if
    e
    educati
    onservi
    ces,l
    eadershipt
    raini
    ngprogramsandvarioustypesofcommuni t
    y
    servi
    ceswhichenhanceordev elopself
    -r
    eli
    anceandtherefor
    epr omotepeople’
    s
    owncapaciti
    esforprobl
    em- sol
    vi
    ng.

    C.Funct
    ionsofSoci
    alWel
    far
    e

    What evert hedefini


    tion,orspeci ficmeaninggi ventosoci alwelfareitexer ci
    ses
    certainfunct i
    ons,whichar euniversallyacceptedassuch.Thesear edi rectedtot he
    i
    mpr ovementoft hehumanbei ng’ssoci alfuncti
    oningandsoci alr
    elati
    onships,andi n
    meet ingsocialneedsatindivi
    dual,groupandcommuni tyl
    evel
    s.Sucht askandact ivi
    ti
    es
    mayconsi stofpr ovi
    dingser vi
    cesasar esponset osoci alneedsandpr oblemsof
    predicti
    ngt heemer genceofsuchsi tuat
    ionsandt akingpreventi
    vemeasur esagainst
    thei
    roccur rence,and/orhelpingtocr eatecondi t
    ion,conducivet osocialdev el
    opment .
    Thesef unctionsarecategori
    zedintot hreemajortypes.

    1.Remedi
    al

    Remedi
    alsocialwel
    far
    econsist
    sofprogr
    amsandservi
    ceswhichsuppl
    ementor
    subst
    it
    utefort
    heinadequat
    ecareprovi
    dedbythefami
    l
    y,gr
    oup,orcommunit
    y.

    Remedi
    alsoci
    alwel
    far
    eisoft
    hreet
    ypes:

    a)Suppl
    ement al
    .Iti
    ssupplementalwhenf orex
    ampleitprov
    idestemporaryshelt
    er
    tochi
    ldrenwhosemot heri
    ssickandcannotadequat el
    ycareforthem.Thistype
    ofassistanceisusual
    l6ytempor aryandusuall
    yofshortdurat
    ion.(
    example:day
    car
    eser viceprovi
    dedtopreschoolerswhosemother
    smaybebusyatwor k)
    .

    b)Subst
    itut
    ive.Substi
    tuti
    veassi st
    anceast het ermi mpl
    iesrefertothecareof
    i
    ndivi
    dualswithspecialneedswhoar eenti
    relydepr
    ivedofnormalpar
    entalf
    amil
    y
    car
    e.Insti
    tuti
    onalorresident
    ialcareforneglect
    edandabandonedchi l
    drenmay
    beconsideredsubsti
    tuti
    ve–t heytaketheplaceofthehome.

    c) Rehabil
    it
    ativ
    e.Asar ehabil
    it
    ativef
    uncti
    on,thepurposeofsocialwelfar
    eistohelp
    theindivi
    dualr emovet hedisabl
    ingconditi
    onswhi chstandint hewayofhi s
    famil
    y,thegr oup,orthelar
    gercommuni t
    y.Itistheindi
    vidual
    ’
    sdi sabi
    li
    tyrat
    her
    thanhissocietalenv
    ironmentthatcal
    l
    sf oracti
    on.

    Itat t
    empt st oreconstr
    uctand/ororgani
    zet hepat t
    ernofinter
    actionthathas
    beenbr okendown,beenchangedorbui ldnewones.( Examplesofservi
    cest hat
    exempl ifyrehabi
    li
    tati
    vefunct
    ionar
    eser vi
    cesforsubstanceabusers,emotional
    ly
    disturbed,underst r
    ess due totraumatic exper
    iences,j
    uvenil
    e deli
    nquents,
    releasedpr i
    soners,et
    c.)

    468
    2.Pr
    event
    ive

    Asaprevent
    ivef
    unct
    ion,soci
    alwelf
    arepr
    event
    stheoccur
    renceofsoci
    alpr
    obl
    ems
    andstr
    engt
    hensthefami
    l
    yandot herexi
    sti
    nggr
    oupsandcommuniti
    es.

    I
    tgoesthr
    oughear l
    ydiscover
    y ,contr
    ol,andelimi
    nati
    onoft hosecondit
    ionswhich
    mayimpai
    rpsychol
    ogicalf
    uncti
    oning.Asameansofpr event
    ion,
    socialworkunder
    takes
    pr
    ogramsandservi
    cesgearedtowar dstheprevent
    ionofsoci
    aldysfunct
    ion.

    Thepr imarypurposeofpr eventivesocialwelf


    areist opr ev
    entsocialbr eakdown
    whichaccompani esrapidi ndustr
    iali
    zati
    on,urbani
    zati
    on,incr
    easepopul at
    ion,changing
    systemsandsi tuati
    ons.( exampl e:famil
    ylifeeducati
    on,responsibleparenthoodand
    adulteducati
    on,popul
    ationawar enessandsexeducat ionprogramsf ort
    hey outhaswell
    asrecreati
    onandchar acterbuil
    dingactivi
    ti
    esfortheyouth.

    3.Dev
    elopment
    al

    Ref
    erst
    ot heprovi
    sionofsocialassi
    stanceandser
    viceswhi
    chwi
    l
    lleadt
    oopt
    imum
    dev
    elopmentandfulf
    il
    lmentoftheclient
    ’spotent
    ial
    .

    Itisconsi
    deredwithbui
    l
    dingofst
    rengthsforself
    -r
    eal
    i
    zat
    ion,
    self
    -f
    ulf
    il
    lmentandsel
    f-
    actuali
    zati
    on,andwiththewaysofeffect
    ivel
    ycopingwit
    hsit
    uati
    onsinli
    fethatmaybe
    problemati
    c,chall
    engi
    ngorstr
    essf
    ul.

    Devel
    opmentalSocialwel
    fareref
    ersto progr
    ams and ser
    vices whi
    ch di
    rect
    ly
    contr
    ibut
    etotheprocessofdevel
    opment
    ,soci
    alchangesandpeople’
    spart
    ici
    pat
    ioni
    n
    deci
    sion-
    maki
    ngandnat i
    on-
    bui
    ldi
    ng.

    Itimpl
    iesamongot herthi
    ngst hepr ov i
    sionofimprovedoppor t
    unit
    yf orthepoort o
    useand/orav ailofmat erialandphy sicalassets,gr
    eateropport
    unitytoparti
    cipateinthe
    i
    ncomegener atingact i
    v i
    ti
    espar t
    icularl
    yt hosesuit
    edt oormat chtheircapabili
    ti
    es,the
    greaterpart
    icipationoft hepoori nt hef ormulat
    ionandi mpl ementat
    ionofspeci fi
    c
    poli
    ciesandobj ect i
    ves,specifi
    cal
    lythosedi r
    ectl
    yaffect
    ingthem,andi ntheaccept ance
    ofresponsi
    bili
    tyf ortheirsuccessandf ai
    lure.

    D.Obj
    ect
    ivesofSoci
    alWel
    far
    e

    Gener
    alObject
    ives:I
    nexer
    cisi
    ngi
    tsdi
    ff
    erentf
    unct
    ions,soci
    alwel
    far
    ehast
    wogener
    al
    obj
    ect
    ives.

    a)Tosuppor torstrengt
    henfami
    lyast hebasi
    csociali
    nsti
    tut
    iont
    hroughwhi
    ch
    needsaremet .
    b)Tostrengthentheindi
    vi
    dual
    ’
    scapaci
    tytodealasef
    fect
    ivel
    yaspossi
    blewi
    thhi
    s
    l
    ifesi
    tuati
    on.

    Speci
    fi
    cObject i
    ves:Socialwel fare,whateverthenatureofit
    sf unct
    ionhasfourspecifi
    c
    obj
    ecti
    ves.
    a)Tocar efor ,
    mai ntain,and/orprotectthewell
    -bei
    ngofitscli
    ents;
    b)Tohel ppr eventtheirsocialdysfuncti
    on;
    c) Tostrengthent heireconomi cpot ent
    ial
    ,ex.Theearni
    ngandsav i
    ngpoweroft he
    i
    ndi
    vidual;
    d)Tost rengthenthei ndivi
    dual’sabil
    ityt
    owi t
    hstandthestr
    essesofmoder nl
    ife.

    469
    Modul
    eE
    At
    tri
    but
    esandDomai
    nofSoci
    alWor
    kasaPr
    ofessi
    on

    R.A.4373,pr omulgated i
    n 1965 gav
    e soci
    alworkf
    ormalrecogni
    ti
    on as a
    pr
    ofession.However,itt
    akesmor ethant
    hepassageofalawt
    oestabl
    i
    shapr of
    essi
    on.
    Whatthenconsti
    tutesa“ pr
    ofessi
    on?”

    Basedonacar efulcanvassoft hesoci


    ologi
    call
    iterat
    ureonoccupati
    ons,Er
    nest
    Gr
    eenwood was ablet o disti
    l
    lt he fol
    lowi
    ng five elements as const
    it
    uti
    ng the
    di
    sti
    ngui
    shi
    ngattr
    ibut
    esofapr ofessi
    on:
    1.Syst
    ematicBodyofTheor y
    2.Prof
    essi
    onalAuthorit
    y
    3.CommunitySanction
    4.Regul
    ati
    veCodeofEt hics
    5.Prof
    essi
    onalCult
    ur e

    Sy
    stemat
    icBodyofTheor
    y

     Theskill
    sthatcharact
    erizeapr ofessionfl
    owfrom andar esuppor t
    edbyaf und
    ofknowledgethathasbeenor ganizedi nt
    oaninternal
    l
    yconsistentsy st
    em call
    ed
    abodyoft heory
     Theoryservesasabasei nt ermsofwhi chthepr ofessi
    onalrationali
    zeshis
    operati
    onsinconcret
    esi t
    uations
     Acquisi
    ti
    onoft heprofessionalski l
    lrequi
    resapr i
    ororsimultaneousmast eryof
    thetheoryunderl
    yi
    ngthatski l
    l.

    470
     Thepr acticeofapr ofessioninvolv est heappl icati
    onofsci entifi
    cknowl edge
    l
    ear neddur ingthecour seofpr ofessi onaleducat ion;itisnotahi t-or-miss,trial
    -
    and- err
    orki ndofact i
    vity
     Ther eisneedt ounder scoret heimpor t
    anceofst r engtheni
    ngt het eachingoft he
    theor ybaseofsoci alwor k,toconsci ouslyappl yt hisinpr act
    icesot hatwecan
    i
    ncr easinglydemonst r
    at ethatsocialwor kist rulyasci entif
    icactiv
    ity.
     Ther eisal soaneedt ohav eacr iti
    cal ,rathert hanar everenti
    alat ti
    tudet owar d
    thet heoreticalsystem ofsoci alwor k,ast hiswoul dpav et hewayf orthet esting
    andbui ldingoft heorywhi chwi l
    lprov ideuswi thasol i
    dbasef orourpr ofessional
    helpingmet hodsandt echniques.
     Soci alWor k,likeallot herprofessions,der i
    vesknowl edgef r
    om manydi fferent
    sour ces,andi nadditi
    on, buil
    dsitsownbodyofknowl edgef rom practice.

    Thr
    eet ypesofknowl edgewhi chsoci al workuses:
    1.Test edknowl edge–knowl edget hathasbeenest abli
    shedt hroughsci ent i
    fi
    c
    study( r
    esearch)suchasbor rowedknowl edgef rom di ff
    er entpr ofessi
    onsand
    disciplines,aswel lasf r
    om t hatwhi chhasbeendev elopedt hroughsoci al
    wor kr esearch-economi cs,publ ic administration,psy chology ,sociology ,
    ant hropology,pol i
    ti
    calsci ence,l aw,medi ci
    ne,et c.whi ch ar e gener ally
    obt ai
    nedi nthecour seofthei rformal education.
    2.Hy pot heti
    calknowl edge– st i
    llhast ounder got ransformat ioni ntot ested
    knowl edgemaybeaccept edt oexpl aincertainfact s(ex.Ignor ancemor et han
    reli
    gioni sther easonf ort hel ow accept anceoff ami lypl anning among
    Fili
    pinocoupl es.)
    3.Assumpt i
    veknowl edge,or“ pract icewi sdom” -themor eexper ienceonehas
    hadi npr actice,themor eassumpt i
    onsorsupposi t
    ionshet endst omake
    relatedt ohiswor k(ex.Cl
    ient sv alueser vi
    cemor ewheni tisnotgi v
    enent irely
    free)

    Pr
    ofessi
    onal
    Aut
    hor
    it
    y

     Inahel pingrelati
    onship,thepr ofessional’
    sjudgmentandauthori
    tyarerespected
    andaccept edbyhi s“client”,unli
    kei nat r
    ansacti
    onwi t
    hanon-pr
    ofessi
    onal where
    theruleis“t hecustomeri salway sright”
     Theexer ci
    seofpr ofessionalaut hori
    tyisnotwi thoutl
    imi
    ts.Thepr ofessi
    onal
    socialwor ker,li
    keanyot herpr ofessional
    ,shouldguideorassi
    stherclientonly
    alongherar eaofcompet enceorshewoul dv iolat
    etheauthori
    tyofanot her
    professionalgroup.

    Communi
    tySanct
    ion

     Recognition ofpr ofessionalaut horityi s expr essed notonl yi nt he client-


    prof
    essional relationshi pbutalsoi nthepr ofessional-
    communi tyr elat i
    onship
     Thecommuni tysanct i
    onsapr of ession’saut hori
    tybywayofgi v i
    ngi tcer tain
    power sandpr i
    v i
    leges.Amongt hesepower sandpr i
    v i
    l
    egesar et hepr ofession’s
    controloveri tst rainingcent er
    s, admi ssioni nt
    ot hepr ofession,andst andardsf or
    prof
    essional per formance.
    a)Pr of
    ession’ scont r
    olov eritstrainingcent ersisusual lyachiev edt hroughan
    accrediting pr ocess exer ci
    sed by one of t he associ ati
    ons wi thint he
    profession.
    b)Cont r
    olov eradmi ssion i
    ntot he pr ofession hasbeen achi ev ed witht he
    passagei n1965ofRA4373r equiringt hecompl eti
    onofaBachel orofSci ence
    i
    n Soci alWor k( BSSW) degr ee,t he passi ng of a gov er nmentboar d
    exami nat i
    on, andt henr egi
    stration,inor dert oqualif
    yf orsocial wor kpractice.
    c) Apr ofessi oni susual l
    ygivent hepr ivi
    legeofcont rol
    lingpracticest andardson
    the assumpt i
    on t hatt he laycommuni t
    yi s noti n a posi tion t or ender
    j
    udgmentov ert heper f
    ormanceoft hemember sinapr ofessi onsi ncet his
    woul dinv olvet echni calmat t
    ers.

    Regul
    ati
    veCodeofEt
    hics

    471
     Everyprof
    essi
    onhasabui lt
    -i
    nr egul
    ati
    vecode,part
    lyformalandpart
    lyinf
    or mal
    ,
    whichcompelsethi
    calbehavioronthepar tofi
    tsmember s.Thi
    scodeserv esto
    checkpossibl
    eabuseswhichcanar i
    seoutofapr of
    ession’
    sexer
    ciseofauthori
    ty,
    anditsaccompanyi
    ngpower sandprivi
    leges.

    Pr
    ofessi
    onal
    Cul
    tur
    e

     Thenet wor koff ormalandi nfor malgr oupswi thi


    nwhi chitoper atesincludest he
    organizat i
    onst hatbenef i
    tfr om apr ofession’ sser vi
    ces( school s,cour t
    s,soci al
    agency ,hospi tals,et c);t
    heeducat ionali nstituti
    onswhi chpr oduceandr epleni sh
    professionalmanpower ;and t he pr ofessionalassoci ation whi ch pr omot es
    professional interest sandai ms.
     The“ interact i
    onsofsoci alr ulesr equiredbyt hef ormalandi nformalgr oups
    generateasoci alconf i
    gurat i
    onuni quet ot hepr of on,v
    essi iz.,apr ofessi onal
    cult
    ure.
     Thecul tureofapr ofessionconsi st sofi tsval ues,norms, andsy mbols.
     Soci alv aluesr efertot hebasi sandf undament albel i
    efsofapr ofessi onal
    group, pr acticallythereasonf ori t
    sexi stence
     Pr of essionalnor msar et heaccept edst andar dsofbehav i
    orofdoi ngt hings,
    whi chgui det hepr of
    essionali nv arioussi t
    uationssuchashowt ogai nent ry
    intof ormalandi nfor
    malgr oups,howt ohandl econsul tations,howt or elate
    to super iors,col l
    eagues and subor dinat es,how t ot reatcl i
    ents,how t o
    chal l
    engeanout modedt heor y ,howt opr esentanewi dea, andsoon.
     The sy mbol s ofa pr of essi on ar ei ts meani ng-l
    aden i tems”,i ncludi ng
    embl ems,i nsigni as,dr ess,hi story,itsi dioms and v ocabulary and i ts
    stereot ypesoft hepr ofessi onal ,thecl i
    ent ,andt helayman.

    Thefiv
    eat tr
    ibutesdescr
    ibedarenotamonopolyoft
    heprofessi
    ons.Ascrut
    inyofnon-
    prof
    essionaloccupati
    onswil
    lshowthatt
    heyal
    sopossesst
    hesecharact
    eri
    sti
    cs,butt
    oa
    l
    esserdegree.

    Indi scussi
    ngt heattr
    ibutesofapr
    ofessi
    on,Greenwoodconcludesthat“soci
    alworki
    s
    alreadyapr ofessi
    on”,ithastoomanypoi nt
    sofcongr uencewi t
    ht hemodelt obe
    classifi
    ableotherwi
    se”.

    Theneedf orsocialwor
    kerstoconsciousl
    yhelpimprovesocialwork’
    sstandingoneach
    at
    t r
    ibute,whichconsequent
    lywillgi
    vetheprofessi
    onaddedpr est
    igeandauthorit
    y,t
    her
    e
    i
    sal soaneedt owat chagainsttoomuchpr eoccupati
    onwithget ti
    ngrecognizedasa
    profession,t
    hisrecogni
    ti
    onwillcomeinduet i
    me, wi
    thoutbei
    ngsought .

    Modul
    eF
    TheGener
    ali
    stSoci
    alWor
    kPr
    act
    ice

     SocialWorkPracti
    cei
    nthePhili
    ppinesrequiresthatt
    hesoci
    alwor
    kerneedsto
    haveaf oundat
    ioni
    nval
    ues,knowledge,andskill
    s,whi
    chwoul
    dequipherasshe
    workswi t
    hpeoplei
    navari
    etyofproblem si
    tuati
    ons.

     Intheear l
    yfif
    ti
    es,
    althoughsoci
    alwor
    kpract
    iceal
    readyconsi
    stedofthetri
    nit
    yof
    casewor k,group work,and communit
    yor gani
    zati
    on (
    pract
    iced as separat
    e
    met hods),“
    the”methodwascasework.

    472
     Duringt he1967Nat i
    onalWor kshoponSocialWorkEducat
    ion,oneoft hemajor
    outcomeswast herecommendat ionthatasadeliber
    atef
    orcef orchange,the
    school sshouldteachsocialworkmet hodsbasedonthewholist
    icapproach;so
    thatindivi
    dual,t
    hegroup,andt hecommuni t
    yareasusedasfunctionalpoi
    ntsof
    entry,andt odevel
    opskil
    l
    sbasedont hegeneri
    caspect
    softhemet hodsusedby
    socialwor ker
    s.

     Theint egratedmet hodofsoci alworkpracti


    ce,orthe“gener
    alistappr
    oach”to
    soci
    alwor kpr act
    ice,wasdev eloped,mostl
    yint he1960’sbecauseofamor e
    sophisticated understandi
    ng of t he rel
    ati
    onships bet
    ween man and hi s
    envi
    ronment ,andtheef f
    ectofsy st
    emstheori
    esont heacqui
    sit
    ionofknowledge
    i
    nsoci al work.

     ComptonandGal awayhav eaddi ti


    onalobj ect i
    onst ot hecasewor k-groupwor k-
    communi tyorgani zationmodel .Accor dingt othem, thisappr oach:
    a)Encour agest hedi chotomoust hinki
    ngt hatt hecommuni tyor ganizerwi l
    l
    wor ktopr oducecommuni tychange, thecasewor kertopr oducei ndi v
    idual
    change, andt hegr oupwor kert odoei ther,
    dependi ngont henat ur eoft he
    groups,i nst ead of mai ntaining t he primar yf ocus of soci alwor k
    i
    ntervent i
    oni nt heper son-situationinteract
    ion.
    b)Ledt ot het r
    ainingofspeci alistsineachoft hesemet hodswhot endt o
    seet hepr obl emsoft heircl i
    ent sint ermsoft heirownmet hodol ogical
    preference,r athert hani nter msofacompl eteassessmentoft hecl i
    ent -
    si
    tuationint eraction.
     Whatwebel i
    ev easami nimum compet encef orwor kingwi thFi l
    i
    pinocl ients,we
    haveasf rameofr eferencet her ealityt hattheFilipinoclientisamul ti
    -problem
    cl
    ient
    ,whicht heref orerulesoutaf ragment edappr oacht opr oblem -solving.

     TheIntegrat
    edSocialWorkPract
    ice/General
    istSoci
    alWorkPract
    ice/Int
    egrated
    Pract
    ice/Gener
    ali
    st Model
    /Gener
    alist Approach/
    The Gener
    alMet hod/unit
    ary
    Approach:is

    o “Theuseofar angeofskill
    sasneededt ointer
    venei
    nav ari
    etyofcli
    ent
    l
    ife si
    tuati
    ons.The general
    ist’
    sfunct
    ion isto have as wide a skil
    l
    repert
    oir
    e as possibl
    ein ordertofacil
    it
    atethe i
    nter
    actions bet
    ween
    peopleandthesociali
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsandsituati
    onsinwhi
    cht heyli
    ve.
    ”

    o “….pract i
    ceinwhichtheclientandt heworkertogetherassesst heneedin
    allofi t
    scompl exi
    tyanddev elopapl anf orrespondi
    ngt ot hatneed.
    A
    strategyi schosenf r
    om ar eper t
    oireofresponsesappr opriat
    ef orwork
    withi ndivi
    dual
    s,famil
    ies,groups,agenci es,andcommuni t
    ies.Theunitof
    attentioni schosenbyconsi der i
    ngt hesystem needingt obechanged,
    Thepl aniscarr
    iedoutandev aluated.”

     Rel
    atedConcept
    sinI
    ntegr
    atedMet
    hodofSoci
    alWor
    kPr
    act
    ice:

    o Theconceptofone( any
    )cli
    entsyst
    em aspointofent
    ryforwor
    king
    wit
    hothercl
    ientsy
    stems-ex.i
    ndi
    vi
    dualcl
    ientaspoi
    ntofentr
    y.

    o Theconceptoftot
    alpr
    oblem-sol
    vi
    ng-deal
    i
    ngwi tht
    heot
    hersy
    stems
    ofwhi
    chthecli
    entisapar
    t,andwhichar
    eaffect
    inghi
    m.

    o Theconceptoft hecli
    ent ’
    sproblem orsi
    tuat
    ionast hebasisf orthe
    choiceofthewor ker’
    shel pi
    ngapproachori nt
    erventi
    on-appr
    oaches
    theproblem asasoci alworkerandselectfrom anar r
    ayofhel ping
    approaches and i
    nter
    v ent
    ions whatis bestsuited tot he cli
    ent’
    s
    sit
    uati
    ons.

     “
    Gener
    ali
    st”soci
    alwor
    ker
    s ar
    e pr
    ofessi
    onal
    s who wor
    k wi
    th cl
    ient
    s on an
    i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    ,group,orcommunityl
    eveldependi
    ng on whatis needed and

    473
    appropri
    ate,uti
    li
    zi
    ng t
    he basi
    c compet
    ence f
    orpr
    act
    ice t
    hatr
    equi
    res t
    he
    “generi
    cs”ofsoci
    alwor
    k:

    PHI
    LOSOPHI
    CAL(
    VALUE)BASE SCI
    ENTI
    FIC(
    KNOWLEDGE)BASE

     Phi losophy :human wor th and  SWPPS


    dignity  HBSE
     Val ue: self-
    real
    izat
    ion/
    self
    -  SWP:
    fulfi
    ll
    ment o Goal :enhancementofsoci al f
    uncti
    oning
     Pr inciples:APSICCW o Funct ions:remedial
    /preventi
    ve/
     Pr ofessi onalEt
    hics: f
    ormal o dev elopment al
    CodeofEt hics/ i
    nfor
    mal, o Essent ial component s: cl i
    ent
    , wor ker,
    unwri
    tt
    ensy stem ofethics problem, process
    o TheP- SPr ocess:API
    ET
    o Common t ools in pr acti
    ce: inter
    view,
    communi cati
    on, r ecordings, communi ty
    resources,programsandser vices

    Modul
    eG1
    ThePhi
    losophi
    calFoundat
    ionofSocialWor k:Phi
    losophy,
    Cor
    eVal
    ues,
    Ethi
    csoft
    he
    Profession

    PVFSW i
    sanencompassingter
    mr ef
    err
    ingtothebodyofpr
    inci
    plesonwhichar
    eroot
    ed
    thepr
    ofessi
    onal
    s’at
    ti
    tudesandguidesprof
    essi
    onal
    conductorbehavi
    or.

    I
    .Thr
    eeEssent
    ial
    Component
    s:

    1.Value-t
    hatworthwhichmanat t
    achestocert
    aint
    hings,
    syst
    em,
    orper
    sonswi
    thi
    nthe
    real
    m ofusef
    ulness,
    trut
    h,goodnessorbeaut
    y.

     Wil
    li
    am Gor don-tovaluesomethingistopref
    erit
    .Themeasureofextentofa
    pr
    eferenceiswhatpr i
    ce,eff
    ort
    ,orsacr i
    fi
    ceonewillmaketoobtai
    nwhati s
    pr
    eferred,
    whet herar
    ti
    cle,
    behavi
    or,orst
    ateofaf
    fai
    rs.

     Val
    uesar
    ebel
    i
    efs,pr
    efer
    encesorassumpt
    ionsaboutwhati
    sgoodorbadf
    or
    man.

    474
     Beingabel i
    ef,val
    uecannotbesubject
    edtoscient
    if
    icinv
    est
    igat
    ion.Itmustbe
    acceptedingoodfait
    h.
     Ani ndivi
    dualmaynotev enbeawar eofthev al
    ueheholds;he/ shesi
    mply
    automat i
    cal
    lyappl
    iesorusesitwhenthesit
    uati
    oncall
    sforacertai
    ncourseof
    acti
    ont obeperfor
    medonani mport
    antdeci
    siont
    obemade.

    2.Knowledge-fact
    sandinf
    ormati
    onest
    abl
    i
    shedbyt
    hehi
    ghestst
    andar
    dsofobj
    ect
    ivi
    ty
    andrat
    ionali
    ty,
    whichmaniscapabl
    e.

    3.Ski
    l
    l-abi
    l
    ity
    ,exper
    tness,
    orpr
    ofi
    ciencygai
    nedf
    rom pr
    act
    iceandknowl
    edge.

     Ever
    yprof
    essionhasav
    alueandaknowl
    edgebase;ski
    l
    list
    hef
    usi
    onoft
    hese
    twocomponents.

    o Prof
    essi
    onalski
    l
    l,t
    herefor
    e,ref
    erstoone’
    sabi
    li
    tytoappl
    ytheknowl
    edge
    andval
    ueofone’sprof
    essioninherworkwi
    thpeopl
    e.

    o Awordoft
    enusedi
    npl
    aceofskil
    lis“
    art
    .”Soci
    alworkpract
    icehasbeen
    r
    efer
    redt
    oas“anar
    twi
    thsci
    ent
    if
    icandvaluef
    oundat
    ion”
    .

    I
    I.ThePhi
    losophyofSoci
    alWor
    k

     Der
    ivedf
    rom t
    hesoci
    etyofwhi
    chi
    tisapar
    t.

     Thephi l
    osophyorbasi
    cbeliefofsoci
    alworki
    sthatev
    eryhumanbeinghaswor th
    (halaga)anddigni
    ty(
    pagkatao).Thi
    sistr
    uewhetheronewor kswi
    ththathuman
    beingonaone- on-
    onebasis,asmember sofasmallgroup,
    oraspartofalarger
    coll
    ectivi
    ty.

     Thesoci
    alworkphil
    osophyrest
    sont hebel
    i
    efthatmanwascr eatedaft
    ert
    he
    i
    mageofGod( andhavi
    ngasoul )
    ,endowedwit
    hthecapaci
    tyt
    or easonandt
    he
    fr
    eedom t
    oexer
    cisehi
    swill
    .

     Thephil
    osophicalbaseofsoci alwor
    kisthatmani stheobj
    ectofsoci
    alwork,
    anditi
    sthemani nrelat
    ionshi
    pwi t
    hhisenvi
    ronment
    ,andhowheint
    eract
    swit
    hi t
    .
    Thesocialworkeri
    nreachingoutahandt osomeoneinneedordi
    str
    essedmust
    takei
    ntoaccounttherestofthatman’
    swor l
    d.

    I
    II
    .TheVal
    ueCommi
    tmentofSoci
    alWor
    k

    Soci
    alworkadherest omanyv al
    ues,buttheulti
    matev al
    ueoftheprofession
    rest
    sont heconv
    icti
    onthatitisgoodanddesirabl
    eforeveryhumanbei
    ngt oful
    fil
    lhis
    potent
    ial
    s,t
    oreal
    izehimsel
    f,andtobal
    ancethiswithequalef
    fort
    stohel
    pother
    sdot he
    same.

    I
    V.TheUnder
    lyi
    ngPur
    poseofSoci
    alWor
    k

    Toreleaseall
    humanpowerini
    ndivi
    dualsf
    orpersonalful
    fi
    ll
    mentandsoci
    algood,
    andi
    nordertocreatetheki
    ndofsoci
    ety
    ,sociali
    nst
    it
    utions,
    andsocialpol
    i
    cywhichwill
    makesel
    f-
    reali
    zati
    onpossi
    blef
    oral
    lmen.

    V.Di
    ff
    erentVi
    ewsaboutMan

    1.Nat
    ural
    vs.Tr
    anscendent
    alVi
    ew

     Nat
    ural
    i
    sti
    cvi
    ew-mani
    spar
    tofnat
    ure.Hecanbest
    udi
    edandunder
    stood

    475
    scient
    if
    icall
    yaswedot herestofnat
    ure,sot
    hatifweknowallthatsci
    encecoul
    d
    teachuswecoul df
    ull
    yaccountformanandhisbehavior
    .Presentl
    imit
    ati
    onson
    ourknowl edge,
    however,
    makeusunabl etof
    ull
    yaccountforman.

     Transcendentalview-hol
    dsthatsciencecannev
    erfullyexplai
    nman,par
    tl
    ydue
    toignorance,andpar t
    lybecausemanhasapot ent
    ialtotranscendt
    henatur
    al
    orderofthi
    ngs, t
    ochoose,tocreat
    eandt ober
    ati
    onal.

    2.ManasSoci
    al,
    Asoci
    al,
    orAnt
    i-
    soci
    al

     Beingsocial
    ,menaspi r
    etoliveongoodt ermswi thothers,t
    obepar tofandt o
    contri
    butetogrouplife,
    makingper sonalgoalssubser
    vienttogroupgoals.
     Associalbeings,menar edi
    screetindivi
    dualswhocomet ogethertofr
    om groups
    forthei
    rmut ualprot
    ecti
    onandsaf ety.
     Asant i
    -soci
    albeing,menarev i
    ewedasi nherent
    lysel
    f-
    seeking,egoti
    sti
    cal
    ,outto
    extendpersonalgainattheexpenseofot hers.

    3.Democr
    ati
    cVi
    ewofMan

     Mani scapabl
    eofreason,ofrati
    onalanal
    ysisandchoice.I
    tbeli
    evesthatsoci
    al,
    bi
    ological
    ,cul
    tur
    aland psychologi
    calinf
    luencesarepower fulin det
    ermini
    ng
    behavi
    or ,
    butt
    hatmancanov ercometheseinfl
    uencesandexerci
    sechoice.

    Modul
    eG2
    Fi
    li
    pinoPer
    spect
    ive

    Val
    uesarei mpor
    tantt
    opeopl
    east heyoft
    endi
    ctatethei
    rbehav
    iorandthei
    r
    acti
    ons.Letuslookatsomeofourcult
    uralval
    uesanddiscussthei
    rsi
    gni
    fi
    canceto
    soci
    alworkpract
    ice.

    1.Soci
    alAcceptance-bei
    ngtakenbyone’sfel
    lowsforwhatonei s,orbel
    i
    evesheis,and
    bei
    ngtreat
    edi naccordancewithhisstatus,thi
    sv aluei sf
    aci
    li
    tatedbythefol
    lowing
    i
    nter
    mediateval
    ues:
    a.Smoot hInt
    erper
    sonalRel
    ations(SI
    R)-gettingal
    ongwi t
    hother
    sinsucha
    wayast oavoidoutwar
    dsignsofconflicts

    MeansofAcqui
    ri
    ngorpr
    eser
    vingSI
    R:

    a.1“
    Paki
    ki
    sama”
    -“gi
    vi
    ngi
    n”,
    “concessi
    on”
    ,orf
    oll
    owi
    ngt
    hel
    eadorsuggest
    ionof
    anot
    her

    476
    a.2.Euphemi
    sm-t
    hest
    ati
    ngofunpl
    easantt
    rut
    h,opi
    nion,
    orr
    equestaspl
    easant
    ly
    aspossible.

    a.
    3.Theuseof“ go-
    bet
    ween”(
    tul
    ay)whi
    chmeanst
    hir
    dpar
    tywhowi
    l
    lcar
    rya
    message,assuage
    abrui
    se,orpreventani
    njur
    y.

    a.
    4.“ Amorpropio”-referto sensit
    ivi
    tyto per
    sonalaf fr
    ontand functi
    onsto
    protecttheindi
    vi
    dualagainstlossofacceptance.Thevalueof“ hi
    ya”(senseofshame),
    whichisnotmer elyt
    heact ualemoti
    onf el
    twhenonehasv i
    olat
    edsocialnorms,butal
    so,
    thesensiti
    vi
    tytorebukeandf earofone’
    sexposureofone’sinsecureself.

    2.Emot
    ional
    ClosenessandSecur
    it
    yinaf
    ami
    ly

    Thi
    sval
    ueisbel ievedtobef aci
    li
    tatedthrought hefol
    lowing:
     Sacr if
    icingindiv
    idualint
    erestforthegoodoft hef amil
    y
     Par entalst ri
    vi
    ng to givet heirchi l
    dren an educati
    on ev
    en atgr
    eatcostt
    o
    t
    hemsel ves
     Ol derchi l
    drensacri
    fi
    cingforthey oungersibli
    ngs
     Mot hersespeciall
    y,makingsacr i
    ficesforthefamily.

    3.TheAuthor
    ityValue-t
    hebeli
    eft
    hatfamili
    eswil
    lremai
    ncloseri
    fsomeoneexer
    tsf
    ir
    m
    aut
    hori
    tyandthatsuchpersonmustberespect
    edandobeyed.

    (
    Tradi
    ti
    onsandr
    it
    ual
    s,Fat
    ali
    sm)
    4.Per
    sonali
    sm

    Att
    achesmaj orimport
    ancetothepersonalfact
    or,whi
    chguar anteesint
    imacy
    ,
    warmth,andsecurit
    yofki nshi
    pandfr
    iendsinget
    tingthi
    ngsdone.Somespeci f
    icval
    ues
    rel
    ated t
    o personal
    ism ar e“ti
    wal
    a”(trust
    ),“
    kil
    ala”
    (per
    sonalref
    erence),and “wal
    ang
    paki
    alam”(non-
    int
    erference)

    5.“
    UtangnaLoob”

    Li
    ter
    all
    ymeansdebtofgr
    atit
    ude.I
    tcompel
    sthereci
    pientt
    oshowhisgrat
    itude
    proper
    lybyret
    urni
    ngaf
    avor“wi
    thinter
    est
    ”tobesur
    ethathedoesnotremai
    ninothers
    debt.

    6.Pat
    ience,
    suf
    fer
    ingandendur
    ance

    Acult
    uralbel
    i
    efapersonmustsuf
    ferbef
    orehecangainhappiness,andrel
    ated
    t
    oiti
    sthatwhi
    chmanysti
    llbel
    iev
    e,t
    hatwomen,par
    ti
    cul
    arl
    y,mustsuf
    ferinsil
    ence.

    Anawar enessofthesev al
    ueswi llbeofgr eathelpi nunder standinganddealing
    wit
    ht hebehav iorofthepeopleonewor kswi t
    h.Manyoft hesev aluesar egoodandno
    onewi l
    lar gueagai nstthev alueofpr eservi
    ngt hem.Howev er ,someoft hem have
    negati
    veaspect sorar egivendi stor
    tedinterpret
    ation,therebycr eati
    ngpr obl
    ems.Many
    ofthesev aluesr uncountertot heulti
    mat ev aluesofsoci alwor kwhi chi sthatman
    shoul
    dbeal lowedt oful
    fi
    llhi
    spot enti
    al.Socialwor ker
    st herefore,hav etobeski l
    lf
    ulin
    handl
    ingthesev alues(botht heirown,aswel last heirclients)andi nmaki ngthem
    compatibl
    ewi t
    hpr of
    essi
    onalvalues.

    I
    naddit
    iont ocul
    turalval
    ues, i
    nnumerabl
    ebel
    ief
    s,cust
    omsandt r
    aditi
    onshel
    dby
    peopl
    einoursoci etyi
    sFi l
    ipi
    nopr overbsormaxims.Theseprov
    erbstellusaboutthe
    natur
    eofFil
    ipi
    nol ifeandculture,provideuswithi
    nsight
    sintothepsychologyofour
    peopl
    e,andr
    eflectourvaluesandet hi
    cs.

    477
     Pr
    over
    bsi
    nSoci
    alwor
    kPr
    act
    ice

    Obj
    ect
    ive Fi
    l
    ipi
    noPr
    over
    bs Engl
    i
    shTr
    ansl
    ati
    on
    Tostressthepoi
    ntthat 1.Walangpagbwawagi
    ng Therei
    snovict
    ory
    onemustwor khardto dimaypagbabaka wit
    houtast
    ruggle
    reachhisgoal (Tagal
    og)
    I
    fther
    eishar
    dshi
    p,t
    her
    e
    2.Pagmaysaki
    t,eguani
    n i
    sheaven
    l
    angit(
    Bicol
    )
    Ify
    ouwantt ocl
    imb,you
    3.Nocay att
    i cumar
    adcad, mustendurethe
    anusantigaradgad scrat
    ches
    (I
    locano)
    Hewhopl ant
    swill
    reap
    4.Pagmayi ti
    nanim,may somet hing
    aanihi
    n(Tagalog)
    Per
    sev
    erance Saisangpint
    ong Forev
    erydoort
    hatshut
    s,
    masarhanaysampuang tenwi
    llopen
    nabubuksan(Tagal
    og)

    Modul
    eG3
    Soci
    alWor
    kPr
    inci
    plesasRel
    atedt
    oVal
    ues

    Endowedwi t
    ht hef undamentalphil
    osophyandpr ofessi
    onalvalues,thepractice
    ofsocialworkisguidedbycer tai
    nbasi cpri
    nci
    plesorrulesofact ionforthepracti
    tioner
    (emanatingfr
    om suchv alues,asdif
    f erent
    ialf
    rom “pri
    nciples”ofactionbuiltontest ed
    knowledgeorgeneraltr
    uths).Belowar esomeoft hepri
    nci pl
    eswhi chsocialworkersuse
    i
    nt hei
    rwor kwithpeople,whethershewor kswiththem asi ndi
    vidual
    s,asgr oupsoras
    communi ti
    es.

    1.Accept
    anceofpeopl
    east
    heyar
    e

    Thepr i
    ncipl
    eofaccept ancedoesnotmean appr ovalofdev iantatti
    tudeor
    behavi
    or.“Theobjectofacceptancei
    snott hegoodbutthereal
    ”,whichmeansdeal i
    ng
    wit
    htheclientasheisinreal
    it
    y.
    Acceptancealsomeanst hatwer ecogni
    zedthatpeoplehav estrengt
    hsand
    weaknesses,andcapabil
    i
    tiesandlimi
    tat
    ions.Par
    toft
    heacceptanceisalsothepersonal

    478
    di
    sci
    pli
    newithwhi
    cht
    hewor
    keri
    sabl
    etoacceptpeopl
    e’
    seccent
    ri
    cit
    ies,t
    hei
    rbi
    ases
    andpr
    ejudi
    ces.

    2.Par
    ti
    cipat
    ionoft
    hecl
    ienti
    npr
    obl
    em-
    sol
    vi
    ng

    Thewor kerbuil
    dsuponandut i
    li
    zest heclient’
    sst rengths.Shedoesnott akeover
    andsol vetheent i
    reproblem byher self.Thecl i
    enti sther e,andhasapar tint heent
    ire
    probl
    em- solv
    ingpr ocess.From thet i
    met hatthewor kersbegi nst ogat herinformati
    on,
    theclientisaskedt opr ovi
    deper t
    inentf act,topr esenthi sownper ceptionsoft he
    sit
    uati
    on,andi sinvolvedindef ini
    ngt henatureoft hepr oblem,andi ft hereareany
    probl
    em,hei sinvolvedinpriori
    ti
    zingt hesepr oblems.Hepar tici
    patesinpl anningway s
    ofresolvi
    ngt heproblem, i
    nthinki
    ngofpossi bleal t
    ernatives.Hei saskedt olookintohis
    ownr esourcesandwhi choft hesecanbeappl iedt opr oblem solvi
    ng.Thenhehi mself
    mustacti nrelati
    ont othepr oblem,andnotr elyont hewor kertot akeal lnecessary
    acti
    onst hatwouldsol vehisproblem.

    3.Sel
    f-
    det
    ermi
    nat
    ionasar
    ightoft
    hecl
    ient

    Themai nideainthispri
    ncipl
    eist hattheindivi
    dual(gr
    ouporcommuni ty)whois
    i
    neconomi c,personal
    ,orsocialneed,hast herighttodeter
    minewhathi sneedsar eand
    howt heyshouldbemet .Thewor kerdoesnotdoev eryt
    hingfortheclientforsheknows
    thecli
    entiscapableof“self-
    help”
    .Shewi llnotmani pul
    atehisaffai
    rs,butwillguidehi
    m
    so thathe isabl eto actathi sproblem obj ecti
    vel
    y,understand whatchoi cesor
    alt
    ernati
    vesareopent ohi m,thei
    rimplicationsandconsequences,andt henmakehi s
    owndeci si
    on.Acl i
    entdevel
    opsorr egai
    nshersel f
    -r
    espectandsel f
    -confi
    dencewhenhe
    i
    sabl etosolv
    ehi sownproblems.

    4.I
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    izat
    ionofcl
    ient
    s

    Theprinci
    pleofi
    ndividual
    i
    zat i
    oninvol
    ves“ t
    herecogni
    ti
    onandunder st
    andingof
    eachcl ient
    ’suniquequali
    ti
    esandt hediff
    erent
    ialuseofpr incipl
    esandmet hodsin
    assisti
    ngeacht owardabetteradjustment…basedupont heri
    ghtofhumanbeingst obe
    i
    ndividualsandt obet r
    eatednotj ustasahumanbei ngast hishumanbeingwith
    personal di
    ff
    erences.

    5.Conf
    ident
    ial
    it
    y

    Theideabehindthepri
    ncipleofconfi
    denti
    ali
    tyistoprovi
    dethecli
    entprot
    ecti
    on,
    withi
    ntheli
    mitsofthelaw,f
    rom harmt hatmightr
    esultfr
    om hisdiv
    ulgi
    nginfor
    mationto
    theworker.I
    ftheclientissofreelyexpresshisfeel
    ingsandputdownhi s“def
    enses”
    thentheremustbesomeassur ancethatwhathet ell
    shi sworkerwillbekepti n
    confi
    dence.

    6.Wor
    kersel
    f-
    awar
    eness

    Thi
    spri
    nci
    plemeanst hatthesoci
    al wor
    keri
    salwaysconsci
    ousthatherrol
    eisto
    makeuseofherpr of
    essionalrel
    ati
    onshipwithhercli
    enti
    nawayt hatwi l
    lenhance
    pr
    imar
    il
    ythecl
    i
    ent’
    sdev el
    opmentr at
    herthanherown.

    Sel
    f-
    disci
    pli
    nei scrucialtothepr i
    ncipl
    eofwor kersel
    f-awareness.Herv ery
    posi
    tionprovideshercountl
    essoppor t
    uni
    ti
    estomani pulat
    epeopleandt heiraf
    fai
    rs,and
    touseherr elati
    onshipwit
    hthem t omeetpersonalneeds.Thisisespecial
    lytrueinthe
    Phil
    i
    ppi nesetti
    ngwher emajor i
    tyofsoci
    alwor kcl
    ientsarepoor,havel i
    tt
    leeducation,
    andar eoft
    enbehol dentoanyonewhocangi vethem anykindofhelp.

    Theconsci
    oususeofone’
    ssel
    fisal
    sopartofthi
    sprinci
    ple.Theworker
    ’sgoali
    s
    forhercl
    ientt
    oulti
    matel
    ylear
    nto“i
    nter
    nal
    ize”l
    i
    mits,sothattheyt hemsel
    vesdevel
    op
    self
    -di
    sci
    pli
    ne.

    479
    Anotheraspect,whi
    chrelat
    est oself
    -awareness,i
    stheneedfortheworkertobe
    consci
    ousofhowsher espondsorr eacttomani pul
    ati
    onbyothers.Bybeingconsci
    ous
    ofthi
    s,thenshecanl earntheskil
    lofproperlyhandli
    ngcert
    ainactsthatunder
    mineher
    prof
    essionalr
    ole.

    7.Cl
    ient
    -wor
    kerr
    elat
    ionshi
    p

    Thepurposeofworker
    -cl
    ientr
    elat
    ionshipi
    stohel
    pthecli
    enti
    nsomeareaofhi
    s
    soci
    alf
    unct
    ioni
    ngi nwhichatthepresenttimeheisexperi
    enci
    ngsomedif
    fi
    cult
    yand
    wheret
    heworkerisinsomeposit
    iontoofferhel
    p.

    A purposivewor ker
    -cl
    ientr elat
    ionship al
    lowsf orsomedegr eeofsubj ecti
    ve
    feel
    ings,whichcannotbeent i
    rel
    yr emov edinanyr el
    ationshi
    p.Tobeconsci ousoft hese
    feel
    ings,whet herpositi
    veornegat iveandt obeabl et ocontrolt
    hem isv er
    yimpor tant.
    Thesoci alwor kli
    ter
    aturesusest hephr ase“contr
    oll
    edemot ionalinv
    olvement”,perhaps
    because admi tt
    edly,the socialwor ker’
    s humani ty prev
    ents her f r
    om r emaining
    emot i
    onallyuninvolvedinherrelati
    onshi pwithothers,butcredit
    sherwi ththecapaci t
    y
    tocontrolthedegr eeofherenv i
    ronment .

    Cl
    ient
    -wor
    kerr
    elat
    ionshi
    pcomponent
    s:

    1.TRANSFERENCE–bel ievedtotakeplacewhenthecli
    entunconsciousl
    yt r
    ansfersto
    thesocialworkerat
    tri
    butesorcharacter
    isti
    csofsomeimportantorpowerfulpersonsin
    earl
    yli
    fe.Thismayr esultinposit
    iveornegati
    veatt
    it
    udestowardsthewor ker.Askill
    ed
    workerwi l
    lnotpr ol
    ong t r
    ansfer
    ence,ev en i
    fiti
    spositiv
    e,ast hiscan encour age
    dependencyont hepartofthecli
    ent.

    2.COUNTER- TRANSFERENCE – the opposi


    te oftransf
    erence wher
    et he wor
    ker
    unconsci
    ousl
    ytransf
    ert
    othecl
    i
    entatt
    ri
    buti
    onsofsigni
    fi
    cantpersonsi
    nherpast
    .

    3.REALITY–actualbei
    ngorexi stence,asopposedt oani maginary,i
    dealized,orfal
    se
    natur
    e;somethi
    ngthathasrealexistenceandmustbedeal twit
    hinr eall
    ife.
    Ambival
    ence– basedont hepropositi
    onthatthehumanmi ndf uncti
    onsi na
    duali
    sti
    cwaythatconfl
    i
    ctsbetweeni tsopposingtendenci
    es(ambivalence)oftenresult
    s.
    Cli
    ent’
    sexperi
    enceambival
    entfeelings,suchasabouthomeandt hemember sofone’s
    famil
    y(lov
    ingandhati
    ng),
    acceptingmat eri
    alassist
    anceandsoon.

    Modul
    eG4
    PROFESSI
    ONALETHI
    CS

    Ethicsi
    sthesciencethattr
    eatsofmoralandrightconduct.Prof
    essionalet
    hicsis
    thesystem ofet
    hicalpri
    nci
    plesandrulesofconductgeneral
    lyacceptedbythemember s
    ofapr ofessi
    onalgroup,basedont hephil
    osophy,valuesandgui di
    ngprincipl
    esoft he
    prof
    ession.

    Twoaspect
    sofet
    hics:

    1.TheProfessi
    on’sCodeofEt hi
    cs–thewri
    ttenexpr
    essi
    onofsomeoft hese
    pri
    nci
    plesandrul
    esofconductf
    ort
    hegui
    danceofthepr
    ofessi
    onal
    group.

    2.TheUnwr
    it
    tenPr
    inci
    plesandRul
    esofConduct–whi
    chusual
    l
    yhav
    ethesame

    480
    f
    orceast
    heCode.

    Together,theyserve as a compass t
    hathelps gui
    de t
    he pr
    acti
    ti
    onerin her
    prof
    essionalrelat
    ionshi
    pwithhercli
    ent
    ,wit
    hthecol
    l
    eaguesandherprof
    ession,
    wit
    hher
    agency,andwi t
    ht hepubl
    ic.

    Thefol
    l
    owingar
    ethePhi l
    ippi
    neAssoci
    ati
    onofSoci
    alWorker
    ’sCodeofEt
    hicsas
    r
    evi
    sedin1998;
    theor
    igi
    nal
    /fi
    rstcodewasadoptedi
    n1964,andt
    henrev
    isedi
    n1972.

    Pur
    poseoft
    hecodeofet
    hics:

    1.Ithelpscheckabuseswhi ch can r esul


    tfrom thepower sand pri
    vil
    eges
    accompany i
    ngt hemonopol yenj
    oy edbyapr ofessi
    on;
    2.Itprovi
    dest hecommuni tysomepr otecti
    onagaianstabusesbymember sof
    theprofession;
    3.Itsetsforthbasicpri
    ncipleswhichser vesasguideli
    nestomembersoff utur
    e
    professional
    s
    4.Itusesgui deli
    nesforrelati
    onship,ifnotspecifi
    cdutiesofmemberstoeach
    other,t
    ot heircl
    ient
    sandt oothergr oups;
    5.Itisausef ulresour
    cefort heenrichmentorimpr ovementofthepr
    ofessional
    curri
    culum.

    Codeofet
    hics

    We,
    themember
    soft
    hePhi
    l
    ippi
    neAssoci
    ati
    onofSoci
    alWor
    ker
    s,I
    nc.bel
    i
    evi
    ng:

     I
    nt hei nherentwor t
    handdi gnit
    yofal lper sonsemanat ingf rom aSupr emeBei ng
    whodi rectsouract i
    onsofl ov eforoneanot her ;
     That ev ery human bei ng has nat uraland soci alr i
    ghts,capaci ti
    es and
    responsi bi
    li
    ti
    est odev elophi sfullpotentialasahumanbei ng;
     I
    nt hehumanbei ng’scapaci tyt ochangeandr ecogni zet hev alueofuni tyin
    diver si
    ty, i
    ndivi
    dual dif
    ferencesandpl uralism i nsoci et
    y;
     I
    nf r eemenandwomenl i
    v i
    nginaf r
    eesoci etywher epov erty,inal lit
    sf orms,is
    neitheraf atenorapuni shmentbuti sacondi tionthatcanandmustbechanged.
     I
    nt hef amilyast hebasi cuni tofsoci etyandi tsv it
    alr olei nt hegr owthand
    dev elopmentoft hei ndivi
    dual ,t
    hef ami l
    ysy st em andt hecommuni ty;
     Thatt hegov ernment ,t
    hepr ivatesect orandt hepubl i
    chav eaj ointr esponsibi
    lit
    y
    topr omot esoci aljusti
    ceandt oensur et hepol it
    ical,economi candsoci alwell-
    beingofal lpeopl e;
     I
    nt her oleofsoci alwor kersasagent sandadv ocatest ochangeandi nt he
    promot ionofpr ofessionalism, responsibilit
    yandaccount abil
    it
    y ;
    and
     Thatourpr ofessionalpracticeisdeepl yroot edi nourcul t
    ur alvalues.

    Doher
    ebydecl
    aret
    hatwewi
    l
    labi
    debyt
    hesest
    andar
    dsofet
    hical
    conduct
    :

    A.Rel
    ati
    vet
    osel
    fandt
    hepr
    ofessi
    on

    1.Toconductmy selfinamannerconsi stentwit


    ht hephi l
    osophy,pri
    ncipl
    es,
    values
    andbeliefsofthesocialwor kprofession;
    2.To actatal lt imes wi t
    h honest y,openness,and t ransparency i
    n allmy
    prof
    essionaltransacti
    ons;
    3.To const ant
    ly wor ktowar ds my own pr ofessionaladv ancementso as t o
    contr
    ibutetothepr omotionofsoci alworkpractice;
    4.Tocont ri
    butetimeandpr ofessi
    onalexper t
    isetoact iv
    iti
    esthatpromoterespect
    fort
    hei nt
    egrit
    yandcompet enceofsoci alworker s;
    5.Toshar er esearchknowl edgeandpr acti
    cewi sdom t ocol l
    eaguesandot her
    prof
    essionals;

    481
    6.Tobev i
    gilantandactt opr eventtheunaut hori
    zedandunqual i
    fi
    edpr act
    iceof
    soci
    al work;
    7.Tosuppor tt heprofessionalassociati
    ondul yorganizedandconsti
    tutedforthe
    prof
    essional wel
    fareofal lsoci
    al workers;
    8.Tor espondandv olunteermypr of
    essionalservi
    cesintimesofemergency;
    9.Touphol dandpr otectthedignityandintegri
    tyofthepr of
    essi
    on;
    and
    10.Topr omot eculturalvaluest hatwi l
    lenhancet hepr acti
    ceofthesoci alwork
    prof
    ession.

    B.Rel
    ati
    vet
    ocl
    ient

    1.To uphol dt he basic human r i


    ghts of cli
    ents and servet hem wi t
    hout
    di
    scriminat
    ion;
    2.Toacceptpr i
    mar yresponsibi
    l
    ityandaccountabi
    li
    tytocli
    ents,
    respecti
    ngi nal
    lmy
    deal
    ingswitht hem;
    3.Toseekoutt hemar gi
    nali
    zedandensur eequalaccesstotheresources,servi
    ces
    andoppor t
    unitiesr
    equiredtomeetbasicneeds;and
    4.To expend choi ce and opportuni
    tyforal lpersons,wit
    h specialr egar
    df or
    di
    sadv ant
    agedoroppr essedgr oupsorpersons.

    C.Rel
    ati
    vet
    ocol
    leagues

    1.To acknowledge and r espectt he prof


    essionalexpertise ofotherdi scipl
    ine
    extendi
    ngallnecessarycooper at
    ionthatwill
    enhanceef fect
    iveserv
    ices;
    2.Tobr i
    nganyv i
    olat
    ionofpr ofessi
    onalethicsandst andar
    dst otheatt
    entionoft he
    appropri
    atebodiesinsideandout si
    det hepr ofessi
    onandensur et hatrelevant
    cl
    ientsareproperl
    yinvolved;and
    3.Toadv ocat
    ewi t
    hlegisl
    ativeandpol i
    cybodiesf orthewelfar
    eofallcoll
    eagues.

    Soci
    alwor
    ker
    s’oat
    h

    Ako si____
    ___
    __ng ___
    _____ayt aimti
    m na nanunumpang i t
    ataguyod ko at
    i
    pagt at
    anggolangSali
    gangBatasngPi li
    pinas;naako’
    ytunaynamananal i
    gattatal
    ima
    ri
    to;nasusundi nkoangmgaut osnal egal;atmgabatasnai pinahahay agngmga
    sadyang iti
    nakdang may kapangyari
    han ng Republi
    ka ng Pil
    ipinas;atkusa kong
    binabal
    ikanangpananagut
    angito,nangwal anganumangpasubal
    i ohangaringumiwas.

    Taimt
    im parinakongnanunumpanasal ahatngpanahonatpookna
    ki
    naroroonan ay mahigpit kong panghahawakan ang mga et ikal at tunt
    uning
    propesyonalngmgaMangagawangPanl i
    punanatmat apatkonggagampanannang
    buonghusaysaabotngaki ngmakakay aangmgat ungkulinatpananagutangini
    atang
    saisangiti
    nakdangMangagawangPanli
    punan.

    I
    naddit
    iont
    othefor
    egoi
    ngCodeandOat h,thereareunwr
    it
    tendut
    iesandobli
    gat
    ions
    t
    hatar
    eexpect
    edofapr
    ofessi
    onal
    soci
    alworker.Thefol
    l
    owi
    ngaresomeofthese:

    1.Dut
    iest
    owar
    dscl
    i
    ent
    s

    A pr ofessionaldeals wit
    h cli
    entopenlyand frankly;is patient
    ,tolerant,and
    considerateoft heclient
    ’spointofv i
    ew,neverusest hreatsordecei t;i
    spunct ualin
    keepingappoi ntments,andmakesnocompr omisesshecannotkeep;i scar efuland
    thoroughindeal i
    ngwi thcl
    ient
    s’probl
    ems,neverdiscr
    iminatesagainstanyclient,giving
    so-call
    ed“ hopeless”casesasmuchat tent
    ionaspromisingones;wi l
    lactinrelati
    ont oa
    cli
    ent’
    spr oblem ont hebasisofadequateknowledgeofclient
    ’ssi
    tuation.

    2.Dut
    iest
    owar
    dscol
    l
    eaguesandt
    hepr
    ofessi
    on

    Aprofessi
    onali
    scour
    teousandf
    airi
    ndeali
    ngwi
    thco-wor
    ker
    s;cooper
    ateswi
    th
    co-
    wor
    ker
    si nthepursui
    tofcommongoals;shoul
    dmai
    ntai
    nhighstandar
    dsofhonor
    ,

    482
    i
    ntegri
    tyandmor ali
    ty;makesonlyconst r
    ucti
    vecr
    it
    icismsofco- wor ker
    sandoft he
    prof
    ession;doesnotexpl
    oitherprof
    essionalmembership,anddisti
    nguishesbet
    ween
    acti
    vi
    ti
    esshedoesnotasapr i
    vatecit
    izenandasamemberoft heprofessi
    on.

    3.Dut
    iest
    owar
    dst
    heagency
    /or
    gani
    zat
    ion

    A professi
    onalisl oyaltoheragency ,cooperat
    esint heachi evementofher
    agency ’
    sgoal,seeksoppor t
    unit
    yt oparti
    cipat
    eint heformulat
    ionofpol ici
    es,ther
    eby
    contri
    buting t
    ot heimpr ovementofagencyser vices,doesnotj ustopposeagency
    poli
    cieswi t
    houtf i
    rstdiscussingt hematterwiththeirappr
    opr i
    atepersons,observes
    establi
    shedagencyr ul
    es,channel s,andprocedur
    es,andadv ocatesfortheirchangeor
    modi f
    icati
    onifthesearenotsat i
    sfactor
    y.

    Modul
    eG5
    TheI
    nter
    nat
    ionalFeder
    ati
    onf
    orSoci
    alwor
    ker
    s,I
    nc.

    Def
    ini
    ti
    onofSoci
    alWor
    k

    Thesoci
    alworkprof
    essionpr
    omotessocialchange,pr
    oblem-sol
    vingi nhuman
    r
    elat
    ionshi
    psandempowermentandli
    berat
    ionofpeopletoenhancewell-
    being.Uti
    li
    zing
    t
    heoriesofhumanbehaviorandsocialsy
    stem,socialworkinterv
    enesatt hepoints
    wherepeoplei
    nter
    actwit
    ht hei
    renvi
    ronments.Pr
    inci
    plesofhumanr i
    ghtsandsoci al

    483
    j
    ust
    icear
    efundament
    alt
    osoci
    alwor
    k.

    I
    nter
    nat
    ionalconv
    ent
    ion

    Inter
    nat
    ionalhumanr i
    ght
    sdecl
    arati
    onandconvent
    ionsf
    rom commonst
    andar
    ds
    ofachi
    evement
    , andrecogni
    zeri
    ght
    sthatareaccept
    edbythegl
    obal
    communit
    y.

    Document
    spar
    ti
    cul
    arl
    yrel
    evantt
    osoci
    alwor
    kpr
    act
    iceandact
    ionar
    e:

    1.Uni
    v ersalDeclarat
    ionofHumanRi ghts
    2.TheI nter
    nat i
    onalCovenantonCi v
    ilandPoli
    ti
    calRight
    s
    3.TheI nter
    nat i
    onalCovenantonEconomi c,Soci
    al,
    andCultur
    alRi
    ghts
    4.TheConv enti
    onont heElimi
    nationofAllFormsofRacial
    Discr
    iminat
    ion
    5.The Conv enti
    on on the El
    iminati
    on ofAl lFormsofDi scr
    iminat
    ion Agai
    nst
    Women
    6.TheConv enti
    onont heRightsoftheChild
    7.I
    ndigenousandTr ibalPeopl
    esConv enti
    on

    Pr
    inci
    ples

    A.HumanRi
    ght
    sandHumanDi
    gni
    ty

    Soci
    alWor ki
    sbasedonr espectforthei
    nher
    entworthanddigni
    tyofallpeopl
    e,
    andtheri
    ghtsthatfoll
    ow fr
    om thi
    s.Socialworker
    sshouldupholdanddef endeach
    per
    son’
    sphysical
    ,psychol
    ogi
    cal
    ,emot i
    onal,andspi
    ri
    tuali
    ntegr
    it
    yandwell-
    being.Thi
    s
    means:

    1.Respect ingt herighttosel f


    -determi nati
    on-socialworkersshouldr espectand
    promot epeopl e’sr i
    ghtst omaket heirownchoi cesanddecisions,irr
    especti
    ve
    oft heirv aluesandl if
    echoi ces,pr ov i
    dedthisdoesnott hreatenther i
    ghtand
    l
    egi ti
    mat ei nter
    estofot her s.
    2.Promot ingt her i
    ghtt opar ti
    cipation–soci alworkersshoul
    dpr omot et hefull
    i
    nv olvementand par ti
    cipation ofpeopl e usi
    ng theirservi
    cesi n way sthat
    enabl es t hem t o be empower ed i n allaspects ofdecisions and act i
    ons
    affectingt heirl
    ives.
    3.Treatingeachper sonasawhol e–soci alworkersshouldbeconcer nedwith
    the whol e person,wi thi
    nt he fami ly,communi tyand societaland nat ural
    env i
    ronment ,andshoul dseekt orecogni zeallaspectsofaperson’sl i
    fe.
    4.Identifyinganddev el
    opingst r
    engt hs– soci alworkersshoul dfocusont he
    strengt hsofal li
    ndi vi
    duals,groups,andcommuni ti
    esandt huspr omot etheir
    empower ment .

    B.Soci
    alJust
    ice

    Soci
    alwor ker
    shavear esponsi
    bil
    i
    tytopromot
    esocialjust
    ice,i
    nr el
    ati
    ont
    o
    soci
    etygener
    all
    y,andinr
    elat
    iont
    othepeoplewi
    thwhom t
    heywork.Thismeans:

    1.Challengingnegat i
    vedi scriminati
    on– soci alworkershav ear esponsi
    bil
    it
    yt o
    chall
    engenegat ivediscri
    mi nati
    onont hebasi sofcharact er
    ist
    icssuchasabi lit
    y,
    age,cul ture,gender ,orsex,mar italst atus,socio-
    economi c st
    atus,poli
    tical
    opinions,ski n colororot herphy sicalchar acter
    ist
    ics,sex ualorient
    ati
    on,or
    spiri
    tualbelief.
    2.Recogni zingdiversit
    y–soci alwor ker sshoul drecognizeandr especttheethnic
    andcul turaldi v
    ersit
    yofsoci etiesi nwhi cht heypractice,taki
    ngaccount sof
    i
    ndividuals,family,gr
    oupandcommuni tydiffer
    ences.
    3.Distr
    ibutingr esourcesequi tably–soci alwor kersshouldensur ethatresources
    attheirdisposal aredist
    ributedfair
    ly ,accordingtoneed.
    4.Challengingunj ustpol i
    ciesandpr act i
    ces– soci alwor kershav ethei
    rdutyt o

    484
    bri
    ng tot heat tentionoft heirempl oyers,pol icymaker s,poli
    ti
    ciansand t he
    generalpubli
    csit uationswher epeopl earel i
    vingi npov ert
    y ,wher
    eresour cesare
    i
    nadequat e orwher e dist
    ributi
    on ofr esour ces,pol ici
    es and pr act
    ices are
    oppressi
    v e,
    unfairandhar mful.
    5.Workingi nsolidar i
    ty– soci alwor kershav eanobl igat i
    ont ochallengesoci al
    condit
    ionsthatcont r i
    butetosoci alexcl
    usi on,stigmatizationorsubjugation,and
    towor ktowardsani ncl usi
    vesociety.

    Pr
    ofessi
    onal
    conduct

    I
    tistheresponsi
    bil
    i
    tyofthenat
    ionalor
    ganizati
    onsi
    nmember shipofIFSW t
    o
    devel
    opandr egul
    arl
    yupdatethei
    rowncodeofet hicsoret
    hicalgui
    del
    inescurr
    enti
    n
    thei
    rcount
    ry.

    Soci alwor ker sshoul dacti naccor dancewi tht heet hicalcodeorgui delines
    curr
    enttot henat ional cont ex t
    .Thef ollowi nggener algui deli
    nesonpr of essi onal conduct
    appl
    y :
    1.Soci alwor ker sar eexpect edt odev elopandmai nt aint her equi r
    edski l
    l
    sand
    compet encet odot heirjob.
    2.Soci alwor ker sshoul dnotal l
    ow t heirski ll
    sbeusedf ori nhumanepur poses,
    suchast or tur eort er r
    orism.
    3.Soci alwor ker s shoul d actwi thi ntegr i
    t y– t hisi ncludes notabusi ng t he
    rel
    at ionshi p oft rustwi t
    ht he peopl e usi ng t heirser vices,r ecogni zing t he
    boundar i
    es bet ween per sonaland pr of essionall i
    f e,and notabusi ng t hei
    r
    posi ti
    onf orper sonal benef itorgai n.
    4.Soci alwor ker sshoul dacti nr elationt ot hepeopl eusi ngt hei rser vi
    ceswi th
    compassi on, empat hyandcar e.
    5.Soci alwor ker sshoul dnotsubor dinat et heneedsori nterestofpeopl ewhouse
    theirser vicest ot hei rownneedsori nterest .
    6.Soci alwor ker shav eadut yt ot akenecessar yst epst ocar ef ort hemsel ves
    prof essional lyandper sonal lyi nt hewor kpl aceandi nsoci ety,inor dert oensur e
    thatt heyar eabl et opr ovideappr opr iateser vi
    ces.
    7.Soci alwor ker s shoul d mai nt ain conf i
    dent i
    alityr egar ding i nf or mat i
    on about
    peopl ewhouset heirser v i
    ces.Except ionst ot hismayonl ybej ustifi
    edont he
    basi sofagr eat eret hical requi rement( suchast hepr eser vationofl ife).
    8.Soci alwor ker sneedt oacknowl edget hatt heyar eaccount ablef ort heiract ions
    tot heircl ient s,t hepeopl et heywor kwi th,t heircol l
    eagues,t hei rempl oy ers,the
    prof essionalassoci at i
    onandt ot hel aw,andt hatt heseaccount abili
    tiesmay
    conf li
    ct .
    9.Soci alwor ker shav eadut yt ocol labor atewi tht heschoolofsoci alwor kinor der
    tosuppor tsoci alwor kst udent st ogetpr act i
    calt rainingofgoodqual it
    yandup
    todat epr act ical knowl edge.
    10.Soci alwor ker sshoul dfost erandengagei nethi caldebat ewi t
    ht hei rcol l
    eagues
    andempl oy ersandt aker esponsi bi l
    ityformaki nget hical l
    yi nfor meddeci sions.
    11.Soci alwor ker sshoul dbepr epar edt ost atet her easonsf ort hei rdeci sions
    based onet hicalconsi der ations,and beaccount ablef ort hei rchoi cesand
    actions.
    12.Soci alwor ker sshoul dwor kt ocr eatecondi ti
    onsi nempl oy i
    ngagenci esandt hei
    r
    count r
    ieswher et hepr incipl eoft hisst at ementandt hoseoft hei rownnat i
    onal
    code( ifappl i
    cabl e)ar edi scussed, ev aluat ed,anduphel d.

    Ar
    easofet
    hicaldi
    lemmast
    hatsoci
    alwor
    ker
    sface:

    1.Manipulati
    on– comesi nmanyf orms,suchasi nthemat terofinfl
    uencing
    cl
    ient
    st oacti nwayawor kerwant st hem t oacti nr esponsetoagi ven
    si
    tuat
    ion,ormani pul
    atingagencyreportstoj usti
    fybudgetaryrequest
    s.
    2.Advocacy– i nthecauseofadv ocacy,somepr omot eunnecessaryconfli
    ct
    si
    tuat
    ion,r esor
    ti
    ng tov ari
    ous machinat i
    ons,i ncl
    uding the use ofinsults,
    embarrassment, distort
    ion of t r
    uth, di srupti
    on, and v iol
    ence. Rati
    onal
    pr
    ocessesar esetaside,“fort
    heendj usti
    fiest hemeans”.

    485
    3.Conf li
    cting l oy alt
    ies – al though l oyaltyt o one’s agency as among t he
    professi onal’sdut iest oheragencyoror ganizati
    on,l
    oy altytoone’scol leagues
    (orpr ofessi onalgr oup)asoneoft woar easar oundwhi chnor msgov erning
    coll
    eaguesr elat i
    onscl uster.Theyr efert ot hisas“uni t
    yt owardoutgr oups” ,
    which meanst hatpr ofessional suni te agai nstoutsiderwho t hreat enst he
    pri
    vilegesandr ewar dsoft hegr oup.Thus,anaccept ednor minapr of ession
    l
    ikemedi cinei s“ donot hingandadmi ttonot hingwhi chwi l
    ldi scr editt he
    professi onint heey esofout sider s”.
    4.Cultur alandot herr eali
    ties–ourcul t
    urepr esentscertainet hi
    caldilemmast o
    thesoci alwor ker.Forexampl e,t hesoci alwor kerisexpect edtof ollow t he
    establ i
    shedr ulesandpr ocedur esofanagency .Howev er,ourwor kersknow
    thatourper sonal i
    sticcul tureof tencal lsfortheuseofper sonal“connect ions”
    tofaci li
    tateact iononacl ient’
    sr equest .Theuseofone’ sconnect i
    ons, howev er,
    quiteof tenmeanst hatonehast odi sregardaccept edagencyr ul
    esorchannel s,
    witht her esul t
    antef f
    ectt hatone’ ssuccessi nusing“ connect i
    ons”canbet o
    thedi sadv ant ageofanot herwor ker .

    Concl
    usi
    on:

    Thequalit
    yoft hepersondeci dingtobepr ofessionalsocialworkeriscrucial
    .It
    goesbey ondsoci
    oeconomi clevel,int
    ell
    igencequoti
    ent,mot i
    vat
    ions,andaspirati
    ons.It
    shoul
    di ncludeacertai
    ndegr eeofper sonalidenti
    ty,hungerf orchangeandcr eati
    vi
    ty,
    opennesst olear
    ning,rel
    earning,anddi scover
    y.Internali
    zingpr of
    essionalphil
    osophy
    andethicswouldrequir
    etheseat t
    ribut
    es.

    The essence ofsocialworkphil


    osophyand et
    hicscannotbe “
    taught,
    ”but
    “
    imbi
    bed.”I
    ft heyare“taught,
    ”theyremainext
    ernalt
    ot heprof
    essi
    onal
    ;iftheyare
    “
    imbi
    bed,
    ”theybecomepar toftheper
    son.

    Ourprofession demands fr
    om us a gr
    eatper sonaldiscipl
    ine suffi
    cientfor
    carr
    yingoutourobject
    ivesofpromoti
    nghumanwel f
    areandhappi ness,sothatbot hour
    cl
    ientsandwewi l
    lbeinabetterposi
    ti
    ontof
    ulf
    il
    ltheendf orwhi
    chGodcr eatedman.

    Modul
    eH
    Knowl
    edgeFoundat
    ionofSoci
    alWor
    k

     Likeallotherprofessi
    ons,socialworkderiv
    esknowledgefrom av ariet
    yof
    sources,i
    .e.
    ,bor
    rowedknowl edgegenerat
    edandt est
    edinthebasi cprinci
    ples
    (psychol
    ogy,ant
    hropology,soci
    ology
    ,etc.
    );knowl
    edgefrom otherprofessions
    (humanser vi
    ceprofessi
    onsborrow knowl
    edgef r
    om eachother,l
    ikemedi cine

    486
    andsoci
    alwor
    k),
    andknowl
    edgef
    rom t
    hepr
    ofessi
    oni
    tsel
    f.

     Alf
    red Kadushin stat
    es that t
    he “knowl
    edge base of soci
    alwor kisa
    comprehensivetopi
    cwhich encompassest hefact
    sand theor
    ies,ski
    l
    lsand
    att
    it
    udes,necessar
    yforef
    fecti
    ve,
    eff
    ici
    entpr
    acti
    ce.

    o SocialWel f
    arePol icyandSer vices,al sor eferredt oasWel farePol i
    cy ,
    Progr amsandSer vi
    cesi sconcer nedwi tht heor ganizati
    on,admi nistrati
    on,
    and oper ation ofsoci alwel fare pr ogr ams and ser vi
    ces whi ch ar e
    establ i
    shedi nsoci et yinor dert omeethumanneedsandpr oblems,t he
    developmentoft hesepol iciesandpr ogr ams,t heinterrel
    ati
    onshi poft he
    agenci eswhi chunder taket hem, andt henat ureofneedsbei ngser vedby
    thesepr ograms
    o HumanBehav iorandSoci alEnv ir
    onmenti sconcer nedwi ththemat erial
    necessar yf orunder standing the cl i
    enti n his problem si t
    uat i
    on,t he
    dynami csofi ndivi
    dualandgr oupbehav i
    or ,andofgr oupandcommuni ty
    processeswhi chaf fectori nfl
    uencet hei ndividual,thegr oupandt he
    communi ty.
    o SocialWor kPr acti
    ce,commonl yr eferredt oasSoci alWor kMet hods,i s
    concer nedwi tht heact ualpr ocessbywhi cht hesoci alworkerhel psher
    cli
    ent -ani ndiv i
    dual, group, orcommuni ty,themet hodsandt echniquesof
    helping,t her esour cesnecessar yf orhel ping,aswel last heappr opriate
    atti
    tudest hatf aci
    li
    tat ethehel pingpr ocess.

    THEESSENTI
    ALELEMENTSI
    NSOCI
    ALWORKPRACTI
    CE

    Theessential
    element
    sinsocialwor
    kpracti
    cearet
    heclient
    ,wor ker
    ,pr
    oblem and
    process.Li
    ppit
    t,WatsonandWest l
    ey,inTheDynamicsofPlannedChange,pr ovi
    deus
    withausef ulfr
    amewor kforunder
    standi
    ngtheseelements.Thev eryideaofpl aci
    ng
    them inthecontextof“pl
    annedchange”isuseful
    ,foraf
    teral
    l,socialworkisplanned
    change.

    Planned Changei sdef ined aschangeor i


    ginat
    ing f
    rom adeci sion to make
    deli
    berateef fortt oimprovet hesystem andt oobtainthehelpofanout sideagenti n
    maki ngt hisimpr ovement.Thedeci si
    ont omakeachangemay bemadebyt hesystem
    i
    tself,af terexper i
    enci
    ng pai n( malf
    unctioni
    ng),ordi scoveri
    ng the possi bi
    l
    ity of
    i
    mpr ovement ,orbyanout si
    dechangeagentwhoobser vestheneedf orchangei na
    part
    icularsy stem andt akesthei ni
    ti
    ati
    veinestabli
    shingahelpingrel
    ati
    onshi pwiththat
    system.
     Cl ientSy stem – thespeci fi
    csy st
    em t hati
    sbei nghelpedsuchani ndi
    vidual
    ,
    fami l
    y,asmal lgroup,andacommuni ty.

    Thet
    erm“
    cli
    entsy
    stem”canmeananyoft
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ng:

    1.The per sonalitysy stem whi ch consists ofr elat


    ed sub- parts;t he conscious,
    unconsci ous,themi ndandt hebody ;
    2.Thegr oup: famili
    es, commi ttee,staffs,cl
    ubs, andot hersmal lersoci alunit
    s;
    3.Theor ganization:anyoft helargersoci alsystem whi chcompr i
    set hecommuni t
    y:
    business or ganizations,wel far
    e agenci es,educat ionali nstit
    utions,r el
    igi
    ous
    associations,governmentbur eaus,politi
    calpar ti
    es;
    4.Thecommuni tymadeupofav ari
    etyofi nteracti
    ngsub- parts,e. g.
    ’indivi
    dual
    ci
    tizens,informalint erestgroups, organizedoccupat ionalorpol it
    icalsub-groups,
    economi candsoci al str
    ata,geogr aphicalunits,etc.

     Prof essionalChangeAgent– i sasoci alworkerwhosehel pingfunctionsar e


    facili
    tatedbypar aprofessionals,i
    ndigenouscommuni tyl
    eader s,andv olunteers.
    Apar tfrom herpr ofessionaleducationandherpr acti
    ceski
    lls,thesocialwor ker
    shoul dbeendowedwi t
    hcer t
    ainpersonali
    tytr
    ait
    s,amongt hemosti mpor tantof
    whi char egenuinelikingf orpeople,warmth,emot i
    onalmaturity,i
    ntegri
    ty,anda
    strongsenseofr esponsi bi
    li
    ty.

    487
     the“outsideagent
    ”whowor kswithpart
    icul
    arcli
    entsystems
     Thepr oblem orsi
    tuat
    iontobeassessedi sthereasonf ort
    heentr
    yofachange
    agent.
     The pr ocess orthe dev
    elopmentoft he hel
    ping r
    elati
    onshi
    pis def
    ined as
    consistingofthef
    oll
    owing“phasesofpl
    annedchange” :

     Phase1:t hecli
    entsy stem discov erstheneedf orhelp,somet i
    meswi t
    h
    sti
    mulati
    onbyt hechangeagent .
     Phase2:thehelpi
    ngr el
    at i
    onshipisest abli
    shedanddef i
    ned.
     Phase3:thechangepr oblem i
    si denti
    fiedandclari
    fi
    ed.
     Phase4:Al t
    ernat
    ivepossi bil
    it
    iesf orchangear eexami ned;changegoal
    s
    orint
    enti
    onsar eestablished
     Phase5:Changeef fortsinther eali
    tysituati
    onareattempt ed.
     Phase6:Changei sgener ali
    zedandst abil
    ized
     Phase7:Thehel pingr elati
    onshipendsoradi ff
    erentt y
    peofcont i
    nui
    ng
    rel
    ati
    onshipisdefi
    ned.

    Li
    ppittdescr
    ibest
    woconceptsusef
    ulinunder
    standi
    ngthedynami
    csofpl
    anned
    change.Thesearetheconcept
    sofchangef
    orceandresi
    stancef
    orce.

    a)ChangeFor ce–i sanaspectoft hesit


    uati
    onwhi chincreasest hewill
    i
    ngnessof
    theclientsystem t omakepr oposedchange.I tmayber ati
    onalori rr
    ati
    onal
    ,
    recognizedorunr ecognized,generalorspeci
    fic.I
    tmayor i
    ginatefrom thecli
    ent
    system, t
    heenv i
    ronment ,orthechangeagent.
    b)Resist
    anceFor ce–i sanaspectoft hesit
    uati
    onwhi chreducest hewill
    ingnessof
    thecli
    entsystem tochange.Justl i
    kechangeforce,
    itmayber at
    ionalorirr
    ati
    onal
    ,
    recognizedorunr ecognized,generalorspeci
    fic.I
    tmayor i
    ginatefrom thecli
    ent
    system, f
    rom t
    heenv i
    ronment ,
    orf r
    om thechangeagent.

     Probl
    em –ar i
    sesfr
    om someneedorobst acl
    eoraccumulationoffr
    ustr
    ationor
    maladjustments,and someti
    mesallthese toget
    her,whi
    ch t hr
    eat
    ensorhas
    al
    readyat t
    ackedtheadequacyofaper
    son’sli
    vingsit
    uat
    ion ortheef
    fect
    iveness
    ofhiseffort
    stodealwithi
    t.

    THEHELPI
    NG/
    PROBLEM-
    SOLVI
    NGPROCESS

     Origi
    noftheproblem -solv
    ing
     AccordingtoJohnDewey1933,t heproblem solv
    ingbehaviori
    sbasedonthe
    refl
    ecti
    vethoughtthatbeginswi
    thafeeli
    ngofdoubtorconf usi
    on.
     Inordertosolveapr oblem,apersonfoll
    owsar at
    ionalpr
    ocedur
    econsi
    sti
    ngof
    stepsinanorderl
    ysequence.

    TheSt
    epsi
    ntheSoci
    alWor
    kHel
    pingPr
    ocess

    Thesoci
    alwor
    khel
    pingpr
    ocessconsi
    stsofthef
    oll
    owingsequenti
    alst
    epswhich
    ar
    efol
    lowedwhenworki
    ngwithanytypeofcli
    entsyst
    em,i.
    e.,i
    ndi
    vidual
    ,famil
    y,smal
    l
    gr
    oup,
    community:

    1.Assessment
    2.Planning
    3.I
    nt erventi
    onorPl anImplementat
    ion
    4.Evaluationand
    5.Ter mination
    Thef i
    rstt wo stepsar econsider
    ed astheBegi nni
    ng Phaseoft heHelpi
    ng
    Process;t
    het hir
    dst epist heMiddleorInter
    vent
    ionPhase;thelastt
    wocomprisethe
    EndingPhase.
    Remembert hatonesteporphasehast obeenti
    rel
    ycompletedbef
    oremovingon
    tothenext.

    488
    TheHel
    pingRel
    ati
    onshi
    p

    Thewor ker-
    cli
    entr el
    ati
    onshipissuchacr ucialf actoritcanspel lt
    hediff
    erence
    betweensuccessf ulorunsuccessf ulprobl em- solvi
    ng.“ Rel ati
    onship”i sabasicconcept
    i
    n soci alwor k.Al loft he worker’
    s pr of essionalr elationshi ps shouldinvol
    ve self
    -
    discipli
    neandsel f
    -awareness.Theconsci oususeofone’ ssel f,inthecourseofhelping
    requiresj udgmentandmat ur
    it
    y.EmanuelTr opphaddev el
    opedani mport
    antsetof
    statement swhi ch,whil
    er elati
    ngprimaril
    yt ot hesoci alwor ker’spresentat
    ionofselfto
    the gr oup,coul dv ery wel lsum up t he essent ialchar acteri
    sti
    cs oft he worker’
    s
    present ationofsel ftoeachofhercl ients, whet heratt heirf ir
    stmeet ingorinthecourse
    ofthehel pingrelati
    onship:

    1.Compassi on-Ideeplycar eabouty ou.


    2.Mut ual ity-Wear eher eonacommonhumanl evel;l
    et ’
    sagr eeonapl anandt hen
    l
    et’swal kt hepat htoget her .
    3.Humi l
    ity -Pleasehel pmet ounder st and.
    4.Respect -Iconsi dery ouashav i
    ngwor th.It reaty ouri deasandf eel
    i
    ngswi th
    consi der ation.Idonoti ntrudeupony ourper son.
    5.Openness-Iof fermy selft oy ouasy ouseeme: real,genui neandaut hentic.
    6.Empat hy -Iam t ryi
    ngt of eel whaty ouaref eeli
    ng.
    7.I nvolvement -Iam tryingt oshar eandhel pi nyouref fort.
    8.Suppor t-Iwi lll
    endmyconv ictionandbackupy ourpr ogress.
    9.Expect ation-Ihav econf i
    dencet haty oucanachi evey ourgoal s.
    10.Limitat ion- I must r emi nd me of y our agr eed-upon obl igati
    on.
    Conf ront at i
    on-Imustasky out olookat y ourself.
    11.Planni ng-Iwi l
    lalway sbr ingpr oposal s,butIwoul dratherhav ey ours.
    12.Enabl ing-Iam her etohel py oubecomemor eable, mor epower ful.
    13.Spont anei tyandcont rol-Iwi llbeasopenaspossi ble,yetImustr ecognizet hat
    ,
    i
    ny ourbehal f,Ineedt oexer cisesomesel fcontrol.
    14.Roleandper son-Iam bot hahumanbei ngl i
    key ouandasoci alrepresentativ
    eof
    anagency ,witha special functiontoper form.
    15.Scienceandar t-Ihopet obr ingy oupr ofessionalski ll
    swhi chmustbebasedon
    organi zedknowl edge,buti ndeal ingwi thpeopl e,andmyhumani tymustl endar t
    togr acet hesci ence.

    489
    FI
    ELDS
    OF
    SOCI
    ALWORK
    Rev
    iewer
    :
    Ms.Gl
    ori
    aCeci
    li
    aBer
    nal

    I
    . TRADI
    TIONALSETTI
    NGS

    490
    A.PUBLI
    CASSI
    STANCE

    Isasol dashistory.I
    texi
    stedwaybackSpanishtimeswhent r
    ibesr esor
    tedto
    MUTUALAI DANDPROTECTI ONint i
    mesofneed.Itwil
    lneverbeobsol
    ete,especi
    all
    yin
    acountr
    ylikeoursravagedbyWor ldWarII
    ,pocketrevol
    ts,di
    spl
    acementsoff amil
    ies,
    nat
    ural
    disaster
    sandincreasi
    ngrat
    eofpovert
    y.

    Wear esituatedi nt hePacifi


    cRim wher
    ei ntheWi deOceanoft hepacifi
    ct heheat
    andcol dmeet ,thuspr oducingtyphoonsorsupert yphoons.Wehav et y
    phoonsev er
    y
    yearandsev eralti
    mesay ear
    .Wehav ebeenvisi
    tedbyt hestrongestt yphoonrecordedin
    human hi st
    ory whi ch had caused damage ofpr opert
    y and l oss ofl iv
    es bey ond
    i
    magi nati
    on.Fort his,reason,theimageofDSWDasr eli
    efgivi
    nggov ernmentagencywi ll
    bediffi
    culttoer asef rom themi ndsofthepublic.Socialwor kerswi l
    lbecont inuousl
    y
    vi
    ewedasr eli
    efwor kers.Thisstandsasoneoft hemaj orchal l
    engesoft hepr ofessi
    on
    hereinthePhilippines.(Bernal2017)

     PUBLI
    C ASSI STANCE r ef
    erstot he f
    inanci
    alassist
    ance and fi
    nanci
    alai
    d
    ext
    ended byt he gover
    nmentt oindi
    vi
    duals and f
    amili
    es who do nothav
    e
    suf
    fi
    cientr
    esourcestosustai
    nthemsel
    ves.

    TodayPUBLICASSI STANCEi svi


    ewedasinst
    rumentofdevel
    opment,thepoor
    ,the
    needy,andthedi sadvantagedmembersofsocietyar
    eassist
    edbyt hest at
    eintheir
    eff
    orttouplif
    tt heirsocio-economi
    ccondi
    ti
    onandi mprov
    et hei
    rstandardofli
    v i
    ng
    thr
    oughthediff
    erentdev el
    opmentprogr
    amsandservi
    ces.

    B.CHI
    LDWELFARE

    Chi
    ldwelf
    arestandsast heoldestwel f
    areprogram i
    nthePhili
    ppi
    nes,havi
    ng
    exist
    ed si
    ncepre-Spani
    sh per
    iod.During t
    heSpani sh col
    oni
    zati
    on i
    twast heonly
    program t
    hatwasgivenatt
    enti
    onwiththeest abl
    ishmentoftwo(2)or
    phanagesrunby
    rel
    igi
    ous:HOSPI
    CIODESANJOSE( 1882) ;
    ASILODESANVI CENTEDEPAUL( 1885)

    Dur
    ing t
    he1960schi l
    d wel
    far
    epr ogr
    am recei
    ved a boostwit
    ht heUNICEF
    ASSI
    STED SOCIALSERVICES.A si
    gni
    fi
    cantsupportcamefrom theformerfir
    stlady
    I
    meldaMarcoswhopouredquit
    easum ofmoneytoimprovefaci
    li
    ti
    esandserv
    ices.

    WHYI
    STHEREANEEDFORCHI
    LDWELFAREPROGRAMS?

    1.Chil
    drenarethemostv ulnerablesect
    orofsociet
    y
    2.Withouta stabl
    ef amilyt heyar eexposed to allt hehazardsofthesoci al
    envir
    onment.
    3.Chil
    dreninthei
    rtenderagear edependenttowardt heirf
    amil
    iespr
    acti
    call
    yinall
    thei
    rneeds.
    4.Incaseoffail
    ureofthef amilytoperfor
    mi t
    sfunctiont hest
    atehastotakeover.
    Based on the PRINCI PLE OF PARENS PATRI AE,ort he STATE AS THE
    GUARDI ANOFALL.

    WHYI
    STHEREANEEDFORASTRONGLEGI SLATIONFORPROTECTI ONOFCHI LDREN?
    1.Thest at
    ehast oproveit
    sser i
    ousnessi nenfor
    cingsancti
    onstothosewhoabuse
    chil
    drenormi nor
    s.
    2.Legisl
    ationsarest
    rongprotectionagainstabuseandv i
    olati
    onofri
    ghts.
    3.Legisl
    ationsarecarr
    iedont henat i
    onalscalehencethel ongarm ofthelawwil
    l
    reachv i
    olat
    orsandabusersev erywhere.

    LEGI
    SLATI
    ONSRELATEDTOTHEWELFAREOFCHI
    LDREN:

    491
    1.PD603–TheChildandYouthWelf
    areCode
    2.RA7610–LawagainstChil
    dAbuse
    3.RA9262–Viol
    enceagainstwomenandchi
    ldr
    en

    CHI
    LDWELFARESERVI ESAREOFTWO( 2)CATEGORI ES:
    1. DayCar eSer vice– chi l
    drenbel ow 6y earsarepr ov i
    dedpar tti
    mesubst i
    tute
    parentalcarewhi l
    etheirwor kingmot hersareoutsi
    det hehome.
    2. Chil
    d Pl acementSer vi
    ces – mi norswho ar enegl ect ed,abandoned,abused,
    orphanedordest i
    tutearepr ovidedsubstit
    utehomepl acement .
    a)Adopt i
    on– pr ovidesper manentsubstit
    utecar ef ort hechildwhenhi s
    parentsar eeitherunabl eorunwi l
    li
    ngtocaref orhi m/ her.
    b)Guar dianshi p–chi ldrenwhoar edependent ,negl ectedorproblemati
    car e
    providedwi t
    hcour tappoi nt
    edguar di
    anst opr ovidesubst i
    tutepar
    ent al
    care,tempor aril
    yorper manentl
    ywheni nsti
    tutional careoradopt i
    oni
    snot
    possible.
    c) Fost erHomeCar e–t hisref
    erst otheprovisionoft emporarysubsti
    tute
    familycar eifadoptioni sneit
    herpossibl
    enordesi r
    able.
    d)Resi dent i
    alCar e/I
    nst i
    tuti
    onalPlacement–i nst i
    tuti
    onalplant omeett he
    needsoft hechi l
    d.

    ROLEOFSOCIALWORKERS
    1.Caseworkwi t
    hf amil
    ies
    2.Lear
    nthepsy chologyofchildr
    en
    3.Keepabreastont helat
    estlegi
    slationonchildr
    en
    4.Makeast andoni ssuesaff
    ectingchi l
    dren’
    swelfar
    e
    5.Mayinvolvethemselvesinresearch,planni
    ngandpoli
    cyf
    ormul
    ati
    on
    6.Lobbyforlegi
    slati
    onaffect
    ingchildren

    C.FAMI
    LYWELFARE

    I
    sbr oadlydefinedasacomposi t
    einter
    venti
    vet echni
    ques,act
    ivi
    ti
    esormeasures
    focused on t he prev enti
    ve orresol
    ution ofproblems oft he rol
    ef unct
    ioni
    ng and
    rel
    ationshi
    pst hatthreatenst hest
    abi
    li
    tyofthefamily.
    Therearepr ogr amsandser vi
    cesdesignedt odev el
    opthepr obl
    em solv
    ingand
    copingcapaci ti
    esoff ami l
    iesandindi
    vidualmember ssoast oimproveandstrengt
    hen
    thequalit
    yoff amilylif
    e.Theyar e:
    1.Fami l
    yLi feEducati
    onandCounseling
    2.Fami l
    yAssi stanceandCounseli
    ng
    3.Fami l
    yPl anningandCounseli
    ngSer v
    ice

    WHYI
    STHEREANEEDTOPROMOTEFAMI LYWELFARE?
     Asbasi cunitofsociety
    .Itisonlythefami l
    yt hatissanct i
    onedt operf
    ormt he
    reproductiv
    eandr eari
    ngfuncti
    onofsoci ety;ithast hemi ssi
    ont operpet
    uate
    humani ty;thechildreceiv
    est hef i
    rstsocial
    izati
    onandeducat i
    onexper i
    ence
    from thefami ly
    ;whenthefamil
    yfailsthestatehast hedutyt otakeover
    .
     Count l
    ess f amil
    i
    es ar e affected by t he dy sfuncti
    oning of soci ety
    .
    Disenfranchisement,bal
    anceofpay mentdef i
    cit,i
    nflat
    ionetc.beardownont he
    familycan cause l oos ofjobs,under employ mentov erseas employmentor
    commi ssi
    onofcr i
    mes.

    ROLESOFTHESOCI ALWORKERS
    1.Engagingthefamil
    yi naproblem sol
    vi
    ngrel
    ati
    onshi
    p
    2.Mobil
    izingorcreat
    ingresources
    3.Sol
    ici
    tsupportforindiv
    idualandgroups

    492
    D.CORRECTI
    ON/
    COURT

    Isdefinedastheadministr
    ati
    onofpenal
    tyinsuchawaythattheoff
    enderi
    s
    corr
    ected,thatishiscur
    rentbehavi
    oriskeptwi
    thi
    naccept
    abl
    eli
    mitsattheti
    mehis
    generall
    if
    eadj ust
    menti
    smodifi
    ed.

    Whati
    spr
    obat
    ion?
    I
    sapr ocessoft r
    eatmentpr escribedbyt hecourtforaper
    sonconvict
    edof
    off
    ensesagainstthel aw duri
    ngwhi cht hei ndi
    vi
    dualort hepr
    obat
    ionerl
    i
    vesinthe
    communityandr egulat
    eshisownl i
    feundercondi ti
    onsimposedbythecourt
    sandis
    subj
    ecttosuperv
    isionbyapr obat
    ionofficer.

    Whati
    spar
    ole?
    Isr
    eleaseofpri
    soner
    sundersuper
    visi
    onbef
    oreexpi
    rat
    ionofhi
    ssent
    ence.The
    conv
    ict
    edpersonshoul
    dhavemai
    ntai
    nedgoodbehavi
    ori
    nordertoqual
    i
    fy.

    Whati
    sIndet
    ermi
    nat
    eSent
    enceLaw?(
    Act4103)
    I
    tisint
    endedtofavortheaccusedandt oshort
    ent het er
    m ofi
    mprisonment
    ,
    dependi
    nguponhisbehavi
    orandphysical
    ,mentalandmoralrecordasapri
    sonertobe
    deter
    minedbytheBoar
    dofIndeter
    minateSent
    ence.

    Ter
    mstobef amili
    arwithinthefiel
    dofcor r
    ection:
     Recidivi
    st–i sonewhoatt hetimeofhi stri
    alforonecrimeshal lhav
    ebeen
    previousl
    yconv i
    ctedbyf i
    naljudgmentofanot hercr
    imeembr acedinthesame
    ti
    tl
    ei nthePenal Code.
     HabitualDeli
    nquency–Whenaper sonwi t
    hintheperi
    odof10y earsfr
    om t he
    dateofhi sreleaseorl astconv i
    cti
    onoft hecr i
    meofseriousphy si
    cali
    njuri
    es,
    robbery,t
    heft
    ,est af
    a,falsi
    fi
    cationisfoundguil
    tyofanyofsuchcr i
    mesat hir
    dor
    oftener.

    E.JUVENI
    LEJUSTI
    CE

    Ter
    mstobef ami liarwith:
    1.RELEASEONRECOGNI ZANCE–apr i
    vil
    egegr antedt omi nor sondet entiontobe
    abletor eturnt othei
    rf amili
    esorcommuni tiesasl ongast herear eor ganizat
    ions
    orper sonswhowi l
    lprov i
    desuper visionwhi let r
    ialoft hecasei snoty etov er(thi
    s
    i
    sequi valentt obailforadultof f
    ender s).
    2.LAW ON SUSPENDED SENTENCE – mi nor s who ar e conv i
    ct ed befor ethey
    reached18y earsoldar eenti
    tledf orsuspendedsent enceunt iltheyr eachedt hei
    r
    th
    18 bi rthday .
    3.RA 9344OR THEDI VERSION LAW – anexempt ingci rcumst ancegr antedt o
    minor swho ar ebel ow 15 y ears,butt heyar esuper vised bymeansoft he
    Diversionpr ogram impl ementedbyt helocal governmentsoci al welfareser vi
    ces
    4.YOUTHREHABI LITATIONCENTERS–ar ef acili
    ti
    esofDSWDt or ehabili
    tateyouth
    offender swhoei t
    herar eawai ti
    ngt rialorwai t
    ingf ort hesent encet obehanded
    downwhent heyreached18y earsol d

    SOMESIGNI FI
    CANTDEVELOPMENTI NTHEREHABI LITATIONOFYOUTHOFFENDERS
     Yout h of f
    enderswho plead guil
    tytot hecr i
    met heycommi t
    ted beforethey
    reached18y ear
    soldaretoserveonlyunti
    ltheyreached21y ear
    sold,regardl
    ess
    ofthegr avi
    tyofthecri
    mecommi t
    ted
     TheDi versi
    onLawi sundergoi
    ngatpresentchangesi nCongressthati
    sl ower
    ing
    theageofl iabi
    l
    ityofminors.Thisisnow ahi ghlydebatabl
    eissuet hatsocial
    workersshoul dbeawareofandbeabl etomakeast and

    493
    F.SCHOOLSOCI
    ALWORK

    Exi
    stpri
    mari
    lyt
    o pr
    ov i
    dehel
    ping ser
    vicet
    ot hosestudent
    swi t
    hsoci aland
    emoti
    onalcauses whi
    ch i
    nter
    fer
    e wi
    tht hei
    radjust
    ments and potent
    ialacademic
    achi
    evement.

    Commonproblems:
    1.Ir
    regularat
    tendance
    2.Healthproblems
    3.Behaviorproblem
    4.Learni
    ngdifficul
    ty

    G.HEALTH/
    MEDI
    CALSETTI
    NG

    THE LEGAL BASI


    S FOR ESTABLI
    SHMENT OF MEDI
    CAL SOCI
    AL SERVI
    CE I
    N
    GOVERNMENTHOSPITALS:

    RA747–Mandati
    ngal
    lgov
    ernmenthospi
    tal
    swi
    th100–bedcapaci
    tyt
    opr
    ovi
    de
    MEDI
    CALSOCIALSERVI
    CE.

    Funct
    ionofsoci
    alwor
    kinmedi
    calset
    ti
    ng:
    1.Hel
    ppat i
    entstohavebett
    eracceptanceofthei
    ril
    l
    ness
    2.Toprovi
    demedi cal
    personnelonthebackgroundofthepat
    ient
    3.Conducthealt
    heducati
    ontopatientsandthei
    rfamil
    i
    es

    Speci
    fi
    csoci alworkactivit
    ies:
    1.El i
    gibil
    i
    tystudies–t odet erminefinancialcapacit
    iesofpati
    entsfort hem tobe
    abletopayhospi talbil
    lsorbedecl aredasi ndigent
    2.I nt
    erpretati
    onofhospi talpoli
    ciesandr egulati
    onstopati
    entsandtheirfamil
    ies
    3.Dat agat heri
    ngont hepat ients’socialsi
    tuati
    ont oassi
    stmedicalstaffatarri
    vi
    ng
    atcorrectdiagnosis
    4.Per formingcoordinatingandl iai
    sonact i
    vit
    ies

    H.I
    NDUSTRI
    AL/
    CORPORATE

    Thi
    sisasoci alworkpracti
    ceintheindustr
    ialsetti
    ng.
    Thesearetheconcernsofsocial workacti
    vit
    ies:
    1.Efforttoimprovebenefitsassocialsecurit
    yhealt
    handgeneralwel
    far
    e
    2.Selectionofwor ker
    sfortheempl oyer
    3.Assistempl oyeesandt hei
    rfamili
    esint hei
    rpersonal
    ,heal
    thandfi
    nanci
    al
    pr
    oblems.

    ACTIVI
    TIESOFSOCI ALWORKER
    1.Counseli
    ngempl oyeesonwor kandnon-workrel
    atedpr
    obl
    ems
    2.Engageininfor
    mationandeducat i
    onprogram
    3.Fami l
    ycounsel
    ing
    4.Makingempl oy
    eesunder standcompanypoli
    cies
    5.Inter
    pret
    ingworker
    s’ needsandprobl
    em tomanagementandempl
    oyer
    s

    Compani
    eswhichempl
    oyedsoci
    alwor
    kers:
    1.MERALCO
    2.SARMI ENTOGROUPOFCOMPANI ES
    3.VICTORIASMILLI
    NGCOMPANY( asugarr
    efi
    ner
    yfoundi
    nVi
    ctor
    iasCi
    ty,Negr
    os
    Occi
    dental
    )

    494
    I
    . SPECI
    ALGROUPS

    1.DRUGDEPENDENTS
    Areper sonswhoasar esultofper iodicuseofdr ugshav edev eloped
    physicalandpsy chologicalneedf ort hesedr ugs.Theper soni spr eoccupiedwi th
    theacquisitionandcompul si
    veuseofdr ugsdespi tei tsnegat iveconsequences.
    Thisi sawor ldwi depr oblem andaser iouspr obl em f orgov ernmentt o
    consider.Ther ei sanappr oxi
    mat enumberi nt hePhi l
    ippi neswi that otalof1. 8
    mill
    ion.Var iousgov ernmentagenci eshav ebeencr eat edf ort hepur poseof
    resolvi
    ngt hepr oblem.Li kewisel egi
    sl ati
    onswer epassedwhi chwer er epeat edly
    amendedt oi mposest iffpenalty.Thel atestlegisl
    at ioni sRA9165knownast he
    COMPREHENSI VEDANGEROUSDRUGACTOF2002.
    Detent i
    onCent ersinmaj orcitiesi nthePhi lippinesi ncludingZamboanga
    arecongest edwi t
    hal most95% oft hei nmat eswi thdr ugr elatedcases.Rehab
    faci
    lit
    iesar eni land ar enotabl et o copewi tht her ising st ati
    sti
    csofdr ug
    dependent s.
    Resol vi
    ngt hi
    spr oblem becamet hecampai gnpl atfor m ofacandi datef or
    presidency.Tr ulythepr oblem isal ar
    mi ng.Ithashi tmember soff ami l
    i
    esr i
    chand
    poor.Thepoorbecamet heeasyt ar
    getbecauseoft headdedat tracti
    onofbei ng
    ablet osel landmakemoney .Housewi veswhodesi readdedi ncomef ort he
    familyarenotexempt ed.
    I
    not herwor ds,dr ugsel l
    ingi saf orm ofl i
    v elihood.Dr ugdependent sar e
    eventuall
    yt urnedi nto“ pusher s”inor dert osuppor tt heirhabi t
    s.
    Thisi saphenomenont hatmaycont inuet oexi stasl ongast hepr obl em
    ofpov ert
    yinourcount ryisnotr esolved.( Bernal 2017)

    ROLEOFTHESOCI ALWORKER
    1.Soci
    alworkermayengageintheareaofr ehabil
    it
    ationandmayper form soci
    al
    workact
    ivi
    ti
    esrel
    atedt
    orest
    oringt
    heself
    -worthoft hedrugdependent.
    2.Soci
    alworker
    sneedtospeci
    ali
    zeandenhancet hei
    rcounseli
    ngskil
    ls
    3.Soci
    alworker
    smayengageincommunityeducat i
    onr el
    atedt
    odrugdependency

    2.SOCIALLYDI SADVANTAGEDWOMEN
    Theyarev ictimsof :
    1.Gender -basedv i
    olencesuchaswi febeati
    ng,
    marit
    alrape,i
    ncestrapeand
    sexualhar assment
     Wi f
    ebeat i
    ng–physi cal/emoti
    onal
     Mar italrape–t hi
    soccur si
    ncaseswheretheconjugalr
    elat
    ionshi
    pis
    nol ongerwhol esome;mayoccuri narr
    angedmar ri
    ageswher ethe
    wifehasnev eraccept edthehusband
     I ncest–t heper pet
    ratoriscl
    osememberoft hef amil
    y,may bethe
    fatheroft hebr other
    .Mostcasesi nt
    heHAVEN, aDSWDf acil
    it
    yareof
    thisnat ure

    Ar
    t.266-A:RAPEWHENANDHOW COMMI TTED.Rapei scommi t
    ted:
    1.Byamanwho shal lhav ecarnalknowl edgeofawomanunderanyoft he
    fol
    lowingci r
    cumst ances:
    a)Thr oughf orcet hr
    eatori
    nt imidat i
    on;
    b)Whent heof fendedpartyi sdepr i
    v edofr easonorot herwiseunconsci ous;
    c) Bymeansoff raudul
    entmachi nationorgr ossabuseofaut horit
    y;and
    d)Whent heof fendedpart yisunder12y earsordement edev ent hough
    noneoft heat tendi
    ngcircumst ancesment ionedabov ebepr esent
    2.Byanyper sonwhounderanyci rcumst ancesment ionedi nparagr aph1,her eof
    shallcommi tanactofsexualassaul tbyi nsert
    inghispeni sintoanot herper son’s
    mout horanal orifi
    ceoranyi nst
    r umentorobj ectintothegeni t
    aloranal or
    ifice.
     Sexual Har assment–RA7887–sexualf avorssolici
    tedfrom awomanby
    aper sonwi thmor alascendency ,commi tted ei
    theri nt hewor kplace,

    495
    schoolorat hleticor ganization.Perpetr atorsareei t
    hersuper iorteacheror
    coach.
     Prostitutedwomen– vi cti
    msof“ whi tesl avery”eitherbyf orceorwi th
    consent( sexwi thapr ice).AnewphenomenonofCHI LDPROTI TUTIONi s
    comi ngofageasi tr i
    seswi ththetourism indust r
    yandi ncr easingpov erty
    .
    Pedophi l
    esal lov erthewor ldaretouristf orthi
    spur pose
     Victi
    msorar medconf l
    ictandmi l
    itar
    ization–t hesear ewomanandt hei
    r
    familieswhoar edi splacedf r
    om theirhomesandmay beexposedt oall
    danger sper tainingt ot heirwomanhood
     Financi aldistr
    ess–womenwhogot hr oughl i
    fetoear nf ort hef amil
    ydue
    tohusbands/ fathersl ossofj obsoranyot hercircumst ancest hatfor ced
    them t oear nfort hef ami li
    es
     Solopar ents–occur sdur i
    ngdeat hofspouse,abandonment ,divorceor
    separ ationandchi ld-bear i
    ngoutofwedl ock
     Victi
    msofHumanTr afficki
    ng–RA9208–Ant i-
    Traffi
    ckingi nPer sonAct
    of2003“ Anactt oi nst i
    tutepol i
    ciest oel iminatetraffickingi nper sons
    especi allywomenandchi ldren,establ i
    shingt henecessar yi nstit
    utional
    mechani sms f ort he pr otection and suppor toft r
    af f
    icked per sons,
    providingpenal tyfori t
    sv i
    olati
    on.”

    3.TRAFFI
    CKEDPERSON

    Referstot her ecr


    uit
    ment,t r
    ansport
    ati
    on,transferorhar bori
    ngorr ecei
    ptsof
    personswithorwi t
    houtv i
    cti
    msconsentorknowl edgewi thi
    noracr ossnationalborders
    bymeansoft hreatoruseoff orceorot herformsofcoer cion,abduct i
    on,f r
    aud,
    decepti
    on,abuseofpowerorofposi t
    ion,t
    akingadv ant
    ageoft hev ulner
    abili
    tyoft he
    personorgi vi
    ngorr eceiv
    ingofpay ment sorbenefi
    tst oachiev
    econsentofaper son
    havingcontrolofanotherpersonf orthepurposeofexpl oi
    tat
    ionwhi chincludesatt he
    minimum theexploit
    ati
    onort heprosti
    tuti
    onofotherformsofsexual exploi
    tati
    on,forced
    l
    abororser v
    ices,sl
    averyservi
    tudeortheREMOVALORSALEOFORAGAN.

    OBEJCTIVESOFTHEPROGRAM
    1.Protecti
    on– pr ogramsar edesi gnedt o protectwomenf rom sit
    uati
    onsthat
    exposedt hem tomor al
    /emoti
    onal/psy chol
    ogi cal/physicalhazards
    2.Preventive–pr ogramst opreventsituati
    onst hatmayar i
    seduet ocir
    cumstances
    thesewomenar eexposedt o
    3.Treatment–pr ogramst oprov i
    deinterventionf orwomencaughti nanyofthese
    viol
    entsituati
    ons
    4.Rehabi l
    it
    ation – pr ogr
    am t or estore women’ s dignity and self
    -wor
    th aft
    er
    experiencingtr
    aumaar i
    singfrom anyoft hesi tuation

    SERVI
    CES:
    1.Temporar
    yshelt
    ers
    2.Prov
    isi
    onoffaci
    li
    ti
    eswhicharemedical
    ,dental
    psychol
    ogi
    cal
    3.Prov
    isi
    ononpsychologi
    cal
    ,soci
    al/
    spir
    it
    ualserv
    ices

    ROLEOFSOCI ALWORKERS
    1.Engageinresearchandeducat i
    on,pl
    anning/admini
    strati
    on
    2.Dir
    ectservi
    cesinwomen’ scentersandcr i
    sisint
    erv
    entioncent
    ers
    3.Tel
    ephonehot li
    neproj
    ect
    4.Communi t
    ybasedpr ojectthatundert
    akeHUMANRI GHTSEDUCATI ON,GENDER
    SENSITIVI
    TYTRAI NI
    NG ( GST),CRISI
    SI NCI DENTSTRESSDEBRI EFI
    NG (CI
    SD)
    ,
    andorgani
    zationofwomensuppor tgroups.

    4.RELEASEDPRI
    SONERS

    Theyare pri
    soners who are ei
    therrel
    eased on parol
    e,absol
    ute pardon or
    t
    ermi
    nati
    onofsentence.Thegovernmenthasprovi
    dedafacil
    it
    yknownast heHALFWAY
    HOMEtoprov
    ideservicesthatwouldhel
    ppri
    sonersint
    heirevent
    ualr
    etur
    nt ofamil
    yand

    496
    communi t
    y.Iti s bel
    iev
    ed thatprolonged absence woul d cr
    eate some kind of
    maladjust
    mentsinhisperson.Anumberofr el
    easedprisonershavelostcont
    actwith
    thei
    rfamil
    iesandfarremovedfrom t
    heircommunitiesandwoul dfi
    nditdif
    fi
    cul
    ttopick
    upfrom wheretheyhadbeenbefor
    etheirconf
    inement.Hencethisprogr
    am.

    OBJECTI
    VESOFTHEPROGRAM:
    Toassi
    stpr
    isoner
    sinwor
    kingef
    fect
    iveadj
    ust
    ment
    sinhi
    sev
    ent
    ualr
    etur
    ntot
    he
    communit
    y.

    ACTIVI
    TIESOFTHESOCI ALWORKER
    1.Doing pre-r
    elease assessment of rel
    eased pr
    isoner
    sto det
    ermi
    ne t
    hei
    r
    capaci
    tiesandlimit
    ati
    ons
    2.Helpintherel
    ationtoemployment
    3.Mobili
    zati
    onofneededcommuni tyresour
    ces

    5.RECOVEREDMENTALPATI
    ENTS

    Act
    ivi
    ti
    es under
    taken are si
    mil
    artor el
    eased pr
    isoner
    sinthe sense t
    hat
    prol
    ongedconfi
    nementinment ali
    nst
    it
    uti
    onpr
    oducedaneffectsi
    mil
    art
    othatofpr
    ison
    confi
    nement.

    6.THEELDERLY
     Areper sons60y earsoldandabov e
     Mainpr obl emsoft heelderl
    yi nthePhi l
    i
    ppines:
    o I ncreasi ngdependencyont heiradultchil
    dren
    o Lackofeducat i
    onandempl oymentski ll
    sr educedthem t othemost
    mar gi nali
    zedsect orinthecount ry
    o Al argemaj or i
    tyisnotcov eredbysoci alsecuri
    tyexceptthosewhohave
    regist eredasseni orci t
    izensandt heyqual ifyforthemeasl ymonthl
    y
    pensi on
    o Seni orci t
    izensinspit eoftheirabil
    it
    iesandt alentsar
    ediscri
    minatedf
    rom
    empl oymentduet ot hei
    rage.( Bernal2017)

    RELI
    EFPROVIDEDBYGOVERNMENT:
     RA7482–gr ant
    sbenef
    it
    sandspeci
    alpri
    vi
    legesandforotherpur
    poses
     RA 7846 – an actest abl
    i
    shi
    ng seni
    or cit
    izen cent
    ersi n al
    lciti
    es and
    muni
    cipal
    i
    ties

    FUNCTI
    ONSOFSOCI ALWORKERS
    1.Agencyadministr
    ati
    onandmanagement
    2.Staf
    fsupervi
    sion
    3.Progr
    am development
    4.Communi t
    ymobi l
    izat
    ion
    5.Coll
    abor
    ationandcoor di
    nat
    ionwi
    thot
    herpr
    ofessi
    onal
    s

    PERSONSWI THDI SABILITIES( PWD)


    Theyar eper sonswhoei therhadcongeni
    tal
    oracqui
    redphy
    sicali
    mpai
    rment.The
    per
    sonmay bebor nwi t
    hphy sicaldi
    sabi
    li
    tyorhaveacquir
    edsuchthroughacci
    dentor
    i
    ll
    ness.
    CATEGORIES:
    1.Bli
    nd( part
    ial andtotal
    )
    2.Deaf
    3.Deaf-mute
    4.Speechi mpai rment
    5.Mentallyretarded
    6.Recoveredhanseni t
    es

    PWDsar
    eest
    imat
    edt
    obe10%outoft
    heent
    ir
    epopul
    ati
    onoft
    hecount
    ry;75%

    497
    arefoundintheruralareasduetolackofsoci
    alser
    vicesandl
    ackofknowl
    edgeof
    parent
    stosubmitt
    heirchil
    drenf
    ori
    mmunizat
    ion.

    Eachcategor yhavetheirowndistinctpersonali
    tytrai
    tsandcopingmechani sms:
     Thebl i
    ndshav esharpenedtheirauditoryandol fact
    oryfacul
    ti
    est ocompensate
    thei
    rlackofsi ght
     Thedeaf /deaf-muteshav esharpenedt heirsi
    ghtstocompensat el
    ackofhear i
    ng
     Personswi thcongenitalbli
    ndnessorbl i
    ndnessacquiredatanear l
    ystageoflif
    e
    haveadj ustedtotheirdisabil
    i
    tiesbetterthant hosewhoacqui rediti
    nlaterli
    fe.
    (Bernal2017)

    Generall
    yphysicallyimpair
    edper sonsaresensi t
    iveandneedmor ecareandat tenti
    on
    thanthosewhoar enot.
    Legisl
    ati
    onsr
    elat edtothewel far
    eofPWDs
    1.Vocational Rehabil
    it
    ationActof1954( Vict
    orBalt
    azar)
    2.UNPr ogr am ofAct i
    on
    3.TheWhi teCaneLaw
    Thi slaw isi ntended forthe bli
    nd requir
    ing the dr
    iver
    s ofv ehicles
    appr oachi
    ngat ot
    all
    yorpartial
    l
    ybl i
    ndpedest r
    ianwhoiscar r
    yingacane
    predomi nantl
    yWHI TEORMETALLI CincolororusingaGUI DEDOGshal l
    takeal lt
    henecessar ypr
    6ecauti
    ont oavoi
    dinjurytosuchbli
    ndpedest r
    ian.
    WHI TECANEI SFORTHEBLI ND;RED&WHI TESTRIPEDCANEFORTHE
    DEAFBLI ND.

    498
    I
    . GENDERI
    SSUES

    Genderisabasicorganizingpri
    nci
    pleofsocieti
    es,part
    icul
    arl
    yint
    hedi
    visi
    onof
    l
    abori
    nf amil
    ies,communitiesand mar ketplace.Althoughgenderrol
    esli
    mitboth
    womenandmen, theygener
    allyhavehadamor erepressiv
    eimpactonwomen.

    GENDERINEQUI TYI NALLAREASOFLI FE:


    1.FAMI LY–Womenar eov er burdenedwi thhousehol dandf ami lyr esponsibi
    li
    ties;
    somewomenwhowor kedout sidet hef ami lyhav et hesamehousehol ddut i
    es
    thant hosewhoar epur elyhousewi ves.
    2.WORKPLACE– womenar edi scrimi natedwhent heyar emar ri
    ed;depr i
    vedof
    empl oy ment;pr omot i
    on;r eceivel ower sal aryt han men wi tht he same
    responsi bil
    i
    ty;may be subj ected t o sexualhar assment dur ing hi r
    ing and
    promot i
    on.Onl y1or2%occupyexecut iveposi ti
    on.
    3.GOVERNANCE–Ther ear ev eryf ew womeni nlocalandnat ionalgov ernance;
    woment hemsel vesl ackt heconf idenceont hemsel vest oent erpol it
    icsandmay
    nothav econf idenceonot her st odot hesame.Pol i
    ti
    csi sassoci atedwi t
    ht he
    machocul t
    ureofaggr essi onandv iolence, whi chthr eat ensmostwoment oent er
    thefield.Womenmakeupl esst han5%oft hewor l
    d’ sheadofst ate.
    4.MORTALI TY/MORBI DI TYRATES–Womenexceedsmeni nmor tali
    ty/morbidity
    ratesespeci all
    ydur i
    ngchi l
    dhoodandr eproduct i
    vey ear s.
    5.FOODANDMEDI CALCARE–duet opar ent s’biast owar dsboy swhor eceiv
    et he
    bestf oodandmedi calcar e,femal echi ldrenage1- 4hav ehighermor t
    ali
    tyrates
    i
    n17oft hewor l
    d’spoor estcount ries.
     Womenbecomei nf ectedwi t hHIV5t o10y ear sear l
    i
    ert hanmen.
    6.EDUCATI ON–f emal el agsbehi ndt hatofmal esoutoft he129mi ll
    ionchildr
    enof
    primar yagenoti nschool77mi lli
    onor60%ar egi rl
    s.Dr opoutr atesf orgirl
    speak
    ataboutt he5thgr adeandr emai nshi gh.
    Thelma Lee Mendoza def ines soci all
    ydi sadv ant aged women ( orwomen n
    especi al
    lydiffi
    cul tcircumst ances)t oincludewomenwhoar ev i
    ct i
    msofgender
    based v iol
    ence ( domest ic wi fe beat ing,mar it
    alr ape,incestr ape,sexual
    harassment )prost i
    tutedwomen, sol opar ent s.
    Var i
    edsoci allegislati
    oni nv ol v
    ingwomen:
    RA7192–Womeni ndev elopmentandnat ionbui l
    ding
    RA7877–Ant i-sexual har assmentactof1995
    RA8353–Ant i-RapeLaw
    RA9262–Vi olenceagai nstwomenandchi ldren

    Workwithwomeni nespeci
    all
    ydif
    fi
    cultcir
    cumst
    anceshasemer
    gedasav
    eryi
    mpor
    tant
    andat
    tract
    ivef
    iel
    dofsocialworkpract
    iceint
    hecount
    ry.

    I
    I. HUMANRI
    GHTSI
    SSUES

    Statepoli
    ciesof1987const ituti
    on:
    Sec.IIThest atevaluest hedi gnityofev eryhumanper sonandguar anteesfullrespectof
    humanr ights.
    Itissaidqui ter i
    ght l
    yt hatist hehumanper sonali
    tythatisthecenterofal lplans
    towardspr ogress.Ahumanper son,soi ti
    ssai dcreatedint heimageandl i
    kenessof
    God.Itisnowdecl ar edt hatthest at
    ev al
    uest hedignityofev er
    yhumanper sonandf ul
    l
    respectforhumanr ightsi sguar anteed.
    RIGHTTOLI FE,LI BERTYORPROPERTYi sguar anteedbyt heBILLOFRI GHTS
    (sec1);noper sonshal lbedepr ivedofl i
    fe,li
    bert
    yandpr opertywithoutduepr ocessof
    l
    aw.
     Ri ghtt opr operty( sec2)r i
    ghtsagainstunreasonableseizure
     Ri ghtt oliberty(sec2)r i
    ghtsagainstunreasonablearrest

    499
     Ri
    ght
    stol
    i
    fe,r
    ight
    sagai
    nstsummar
    yexecut
    ionwi
    thoutduepr
    ocessof
    l
    aw.

    Humanr i
    ghtsissuesstartedtocomeoutdur ingmar ti
    allawy earsandhasbeen
    i
    nst i
    tuti
    onalizedbysucceedi ngr egi
    me.Humanr i
    ghtsviolat
    ionhav ebeencommi ttedby
    theagent soft hestateagainstitsci
    tizenwithoutduer egardtot heBil
    lofRightsoft he
    1987 const it
    ut i
    on. Count l
    ess wer e v i
    cti
    ms of summar y execut ion,involuntary
    disappearances, massacreofv i
    l
    lagerswhoar esuspectedt oberebels,inhumant ortures
    ofsuspect sdur ingcustodiali
    nvesti
    gationandt hel
    ike(hamletti
    ngandr isingv
    igil
    ant i
    sm).
    Socialwor kerscanplayanact ivepartinhumanr ight
    seducat i
    onespeci al
    lythose
    i
    nr emot ear easandcanf ur
    therhelppr ot
    ectpeoplef r
    om harassmentoft heagent sof
    thest at
    e.(Ber nal2017)

    I
    II
    . DEVOLUTI
    ON

    Wasapr ocesswher eby86%ofDSWDper sonnel( maj ori


    tywer esoci alwor ker s)
    wer edev olvedt ot helocalgov ernment .Thi swasmadepossi bl ethrought hepassageof
    theLocalGov ernmentCodeorRA 7160,gi v
    ingmor ef unct i
    onandpowert oLocal
    Gov ernmentf rom t hepr ovincialtot hemuni cipall evel
    .Soci alwor kerswer epl aced
    dir
    ect l
    yundert hesuper visi
    onofl ocalexecut iv
    eswhi chunt ilnow r emai nedasabi g
    i
    ssuewhet herornott hi si sbenef icialtot hem andt othesoci alwor kpr ofession.As
    whol eappoi ntment swer egi v enbyl ocalexecut ivesandhi ri
    ngandpr omot ionsar e
    coloredbypol iticsorr emai ningi nt heposi t
    ionmay bepr ej
    udi cedbyt hei denti
    ficat ion
    withpr eviousout goingexecut ive.Ther ear equi tesomedi ssat i
    sfactionont hepar tof
    socialwor ker swhoar epai daccor dingt ot heincomeoft hemuni cipalityort hepr ov ince.
    Being dev olv ed depr i
    ved t hem ofpr omot i
    on t o anyv acantposi t
    ion i nt he DSWD
    str
    uct ure.Somear efor tunat et obeundert hesuper v
    isi
    onoft hel ocalexecut ivewho
    under st
    ands t he soci alwor k prof ession and i t s need f orgr owt h and cont inui ng
    educat i
    on.Int hiscaset heyar esentf orsemi narsandconf er
    ences.( Bernal 2017)
    Dev olut iondoesnotonl ymeandev oluti
    onofper sonnel ,butal sodev olutionof
    services.Ser vicesar est il
    lsuper vi
    sedbyDSWD, butt hi
    sisnotaf ullguar anteet hatt hey
    str
    ictlyimplement ed.
    Dev olut ionwasaphenomenat hatshockedt hesoci alwor ker sorhasshocked
    thepr ofessionasawhol e.How DSWDl eadershiphasconsent edt ot hisar rangement
    sti
    llremai nedi nadequat elyexpl ai
    nedunt ilatpresent .Practitionerswhower edev ol ved
    simpl yremai nedacqui escentoft hei rfate.Whet herornott heyar econt entedoft heir
    sit
    uat i
    on, i
    tisonl ywhot heywhoknowst heanswer .

    I
    V. GLOBALI
    ZATI
    ON

    I
    s an i nternationalf l
    ow of t rade and capi t
    alor concept of economi c
    borderl
    essness.I tisr atherahi ghlydebat ablei ssue,whet hert hePhi l
    ippinesi sreadyt o
    enterthe ar ena ofgl obal i
    zation,byt he f actt hatwe hav e notent ered into mass
    productionandhav enotbeeni nt ohi ghtechnol ogyinagr i
    cultureandi ndust r
    y.
    Thebi gquest ionr emai ns, arewer eadyorf ittocompet ewi thpr oductsofhi ghly
    developednat ions.Wi llourcount rybenotopent oexpor tsofot hercount ri
    eswhi chwi l
    l
    compet ewi thourownpr oduct s?Wi l
    lthesei mput edpr oduct sremai ncheaperandof
    quali
    tybei ngofhi ght echnol ogy ?How wi lltheseaf fectt helivesofourf armers,our
    producer s?Di dourcount rypr ov i
    deenoughsaf et
    ynet sf ort hecomi ngi noft heGATT
    (GeneralAgr eementonTr ade& Tar iff
    )andt hePhi l
    ippineMember shi ptot heWTO
    (World Tr ade Or gani zati
    on) ?Does gl obal i
    zation t hen ser ved the interestofhi ghly
    developednat ionoft heWestt ot hedet rimentoft heThi rdWor l
    dcount ri
    esl i
    keours?
    Whenhesi gnedt heGATT( PresRamos)washenotawar eoft her eper cussions?How
    aboutt hesucceedi ngpr esident swhyar et heyconsi stentlysuppor tinggl obali
    zati
    on?
    Wher eist hesensi bili
    tyandr ationalityofPr es.Gl ori
    aMacapagal Ar r
    oyoasaneconomi st,
    graduatingsummacum l aude?( Ber nal2017)
    Soci alwor kerscanpl ayav i
    talrol eont hisi ssuebyengagi ng inadv ocacy
    campai gnsont headv erseef fect sofgl obalizati
    on

    500
    Thereisaneedforthem t
    ounder st
    andhowgl
    obal
    i
    zat
    ioni
    spushi
    ngt
    hecount
    ryt
    owar
    ds
    povert
    yandfur
    therdisenf
    ranchi
    sement.

    V. ECOLOGY(
    ORENVI
    RONMENTADVOCACY)

    Publicconcer nisincreasi ngaboutt hegr adualpollutionofourenv i


    ronment,
    especiall
    yoft her i
    versandseas.Manypr essuregr oupshav espr ungupt ocallfor
    governmentact i
    on.Manyr iver
    sar epol l
    utedandempt i
    edoff ishesandaquat i
    clif
    eaf t
    er
    i
    ndiscriminate dumpi ng ofpoi sonous i ndust r
    ialwast e.Mostoft histoxi
    c wast e
    eventuall
    yflowt otheseawher ei tisdispersed.Lar gequalit
    iesoft oxicwast eremaina
    seri
    ouspr oblem.
    Oneoft hebiggestpollutionpr oblem concer nsWATER.Al thoughweknow how
    i
    mpor tantwat eri stoalll
    iv
    ingt hings,wear eonl yjustbeginningtot hinkabouthowwe
    canlookaf tertheear t
    h’swaterforour selvesandf orthefutureofpeopl e.
    ECOLOGYdeal swithther elat
    ionshipbet weenl ivi
    ngor ganism,bot hplantsand
    animalsandbet weentheseor gani sm andt heirsur roundi
    ngs.I ti
    sabr anchofbiology
    andismoder n,mor escient
    ifi
    cappr oachtot heoldst udyofnat uralhistory.

    Ecol
    ogi
    stshavebeenleader
    sinthecampaignfor
    :
    1.Conser
    vati
    on(pr
    eservi
    ngandprotect
    ingnatur
    alr
    esour
    ces)
    2.Fi
    ghtagai
    nstpol
    lut
    ion(foul
    i
    ngtheearthwit
    hwaste&poison)

    Themor ehighlyindust r
    ializedcount rybecomest hegr eaterriskr unsofhar mingthe
    bal
    anceofnaturet hroughpol lut
    ion.
     Factori
    esandmot orv ehicl
    esdi schar gepol lutingchemi calsintot heatmospher e
     Oilspil
    lsandmedi cal wast econt ribut etomar i
    nepol l
    uti
    on
     Insecti
    cideseepi ntot hesoilandr i
    v ersystem
     Releaseoft oxi
    csubst anceandt hebur ningoff ossilfuelledt ot hegreenhouse
    effect
    ,depl eti
    onoft heozonel ayerandaci dr ain.
     Wast epr oducts–al mostev erythingmandoescausespol luti
    onofsomeki nd.
    Househol dsewaget reatmentpl ant st okillger mswhi chcar rythedi sease.Unl
    ess
    thesewagei str
    eat edbef or
    ei tisdi schargesi nt
    ot herivers,lakesorseasi twi l
    l
    soonki l
    lthel i
    feofwat er
    way sandcont ami nat ethefreshwat erweneed.
    Manyt hingsi nnat ur enat ur
    allybr eakdowni ntohar mlesssubst ance.Whent hi
    s
    happens,wesayt heyar ebiodegr adabl e.Howev ersomei ndust r
    ialwastesare
    notbrokendown.

    ROLEOFSOCI ALWORKERS
    Wi t
    ht he overwhelming problem ofthe ecology socialworkers,ifwe are
    concernedoft hewelfareofmanandt heenvi
    ronment ,shoul
    dt akeanact i
    veparton
    i
    ssuest hatconf r
    ontsthisphenomenon.Pr oblemsast hisshouldnotbel efttothe
    envir
    onment al
    istbutsocialworkerscanassumeADVOCACYROLE( t
    akingast andon
    i
    ssuest hatthr
    eatensthesur v
    ivalofman)andbei nshortenvir
    onmentalacti
    vist
    s.Many
    pract
    iti
    onershavetowedal ongthisli
    ne.

    VI
    . PEACEADVOCACY

    Oneemer gi
    ngconcer noft oday ,mostespeci allyf orsocialwor kersinMi ndanao
    i
    st heissueofpeaceorwar .Whati st heroleofsoci alwor kerswithr egardstot his?Is
    wart heanswert ot heMor oi nsurgencyi nMi ndanao?Whydi dPr esi
    dentFi delRamos
    workf orthepeaceagr eementdur i
    nghi st erm?Thesear equest ionst hatshoul dbe
    delveddeeperbypr act
    it
    ionersasi def rom mer edispenser sofser vicesi nareasofar med
    confli
    ct.
    Onewoul dnotfull
    yunder standMi ndanaosi tuationunl esswedi gdeeperi ntoits
    hist
    ory–t hestoryofmi grati
    on,conquest ,conv ersion,r esist
    ancet ocol onialruleand
    parti
    alint
    egrat
    ion.
    Pri
    ortot headv entofSpani shcol onizat
    ion,Mi ndanaohadbeent heseatof
    cult
    ureandar t
    sbasedonext ernalinf l
    uenceswhi chwher eIndian,ChineseandAr ab.At
    thesamet imeitbecamet hecent erofcommer ceandgov ernmentunt ilthesituation

    501
    wasrever
    sedwhent
    heSpani
    shcol
    oni
    zer
    spl
    acedt
    heseatofgov
    ernmenti
    nMani
    l
    a.
    (
    Bernal
    2017)

    Whoar et hepeopl ei nMi ndanao?


    Thepeopl ei nMi ndanaower ef i
    rstconv ertedt oI sl
    am i n1380wer et hesame
    Mal aypeopl ewho al so i nhabi t
    ed i n Luzon and Vi sayascent uriesbackbef oret he
    Spani sch col oni zat i
    on.The ancest ors oft he pr esentFi l
    ipinos bot h Chr isti
    ans and
    Musl i
    mswer e eitheroft he Mal aywav eswho came i ntot he count ryi nt he mi d-
    t
    h
    10 cent ur yoroft heei therI ndonesi anwav eoroft hePapuanPol y nesi angr oupoft he
    earliestpr ototypeMal ay s.
    Islam asar eli
    gi ousf ait
    hcamet ot hePhi li
    ppinesatt hesout hmosti slandof
    Simunulnowpar toft hepr ovinceofTawi -tawi ,throughext ensi vemi ssi onar yzealoft he
    Madr amautr eli
    giousSay yidsoft hemi ghtyMol uccanEmpi re(nowpar tofI ndonesi a).
    Sov ereigntyofMi ndanaoar eawasi nt hehandsoft heSul uandMagui ndanao
    Sultanat ebef or et hecomi ngoft heSpani ards.Bot hoft hem f oughtSpani shcol oniali
    sm
    asast atet omoder npol iti
    calsci enti
    stt hesesul tanatesl ostt heirdej ur estat uswhen
    the l eader ssi gned a t reat ywi tht he Spani sh gov er
    nment .I tmade bot h Sul u and
    Cot abat oasor tofpr ot ect orateofSpai nacknowl edgingt hem asl oy alandobedi ent
    subj ect s oft he Ki ng ofSpai n.The peace t reaties did noti ncl ude conv er sion t o
    Chr istiani tyoft heMusl i
    ms.
    Theent ir
    eofMi ndanaower e98% Musl i
    msunt il1913,whent heAmer i
    cans
    compl et edt heiroccupat ionoft heSout handest abl i
    shedt hef irstagr i
    cul turalcol oniesi n
    Pikit,Cot abat o.Hencef ortht housandsofmi grant sproceedt oMi ndanao,anepi sode
    whi chpr ov edt hef actofl andl essnessoff armer sandpeasant sf rom t heNor th.Duet o
    rapisr at eofmi grationandset t
    lement ,itr ev ersedt hecomposi t i
    onofet hnol inguist i
    c
    groupt hepopul ationi nwhi cht heMusl imswer er educedt omi nority.
    Asi def rom t hei ndi genouspeopl eofZamboanga,t herewer eot heret hni ct ri
    bes
    classi fiedaset hni cmi nor iti
    eswhoexi stedi nMi ndanaot oget herwi t
    hMusl imsbef or e
    Spani chcol onization.Theywer eaboutone( 1)mi lli
    onconsi stingofSubanun,Bagobo,
    Mansakaandmanyot her s.Manyoft hem canbef oundi nr emot emount ainar easand
    aredescendant soft hosewhodi dnotsur rendert ot hefor cesofSpani shcol oni zation.
    Theyar econsi deredasout castoft hecol oni alor derandwer ecutof ffrom t hedy nami cs
    ofmoder nhi stor y.Thi sex plainshow t heyar eabl et opr eser vedi st i
    nct ivenessoft heir
    cultur e.I nt hepr esentsoci alor deroft heMi ndanaosoci alst ructur e,t heyar ecl assified
    asLUMADSorHI GHLANDERS.

    Mindanaother
    eforeidTRI -
    PEOPLEcomposedoft hese3di
    sti
    nctgr
    oups.Thei
    r
    ancest
    orscamet oMindanaoi ndi
    ffer
    entpoi
    ntsofhi
    stor
    y:
     Lumads–pr e14thcentur
    y
     Musl i
    ms–pr e15thcentury
    th
     Chr i
    sti
    ans–post15 cent ury

    Accordi
    ngt
    oRudyRodil(i
    sahistor
    ianwhosati
    nthenegot
    iat
    ingPanelwi
    tht
    heMNLF
    duri
    ngthet
    erm ofPr
    es.Ramos)

    Mindanaoisasharedterr
    it
    ory.Atthispointinhistory
    , nottoasinglesegmentof
    thepopulationcanclai
    m Mindanaoast heir
    sanyl onger.Somuchwat erhasgoneunder
    thebridgefor300y ear
    sorso.Ifweonl ytake1913ast hedat et or
    eckonwi t
    h,thereare
    about5 gener at
    ions ofsettl
    erinhabitants born here,i ncludi
    ng theirparents or
    grandparents.Wheret hencoul
    dbet hei
    rhomel andi fnotMi ndanao?How aboutt he
    Zamboangeños,wi l
    ltheybedepr i
    vedofahomel andj ustbecauset heywer enative
    Tausugs,Samal s,SubanunandBadj aoswhower econv er
    tedt oChr i
    sti
    ani
    ty?( Ber
    nal
    2017)

    Whati
    stheHi
    stor
    yoftheMor
    oRebell
    ion?
    Si
    ncethesigni
    ngofthepeacetreat
    ieswi
    thSpai
    nandl
    aterwi
    thAmer
    ican

    502
    coloni zer ,thought her emay bepocketr evol t
    st hesewer emer elydi smi ssedasact sof
    bandi try.Thegener alMor opopul at ionwasi ntegr at edi ntot hemai nst ream ofPhi lippi ne
    soci ety ,especi al l
    ywi thest abl i
    shmentofpuv l
    iceducat iondur i
    ng Amer icancol oni al
    per i
    odandest abl ishmentofr el i
    gi ousschool sinMusl i
    m domi natedar eas,ast heNot r
    e
    DameofJol oandCot abat o.Conv er siont oRomanCat hol ism andPr otest ant ism di dnot
    takepl ace, butmanyMusl imsunder stoodt hei reducat i
    oni nt heschooloft hecol oni zers
    andl aterbyt hePhi l
    ippi negov er nment .Whent henameFi lipinowasgi v ent ousbySpai n
    priort ot hei rexi tf rom t hecount ry,t hati ncl udesev ery onei nt heent i
    rear chi pel ago.
    Musl i
    mswhoat tendedpubl iceducat ionwer et aughtt ocal lthemsel v esasFI LIPI NO
    (Laja, 1988)
    Thegr oupsofi slandknownt oev er yFi li
    pi noasLuzon,Vi say asandMi ndanao
    becamet hesubj ectoft hesal ebySpai nt ot heUni tedSt at esofAmer icaf or20mi lli
    on
    dollar s,embodi edi nadocumentknownasTREATYOFPARI Ssi gnedDecember10,
    1898i nPar is,Fr ance.Thi spi eceofdocumentdef inedt het er rit
    or yoft hePhi lippi nest o
    i
    ncl udeMi ndanao,Sul uandPal awan.Thet reat yofPar isbecamet hepoi ntofi ssuei n
    theor ganizat ionoft heMORO NATI ONALLI BERATI ON FRONT.Thef ounderay oung
    Musl i
    m pr of essoratt heUni v er sityoft hePhi lippi nesi nt heper son ofNur Mi suar i
    quest i
    onedt hev alidityoft heTr eat yofPar isandt hei ncl usi onofMi ndanao,Sul uand
    Palawanwi thoutt heconsentoft heMor opeopl e.Theseemi ngpeaceandqui etwhi ch
    wasexper iencedsi ncet hesi ngi ngoft heBat esTr eatyi n1899,onceagai ndi st ur bed
    whent hef irstgunf i
    r ewashear di n1972.Musl imsor gani zingt hemsel vesandseeki ng
    forsecessi onori ndependencewast ri
    gger edbyt heJabi dahmassacr ewhi chki ll
    ed
    youngMusl imt r aineesi nt hei sl andofCor regidor .Theywer esupposedl yt rai nedbyt he
    gov er nmentofPr es.Mar cosf ort hesecr eti nvasi onofSabah,Mal aysi a.Howev ert hey
    wer esi lencedbydeat hwhent heyr ef usedt heassi gnment .Thest or ywasr elat edbya
    l
    onesur vi
    v or.Si xtysev en( 67)supposedl ywer eki l
    ledt opr ev entt hem r ev eal ingsecr et s.
    The i nci dentawakened t he sensi bili
    ties of t he Musl ims and Nur Mi suar i
    succeededi nor gani zingt heMNLF.Manybel ievedt hatwhat ev erf atet hatbef ell him now
    hewoul dst il
    lgodownt ohi stor yasonewhouni t
    edt heMusl i
    m peopl e.Tot heMusl ims,
    theMNLF i st hev anguar d off reedom and l ookupon t hi sor gani zat ion wi th deep
    rever ence.( Ber nal 2017)
    Sincet heout breakoft heamedconf li
    cti n1972t hegov ernmenthasshoul dr ed
    thecostoft hewarat70bi ll
    ionpesosandcount lessl iv esl ostt omor et hanahundr ed
    thousand.Thr ee( 3)pr esident si nitiatedpeacedi alogueswi tht heMNLFst ar ingwi t
    h
    Pres.Mar coswi thsi gni ngoft heTr ipoliAgr eementi n1976;pr esentCor azonAqui no
    witht hesi gni ngoft heJeddahAccor din1987;Pr esidentFi delRamoswi thhi sFi nal
    PeaceAgr eementi n1986, inwhi chhesucceededi nbr ingi ngbackNur Mi suar it oaccept
    gov er nmentpost .Thesuccessoft hispeaceagr eementwasat tribut edt ot heheadof
    thegov ernmentpeacepanel ,formerAmbassadorManuel Yan, whowasdescr ibedbyhi s
    colleaguesasamanwi thconsummat epat i
    ence.
    Asar esul toft hepeaceagr eement ,Nur Mi suar iaccept edt or ununopposedas
    gov er noroft heARMM.Thi sl edt ot heor gani zat ionoft heSPCPDandt heSZOPADand
    i
    ntegr at i
    onof7, 500MNLFt ot hemi litaryandPNP.Thepeaceagr eementdi dnotmean
    surrenderoft heMNLFsi nceasanor gani zationi twasnotdi smant l
    ed.

    Whatwer ethePeaceI ni
    ti
    at i
    vesf rom Ci
    vilSocietyOrganizations?
    Moregroupsandi ndividual
    shav ebeenpr e-occupiedi npromot i
    ngcultureof
    peaceaf t
    ert hesigningoft hepeaceagr eement .I
    ti sar ealit
    ythatpeacecannotbe
    achi
    ev edsimplybyt hecessat ionofwar .Ther earemanyt hi
    ngst olearnandt ounlearn
    andtodesignpr ogram thatwoul dpromotemaki ngupf orwhathasbeenl ost–thel oss
    off r
    iendship,brotherhood whi ch was t aken away f rom us due t o cent
    uri
    es of
    col
    onizati
    on.Fort hisRodi lissuest hr
    ee( 3)fundament alassumpt ionsorbasi cst o
    consi
    derinpr omotingcultureofpeace:

    1st,Mindanaoi
    sinhabi
    tedbyapopulati
    onthatmaybecl
    assif
    iedbroadlyint
    o
    t
    hree(3)disti
    nctsegment
    s–t heLUMADS,theMUSLIMS,t
    heCHRISTIAN SETTLERS
    (
    CHRISTIANIZEDNATIVES);

    2nd,
    notasegmentcancal
    lMi
    ndanaoast
    hei
    rsanyl
    onger
    ;Mi
    ndanaoi
    sal
    readya
    shar
    edterr
    it
    ory
    ;

    503
    3rd,despi
    tet
    heirdi
    ff
    erencesthet
    hree(
    3)segment
    sarecapabl
    eofwor
    kingouta
    modusvivendiandcanmakeMi ndanaoasahomeofpeaceandharmony

    DirectorJawal iLaja( DECSassi st.Di rect orf orRegionI X)whosati nt heMNLF


    commi tteedur ingt hepeacenegot i
    ati
    on,hast hist oofferasast atementofpeace,“ We
    areal lundert heencompassi ngsov ereigntyoft heonemosthi ghGod.Bot hgr oupsi n
    theinter estofpeaceandhar monyshoul dr ecogni zethisasonebasi cprinciplei nor der
    tosur vive....Sur v i
    v alofonei sthesur vivaloft heot her;dest ruct ionofonel eadst ot he
    destruct i
    onofot her ....”
    DirectorEr icCasi ñooft heMi ndanaoExecut i
    veDev elopmentAcademyhast his
    tosay ,“ I
    fwel ooki ntotheAbr ahami ctradi ti
    on,wear etracingt her ootsofChr ist
    iani t
    y
    andI slam f rom t het wo(2)sonsofAbr aham whower eIsaacandI shmael .
    ”JesusChr i
    st
    beingt hecent ralf igureofChr isti
    anitywhosehumangeneal ogyi st r
    aced42gener at ion
    from Isaact hesonofAbr aham andPr ophetMohammadwhosegeneal ogyi st raced
    mor e orl ess 70 gener ation f r
    om I shmael ,whi ch ill
    ustrat es one f atherf orbot h
    ChristianityandI slam.
    Dr.Casi ñocont i
    nuedt hatwhatwef indcommoni nI slam andChr isti
    ani tycoul d
    l
    eadust omut ualunder standinganduni t
    y .Hef ur therasser tsf orust of i
    ndourAsi at i
    c
    humani tyt hatl inkst heI ndonesi ans,theMal aysandt heFi lipinosi nacommonet hnic
    foundat ion.Ourf irstt askist ol ookatour selvesasapeopl ebef oret headv entofI slam
    andChr i
    stianity .Whati si mpor tantist oexami neourher itaget hatliesbur iedi nour
    ethnicconsci ousness,i nourmy thsandl egends,ar tandl anguage,ourv aluesand
    customs.Thi si swhatDi rectorLaj ameanswhenhesai dt hati tdoesnotmat teronwhat
    wav eofAsi anmi grat i
    onwecomet othecount ry .Butwhatmat terstohi mi st hathei s
    brownasany onei nt heZamboangaWor ld.( Ber nal 2017)

    Whati
    stheRol
    eofSoci
    alWor
    ker
    sinPr
    omot
    ingPeace?

    Soci
    alwor ker sshoul dlookbey ondthesuf feri
    ngsoft hev ict
    imsofar med
    confl
    ict.Wepr actit
    ionerscant urnour selv
    esintopeaceadv ocatesdelvi
    ngdeeperi nto
    ourculturalandreli
    gioushistoryforust obeabletosharethiswi t
    hpeopl ewhountilnow
    haver emainedcapt iveofourcol oni
    aleducationandsust ainedprejudices.Toquot e
    Prof
    essorRodi l,hesaidasl ongasChr isti
    anshelptheseprejudicesandbi asesagainst
    Musli
    ms, i
    twoul dbediffi
    culttoachievegenuinepeacei nMindanao.

    Socialworkerscanjoinpeacegroups,part
    ici
    pat
    eindialogues,maytakeast and
    onissuest hatishurt
    ingMusl i
    m-Chri
    sti
    anr el
    ati
    ons.Whil
    etheBal i
    katanexerci
    seswas
    vi
    ewedbyt hemostinMi ndanaoassecurityagai
    nstAbuSayyaforterror
    ism,Theyfail
    ed
    toseehow t hisexerci
    seishur ti
    ngtheMusl imswhowi llbepr onedt obehel das
    suspect
    sf orbeingAbuSay yaf.Thedivi
    siv
    enessofpeoplewithregardstotheseissues
    wassurelyabl owtopeaceiniti
    ati
    ves.

    Therearemor eforsoci
    alworkerstol earninthepr ocess,moretor eadmor eto
    hear.Ifwearef orpeople’
    swelfar
    e,thenwel ookf urt
    herandbeani nstrumentsoas
    peoplemayl i
    vei npeace,harmonyandbr otherhood,thatpeoplemaypar ti
    cipateand
    benefi
    tinthedev el
    opmentprocessandul t
    imat elytr
    ansform Mindanaointot helandof
    ful
    fi
    ll
    ment.Socialworker
    smayt akeformerAmbassadorManuelYanasar olemodel ,i
    n
    hisconsummatepat i
    enceandthiswil
    lclearther uggedroadt opeace.(
    Bernal 2017)

    VI
    I. HUMANSETTLEMENT(
    THEURBANPOOR)

     Humanset tl
    ement sforthelandl
    essi nthecountryisagr owingconcernfor
    socialworkers
     Mor e people with unst
    abl
    el and tenure ar
    ef aci
    ng thr
    eats ofevict
    ion as
    urbani
    zationprogresses
     Fi
    lipi
    nostheysai daresquat
    ter
    sintheirowncountry
     Thereisagr owingnumberoffamil
    ieswi t
    hsquatt
    erstat
    ussince20year
    sago

    504
     Warint hecountr
    ysi
    deiscomingoutast henew causef
    orfami
    li
    est
    osettl
    ein
    populati
    oncent
    er
     Yearsagoitwaspovert
    yinthecount
    rysi
    dethatmadepeoplemov
    etopopul
    ati
    on
    cent
    er s

    THREATSTOUNSTABELSETTLEMENTSI NTHECI TI
    ES
     Increasev alueofur banlands
     Wi deningofr oads
     Zoni ngoft hecit
    y
     Dev elopmentpr ojectsofgovernment/businesssect
    or
     Nat i
    onal eventsthatneedt ohideugl
    ysitesofsquatt
    ercommuni
    ti
    es

    ROLEOFSOCI ALWORKERS
     Primarilyascommuni tyor ganizers
     In cases of aggr essive ev i
    ct i
    on the SaulAl i
    nsky method of communit
    y
    organizati
    oncanbeempl oyed
     Socialwor kerpart
    ici
    patesi nt i
    mesofact ualdemolit
    ion byfor
    ming human
    barri
    cadesandpr ev
    ent i
    ngt hedemol it
    ionteam f
    rom comingi
    ntot
    hecommuni t
    y
     Socialwor kersparti
    cipatesi ndemonst rati
    onsandr al
    li
    estoadvancewhatthe
    communi tydemandsf rom thegov ernment
     Socialwor kersshouldbegr oundedont heUDHA( URBANDEVELOPMENTAND
    HOUSI NGACT)Ber nal2017

    VI
    II
    . I
    NDI
    GENOUSPEOPLE

     Thereare18et hnoli
    ngui st
    icgroupsi nhabit
    ingthecount r
    ywaybef orethe
    Spanishcoloni
    zation
     Theyaredistri
    butedinal mostallt
    heislandsi nt
    hePhil
    ippinearchi
    pelago
     Theirancestor
    sar ri
    vedt oourcount r
    yasar esul
    tofmi grat
    ionoftri
    besf r
    om
    th
    I
    ndonesiadur i
    ngthe9 cent ur
    y
     I
    nZamboangaCi ty,theyar etheSubanun,Yakan,Kal ibugan,SamaBadj ao,
    SamaBangi ngi
     I
    ndigenouspeopl es’r i
    ght sare protected byRA 8351 ort he I
    ndigenous
    PeopleRightsActpassedi n1997
     Thi
    sl aw wasdecl aredasCONSTI TUTI ONALaf teri
    twaschal l
    engedi nthe
    SupremeCour tshortl
    yaf teri
    twaspassedi n1997

    THEPRIMARYSTRUGGLEOFI
    NDIGENOUSPEOPLEI
    SJW TOLEGALLYRE-
    ACQUI
    RE
    THEI
    RLANDAFTERITWASDECLAREDASGOVERNMENTLANDBYTHECONCEPTOF
    THEREGALI
    ANDOCTRINE

     TheI PRA pr ovi


    desananswerbygi v i
    ngacl eardef i
    niti
    onoft heconceptof
    ANCESTRALDOMAI N
     Wehav etomakei tclearthattheconceptofANCESTRALDOMAI Naspr ovi
    dedin
    theIPRAf orINDIGENOUSPEOPLEi sf ardif
    ferentfrom theANCESTRALDOMAI N
    conceptuali
    zedbyt heMNLF/ MILF
     AncestralDomai nasdef i
    nedint heI PRAmeans:
    1.I ti
    sacommunal pri
    vatepr
    oper ty
    2.I twaspossessedandoccupi edbyt hei
    rancestor ssincet i
    mei mmemor i
    alor
    onbef oreSpanishconquest
    3.I ti
    scont i
    nuouslypossessedbyt heirdescendant suntilatpresent
    4.Thecl aim isst ronglysuppor tedbyv ali
    dev idences,oneofwhi chist he
    genealogyoft hel eadersoft het ri
    be,ev i
    dencesofexi st
    enceofol dburial
    sit
    es,hunt i
    nggroundsandi ncludingnamesofr iver
    s,cr eeksandsiteswhich
    shouldbei ntheirownl i
    ngo.

    505
    5.Clai
    mantsshouldfoll
    owrigidprocessfort
    heclai
    m;itist
    heNCI Pwhodoes
    al
    lt he pr
    ocessi
    ng and exami nati
    on ofevi
    dences before approv
    aland
    i
    ssuanceoftheCADT( CERTIFICATEOFANCESTRALDOMAI NTI TLE)
    6.TheCADTi sapprovedbyeight(8)NCIPcommissi
    onerssi
    tti
    ngenbanc

    THREATSTOI PRIGHTSTOTHEI RANCESTRALDOMAI N


    1.Conti
    nuousflowoflandl
    esspeoplefrom t
    helowlandstoopennewfarmi
    ngsi
    tes
    2.Openi
    ngofnewdev el
    opmentpr oj
    ect
    sofgovernment
    3.Cyni
    calatt
    it
    udeofthepolit
    ical
    leader
    softhelocali
    ty
    4.Complacencyofthenewgener ati
    ontowar
    dstheircul
    tur
    eandtradi
    ti
    on

    ROLEOFTHESOCI ALWORKER
    1.Wehav econvi
    ncedt hatI ndigenouspeopl
    ehaveri
    ghtsespeci
    all
    ytot
    heirl
    and
    2.Wehav etobefull
    yconv incedoftheconceptofAncest
    ralDomain
    3.Thatstandi
    ngupf ort her i
    ghtsifIndi
    genousPeoplei
    sanADVOCACY,t hatwe
    cantakeapartacti
    v elyifwear egivenachance
    4.Weengagei nconsci entizati
    onef f
    ortf
    ormorepeopletofoll
    owthecauseofthe
    Indi
    genousPeople.(Ber nal2017)

    506
    SOCIALWORK
    COMMUNICATI
    ON
    AND
    DOCUMENTATI
    ON

    Rev
    iewer
    :
    Ms.Wy
    lenL.Li
    pangl
    ipang

    507
    Modul
    e1
    Communi
    cat
    ioni
    nSoci
    alWor
    k

    Communi
    cat
    ioni
    nSoci
    alWor
    k

     Communi cationisat erm der i


    vedf r
    om t heLat inwor d“ communi s”whi chmeans
    tomakecommon,andt hewor d“ communi -care”,whi chmeanst oshar eort o
    i
    mpar t(ThelmaLee- Mendoza)
     Communi cationi stheshar ingorexchangeoft hought sbet weent woormor e
    persons.
     Insoci alwor k,i
    ti sthepr ocessbywhi chani deai st r
    ansf err
    edf rom itssour ceto
    ar eceiverorbet weent hewor kerandt hecl i
    entwi tht hei ntentt ochanget he
    l
    atter’
    sbehav i
    or.
     Thef or mermaywantt oal t
    ert hel att
    er ’
    sbehav iorandat t
    itudeormot iv atehi mto
    all
    eviatehi sowncondi tionorsi tuation.I nt hesamemanner ,t hecl ientmakes
    knownt ot hewor kerhisf eelings, wishes, oraspi r
    ations.
     Throught her eciprocalpr ocessofcommuni cationandunder st andingt hecl i
    ent,
    thewor keri stheni nt hebestposi t
    iont ot ransf orm new i nformat ioni ntonew
    behav ior.
     Communi cationisabasi ci ngredi entinhel pingpeopl e.
     Communi cationisat wo- waypr ocess( whichst artswi tht hesour ceini ti
    at i
    ngthe
    communi cati
    onandt her eceiverr espondi ng)
     Communi cationisamet hod( way sofhel pingpeopl el earn,throughv ariedf orms
    bywhi chasour cepur posi velyshar esmessageswi t
    har eceiverdi rect lyorv iaa
    channel andbot hlearnsf rom eachot her.
     Knowl edgeaboutcommuni cationi sagr owingbr anchofst udyt hatisnowal so
    ref
    erredt oasasci ence–canbeext remel yhel pfultot hesoci alwor kerwhowi l
    l
    undoubt edly hav e many occasi ons t o use such knowl edge t o ef fecti
    vel
    y
    i
    nfluencepeopl eandhel pbr ingaboutchange.

    ElementsoftheCommunicati
    onPr
    ocess
    Basedont heprecedi
    ngdefi
    nit
    ion,t
    hecommuni
    cat
    ionpr
    ocesshasf
    our(
    4)
    essent
    ialel
    ements:t
    he
    1.Sour ce
    2.Message
    3.Channel
    4.Recei v
    er

    1.SOURCE

     Communicati
    onmayor i
    ginat
    ef r
    om anindi
    vi
    dual,agroup,oraninst
    itut
    ion.
     Whenappliedtosocialwor k;thi
    smeanst hatasoci alworkercouldi ni
    ti
    ate
    communicati
    on,wi
    thhercl i
    ent,herco-wor
    ker,heragency,orwi t
    hawor kerin
    anot
    heragency.
     Theagencyworkerhowev er
    ,isnotalwaysthesourceofcommuni cati
    ons,asit

    508
    couldbet hecl
    ientoranoutsi
    deagency.
     Asf arascommuni cati
    onsourcei
    sconcerned,credi
    bil
    i
    tyisanimport
    antfact
    orin
    i
    nfluencing anaudience.Themor ecredibl
    et hesour ceasperceived bythe
    audience,themoreeffect
    ivei
    tisi
    nchangingatti
    tudesimmediat
    ely
    .

    Exampl
    es:
    1.Beinganolderperson
    2.Sinceri
    ty
    3.Abili
    tytoexpl
    ainclear
    ly
    4.Frequencyofcontactswit
    hther
    ecei
    ver(
    audi
    ence)

    2.MESSAGE

     Themessageofacommuni cat
    ioncouldbeknowledge,anatt
    it
    ude,andt
    o/ or
    behavi
    orwhi
    chthesourcewi
    shestoconveyt
    other ecei
    ver
    .Thi
    smessagecould
    beconvey
    edinv
    ariousways:
    verbal
    ly
    ,non-
    ver
    ball
    yort hr
    oughsymbol
    s.

    A.Ver
    balCommuni
    cat
    ion:
    Inv
    olv
    est
    heuseofwor
    ds,
    whet
    herspokenorwr
    it
    ten.

     Contrarytowhatmanypeopl ethink,verbal communicati


    oncanbeapr obl
    em.
    1.Theav ail
    abili
    tyofwor dsdoesnotal way smakeus“ saywhatwemeanand
    meanwhatwesay ”.
    2.Manyofushav el i
    mitedv ocabular y,whichpreventsusf r
    om expr essi
    ng
    ourselvesclearl
    yandcandi dl
    y.
    3.Somewor dshav ediffer
    entmeani ngsandusagest odiff
    erentregions,a
    problem compounded by our hav ing numerous dialect
    s, maki ng
    communi cati
    on diffi
    cult
    . Thus such wor ds li
    ke “ano” and “ kuwan”
    (expressi
    onsequi val
    entt o“ thi
    st hing”or“ youknow whatImean”ar ein
    commonusage.

     Howev er ,usingwor dscanmakeawor l


    dofdi f
    f erence.
    Int hePhi li
    ppi
    nes,awor kercanal mostest ablishi nstantr apportwi than
    i
    ndi vi
    dual ,agr ouporev enanent i
    recommuni tybyspeaki ngthei rlanguageev en
    i
    fonl yinheropeni ngstatementdur ingt hei ni
    tial contactwi t
    ht hecl i
    ent.
     Euphemi sms,ort he use ofa wor d orphr ase t hatexpr esses somet hing
    unpleasantorof fensi
    veinamor epleasantway ,isalmostanor mi nsociety.
    Thus,wor dsl i
    ke“ bakasakal i
    ”(may be) ,“ti
    ti
    ngnanko”( I’
    llsee),“siguro”
    (probably ),
    et c.aresubst i
    tutefor“no”or“ Icannot ”
    .
     Wor kersar enotonl ytol earntoint erpretclient ’
    smessagewhenheusessuch
    wor ds,butsomet imesshet oo,mayhav et ouseeuphemi smsasat echnique.
     Forsoci alwor kers,weshoul dal
    sounder scor et heimpor tanceofcommuni cating
    properlyt hrought hewrit
    tenf orm.
    Engl ishandFi li
    pinoar eourof fici
    all anguagesandwet hinkawor ker
    shouldwr it
    ei nt helanguageofwhi chshehasabet tercommandkeepi nginmi nd
    that,i
    tisat ool,shecanuset oherorhercl ient’sadv ant ageordi sadvantage.

    B.Non-
    ver
    balCommuni
    cat
    ion

     Communi cati
    onwi thoutt heuseofwor ds.Itisconvey edthr
    ought heperson’
    s
    physicalappearance, dress,faci
    alexpr ession,behavi
    or,gest
    ures,sounds,si
    l
    ence,
    touch,eyecont act,andsoon.
     Aphy sicalset
    tingcanal socommuni catemessages.
     Non-verbalcommuni cati
    on,whi ch conv ey
    s at t
    it
    udes,and f eel
    ings,oft
    en
    accompani esv erbal communi cati
    on.
    Howev er,theyof tenstandbyt hemsel ves,sothatsocialworkersshoul
    d
    l
    earnt obeobser vantandsensi ti
    ve.

    509
     Theabil
    i
    tyto understand peoplecan bei mproved,byf orming t
    hehabi tof
    knowi
    ngwheretolook,whattol i
    stenfor,andwhatt osense.
     Symbol
    sareessenti
    all
    yanon- verbalf
    or m ofcommuni cat
    ion.
    Symbolsareint heform ofpi ctures,di
    agrams,post er
    s,logos,et
    c.,and
    canst
    andbyt hemsel v
    es,orwit hwor ds.

    Sy
    mbolsarechosenfordi
    ffer
    entreasons:
    1.Toappealtot
    heintell
    ectand/ort
    ot hesenses
    2.Tocorr
    ectortopromot eabiasorprejudi
    ce
    3.Torai
    sehopesortocr eat
    edissati
    sfacti
    on
    4.Tofost
    erunit
    y

    Exampl es:
    Thesy mbolofjustice–abl i
    ndfoldedwomanholdingabal
    ancedscale-isdispl
    ayedin
    court
    rooms, ar
    emi ndertothej udgeaswell
    astothepubl
    i
    cthatjust
    iceisdevoidofbi
    as.
    Insocialworkpractice,aposterdepict
    ing“
    bayani
    han”–agroupofmencar r
    yinganipa
    hut–isuset osy mbol i
    zetheneedt oshoul
    dercommonproblemstogether,
    andt owork
    cooperati
    vel
    ytowar dsthei
    rsolution

    3.CHANNEL

     Refer
    st othepr opercourse,or“channels”oftr
    ansmi ssi
    onofcommuni cat
    ion,
    thati
    s,ei
    therinterper
    sonalormassmedi a,orbot
    h.
     Thechoiceofcommuni cat
    ionchannel
    si smadeusuallywitheff
    ect
    ivenessasthe
    main considerati
    on alt
    hough ot
    herf actor
    slike control
    l
    abil
    i
    ty,economy ,and
    speedcomei ntothepictur
    e.

    A.I
    nter
    personalcommuni
    cati
    onistheonesour
    ceofinf
    luencet
    hatseemedtobe
    f
    araheadofallot
    her
    sindet
    ermi
    ningt
    hewaypeopl
    emadeupt hei
    rminds.

    B.Massmedi
    aont
    heot
    herhand,
    off
    erscer
    tai
    nadv
    ant
    ages:

    Itcanreachabiggeraudi
    encewithi
    nashor
    terper
    iodoft
    ime,andar
    eeasi
    ert
    o
    cont
    rol
    thanint
    erper
    sonalcommunicat
    ion.

    4.RECEI
    VER

    Theper son,gr oup,orpopul ati


    onsegment /t
    otalpopul ationt hati sthe
    intendedaudi enceofacommuni cationiscalledthe“ r
    eceiver”.
     Inef f
    ectiv
    ecommuni cation,thereceiveristhef i
    rstconsideration.
    Mercadogi v esust hef oll
    owinggui deli
    nest or emember ,wi thr espectt othis
    v
    eryimpor t
    antel ementi nt hecommuni cati
    onpr ocess:
    1.Themor ehomogenoust heaudi ence,theeasi ert ocommuni catewi t
    h
    them.
    2.Themor eweknowaboutt heneedsofouraudi ence,t heeasi erf orusto
    i
    nfluencet hem.
    3.I ngener al,thehi ghertheeducat i
    onalat tai
    nmentofaper son,t hemor e
    openhe/ shei st onewi deas.Thi sisbecauseeducat ion, perse, broadens
    aper son’sper spect i
    ve.
    4.I ngener al,womenar eeasiert opersuadet hanmen.
    5.I ngener al,they oungert heper son,themor eopenhe/ shei st onewi deas.
    Thisbecauset heexi sti
    ngknowl edgeorat t
    it
    udesofy oungerper sonsare
    notyetdeepl yingr ai
    ned.

    510
    Modul
    e2
    Level
    s,Pr
    ocesses,
    Appr
    oaches,
    Methods,Mat
    eri
    alsandSt
    rat
    egi
    esi
    n
    Communicati
    on

    Level
    sandBl
    ocks

    1.Fi
    rstLev
    el/
    Blocks

    Theblackenedporti
    oninthemi ddl
    eoft wocircl
    esindi
    cat
    est hel
    eveloft he
    messagebecomi ng commont o bot
    h.Thismeanst hatcommunicat
    ionisnotv er
    y
    successf
    ulbecauseonlyasmallport
    ionofthemessagei scommont oboth.Perhaps
    thesenderwasnotabletorel
    aythemessageclear
    ly,
    thati
    swhyonlyasmallpartofthe
    messagewashear d,orr
    ecei
    vedbytherecei
    ver
    .

    2.SecondLev
    el/
    Blocks

    511
    Themessageoft hesour
    ceisalmostr
    elay
    edi nfullt
    othereceiv
    er.Asmal lpart
    i
    snotcommont oboth.I
    tispossi
    blet
    hatsomedi str
    acti
    onshavecausedi t
    .Itisalso
    possi
    blethatnomatterhowgoodthesour
    cewasi nrel
    ayingthemessageifthereceiver
    wasnotequal l
    ygoodi ncaptur
    ingthemessaget hencommuni cati
    onwasnot100%
    eff
    ect
    ive.

    3.Thi
    rdLev
    elBl
    ocks

    Thisisani dealsit
    uat i
    on.Ift hereceivedbyt heot herpersoni sexactl
    yt hesame
    astheoneabov e,thencommuni cati
    onwassuccessf ul
    .
    Communi cationmakesorbr eaksasi tuation.I
    Nmanyconf li
    ctsi
    tuati
    ons, theroot
    causei sof t
    enpoorcommuni cationcausi ng mi sunderstanding.Good and ef fecti
    ve
    communi cati
    onal lowsust oobt ainaccur ateinformation,knowt heneedsandf eelings
    ofothers, comeupwi t
    hbet terdecisionsandt oar ri
    veatmut ual
    l
    yagr eeabl
    esol uti
    ons.
    I
    nmostcases, acqui ri
    ngbet tercommuni cati
    onski l
    lsisattachedtobeingabl eto
    expressy ourselfwel l.Indeed,iti sv eryimpor tantthatweexpr essourt hought sand
    feel
    ingsinacl ear,non-threateni
    ngmanner .I
    fwear egent l
    erwithwor ds,theot herpar t
    y
    wouldal sobegent l
    erwi huspr ev ent
    ingmi sunderstandingthatcanescal atei ntoa
    confli
    ct.

    ProcessofCommuni cat
    ion
    Communi cati
    on may be classi
    fi
    ed accordi
    ng to processes.The numberof
    processesi nvol
    vedi nthei nter
    acti
    onaf f
    ect
    st hecostandt heef fect
    ivenessofthe
    communi cat
    ion.Therearethreetypesofcommuni cati
    on,whi
    chcoul dbegoodsubjects
    forinvesti
    gati
    on:
    1. One-wayprocess-undert hist
    ypethesour cesi
    mplysendst hemessaget othe

    512
    receiverwhoi sex pectedt of ol
    low theor derwi thoutquest ion.Thi spr ocessis
    typifi
    edbyapar entwhoor der shisson,ordaught ertodosomet hing,andt he
    orderiscar r
    iedoutwi thnoquest i
    onasked.Thi stypeofcommuni cationismost
    evidentwhent her eisanemer gencyl ikef ir
    eorear thquake.Thi swast hefir
    st
    andsi mpl estt ypeofcommuni cati
    on, whi chwasi nvestigated.
    2. Two- waypr ocess-t histypei nvolvesasour ceandar ecei
    v erwhocant alkto
    eachot her .Thesour ceini
    tiatesthepr ocessandt herecei veranswer sback.Thi s
    typeshowsaf eedbacksy st em fr
    om t her ecei
    v ertot hesour ce.Whi lethefir
    st
    modelshowsaone- wayar rowbet weent hesour ceandt her eceiver
    ,t hi
    smodel
    presentst w-wayar rowssi gnifyi
    ngthepr esenceofaf eedbacksy stem.
    3. Thr ee-
    waypr ocess-Thi st ypeisv i
    rtuallysimi l
    art othet wo-waypr ocessexcept
    thatt he sour ce st ar
    ts wi th gathering i nfor
    mat i
    on about ,instead of giv
    ing
    i
    nf ormationt o,ther eceiv
    er .Thegi vingofi nformat i
    oncomessecondandt he
    collecti
    onofi nformat i
    onfollowsast het hirdstep.

    Communi
    cat
    ionMat
    eri
    als,
    Appr
    oaches,
    Met
    hods,
    andSt
    rat
    egi
    es

    Communi
    cat
    ionmat
    eri
    alsar
    eteachi
    ngai
    dst
    hatar
    eusedbyt
    rai
    ner
    sini
    mpr
    ovi
    ngt
    he
    ef
    fect
    iveness oft
    hei
    rcommuni
    cat
    ion ef
    for
    ts.Theycan be di
    vi
    ded i
    nto pr
    intand
    el
    ectr
    onic.

    Exampl
    esofpr
    intmat
    eri
    als:

    Charts Bl
    ackboards
    Maps Fl
    ipcharts
    Graphs Model
    s
    Posters Objects
    Bull
    eti
    nboar
    ds Di
    agr ams
    Exampl
    esofel
    ectr
    onicmat
    eri
    als:

    Vi
    deos Sl
    ides
    Casset
    tet
    apes Fi
    l
    ms

    Communi
    cat
    ionappr
    oachesar
    eacombi
    nat
    ionofmet
    hodsdesi
    gnedt
    oreachcer
    tai
    n
    tar
    getaudiences.Forappr oachest hatareusual l
    yusedi ncampai gns,andaresubjectto
    i
    nvesti
    gationsar ethei ndividualapproach,gr oupappr oach,themassmedi aappr oach,
    andthefolkmedi aappr oach.
    1.Thei ndiv
    idualappr oachi sgenerall
    yusedt oimprovetheawar eness,knowledge,
    skil
    l,and/orpractice( AKASP)ofani ndi
    vidual.
    2.The gr oup appr oach i s generall
    y empl oyed toimpr ovet he AKASP ofan
    i
    ndiv i
    dual.
    3.Themassappr oachi sgeneral
    lyappl i
    edt oimprovetheAKASPofal ar
    gemass
    oftargetaudiencest hatcannotber eachedper sonall
    ybyt hesource.
    4.Thef olkmediaappr oachIgener al
    lyappliedtocreateawar enessandt ochange
    atti
    tudeoft ar
    getaudi encesthataredi f
    fi
    culttoreach.

    Communi
    cat
    ion met
    hods ar
    e way
    s ofshar
    ing messages bet
    weena sour
    ce and a
    r
    ecei
    ver
    .Theef
    fect
    ivenessoft
    hesemet
    hodscoul
    dal
    sobest
    udi
    ed.

    Appr
    oaches Met
    hods
    Farmv isit
    Homev isi
    t
    1.I
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    appr
    oach Offi
    cev isi
    t
    Chanceconv ersat
    ion
    Personal l
    ett
    er
    Lecture
    2.Gr
    oupappr
    oach
    Discussion

    513
    Lecture-discussi
    on
    Smal lgroupmeet ing
    Semi nar
    Wor kshop
    Studyt our
    Rolepl ayi
    ng
    Met hoddemonst r
    at i
    on
    Resultdemonst r
    ation
    Newspaper
    Magazi ne
    Radio
    3.MassMedi
    aappr
    oach TV
    Fi
    lm
    Bil
    lboar d
    Books
    Traditi
    onal drama
    4.Fol
    kmedi
    aappr
    oach
    Debat es
    Poems
    Riddles
    Folkdances
    Folksongs

    Communi
    cat
    ionst
    rat
    egi
    esar
    ebr
    oadst
    atement
    sthatpr
    ovi
    det
    hegener
    aldi
    rect
    ionf
    ora
    communi cati
    on pr
    ogr
    am.Ther eareatleasttwo gener alcommunicat
    ion st
    rat
    egies
    commonl yusedincommunicati
    oncampaigns:educat
    ionstrat
    egysuchasInformati
    on,
    Educat
    ion,Communi cat
    ion campai
    gns (
    IEC),adv er
    ti
    sing str
    ategy
    ,such as Soci al
    Market
    ing( SM).

    Modul
    e3
    EFFECTI
    VECOMMUNICATI
    ON

    Whati
    scommuni
    cat
    ion?

    Communi cat i
    oni stheartoft ransmitt
    inginf
    ormati
    on,i
    deasandat ti
    tudesf
    rom
    oneper
    sont oanot her.Communi cat
    ioni stheprocessofmeaningf
    ulint
    eract
    ionamong
    humanbeings.
     PersonalProcess
     Occursbet weenpeopl e
     I
    nvolveschangei nbehavi
    or
     Meanst oinf l
    uenceothers
     Expressi
    onoft hought
    sandemot i
    onsthroughwordsandact
    ions
     Toolsforcont rol
    li
    ngandmot i
    v atingpeople
     I
    tisasoci alandemot ionalpr
    ocess

    Whatar
    et hemostcommonway
    swecommuni
    cat
    e?
     Spokenwor d
     Wr i
    tt
    enword
     Vi suali
    mages
     Bodyl anguage

    TypesofCommuni
    cat
    ion
     Downwar d Communi cati
    on:hi ghlydi recti
    ve,from seni ort o subordinates,t o
    assignduties,giv
    ei nstruct
    ions,toi nform, t
    oofferf eedback,approvaltohighlight
    problems,etc.
     Upwar dsCommuni cat i
    ons:Itisnon- directi
    veinnat urefrom downbel ow,t ogi ve
    feedback,toinform aboutpr ogress/ problems,seeki ngapproval
    s
     LateralorHorizontalCommuni cation:Amongcol leagues, peer
    satt hesamel evel
    forinfor
    mat i
    onshar ing,forcoordinat i
    on,tosavet ime.

    514
    I
    nmoder nbusi
    nessenvir
    onmentcommuni cat
    ionext
    endsbey
    ondwrit
    ten
    orspokenwordstol i
    stenedwords.Vi
    sualcommunicati
    onaddedbytel
    evi
    sion,
    computershav
    egivennewmeani ngtocommunicati
    on.

    Communi
    cat
    ionnet
    wor
    ks
     Formalnet
    wor k–vir
    tual
    lyver
    ti
    calasperchai
    nofcommandwithi
    nthehi
    erarchy.
     Inf
    ormalnetwork– f r
    eetomov ei nanydirect
    ion;mayski
    pformalchainof
    command;likelyt
    osat i
    sfysoci
    alandemot i
    onalneedsandcanfaci
    li
    tat
    et ask
    accompli
    shment

    Bar
    ri
    erst
    ocommuni
    cat
    ion

     Noise
     Inappropriatemedium
     Assumpt i
    ons/Misconcept
    ions
     Emot i
    ons
     Languagedi f
    fer
    ences
     Poorlisteningski
    ll
    s
     Distr
    actions

    515
    Val
    ueofLi
    steni
    ng
     Li
    steningtoot hersi
    sanel egantar t
     Goodl i
    steningrefl
    ectscourtesyandgoodmanner s
     Li
    steningcar eful
    lytot hei nstr
    uctionsofsuper i
    orsimprovecompet enceand
    per
    formance
     Ther esultofpoorl i
    steningskillcouldbedi sast
    rousinbusiness,employment
    andsocial r
    elati
    ons.
     Goodl i
    steningcaneliminateanumberofi maginar
    ygriev
    ancesofempl oyees.
     Goodl i
    steningskil
    lcanimpr ovesoci al
    rel
    ati
    onsandconv er
    sati
    on
     Li
    steningisaposi ti
    veactivi
    tyratherthanapassiveornegati
    veacti
    vit
    y.

    Essent
    ial
    sofCommuni
    cat
    ionDos
     Alwaysthinkaheadaboutwhaty ouaregoi ngt osay.
     Usesimpl ewordsandphr asest hatareunder st
    oodbyev er
    ybody.
     Incr
    easey ourknowl edgeonal lsubjectsy ouar erequi
    redt ospeak.
     Speakclearlyandaudi bl
    y .
     Checkt wicewitht hel i
    stenerwhet hery ouhav ebeenunder stoodaccur at
    elyor
    not
     Incaseofani nterrupti
    on,alwaysdoal i
    ttlerecapofwhathasbeenal r
    eadysaid.
     Alwayspayundi videdattenti
    ont othespeakerwhi l
    eli
    stening.
     Whileli
    steni
    ng,alway smakenot esofimpor tantpoint
    s.
     Alwaysaskf orclarif
    icat
    ionifyouhav ef ail
    edt ograspot her’
    spointofview.
     Repeatwhatt he speakerhas sai dt o checkwhet hery ou have understood
    accurat
    ely.

    Essent
    ial
    sofCommuni
    cat
    ionDon’
    ts
     Donoti
    nst antl
    yreactandmut tersomet hi nginanger.
     Donotuset echnicalterms&t erminologi esnotunderstoodbymaj or
    it
    yofpeopl
    e.
     Donotspeakt oof astort ooslow.
     Donotspeaki ninaudiblesur r
    oundings, asy ouwon’tbeheard.
     Donotassumet hatev er
    y bodyunder standsy ou.
     Whi
    leli
    steningdonotgl anceher eandt her easitmightdist
    ractthespeaker
    .
     Donoti
    nt err
    uptthespeaker .
     Donotj
    umpt otheconcl usionthatyouhav eunderst
    oodev erything

    Howt
    oImpr
    oveExi
    sti
    ngLevelofCOMMUNI
    CATI
    ON?
     IMPROVELANGUAGE.
     IMPROVEPRONUNCIATI
    ON.
     WORKONVOI CEMODULATI
    ON.
     WORKONBODYLANGUAGE.
     READMORE
     LISTENMORE

    516
     AVOID READI
    NG OR WATCHI NG OR LI
    STENI
    NG UNWANTED LI
    TERATURE,
    GOSSIP,MEDI
    A PRESENTATIONETC.
     INTERACTWITHQUALITATI
    VEPEOPLE.
     IMPROVEONYOURTOPI COFDISCUSSI
    ON,
     PRACTICEMEDITATI
    ON&GOODTHOUGHTS.
     THINKANDSPEAK.
     DONOTSPEAKTOOFAST.
     USESIMPLEVOCABULARY.
     DONOTSPEAKONLYTOI MPRESSSOMEONE.
     LOOKPRESENTABLEANDCONFI DENT.

    I
    mpr
    ovi
    ngBodyLanguage–Ti
    ps
     Keepappropriat
    edi st
    ance
     Touchonlywhenappr opr
    iat
    e
     Takecareofy ourappearance
     Beawar e-peoplemaygi vefal
    secues
     Maintai
    neyecont act
     Smilegenuinel
    y

    I
    NSI
    DETHERECEI
    VER’
    SHEAD

    Thei
    nter
    nalpr
    ocesst
    hatt
    akespl
    acewi
    thi
    nar
    ecei
    verhasf
    iveel
    ement
    s:

    1.I
    ntake–i
    nfor
    mat
    iont
    hati
    srecei
    vedi
    sact
    ual
    l
    ysel
    ect
    edbyt
    her
    ecei
    ver
    .

    517
    2.Meani ng– somemessagesar eincomplete,andt her
    eforear eceiverplaces
    meani ngbyr eplaci
    ngt hei nformati
    ont hatthesenderl eftoutandusesone’ s
    pastexper i
    enceasabasi s.
    3.Signif
    icance– cr eat
    inga“ feel
    i
    ng”( emotionsorbodysensat ions)outoft he
    meani ng.Themessagei st henconnect edtoone’sgoals,concerns,emot i
    ons,
    valuesandpastexper iences.
    4.Accept ance–unconsci ouslyapprovingordi sappr
    ovingthesignif
    icanceoft he
    message.
    5.Response–r esponsei sfil
    tereddependingonwhati seffecti
    veorappr opr
    iateto
    themessagesent .

    Mi
    sinterpr
    etati
    on and lateron,mi scommunication,mostl
    y happens i
    nt he
    processofgi vingmeaningt ot heinformat
    ionunti
    lar esponseisret
    urned.I
    tisvery
    i
    mpor tanttor emembert hatalt
    houghwehav easpeci f
    icmeaninginmi nd,t
    heother
    partymightthinkotherwi
    se,especial
    l
    yi fwehavedi
    ff
    erentbackgr
    ounds.

    Everymessagehasf oursides;thereforeinli
    steni
    ngtoamessage,onemust
    have“ f
    ourear s”t
    ogetthemessageaccur ately
    .Thesenderoft hemessagemustal so
    considerthatthemessagehe/sheissendingcoul dbeinter
    pret
    edinfourdi
    ffer
    entway s.
    Iti
    simpor tanttolear
    nhowt ocommuni catewi thal
    lfoursi
    desoft hemessageinorder
    tofacil
    itat
    ecommuni cat
    ionwellenough.

    TheFourSi
    desofaMessagear easf ol
    lows:
    1.Factuallevel–ev erymessagecontainfactuali
    nfor
    mation.
    2.Self-
    revelati
    on – i tcont
    ains int
    entionalself
    -port
    ray
    aland uni ntended self
    -
    di
    scl
    osur e.Itr
    efersonhow t hesenderv iewshimself
    /herselfandhow he/ she
    woul
    dliket obev i
    ewedbyot her
    s.
    3.Relati
    onshi p–rev eal
    sthesender ’
    ssentimentsforeachot her.I
    tismanifested
    i
    nthetoneofv oice,gest
    uresandot hernon-ver
    balsi
    gns.
    4.Appeal– t hesenderwant st o achieveaspeci fi
    cef f
    ectwhenr elayi
    ng the
    message.

    Exampl
    eofanal
    yzi
    ngt
    heFourSi
    desofaMessage:

    Message“
    Ther
    eisnomor
    eri
    ce”
    ,sai
    dthewi
    fet
    oherhusband

    Fact
    ual
    lev
    el:
    “Ther
    icesacki
    sempt
    y”

    Sel
    f-
    rev
    elat
    ion:
    “Wemi
    ghtgohungr
    y.”

    Rel
    ati
    onshi
    p:“
    Iam count
    ingony
    out
    obuyt
    her
    ice”(
    emphasi
    zi
    ngt
    her
    oleoft
    hehusband
    ast
    hebreadwinner
    )

    Appeal
    :“Hey
    ,gobuyr
    icenow!
    ”

    518
    Module4
    I
    NTERVIEWING

    Ani
    nter
    view i
    saf ace-
    to-
    facemeeti
    ngbetweentwoormor epersons,di
    rect
    ed
    t
    owar
    dsapurpose,suchastoobtai
    ninf
    ormati
    on,
    togiv
    einst
    ruct
    ions,andtohelp.

    How ani nter


    view isconduct edgreatl
    ydependsuponi tspurpose.Hence,an
    i
    ntervi
    ew conductedinconnect i
    onwi thasurveywillprobablybeli
    mi t
    edt oget ti
    ngt he
    i
    nformati
    onneededf orthest udy.Inasocialworkinter
    view,thesoci
    alwor keroftengoes
    beyond merely gett
    ing informat i
    on.Ev en inintervi
    ewing appli
    cantsr equesti
    ng a
    part
    icul
    aragencyservice,
    thewor kerusual
    lywouldalsogiveinfor
    mationori nstr
    uctions,
    provi
    deguidanceandsuppor t,gi
    v esuggesti
    onsandmakenecessar yinterpret
    ations,al
    l
    ofwhicharealr
    eadyaspect sofhel ping.

    Ani nter
    viewinvol
    vesbot hverbalandnon-verbal
    communi cat
    ion.Thesocialwork
    pract
    it
    ionermakesuseoft hei nt
    ervi
    ewt hr
    oughoutthehelpi
    ngprocess,inhi
    swor kwith
    i
    ndivi
    duals,groups,andcommuni t
    ies.Incommuni t
    ywor k,
    onemor efrequent
    lyhearsthe
    term“conference”which,essenti
    all
    y,involv
    esthesamepr ocess.

    I
    ntervi
    ewingisbothanartandatechni
    que,whi
    chrequi
    resknowledgeandskil
    ls.
    Iti
    sanar tbecausewhileint
    ervi
    ewer
    smayf ol
    l
    ow thesamepr i
    ncipl
    es,itall
    owsfor
    expressionofone’ spersonal
    i
    ty.Thefoll
    owingareamongt heskil
    lsr equi
    redforan
    eff
    ectiveinter
    view.

    1.Ski
    lli
    nrel
    ati
    ngwi
    tht
    hei
    nter
    viewee.Asoci
    alwor
    kint
    erv
    iewi
    sgui
    dedbyt
    he
    pr
    ofessi
    onal
    pri
    nci
    plesappl
    i
    edi
    nwor
    kingwi
    thpeopl
    e,whi
    chi
    ncl
    udet
    he

    519
    followi ng:
    a)Accept ingpeopl east heyar e,r egardl
    essofwhet hert hei ntervieweei spassi ve,
    resist i
    ng, aggressi v
    e,suspi cious, condescendi ng,etc.
    b) Indi vidualizi
    ng peopl e,knowi ng thatt hey hav e di ff
    erentphy siologicaland
    psy chol ogicalmake- up, andal sodifferentcul tur
    al char acteri
    stics.
    c) Prot ectingt heconf i
    dent i
    alnat ureofthei ntervi
    ew,set ti
    ngl i
    mi tsonhi msel fwi th
    regar dt owhatki ndofi nf
    or mat i
    ont oobt ainfrom t hecl ient,orwhatt oobt ain
    suchaswhent herear eot herpeopl epr esent.Gossi pandr umorspr eadi ngar e
    cultur alrealit
    iest hatr equi ret hesoci alwor ker’
    sexer ciseofcer tainpr ecaut ions
    whenconduct inginterv iews.
    d)Exer cisingdi scipli
    nei nt heuseofone’ ssel f
    ,cogni zantoft hewor ker’shol ding
    certai npower swhi chcanbeusedf ororagai nstacl i
    ent ,ortosui therownneeds
    orends.Unl essshehasdi sci pline,apr actiti
    onermayr esorttousi ngpr essur e, or
    shemi ghti mposeadv ice,andexer ci
    seot herformsofcont rolj ustbecausea
    cli
    enti sa“ cli
    ent ”
    .
    e) Allowi ng t he i ntervi
    ewee t o par t
    ici
    pat e and become sel f-det ermining,i .e.
    ,
    prov idinggui dance,di r ection,suppor t,clar i
    fi
    cation,butal way skeepi ngi nmi nd
    thatt he cl i
    ent,r egardl essofhi spr oblem orsi t
    uat ion,hascapabi li
    tiesand
    pot ent i
    ali
    ties.

    2.Ski
    lli
    nobser
    vingt
    hei
    nter
    viewee.A ski
    l
    ledi
    nter
    vieweri
    sver
    yobser
    vant
    ,is
    sensit
    ivetowhathi sey escansee: thephy sicalappearanceoft heintervi
    ewee,
    hisfaci
    alexpr essi
    on,gest ur
    es,bodymov ement s,andthel i
    ke.Whenwi thot her
    people,howdoesonecl i
    entbehaveandr eact? Howdoesher espondtot he
    worker-
    isheanxi ous,orcomf ort
    able, orannoy ed?Istheintervi
    eweepat ronizing?
    Isheent husi
    astic,
    orishemer el
    yf orcinghi msel f?Anintervi
    ewershoul dalsobe
    awareofherownl i
    mi t
    ationsinobser ving,thati s,aninterv
    iewershoul dalsobe
    awareofherownl imitati
    onsinobser ving,thati s,aninterv
    iewermayseeonl y
    whatshewant stosee.Shemayhav eherownpr ej
    udi
    cesandi nterests,
    ofwhi ch
    sheshoul dbeawar e.Shemayal sof indmeani ngorsignifi
    cancei nsomet hing
    thatshouldjustbeaccept edforwhati tis.

    3.Ski
    lli
    nli
    steni
    ng.Agoodi
    nter
    vieweri
    sagoodl
    i
    stener
    .Shel
    i
    stensbef
    oreshe
    tal
    ks,orst ar
    tst hei nt
    ervi
    ew usuall
    ybygi vingit
    spurpose,andt henl et
    st he
    i
    ntervi
    eweet alk.Shepi cksupi mportantpoint
    sf orel
    aborati
    onordi scussion.
    Bri
    efrelev
    antcomment sorquestionswi l
    lnotonl
    yshowt hattheinter
    vieweris
    l
    ist
    eningtoorf ol
    lowingtheint
    erviewee’saccount
    ,butwillencouraget hecli
    ent
    toexpresshisfeelings.

    4.Skilli
    naski ngquest i
    ons.Ani ntervi
    ewerwoul ddowel lt oremembert hata
    fri
    endl ymanneri naski ngquest ionscanmaket hedi ff
    erencebet weenherget tingcorrect
    orwr ongi nf
    ormation, andar esponsi veorhost i
    ler eply
    .Anaccusi ngquest ionar ousesa
    fearfuland def ensive at ti
    tude.When an i nt er
    v i
    eweri s genui nelyinterested and
    concer nedabouthel ping,shewi llhav enodi ffi
    cul t
    ywi thhermannerandt oneofaski ng
    quest i
    onst hi
    swi l
    lcomenat urally,andt heint ervi
    eweewi l
    lsensei tandwi l
    lrespond
    accor dingly.I
    tisalsoadv i
    sabl et oav oidquest ionst hatcallforay esornoanswer ,as
    thisisnotconduci vet oclientsel f-expression.Themat terofaskingper sonalquest i
    ons
    alsodeser vesourat tenti
    on.I ni ntervi
    ewi ng,apr ofessionalpersonshoul dbegui dedby
    thepr incipleofprivacy .I
    nsoci alwor ki nt
    erviewi ng,askingper sonalquestionscanonl y
    bej ust i
    fi
    edi fitrequi redbyt hehel pingpr ocess,andev ent hen,onemustaskonl y
    necessar yquestions.

    5.Skillinanswer i
    ngper sonalquest ions.Justasaski ngper sonalquest i
    ons
    requir
    esski l
    l,sodoesanswer ingper sonalquest ions.TheFi
    li
    pinosoci alwor kershould
    real
    izet hatshet ooisenti
    tledtoherpr i
    vacyandshemustnotf eelobligedt oanswer
    everyquest i
    onhercl i
    entasks.Thewor kershoul dal sobesensiti
    vet ot hemot i
    vefor
    asking personalquestions.Ifneed be,a l itt
    le“ whit
    eli
    e”maybe gi v en.Personal
    questionsar enotdiffi
    culttohandlei fthewor kerisnotemot ionall
    yinv olvedandi s
    securei nherhel pi
    ngrelati
    onshipwi t
    hhercl ient .Wemust ,howev er,under scorethe
    needt ounder st
    andthereasonf orcl
    ient’squestions.

    520
    6.Interpreti
    ng the cl
    ient’
    sr esponse.The i nt
    ervi
    ewergiv esmeaning t
    ot he
    cl
    ient’
    swor ds,expressi
    ons,andbehav ior.Thewor kershouldexercisecar
    einorderto
    ar
    riveatobjecti
    veandaccur ateint
    erpretati
    ons.“KnowYour sel
    f”i
    sagoodmot t
    oforthe
    i
    ntervi
    ewer. Ther e is also need t o under st
    and client’
    s cult
    ur e,when making
    i
    nterpr
    etat
    ionsofhi sresponses.

    CONDUCTI
    NGTHEI
    NTERVI
    EW

    Onedoesnotbecomeaski l
    l
    edi nt
    erv
    ieweroverni
    ght
    .Pr acti
    ce,alongwit
    ha
    consci
    ousnessofthetechni
    queswehavepresented,wi
    l
    lhelpawor kerbecomeamor e
    eff
    ecti
    veinter
    viewer
    .The f ol
    lowi
    ng ar
    e additi
    onalsuggest
    ions forconducti
    ng an
    i
    ntervi
    ew.

    1.Pr
    epar
    efor t
    he i
    nter
    view.Ant
    ici
    pat
    ethe usualpr
    obl
    ems and si
    tuat
    ions
    presentedbypeopl e,consider
    ingt hepar t
    icul
    arnatureofy ourwor k.
    2.Alwaysst artbymaki ngt heclientf eelcomf ort
    able.Thei nter
    viewershoul
    df eel
    comf ortableherselfsinceanxiety,tensionandner v
    ousnesscanbesensedbyt he
    cli
    entandcanaf fectt heint
    erview.Wi thFili
    pinoclient
    s,theuseofameni ti
    esi s
    veryhelpf ul
    ,e.g.“Kumust ahokay o?,
    ””Namumukhaankoy atakayo,”ar
    ecasual
    remar ksthatcanputacl i
    entatease.Howev er,
    thewor kershoul dwatchagainst
    overdoingt his.

    3.Useyouri
    ntui
    ti
    onor“
    sixt
    hsense.
    ”Thewor
    kershoul
    dbesensi
    ti
    vet
    ocer
    tai
    n
    si
    gnst hattel
    lherwhenorhow t
    ost
    artwi
    ththeint
    erv
    iew.Acli
    entwhocomes
    seeminglyupsetshoul
    dbeall
    owedt
    imetocoll
    ecthi
    mselfbef
    orethei
    nter
    view
    star
    ts.

    4.Exer
    cisecar
    eint
    heuseofi
    nter
    viewi
    nst
    rument
    sli
    kei
    ntakeandsur
    veyf
    orms.
    Thewor kershouldexpl ainthesei nstrumentst ot hecli
    ent,ast hel att
    ercan
    becomesuspi ci
    ousoruncomf ortable,especiall
    yoncet hewor kerstar
    t swr i
    ti
    ng
    downhisr esponses.Not etaki
    ngdur i
    ngt hecour seoft heintervi
    ew somet imes
    hstobedone.Taki ngdownnot esisal lri
    ghtasl ongast heclientistol
    dwhyt he
    workerhastodoi t.Cli
    entssomet i
    meshav etof i
    lloutsomef or msthemsel ves.A
    workeri
    nsuchcasesshoul dbev erysensitiv
    et oclient’
    sneeds.

    5.Beconsci
    ousoft
    ime.Ani
    nter
    viewershoul
    dreal
    i
    zet
    heneedt
    osetl
    i
    mit
    sont
    he
    i
    ntervi
    ew.Thewor kershoul
    dkeepi nmi ndwhatshewant stoaccompli
    shduri
    ng
    theinterv
    iewhassomei deasast ohowl ongthei nt
    erv
    iewshouldlast
    ,anddoes
    notallow itt
    ogoi nalldirect
    ions,unnecessari
    lywastingti
    mei ntheprocess.
    Whent hepurposeoftheintervi
    ew hasbeenaccompl i
    shed,theworkershoul
    d
    takethemov etoter
    minatetheinter
    view,oradjour
    ntheconference.

    6.Donotr ushi
    ntodirectact
    ionorhelpwi
    thoutful
    lyunderstandi
    ngthecl i
    ent’
    s
    si
    tuat
    ion.A workershould car
    eful
    l
    yassess t
    he cl
    ient
    ’s sit
    uat
    ion based on
    accurat
    eorrel
    i
    abledat
    ashehasgather
    ed,whichmakesforadefi
    nit
    ionofthe
    natur
    eofthecl
    ient
    ’spr
    obl
    em,whi
    ch,i
    nturn,becomest
    hebasi
    sfortheworker’
    s
    acti
    on.

    7.Thei
    nter
    viewershoul
    dhavepr
    operdepor
    tment
    .Thewayani
    nter
    vieweract
    sor
    conductsher selfisveryi mpor tant
    .Inoursoci ety
    ,awor kerwi
    llfi
    ndi thelpf
    ulto
    l
    earnt henor msi napar t
    icularcommuni tyifshewant st obeaccept edbyt he
    peopl
    e.Whatmaybeaccept ableinonecommuni t
    ymaybeof fensiv
    et oanother
    communi ty.A pr ofessionalper sonshoul datl easttr
    yt odevelop,asenseof
    propr
    iety
    , carry
    ingher selfinsuchawayt hatshemai nt
    ainsbot
    hhersel f
    -r
    espect
    andther espectofot hers.Inourcul t
    ure,itissoeasyt ogetcarri
    edawayi nthe
    nameof“ pakikisama” .Accept ancebycl ientsisnottobegai nedatanycost .
    Suchaccept ancecanal socomebydemonst r
    atingfi
    rmnessandcont r
    ol.

    521
    Modul
    e5
    RECORDINGS

    Vir
    tual
    l
    yal lsocialwor kagenci eskeepsomef orm ofr ecor ds,whichi dentif
    yt he
    cli
    entstheyserve,andt hekindofser vicerenderedtot hem.Theyar ekeptf orasl ongas
    theagencyt hi
    nkst heyar est
    il
    lneeded.Agenci esvar yi
    nt heirpr acti
    ceofrecor d-keeping.
    Themostcommoni sto, atl
    east,keept hecli
    entsappl i
    cation/admi ssion/
    int akef orm( i
    n
    caseswher ei
    tisi ndivi
    dualorgr oupwhoi stheclient),andacommuni t
    yst udy /survey
    fi
    ndingsand/ orpr oblem-assessmentr eportbased on i ni
    tialcommuni tymeet i
    ngs.
    Somer ecordofint erv
    iewsorconf erenceshel dandser vicesr endered,andsi gnif
    icant
    acti
    vit
    iesundertakeni nt hecourseoft hehelpingprocess, areof tenalsoav ailable.

    Whywr
    it
    erecor
    ds?

    Agencyr
    ecor
    dsser
    vemanypur
    poses.Amongt
    hisar
    ethef
    oll
    owi
    ng:

    1.Recor ds,part
    icul
    arl
    yt hoset hatdwel lonact ualactivit
    iesundert
    akent osolvet he
    cli
    ent’sproblem serveastool sthatgui det hewor kerasheandt heclientproceed
    withthet askofpr oblem-solv i
    ng.Theyshowt he“ process”asithasdev eloped,
    andhel pthewor kerkeept rackoft hesi gni f
    icantev entsthathavetakenpl aceso
    far.
    2.These r ecords wil
    lbe usef ulin ev al uati
    on.Theywi l
    lshow t he signif
    icant
    problemsandobst aclesencount ered,aswel last hegr owthorchangei nt he
    cli
    ent,andt hesuccessorf ailurei
    nachi evingobj ectiv
    es.

    522
    3.Recor ds can be v aluablet ot he soci alwor kerwho want st oi mpr ove her
    knowl edgeandski l
    l i
    nhel pingpeopl e.
    4.Recor dspr ovi
    deanaccountofwhathav etakenpl ace, whichi
    sneededwhenone
    workermustr eplaceanot her,orwhen,i nanemer gency,onewor kermustt ake
    overf oranother .
    5.Theser ecordspr ovidei mpor tantinfor mationt ot heagencyespeci al l
    ywher eit
    hast omakedeci sionsaboutexpandi ng,changi ngort er
    minat
    ingpr ogramsand
    serv
    ices, andf orrepor t
    ingt othecommuni t
    yonhowf undshavebeenused.
    6.Recor dsar esuper visoryt ools.Ther eview andanal y si
    softheircont entduring
    super vi
    sionhel pimpr ovet heski l
    lsoft hewor ker.
    7.Socialwor kr ecords,such as case st udies,ar e used as basicl earni
    ng in
    prof
    essi onalschool sofsoci alwor k,andf ort hisreason,serveasani mpor t
    ant
    educat i
    onal purpose.
    8.Recor dsar easour ceofst atisti
    cali nformat i
    onaboutagencyoper ati
    ons,and
    providedat aforv ari
    ousr esear chpr ojects.

    Typesofr
    ecor
    ds

    Thepr esenttrendi stokeepr ecord-keepi


    ngtoami nimum sot hateveryagency
    wi
    llhav
    et odecidewhi char enecessary,andoncet hi
    sdecisionismade, t
    heexpectat
    ion
    i
    sthatthoserecordswi llbedonepr operly.Intheauthor
    ’sexperience,thefol
    lowingare
    t
    hemajortypesofr ecordspr epar
    edbyagencysoci al
    workers:

    I. Intakef orms( alsocal l


    edFaceSheet ,Admi ssi onFor m, andAppl i
    cationFor m)
    I
    I. Summar yr ecor ds/ ent riesofdat aobt ainedaspar toft hei nfor mation-gat her i
    ng
    stagei npr obl em sol ving( usual lyindi catingdat e,place, andsour ceofdat a)
    II
    I. Sur veyRepor t(cont ai
    nsf indingsaboutt hecommuni tysi tuat i
    on, indicatingdat e,
    place, andsour ceofdat a)
    I
    V. CaseSt udy( briefi ndent ifyi
    ngi nf ormat ion,assy nthesisoft hedat aobt ained
    from v ari
    oussour ces;t hegoal s/obj ect i
    vest obeachi ev ed;andt hespeci fi
    c
    meanst ot heirachi evement )
    V. Summar izedPr ocessRecor dings( Thet erm maysoundl ikeacont radiction,but
    the r eason we added t he wor d“ Summar ized”i s because,a r ealpr ocess
    recor ding i s supposed t o cont ain consi der able detai laboutt he cont entof
    i
    nt erviews,conf erences,andot hercont act swi thcl ient s,i nt hesequencei n
    whi cht heyt ookpl ace, includi ngt her eact i
    ons, andr esponsesofbot hcl ient ,
    and
    wor ker ,f ollowedbyt hewor ker’
    sassessment /analysisofwhatt ranspi red.We
    thinki ti sunr eal i
    stict oexpectourpr esent -daywor kerst oaccompl isht hist ype
    ofpr ocessr ecor ding,becauseoft hei rwor kload.Howev er ,webel ievet her eisa
    needt o,atl east ,makesummar i
    esoft hepr ocessest aki ngpl acei nr elat i
    ont o
    probl em sol vi
    ng,whet herwi t
    hani ndi vi
    dual ,agr oup,oracommuni ty,wi tht he
    wor kerexer cisingj udgmenti nrecor di ngt hose, whi chshet hinksi mpor tant .
    VI. Per i
    odi c Ev aluat i
    ve Summar i
    es ( i
    ncl uding a st atement about t he maj or
    dev elopment sthathav eoccur red) .
    VII. Transf erSummar i
    es( i
    ncl udingr ecommendat ionsonf utur ecour seofact ion)
    VII
    I. FinalEv aluat i
    v eSt at ement( focusi ngont heext entt owhi chgoal s/obj ectives
    spel l
    edouti nt heCaseSt udyhav ebeenaccompl i
    shed/ notaccompl ishedand
    why ; recommendat ionsf ort erminat ionorcont i
    nuat i
    onofser vice)

    523
    Modul
    e6
    SOCI
    ALCASEWORKRECORD

    Whati
    sasoci
    alCasewor
    kRecor
    d?
    Anabstr
    acti
    onofwhathappenedinalocalsi
    tuat
    ionbetweenthecl
    ientandthe
    wor
    kerint
    heprocessoft
    heformer’
    sseekinghel
    pandt helat
    terr
    espondi
    ngt othe
    f
    ormer’
    sneed.

    WhyshouldasocialworkerrecordhisProcessofHelpi
    ng?
    Iti
    salsoneededbyt hecaseworkertoguidehiminhissel
    f-
    appr
    aisal
    .
    Arecor
    dmakesapr ofessi
    onal soci
    alworkerseethr
    oughhisowninvol
    vementi
    nthe
    pr
    ocessofgi
    v i
    nghelp.

    Pur
    poseoftheRecor d
    1.Forpr act
    ice
    2.Foradmi nistr
    at i
    on
    3. Forsuperv i
    sion
    4.Forteaching
    5.Forresear ch

    Themosti
    mpor
    tantt
    hingaboutapr
    ofessi
    onal
    recor
    dli
    esi
    nit
    sCONTENTi
    n

    524
    r
    ecor
    ding.

    Themostimport
    antthingst oshowar e:
     Natur
    eofcasesi tuati
    on
     Thecli
    ent
    ’sdoingabouthi sprobl
    em
     Howthecasewor kercarr
    iestheresponsi
    bil
    i
    tyofof
    fer
    inghel
    pinpr
    obl
    em-
    sol
    vi
    ng
    thr
    oughpreci
    sei ntervent
    ion

    St
    ylei
    nRecor
    dingshoul
    dsui
    tthemat
    eri
    al

    Agoodr
    ulef
    orcont
    entandst
    yleshoul
    dbe-
    --

    --
    --
    --
    -“
    lookatt
    heappli
    cant
    ,tal
    ktohim,wri
    teabouthi
    m, hisat
    ti
    tudes,hisneeds,
    his
    rel
    ati
    onshipt
    oother
    sandtoy ou.Don’
    tev
    erseehim,thinkabouthim orwrit
    eabouthi
    m
    asat ype.
    ”

    St
    ylei
    nRecor
    dingshoul
    dsui
    tthemat
    eri
    al

    Thebestrecor
    dwill
    notonl
    ycontai
    nobject
    ivef
    acts,eventsorbehavi
    orbutare
    supposedtobri
    ngoutclear
    lypr
    eci
    seassessmentandtheinterv
    enti
    veplansaswell.

    Agoodprofessi
    onalst
    ylemeanst hatitwaswr i
    tt
    enbyapr ofessi
    onalsocial
    work
    practi
    ti
    onerorel
    set her
    ecordcannotachievea“ pr
    oblem-solv
    ingunity
    .”Alsoagood
    professi
    onalst
    yleshowsamast eryoftheinterv
    enti
    veprocesswi t
    hclari
    tyofdir
    ecti
    on
    becauseoneknowswhatt hecl
    ientandthewor kerar
    edoi ngtoget
    her.

    Thebestrecordnotonlycontai
    nobject
    ivef
    act
    s,ev
    entsandbehavi
    orbutare
    supposedtobri
    ngoutcl ear
    lypreci
    seassessmentoft
    hepersoni
    nsit
    uati
    onswith
    defi
    nedprobl
    em forfocus.

    THREEMOSTI
    MPORTANTSTYLESI
    NRECORDI
    NG

    1.Narr
    ati
    ve
     Thi
    sisthepri
    marysty
    leforthesocialcaserecor
    d.
     I
    tisthesty
    lefort
    hesoci
    alcaser ecor
    d.
     I
    sactual
    lyconcer
    nedwit
    ht hereporti
    ngoffacts.

    Thenar
    rati
    vecondensed
     Isgenerallyusefulf
    ormf orallty
    pesofcaseworkagencies.I
    tisgoodfor
    report
    ingf actsofpracti
    calhelpf
    ulness,
    event
    sandmostcol lat
    eralv
    isi
    tor
    conferences.
     Isanabr idged,compactv er
    sionwhi chmayhavebeenreducedfrom it
    s
    formerv oluminoussize.

    Nar
    rat
    ivepr ocess
     Thenar rati
    veprocessst yleisusedt oel aborat
    emor eoni nter
    personal
    relati
    onshipsinrecords.Pr ocessisusedt oshowt heprocessof
    i
    nt eract
    ionwithintheinterview,witha“ pl
    ayinter
    view”,orinagr oup
    i
    nt ervi
    ewt oshowgr oupi nteract
    ion.
     I sawr i
    tt
    endescr i
    pti
    onoft hedynami ci nt
    eract
    ionthathast akenplacei
    n
    ani nter
    view.
     I tshouldcontainthepur poseoft hei ntervi
    ew,worker’
    sobser vat
    ions,
    descr i
    pti
    onoft heint
    entions, impressions,worker’
    sroles,andplan.

    2.Summar i
    zedRecordi
    ng
     Thesummar yr
    ecordi
    ngisagooddevicef
    oror
    gani
    zati
    onandanalysi
    ngfact
    s.
     I
    sar evi
    ew,orr
    ecapit
    ulat
    ionofmat
    eri
    alwhi
    chhasal
    readyappear
    edinthecase
    recor
    d.

    525
    Summari
    zedRecor ding
     Summar i
    esincludesoci
    alhistor
    ies,
    diagnost
    icsummaries,per
    iodic
    evaluati
    on,transf
    erandclosingsummar i
    esalsocaseabstract
    sfrom
    otherrecords.
     Summar i
    esar eeit
    hert
    opicalorcondensedchronol
    ogi
    cal summaries.

    Soci
    alhistori
    esar eoft wotypes:
    Thesoci oeconomi chistorywhichismostoftenusedwhenmanyoft he
    welf
    areclient
    spr esenti
    ngprobl emsusuallyi
    nvol
    vetheprobl em ofeconomic
    sur
    vival,
    andthepsy chosoci
    al orpsychogeneti
    chistor
    ywhi chisgenerall
    yused
    wit
    hcl i
    entspresenti
    ngani mpai rmentofthepsychosoci
    alfunctioni
    ng.

    SUMMARYRECORDI
    NG-
    --
    -ASOCI
    O-ECONOMI
    CHI
    STORY

    Ernest odel osSantos,37y earsold,acar


    penter,metwi thanacci dentoneday
    whenaspeedi ngcarhi thi
    m onhi swayhomef orwork.Hewasbr oughttot hehospi
    tal
    wherehisrightlegwhi chwasheav il
    yinj
    uredwasamput ated.Hewasdi schargedaftera
    month’sstayi nthehospi t
    al.Akinddonorhadgi ft
    edhi m withapai rofcrutcheswhichhe
    wasalreadyl earningtousebef orehisdischar
    ged.Hewasr eferredbytheSoci al
    Ser
    vicesUni toft hehospitalt
    ot hefamilyagencyforfurt
    herassi st
    ance.Hehasawi fe
    andthreechi l
    drent osupport.Theyarerentingasmal lhousef orP300.00amont h.

    Hi swif
    e,AsuncionPerez,is32y earsold.Shesellscookedf oodinthe
    neighborhoodtosupplementherhusband’ sincome.Thei rthreechil
    drenareall
    study
    ing.
    Manuel ,
    14y ear
    sol disi
    nsecondy earhighschool,Corazon,12y earsol
    disingradeVI,
    andMar iett
    a,8y ear
    soldisi
    ngr adeI I
    .MrSantosi swor r
    iedthatthechil
    drenmayhav eto
    stopschoolingifheremainsj
    obl essbecauseofhi sdisabil
    ity
    .

     Per iodicsummar i
    esar emadet ocoveracer t
    ainperi
    odoft i
    medur i
    ngwhi chthe
    casei sundert hecar eofori sbeinghandl edbyt hewor ker.Thi sisappl i
    cableto
    l
    ongt er m casewor k,groupwor kwi t
    hf ormedgr oups,andwi thcommuni tywork.
     Tr ansf ersummar yreferstot hesummar ymadewhent hecasei st obe
    transf erredt oanot herwor kerorisbei ngreferr
    edtoanot heragency .I
    tmay
    cont ainabr iefstatementoft heproblem, thetr
    eatmentpl anandwhathasbeen
    accompl i
    shedsof ar .
     Thecl osingent ryorsummar yfocusesont hecausesandr esul t
    soft he
    treat mentori nterventi
    on.Itcov erst
    hesi tuati
    onatintakeandt hereasons
    i
    nv olved,t heproblem thatemer ged,t
    het reatmentgiven,ser vicesext ended, or
    i
    nt ervent ionmade, thepr ogress,movementorchangedachi ev ed,and t he
    resul tsorst atusoft hecase.

    3.THEI
    NTERPRETATI
    VESTYLE

    ILLUSTRATI ON
    Cli
    enthasnoty etgott
    enov erthetr
    aumaofhi sacci dent.Hemustbef eel
    ingvery
    usel essandsor ryforhimselfandangr ywithwhathappenedt ohim.Heseemst ohave
    nopl ansasy etonwhathei sgoingtodo.Hehasnotbot her edtolear
    nhowt ouse
    crutchesski l
    full
    y.Hemayhav elostsomeofhi sself-confidence.Hispresentbehav i
    oris
    ar eflect i
    onofhisinnerf eeli
    ngsofangerandf rustrati
    onwhi chhedispl
    acesonhi s
    childr en.Itmaybet hatthereasonhehasr efusedt otalkthingsov erwit
    hhi swife
    becausehehi mselfisstil
    lconfusedandhasnoty etsetgoal sforhimselft
    oaccompl i
    sh.
    Hiseconomi chistoryshowst hathehasbeenqui teself-reli
    antinthepastandhi snew
    roleasadependentdoesnotsui thim atal
    l.Havinghadt oappl yformaterialassist
    ance
    mayhav ereducedhi sself-r
    espectandself-esteem.

    TheI
    nter
    pret
    ati
    ve,
    Diagnost
    ic,
    andEv
    aluat
    iveRecor
    ding

    Contai
    nst
    hesoci
    ali
    nter
    pret
    ati
    onoftheworker
    .Itshowsint
    ell
    ectual
    sensi
    ti
    vi
    ty
    anddi
    sci
    pli
    neint
    ryi
    ngt
    owrestoutthemeaningoft
    hefactsofthecase.Int
    hiski
    ndof

    526
    recor
    dingwehav
    eawor kerwhoseey
    estrai
    nedtoder
    ivethesigni
    fi
    canceofev
    entsand
    alsot
    oseeendhearandrepor
    taccur
    atel
    ytoser
    veami ndthatist
    rai
    nedtoref
    lect
    .

    Modul
    e7
    DOCUMENTATI
    ONANDRECORDKEEPI
    NG

    Whykeepr
    ecor
    ds?

    1.Document ation and r


    ecor
    d keeping areimportantt o ensure accountabi
    l
    ity
    ,
    faci
    li
    tate coordi
    nati
    on ofcare between pr
    oviders and servi
    ce impr ov
    ement.
    Howev er,the impor t
    ance of documentat
    ion and r ecord keeping may be
    overl
    ooked/ over
    shadowedbyt hef ocusondir
    ectser vicestoclients.Assuch,
    properdocument ati
    onandrecordkeepingmaybenegl ected.

    2.Thefol
    l
    owi ngsect i
    onpr ovidest hr
    eer easonswhyi tisimpor t
    anttodocument
    andmaintai
    npr operrecord:
    2.
    1. Continuit
    yofcar e.Recordspr ovi
    deacasehi storyandamor e
    holi
    sti
    c picturei n or dert of ollow-up on services ortry different
    approachest oassi stthecl i
    ent.Thisi sespecial
    l
    yf orcli
    ent
    swi thl ong-
    ter
    m orcompl exneeds,orwhor equiremulti
    pleservi
    ces.Accurateand
    up-t
    o-daterecordingi simpor t
    antespeci al
    lywhent her
    eisanemer gency
    and the st aff
    -i
    n-charge i s notav ail
    able(due t oill
    ness,v acat i
    on,

    527
    resignation,et c.
    ).Good r ecords and document ati
    on wi llfacili
    tate
    communi cati
    onbet weenser vi
    cepr ovider
    st oensur ecoor dinated,rather
    thanf r
    agment ed,servi
    ce.
    2.
    2. Account abi
    li
    ty.Itisimpor t
    antt obeabl et opr ovi
    der elevantclient
    i
    nf ormationatanygi v entimeandt heor ganization’sresponset otheir
    needs.Thei nfor
    mat ionmaybeneededt or espondt oquer iesf rom
    stakeholder s, whomayi ncludet heclient’
    sf amily,funders,donor sort he
    cour t
    s.One i mpor t
    antsour ce ofi nf or
    mat i
    on i st he clientr ecords.
    Document at
    ionf ormst henat ureoft hepr ofessionalrelationshipwi th
    the client.I nformation on pr oblems encount ered and t he agency ’
    s
    responsewoul dassisti ntheev entofacr i
    sisori nvesti
    gations.

    2.
    3. Serviceimpr ovement .Well-
    documentedrecor dscanalsol eadto
    i
    mpr ovedser vicest ot hecli
    entsbyhelpingthest afforgani
    zehi s/
    her
    thoughts.Aggr egat
    ed cl i
    entinformati
    on can also facil
    it
    ate servi
    ce
    planni
    ng, ser
    vicedev elopmentandser vi
    cerevi
    ews.Thei nformati
    oncan
    alsoform pri
    mar ydatat oconductevi
    dence-
    basedr esear
    ch.

    3.Havingestabl
    i
    shedtheimport
    anceofdocumentationandrecordkeepi
    ngas
    essent
    ial
    element
    sofprof
    essi
    onalpr
    act
    iceandser
    vicetocl
    i
    ents,

    Summary:
    Recor
    ding-
    keepi
    nganddocument
    ati
    onar
    eimpor
    tantt
    hatf
    aci
    l
    itat
    es:

     Conti
    nui
    tyofcar
    e
     Account
    abil
    i
    ty
     Serv
    icei
    mprovement

    GUI
    DELI
    NESFORDOCUMENTATI
    ON

    Whatshoul
    dbedocument
    ed?

    1.Giventhedi v ersenat ure,sizeandcompl exityofclientneedsandi ntendedcl i


    ent
    outcomes, ther emayseem amy riadofi nf or
    mat iontodocumentandst or
    e.What
    thenshouldbedocument ed?
     Hi stor y and needs of cl ient .Att he poi ntofadmi ssion,det ai
    led
    informat ionont heneedsandbackgr oundoft hecl ienti sdocument ed
    dur i
    ngi ntakeassessment .Ref ert othegui deoni nt
    akeandassessment ,
    NCSS( 2006)f ormor einf or mat ion.
     Ser vice r ender ed- when t he cl ient i s par ticipat
    ing i n t he
    service/ pr ogr amme,i nfor mat iononser vicesr ender edi sdocument edi n
    thecl ient ’
    scar eplan.Ref ert ot heGui deonCar eandDi schargePl anning,
    NCSS( 2007)f ormor ei nf ormat ion.Ot herkeyi nformat iontodocument s,
    accompani edbysuppor t i
    ngdocument s,isf eeschar gedandsubsi dies
    receiv ed ( fore. g.,qual ifying i nf ormation forsubsi di es undermeans
    testingorot hersour ces) .
     Cl ientout comes-agenci esshoul ddocumentcl i
    entout comesachi evedor
    notachi ev eddur ingper iodicr ev i
    ews,di schar georf ollow-up.Addi ti
    onal
    informat ionmaybeder ivedf rom mi l
    estonesachi evedbyt hecl ientor
    caregi versat isfacti
    onsur vey s.Theabi li
    tytopr oducedocument ationof
    cli
    ent ’s achi ev ement f urther enhances t he account abili
    ty of t he
    progr amme.
     Pr ogr amme i nformat ion-mi nut es ofmeet ings,case conf er
    ence and
    emai ls exchanges t owar ds cr i
    ticaldeci si
    on maki ng ar ei mpor tantt o
    recor d.Suchdocument at i
    on,i naddi ti
    ont oot hersour cesofi nfor
    mat i
    on,
    couldpr ov ideabackgr oundt ot her easonwhycer tai nproposalwer e
    accept edorr ejected.

    Howcant
    hei
    nfor
    mat
    ionbeused?

    528
    2.Cli
    ent -rel
    atedi
    nformati
    onareusual l
    yaggr egatedperi
    odicall
    y(fore.g.,quarterly,
    half
    -y earl
    y,annuall
    y)to provi
    de information on outcomes.The consol i
    dat ed
    reportsar eoftenprovi
    detostakehol der
    s,suchascur r
    entandpot entialcl
    ient s,
    funder s,donors,media,accredit
    ation bodies,ect.The informati
    on on cl ient
    outcomesandpr ogrammeef fect
    iveness( ort hel
    ackofi t
    )couldbeusedf or
    servicepl anni
    ngandi mprovement ,needsassessment ,cost-
    benefi
    tsanal yses,
    mar ketingandpublici
    ty,
    aswellasot herpurposeswher enecessary.

    Summary
    I
    mpor
    tanti
    nfor
    mat
    iont
    orecor
    dincl
    udes:

     Hist
    or yandneedsofcli
    ent
     Servi
    cesr endered
     Cli
    entoutcomes
     Programmei nf
    ormat
    ion

    BESTPRACTI
    CESFORDOCUMENTATI
    ON

    WhatdoIhavet
    obeari
    nmi
    ndwhendocument
    ingcl
    ienti
    nfor
    mat
    ion?

    1.Diff
    erent st aff woul d hav e uni que wr iting st yle accor di ng t o i ndi v i
    dual
    prefer
    ences.Toensur econsi st ency , i
    ti sbestt obeari nmi ndt hef ollowi ngwhen
    thedocument i
    ngcasenot es:
     Conci se-cl ient not es shoul di ncl ude onl yr elev ant i nfor mat ion i n
    appr opr iat edet ail,i.e.onl ypr ov idei nf ormat iont hati sdi r
    ect l
    yr elev antt o
    thedel iver yofser vicesf orint endedcl ientout comes.Thest affshoul dt r
    y
    toensur emi nimalbur dent ot hecl ientandhi scar egi versbyaski ngonl y
    requi rei nf ormat ionandnotaski ngf ort hem r epeat edl y.Wi tht hecl ient ’
    s
    consent ,assessmenthi storyshoul dbet ransf err edandv er i
    fiedf r om a
    refer ringpr ov idert ot hecur rentpr ov ideri nst eadofsubj ect i
    ngt hecl i
    ent
    tor epeat edassessment .
     Accur at e-besi despr ov idingaccur atei nfor mat i
    on,di rectquot esf rom t he
    client ,car egi verorot herpr ofessi onalst af f( such as commentf r
    om
    psy chol ogi st sordoct or s)coul dber eflect edi fnecessar yt opr ovideaf ull
    pict ure oft he cl ient .As t he i nfor mat ion maybe shar ed wi t h ot her
    agenci es,t her ecor dsmustbel egibl e;t her efer encet er msusedmustbe
    consi st entandt her ecor dsf r
    eef r
    om j ar gon( meani nglesswor ds).
     Up- to- dat e-pr ogr essnot es,cr isisi nt er vent i
    onori ncidentr epor t
    sshoul d
    bewr ittenassoonaspossi bleaf teranev enthashappenedt opr event
    lossofi nf ormat ionduet ot imel apse.Al lsi gni ficantf actsshoul dbe
    recor ded.Suchr epor tsshoul dnotassi gnbl ameoni ndiv i
    dual sandbe
    freef rom i rrelevantspecul ati
    onorof fensi ve, subj ect ivest atement s.
     Meani ngf ul-Thenot esshoul dcapt ur et hought fulr eflectivet hinkingand
    prof essi onalj udgmentoft hei nt erv ent i
    onandser v i
    cespr ov ided.Not es
    shoul d di st i
    ngui sh cl ear l
    ybet ween f acts,obser v ati
    on,har d dat a and
    opi nions.Wher eopi ni onsorpr of essi onaldi agnosi sorr ecommendat i
    on
    of a par ticular i nt erv ention i s made, t hese shoul d be pr oper l
    y
    acknowl edge,dat ed and si gned.Recor ds r equi ring v al i
    dation and
    aut hor i
    zat ionmustbepr oper l
    ycompl etedandsi gned.
     I nter nal lyconsi st ent -Not esshoul dbest ruct ur edaccor dingt oapr eset
    formatt hatmaybeuni quet oeachor gani zat ionorpr ofessi onalgr oup
    wi thint heor gani zat ion( fore. g.,useofst andar dcar eanddi schar gepl an
    templ at e)acr ony msshoul dbemeani ngf ult oal lwi thint heor gani zat ion.
    Consi st ency and st andar dizat ion hel ps t o br ing cl ar i
    tyt o st af fand
    reducest het imet akent osear chf orv i
    tali nf or mat i
    onami dstt hehuge
    amountofcl i
    enti nf or mat ionav ailabl e.

    529
    Summary
    :
    NotesandRecor dsshouldbe:
     Conci se
     Accur at
    e
     Up- t
    o-date
     Meani ngful
     Internal
    lyconsi
    stent

    GUI
    DINGPRI
    NCI
    PLESFORRECORDKEEPI
    NG

    HowdoIst
    oreandmai
    ntai
    nrecor
    ds?

    Thefol
    lowi
    ngsecti
    onprov
    idessomeguidi
    ngpri
    ncipl
    esforgoodr
    ecor
    dkeepi
    ng
    pr
    acti
    cesi
    ntermsofr
    ecordret
    ent
    ion,
    transmi
    ssi
    onanddestr
    uct
    ion.
    1.Recor
    dRetent
    ion

     Stori
    ngr ecor ds.Recor dscanbest oredascasef iles,logbook,sof tcopy
    database,ect .Agenci esshoul dt aker easonabl est epst oensur et hat
    cli
    ent’
    sr ecor dsar est oredi nasecur el ocat i
    onandar enotav ail
    abl et o
    otherswhoar enotaut horizedt ohav eaccess.Agenci esneedt oal so
    haveapol icyonbacki ngupofsof t-copydat a, accessr ightsandsecur ity.
    Precautionshoul dbemadet opr ot ectsof tcopyr ecor dsf rom electroni c
    vir
    usesort echni calfai l
    ure,andwr i
    ttenr ecor dsf rom damageduet of ire,
    waterorev enr odents( e.g.termi t
    e) .
     Protecti
    ng r ecor ds.Agenci es shoul d dev el op it s own conf ident iality
    poli
    cyt opr otectt hecl ient’
    swr i
    ttenandel ect r
    oni cr ecordsandot her
    sensit
    iveinf ormat i
    on,andt heobl igat i
    onofal lwor ker st oabidebyt hem.
    Agenciesshoul dseekt obal anceani ndiv i
    dual ’sr ightt oconf ident iality
    withtheirri
    ghtt oser vices,car eandpr otection.
     Accesst or ecor ds.Whenpr ovidingcl ientswi t
    haccesst othei rrecor d,
    staffshoul dt akest epst o protectconf ident i
    ali
    tyofot heri ndividual s
    i
    dent i
    fi
    edordi scussedi nsuchr ecor ds.Bot hcl i
    entr equestandr ational e
    forwithholdingr ecordsshoul dbedocument edi nclient ’
    sf i
    les.

    Sensit
    ive and conf
    ident
    ialinf
    ormati
    on must be rel
    eased onl
    yto
    author
    izedpar
    ti
    es;wi
    thcli
    entconsent
    ,whenev
    erappl
    i
    cati
    on.

    2.Tr
    ansmi
    ssi
    onofi
    nfor
    mat
    ion

     Mai ntainconf i
    dent i
    ality.Agenci esshoul dt akepr ecaut i
    ont oensur eand
    mai ntainconf i
    dent i
    ali
    t yofinformat iont r
    ansmi tt
    edt oot herst hr
    ought he
    use ofcomput ers,el ect
    ronics mai l,f ax machi nes,t elephones and
    tel
    ephoneanswer ingmachi nes.
     Consent .Humani nt
    er eststoriesar eessent ialforpubl ici
    tyorf und-raisi
    ng.
    Howev er,agenci es shoul di nform t he cl i
    ent s on t he pur pose oft he
    publicit
    y,whet heri tisani nterv i
    ew orpr ofil
    ingcl ientsi nmagazi nesor
    annulr eports( includi ng shar i
    ng of phot ographs) .Af t
    ergi ving t he
    i
    nfor mat i
    on,theagencyshoul dseekt hecl ient’
    sper mi ssi
    on.Thecl i
    ent
    shoul dbegi venther ightt odeclinewi thoutbei ngdepr i
    v eofser vi
    ce.
     Release of i nfor mat ion- agenci es shoul d not di sclose sensi t
    ive
    i
    nfor mat i
    on when di scussi ng clients,whet herwi t
    ht he medi a ort o
    external consult
    antunl essisacompel l
    ingr easont odoso.

    3.Recor
    dMai
    ntenanceandDest
    ruct
    ion

     Updat
    eofrecords.Agenci
    esshoulddevel
    opi
    tsowni nt
    ernalpol
    i
    cyont i
    me
    fr
    amesforupdateofrecords;i
    ncl
    udecarepl
    ans,pr
    ogressrepor
    ts,i
    nci
    dent

    530
    reports,et
    c.
     Termi nati
    onofser vi
    ce.Agenciesshouldst orer ecor dsfoll
    owingt ermination
    ofser vicetoensur er easonabl
    ef ut
    ureaccess.Asagener algui de,case
    recordsshoul dbekeptf oratleastthr
    eey ears,andf i
    nancialrecords,sev en
    years.Agenci esneedt oensurethatt heirrecor d-keepi
    ngpr acti
    cecompl y
    withal l
    contractual
    ,regul
    atoryorl
    egalrequirement s.
     Deceasedcl i
    ents.Agenciesshouldpr otectt heconf i
    dential
    i
    tyofdeceased
    cli
    entswi tht hestandardsment i
    oned.Thet ransferri
    ngordi sposingclient
    recordsshoul dbeconduct edinamannert hatpr otectscli
    entconf i
    dentialit
    y
    andi sconsistentwit
    hgov ernment,
    cont r
    actual andanyot herregulati
    on.

    4.El
    ect
    roni
    corhar
    dcopyr
    ecor
    ds?

     Electroni cr ecor ds.Keepi ngcl i


    entr ecor dsinsof tcopi esal lowsf oreasyaccess,
    tr
    ansf erandsav esst or age.Howev er,keepingr ecor dsv iaanel ect r
    onict oolsuch
    ast hePer sonalDi gitalAssi stant( PDA)whi l
    stconduct ingi nt
    akeassessmentof
    new cl ients,f ore. g. ,mayseem i mper sonalandi nappr opr i
    ate.Ifdocument ati
    on
    andr ecor dsar est oredel ectronicall
    y ,itisi mpor tantf ortheor ganizationt o
    developi t
    spol iciesandpr ocedur esfori nfor
    mat i
    onmanagementandt echnol ogy,
    i
    ncludi ngsy stem mai ntenance, moni toringaccessandst afftr
    aining.
     Wr i
    ttenr ecor ds.Wr ittenr ecor dsar ecommonandmor eper sonabl et ocl i
    ent,
    especi all
    yi nt hebusi nessofhumanandsoci alser v
    ices.Howev er,theyar eat
    ti
    mes di fficultt or ead due t ov ary i
    ng and uni que handwr i
    ting.I n addi t
    ion,
    duplicat ecopi eshav et obemadef ort ransmissi ont oot herpartiesoragenci es.
     Electroni cCaseManagementSyst em ( ECMS) .NCSShasdev elopedt heeCMS, a
    softwar esy stem t hatal l
    owsf orcompr ehensiveandsy st
    emat icdocument ati
    on
    ofclient ’
    spar ticular ,i
    nt akeassessmentandcar epl an.TheECMSal soallowsf or
    sharing ofi nfor mat i
    on acr oss agenci es thathav e access t ot he sof twar e,
    accompani edwi thpr i
    v acyandconf i
    dent i
    ali
    tysaf eguar ds.TheECMSi sthusone
    modeofdocument at i
    onf oragenci est or ecordcl i
    enti nf ormation.
     Agenci escoul dconsi deral lfact orsandchooseasy stem t hatmeet sthei rneeds,
    toultimat elybenef itthecl ientsser ved.

    Summar
    y

    Whenst
    ori
    ng,tr
    ansmi
    tt
    ingordestr
    oyi
    nganyinf
    ormat
    ionper
    tai
    ningt
    othecl
    i
    ent
    ,
    whet
    heri
    nwri
    tt
    enrecor
    dsor“
    li
    ve”i
    nter
    views,
    agenci
    esshoul
    d:

     Prot
    ectcli
    entconfident
    ial
    it
    y
     Seek cli
    entconsentbef ore shar
    ing sensi
    ti
    vei nf
    ormati
    on,or prof
    il
    ing or
    i
    nter
    viewingcli
    entsinanymedia.
     I
    nformtheclient
    saboutt hei
    rri
    ghttodecl
    ineforbei
    ngint
    erv
    iewedorfeat
    ured.

    REVI
    EWSOFRECORDSFORSERVI
    CEI
    MPROVEMET

    Whyr
    evi
    ewr
    ecor
    ds?

    1.I
    tisgoodpract
    icetorev
    iewrecor
    dssot hatser
    viceimprovementcanbemade.
    Hence,
    recor
    dsshouldberev
    iewedper
    iodical
    l
    ytoestabl
    ish:

     Whetherassessmentsconduct
    edwerethor
    ough,completeandt i
    mely.
     Whethercli
    entswereacti
    vel
    yinvol
    vedinmakinginf
    ormedchoi cesregar
    ding
    ser
    vicesrecei
    ved.
     Whethercli
    entsweregi
    venappropr
    iat
    eserv
    icetoachievecli
    entoutcomes
     Whethertheachiev
    ementofcli
    entout
    comescouldbei mprovedupon.

    Recor
    dsf
    orcont
    inuesi
    mpr
    ovement

    1.Recor
    dswi
    l
    lpr
    ovi
    det
    hepr
    imar
    ydat
    asour
    cef
    ormanyuses.Thesei
    ncl
    ude:

    531
     Astudyoft hedat aofcli
    entoutcomest oassesstheimpactofi nter
    vent
    ion
    andanalysesar easf
    orimprovement
     Furt
    herresear chint
    hear eaofevidence-basedpracti
    ce,tostudytheproven
    methodsf orthemy r
    iadandcomplexityofissuespresentedbycli
    ents.
     Demonstrating of accompl i
    shed st andards of pr act
    ice for possi
    ble
    accr
    edit
    ation.

    2.Ther esear
    chf i
    ndingscouldbeusedt oadvocat
    eforcl
    ient
    s,expandproven
    programmes,achieveaccreditat
    ionasahal
    lmarkofqual
    i
    tyserv
    ice,aswellas
    sharebestpract
    iceswit
    hot herprovi
    der
    s.

    Summar
    y

    Peri
    odicr
    evi
    ewsofrecor
    dsar
    eimport
    antf
    orcont
    inuesi
    mpr
    ovementi
    nit
    iat
    ives.
    Theaggr
    egatepr
    imar
    ydat
    acouldbeusedt
    o:

     anal
    yzeareastobettermeetcl
    ientout
    comes
     conductevidence-
    basedresearchtodocumentpr
    ovenandmostef
    fect
    ive
    i
    nterv
    enti
    onst r
    ategi
    es
     seekaccr
    editati
    onasahallmarkofquali
    ty

    CONCLUSI ON
     I nconcl usi on,wr iti
    ngpr operassessment ,careanddi schargedpl ansent ai
    lsi n-
    dept h pr of essi onal j udgment and r eflecti
    on. Hav i
    ng t o pr epar e proper
    document ationser v esani mport antr oleofhel pi
    ngt oensur equal itycareby
    maki ngst af fthi nkaboutt heircl i
    ent s,awel lasr ev i
    ew andr ef l
    ectont heir
    i
    nt erventi
    ons.
     Wi thper i
    odi cr ev iewsbasedoni nfor mat ionsy stematicall
    ygather edf rom cli
    ent
    records,soci alser vice st affand agenci es coul d objecti
    vely consi dert he
    effectivenessoft heirser v
    ice.Findi ngf rom ev idence-basedr esear chcouldal so
    l
    eadt onew per spect iveandi nnov ati
    veappr oachesandpr ograms.Achi ev i
    ng
    couldbecel ebr atedanddi stingui
    shedbyseeki ngaccr editat
    iontodemonst r
    at ea
    hallmar kofqual it
    yt ocl ientsandot herst akehol ders.
     Thus,r athert han v iewi ng document ation ast edi
    ousand t i
    me–consumi ng,
    socialser v i
    cepr ofessi onalsshoul dv iew i tinthel i
    ghtofi tbeinganessent ials
    elementofpr ofessi onal practicetodel iv
    ersuccessf uloutcomesf orcl ient
    s.

    Module8
    REFERRAL

    Refer
    rali
    stheprocessthathel
    psacl i
    enttomov eontoanot
    herresour
    cef
    or
    ser
    vice.Onceinawhil
    ereferr
    alsarenecessarybecausenosi
    ngl
    einst
    it
    uti
    oncanser
    ve
    al
    ltheneedsofacomplexmani nacompl exsociet
    y.

    Ref
    er r
    alist heactofdi r
    ectingacl i
    enttoanotherwor ker/agencyf ort her eason
    thattheclient’
    sr equestforhelpi sbey ondthescopeoft heagency ’
    sser vi
    ces.Ar eal
    referr
    almeanst hatt heworkershoul ddohi sbestsot hatthecl ientget stheser vi
    ces
    from theot heragency .Thisofteni nvol
    vesexplai
    ningt heagency ’spoliciesandr ules,
    clari
    fyi
    ngthecl ient’squesti
    onsaboutt heagency,pr epari
    nghi mf orthebur eaucrati
    c
    i
    nt r
    icaci
    esthatwi llli
    kel
    yconfronthim, andgivi
    nghimi nstr
    uctionsort i
    psonhowt odeal
    wi t
    hthem.Al ett
    erornot eofreferralisusual
    lymadef ortheclienttopresentt ot heother
    agencyorr esource.A briefnot ewi lldoifthereisanexi sti
    ngwor ki
    ngr elati
    onship

    532
    bet
    ween the two agenci
    es or resour
    ces (
    summar
    y of
    i
    nfor
    mati
    on/
    justi
    fi
    cat
    ion/r
    ecommendat
    ionoft
    heref
    err
    al)

    Thedet
    ail
    soft herefer
    ralprocesswillvar
    yinter
    msofthespeci
    fi
    ccaseand
    speci
    fi
    cagenci
    esi nv
    olved.Cert
    ainprinci
    plescanhoweverbest
    atedasguidet
    othe
    devel
    opmentofski
    lli
    nthisi
    mpor t
    antareaofservi
    ce.

    1.Ther eferralmustbei ndi v i


    dual i
    zed
    2.Thepur poseoram oft her ef erralshoul dbeclearl
    yunder stoodbyt hewor ker,by
    theindiv i
    dual whoi sbei ngr ef err
    ed, andbyt hereceivi
    ngagencywor ker.
    3.TObemostef fectiveref erral sshoul dbeper sonali
    zed
    4.Preparat i
    onoft heindiv i
    dualf orr eferralandpreparati
    onf ortheagencyt oreceive
    theindiv i
    dual i
    sv eryimpor t ant
    5.Thewor kershoul dinter prett hei ndividualbei
    ngr eferredtot hereceivi
    ngagency
    andshoul dshar ev erbal lyorbycor respondenceper t
    inentinformationrequest
    ed
    byther eceivingagency .
    6.Thewor kershoul dbepr epar edt o wor kwi threferredcl i
    entatt hepointof
    i
    nterrupt i
    on especi al
    ly when r eferralmeans t he t empor aryr emovaloft he
    i
    ndividual fr
    om t hef ormeragency
    7.Immedi at el
    yaf terther ef erral hasbeenmadet hewor kershoul dtaketheinit
    iat
    ive
    i
    n det er mini
    ng wi tht he r eceiving agency wor kerwhatki nd ofcont i
    nui
    ng
    cooperat ionbet weent hewor kerssneeded.

    I
    nter
    vent
    iver
    olesi
    nref
    err
    alpr
    ocess

    Soci
    alBr
    oker

    Thi
    si nter
    v enti
    ver ol
    ei nvolvest hepr ocessofnegot i
    ati
    ngt he“ser vicej ungle”f or
    cli
    ents,whethersi nglyori ngr oups.Thewor kerli
    nksorconnect sthecl ientt oneeded
    servi
    cesi nthecommuni ty.Sheof t
    enhast oper form av ari
    etyofot herr oles-hel per,
    i
    nterpreter
    ,facili
    tator,expediter,escort,negot iat
    or-toi nsur
    erapidser v i
    cedel i
    very.The
    rol
    er equir
    esabr oadknowl edgeofcommuni t
    yr esourcesaswel lknowl edgeoft he
    operati
    ngpr ocedur esofagenci essot hatef fecti
    veconnect i
    onscanbemade.Ref er ralis
    consideredabasi cactivit
    ynt hisinterv enti
    ver ol
    e.Itessential
    lyinvol
    v esconnect ingt he
    cli
    enttoneededr esources.Ar elatedt er mis“ networ ki
    ng”whichr ef
    er stot hewor ker’s
    eff
    ortsatest abli
    shmentandmai ntai
    ni ngr elat
    ionshipwi t
    hot hercommuni tyent iti
    es
    whichhav er esour cest hatcansuppor tandsuppl ementherownagency ’sr esour ces.
    Such“ networ k”isext remel yhelpfulwhensheper form asocialbr okerr olewi tht he
    cli
    ents.

    Act
    ingasasocialbrokerispart
    icul
    arl
    yrelev
    anttothesi
    tuat
    ionofmul
    ti
    -pr
    obl
    em
    Fil
    ipi
    nocli
    ent
    s,ser
    vicesavail
    ableunderoursocialwel
    faresyst
    em butar
    enotawareof
    them.

    Modul
    e9
    COMMUNI
    CATIONANDCONFLI
    CT

    PRI
    NCI
    PLESOFCONFLI
    CT

    1. Confli
    cthasaf uncti
    oni nsoci et
    y-asocietythathasnoconf li
    ctisnotnecessary
    aperfectsoci
    etyal t
    houghi tisalsoimpossibletoimagi neone.Asoci etythathas
    nconf l
    i
    ctmayhav eeliminateddiversi
    tyordegeneratedev eryone.Therefore,
    ther
    ewi l
    lalwaysbeconf l
    ictforaslongaswel iv
    e.
    2. Confli
    ctispositi
    ve-itshouldnotbel ookedatasat hreat.Thegoal ofapeace
    buil
    deristotransform confli
    ctintoanoppor tuni
    tyforgrowt h:ourresponsetoa
    confl
    ictsit
    uati
    oncoul dbeaconst ruct
    iveandposi t
    ivelearning.Confli
    ctsmake

    533
    humanbei ngstrongerandmor epr eparedforthechal l
    engesinl i
    fe.Thi sisnotto
    sayhowev erthatweneedt oencour ageconf l
    i
    ctinor dertogrow.Asmuchas
    possible,wewi llav oidt heoccur renceofconf li
    ct.Butwheni tisalreadyt herewe
    mustbeabl etohandl ei tinsuchawayt hatweconv ertiti
    ntoanoppor t
    unityto
    growth.Thi sisthesameasshout ingatsomeone.I fwedoso, wecanal most
    al
    way sexpectt hatt heot herpersonwoul dshoutbackatus.I fwewer emor e
    dipl
    omat icandki ndwi thourwor ds,itwouldalsobegetki ndofr esponse.
    3. Conf l
    i
    ctisanor malpar tinanyr elati
    onship.I
    tisembeddedi nanyr elat
    ionship,
    whichmakeshumanbei ngmor ehumane.Thi smeanst hatasl ongast hereare
    peopleandsoci eties, conf li
    ctwillalwayshappenbecauseeachoneofusi s
    uniqueandi nar elationshi p.Ouruni quenessanddi ff
    erencesf rom ot herswoul d
    produceconf l
    i
    cti ncer tainsituati
    ons, wit
    hconf l
    i
    ct,wear eencour agedt or efl
    ect
    andsear chf ornewdi rections,exami neourrelati
    onshipswi t
    hot her sandwi th
    societyasawhol e.

    “THEMUTI PLELENSES”
    Theil
    lust
    rat
    ionwouldshowust heoftenti
    mes,whatpeopl
    econsi
    derasthe
    wholepict
    ureofconfl
    icti
    sjustt
    he“content
    ”theissuest
    hatappearatt
    hesurf
    acelev
    el.
    Andthesearenotyetreal
    lythecor
    eoft hematter.

    Accordi
    ngly,wefail
    signi
    fi
    cantl
    ytoseethe“
    invi
    sibl
    e”par
    t-
    --
    -t
    heroots-
    --
    wher
    ethe
    wedofr el
    ati
    onshipsandprocessesinvol
    vedi
    nthegrowthofthepl
    anissil
    entl
    yand
    unnot
    iceabledeveloped.

    Thi
    siswheretheideaofconfl
    i
    cttr
    ansfor
    mationcomesi n.wedonotj ust
    addressorresol
    vet
    hei ssuebutwegodeeperint
    other el
    ati
    onshipandaskwhat
    happenedtotherel
    ati
    onshipbetweenthepar
    ti
    esinvolv
    edinaconf l
    ictsi
    tuat
    ion.

    Oncewesol veanissueorcutthatpar
    toftheplantt
    hatgrowsaboveground,
    ther
    eisnoguar anteethatt
    heissuehasbeenr esol
    vedi
    ftheplantwoul
    ddie.Theroot
    s
    aresti
    l
    ltheregi
    v i
    nglif
    et oanewandf utur
    eplantorint
    hiscase,t
    heroot
    sofconfli
    ct
    maygiver i
    setoanewconf l
    ict
    .

    PeaceApproachest oResol vingConf lict


     Probl em-Sol vingandDeci sionmaki ng
     Wr ongdeci sioncanbr eakr elationship
     Thei mpl i
    cat iont oouract ionsar eser i
    oust her
    ef oreitisext remel yi mpor tantt hat
    weexer cisepr oper l
    yourpr oblem- solvinganddeci sion-maki ngski lls.
     Thewayt hatdeci sionar emadei slinkedt othei ssuesofpeaceandconf lict
     Top- downappr oach-whenadeci sionisj ustmadebyoneper sonf r om
    topandhandeddownt ot hepeopl ebel owwhowi llbeaf fect edbyt he
    deci sion, whowi llthepr obabi li
    tyofconf li
    ct, i
    sincr eased.Thi shasal ready
    beenpr ov eni neffect i
    v einmanycasesespeci al
    lyi ngov ernment
    progr ams.
     Down-t opappr oach-peopl ewer egi vent heoppor tunitytoexpr ess
    themsel v es, theirneedsandsent i
    ment s.Whenpeopl eact i
    v elypar ticipate
    i
    nt hepr obl em-sol v i
    ngpr ocessandi ntheshapi ngofadeci siont hatwi l
    l
    affectt hem, theyar emor eli
    kel ytof eel sati
    sf i
    ed.Ther eisaf eel i
    ngof
    owner shi poft hedeci sionandt her efor
    et heywoul dacceptany
    const rai ntsandt heconsequencest hatgowi thit.
     Decisi on-maki ngst rategieswi llvaryfrom onecommuni tytoanot her .Ther emay
    bet raditionway st hatpeopl eint hecommuni t
    ymakeuseof .itwoul dt heref ore
    behel pful tocar efull
    yanal yzewhatst rategywoul dbemostappr opr iatefora
    particularsi tuat ion.
     Ther ear eal way st wosi dest oaconf l
    ict.Thi sleadst ot hedi l
    emmawher et wo
    thi
    ngsar edi ffer ent( usual lyatext r
    emeorcont rastingends)butt heyar ehel d
    toget heratt hesamet ime.Adi lemmaof tenar i
    sesi ncr isessi tuationwher ewe
    hav et omakeadeci sionl i
    kei si tgoingt obey esorno, blackorwhi te,thisort hat.
    Aspeacebui lder s, weneedt odeal wi t
    ht het wosi dest hatst r uggleagai nsteach
    otherandt hi sr equi resdi lemmaposi ng.

    534
    Twowaysofdi
    lemmaposi
    ng:

    1.Positi
    veway -howcanwedoAandB?f orexampl e,howcanwepr ov
    idethe
    much- needhealthserv
    icest
    hrought
    hebui l
    dingofacli
    nicatthesamet i
    mebui l
    d
    peaceandendt helongyear
    sofconfl
    ictbet weenthetwowar ni
    nggroups?
    2.Avoidanceway -HowcanwedoAandav oi dB?howcanwepr ovidethehealt
    h
    serv
    icesandav oidtheoccurr
    enceofanot herwar.
     Di lemmaposi ngisoneofthestr
    ategiesofpr obl
    em-sol
    vinganddecision-
    maki ng.

    DECISI
    ON-MAKI NGSTRATEGI ES
    1.Thel eaderdeci des-t hegr oupchoosesal eader .Theleaderhearswhatev eryone
    thi
    nkst hendeci dewhatt hegr oupwi l
    ldo.
    2.Consensusdeci sion-ev ery oneinthegr oupagr eesononechoi ceorsoluti
    on.The
    groupdoesnotv otebutgr oupmember slistent oeachot herthentheycomean
    agreementonacommonsol uti
    on.
    3.Votingdeci sion-sev eral choi cesorsolutioni ssuggest ed.Groupmember ssay
    whichonet heyl ike.Thechoi cemostpeopl elikei sthegroupchooses.
    4.Arbitrati
    ondeci sion- thegr oupasksanout sidert omakeadeci si
    onforthem.The
    outsideriscal l
    edt hear bi trati
    on.Thegr oupagr eest odowhatsheorhedeci des.
    5.Chancedeci des-t hegr oupf li
    pscoinordr awnst r
    awst ochoosewhati twilldo.
    6.Compr omisedeci sion-ev er y
    bodyi nthegr oupagr eestogiveupal i
    ttl
    eofwhat
    theywant .Theyt ryt of i
    ndasol uti
    onev eryonecanaccept .
    7.Exper tdeci
    sion-t heper soni nt hegroupwhoi san“ expert”orwhoknowst he
    mostaboutt hepr obl em makest hedeci sion.

    535
    SOCI
    ALWORK
    COUNSELI
    NG
    Rev
    iewer
    :
    Asso.Pr
    of.JoseMI
    guelB.Al
    var
    ez

    COUNSELI
    NGI
    NSOCI
    ALWORK
    I
    . Counsel
    ingDi
    mensi
    onsi
    nSoci
    alwor
    k(Seden,
    2005)

     Counsel
    i
    ngski
    ll
    sunderpinni
    ngt hewholer
    angeofsoci
    alwork
     Counsel
    i
    ngasasignif
    icantcomponentofthework,
    carri
    edoutwi
    th
    conj
    unct
    ionwi
    thotherapproaches
     Counsel
    i
    ngasamaj orexpli
    citpar
    tofthej
    obdescri
    pti
    on

    Counseli
    ng and soci
    alworkaretwo di
    ff
    erentprofessi
    ons,butinreali
    ty,soci
    al
    wor
    ker
    st akeonthecounsel
    ingrol
    eatacert
    ainextentandemploycounsel
    ingskil
    lsi
    n

    536
    al
    lsocialwor
    kpr
    ocessesandtasks.Ex.Soci
    alworkertaki
    ngont hecounsel
    ingrol
    e–
    hel
    pingawomanweighthepr
    osandconsofput t
    ingherchil
    dreni
    nat emporar
    yshelt
    er.

    Mi
    sconcept
    ionsaboutcounsel
    i
    ng:
     All
    dir
    ectworkwi
    thcli
    ent
    sinsocialworkagenci
    esarel
    abeledcounsel
    ing.
     Somesocial
    worker
    sregardcounsel
    ingasentir
    elyamat
    terforspeci
    ali
    str
    efer
    ral
    .

    Bot
    hsocialworker
    sandcounselor
    swor ktowardshelpi
    ngindivi
    dualstochange,
    adj
    ustt
    oachangeinlif
    eci
    rcumst
    ancesorf
    indnewopportunit
    iesandresourcest
    ogrow
    anddevel
    op.Thedi
    mensionthatcl
    earl
    ydi
    fferent
    iat
    escounseli
    ngfrom socialwor
    kis
    cont
    ext
    .

    Soci
    alwor
    ker
    s–
     Cli
    ent s ar
    e oft
    en compel l
    ed bya societ
    alorlegalmandates t
    o addr ess a
    parti
    cularareaoftheirli
    vesoraredriv
    entoaskf
    orhelpduetopover t
    yorsome
    othertypeofdisadvantage;
     Areengagedwi thservicedel
    iver
    y;
     Perform casemanagementt asks;andper
    for
    mintervent
    ionwit
    hclients’soci
    al
    environments(i
    .e.
    ,homevi si
    ts)

    Counsel
    ors–
     Cli
    entscomeal mostent ir
    elyont heirownfreewi
    ll
    ;
     Donothav etoengagewi thser vicedeli
    veryordi
    rectl
    ywor
    kwi
    tht
    hei
    rcl
    i
    ent
    s’
    soci
    alenv i
    ronments;
     Mayof f
    erconf i
    denti
    ali
    tyinadi sti
    nctiveway;
     Employvariouscounselingstrategiesandtechni
    ques;and
     Mayoper ateinhourl
    ysessi ons.

    I
    I. Counsel
    ingasaHel
    pingRel
    ati
    onshi
    p

    Counsel
    ing i
    s a goal
    -or
    iented r
    elat
    ionshi ween a pr
    p bet ofessi
    onal
    lytr
    ained,
    compet
    entcounsel
    orandanindi
    vidualseeki
    nghelpfort
    hepur
    poseofbr i
    ngi
    ngabout:
     Ameani ngfulawarenessandunder st
    andingoft
    hesel
    fandenvi
    ronment
    ;
     Improvi
    ngpl anni
    nganddeci si
    on-making;and
     Formulati
    ngnew way sofbehaving,feel
    i
    ng,andthi
    nki
    ngforpr
    oblem r
    esol
    uti
    on
    and/ordevelopmentgr owt
    h.(Vil
    l
    ar,2007)

    Counsel i
    ngandhel
    pingr elat
    ionshipai
    medat :
     Enabli
    ngacl i
    entt
    oexpl oreaper sonalpr
    oblem;
     Givi
    ngt hecli
    enti
    ncreasedawar enessofchoicesthanwhatt
    heyalr
    eadyhav
    ein
    deali
    ngwi tht
    heproblem; and
     Assist
    ingher/hi
    mt omakeani nformeddecisionwhattodoaboutthepr
    obl
    em.
    (Reggi
    , 2009)

    Counsel
    i
    ngasapar
    ti
    cul
    arwayofhel
    pingt
    hati
    nvol
    ves:
     Aski l
    ledhelperandoneormor e“ cl
    ients”(peopleseekinghelp,thet er
    m“cli
    ent
    ”
    suggestsanequal r
    elati
    onship).
     Anaccept i
    ng,trust
    ingandsaf erel
    ationship
     Apr ocesswher ebyclientslearnhowt ounder standbettert
    hemsel v
    esandthei
    r
    presentsit
    uations.
     Apr ocesswher ebycli
    entsar ehelpedt oconstructgoalsfort
    hef uture
     Apr ocesswher ebyclientsarehelpedt oacquiret heski
    ll
    sandcour agetopur
    sue
    thesegoals.(UNFPAci t
    edinReggi ,2009)

    Counseli
    ngas:Personal
    i
    tyoftheHel
    per+Hel
    pingSki
    l
    ls=Gr
    owt
    h-Faci
    l
    itat
    ing
    Condi
    tionsandSpeci
    fi
    cOutcomes
     Growth-
    faci
    li
    tat
    ingcondi
    ti
    ons– feel
    i
    ngofmut
    ualt
    rust
    ,respectandf
    reedom
    betweenthecounsel
    orandcl
    i
    ent

    537
     Emphasizi
    ngt heuseofthe“sel
    fasaninst
    rumentofchange”
     Cl
    ient’
    s percepti
    on ofthe counsel
    or’
    s[orsocialworker’
    s]at
    ti
    tude i
    s mor
    e
    i
    mpor t
    antthant hecounsel
    or’
    stheori
    esandmet hods.(
    Brammer
    ,1996,cit
    edi
    n
    Nystul
    ,1999)

    I
    II
    . Basi
    cQual
    it
    iesofEf
    fect
    iveHel
    per
    s(Ny
    stul
    ,1999)

    1. Encour aging–Encour agementhel pscl ient st obel iev ei nt heirpot ent i


    alf or
    growt handdev elopment .
    2. Arti
    st ic–ef fectivecounsel or stendt obesensi ti
    v eandr esponsi vet ocl ient ’
    s
    needs.Bei ngar ti
    st ici mpl iesbei ngcr eat i
    v eandf lexi bleandadj ust ingt he
    counsel i
    ngt echni quest ot heuni queneedsoft hecl ient .
    3. Emot ional l
    yst able–Anemot i
    onal lyunbal ancedcounsel orwi l
    lpr obabl ydo
    mor ehar mt hangoodf ort hecl i
    ent .Thesecounsel orsmayat temptt omeet
    theirownneedsatt heexpenseoft hei rcl ient s.
    4. Empat hicandCar ing – Ef fect i
    v ecounsel orsar eaboutcar i
    ngpeopl eand
    havet hedesi ret ohel pt hosei nneed.Theyar esensi ti
    v et ot heemot ional
    statesofot her sandcancommuni cat eanunder st andi ngof ft hei rstruggl esi n
    l
    ife.
    5. Self-awar e–Bei ngsel f-awar eenabl escounsel or st obecomeawar eoft hei r
    l
    imi t
    at i
    ons.Sel f
    -awar enesscanal sohel pcounsel or smoni tort heirneeds,so
    theycangr atifyt hoseneedsi namannert hatdoesnoti nt erferewi tht he
    counsel i
    ngpr ocess.Sel f-awar enessappear st ober elat edt oanumberof
    otherconcept sr elatedt o“ self”suchassel f-accept ance,sel f -
    esteem,and
    self-
    r eal i
    zat ion.Aspeopl ebecomemor eawar eoft hemsel ves,t heyar ei n
    betterposi tiont oacceptt hemsel ves.
    6. Self-accept ance – Thi s suggest st hatcounsel or s ar e comf ortable wi th
    themsel ves.Al thoughhopef ullyt heywi llbewor kingoni mpr ovementi nt hei r
    personalgr owt handdev el opment , thedi scr epancybet weent her ealsel fand
    theideal sel fisnotsogr eatt ocauseundueanxi ety .
    7. Posi tivesel f-est eem–Thi scanhel pcounsel or scopewi tht hei rper sonaland
    professi onall ivesandmai nt aint heemot ionalst abi l
    ityt hati scent ralt ot hei r
    j
    ob.Al so, counsel or swhodonotf eelposi tiveaboutt hemsel v esmayl ookf or
    thenegat iveoft hei rcl ient s.Ev enwor se,suchcounsel or smayat temptt o
    degr adet hecl i
    entt oenhancet hei rownsel f-image.
    8. Self-real ization–Ef fect ivecounsel or sar e“ busybei ngbor n”.Theyr eachout
    i
    nnew di rect ionsandexpl orenew hor i
    zons.Ast heydo,t heyr eal i
    zet hat
    growt hr equi rescommi t
    ment ,risk,andsuf fering.Counsel or scanwel come
    l
    ifeexper i
    encesandl ear nf rom t hem.Theydev el opabr oadout lookonl i
    fe
    thatcanhel pt heircl ient sputt hei rpr obl emsi nper spect ive.Bei ngal ive
    meanscounsel orshav eanent husi asm f orl ife.Thi sent husi asm cancr eat e
    ener gyandopt imi sm t hatcanener gizeandcer atehopef oracl ient.
    9. Self-di sclosur e – Ef fect iv e counsel or s ar e const ruct ivel yopen wi t
    ht hei r
    thought sandf eelings.Whencounsel or smodelopenness,t heyencour age
    theircl ientt o be open.The r esul ting candi dnesscan be cr it
    icalt ot he
    counsel i
    ngpr ocess.
    10.Cour ageous–Al t
    houghi tisi mpor tantf orcl ientst oper cei vet heircounsel ors
    ascompet ent ,counsel or sar enotper fect ,andt heyshoul dnotbev iewedas
    perfect .Inst ead, theyshoul dt rytomodelt hecour aget obei mper f
    ect .Hav ing
    the cour age t o communi cat et hei rweaknesses and st rengt hs gi ves an
    authent i
    cpi ctureoft hemsel ves.Theyar eal sopr esent i
    ngar eal i
    sticv iewof
    thehumancondi tionandcanhel pcl ientsav oidsel f-def eat ing,per fect ionist
    tendenci es.
    11.Patient– Hel ping someone change i s a compl expr ocess and r equi res
    significantef for t
    .Cl i
    ent smaymakepr ogr essandt henr egr esst ool dhabi ts.
    Counsel or smustbepat ientwi tht hegoalofachi ev ingov er allther apeut i
    c
    mov ement .
    12.Nonj udgement al–Counsel or smustbecar ef ulnott oi mposet heirv aluesor
    beli
    ef sont hecl i
    ent ,ev ent hought heymaywi sht oexposecl i
    ent st onew
    i
    deasatt i
    mes.Bei ngnonj udgement alcommuni cat esr espectf orcl i
    ent sand

    538
    al
    lowst hem toactuali
    zetheiruniquepotenti
    al.
    13.Tolerance forambi guit
    y–Ambi guit
    yi s oft
    en associat
    ed wi tht he ar
    tof
    counseling.
    14.Spiri
    tual
    ity–Char acter
    ist
    icsofspi ri
    tual
    it
    yincludecapacit
    iessuchasbei ng
    sensiti
    vet orel
    igi
    ous-
    spiri
    tuali
    ssuesi noneselfandothers.(suchasmor alit
    y
    andsoul )andbeingabl etofunctionfrom andrelat
    etothespi ri
    tualworl
    das
    dist
    inctfrom themateri
    alwor l
    d.

    Personalquali
    ti
    es,v al
    uesandat ti
    tudesoverl
    apwithskil
    ls,butski
    l
    lscanbe
    dist
    ingui
    shedast heabi li
    ti
    esortechniqueswhichareusedt ocommuni cat
    et he
    essenti
    alval
    uesofr espectandunderstandi
    ng.Theper
    sonalquali
    ti
    esoftheworker
    areappli
    edthroughtheirski
    ll
    s.(
    Seden,2005)

    I
    V. Counsel
    ingPr
    ocessi
    nSoci
    alWor
    k

    Thecounseli
    ngprocessi sbot hanartandasci ence.(Ny stul,1999)
     Thear tofcounsel i
    ngr equi
    resthecounsel ortor eachsensi ti
    vel yint
    ot hewor l
    dof
    cli
    entsandhel pt hem becomeawar eoftheirstrengt hsandhi ddenbeaut y.Ital
    so
    recognizestheimpor tanceoftuni nginandr eactingappr opri
    at elytodiver
    tissues
    suchascul ture,genderandspi r
    itualit
    y.
     Thesci enceofcounsel i
    ngcreat esani mpor t
    antbal ance,pr
    ov i
    dinganobj ectiv
    e
    dimensiont othesubj ecti
    veartofcounsel ing.Counsel orsmustbeabl et
    out il
    i
    xe
    scienti
    fi
    ctoolstogai nanobj ecti
    v eunderstandingofwhati soccur ri
    ngduringthe
    various stages i nthe counsel ing process,f r
    om f ormulating a counsel i
    ng
    relati
    onshi
    pt oterminat i
    onandf ollow-upandr esear chandev aluat i
    on.

    COUNSELI
    NGPROCESS(
    Seden,
    2005)

    St
    age1.Bui
    ldi
    ngRel
    ati
    onshi
    ps
    Inthisst age,thesoci alwor kerneedst oestablishr apportwi t
    ht hecl i
    enttogai n
    theirt rustand conf idence i nt he hel ping rel
    ati
    onshi p.Counsel i
    ng ski lls aret he
    foundat ionf oracar eful,clearandsensi ti
    vecommuni cat i
    ngwi tht hecl i
    ents.Thi salso
    i
    ncl udest heef fortsoft hewor kert or educecommuni cati
    onbar riersthatcancomef r
    om
    themanydi ffer encesbet weeni ndividuals.
    Relationshi p building al so gi ven weightto communi cation asan i nteracti
    ve
    processi nvolv ingt hegi vi
    ng,r eceiving,andchecki ngoutofmeani ng.Itisapr ocessof
    whi cht heout comei sengagement ,thebegi nni
    ngofaf urtherprocesswher ethepar ti
    es
    areabl et owor kt ogether ,tobei nv ol
    ved,toachi evemut ualunder standi ng,tohol d
    attentionandt ocont racttoapur pose.
    Muchsoci alwor kcommuni cat i
    ont akesplacet hroughi ntervi
    ewing,wi t
    hinan
    office,ont het elephoneori nt heper son’
    shome.Thesoci alwor kinterview hasbeen
    called‘ conv er sationwi thapur pose’.Per sonalatt
    r i
    butessuchaswar mt h,flexibi
    li
    ty,
    creat i
    vity,empat hyandposi t
    iver egardhav ebeenconsi deredagoodbasef rom whi chto
    begi n.

    St
    age2.Assessment
    Assessmenti sbot hapr ocessandanout come.Itspurposeistogatherasmuch
    i
    nfor mati
    onaspossi bleaboutt hesi tuati
    onandf orm someopi ni
    onabouti t
    smeani ng
    fortheclientandi tsimpl icationsf oract i
    ons.Itser
    vesast hefoundat
    ionofplanningand
    decisionmaki ng.I tmov esawayf r
    om di agnost
    icfocust owardsunderstandi
    ng the
    perspecti
    v esoft hecl i
    entwi t
    hinahol i
    sti
    candneeds- basedframework.Itemphasizes
    ont hecli
    ents’needsandexi sti
    ngsuccessf ulprobl
    em-solvi
    ngandcopingstrategi
    es.
    Stagesinassessment :
     Acqui sit
    ionofi nf ormat i
    on
     St udy i
    ngf actsandf eeli
    ngs
     Bal ancingandf ormul ati
    ng
     St rategiesi ngoal -setti
    ng
     I nter vention

    539
    St
    age3.Pl
    anni
    ng,
    Int
    ervent
    ionandEval
    uat
    ion
    Socialwor kers ar e expect ed t o under stand peopl ei nthe contextoft heir
    envi
    ronment sanddi scussanypl annedact i
    onswi ththem.Thi sli
    stisnotexhausti
    vebut
    showshowsoci alwor kintervent ioniswi der angi ng.
    Socialwor kactionsi nclude:
     Theuseofsoci alwor ktheor iesandmet hodst oplani nt
    ervent
    ionst o
    achievechange;
     Theuseofpr actitioner’
    sper sonal ski
    ll
    sinintervent
    ion;
     Ref err
    al topr ovideragenci es;
     Pur chaseofser v icesfrom pr ov i
    deragenci es;
     Di r
    ectpr ovisioni ncashorki nd;
     Adv ocacyt oobt ainser vicesf rom anot heragency .
    Oftent heseel ement sar ecombi nedandcounsel i
    ngskill
    scanbei nt
    egrated
    witht heoryandmet hodst oachi ev echange.Thepr actit
    ioner
    ’scounsel i
    ng
    skil
    lsar esignificanti ninfluencingt hewayser vicesareof f
    ered,andsomake
    af undament aldifferencet ot hewayact i
    onsar eexper i
    encedandev aluated
    bycl i
    ents.

    St
    age4.Fol
    lowupandTer
    minat
    ion
    Ending cont
    actand wor king wit
    h peopletowards completi
    ng worki svery
    i
    mpor t
    ant.Anunderstandi
    ngofat tachmenttheor
    yandhumangr owthanddevelopment
    suggestst hatwherer el
    ati
    onships are buil
    tand att
    achment s occurthe way the
    rel
    ati
    onshipsendisimport
    ant.Takingcareofthewayacont actendsconsoli
    dat
    eswhat
    havebeenachieved.

    V. Basi
    cCounsel
    ingSki
    ll
    sinSoci
    alWor
    k

    Theseski
    ll
    sareessent
    ialt
    othecounsel
    ingprocessandal
    soinf
    aci
    li
    tat
    ingsoci
    al
    worktaskssuchasgi v
    ingbenefit
    sadvice,i
    nter
    viewsandassessmentwithadult
    s,
    chi
    l
    drenandthei
    rfami
    li
    es.(
    Seden,2005)

     Att
    ent i
    ongi ving, activeli
    steni
    ng, non-cri
    ticalaccept ance
     Paraphrasing, reflecti
    ngback, summar izingandchecki ng
     Awar enessoft heuseofdi f
    ferentki ndsofquest ions, mini
    malpr
    ompting,
    useofal ternativest oquest i
    ons
     Emphat icunder standing,l
    inking, immedi acy
     Challenging,conf ronting,workwi thdefenses
     Goal sett
    ing,pr oblem sol v
    ing, focusingt echniques
     Knowl edgeaboutownandot her ’suseofbodyl anguage
     Avoidanceofj udgi ngandmor al i
    sticresponses
     Boundar yawar eness,st r
    uctur ingt echniques,t heabi li
    tytosaydi
    ff
    icult
    thi
    ngsconst ruct i
    vely
     Theabi l
    itytoof ferf eedback,techni quesf ordi
    ffusing

    1.UseofBodyLanguage(
    Att
    endi
    ngSki
    ll
    s)

    S–Facet heotherSquar ely


    O–AdoptandOpenPost ure
    L–Leant owardtheot her
    E–MakeEy eContact
    R–BeRel ati
    velyRelaxed
     Maintaineyecontact,butcar efull
    yconsidercul
    tur
    aldi
    ver
    sit
    yindoingso.
     Maintainacomf ortabl
    edi stancebet weentheworkerandthecl
    ient.Consi
    dert
    he
    i
    nformal i
    tyand/orformalit
    yoft her oom.
     Avoidlookingdistr
    acted,frowni ng,yawningandpeeri
    ngatyourwat chasi
    tgiv
    es
    cl
    earnegat i
    vemessagest ot heclient.

    540
     Usel
    owertonesofthev
    oice.
     Hel
    pyour
    selfandtheot
    hertofeel
    comf
    ort
    abl
    eandr
    elaxedwi
    theachot
    her
    .

    2.St
    ruct
    uri
    ng

    Thisinv ol
    vesdescri
    bingther ol
    eandfuncti
    onofthecounselorandcl i
    entand
    provi
    desar ationaleforwhatthecounselori
    sdoinginthecounseli
    ng.Ithel
    psclients
    underst
    andwhati sgoingoni ncounsel
    ingori
    ntheint
    ervi
    ewing(i
    .e.
    ,askingquest
    ions,
    notetaki
    ng),increasi
    ngthei
    rmot iv
    ati
    onandenabli
    ngthem totakeanactiverol
    eint he
    counseli
    ngprocess.

    3.Obser
    vat
    ionSki
    ll
    s
    “
    List
    eni
    ngwi t
    ht heeyes”Consi derthecli
    ent’s:
     Bodyl anguage– post ure,gesti
    culati
    ons,fr
    equencyofshift
    sof
    posit
    ion,breathingpatterns
     Faci
    alexpr essions–col orchanges,ti
    ghteni
    ngoff aci
    almuscl
    es,
    quiv
    eringofl i
    ps, t
    ics,
    et c.
     Clot
    hingandaccessor ies

    4.Act
    iveLi
    steni
    ngSki
    ll
    s

    Act i
    veListeni
    ngi sapr ocedurethathel
    pt heclient
    st el
    lthei
    rstor
    yandf eel
    connected and understood by a cari
    ng and i
    nterest
    ed person.Strat
    egi
    es incl
    ude
    attendi
    ngt heverbalandnonv erbalmessagesofclient
    s,encouragi
    ngcli
    ent
    st of r
    eely
    express themselves,devel
    oping a phenomenol
    ogicalunderstandi
    ng ofcl
    ient
    s,and
    respondinginanappropriat
    emanner .

    Li
    steni
    ngDo’ s
     Li st
    enwi t
    hundi v
    idedat tention,withoutinterr
    upti
    ng.
     Rememberwhathasbeensai d,includingthedetail
    s–i nsomei nstances,
    thesoci alworkermi ghtneedt otakedownnot es.
     Wat chf ornonverbalcuest ohel py ouunder st
    andthefeeli
    ngs.
    o Not e:l
    i
    steningwi tha“ thi
    rdear ”
     Li st
    ent oyourselfandhow y oumi ghtfeelinadescribedsituati
    on,asa
    wayoff urt
    herunder standing.
     Tol eratepausesandsi lencest hatar eal i
    ttl
    elongerthani susuali n
    conv ersati
    ons,andav oidaski nglotsofquest ionstobreaksi
    lences.

    Li
    steni
    ngDon’ ts
     Day dreaming–l osingat tenti
    on,thought swander ing
     Label ing–put ti
    ngt heot herpersoni ntoacat egorybeforehearingthe
    evidence
     Scor i
    ngpoi nt
    s–r el
    at ingev ery
    thingy ouheart oy ourownexperi
    ence
     Mi ndreading–pr edictingwhatt heot herper sonisthinki
    ng
     Rehear sing–pr acticingy ournextl eni
    siny ourhead
     Cher r
    y pi
    cking – l i
    steni ng fora key pi ece ofi nformat
    ion and then
    swi t
    chingof f
     I nterr
    upting–bei ngunabl etoresistgiv
    ingadv i
    ce
     Duel i
    ng– count eringt hespeaker ’
    sv erbaladv anceswi t
    hpar ri
    esand
    thrustsofy ourown
     Si de-steppingsent i
    ment–count eringexpr essi
    onsofemot ionwithjokes
    orclichés
    5.Respondi
    ngSki
    ll
    s

    Counselor
    sandsocialworkersmustbeabl etoprovidethought
    fulandmeasur ed
    r
    esponsesduri
    ngsessi
    onswi t
    htheircli
    ents.Thewayofr espondingwi
    llhel
    pt heworker
    moveforwar
    dwi t
    hthei
    rint
    ervi
    ew,toclari
    fyorexpl
    oremor efull
    y.
     Par aphr
    asing–Thiscanbeusef ulafteracl
    ienthast al
    kedatsomel engthabout

    541
    a par ticul ar si tuat ion or pr obl em.Par aphr asi ng al lows t he counsel or t o
    communi cat et hatheorshehasnotonl yhear dt hecl ientbutunder standswhat
    hasbeensai d.Apar aphr aseshoul dbe“ tentat ively ”wor dedsot hatt hecl i
    entcan
    cor rectt hecounsel ori fnecessar y.
     Ref l
    ect ionorf eel i
    ng – t hi si nv ol vest hecounsel orr eflect
    ingwhatheorshe
    senses t he cl ienti sf eel ing.I tcommuni cat es t hatt he counsel ornotonl y
    under standswhatt hecl ienti sf eel i
    ng, butal soemphasi zeswi tht hecl ient.
     Mi nimalencour ager s–t hi st echni queal l
    owst hecounsel ortof aci l
    i
    tatewhatt he
    cli
    ent i s say i
    ng wi thout changi ng t he cl ient ’sl ine of t hought .Mi nimal
    encour ager si ncludesuchwor dsofacknowl edgementsuchas“ yes” ,“mmm” ,“ah
    -ha”, orev ennods.
     Clar i
    fyingr emar ks-Thi scanbeusedwhent hecounsel oreitherdi dnothearor
    doesnotunder st
    andwhatt hecl ienthassai d.Thr ought heuseofcl arifyi
    ng
    statement s,t hecounsel orcommuni cat est hatheorshegenui nelywant st o
    under standwhatt hecl ienti ssay i
    ng.
     Summar izing–Thi si nv olv esr est atingsomeoft hemaj orconcer nst hecl i
    enthas
    ment ioneddur i
    ngapar ticul arsessi on.Obv iousl y,thishel psident i
    fythecl ient’
    s
    areasofconcer n.Summar izingcanal sol eadt oa“ per cept i
    oncheck”andt ot he
    dev elopmentofpr obl em- sol vingst rategies.
     Per cept ioncheck–Thi shel pst hecounsel ordet ermi newhatt hecl i
    entwant sto
    wor kon.I tf oll
    owst hesummar yst atementt hathel pst hecl i
    entf ocusonone
    par ti
    cul arar eaofconcer n.
     Focusi ng orconcr et eness – Thi sr ef erst o hel ping t he clientdi scuss t heir
    concer nsi nspeci fict erms.Cl ient scanf eelov er whel medwi t
    ht hei rproblemsand
    hav edi ffi
    cul typut tingt hi ngsi nt oper spect i
    v e.Whent hi soccur s,concr et
    eness
    canhel pt hecounsel orcr eat eaf ocusf ort hecl ienti nt hecounsel ingpr ocess.
     Av oidmaki ngj udgment sorl oadedr emar ks.
     Wher epossi ble, li
    nkr epor t edexper iences, ev ent s,react ions,andi dea.
     Av oidchangi ngt hesubj ectori nter ruptingunnecessar ily.
     Av oidspeaki ngt oosoon, t ooof tenorf ort ool ong.

    6.Empat
    hicUnder
    standi
    ng

    Empat hyi stheabi l


    i
    tyt o“standi ntheot herperson’sshoes” ,l
    ookingatt hewor l
    d
    through t heirey es and aski ng,“ Whati slikelyt o be i nt his person’ s situati
    on”.
    Obser v i
    ngtheot her’
    spoi ntofv i
    ew wi t
    houtfil
    t er
    ingitt hroughourper sonall ens,will
    furthermor el etust oavoidaj udgment alat
    ti
    tudet owardt heper sonandwi llenabl eusto
    deepl yunder st andhi m/her.
    Keyf acti sthatempat hyi sdifferentfr
    om sy mpat hy.Ifyouf eelsympat hy ,youwill
    tendt ot akesi desandt hiswi l
    ldistortoraf f
    ecty ourabili
    tytoheart hewhol est oryabout
    her/hispr obl em.Youwi llnol ongerv eryobject i
    veinunder st
    andi ngther eal
    ityoft he
    cli
    ent ’
    spr oblem si t
    uati
    on.
    Agoodcounsel ort r
    iest ounder st
    andandshar et hecl i
    ent ’
    sfeeling,nott obe
    over whelmedbyt hem.Empat hyinvol vesaccept ingher /
    hispoi ntofv iew andbei ng
    i
    nter estedi nexpl or
    ingitsimpl i
    cati
    ononher /
    hisbehav ior.I
    tisnotenought oexper i
    ence
    empat hy,itisal soi mportanttobeabl et otr
    ansmi tempat hybyt hewayofr espondi ngto
    thecl i
    ent .

    7.Quest
    ioni
    ng

     Keepquesti
    onst oami ni
    mum unlessyou:
    o Needpr eciseinf
    ormati
    on,thenaskpreci
    sequest i
    ons;
    o Wantt oopenupanar ea,thenuseopen-endedquest i
    ons;
    o Wi shtopr ompt ,
    thenyoumayuser hetor
    icalquesti
    ons.
     Avoi
    dquestionsbegi nningwithwhy.Thewhyquest ionsoundsaccusingand
    over
    lyaut
    horitar
    ianwi thechoesofschoolday
    sandchi l
    dhood.

    8.Under
    standi
    ngDef
    enses

    542
    Under standingdef ensesenabl esoci alworkerst oavoidunproduct i
    veandheav y
    confr
    ontationwi t
    hcl i
    ent s.Psychody nami cscounsel orswor kf r
    om thepr emiset hat
    whenpeopl eareupset ,angryoraf raid,theybehav edef ensi
    velyandbecome‘ resistant
    ’
    tochangeorot hernewi deas.
    Defensesand r esist
    ancear eseenas‘ natur
    al ’waysofav oi
    ding discomf ort
    ,
    anxi
    etyort hreat.Themostcommondef ensesthatsoci alworkersmeetar e:
     Deni al– notaccept i
    ngt her eali
    tyofy ourownpar tinsomet hingdi f
    ficult
    yor
    painful
     Pr ojection– Pl acingy ourownf eel i
    ngsont osomeoneel se,perhapsbl ami ng
    them
     Rat ionalizat
    ion–Expl ai
    ningsomet hingaway

    Whatmat tersi snotpr eciseunder standingoft hedef ensethati soperati


    ng,but
    rat
    hert hecapaci tytounder st
    andt hatt her esist
    ancey ouar emeet ingcanonlybe
    l
    ower edbyusi ngcounselingskills.Bydoi ngso,pr acti
    tioner
    smayl owerresi
    stance
    andbui ldamor ecooper ati
    ver elati
    onshi p.Somet imes,acceptancei senought o
    l
    owerr esistanceorsomet imesagent leconf r
    ontationisneeded,whi chinv
    olvesthe
    fol
    lowing:
     I dent i
    fyi
    ngt heresi
    stance/def ensepr esent;
     Dr awingat t
    enti
    ont oit;
     Suggest i
    nganexpl anati
    on, which:
    o Recogni zestheper son’sanxi ety
    o I fpossibleidenti
    fi
    est hef eelingort houghtwhichisbeingresist
    ed;
    o I nvit
    estheper sont oconf irm orrejecttheinter
    pret
    ation.

    9.Conf
    ront
    ati
    on

    I
    tisanattit
    udeofconstruct
    ive“confr
    ontati
    on”onsomespeci fi
    caspectsofthe
    cli
    ents’behavi
    or,whichappeartobecont radi
    ctoryandincoherentandtowardswhich
    thecli
    entisnotawar e(
    fori
    nstancebecauseofactivat
    eddefensemechanisms).
    Thegoalhereistoovercomet hosebarri
    erswhichobstr
    uctthedev el
    opmentof
    theindivi
    dual
    ,helpi
    ngthelasttobeawar eoft hem andtohaveanobj ect
    ivereadi
    ngof
    thesituati
    on.

    10.Chal
    lenge

    Insocialwor k,handl ingt het ensionandconf ronti


    ngthei ssuet hatariseasy ou
    goalongi spar toft hewor k.I tisnecessar yt obecomemor eski ll
    edathandl i
    ngand
    acceptingot herpeople’sangeranddi stresswithoutbei ngunnecessar i
    lyconfrontati
    onal.
    Iti
    sal sopossi blet olear nt opr esentchal l
    enget oanot herperson’spoi ntofv iew i
    na
    constructi
    v eway .Iti
    si mpor tantt oav oi
    dbecomi nginsensiti
    vetot hepower fulemot i
    ons
    and feelings thatar e of ten pr esent.Of ten a si mple acknowl edgementt haty ou
    understandwhati sdi f
    ficultfort heot herpersoni ntheirpositi
    oncandef useasi tuati
    on
    tothepoi ntwher edi f
    ferencecanbeopenl y,reasonabl yandcalml ydiscussed.Al l
    owing
    theotherper sonspacet oexpr esst heirperspectiv
    ei salsousefulpr ovi
    dedthatt heyare
    notgivent heimpr essiont hatthiswi llchangesomet hi
    ngt hatcannotbechanged.

    11.I
    mmedi
    acy

    I
    mmedi acyist heabi l
    i
    tytoexpr essopenl y,fri
    endly
    ,directl
    yandwi t
    hcl ar
    it
    ythe
    i
    mpr essionsandi nfor
    mat ionregardingthewayt her el
    ati
    onshipisdev el
    oping.Itall
    ows
    thecounsel orstodirectlyaddressissuesofi mpor tanceinthecounsel i
    ngrelati
    onship.
    I
    ti nvol
    vest hepr acti
    ti
    oneri nmoni tori
    ngcar eful
    lythei
    rownf eeli
    ngsandbei ng
    prepared t o practi
    ce a l ev
    elofsel f-
    disclosure.Thi si st o promote directmut ual
    communi cati
    onbet weent hecounsel orandt heclient.Thismayi ncludethewor ker
    ’sway
    ofdealingwi th‘t
    ransference’and‘counter-t
    ransfer ence’

    12.Managi
    ngSt
    rongFeel
    i
    ngs
    543
    Soci alwor ker sengageinsi tuati
    onst hathav eapparentst r
    ongf eel
    ingssuchas
    l
    oss,distress,f ear ,anger,guil
    tandmanyot heremot ions.Ther oleofthesoci alworker
    (whatevert heyar ef eeli
    ngthemsel ves)istof ocusont heneedsoft heothers.St ayi
    ng
    cal
    mi scr uci alandt heabil
    it
    ytodosocomest hr
    oughacknowl edgingyourownf eeli
    ngs
    and under standi ng whatt he wor k provokes withint he self.Partofpr epari
    ng for
    emotionallychar gedi stoidenti
    fywhati tmayt r
    iggeriny ouandt oexploret hatwith
    someoneel se.Thi scanpav et hewayf orbei ngabl et olistenwhi l
    esomeoneel se
    off
    loadst hei rupset ,anger,orf eeli
    ngsaboutl ossofcont rol.Socialwor kersneed
    support,super visionandconsul tants,asneeded, tosot hiswell.

    544
    CASEWORK
    Rev
    iewer
    :
    Asso.Pr
    of.JoseMi
    guelB.Al
    var
    ez

    545
    CASEWORKOUTLI
    NE

    I
    . OVERVI
    EW ( What
    , Where, Who, How and When)
    CASEWORK/
    WORKWI THI
    NDIVIDUALS

    I
    I. HI
    STORYOFSOCI
    ALCASEWORK:
    EVOLUTI
    ON

    I
    II
    . HI
    STORICAL HI
    GHLI
    GHTS: UNI
    TED STATES AND
    PHI
    LIPPI
    NES

    I
    V. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS I
    N SOCI
    AL WORK
    PRACTICE/PLANNEDCHANGE

    V. ELEMENTOFTHEPROBLEM-
    SOLVI
    NGAPPROACH

    VI
    . PROBLEM-SOLVI
    NGPROCESSANDSOCI
    ALWORKHELPI
    NG
    PROCESS

    VI
    I. GENERALI
    ST/
    INTEGRATED METHOD I
    N SOCI
    AL WORK
    PRACTI
    CE

    VI
    II
    . CASEMANAGEMENT

    I
    X. HELPI
    NG MODELS/
    THEORETI
    CAL APPROACHES I
    N
    CASEWORK

    546
    I
    . OVERVI
    EW (What
    ,Wher
    e,Who,HowandWhen)CASEWORK/WORKWI
    TH
    I
    NDIVI
    DUALS

    1.Casewor ki sapr imar ymet hodi nsoci alwor kal soknownaswor kingwi th
    i
    ndi vidual s.
    2.Soci al casewor ki st hemot herofmet hods.
    3.Casewor ki samet hodofcl inical socialwor k.
    4.Casewor ki st heor i
    ent ati
    on,v al uesy st em,andt ypeofpr acticeusedby
    professi onalsoci alwor ker si nwhi chpsy chosoci al ,behav ior
    al,andsy stems
    concept sar et r
    ansl atedi nt oski ll
    sdesi gnedt ohel pindi vidualsandf ami l
    ies
    solve i nt rapsy chic, i nterper sonal , soci o- economi c, ad env i
    ronment al
    probl emst hroughdi rectf ace- to- facer elationshi ps
    5.Soci al casewor k’si nfluencebegant oincr easeshor tlybef or ethe1920swhi ch
    focusedmor eont hei ndi vi
    dual .
    6.Soci alwor kwi tht hei ndi vi
    dual si soneoft hemai npar tsoft hegener ali
    st
    appr oacht osoci al wor kpr act ice.
    7.Wor ki ngwi thindi vidual si saj ointassessmentoft hesoci alwor kerandt he
    help-seeker ,thesoci alwor kerdi scusseswi t
    ht hehel peet heappr opr i
    ate
    targetofchangeandi ntervent ionsi nor dert oachi evet hegoaloft hehel ping
    process.
    8.Wor ki ngwi thindiv idual sist hegener ali
    stt er mi nsoci alwor kpract i
    cer ef erto
    awi der angeofi nt erventionsusedi nenhanci ngandr estoringt hesoci al
    funct ioni ngofi ndi viduals.
    9.Thepr ofessi onpl acei mpor tancei nHel pingI ndividual st ohel pthemsel v es
    10.Casewor k has a medi cal -or i
    ent ed concept st udy -
    di agnosis-treat ment ,
    replacedbyexpl or ation, assessmentandi nter v
    ent ion.
    11.Soci alcasewor ker sar ef oundi nnon- pov er typopul ationsandi nwar -related
    activities, suchasRedCr oss’ sHomeSer vice.
    12.Thecl ientwhoseekshel pi scal ledhel peeorhel pseeker .Thesoci alwor ker
    orcasewor keriscal ledhel per , ser vicepr ov iderpr act i
    tioner .
    13.Soci al wor kpr ofessi onhasi tsr oot sincasewor k.
    14.Soci al casewor kwasf i
    rstpr act icedi nchi l
    d- caringi nst i
    tutions.
    15.Soci al casewor kwasf i
    rstint roducedi nt hemedi cal set ti
    ngandment al health
    i
    nt hePhi lippines.
    16.Thef i
    r stsoci alser vi
    ceuni tor gani zed i n1915 att hePhi li
    ppineGener al
    Hospi tal
    17.Psy chi at ri
    csoci alwor k waspr act i
    cedatt heNat ionalPsy chopat hicHospi tal
    alsoknownasNat ional Cent erf orMent al Heal th
    18.Mar yRi chmond,aut horofSoci alDi agnosi sexpl ainsoci alwor ktheor yand
    framewor kf orassessment .
    19.Soci ologyi nf l
    uencedmuchsoci al wor kpr act i
    ce.
    20.Josef aJar aMar tinez, pi
    oneer edsoci alcasewor ki nt hePhi li
    ppines.
    21.Soci al gr oupwor kandcommuni tyor ganizat ionf ollowedaf tercasewor k.

    I
    I. HI
    STORYOFSOCI
    ALCASEWORK:EVOLUTI
    ON

    1.XENODOCHI Aguesthousef orpoorpeopl ei


    nGr eeceandRome
    2.Char itywasmot i
    v atedbyt hedesi r
    eofmer itsorgooddeedsf oreternal
    l
    ife
    3.16thcentury,JUANLUI SDEVI VES,Spani shphi l
    osopher,fateofindiv
    idual
    poordeser v edattention
    4.Invest i
    gat
    ion of t he soci al condition of ev ery pauper family=
    INDI VIDUALI ZATI
    ON
    5.Engl i
    shPoorLawi n1601orEl i
    zabethanPoorLaw,t hebasisforEngli
    sh
    Soci alWelfareCodi ficati
    on( systematize)precedingpoorr eli
    efl
    egisl
    ati
    on
    startingwitht heStatut eofLabor ersin1349, careforthepoor
    6.INDI VIDUALAPPROACH( protot
    y peofcasewor k),THOMASCHALMERS,
    mi nisteri
    nScot l
    and,i nvestigat
    ion,indivi
    dualsbasi scopi edbyChar i
    ty

    547
    Organi zationSoci et y( COS)
    7.Engl i
    shPoorLaw,Associ ati
    onf orI mpr ov ingt heCondi t
    ionoft hePoor
    (ACI P)andChar i
    tyOr ganizationSoci ety( COS)
    Engl i
    shPoorLaws’gener alassumpt i
    ons“ allpoorbecauseofi gnor ance,
    refusalt owor k,i nef f
    icient,corrupt…” assist anceishar mful,givensmal l
    amount s,ext endedf orshor tper i
    odoft i
    meandonl yf oremer genci es.
    Why ?Sot hatt hepoorpeopl earemadet owor kandtaughtresponsi bil
    it
    y
    8.Fi rstFami l
    y Wel far e Associ ati
    on was or gani
    zed in 1905 by Mar y
    RichmondandFr ancesMcKl ean
    9.Soci alCondi tionsext ernalt ot hei ndividual swast hechar acteristi
    csof
    casewor kdur ingt heear l
    ypar tofthe2ot hcent ury
    10.MANI PULATI VETHERAPYmeansenv i
    ronmentcoul dnotbechanged, t
    he
    i
    ndi vidualshoul dber emov edfrom t heenv ironment,tothepoi ntofbei ng
    separ at edf r
    om f ami li
    es
    11.Ext ernalsoci ol ogi calf actorst oi ndividual ’
    sconsci oussoci alat ti
    tudes
    makedani mpor tantst epi nthedev elopmentofsoci alcasewor k.That
    probl em oft hei ndi vi
    duali sNOTEXTERNALSOCI OLOGI CALFACTORS
    only ,buta out gr owt h ofr eall i
    fe exper iences,such as negl ectand
    rej
    ect ion, anddeal twi thatt heconsci ousl evel .
    12.Thei mpactofpsy chologyandpsy choanal y si
    scamei ntot hepi cturein
    thepr acticeofcasewor k

    I
    II
    . HI
    STORI
    CALHI
    GHLI
    GTSUNI
    TEDSTATESANDPHI
    LIPPI
    NES

    Pre-
    1920
    1.Uni tedSt at es:Fr iendl yv isitorr ef erst othef orer unnerofsoci alwor kerhelped
    set t
    ler swhower eunabl et oadj ustinnewcul tur eandwer elivingi npov er t
    y.
    1921-1930
    1.Uni ted St ates:Fr eudi anpsy choanal y
    ticper spect i
    v eusedt ounder st
    and
    mal adj ust edper son.
    2.Mi lf
    or dConf er ence,t woconcept slearnedi nt erv ent i
    onandmedi calconcept
    treat ment .
    1930-1945
    1.Uni tedSt at es:Jessi eTaf tint roducedt hef unct ionalappr oachi n1930att he
    School ofSoci al Wor koft heuni versityofPennsy lvani a
    2.Vi rgini aRobi nsonexpl aint henat ureoft heski llr equi redf orf unct ionalsoci al
    casewor kt hati swor kerandcl i
    entdet er minedcommongr oundf orwor king
    toget herbasedonpr obl emsi ncl usiveofagencyser vices.
    3.Gor don Hami l
    ton,1937,expl aini nterpersonalpr obl ems i n hi s paper
    diagnost icappr oach
    1945-1960
    1.Soci al funct i
    oni ngi st hef ocusofsoci alwor kt hist ime.
    2.Fel i
    xBi est ek,aut horofTheCasewor kRel ationshi p,1957,def inescasewor k
    as“ dy nami ci nter actionofat titudes” .Biesteki sal sot heper sonbehi ndt he
    princi pleofsoci alwor kpr act icesuchasi ndi vidual izat i
    on;accept anceand
    conf ident ial i
    tyt oment ionedaf ew.
    3.Hel enHar risPer lman, aut horofSoci al Casewor k: APr obl em- Solv ingProcess.
    Per spect i
    v eofsoci alwor kf rom di agnost ic-funct i
    onalaspectt opr oblem-
    sol vingpr ocess.Di agnosi si sassessment .
    4.Pr obl em- sol vi
    ngmeansaper sonwi th apr obl em comest opl acewher ea
    prof essi onal repr esent at i
    vehel psbyagi venpr ocess.
    5.Essent ialcomponent sofpr obl em- solvi
    ng pr ocess:pur posef ul ,accept i
    ng,
    suppor t
    iveandnur t
    uring
    6.Medi calsoci alwor ker shandl i
    ngcasesofpat ient swi thsoci alandemot i
    onal
    concer nsi nSanLazar oHospi tal in1949.
    7.Depar t
    mentofHeal t
    hCi rcul arNo.146i n1954speaksofpr ov isionofani tem
    foratl eastonemedi calsoci alwor keratt henat ional ,prov i
    nci al,ci tyand
    emer gencyhospi tal
    1961-1975
    1.Soci alWor kt heor ydev elopeddur i
    ngt hisper i
    od mar kthe dev elopmentof

    548
    traditionalmet hods;gener icori nt egr atedappr oaches;andnewappr oaches
    topr act i
    ce.
    2.I nt he 1960s t he di agnost i
    c appr oach i s cal led by Fl orence Hol li
    s as
    psy chosoci al appr oach
    3.Soci alsy st em andcommuni cat iont heor ieswer eal soappl i
    edt osoci alwor k
    pract ice.
    4.I n1970,t hei nt egrat edmet hodsorgener alistpr acticewasdev elopedf or
    unifiedsoci al wor kpr ofessi on
    5.Car ol Mey er , herwor kent i
    tl
    ed, Soci al Wor kPr act i
    ce: AResponset ot heUr ban
    Cr i
    sis,i n1960,emphasi zingi ndi v i
    dual i
    zat i
    on,i ntervent iv
    epoi ntsandpl anof
    action- gener alistpr act ice
    6.Har rietBar tlet t,herwor kent i
    tl
    ed, TheCommonBaseofSoci alWor kPr actice,
    emphasi sonuni fyingconcept ualf ramewor konpur pose,v alues,sanct i
    on,
    knowl edgeandcommonski ll
    s- gener alistpr act ice
    7.Al lenPi ncusandAnneMi nahan,Soci alWor kPr act i
    ce:ModelandMet hod,
    focusonpl annedchangewi thi nter v entionpl anbaseonpr oblem assessment
    8.New appr oachesi ntroducet hist imewer et ransact i
    onalanal ysi
    s,behav i
    or
    modi ficat i
    on, r eality-
    ther apy , cr isis i nt erv ention and t ask-cent ered i n
    casewor k
    9.RA 747,r ef ersdet ermi nat i
    onof medi calassi stanceel i
    gibili
    tybased on
    assessment of t he st andar d of l ivi
    ng. THI S LAW I NFLUENCE THE
    RECOGNI TIONOFCASEWORK
    10.In1969,t het hi rdnat i
    onalwor kshoponsoci alwor keducat ionpr omot edt he
    gener i
    csoci al wor kpr act ice.
    1976-1990
    1.Keyconcept si nsoci al wor khel pi ngpr ocess
    1.1Assessment–apr ocessofunder standi ngt heper sonsi tuati
    onanduse
    thisast hebasi sf ort heact iont aken.
    1.2Per soni nsi tuation( PIS)orPer soni nenv ironment( PIE)–useofper sonal
    suppor tnet wor ksaspar toft he hel ping pr ocessand soci alsy stem
    appr oach
    1.3Rel at i
    onshi pi nhel pingr elationshi p–notonl ywor ker-cli
    entr elationship
    buti ncl uder elationshi pswi t h si gnificantsoci alsy stems& i nfluential
    per sonsi nt hosesy stem
    1.4Pr ocess–t her ecur rentpat ter ningofasequenceofchangeov ert ime.
    1.5I nter vent ion–t her eisnoonei nt ervent i
    ont opr acticewhi chi sappr opriate
    foral lsi tuat ions.

    I
    V. ESSENTI
    ALELEMENTSI NSOCI
    ALWORKPRACTI
    CE/
    PLANNEDCHANGE
    A. 1.Worker
    2.Cl
    ient
    3.Pr
    oblem
    4.Process

    B.PLANNEDCHANGED
    1.Planned change-change or iginat ing fr
    om a deci si
    on to make a
    del
    iberateef forttoimpr ovethesy st em andt oobt ai
    nt hehelpofan
    outsi
    deagenti nmakingt hi
    simpr ovement .
    2.Clientsystem
    1.1personali
    tysy st
    em:consci ousandunconsci ous,t
    hemi ndand
    body
    1.2groups:famili
    escommi t
    t ee, cl
    ubsandot hersmall
    erunit
    s
    1.3 or gani
    zati
    ons: larger soci al syst
    em: wel far
    e agenci es,
    educationali
    nsti
    tuti
    ons,reli
    giousassoci ati
    onandpol i
    ti
    calpart
    ies
    1.4communi t
    ies:indiv
    idualci t i
    zens,pol
    it
    icalsub-gr
    oups,soci al
    str
    ata,geographicaluni
    ts

    C.OUTSI
    DEAGENT
    1.“Out
    sideagent
    ”iscal
    l
    eda“ pr
    ofessi
    onalchangeagent”,whowor ks
    wit
    ht he cl
    ientsyst
    em,such as psychi
    atr
    ist
    s,marriage counsel
    or,

    549
    teachers,andrehabil
    itationwor ker.
    2.Phasesi nPlannedChange
    1.Cli
    entsystem needf orhelp
    2.Helpi
    ngrelationshi pest abl
    ishedanddefined
    3.Changeprobl em i dentifi
    edandclarif
    ied
    4. Possibil
    i
    ties f or change ar e exami ned; change goal
    s
    establ
    ished
    5.Changeeffor t
    sar eat t
    empt ed
    6.Changeisgener alizedandest abl
    ished
    7. Helpi
    ng r elati
    onshi p end and possi bi
    li
    ty of conti
    nui
    ng
    rel
    ati
    onshipisdef i
    ned

    D.DYNAMI
    CSOFPLANNEDCHANGE
    1.Changef or
    ce– i sanaspectoft hesituati
    onwhichincreasest
    he
    wil
    l
    ingnessofthecli
    entsy
    stem t
    omakeapr oposedchange.
    2.Resist
    ancef or
    ce– isanaspectoft hesituat
    ionwhichreducest
    he
    wil
    l
    ingnessofthecli
    entsy
    stem t
    ochange.

    V. ELEMENTSOFTHEPROBLEM-
    SOLVI
    NGAPPROACH
    1.Person
    2.Problem
    3.Place
    4.Process

    VI
    . PROBLEM- SOLVI NGPROCESSANDSOCI ALWORKHELPI NGPROCESS
    1.Recogni ti
    onordef i
    nit
    ionoft heprobl
    em,andengagementwi
    ththecl
    i
    ent
    system
    2.Dat a-collect
    ion
    3.Assessmentoft hesit
    uat i
    on
    4.goal -setti
    ngandt heplanningofacti
    on
    5.I nt
    erv enti
    onorthecarryingoutoftheacti
    on
    6.Ev aluation
    7.Ter mi nation

    SOCIALWORKHELPI NGPROCESS
    1.Assessment
    2.Planni ng
    3.Intervent i
    onorPlanImpl
    ementat
    ion
    4.Ev aluation
    5.Ter minat i
    on
    +Problem- solvi
    ngandhelpi
    ngpr
    ocessiscogni
    ti
    ve,
    rat
    ional
    andsequent
    ial

    1.
    1ASSESSMENT–apr ocessandapr
    oductofunder
    standi
    ngf
    orwhi
    chact
    ion
    i
    sbased(
    MaxSi
    por
    in)

    A.Dat
    a-Gat
    her i
    ng
    1.Pri
    mar ysource
    2.Secondar ysour
    ces
    3.Existi
    ngdat a
    4.Wor ker’sownobservat
    ion
    B.I
    nit
    ial
    Contact/swithCli
    entandIntake
    1.Wal k-
    in
    2.Referral
    3.Reach- out

    I
    ntake–i
    sthepr
    ocessbywhi
    chapot
    ent
    ialcl
    i
    entachi
    eves t
    hest
    atusof
    cli
    ent.
    Ini
    ti
    alengagement–cl
    i
    entcommi
    tt
    ingt
    ohav
    ecl
    i
    entst
    atusandt
    hewor
    ker

    550
    commi
    tt
    ingt
    heagencyt
    opr
    ovi
    deser
    vices.

    Pr
    obl
    em – a need or obst
    acl
    e or accumul
    ati
    on of f
    rust
    rat
    ion or
    maladj
    ustments,andsomet imesallt
    hesetogether
    ,whichthr
    eat
    ensorhas
    al
    ready att
    acked the adequacy ofthe person’sli
    vi
    ng sit
    uat
    ion ort
    he
    ef
    fecti
    venessofhis/heref
    fort
    stodealwit
    hit
    .

    Cl
    ientsyst
    em –i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    ,fami
    l
    y,smal
    lgr
    oup,
    andacommuni
    ty.(
    communi
    ty
    -hospit
    al,
    tenementhousi ngpr oject,f
    actory)
    Professi
    onalchangeagent–soci alwor kerwor kingwithpar
    aprofessi
    onal s,
    i
    ndigenouscommuni t
    yl eaders, andvolunteers.
    I
    ndividualIntake form – communi tyi denti
    fying i
    nformat
    ion,presenting
    problem andci r
    cumst ancesr elat
    ingt ot hi
    s,backgrounddat aandot hers
    perti
    nentinf
    ormationiniti
    alcont act.

    C.Def
    ini
    ngt
    hePr
    obl
    em

    Pr
    obl
    em-
    for
    -wor
    k--
    -“t
    hepl
    aceofbegi
    nni
    ngt
    oget
    her
    ”,eg.Fami
    l
    yinsi
    tuat
    ion
    ofpov
    ert
    y

    Par
    ti
    ali
    zat
    ion–t
    hepr
    ocessofsepar
    ati
    ngf
    rom somanypr
    obl
    emsi
    dent
    if
    ied
    bythecl i
    entand/orwor kerthespecifi
    cproblem orproblemswhichar
    etobe
    addressedfir
    standf ocusoft hehelpi
    ngrelat
    ionshi
    p.
    Pri
    orit
    izati
    on– pr oblem ofi mport
    ance,givenpr i
    ori
    tyat t
    ent
    ionandthatis
    surv
    ivalinnatur
    e( food,clot
    hing,
    shelter
    ,medicalatt
    ention)
    AssessmentSt atement–agr eementofwor kerandclientonwhattodoabout
    theproblem-f
    or-wor kwiththefol
    lowingcomponent

    1.
    2PLANNI
    NG

    A.Planni ng i sthel i
    nkbet weenAssessmentandI nterv ent
    ion.Itfurther
    translat et hecont entofassessmenti ntoagoalst at ementandameans
    tor eacht hegoal s.Theendgoal ofpl anningi splannedchange.
    B.Goal sar eends,desi redorexpect edout comesofhel pingpr ocess.Itisa
    solution.
    C.Interim goal s,intermedi ategoal sandobj ecti
    vesar et er msr eferr
    ingt o
    speci fi
    c,shor t-
    term goal sthatwoul df acili
    tat
    et heat tainmentof l ong
    term orov erallgoals.
    D.Plansar emeanst oachi evethegoal s.
    E.Uni tsofAt tenti
    on–ot herpersonsbesi dest hesoci alwor ker,whoar e
    i
    nv olv eint hesi tuati
    onoft hecl ientbecauset heyar eessent ialtot he
    attainmentoft hegoal .
    F.Strategy–i sdef inedas“ anov er allapproacht ochangeasi tuati
    on.”Itis
    alsoknownast heoriesofpr acticeormodel ofpracticei nsocialwor k,
    like
    Cr i
    sisI nterventionAppr oachandMedi at
    ingModel .
    G.Hel pingcont ract–af terassessmentandact i
    onpl anningt heagr eement
    bet weent hewor kerandt heclientonwhatneedst obedoneandwho
    shoul ddoi t
    .

    1.
    3INTERVENTI
    ON

    Intervent
    ionmeansaction,planimpl ementati
    onandt reat
    ment .Itisan
    acti
    ont hatwouldsol
    vetheclient’
    spr obl
    em.Compt onandGal awayt hatin
    thi
    shel pingphasetwoacti
    ont akesplace:deci
    dingwhattodoanddoi ngt he
    decided
    EcologicalMap orEco- Map isknown and used bysoci alwor kerasan
    assessment ,pl
    anni
    ngandintervent
    ivetool.
    A.I ntervent
    iveRol
    esinDirectPracti
    ce–i nproblem-sol
    vi
    ngt hisisref er
    red
    tot hecompositeofact
    ivi
    ti
    esort asksthatasocialworkerisexpect edto

    551
    undert
    akeinordertoachievethegoal
    sagreedwit
    ht hecl
    ient.
    B.Int
    erv
    entiverol
    esareResour cepr
    ovi
    der,
    social
    broker,mediat
    or,
    adv
    ocat
    e
    enabl
    er,counsel
    or/
    therapist
    .
    1.
    4EVALUATION

    Ev aluati
    oni sdef i
    nedast hecol l
    ectionofdat aaboutout comesofa
    program ofact i
    onr elati
    vetogoal sandobj ect i
    vesseti nadvanceoft he
    i
    mpl ement ati
    onoft hatprogram.
    Ongoi ngev al
    uat i
    oni sacont i
    nualpr ocesswher etheworkerkeepspm
    gathering data whi ch i suse in an ongoing r eassessmentofobj ectives,
    i
    ntervent i
    onplans, andev enthedef i
    nit
    ionofthepr oblem.
    Pointt oconsider ,Evaluati
    onisaccount abil
    it
    yi ntheaspectofef fect
    iveness
    andef fici
    ency.
    Summat i
    veev aluationemphasizeonout comesandef f
    ect
    iveness.
    Format iveevaluationfocusonl ookingatthepr ocessoft hework.

    1.
    5TERMI
    NATI
    ON

    A.Disengagementi nt hehel pingr elationshipi sthef inalphaseoft hehel ping


    processwitht hef ollowi ngr easons
    1.Goal ssetbyt hewor kerandt hecl ienthav ebeenr eached.
    2.Af tera r easonabl e per i
    od oft ime,t here has been v eryl i
    ttl
    e
    mov ementt owar dt heat tainmentoft hegoal sf or mul at ed, andt he
    prospectf oranychangei nt hesituat ioni sheldunl ikel y.
    3.Thecl ientt hi nkst hatt hewor kerhaspr ov i
    dedsuf fici enthel pso
    thati s nowpossi blef ort hecl i
    entt opur suepr oblem sol v i
    ngon
    his/herown.
    4.Whent heagencydoesnothav et her esour cesneededbyt he
    cli
    entort hewor kerdoesnotgethi s/ heragency ’sappr ov alto
    prov i
    det heser v
    icesneededbyt hecl i
    ent .
    5.Whent hesy stem out sidet hecl ientmakei tdifficultf ort hecl i
    ent
    tocont inuewi tht hehel pingr elat i
    onshi porwhent hesesy stems
    infl
    uencet hecl i
    entt odi scont inuet her elati
    onshi p.
    6.Whenf oroner easonoranot her ,
    t hewor kermustl eav et heagency .
    B.Termsusedi nt ermi nationoft hehel pingr elationship
    1.Tr ansf er–pr ocessbywhi chcl ienti sr eferredbyhi s/ hersoci al
    wor kert oanot herwor keri nt hesameagency ,becauset hef or mer
    willno l ongerbeabl et o cont inuewor king wi tht hecl ient ,or
    becausehe/ shet hinksanot herwor keri sIabet terposi tiont o
    wor kwi thher /hiscl i
    ent ’spr oblem.
    2.Ref er r
    al–t heactofdi rectingacl ientt oanot herwor ker /
    agency
    becauset heser vicet hatt hecl ientneedsi sbey ondt hepr esent
    agencywor ker ’
    scompet enceort hecl i
    entneedst headdi ti
    onal
    service whi ch t he pr esentagency cannotpr ov ide.( Condi t
    ion
    shoul dbemet !Ref erral mustbeusedappr opriately)
    C.Component sofTer mi nation
    1.El l
    enPi ncusandAnneMi nahant het hreemaj orcomponent s
    oft het ermi nat ionpr ocess:di sengagement ,st abi lizationof
    changeandev aluat ion.

    VI
    I. GENERALI
    ST/
    INTEGRATEDMETHODI
    NSOCI
    ALWORKPRACTI
    CE

    A.BASI
    CUNDERSTANDI
    NGONGENERALI
    STPRATI
    CE
    1.Sincetheincept i
    onofsoci alworkasapr ofession,i
    trelatestothelevel
    s
    ofconcer n,thedual ist
    icv i
    ew ofthe“ personal”andt he“social
    ”.The
    pract
    iceisdi alect
    ical(assumingal ogi
    caltruth)thatindivi
    dualservi
    ces
    andsocial act
    ionar epartsofthesameact( Lundy,2004).
    2.Generali
    sti stheuseofar angeofskill
    sasneededt oint
    erveneina

    552
    varietyi fclientl i
    fesituation.Thegener ali
    stpractiti
    oner’
    sf unctioni sto
    hav easwi dea ski l
    lreper toi
    reaspossi blei n ordertof acil
    i
    t atethe
    i
    nt eractionsbet weenpeopl eandt hesocialinstit
    utionsandsi tuat i
    onsin
    whi cht heylive( Wel l
    es,1989)
    3.Gener alistrefersal sotot hecl i
    entandwor kertoget herassesst heneedi n
    allofi tscompl exit
    yanddev elopapl anforrespondi ngtot hatneed,A
    strategyi schosenf rom ar epertoir
    eofr esponsesappr opriatef orwor k,
    withi ndividuals,f amili
    es,groups,agenci es,adcommuni ti
    es.Theuni tof
    attentioni schosenbyconsi deringt hesystem needi ngtobechanged.
    Thepl ani scar r
    iedoutandev al
    uat ed(Johnson,1989)
    4.Bef oret hree ( 3) “ t
    raditi
    onalmet hods”:casewor k,groupwor k,and
    communi tyor ganizing.Nowgener icpracti
    ce,“socialworkers”or“ mult
    i-
    pur posewor kers”
    5.The “ gener alist”wor k with clients and empl oy helpi
    ng i nter
    v enti
    ons
    relevantt oapar ti
    cularcli
    ent ’
    spr oblem orsit
    uation.

    B.BASI
    C CONCEPTUNDERLYI
    NG THEI
    NTEGRATED METHOD OFSOCI
    A
    WORKPRACTICE
    1.Thebasi cconceptunder l
    yingi ntegratedmet hodofsoci alwor k
    practi
    ce i st hat all social wor k pr act i
    ce has a common
    phil
    osophi cal(value)base as wel las a common sci enti
    fic
    (knowl edge)baseorf oundat i
    on.Weconsi dert hi
    scommonbase
    knowl edge and v al
    ue as const i
    tuting t he “ generi
    c”orgener ic
    component sofsoci alworkpr actice,hence,t het erm “gener ic
    socialwor k practi
    ce”.Ther efore,“ gener ic socialwor k” ,the
    “generalistmodel”ofsoci alwor kpr act ice,andt he“ i
    ntegrated
    met hodofsoci alworkpractice”refert ot hesamet hing.Wer efer
    “i
    ntegr atedmethodofsoci alwor kpr act i
    ce”f oritseemsmor e
    descriptiveofwhatwear et ryi
    ngt oachi eve– doawaywi t
    ha
    concept ionofpracti
    ceasinv olvi
    ngsepar at emet hods,andi nstead,
    developmentofsoci alworkmet hodofhel pi ngpeopl e

    2.Thebasi cconceptunder l
    y i
    ng t hei ntegr ated met hod ofsoci al
    workpr act i
    cel ogicallygi v enwayt hef oll
    owi ngr elatedconcept s:
    a)THECONCEPTOFONEaycl ientsy stem aspoi ntofent ryfor
    wor king wi th othercl ientsy st em.Forexampl e,a hel ping
    relat i
    onshi p can st ar t on one- on-one basi s,and at an
    appr opr iatetimei nt hej udgmentoft hewor kermov esont oa
    helpi ngr elati
    onshi pwi t
    hagr ouporanent ir
    ecommuni ty,with
    thei ndi v i
    dual cli
    entaspi ntofent ry .
    b)THE CONCEPT OF TOTAL PROBLEM- SOLVI NG. The
    pract i
    tioneroft hei ntegr at edmet hodseest hecl ientaspar tof
    asoci alsy stem( s)whi chcauseaf fect shi s/herpr obl em or
    situat ionandr ecogni zest hathe/ shecannotbeofr ealhel pi f
    he/ she i gnores such sy st em( s).A t otalpr obl em- solving
    framewor kal l
    owst hewor kert ohel pt hecl ientasasy stem,
    andt odeal witht heot hersy st emsofwhi cht hecl ienti sapar t
    ,
    andwhi char eaf fectinghi m/ her .Thatt hewor kerhast hebasi c
    compet enceneededmakesi tpossi blef orhim/ hert oi nter vene
    i
    nt heseot hersy stems.
    c) THECONCEPTOFTHECLI ENT’ SPROBLEM ORSI TUATI ONas
    thebasi sf orthechoi ceoft hewor ker ’
    shel pi ngappr oachor
    i
    nt er vent ion.Wher e a pr act i
    tionerwho i dent i
    fi
    es wi th one
    met hod ofpr act i
    ce,e. g.soci alcasewor k,woul dt end t o
    appr oach pr obl em- sol ving i n t he cont ext of hi s/her
    speci alization orpr efer red met hod,t he pr act it
    ioneroft he
    i
    nt egr at edmet hodwoul dappr oacht hepr oblem asasoci al
    wor kerandsel ectf rom anar r
    ayofhel pingappr oachesand
    i
    nt er vent ionswhati sbestsui tedt ot hecl ient’
    ssi tuat ion.

    The t
    erm “
    soci
    alwor
    k hel
    ping pr
    ocess”and “
    probl
    em-
    sol
    vi
    ng

    553
    process”,arethesame?Yes!SOCI ALWORKHELPI NGPROCESS
    i
    scogni tiv
    epr ocessbecausei tinvolvesar elat
    ionshi
    pbet ween
    twopar t
    ies:theworkerandthecli
    entsy stem.PROBLEM- SOLVING
    PROCESS i sacogniti
    veprocess,ar at
    ionalprocedureinvol
    vinga
    seri
    esofst epstobef ol
    lowedsequent i
    all
    y.

    VI
    II
    . CASEMANAGEMENT

    A.Case managementi s a met hod of pr ovi


    ding ser vi
    ces wher eby a
    professi onalsoci alwor kerassessest heneedsoft heclientandcl ient ’
    s
    fami l
    y,whenappr opri
    ate,andar rangescoor dinates,moni t
    ors,evaluat es
    andadv ocatesf orapackageofmul t
    i servi
    cest omeett hespecif
    iccl i
    ent s’
    compl exneeds.
    I
    ti san i mpor tantcomponentofsoci alwor kpr acti
    ce thati s
    closelyassoci atedwi thcasewor k
    I
    tal so r eferst ot he actormannerofhandl i
    ng,cont roll
    ing,
    dir
    ect i
    ng.
    Casemanagementi saser vicedel i
    verysy st
    em t hatorgani zes,
    coor di
    nat es,andsust ainsanet wor koff ormalandi nf
    ormalsuppor tsand
    activit
    iesdesi gnedt oopt i
    mi zet hef unctioni
    ng,andwel l
    -bei
    ngofpeopl e
    withmul ti
    pleneeds.( formalsuppor tpr ovi
    dedbyor ganizedagenciesand
    organizat i
    ons whi ch ar e paidt o pr ov i
    de servi
    ces,informal suppor t
    prov i
    ded byf ami lymember s,f ri
    ends,nei ghbors,co-wor ker
    set c.wi th
    whom t hecl i
    enti nteractsi nthecour seofev ery
    dayl i
    fe,towhom cl ient
    alsogi veinformal suppor t
    .)

    B.Maj
    orf
    unct
    ionsofcasemanagement
    1.Assessment
    2.Servi
    cePlanning
    3.Implementat
    ionoft
    heCasePl
    an
    4.Eval
    uation
    5.Terminati
    on
    6.Foll
    ow-up

    C.Goalsofcasemanager s
    1.Topr omot ewhenpossi bl
    etheskil
    lsoft hecli
    enti
    naccessi ngand
    uti
    li
    zi
    ngt hesesupportsandser vi
    ces;
    2.Todev el
    opt hecapacityofsocialnetwor ksandrelevanthuman
    servi
    cepr ovider
    sinpr omotingthef uncti
    oningandwel l-
    beingof
    thecli
    ent;and
    3.To pr omot e ser
    vice eff
    ectiv
    eness whi l
    e attempting to have
    servi
    cesand suppor tsdel i
    vered i
    nt hemostef f
    ect i
    vemanner
    possible

    I
    X. HELPINGAPROACHES/ TREATMENT
    1.Model :TheFunct i
    onal Approach
    Proponent:Jessi
    eTaf t,Vi
    rgini
    aRobinsonandRuthSmall
    ey
    Characteri
    sti
    cs: the human bei ng is capabl
    e of modif
    ying both
    hi
    m/ hersel
    fand hi s/herenv i
    ronmentinaccordancewithhi
    s/herown
    purpose and withint he l
    imits ofhis/
    herown capaci
    tyand his own
    envir
    onment
    2.Cogni ti
    veBehav i
    oralApproach-

    554
    555
    MODEL PROPONENT CHARACTERI
    STI
    CS TARGETCLI
    ENT HELPI
    NGPHASES
     Ident i
    ficat i
    onoft he
    Tohel paper sontocope probl em
    effecti
    velyaspossi blewith  Dat a-gather i
    ng
    suchpr oblemsascar ryi
    ng
    Hel
    enHar
    ri
    sPer
    lman Allcli
    entsy st
    em  Assessment (Diagnosis)
    Pr
    obl
    em-
    Sol
    vi
    ng socialtasksandr el
    at i
    onships
     Planni ngofi nterventi
    on
    whi chhe/ sheper ceivesas
    st
    ressfulandf indsinsuper abl
    e  Intervent ion
    wi
    thoutout sidehel p  Moni tori
    ngandev aluati
    on
     Cont inuat iont oTermi nat
    ion
     Client ’
    st argetpr oblem
    Fami l
    yandi nterpersonal
    ,social i
    dent i
    fiedpr eliminaryrapid
    Bri
    efandtimelimit
    ed. relationships, soci
    alrol
    e statement
    Al
    l
    eviat
    ingspecifi
    cproblem, performance, effect
    ingsocial  Cont ract
    Task-
    Cent
    ered Wi
    l
    li
    am Rei
    dandLaur
    aEpst
    ein
    or
    ganizedaroundtask, transiti
    ons, securingresour
    ces,  Pr obl em- solv i
    ngt ask
    r
    esearchmoni t
    ori
    ng emot ional di
    stressreacti
    vet o achi ev ement ,problem
    sit
    uationfactors reduct ion
     Ter mi nation
    Theclient’
    sinabil
    it
    yt ofuncti
    on
     I
    niti
    alphase
    adequatelyi
    sv i
    ewedasbei ng
     Assessmentofthecl
    i
    enti
    n
    Psy
    chosoci
    al Fl
    orenceHol
    l
    is causebyi nadequacieseitherin Al
    lcl
    i
    entsy
    stem
    hi
    s/hersit
    uati
    on
    t
    heperson,sit
    uation,orbot h
     Treat
    ment

    APr ocessf oractiv


    ely
    Shei
    laPlatt,
    CSW, broughtthe  Assessment
    i
    nfl
    uencingt hepsycho-soci
    al
    modeli
    nt hePhil
    ippinesand I
    ndi
    vi
    duali
    natemporar
    yst
    ate  I
    mpl ementat
    ionof
    4.
    Cri
    sisI
    nter
    vent
    ion f
    uncti
    oningofi ndi
    v i
    dualsand
    useditin1990t ovicti
    m of ofdi
    sequi
    l
    ibr
    ium tr
    eatment
    groupsdur ingacute
    ear
    thquake  Terminat
    ion
    disequil
    ibr
    ium

    556
     ItusesPr oblem –sol ving
    model (4Ps:person,
    probl em, pl
    aceand
    process)
     Recogni tionoft hepr obl em
     Theper son’ssubj ecti
    v e
    Aper spect iveof“ psychol ogyof
    exper ienceoft hepr oblem
    growt h”t han“ psychol ogyof
    i
    dent i
    fied
    i
    llness”
     Causesandef f
    ectoft he
    Thecl ienti shel pt ouseown
    probl em i nfl
    uencingt he
    powerofchoi ceand
    per sonmustbei dentified
    5.
    Funct
    ional
    Appr
    oach JessieTaft,Vi
    rgi
    niaRobinson gr owt h…andt hatclienti s Cl
    i
    entindiff
    icul
    tsit
    uati
    onsuch
     Sear chf orpossibl emeans
    andRuthSmalley capabl eofmodi fyi
    ngbot h asvi
    olence:batt
    eredwifeand
    andmodesofsol uti
    on
    hi m/ hersel fandhi s/ her at
    temptofchi l
    dabused
    env ironment …  C ho i
    c e or decisi
    onmu stbe
    Clientandwor keragr eeof madeasar esultofwhat
    whatt hef or mercandowi th me ans affectsthemostt he
    theser vi
    cet hati sbei ngmade p erson i
    nt erms o fthe
    av ailable probl em
     Act iont akenont hebasi sof
    theseconsi derati
    onand
    wor kabi lit
    yoft hedeci sion
     (thepr ocessi sSt udy-
    Diagnosi sandTr eatmentby
    Pear l
    man)
     Backgr oundI nf
    ormat ion
    Behav i
    or al theor yandsoci al
     Pr oblemsandPl ans
    learni ng.Under standi ng
     Goal s
    behav iori.e.Condi ti
    oni ng-
    Cl
    ientsystem excl
    uding  Impl ement ation
    6.Behav
    ior
    alModi
    fi
    cat
    ion IvanPav l
    ovadB.F.Skinner l
    ear ningt hr oughassoci ati
    on
    communi ty  E valua ti
    o n
    andOper antCondi t
    ioni ng
    t
    hr oughr einf orcementand  Ter mi nat i
    on
    puni shment

    557
    Pr i
    mar ylear ni
    ngt akespl ace
    withint hef ami l
    yandand  AssessmentandTr
    eatment
    Indiv
    idualcli
    entorfamilyor
    7.Fami
    l
    yInt
    erv
    ent
    ion unknown recogni zet hei mpor tantr oleof majorphasesi
    nfamil
    y
    i
    ndivi
    dual f
    ami l
    ymember s
    t
    hef ami lyint heindividual’s i
    nterv
    enti
    on
    developmentandf unctioning
    Theenhancementofcl i
    ent
    soci al funct i
    oningt hrough
    directpr ov isionofmat erialaid
    usef ul ineliminatingor
    reduci ngsi t
    uat i
    onal
    def ici
    encies
    Soci al wor khel pi
    ngpr ocessi s
    usei nt hismodel :assessment ,
    planni ng, plani mplement ation
     I
    ntakeinterv
    iew
    (intervent ion,evaluat i
    onand
     Caref
    ul eval
    uat
    ionofcl
    i
    ent
    8.Dir
    ectProv
    isionModel ter minati
    on) Vi
    ctimsoft y
    phoon, eart
    hquake,
    Leonar
    dSchnei
    der
    man need
    (
    Resourceprovi
    sion) Directpr ovisionmodel usedi n war,ev
    enr ebelret
    urnees
     I
    denti
    fyingtheneed
    progr amsofmat erial
     Provi
    sionsofneed
    Aid–t empor aryf i
    nanci al
    assistance, empl oy ment ,
    shel ter,medi cal care, skill
    s
    training, etc.
    Di rectpr ov isionmodel usedi n
    situationl iket yphoonorpl aces
    onseasonal jobsf ort heir
    livelihood, ex, SEAP
    Themodel inter ventionexpl ain
    thatpr oblemsar enotal way s
    9.Mobil
    i
    zingtheResourcesof duet oper sonal i
    nadequaci es
    Cl
    ient
    ssystemstochangethei
    r butof ten, todef i
    cienci esi nt he
    soci
    alr
    eali
    ty social real i
    ty ,thushel pingt he
    clientt hecasewor kerf ocuson
    his/ herr eality

    558
    GROUPWORK
    Rev
    iewer
    :

    Asso.Pr
    of.JoseMi
    guelB.Al
    var
    ez,
    RSW,
    MSW

    559
    I
    . HI
    STORYOFGROUPWORKI
    NTHEPHI
    LIPPI
    NES

    A.Hi
    stor
    ical
    Highl
    ight
    s

    1. Soci al groupwor kor igi


    nat edf rom t heEngl i
    shSet tlement
    2.ConceptofSet tlementwasconcei vedbyEngl isheducat ors( daughters
    protest antmi nister s)
    3.Set tlementi sapl acewher et hepoorgat herandpar ti
    cipateinl ectures,
    discussi onandspeci alproject s
    4.Soci al groupwor kder i
    vesi tsi nst i
    tutional basedf rom t heset t
    lement s
    5.Or gani zedcr eat i
    onasmeansofchar act erbuil
    ding
    6.19th cent ury,t he Amer i
    cans col oniz et he Phi l
    ippines ad br oughtt he
    conceptofdemocr ati
    csy stem ofgov ernment
    7.1911, Amer icansor gani zedt heYoungMenChr isti
    anAssoci ati
    on
    8.1926, Amer icansor gani zedt heYoungWomen’ sChr i
    sti
    anAssoci ati
    on
    9.1936, Boy sScoutoft hePhi li
    ppi nes
    10.Early 50s,Phi li
    ppi ne SchoolofSoci alWor k( PSSW)br oughtabout
    pract i
    ceofsoci algr oupwor ki nwel fareagenci eswher esoci alwor k
    student shav et obepl acef orf ieldpr actice
    11.Phili
    ppi neYout hWel fareCoor dinat i
    ngCounci l(PYWCC)gr oupwor kwi t
    h
    they out h
    12.Jose Abad Sant os Memor ialSchool s( JASMS)gr oup wor k ser v
    ice
    i
    nt r
    oducedt osuppl ementcounsel ingandgui danceser vices
    13.CollegeofSoci alWor kandCommuni tyDev elopment ,Universityoft he
    Phili
    ppi nes,spur redt hedev elopmentofgr oupwor kasamet hodi nt he
    Phili
    ppi nes
    14.PrivateAgenci esPi oneer edSoci al GroupWor k
    1.Chr i
    stianChi ldr enFund( CCF
    2.Kaunl aranMul t
    i-PurposeCent er
    3.Ri zal Yout hDev elopmentFoundat ion( RYDF)
    4.TheSal vat i
    onAr my
    5.TheYoungWomen’ sChr i
    st ianAssoci ati
    on
    6.TheGi rlScoutoft hePhi lippi nes( GSP)
    7.ThePhi l
    ippi neMent al Heal thAssoci ation(PMHA)

    B.GOALS/PURPOSEOFGROUPTHROUHGHTHEDECADE
    1.Beforet
    hesixt
    iestheemphasisofgr
    oupworki
    sSOCI
    ALIZATI
    ON
    2.The sixti
    es (1960s) goal
    s of group wor
    k are PREVENTI
    ON,
    TREATMENTANDDEVELOPMENT
    3.Theseventi
    es(1970S)DEVELOPMENTALgoals
    th
    4.Present scene 20 cent ur
    y, goal
    s are DEVELOPMENTAL,
    SOCIALIZATI
    OPN/ RE-
    SOCIALI
    ZATION AND TREATMENT OR
    REHABILITATI
    ON

    I
    I. GROUPWORKDEFI
    NE

    Amet hodthroughwhichindivi
    dual
    singr oupinsocialagencysett
    ingsarehelped
    byawor kerwhogui detheiri
    nter
    acti
    oninpr ogram acti
    vi
    ti
    essot hattheymayr el
    ate
    themselvestoothersandexper i
    encegrowthoppor tuni
    ti
    esinaccordancewi t
    ht hei
    r
    needsandcapaci ti
    estot heendofi ndi
    vidual,groupandcommuni t
    ydev el
    opment
    (Harl
    eighB.Trecker
    )

    Aprocessandamet hodthr
    oughwhi chgrouplif
    eisaff
    ectedbyawor kerwho
    consci
    ousl
    ydirect
    sthei
    nter
    acti
    ngprocesstowardstheaccompl
    ishmentofgoal
    swhi ch
    areconcei
    vedinademocrat
    icfr
    ameofr ef
    erence.(
    Gert
    rudeWil
    sonandGladysRyland)

    Abasi
    caspectofsoci
    alwor
    kpr
    act
    icet
    hatusest
    hesoci
    alr
    elat
    ionshi
    pswi
    thi
    n

    560
    gr
    oupexperienceasmeanstoindivi
    dualgr
    owthanddevelopment
    ,andt hatt
    hegroup
    workerisconcernedi
    ndevel
    opingsocialr
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tyandacti
    vecit
    izenshi
    pforthe
    i
    mpr ov
    ementofdemocrat
    icsoci
    ety
    .(GraceCoyl
    e)

    A group i
    s“ atleasttwo people,butusuallymore,gathered wi t
    h common
    purposesorl ikeint
    erest
    sinacogni ti
    ve,aff
    ecti
    ve,andsoci
    alint
    er changei nsingl
    eor
    repeated encounter
    s.These encounters ar
    e suff
    ici
    entforthe partici
    pantst oform
    i
    mpr essionsofoneanot her,cr
    eati
    ngasetofnor msforthei
    rf unct i
    oni
    ngt oget
    her,
    developinggoalsforthei
    rcoll
    ecti
    veauthor
    ity
    ,evol
    vingasenseofcohesi onsot hatthey
    thi
    nkoft hemselv
    esandar ethoughtofbyot her
    sasanent it
    ydist i
    nctf r
    om allother
    coll
    ectiv
    iti
    es."

    Asi
    mpl
    ecollect
    ionofpeopl
    eisnotagroup.Agroupisconst
    antl
    ymov ingand
    changi
    ngsmal
    lsy
    stem;hasali
    feofit
    sown;andgoesthr
    oughdif
    fer
    entphases.

    Agr oupisnotst ati


    c,butaconstant
    lymov ingandchangingsmallsystem.I thasa
    l
    ifeofitsown.Itgoest hroughdi
    ffer
    entphaseseachofwhi chhascertai
    ndy namicsthat
    apr act
    iti
    onermustunder st
    andanddealwi t
    hwhenev erappropr
    iat
    eandnecessar yi n
    ordertobeeffecti
    vei nherint
    erv
    enti
    vewor k.Thisuni
    twil
    lbeaboutthelif
    eoft hegroup,
    i
    .e.,t
    hephasesingr oupdev el
    opment.

    I
    II
    . HOW GROUPEFFECTCHANGE

    BYDORWI NCARTWRI GHT


    1.Thegr oupasTar getofchange–THEGROUPI STHEFOCUSOFCHANGE!The
    groupaswhol eorcertainaspectsoft hegr oupt ochangeinor dertoeffect
    changei nitsmember s.Rober tD.Vi nterexpl ai
    nsthi
    sas“ indir
    ectmeansof
    i
    nfluence.” Group wor kerinterv
    entions effectchange i n group condi
    tions
    affecti
    ngt hemember s.
    2.Thegr oup asMedi um ofchange– THE GROUP I S USED TO CHANGE I TS
    MEMBER/ S!Thetar
    getofi nf
    luenceist heindiv i
    dualmemberandt hesour
    ceof
    i
    nfluencei sthegr
    oup.
    3.The gr oup as Agent of change – THE GROUP I S USED TO CHANGE
    ENVI RONMENTOR OUTSI DEOFI TSELF!Ref er stoacti
    veinvolvementoft he
    groupef fort
    stomodi f
    yf or
    cesinitssocialenvironment.

    I
    V. PHASESI
    NGROUPDEVELOPMENT

    1.PRE-
    GROUPPHASE
     Groupwor
    ker
    sdot
    hisbef
    oreact
    ual
    organi
    zi
    ng
    1.
    1Pr
    ivat
    ePr
    e-Gr
    oupphase
     Thegroupdoesnotexi
    st,
    onl
    ypr
    ivat
    eideasorpl
    ansar
    eint
    hemi
    ndof
    thesoci
    alworker
    1.
    2Publ
    i
    cPr
    e-Gr
    oupphase
     I
    deaorpl anevendecisi
    ont oform groupissharedwit
    hother
    s
     Announcement smadeei t
    herv er
    ballyori
    nwr i
    ti
    ng
     Socialagencydefi
    nedatt hisperiod.Thepurposeandt i
    mef r
    ameof
    thegroupprogram andthecriter
    iaforgroupcompositi
    on
     ForSue Henr y,Privat
    e Pre-Group and Publi
    c Pre-
    Group phase i
    s
    “INI
    TIALSTAGE”
    1.
    3Conveni
    ngPhase
     Prospecti
    vemember sorsomeoft hem meetf
    ort
    hefi
    rstt
    ime
     Behaviorel
    icit
    edar
    erestl
    essness,
    tensi
    on,wit
    hdr
    awn
     Member ssi zi
    ngupthesituati
    onintermsofwhetherornot
    thei
    rexpectati
    onsar
    egoingtobemet

    2.GROUPFORMATI
    ONPHASE

    561
     Aper i
    odwhenthegroupgetorgani
    zed
     Groupgoalsandnormsevolveandthegr
    oup’srol
    esyst
    em begi
    ns
    todevelop
     Observabl
    e among group membersare cohesi
    on,uni
    ti
    ng wi
    th
    otherorsi
    mply“uni
    on”amongmember s

    3.GROUPINTEGRATI ON,DI
    SINTEGRATIONANDREI NTEGRATIONPHASE
     Inter
    personalti
    esincreaseandasenseofgr oupbondor“we
    f
    eeli
    ng”beginstobecomeapparent
     Goal-di
    rectedact
    ivi
    ti
    esengagethemembers
     Member scanshow enthusi
    asm f
    orthegr
    oup’
    sacti
    vi
    ti
    es

    3.
    1INTEGRATI
    ON
     JamesA.Garl
    and,HubertE.JonesandRalphKolodnycal
    lthi
    s
    phase“
    PowerandCont r
    ol”
     SueHenrycal
    lthi
    sphase“ Conf
    li
    ct/
    Disequi
    li
    bri
    um”
    3.
    2DI
    SINTEGRATI
    ON
     Conf
    li
    cti
    nt hegr
    oupifser
    iousandnotr
    esol
    vedcanl
    eadt
    othe
    gr
    oup’st
    otaldi
    sint
    egr
    ati
    on
    3.
    3REI
    NTEGRATI
    ON
     Ani ndi
    cati
    onofahi gherlev elofintegr
    ati
    onischar act
    erized
    by a mor e stablerel
    ati
    onshi ps,stabl
    e group st
    r uct
    ure,a
    greaterinfl
    uenceoft hegr oup upont hemember s.Clearer
    norms,hi gherlevel
    s ofi nterdependence and cooperation
    amongmember s,moreawar enessoft hesigni
    fi
    canceoft he
    groupexperienceandastateofequi l
    ibri
    um

    4.GROUPFUNCTI ONI NGANDMAI NTENANCEPHASE


     “Groupness”i sdev elopeddur ingt hi
    sphase
     Accor dingt oHar tf
    ord,t hi
    si st heper i
    odwhent hegr oup,wit
    h
    the gui dance or hel p of t he social wor ker,wor ks at
    i
    mpl ement i
    ngitsplani nor dert oachievethedef i
    nedgoal s
     Member s’concer nf ort he gr oup and theirengagementi n
    activ
    ities, al ong wi th r elationshi
    p pat terns, pr omote
    functioningandmai ntenanceoft hegroup
     Thegr oupi sonhi ghl eveloff uncti
    oningandi sexpect edto
    achiev eitsgoal s
     “GroupFunct i
    oningandMai ntenancePhase”i s“ Dif
    ferenti
    ati
    on”
    forJamesA.Gar land, HubertE.JonesandRal phKol odny
     “Problem- Solv
    ingandSt abi
    li
    z ation”forHelenNor t
    hern
     “Matur ation”forRosmar yC.Sar riandMaedaGal insky

    5.TERMI
    NATIONPHASE
    1.Pre-
    terminati
    onphase,thegr
    oupisprepar
    edf ori
    tsimminent
    endi
    ng
    2.Terminati
    on,theactualendi
    ng,whichmeanst helastgroup
    meeting
    3.Post-
    terminati
    on,aperiodaf
    terthegroupceaset ofuncti
    on
    andinvolvestocont
    inuetomeetasagroupifdesi
    red

    562
    V. SOCI
    ALWORKHELPI
    NGPROCESS

    A.SYSTEMATI
    CHELPI
    NGPROCESS
    Begi
    nni
    ngphase
    1.Assessment
    2.Acti
    onPlanni
    ng
    Mi
    ddl
    ephase
    3.Pl
    anI
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    on
    Endi
    ngphase
    4.Eval
    uation
    5.Terminati
    on

    B.HELPI
    NGPROCESSWI
    THSOCI
    ALWORKGROUP

    I
    . PRE-GROUPFORMATION
    Acti
    vi
    ti
    esoft
    hesoci
    alwor
    ker
    1.
    1Concept
    ual
    i
    zingt
    hegr
    oupser
    vices
     Statementoft hepur poseoft hegrouppr ogram emanate
    fr
    om t heagency’spur poseadf uncti
    on
     Grouppr ogr
    am’ spur posemusthav eacleardef i
    nit
    ione.
    g.
    Treatment,t
    reatmentwi l
    lser
    v easagui deinidenti
    fyi
    ngthe
    cl
    ientsectortobeser ved
     Agencypur posef orgr oup program servesasgui dein
    i
    dent i
    fyi
    ngtheclientsect ort
    obeser ved,e.
    g.drugaddicts,
    batter
    edwi f
    e,delinquentchil
    d
    1.
    2Announci
    ngt
    hegr
    oupser
    viceandr
    ecr
    uit
    ingmember
    s
     Announcementi spostedincommunityli
    kebarangayhal
    l
    heal
    t hcenter
    scommuni t
    ycenter
    sandpari
    shhall
     Socialworkervi
    sit
    sbarangayandexpl
    ainthepr
    ogram and
    recr
    uitmentofpotent
    ialmembers
    1.
    3Pr
    epar
    ingl
    ogi
    sti
    cs
     I
    tref
    erst
    othev
    enuef
    orgr
    oupmeet
    ingsandf
    aci
    l
    iti
    es
    1.
    4Enl
    i
    sti
    ngcommuni
    tysuppor
    t
     I
    tisimport
    antthatsectorincommuni t
    y:resi
    dent
    s,store
    owner and poli
    cemen suppor
    t agency ’
    s progr
    am,
    ot
    herwise communi ty sectorwillresi
    storbl ock the
    pr
    ogram
     I
    mportantt
    otapexist
    ingcommuni tyresour
    ces

    I
    I. I
    NDI
    VIDUAL-FOCUSEDASSESSMENTANDPLANNI NG
     Assessmental soknownas“ soci
    alst
    udy”and“diagnosis”is
    i
    nformati
    ongatheri
    ngandanalysi
    stowardsanunderstanding
    andconsequentl
    yadef i
    nit
    ionoftheneedorproblem oft he
    cl
    ient
    .
    Act
    ivi
    ti
    esoft hesoci
    alworker
    a.Pr
    e-gr
    oupi
    nter
    views/
    int
    ake
     Int
    akeintervi
    ewsest abli
    sht heperson’seli
    gibi
    l
    ityforthegroup
    servi
    ce
     Int
    ervi
    ew/ i
    ntaketakespr ecedencebef or
    egroupf ormati
    on.
     Agencyandi tsservices.
     Agency’spurposef orthegr oupprogr am
     Agencyexpect at
    ionsi ntermsofat tendanceandpar ti
    cipat
    ion
     Acti
    vit
    iesthatarelikelytobeunder t
    aken.
     Durati
    onoft hegrouppr ogram;
     Thebasisfort er
    minat ionofmember ship
    b.I
    ndi
    vi
    dualCl
    i
    entPr
    ofi
    l
    e
     Name,identi
    fyingbasicinf
    ormation
     Needs,
    concer ns,problems,r
    elev
    anttot
    hegr oup
     St
    rengt
    hs, r
    esour ces,andl
    imit
    ati
    onsofcl
    ientsystem

    563
     Wor
    ker
    sobser
    vat
    ion/
    comment
    s
    c. Caseassessment
    /pr
    obl
    em def
    ini
    ti
    on
     Pre-groupinterview isnecessarytounderst
    andt hecl i
    ent’
    s
    concer norproblem
     “socialstudy”,socialdi agnosi
    s”,“pr
    oblem defi
    nit
    ion”and
    “assessment ”ar et erms use to mean,a process and a
    productofunder standingonwhi chact
    ionisbasedot her
    wise
    knownasPr oblem Defini
    tion
    d.Goalf
    ormul
    ati
    on
     Cl i
    ent ’
    sprobl
    em isi
    mport
    antbecausethi
    sisthebasi
    sofgoal
    -
    formul at
    ionandint
    erv
    enti
    onplanningforpr
    ospecti
    vegroup
    member s
    2.
    5.Act
    ion-planni
    ng
     Act ionplanni
    ngisbasedonassessmentandi ttheout
    come
    ofassessment .

    I
    II
    . GROUP-
    FOCUSEDASSESSMENTANDPLANNI
    NG

    1.Concer
    norprobl
    emsoft
    hegr
    oupwi
    l
    lli
    kel
    yaddr
    ess,andwhatact
    ivi
    ti
    esmay
    hav
    etobeundert
    aken

    2.Thetaskrel
    ati
    ngtotwoimpor tantaspect sofwor kwithgroups
    2.
    1.Groupcomposition
     Gr oupcomposi ti
    onr efer
    st otheselecti
    onofgr oupmember s
    anddecidingsizeoft hegr oup
     Gr ouprelatedtasks
     selecti
    onofmember s
     sizeofgr oup
    3.Groupfor
    mat i
    on
     Gr oupformat i
    oni sthepr ocessofgettingagr ouporgani
    zedin
    ordertof unct i
    on and mov et owardt he at t
    ainmentofits
    pl
    annedgoal
     Commongr oupconcer n,normsandr ules,scheduleandvenue
    ofgroupsessi ons;andgr oupgoal saredi scussedandagreed
    duri
    nggroupf ormat ion
     Gr oupwor kers’per spect i
    veaccor di
    ngt oJani ceH.Schopler
    andMaedaJ.Gal insky
    1.Member ’sperspect i
    ve
    2.Wor ker’sperspect ive;and
    3.Gr oupsy st
    em per spective

    I
    V. PLANI MPLEMENTATI ON
     Pl ani mpl
    ement at
    ionr eferst
    oallactivi
    ti
    es,workersint
    erv
    ent
    ionand
    group act i
    on whi ch t he gr
    oup sy stem di rect
    s towar
    ds the
    achievementofani ndivi
    dualandgroupgoals
     Wor kerst
    ancesdur i
    ngt hehelpi
    ngprocess
    1.Directstance 3.Permissiv
    est ance
    2. Facil
    it
    atingstance 4.Fl exi
    blestance

    V. EVALUATI
    ON
     Thesystemat
    icev
    aluat
    ionoft
    heout
    come/
    soft
    hehel
    pingef
    for
    ts.

    VI
    . TERMINATION
     Terminati
    oni sthefinal
    stepi
    nthehelpi
    ngpr
    ocess.
     M.Har tf
    ord’sperspecti
    veoft
    erminat
    ion:
    1.Pr
    e-terminati
    on

    564
    2.Terminati
    on
    3.Post-
    terminat
    ion

    VI
    . HELPI
    NGMODELS/ THEORETI CALAPPROACHES
    1.Development alModel
    2.Remedi alApproach
    3.Int
    eractioni
    stApproach
    4.Cri
    sisInterv
    entionApproach

    VI
    I. GROUPSTRUCTUREORSTRUCTURALPROPERTI ESOFGROUPS
     Groupstr
    uct
    ureisanarr
    angementorinterr
    elat
    ionofal
    lthepar
    tsof
    awhol
    eandisusetoat
    tai
    nedthegoalofthegroup.

    1.SIZE–number sofper soni nthegr oup.


    2.COMMUNI CATI ON STRUCTURE– i st hepr ocessoft r
    ansf erri
    ngandshar i
    ng
    messagesandmeani ngst hrought heuseofsy mbol sl i
    kewor ds, mov ement sand
    gest ur
    esandsound.
    3.AFFECTI ONALSTRUCTURE– t hepr ocessofact i
    ngandr eact i
    ngwhi cht akes
    placebet weenpeopl emeet i
    ngt oget heri nasmal l group.
    3.1 PAI RSORDYAD–mut ual fri
    endshi p,courtshi pspai
    rs
    3.2 TRI AD – t hree-person al li
    ance,coal it
    ion and one and har monious
    threesome
    3.3 FOURSOME–f ourper sonal liance
    3.4 I SOLATES – peopl ewho hand on t hef ri
    ngeoft hegr oup wi t
    hl i
    ttl
    e
    accept ance; wit
    hdr awn
     The t echnique ofst udy ing t he effect i
    v erelati
    ons among gr oup
    member si scal ledsoci omet rydev elopedbypsy chiatristJacobL.
    Mor eno
    4.POWERSTRUCTURE–pot enti
    al i
    tyf ori nducingf or cesinot herper sonst oward
    actingorchangi nginagi vendirection.
    4.1 REWARDPOWER
    4.2 COERCI VEPOWER
    4.3 LEGI TIMATEPOWER
    4.4 REFERENTPOWER
    4.5 EXPERTPOWER
    5.LEADERSHI P–t heabi l
    it
    yt oinfl
    uenceot herpeopl ei nsomeway .
    1.POSI TI ONTHEORY
    2.TRAI TTHEORY
    3.STYLETHEORY
    3.1AUTHORI TARIAN
    3.2DEMOCRACTI CE
    3.3LASSEZ- FAIRE
    3.4SI TUATI ONALTHEORY
    3.5FUNCTI ONALTHEORY
    6.ROLESTRUCTURE– ar oleisar ecogni zedpat t
    ernofexpect ationsofbehav ioron
    thepar tofaper soni nacer tainposi tionwhi chhel psust oi nt erpretwhata
    personi sdoi ngori st r
    yingt odo.
    7.GROUPNORMS
    1.WRI TTENRULES
    2.EXPLI CITLYSTATED
    3.NON- EXPLI CITINFORMALNORMS
    4.NORM BEYOONDAWARENESS
    1.BEHAVI ORALCONTAGI ON
    2.I DIOSYNCRACYCREDI TS
    8.STATUS–r efert oone’ srankorst andi ngi nthegr oupbasedonanyoral lofthe
    foll
    owi ng: per son’ sclosenesst ot hecent erwebofcommuni cat i
    on; car r
    yingonof
    apar t
    icul arki ndofact iv
    ityormai nt ainingacer t
    ainlevelofact i
    vity,andt he
    person’ sposi t i
    oni nthewebofcommuni cationandt hekindofj obhe/ shedoes.

    565
    VI
    II
    . GROUPPROCESS
     Gr oupprocessreferr
    edtoaspr obl
    em- sol
    vi
    ngpr ocessandgr oupwork
    process.
     Gr oupprocessesar echangesormov ementt akingplaceinagr oup;
    changesint hecondit
    ionofthegr oupasawhol e;asdevelopmental
    sequencethatgroupsgoesthrough;theint
    eractionprocessesorwhat
    goesonbet weenamongmember s

    1.CONFORMI TY
    1.
    1EXPEDI ENTCONFORMER
    1.
    2TRUECONFORMER
    2.COMPETI TIONANDCOOPERATI ON
    3.DECISION-MAKI NG
    2.
    1VOTI NG
    2.
    2CONSENSUS
    2.
    3POSTPONI NGDECI SI
    ON
    2.
    4DELEGATI ONOFDECI SI
    ONMAKINGAUTHORI TY
    3.GROUPTHI NK
    4.CONFLI CT – di sagreementorcl ash ofi
    deas i
    nter
    est
    ,et
    c.i
    tis goalv
    s.
    rel
    ati
    onship
    4.
    1WI N-LOSECONFLI CTSTYLE
    4.
    2YI ELD-LOSESTYLE
    4.
    3LOSE- LEAVE
    4.
    4COMPROMI SESTYLE
    4.
    5I NTEGRATI VESTYLE

    5.GROUPCOHESI VENESS–t hedegr


    eetowhi
    chthemember
    sofagroup
    desi
    ret
    or emaininthegroup.
    5.
    1MOTI VEBASEFORATTRACTI ON
    5.
    2INCENTIVEPROPERTI ESOFTHEGROUP
    5.
    3THEI NDIVIDUAL‘SEXPECTANCYCONCERNI NGGROUPOUTCOMES
    5.
    4THEI NDIVIDUAL’SCOMPARI SONLEVEL

    I
    X. TYPESOFGROUP
    1.Soci alConv ersationgr
    oup
    2.Recr eational/skil
    lsbui
    ldi
    nggroup
    3.Educat iongr oup
    4.Taskgr oup
    5.Pr oblem- Sol
    v i
    ngandDeci si
    onmakinggroup
    6.Focusgr oup
    7.Sel f
    -Helpgr oup
    8.Soci ali
    zationgr oup
    9.Ther apygr oup
    10.Sensiti
    vityandEncount erTr
    aini
    nggroup

    566
    Appendi
    xA

    PHASESI
    NGROUPDEVELOPTMENT

    Mar
    gar
    ett
    eHar
    tfor
    d James Hel
    enNor
    then Rosmary
    Sar
    riand Har
    lei
    ghTr
    eker SueHenr
    y
    Garl
    and,Huber
    tJones MaedaGal
    i
    nsky
    andRalphKolodny

    1.Pr
    e-gr
    oupphase I
    .Pr
    eaf
    fi
    li
    ati
    on I
    .Preparat
    orystage I
    .Or
    igi
    nPhase I
    .Ini
    ti
    al
    pl
    anningstageand
    a.Pri
    vat
    epr
    e-gr
    oup i
    ntake
    phase

    b.Publi
    cpr
    e-gr
    oup
    phase

    c. Conv
    eni
    ngphase I
    I.Conv
    eni
    ng

    2.Gr
    oupf
    ormat
    ionphase I
    I.Or
    ient
    ati
    onst
    age I
    I.For
    mat
    ionphase I
    .Begi
    nni
    ngst
    ag I
    II
    .For
    mat
    ion

    II
    .Emer genceof
    somegr oupfeel
    i
    ng,
    organizati
    onand
    program

    3.I
    ntegr
    ati
    on, I
    I.powerandcont
    rol I
    II
    .Expl
    ori
    ngand I
    II
    .Int
    ermedi
    ate II
    I.Developmentof I
    V.
    Di
    sint
    egrat
    ion,
    Re- t
    esti
    ngthegr
    oup phaseI bond,pur pose,
    and Conf
    li
    ct/
    Disequi
    l
    ibr
    ium
    i
    ntegr
    ati
    onphase I
    II
    .Int
    imacy cohesi
    v eness
    I
    V.Rev
    isi
    onphase

    V.I
    nter
    medi
    ate
    Phase

    567
    4.Gr
    oupfuncti
    oningand I
    V.Di
    ff
    erent
    iat
    ion IV.Pr
    oblem sol
    vi
    ng VI
    .Mat
    urat
    ionphase IV.Stronggr
    oup V.Mai
    ntenance
    mai
    ntenancephase andstabil
    i
    zati
    on feeli
    nggoal
    attai
    nment

    V.Decl
    i
    neinint
    erest
    ;
    l
    essgroupfeel
    ing

    5.Ter
    minat
    ionPhase V.Separ
    ati
    on V.Ter
    minat
    ion VII
    .Ter
    minat
    ion VI
    .Endi
    ngSt
    age V.Ter
    minat
    ion
    phase
    a.Pret
    ermi
    nat
    ion
    phase

    b.Ter
    minat
    ion

    Appendi
    xB

    THEHELPI
    NGPROCESSANDTHEPHASESI
    NGROUPDEVELOPMENT

    HELPI
    NG ASSESSMENT PLANNI
    NG PLAN EVALUATI
    ON TERMI
    NATI
    ON
    PROCESS I
    MPLEMENTAI
    ON

    WORKER Pr
    e-Gr
    oup

    For
    mat
    ion

    568
    Concept
    ual
    i
    zat
    ion; I
    Focus:ndi
    vi
    dual Act
    ion/
    Int
    erv
    ent
    io Terminati
    on Pr
    e-t
    ermi
    nat
    ion
    n; Eval
    uati
    on;
    A Announci
    nggr
    oup Pr
    e-gr
    oup I
    ndiv
    idualGroup Ter
    minat
    ion
    pr
    ogram; Per
    iodi
    c
    C I
    nter
    views; eval
    uati
    on Post-
    Recrui
    ti
    ngmembers; t
    erminat
    ion
    T Prepar
    ingl
    ogi
    sti
    cs; Problem
    defi
    niti
    ongoal-
    I Enl
    i
    sti
    ngSuppor
    t formati
    on;
    V Actionplanni
    ng

    T Gr
    Focus: oup GroupGoal
    -
    for
    mati
    on
    I Group
    composi
    ti
    on; Act
    ion-
    E pl
    anning
    Groupformat
    ion
    S Probl
    em (Program
    defi
    nit
    ion medi a;ext
    ra
    group
    activ
    iti
    es)

    I
    ntegrati
    on, Separ
    ati
    onPhase
    Disi
    ntegration,
    PHASESIN Pr
    e-gr
    oupf
    ormat
    ion Gr
    oupFor
    mat
    ion Rei
    ntegrat
    ionPhase;
    GROUP Groupfunctioning
    DEVELOPMEN andmai ntenance

    569
    T phase

    570
    COMMUNITY
    ORGANI
    ZING
    Rev
    iewer
    :

    Ms.Ludi
    vi
    naB.Deki
    t,RSW,
    MSW

    571
    OUTLI
    NE

     Wor
    kingwi
    thCommuni
    ti
    es

     Hi
    stor
    yofCoi
    nthePhi
    l
    ippi
    nes

     CODef
    ini
    ti
    ons,
    Str
    ategi
    esandAssumpt
    ions

     Theor
    yinCommuni
    tyOr
    gani
    zat
    ion

     El
    ement
    sofCObot
    hinTheor
    yandPr
    act
    ice

     St
    rengt
    hsofCO

     Benef
    it
    sofCO

     COGui
    dingPr
    inci
    ples

     Obj
    ect
    ivesofCO

     Val
    uesofCOWor
    k

     ThePr
    ocessasFundament
    alel
    ementofCOPr
    act
    ice

     St
    epsi
    nCommuni
    tyOr
    gani
    zi
    ng

     Rol
    esofaCommuni
    tyOr
    gani
    zer

     Char
    act
    eri
    sti
    csofCommuni
    tyOr
    gani
    zer

    572
    WORKI
    NGWI
    THCOMMUNI
    TIES(
    CO)

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Communi tyOrganizati
    oni soneoft hepr imar ymet hodsofsoci alwor k.I
    tdeal s
    withinter
    venti
    oni nthecommuni t
    iestosolvet hecommuni typrobl
    ems.Asamet hodof
    socialwor kcommuni tyor ganizationcansol v et hepr oblemsofmanypeopl ei nt he
    communi ty through t heir col l
    ecti
    ve involvement . Communi t
    y or ganizati
    on and
    communi tydevelopmentar einter-r
    elat
    edast wosi desoft hesamecoi n.Thecommuni ty
    organizat
    ionincl
    udesot hermet hodsofsoci alwor k,thatis,groupwor k,andcasewor k.
    Thepowerst ructurepl
    ay sarolei nthecommuni tyor gani
    zation.Thesocial workersneed
    toknow t hecommuni t
    ypowerst ruct
    uretopr acti
    cecommuni tyorganizati
    onmet hod.
    Communi t
    yorganizati
    onmet hodi susedf orempower i
    ngpeopl eforthei
    rdev elopment .

    Thet erm"communi tyorgani


    zat
    ioncoversaseriesofacti
    viti
    esatthecommuni t
    y
    l
    ev elaimedatbr ingi
    ngaboutdesi r
    edimprovementinthesocialwellbei
    ngofindi
    viduals,
    groupsandnei ghbourhoods".Iti
    stheDemocr ati
    cinst
    r umenttobringaboutsustained
    soci alchange.Accordingt oMurrayG.Ross,“Communi tyor
    ganizati
    onisapr ocessby
    whi chacommuni t
    yidentif
    iesneedsandt akesacti
    on,andi ndoingso. .
    .devel
    opsco-
    oper ati
    veatti
    tudesandpr acti
    ces.
    "

    Def
    ini
    ti
    onofCommuni tyOrgani
    zing:
    Communi t
    yor gani
    zingisasy st
    emat icprobl
    em-i
    dent
    if
    icat
    ion,pr
    obl
    em-
    sol
    vi
    ng
    pr
    ocesswherebyt hecommuni t
    yisenabledto:
    1.Analyzeitsprobl
    emsandsetpr ior
    ities
    2.I
    dentifyneedsandpr i
    orit
    izet
    hem
    3.I
    dentifyway sandresourcestosolv
    et heseprobl
    ems
    4.Actcollecti
    vel
    ytosolvetheseproblems

    Communi
    tyOr
    gani
    sat
    ion:Met
    hodandasaPr
    ocess

     Asapr ocess:communi
    tyorgani
    sat
    ioni
    mpli
    edthosewel
    far
    emeasureswhich
    areundertakenbythemembersofacommuni
    tyi
    naccor
    dancetot
    hei
    rneedsand
    resour
    ces.

     As a Met hod:as a pr imary met


    hod ofsoci
    alwor k by whi
    ch people of
    communitiesasi ndiv
    idualci
    ti
    zensorasr
    epr
    esent
    ati
    veofgroupjoi
    ntogetherto
    deter
    minesoci alwelf
    areneeds,pl
    anwaysofmeeti
    ngthem andmobil
    i
    sedt hese
    necessar
    yr esources.

    Def
    ini
    ti
    ons:

     Tost udyandt obeabletoengagei ncommunityorgani


    sati
    onpracti
    ceitis
    necessarytohaveacleardefi
    nit
    ion.Therear
    esever
    aldefi
    nit
    ionsavai
    labl
    ein
    l
    it
    erature,whi
    ch ar
    eputf or
    th atdiff
    erentti
    mesand cont
    ext.Thecommon

    573
    elementi
    nmostoft hem i
    smatchingresour
    cest
    oneeds.Wewi l
    ldi
    scussher
    e
    twomostwidel
    yaccepteddef
    ini
    ti
    onsofcommunit
    yor
    ganisat
    ion.

     MURRAY G.ROSS ( 1967)defi


    nescommuni t
    yor ganisat
    ionasa“ processby
    whichacommuni tyident
    if
    iesit
    sneedsorobj ecti
    v es,giv
    espr i
    ori
    tytot hem,
    devel
    opstheconfi
    denceandwilltoworkatthem,f indsresour ces(i
    nternaland
    ext
    ernal
    )todealwi
    ththem,andindoi
    ngso,extendsanddev elopsco-cooperati
    ve
    andcoll
    abor
    ati
    veatt
    it
    udesandpracti
    cesint
    hecommuni ty”
    .

    Inthi
    sdef i
    nit
    ionby“process”hemeantamov ementf rom identif
    icati
    onofa
    probl
    em orobject
    ivetosol
    utionoft hepr oblem orat tainmentoftheobj ecti
    veinthe
    communi t
    y.Thereareotherpr ocessesf ordeal i
    ngwi t
    hcommuni t
    ypr oblems,but
    herehecall
    edthecommuni tyorganisati
    onpr ocesst hatbywhi chthecapaci t
    yofthe
    communi t
    ytof unct
    ionasani ntegrat
    eduni tgr owsasi tdealswi t
    honeormor e
    communi t
    y problems. The task of t he pr ofessional worker in communi t
    y
    organi
    sati
    onistohelpini
    ti
    ate,nour i
    sh,anddev elopt hi
    sprocess.Hist askisalsoto
    maket hi
    sprocessconsci
    ous,deliberat
    ive,andunder stood.

     Eduar dC.Lindemanin19211def inedcommuni tyor


    ganisat
    ionas“ Communit
    y
    organisati
    onisthatphaseofsocialorganisati
    onwhichconstit
    utesaconscious
    effortont hepartofacommuni t
    yt ocont rolit
    saff
    air
    sdemocr at
    icall
    yandto
    securet hehighestservi
    cesfrom itsspeci al
    ist
    s,or
    ganisat
    ions,agenciesand
    i
    nst i
    tuti
    onsbymeansofr ecogni
    sedinterrelati
    ons.

     WalterW.Petti
    tin19252definedi
    tas“Communityorgani
    sat
    ioni
    sper
    hapsbest
    def
    inedasassi st
    ingagr oupofpeopl
    etorecognisethei
    rcommonneedsand
    hel
    pingthem t
    omeett heseneeds.
    ”

     Russel lH.Kurrtzin1940def inedi tas“ Communi tyor gani


    sationi sapr ocess
    deali
    ngpr i
    maril
    ywithprogram r elat
    ionshipsandt hust obedi sti
    nguishedinits
    socialwor ksett
    ingfr
    om thoseot herbasi cprocesses, caseworkandgr oupwor k,
    whichdealwi t
    hpeople.Thoser elat
    ionshipsofagencyt oagency ,ofagencyt o
    communi tyandofcommuni tyt oagencyr eachinal ldirect
    ionsf rom anyfocal
    pointint hesocialworkpictur
    e.Communi tyorganisationmaybet houghtofas
    thepr ocessbywhi chtheser elati
    onshipsar einit
    iated,alter
    edort erminat
    edt o
    meetchangi ngconditi
    ons,andi tisthusbasi ctoal
    l socialwork...
    ”.

     Way neMcmi l
    lenin19473def ineditas“ Communi tyorgani sat
    ioni
    ni t
    sgener i
    c
    sensei ndel i
    berat
    elydir
    ectedef f
    orttoassistgroupsinattaininguni
    tyofpurpose
    andact ion.Itispracti
    ced,thoughof tenwi thoutrecogni t
    ionofitscharacter,
    wher evert heobjecti
    veist oachi ev
    eormai ntainapool ingoft hetal
    entsand
    resources oft wo ormor e groups in behalfofei thergener alorspeci fi
    c
    objecti
    v es.”

     C.F.Mcnei lin19544def i
    nedi tas“ Communi tyor gani
    sationf orsocialwel f
    arei s
    thepr ocessbywhi cht hepeopl eofcommuni ty,asindi v
    idualci t
    izensoras
    representati
    vesofgr oups,j oi
    nt ogethertodet erminesoci alwelfareneeds,pl an
    way s.“Communi ty
    ”i nt hesensei nwhi chi tisusedher e,referst ot womaj or
    groupingsofpeopl e.First l
    yitmaybeal lthepeopl einaspeci ficgeogr aphicar ea,
    i
    .e.,av i
    ll
    age,at own,aci t
    y,anei ghbourhood,oradi st
    rictinaci t
    y.Int hesame
    manneri tcouldr ef
    eral sot oallthepeopl einapr ov i
    nceorast ate,anat ion,ori n
    thewor ld.Secondl y,iti susedt oi ncl
    udegr oupsofpeopl ewhoshar esome
    commoni nterestorfunct i
    on,suchaswel f ar
    e,agricul
    tur
    e, education,andr el
    igion.
    Int hi
    s cont extcommuni t
    yor ganisati
    on maybe i nvolved in br i
    nging t hese
    persons t ogether to dev elop some awar eness of,and f eeli
    ng f or t heir

    574
    “
    communit
    y”andtoworkatcommonpr
    obl
    emsar
    isi
    ngoutoft
    hei
    nter
    estor
    f
    unct
    iont
    heyhav
    eincommon.

     The second def i


    nit
    ion that we di scuss her eis byKr amer and Specht
    (1975),which i
    sin mor etechnicalt er
    ms.They def i
    ned t hat“ Communi ty
    organisat
    ionref
    erstov ari
    ousmet hodsofi nter
    vent
    ionwher ebyapr ofessional
    changeagenthelpsacommuni t
    yact i
    onsy stem composedofi ndiv
    iduals,groups
    oror gani
    sati
    onstoengagei nplannedcol lecti
    veacti
    oni nor dertodealwi t
    h
    specialpr
    oblemswithinthedemocr at
    icsystem ofval
    ues.”

    HI
    STORYOFCOI
    NTHEPHI
    LIPPI
    NES

     Mar cos'decl ar ation ofmar tialr ulei n 1972 al tered t he t errainf orsoci al
    mov ement s.Al lpr ogr essi vegr oupswer esubj ect edt or epressi onwhi lesome
    i
    ndiv i
    dual swer eei therel imi nat edorar rest edbyt hemi litary.Dur ingt heear ly
    stagesofmar ti
    alr ule,al lat tempt sator gani zinggr oundt oahal t,exceptf ort he
    ZoneOneTondoOr gani zat ion( ZOTO) .
     Ther epr essi vesi tuat ionl edal argenumberofact ivistst ogounder gr oundand
    wagear medst r uggl eagai nstt heMar tialLaw r egi me.Someor gani zat ionsl i
    ke
    theFFFwer eco- opt edbyt her egi me.Ot her ssi mpl ylaidl ow.
     Chur ch- based pr ogr ams whi ch f unct ioned as non- gov ernmentor gani zat i
    ons
    (NGOs)wer et hef irstt oengagei nor gani zingdespi temar tiallaw.Thesei nclude
    theUr banandRur alMi ssi onar iesoft hePhi l
    ippi nes, TaskFor ceDet ai neesoft he
    Phil
    ippi nes, Epi scopalCommi ssi ononTr ibalFi l
    ipinos, Shar eandCar eApost olate
    forPoorSet tlers, andPEACE, amongot her s.
     The Phi li
    ppi ne Ecumeni calCounci lf or Communi ty Or gani zat i
    on ( PECCO)
    continuedwi tht her efinementandi mpl ement ationoft hecommuni tyor gani zing
    (CO)appr oachal lov ert hecount ry,incombi nat ionwi tht heMar xistst r uctur al
    analysi sandt het hinki ngofSaul AlinskyandPaol oFr eire.
     Politi
    ci zedNGOsusedt hest ruct uralanal y sisappr oachi nconsci ent izingand
    mobi lizing,whi let heBasi cChr isti
    anCommuni tyf ramewor kwasdev elopedby
    thepr ogr essi vechur chasar esponset ot heneedsoft het ime.Pr ogr amsl i
    ke
    educat ionandheal th,economi cent erpr isesandcooper ativedev elopmentwer e
    used as ent ry poi nt sf oror gani zing t o av oid get ting i nt roubl e wi tht he
    dict
    at or ship.
     Variouspol i
    ticalf or mat ionssaw t heneedt o setupNGOsori nf luencet he
    progr amsandpr oject sofexi st i
    ngonesi nor dert opur suet heirowni nt er est s.On
    theposi t
    ivesi de,i tcannotbedeni edt hatt hemostef fect iveNGOsoft heper iod
    weret hosewhosel eader sandst affhadi deol ogi cal l
    eani ngs.
     On t he ot hersi de,i nt er nali deol ogi calst ruggl es wr acked some NGOs as
    i
    deol ogi caldebat esandr ival r
    ieswi t
    hint hemassmov ementspi lledov ert ot he
    socialdev elopmentcommuni ty.PECCO,f orone,spl i
    ti n 1977 because of
    i
    deol ogi caldi ffer encesamongi t
    sel ement s,l eadi ngt ot hef or mat ionoft wo
    separ at e or gani zat ions—t he Communi ty Or gani zat i
    on of t he Phi lippi nes
    Enterpr ise ( COPE) and t he Peopl e's Ecumeni cal Act ion f or Communi ty
    Empower ment( PEACE) .
     InDecember1972, tenf oundat i
    onscamet oget herandf or medt heAssoci ationof
    Foundat i
    ons( AF) .Theassoci at i
    onexpandedt o40member sby1976.Mor e
    progr essi ve gr oups f or med t he Phi li
    ppi ne Al l
    iance f or Rur aland Ur ban
    Devel opment( PARUD) ,aconsor ti
    um ofPOsandNGOswi t
    hmor eorl esst he
    samei deol ogi cal bent .

    575
     Cooper ativeswentt hr oughasecondwav eofgr owt hdur i
    ngt hisper iod.The
    gov er nmentf ormed t he Cooper at i
    ve Uni on oft he Phi lippi nes i n 1979 and
    requi redal lcooper at ivest or egi ster.Independentcooper ativ esr ef usedt oy ield
    and i nst ead f or med t he Nat i
    onalConf ederat ion ofCooper ati
    ves ( NATCCO)
    (ACSPPA/ PCHRD, 1995) .
     Theassassi nat ionofBeni gnoAqui noi n1983l edt owi despr eadst reetpr otest s
    whi chbecameknownast he" par li
    amentoft hest reet s."I tat t
    ract edacr oss
    sect ionofsoci et yi ncl udi ngpr ev i
    ousl yunpol iti
    ci zedsect or s,suchasbusi ness
    andt hei nst itut i
    onal Chur ch.
     Ther ewer eef for tst of orgeuni tyamongt heant i-dictat or shi pf or ces.Sev er al
    coal iti
    ons wer e f or med: Just i
    ce f or Aqui no, Just ice f or Al l( JAJA) ,
    Kongr esongMamamay ang Pi li
    pi no ( KOMPI L), BagongAl yansangMakabay an
    (BAYAN)andot her s.Butt heseor gani zat ionsdi dnotl astl ongduet oi deol ogical
    differencesamongi tsmember s.
     Dur ingt heFi rstQuar terSt orm oft hesev enties,COwasi nt roducedt hr ought he
    Phi l
    ippi neEcumeni calCounci lf orCommuni t
    yOr gani zation( PECCO) .Thegr oup
    organi zed communi ti
    es i n Tondo and est abl ished t he Counci lof Tondo
    For eshor e Communi tyOr gani z ation whi ch pr ov ed t o be an or gani zat ion of
    l
    eader s.Re- trainingwascar riedoutt oi mpr ov et heor gani zingski llsofPECCO
    per sonnel .
     TheSaulAl inskymet hodofconf lict
    - conf ront ationdev elopedi nChi cagowas
    adapt edt ocondi ti
    onsi nTondo.Asar esul t,theZoneOneTondoOr gani zat ion
    (ZOTO)wasbor n.Thepr ogr am wasr epl icatedi not herpar tsoft hePhi li
    ppi nes,
    i
    ncl udi ngt her ur alar easandusual lyintr oducedt hr oughChur chst ruct ur es.The
    AlinskyCOmet hodwasr efinedt oi ncluder eflect i
    onsessi ons, whi chwer e, int urn
    takenf r
    om Paul oFr eire's" Pedagogyoft heOppr essed. "
     WhenMar ti
    alLaw wasdecl ared,or gani zingef for tscont i
    nued.Dur ingt hist ime
    dev elopmentwor ker sbeganpushi ngf orpeopl e' spar ti
    cipat ionandCObecame
    the t oolf or achi ev i
    ng t his.Bot hi nt ernationaldev el opment gr oups and
    gov er nmentbegan adv ocat ing and f undi ng CO pr ograms.Thus,communi ty
    organi zingpr ol i
    fer ated.
     Evenbef or ePECCO adopt edAl insky 'spr act i
    ceofcommuni tyor gani zing,t he
    progr essi vesect i
    onoft heCat hol i
    cChur chwer eal readyst ar tedor gani zingBasi c
    Chr istianCommuni ties( BCC)i nMi ndanaowi tht hepr oclamat ionofVat icanI I
    .I t
    soon spr ead t o somepar tsofLuzon and Vi say asand t heor gani zing was
    basi cal l
    yl iturgi cal,empl oy ingBi blest udi esandot hercr eat iv ef ormsofwor shi p.
    Butdur ingt heMar tialLawper iod,t heBCCbecameameansf orwi tnessi ngt he
    Teachi ngsandExampl eofChr istt hr oughsoci o- pol i
    tical wor k.

    TheRur
    alCOSt
    andar
    d

     Tofosteruni
    ty,theruralCOspublishedtheircommonv iewonthedefi
    nit
    ionand
    successindi
    catorsofr ur
    alcommuni tyorgani
    zing.Theyspell
    edoutthesuccess
    i
    ndicator
    sforeachor gani
    zingphaseinthef ol
    lowingareas:

    1.Organizati
    onal Dev elopment(OD)
    2.Cri
    ti
    cal,CreativeandCol l
    ecti
    veconsci ousnessRai
    sing.
    3.Coali
    ti
    onEf f
    ortandAdv ocacyWor k
    4.OvercomingGenderandot herBiases
    5.ResourceTenur eI mpr ovement(RTI )
    6.Economi cSelf-r
    el i
    anceSt r
    engthening
    7.Agri
    culturalDev elopmentandEcol ogi
    calNurtur
    ance
    8.Democr aticParticipati
    oninGov ernance

    Ar
    easofConcer
    nandSuccessI
    ndi
    cat
    ors

     Organi
    zati
    onaldevelopmentr
    eferstothequal i
    tyoforganizationalfuncti
    oni
    ngof
    t
    hepeople'
    sor gani
    zati
    onasitfulfi
    l
    lsit
    saspirat
    ions.Specifi
    cally,ODseekst othe
    fol
    lowi
    ngfeaturesoftheorganizati
    onareclearandoper ative:1)Or gani
    zati
    onal
    GoalsandObjecti
    ves,2)Or
    ganizati
    onalSt
    ructures,3)Leadership/Member ship,
    4)

    576
    Educat i
    onPr ogr ams,5)Mechani smsf orI nter nalRel ationshi psEnhancement ,
    and6)TheFi nanci al Capabi li
    tyoft hePO.
     Crit
    ical ,Cr eat i
    veandCol l
    ect iveConsci ousnessRai singr ef ertot hel evelof
    awar enessorconsci ousnessoft hel eader sandmember soft hePO.Speci fi
    cal l
    y,
    thi
    sar eaofconcer nseekst oassesst hePO' s:1)Soci o-Pol i
    ti
    calAwar eness, and
    2)Communi tyOr ient ednessandGr oupCent er edness
     Theef fortsini ti
    at edbyt heor gani zer ,andev ent uall
    yunder takenbyt hepeopl e'
    s
    organi zation,t oest ablishcommongr oundwi thot herPOsandsect orsonan
    i
    ssue- to-issuebasi s.I nsomei nstances, theal liancef ormedi sst rategi cinnat ure,
    especi allyifthei ssuei sal ongt erm one.Adv ocacywor kist heef for tofPO/ NGO
    tocal lt hepubl ic'sat tentionort her esour cehol der/cont r
    oller(mostl ikelyt he
    gover nment )t oani ssuet hatneedsi mmedi ateact ionf rom t hegr ouport he
    public.
     Theabi l
    ityoft hePOt or ecogni zet hegenderi ssueswi thint hepubl icandpr ivate
    spher e oft hei rcommuni ty.I ti s al so the capabi lit
    yt o dev el
    op appr opr i
    ate
    programsandmeasur est hatwi llensur eequal ityandr espectf ort her ightsof
    womenandot hermar ginalizedsect ors.
     Economi c Sel f-reliance St r
    engt heni ng.Thi s ar ea ofconcer nr ef erst ot he
    capabi li
    tyoft hepeopl e'sor gani zationt odev elopandmanageeconomi cpr ojects
    orent erpr i
    ses f ori ncreased i ncomes,economi c gr owt h,soci alequi ty
    ,and
    environmentsust ai nabi l
    ity.
     Agricul t
    ur alDev elopmentandEcol ogicalNur tur ance.Ref erst otheabi l
    i
    tyoft he
    POt opl anandi mpl ementpr ogr amst hatwi lldev elopt henat ural r
    esour cesoft he
    communi tyt o meett heirbasi c needs,whi le ensur ing t he r i
    ghtoff uture
    gener ationst ot heser esour ces.
     Democr atic Par tici pation i n Gov ernance.The POs capabi l
    it
    yt o par ti
    cipate
    dir
    ect lyi nt he gov er
    nance oft heircommuni t
    y .Thi s al so r elat es t ot heir
    parti
    ci pationi nmai nstream pol i
    t i
    cal act i
    vit
    ies.

    CODEFI
    NITI
    ONS,
    STRATEGI
    ESANDASSUMPTI
    ONS

    Art
    hurDunham:Consci ouspr ocessofsoci alinteractionandmet hodofsocialwork
    concer
    nedwi thanyorall oftheobj ect i
    ves:
    1.TaskGoal s-
    concretet asksunder takent omeetspeci fi
    cneedsorsol v
    eparti
    cul
    ar
    problems.
    2.Pr ocessGoal s-processofhel pingpeopl egr owi ncer tainway s
    3.Rel ationshipGoals-changingcer t aintypesofsoci alrelati
    onships
    Fourdi
    stinctivepointsofv i
    ewr eflectingdi ff
    erentCOor ientations(Perlman&Gur
    in)
    Strengtheningcommuni t
    ypar ticipat i
    onandi ntegrati
    on( Ross)
    Enhanci ngcopingcapaci ti
    es( Li ppi t
    )
    I
    mpr ovi
    ngsoci al
    condi ti
    onsandser vices( Mor r
    isandBi nstock)
    Adv ancingtheinterestsoft hedi sadv antagedgr oups( Grosser)

    CO i
    sapr ocessbywhichacommuni t
    yidentif
    iesit
    sneeds,obj
    ect
    ives,or
    der
    s(or
    ranks)theseneedsorobjecti
    ves;devel
    opstheconf i
    dencetoworkattheseneedsor
    objeci
    ves;takesacti
    oninr especttothem;andi nsodoi ng,ext
    endsanddev el
    ops
    cooperati
    veandcoll
    abor
    ati
    veat t
    it
    udesandpract
    icesinthecommunit
    y(MURRAYROSS)

    Rosssuggests….
     Toachi ev epr ocessobjecti
    ve,dev elop“communityassoci
    ati
    on”asv enueor
    meansf oractualizi
    ngCOprocess.
     Associationrepresentsmajorgroupsi nthecommuni t
    ythr
    uthei
    rreal
    -l
    eaders.
     CORol es: gui
    de, enabl
    er,
    expert
    , socialt
    herapi
    st
    Enhanci
    ngcopingcapaci ti
    es…
     I mpr
    ov i
    ngmeansofcommuni cati
    onandi nt
    eract
    ioninordertobuildupt he
    abi
    li
    tyofacommuni t
    yto(orsomesegmentofi ttocopewithitsenvi
    ronment
    andwithchange.

    577
     The obj
    ecti
    veisto st
    rengt
    hen t
    he r
    elat
    ionshi
    p ofthe cl
    ientsyst
    em toit
    s
    envi
    ronmentandt
    her
    ebybuildi
    ngupit
    scapabili
    ti
    esforadj
    ustingt
    ochangesi
    n
    thef
    uture.

    LI
    PPI
    TT’s3Problemat i
    cSituat
    ionsandStrategi
    es
    Faul
    tydistr
    ibuti
    onofpower -
    creat
    ionofnew cent erofpowerort hemakingof
    i
    nter
    nalchangest ogiveasubsy st
    em mor epower.
    Faul
    tymobi l
    izati
    onofener gy–r echannel l
    ingofenergyandav oidi
    nginternal
    conf
    li
    ctbydev elopmentofinsi
    ghtthruint
    erpret
    ati
    on.
    Faul
    tycommuni cationandperceptionofone’senvi
    ronment
    -exchangeoffeeli
    ngs
    and at
    ti
    tudest o achievebetterand mut ualunderst
    andi
    ng ofpr obl
    emsand
    sol
    uti
    on

    CORol
    es:
    cat
    aly
    st,
    exper
    t,i
    mpl
    ement
    orandr
    esear
    cher

    I
    mpr ovi
    ngSoci al Condi ti
    onsandSer vices
    • Cent ralgoali st oi dent i
    f yneeds and def iciencies and t o dev elop ef fecti
    ve
    prov isionsandmet hodsf orsol vi
    ngorpr event i
    ngsoci al probl
    ems.
    • I ncludesset t
    ingspeci f
    icgoal sandmobi l
    izingr esour cest oachi ev ethem.
    • Anal yzehowt hepol i
    ciesofanor gani zati
    oncanbechangedbyasi ngleact or, t
    he
    “planner ”,as a means ofi mpr ov i
    ng ser v i
    ces and r educing soci alpr oblems
    (Mor ri
    sandBi nstock)
    MorrisandBi nst ock’ sAssumpt i
    ons
    • Communi ty consi sts of i ndi vi
    dual s and gr oups wi th different and of t
    en
    conf licti
    ngi nter estsandneeds
    • I nor gani zations, powert endst ogr avitateinf ewerhands.I nl
    ar geror gani zations,
    thisconsi stst he“ domi nant ”f action.
    • For malor gani zationswi llr elatel argel yinaccor dancewi ththemaj ori nterestof
    thedomi nantf acti
    ons.
    Advancingt hei nt erest sofdi sadv ant agedgr oups
    • Pr imar ypur posei st opr omot et hei nt erestsofpar ticulargroupsbyi ncreasing
    theirshar eofmat er i
    algoodsandser v i
    cesand/ orbyi ncreasi
    ngt heirpower ,their
    par t
    ici pat i
    oni ncommuni tydeci sion-maki ng,andt heirst atus.
    • Pur poseofact ivi
    tyi s“ engagi ngt hepoori nt hedeci sion-makingpr ocessoft he
    communi t
    y ”bot ht oov ercomeapat hyandest rangementandt or eal i
    gnt hepower
    resour cesofacommuni tybycr eatingchannel st hr oughwhi chconsumer sof
    soci alser v i
    cescandef i
    net hei rpr oblemsandnegot i
    at einthei rbehal f(Char l
    es
    Grosser ).
    Grosser’
    sSt r ategi est opr omot est rategiesofUr banPoor
    • St rivef oral argershar eofgoodsandser vi
    cesdi spensedbyagenci esofci t
    y
    gov er nmentandt opr essel imi nat i
    onofi njusticesanddeni alofr ight sint he
    prov isionofser vi
    ces
    • Ar ouseapat hyandi nactionandt ot eacht hem whatar eappr opr iatet argetsand
    tacticsf ort heircol lectiveact ion
    • CORol es: enabl er,broker , adv ocat eandact iv
    ist

    THEORYINCOMMUNITYORGANIZATI
    ON
    (
    Peopl
    ehav
    ethepower
    !)

    Theori
    escaneitherbebroadandabstr
    actandpert
    aini
    ngtogener
    alpat
    ter
    nsin
    societ
    y ordescr i
    be patt
    erns t
    hatoccurin speci
    fi
    c si
    tuat
    ions (
    i.
    e.communiti
    es,
    organi
    zati
    ons,orspeci
    fi
    cpopulat
    iongr
    oups)

    Ther
    oleoftheor
    yincommunit
    ypracti
    ce:
    Theori
    esincommuni
    typracti
    cedescri
    bethedist
    ribut
    ionofpower&resour
    cesin
    societ
    y,how or
    gani
    zati
    ons funct
    ion,and how communi t
    ysy st
    ems maint
    ain
    themselv
    es.
    Theori
    esmustbeempiri
    cal
    lytest
    edandv er
    if
    ied.

    578
    I
    ndependentanddependentvari
    abl
    esmustbeidenti
    fi
    edinordert
    otestatheor
    y.
    Ther
    efor
    et heor
    iescont
    ainassumpti
    onsaboutcauseandeff
    ectrel
    ati
    onshi
    ps

    The“eff
    ect”aspectofcauseandeffectrel
    ati
    onshi
    psi sout
    comes,thingst
    hat
    occurbecauseofspeci
    fi
    cevent
    soracti
    ons.Consequentl
    y,t
    heysuggestspeci
    fi
    cacti
    ons
    orski
    ll
    sthatcanbeusedbysocialwor
    kerstoproduceresul
    ts.

    Gener
    al andMor eSpeci
    fi
    cTheor
    ies
    PracticeActi
    vi
    ti
    esinModel
    (I
    nter v
    ent
    ionorCause)
    Out comesorEff
    ects

    Insoci
    alwor k,pract
    icemodel shelpususet heorytodefineaspecificsetof
    actionsori nt
    erventi
    onst hatcan beused t o pr
    oduceout comes.Gener al
    lyseveral
    theoriesar ecombi nedt opr oducepracti
    cemodel s.Wemayal soapplyaspect sof
    theoriest o cer
    tain si
    tuati
    ons.Forexampl e,power -
    dependencytheor
    yt ell
    sust hat
    resour cedonorsacqui r
    epowerbyt ransf
    erri
    ngmoneyandgoodst opeoplethatcan’t
    reciprocate.Thi
    ssuggest sthatnonprofi
    torgani
    zat
    ionsshouldnotacceptfundsfrom a
    singlel ar
    gedonoriftheywantt obeindependent
    .

    Theor
    yty
    pol
    ogyi
    ncommuni
    typr
    act
    ice

    Conf
    li
    ctTheor
    yist hepr
    imar
    ytheoret
    icalassumpt
    ionassoci
    atedwi
    thmanyoft
    he
    pr
    act
    icemodel
    s.Confl
    i
    ctt
    heor
    yassumes:

     Havesandhave-notcompet eforr
    esources.
     Thehavesholdar esource&poweradvantageov
    erthehavenots.
     ThepurposeofC. O.ist oworkwithmember sofoppressedgroupstoacqui
    re
    powerandresources.
     Powercanbeacqui r
    edt hr
    oughalter
    nativ
    emeanssuchasst r
    engt
    hthrough
    numbers.

    Empower
    mentModel

    579
     ImprovesInfor
    mal Networksi
    nt heCommuni t
    y
     ImprovesLinkagesbetweenindividual
    sandinsti
    tut
    ions.
     Leadstochangesi nlawsandinst i
    tuti
    ons.
     Reducestheoppr essi
    onofmar ginali
    zedgroups

    ELEMENTSOFCOBOTHI
    NTHEORYANDPRACTI
    CE

     Traini
    ng & Educat i
    on – r ef
    er stov ari
    oust er msofeducat ionalact ivi
    ti
    est o
    conscientiziseanddev eloppeoplecri
    ticalawar enessoftheirexisti
    ngcondi ti
    ons.
     Format i
    onofPeopl e’
    sOr ganizat
    ion–cr eat
    ionoff unct
    ionalst r
    ucturet hatwill
    serveasv enuef orpeopl etoexpresstheirpower …pri
    ncipl
    eofshar edleadership
     Mobi l
    izati
    onofResour ces– Tappingandmaxi mum ut i
    li
    zati
    onofhumanand
    naturalresourcesnecessar ytoachievesel f
    -r
    eliance.Humanbei ngsar ethemost
    i
    mpor t
    antr esource.Afterall
    ,theyarethesubj ectandobj ectofourdev el
    opment
    effort
    s.

    STRENGTHSOFCO

     Itgener atesi mmedi atesuccesst herebyencour agi


    ng peopl et of urthert hei
    r
    actions;itmakespeopl ereal
    izet hatt heyhav ethecapaci tytochangesi t
    uat i
    ons
    thattheyhav ethepowert omaket hingshappen.
     Itimmedi at el
    ybreakst hecultureofsi lence,encour agingpeopl etospeakoutor
    arti
    culatewhatt heythink,whatt heyf eelaboutmat t
    erst hataffecttheirlives;i
    t
    enablest hem tochal l
    engetheoppr essivestructuresandbui l
    dalternati
    vet hereof
    .
     Itis usual ly successfulin bui l
    ding cr it
    ical
    ,sel f-r
    eliant,creati
    ve gr assroots
    organizations.
     Asanappr oachf orempoweringpeopl e,itisrel
    at i
    velysi mpleandcanbel earned
    easilybyany one who has t he dr i
    ve,the per severance,t he dedicat i
    on and
    commi t
    mentt odomasswor k,althoughi niti
    all
    y,onemayneedsuper visionf r
    om
    experiencedor ganizersandtrainors.
     Itis usual ly successfulin bui l
    ding cr it
    ical
    ,sel f-r
    eliant,creati
    ve gr assroots
    organizations.
     Asanappr oachf orempoweringpeopl e,itisrel
    at i
    velysi mpleandcanbel earned
    easilybyany one who has t he dr i
    ve,the per severance,t he dedicat i
    on and
    commi t
    mentt odomasswor k,althoughi niti
    all
    y,onemayneedsuper visionf r
    om

    580
    exper iencedorganizer
    sandtrainor
    s.
     Opennesst oexper iment
    -opennesst ov ar
    iedexper iencesandtheori
    escomi ng
    from ot herpartsoftheworl
    d;opennesstot ryout,adopt ,
    modif
    ymet hodsproven
    successf ulbyot hergr
    oupsandwi l
    li
    ngnesst oadjust.
     Itisr ootedint hecommunity–wher ei
    nanor ganizergoestothepeoplewher e
    ev er
    ydaypr obl
    emsoccur .Iti sintheseissueswher eCO worki ssustained,
    l
    eadi ngev entuall
    ytothebui
    ldingofaPOwhi chcont inuestoworkoncommuni ty
    problems.

    BENEFI
    TSOFCOMMUNI
    TYORGANI
    ZATI
    ON

     Itcontri
    but estot heest abl i
    shmentofanenv ir
    onmentwi thdi f
    ferentcommuni ty
    resources–nat ur
    al ,i
    nstituti
    onal,technical,andf i
    nancialandhumanr esources
    andcanf uncti
    onwi thmaxi mum ef fectiveness.
     Itsti
    mul atest hev ari
    ousgr oupstoex ami net heirprogramst odeterminehow
    welltheyar emeet ingt heirproblems
     Peoplear egivenachancet ostudyt heirpr oblems,of fersol uti
    onsandgi vea
    chancet opl ananact i
    on.
     Asar esultoft hiswor kingt ogether,ast ronguni tyandcoher enceisdev el
    oped
    amongv ar i
    ousor ganizationsandl eader soft hecommuni t
    yr epresentedsot hat
    theydev elopedaf eel i
    ngofr esponsi bil
    it
    yf ormaki ngthepr ogr am successful.
     Communi tyorgani zati
    onset supact ionpat ter
    nt osolvepr oblems

    COGUI
    DINGPRI
    NCI
    PLES

    1.Accept
    ance

    I
    tist heacceptanceofcommuni t
    ybyasoci alorganizer,whenhegoest othe
    fi
    eld,hemustmeetwi t
    hpeopl eofv ari
    ouscultur
    esandgr oups.Heshoul dhav eto
    explainhisinterest
    sinthecommuni t
    ywel f
    are.Hehast oaccepthi nder
    sandf acethe
    dif
    ficult
    iesint hewayofpr ogr
    ess.Inst
    eadofhel pl
    essnessheshoul dhavetoadopt
    patience and wor kforthe betterofpeopl e.He mustkeep t he people wi
    thinthe
    conv i
    ncedboundar yandbringtheirat
    tenti
    ont ot
    heresourcesandt hesolut
    ionofbasic
    problems.

    2.ToUnder
    standResour
    cesandNeeds

    Thecommuni t
    yorganizermusthavet o expl
    oretheint
    ernalaswel last he
    externalresourcesofthepeople.Hemustnoti
    mposehi sworkonthepeoplebuttostar
    t
    hiswor kr egul
    arlyandcal
    ml y
    .Heshoul di
    ntr
    oducet hepeopl
    ewit
    ht heprobl
    emsf aced
    byt hem andt obr ingsol
    uti
    onf orthesepr
    oblemst hr
    oughtheuti
    li
    zati
    onoft hei
    rown
    resources.

    3.Communi
    tySel
    fDet
    ermi
    nat
    ion

    Self
    -determinati
    onisnecessaryincommunit
    y.Thepeopleofcommunitymustbe
    provi
    dedfreedom toexpl ai
    nthei
    rviewsandtheorgani
    zernotimposeit
    sownov erthem.
    Tocr eat
    esel f
    -determinati
    onamongt hepeopl
    e,communi tyorgani
    zati
    onrequir
    edt o
    know them bet t
    eraboutt hei
    rresourcesandneedsbecausepeopl eknow wellabout
    thosethi
    ngsf r
    om out si
    depeople.

    4.I
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    izat
    ion

    581
    Tor ecognizethedignityofeachi ndi
    v i
    dualasocialorgani
    zermustcr eatean
    envir
    onmentofawar dingtot hem.Theindi v
    idualisnecessarytoknow hisdut yand
    responsibi
    l
    ity aboutthe socialwelfar
    e.So,t he i
    dea ofi ndi
    vi
    dual
    izat
    ion creates
    awarenessamongt hepeopletoworkbetterforthecommuni ty.Acommuni t
    yorganizer
    i
    nculcatesthepeoplethattheycandoevery t
    hingashumanbei ngsandthereisahuman
    beingandnodi ffi
    cul
    tyinyourwayofprogress.

    5.Fr
    eedom wi
    thi
    nLi
    mit
    s

    Theorgani
    zershoul
    dgi
    vefreedom butwit
    hinl
    imi
    tstomakedeci si
    on,
    showt hei
    r
    i
    nter
    estandgivepr
    operatt
    ent
    iontotheproblems.So,f
    reedom shoul
    dbewi thi
    nli
    mits
    f
    orthemembersofacommunitytopaceont hewayofprogressandpr
    osperi
    ty.

    6.Funct
    ionalOr
    gani
    zat
    ion

    Thereshouldbef ormalaswel lasinfor


    malleader
    sforthebetterfunct
    ioni
    ngof
    organi
    zati
    on.Thesepeopl eshouldbepr epar
    edtomaket hei
    rorganizati
    onsuccessful
    andwell-
    functi
    oning.Becauseoforganizati
    onspeedthepeopl
    ewillbeabletochasethe
    probl
    emsbi t
    terl
    yandsol vethem.

    7.Di
    ff
    usi
    onofResponsi
    bil
    it
    ies

    Theresponsibi
    li
    ti
    esmustbedif
    fusedamongthepeopleofcommuni t
    y.Everyone
    i
    sr esponsi
    blet o ful
    filhi
    s duty wit
    hin the j
    uri
    sdict
    ion of community. These
    r
    esponsi
    bil
    it
    iesshouldbediv
    idedamongt hem t
    oconstr
    uctaprogressi
    vedevel
    opment
    i
    nthecommuni t
    y.

    8.Pr
    ogr
    essi
    vePr
    ogr
    am Exper
    ience

    Anyprogr
    am whichhasstart
    edmustbeprogressi
    vei
    nexper
    ience.Theproblems
    shoul
    dbehi ghl
    ychasedandf orthi
    staskexper
    iencedsoci
    almobi
    lizeri
    srequired.So,
    the mostexperienced or
    ganizerwil
    lbe t he progr
    ams wil
    lbe pr ogressi
    ve and
    exper
    ienced.

    9.Peopl
    ePar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    nDeci
    sionMaki
    ng

    I
    tisext
    remel
    ynecessarythepar
    ti
    cipat
    ionofallthemembersofthecommunit
    y
    equal
    l
    yi nmakingdeci
    sions.I
    ftheyarenotincludeditwil
    lleadt
    ofrustr
    ati
    onamong
    them.

    GUI
    DINGPRI
    NCI
    PLESOFCO
    1.Trustint hePeople–t hisi spr emisedont hebel i
    efthatpeopl ewantchangeand
    havet hecapaci t
    yt obr ingaboutchangei nor dertoachi eveamor edesi r
    able
    society .
    2.Crit
    icalandAct i
    vePar t
    icipation–i scrucialelementt opeopl eempower ment.
    Hencepeopl eshouldbei nvolvedi ntheenti
    redev elopmentpr ocess.
    3.The r esponsibi
    li
    tyt o di rectchange l i
    es witht he peopl e and notwi tht he
    practi
    tionerwhoi sjustdoi ngaf acil
    it
    ati
    verole.
    4.Avoidr aisi
    ngexpect ati
    onsandf alsehopest othepeopl ef oritwil
    lonl
    yr ei
    nforce
    thei
    rnegat ivepastexper ience.
    5.COi snotanendi nitself.Itisameanst oachieveaj ust,humaneanddemocr ati
    c
    society .
    6.Organi zi
    ngwor ki sbi asedf ort hepoor .Thereforeitshoul dbebasedont he
    i
    nterestoft hedeprived,power lessandoppr essedsect orsofoursociety.
    7.Startwher ethepeopl eare, andwi t
    htheirneeds,resourcesandcapabi l
    it
    ies.
    8.People’ spart
    ici
    pati
    onshoul dbegear edtowardst hepromot ionoftheinterestof
    thegreat ermajori
    ty.

    582
    OBJECTI
    VESOFCOMMUNI
    TYORGANI
    ZING

     Tocont i
    nuousl yrai
    sepeopl e’
    sawar enessaboutt hei
    rpover
    tysi
    tuati
    oni norderto
    effectsoci alchange.
     Tof or m st r
    uctureormechani sm thatupholdsbasi cri
    ghtsandint er
    est.CO is
    expressi onsofpeopl e’spowerandshoul dt herefor
    eserveasani nstr
    umenti n
    meet ingpeopl e’sneeds.
     Tohel ppeopl eoftheirpotenti
    alsandhav i
    ngthehumanandmat er
    ialrecourseto
    preser v
    epr ogram andpr oj
    ectsmeantt oi
    mpr ovequalit
    yofli
    fe.
     To i nit
    iate actions t
    hatwi l
    lbring aboutchanges i n communityand gr oup
    rel
    ationshi pespecial
    lyinthedistri
    butionofdecision-
    makingpower.

    VALUESOFCOWORK
    (
    Val
    uesi
    nCommunit
    yOr
    gani
    zingPr
    act
    ice)

     Respectf orHumanRi ght–t hi sispremisedont hebeliefthatmanhaswor thand


    digni
    tyregar dl
    essofcr eed, religi
    onandeconomi cstates.
     SocialResponsi bi
    lity–Manf orot hersconcept ,meaningr esponsi bi
    li
    tyofonef or
    theot her.Thisv aluer ef erst ot hesoci ety’sresponsibi
    lit
    yt ocr eatecondi ti
    ons
    thatpermi topportunityandsel f-
    fulf
    ilmentf or i
    ndividuals.Concr etely,t his
    valueemphasi zest hati nst i
    tutionand or
    ganizati
    onsshoul dbef lexibleand
    changingi nordert orespondt ot hechangingcondi t
    ionsandpr oblemsoft he
    people.
     SocialJust i
    ce– t herei snodev elopment ,ifthereisnopeace.Thi sv aluei s
    premisedont hebel ieft hatdev el
    opmentcanonl yhappeni fjusti
    cepr evail
    s,
    commi t
    mentt oseeksoci aljusti
    ce.HenceCOwor kgivespr i
    mar yi mpor tanceon
    therightofpeopl et obehear dandt hecr eati
    onofmechani sm bywhi chpeopl e
    areablet oairtheirperspect i
    v es.
     Commi t
    mentt oDemocr aticPr ocessandGoal s
    THEPROCESSASFUNDAMENTALELEMENTOFCOPRACTI CE( Buenbi
    aje)
    (
    COisaf
    unct
    ionoft
    hedynami
    cint
    erpl
    ayoffourf
    undament
    alel
    ement
    s:CP,CDW, CO
    Process,
    CC)

    COMMUNI TYPEOPLE(CP)
    Communi tyi
    sthestageforCO.thecommuni t
    yconsist
    sofpeopl
    eorknownas
    STAKEHOLDERS ( dir
    ect
    ly aff
    ected,indi
    rect
    ly af
    fect
    ed,gover
    nment-
    elected
    off
    ici
    als.
    COMMUNI TYDEVELOPMENTWORKER( CDW)canbeasi ngl
    eper
    sonorat eam
    ofdevelopmentwor
    kers(ngo,
    go,po).

    CO PROCESSmeansdev elopingapar tnershi


    pwi t
    ht hecommuni ty
    .Apr ocess
    thatfacili
    tatespar ti
    cipatorydev el
    opmenti nwhichst akeholderscani nf
    luence
    andshar econt r
    olov erdev elopmentinit
    iati
    vesandov ertheresour cesthataf f
    ect
    themselv es.
    COMMUNI TYCONSCI OUSNESS
    Thewor kingrelati
    onshi pbetweent heCP&CDW canbebasedont he
    recogni
    tionofthepeopl e’
    sroleast hepr i
    memov ersofdevelopment .Iti
    st heawakeni ng
    ofashar edcri
    ticalconsci ousnesst hatgivesbirt
    ht oamut ual
    lyempower ingprocessof
    partner
    shipi
    npur suitofdev elopment .
    CO islikeal ongj ourneyi ntoadev elopmentpar tnershi
    pwi t
    ht hecommuni t
    y
    people.Thi sjour neyr equir
    essomebasi cconsiderati
    onsandpr epar at
    ionsf r
    om
    theCDW andt heDOt owhi chs/ hebelongs.

    Basi
    cConsi
    der
    ati
    ons:
    o Legit
    imat
    eident
    it
    yofthedevel
    opmentor
    gani
    zat
    ion(
    DO)–or
    ,accept
    abi
    l
    ity
    tothecommunit
    yinwhichi
    toper
    ates.

    583
    o Strat
    egi cpl
    anningwi t
    hintheDO–or ,determiningthereasonsanddi recti
    ons
    forit
    sbei ngandf ormulati
    ngstrat egiesofdev elopment.
    o Role/functi
    onandpur poseofCO–asst atedi ntheli
    ghtoft heDO’ sVision,
    MissionandGoal (VMG)andpr ogr ams.
    o Resour cestoengagei nCO – i ncludecommi tt
    ed,compet entandcr eativ
    e
    person-power,financi
    alandmat erialresources.
    o Continuing developmentofr esour ces oft he DO – i nvolves conti
    nuous
    capacity buil
    ding oft he staffand gener at
    ion off i
    nancialand mat eri
    al
    resourcesthatcanhel psustainitsoper at
    ions.

     BasicPreparati
    ons:
    o For mulateindi cesf orsel ectionofCOar ea/sconsi st
    entwitht heVMGand
    developmentst rategiesoft heDO.
    o Gat herbasicpr eli
    mi naryinformat i
    onaboutt hepot enti
    alCOar ea/saccor ding
    totheformul atedi ndicesf orselecti
    on.
    o Sel ectCOar ea/ sbasedont hef ormulatedindi
    ces.
    o Cl ari
    fyvaluesandat ti
    tudinalawar enessoft heper son-powerwi t
    hint heDO
    towards bei ng peopl e-centered and or i
    ented t owards sust ainable
    development .
    o I denti
    fythedi fferentst akeholder sandt heini
    tialcontactsthatcanf acili
    tate
    entrytothecommuni tyandi ntegrati
    onoft heCDW/ DOwi t
    hthepeople.

    Ent
    ryi
    ntot
    hecommuni
    ty-out
    erl
    ayer
    Establ
    ishi
    ngaf ri
    endl
    yy etpur
    posef
    ulrelati
    onshi
    pstar
    tsuponent
    ryoftheCDW into
    thecommuni ty.A low profi
    leentr
    yispr efer
    ablethanagrandentrancethatr
    aises
    unnecessaryorfal
    seexpectati
    onsfr
    om thepeople.

    I
    mmer
    sionwi
    tht
    hepeopl
    e-i
    nnerl
    ayer
    Thisreferstothebasiccont i
    nuingeffor
    tbywhichtheCDW becomesonewi t
    hthe
    CPbyi ntegrat
    inghi
    mself/hersel
    finthecommunityl
    ife.Thi
    sisagerminat
    ionpr
    ocessof
    buil
    dingtrustandcooperati
    onnet worksnowcommonl ycal
    ledbui
    ldi
    ngthesoci
    alcapi
    tal
    (I
    IRR:36)
    , pr
    ocessofbuil
    dingr el
    ati
    onship,
    whichi
    sbasicinsoci
    alwork.

    COpr
    oper
    -mi
    ddl
    elayer
    Thisphaseoft heprocesssi gnalsthatt heCPandCDW ar ealreadypr epar edtowor k
    togetheraspar tnersindev el
    opment .InthePhi lippi
    necont ext,asidef rom thef ormal
    structureofor ganizati
    ont hatexi st
    si nev erycommuni ty,itiscrit
    ical torecogni zethe
    i
    nfor mal str
    uctur eofmut ual aidandsol idar it
    yt hatrepr esent sther ichnessoft hefil
    i
    pino
    culturallegacy.Wehav ethe‘ bayanihan’,‘damoyan’ ,‘bar kadahan’ ,‘
    bakas- bakas’ ,
    ‘
    pal uwagan’ andmanymanymor eindigenouspr acti
    cest oboastof .
    Suchpr acti
    cesstil
    l persistbothinr uralandur bancommuni ties,butmost
    especi all
    yinthef ormer.Theyar eFili
    pinosi nvaluablei ndigenoust hreadsofsy nergy.
    Theyar eundoubt edlystr
    ongr awmat eri
    al s–ani nt
    ernal r
    esour cef orenabl ingt he
    peoplet oassumet hei
    rprimar yr ol
    easweav ersofthei rownhi stor yandmanager sof
    theirdev el
    opmentdest i
    ny .

    584
    STEPSI
    NCOMMUNI
    TYORGANI
    ZING

    St
    ep1–I
    ntegr
    ati
    on

    I
    nt hispr ocesstheorgani
    zerimmersesher sel
    f/hi
    mselfwi
    ththel ocalcommuni t
    y
    andundergoest hesameexper i
    encesoflocalpeoplesoast obui
    ldmut ualrespect,t
    rust
    and cooper ati
    on.Thi scan bedonei n manyway ssuch as:par t
    ici
    pation in di
    rect
    product
    ionact ivit
    ies,housevi
    sit
    ati
    ons,congregati
    ngandconv er
    singwi ththepeoplei n
    communal areasandat tendi
    ngsocial
    functi
    onslikebi
    rthday
    s,weddings,feastsandet c.

    St
    ep2–Soci
    alI
    nvest
    igat
    ion(
    SI)orCommuni
    tySt
    udy

    Thisi st he pr ocess ofsy stematical


    lylear ni
    ng and anal yzi
    ng the various
    structur
    esandf orcesaswel lastheproblemsandi ssuesthatneedi mmedi ateorlong-
    term soluti
    ons.Theor ganizerdeterminesthecommuni t
    y’sint
    erestsandatti
    tudestot he
    i
    ssues,i denti
    fi
    espot enti
    alleadersandcomesupat ent
    ativ
    eappr oachtoor gani
    zi
    ng.SI
    met hodsmayi ncludei nt
    erv i
    ewsordi alogueswi t
    hpeopl e,personalobserv
    at i
    onsoft he
    organizer,examinationandr eviewofsecondar ydataorapar t
    ici
    pator
    yapproachsuchas
    focusgr oupdi scussi ons( FGD)orpar t
    ici
    patoryresearch.SIi sacont i
    nuous,in-going
    project.

    St
    ep3–I
    ssueI
    dent
    if
    icat
    ionandAnal
    ysi
    s

    Thisisthepr ocessofdef i
    ning,anal yzi
    ngandr ankingcommuni t
    ypr oblems
    accordi
    ng totheirimpor t
    ance,theur gencyofsol vi
    ng them,thenumberofpeopl e
    aff
    ectedandthepr obabi
    lit
    yofr esol
    vingt hem throughcommuni t
    ymobi l
    izati
    on.Itaims
    toident
    ifyt
    hecommonf el
    tneeds.Thesei ssuesorneedsar eoft
    enaddr essedthrough
    sel
    f-hel
    por–externall
    y-
    assistedsocio-economi cpr oj
    ectseit
    herbecausepeopl etendto
    shun confr
    ontat
    ion with authori
    ti
    es t hr
    u negot iati
    on/s and/orpressuret act
    ics,or

    585
    peopl
    e’
    str
    adi
    ti
    onal
    conceptofcommuni
    tyact
    ioni
    sthr
    oughsoci
    o-economi
    cpr
    oject
    s.

    St
    ep4–Cor
    eGr
    oupFor
    mat
    ion

    Thi smeansinvolvi
    ngthemor eadv ancedlocall
    eaderswhohav ebeenspot tedby
    theorganizerduri
    ngtheintegr
    ationpr ocess.Theyarethenconstitut
    edast hecor egroup.
    Theymaybei nf
    ormalortempor aryleaders,i
    .e.
    ,unti
    laf or
    malsetofl eadersareelected
    orchosenbyacommuni ty.Thispr ocessisnecessaryforthenextst agesofor ganizi
    ng
    – mobilizati
    onandor ganizat
    ionbui lding.Goodcommuni tyleadersareusual lythose
    whobel ongt othepoorersecti
    onsoft hecommuni ty;possessacr i
    ti
    calperspectiv
    e;are
    desi
    rouschangeoft hecommuni tyandar ewil
    li
    ngt owor kforchange;valuecol l
    ecti
    ve
    l
    eadershipanddemocr aticpart
    icipati
    on.

    St
    ep5–Gr
    oundWor
    kandcommuni
    tyMeet
    ing

    Groundwor kmeanst omot i


    vatepeopleonone- on-onebasi sorthroughi nf ormal
    groupdiscussi
    onst owardscoll
    ecti
    veacti
    on,somet imeswi tht heaidofacor egr oup.It
    aimstobr i
    ngaboutt heemotional
    ,mentalandphy sicalenergiesofthepeopl eandr ai
    se
    them tothelevelthattheyarewil
    li
    ngtot akecollecti
    veact i
    on.Af t
    erthi
    si sachi ev ed,a
    communi tymeetingisheldtoar r
    iveatanagr eementont henecessar yactionsandt o
    deli
    neatetaskstobeunder t
    akentoresol
    vet heissueorpr oblem.Insomecases, iti sthe
    coregroupwhohandl esmeet i
    ng,wit
    htheor gani
    zerstayingint hebackground.

    St
    ep6–Rol
    ePl
    ayi
    ng

    Thi
    si sasi mulati
    onpr acticef orthecommuni tymember swhoar etaskedt o
    negotiatewithpersonsorauthor i
    tyorev entheadv ersary.Inthissession,theorgani
    zer
    envisi
    ons ev er
    yscenar iothatmayt ake place during “confrontat
    ion”or“ dial
    ogue”
    betweent hecommuni tyandthe“ tar
    get”.Itaimst opr eparet heleadersfortheactual
    processofnegot i
    ati
    onandant icipatespossi bl
    eout comest oensur ev i
    ctor
    yf orthe
    communi t
    y.Thisprocessisusuallydonei nissue-basedor ganizing.

    St
    ep7–Mobi
    li
    zat
    ionorAct
    ion

    Thisist
    hehighpointoftheorgani
    zationprocess.Act
    ionmaymeanengagingin
    adialogue,orprot
    estunderissue-
    basedor gani
    zing,star
    ti
    ngal i
    vel
    i
    hoodproj
    ectora
    cooperati
    veunderproj
    ect-
    basedorganizi
    ng.Mobilizat
    ionoracti
    onisthecommunity
    ’s
    expr
    essionofpowerwhileconfr
    onti
    ngthepower f
    ul.

    St
    ep8–Ev
    aluat
    ionand/
    orRef
    lect
    ion

    Thi
    sisanact i
    vi
    tyconduct edaft
    erev eryact
    ionormobi
    li
    zati
    ont
    oext ractl
    essons
    l
    earnedonhow t oimprovefutur emobi l
    izati
    ons,andconst
    it
    utesav i
    talpar ti
    nt he
    tr
    aini
    ngofthecor egroupandt hecommuni t
    y.Thepeopl
    etakenoteofwhathasbeen
    andwhathasnotbeenaccompl i
    shed,andwhatr emai
    nstobedone.I tisalsoan
    assessmentofthestrengt
    hsandweaknessesoft hecommunity
    ’smobi
    lizati
    on.Itcan
    al
    sobeasel f
    -assessmentofall
    t heparti
    cipants.

    St
    ep9–For
    mal
    izat
    ionoft
    heCommuni
    ty-
    BasedOr
    gani
    zat
    ion

    Lessons f r
    om t he Phil
    ippi
    ne experi
    ence shows t hatforming the peopl
    e’s
    organi
    zati
    oni sbestdoneaf t
    erthecommuni tyundergoesamobi l
    i
    zationoracti
    onphase
    andhasgonet hroughanev al
    uationorr
    eflect
    ionprocess.Somepr i
    ncipl
    esinsetti
    ngup
    theorgani
    zationare;ensurethemaximum numberofmember shi
    p;practi
    ceacol l
    ect
    ive
    orsharedleadership;
    andemphasi zesi
    mplicit
    yofstructur
    e.

    St
    ep10–PhaseOut

    BecauseCO isam enabl


    i
    ngpr ocess,ther
    ecomesat i
    mewhent heor
    gani
    zer
    becomes di
    spensabl
    e and t
    he Peopl
    e’s Organi
    zat
    ion (
    POs)take ov
    er.When the

    586
    i
    ndicatorsf orsuccesssetbyt heNGOhav ebeensi gnifi
    cantl
    ymet ,e.g.hi
    ghlevel
    sof
    socio-
    polit
    icalawar eness,sustainedmember shi
    ppar ti
    cipati
    on.Avibrantpooloftr
    ained
    communi tyl eaders,clearplansandgoal ssetbyt hecommuni t
    y,et c.
    ,theorgani
    zing
    process may be t urned ov er
    .The t ur
    n ov erincludes the tr
    ansferofcommuni t
    y
    organizi
    ngr olesandr esponsibi
    lit
    iesaswell
    asdocument s.

    ROLESOFACOMMUNI
    TYORGANI
    ZER

    1. Communi cat or–t hecommuni tyor gani zert ransf ersort ransmi tsi nfor mat ion,
    thought ,knowl edge et c.t ot he member s of t he communi ty.Shar i
    ng of
    i
    nformat i
    onenabl est hecommuni tyt obebet t
    erpr eparedandempower edwi th
    i
    nformat i
    on.
    2. Enabler–t hecommuni tyor gani zerf aci lit
    at est hepr ocessi nt hecommuni tyfora
    change.Hedoesnotcar ryoutanywor kbyhi msel fbutheenabl est hecommuni t
    y
    todot hewor k.Theor gani zergi v esi mpor tancet ot hepr ocesst hant hepr oduct .
    Byt her oleofenabl ert heor gani zerwoul dcr eat ei ndependencyamongt he
    peoplebywhi chav oi dt hedependencysy ndr ome.
    3. Animat or–i nanypr ocessofcommuni tyor gani zat i
    ont heor gani zerencour ages,
    provi
    des di rection and gui de l i
    nes t o pr oceed i n car ry i
    ng outt he di f
    ferent
    acti
    viti
    es.Asanani mat ort heCommuni tyOr gani zerpl ay sav italr olei nel iciting
    theact ivepar t
    icipat ionoft hepeopl ef rom pl anni ngt illev aluat i
    onespeci al l
    y
    ensuringl i
    fei nal lthedeal ingsoft hei ssuesandpr oblems.
    4. Guide–t hecommuni tyor gani zeri nst eadofdoi ngany thingonhi sowngui des
    themember soft hecommuni tyi nt hepr ocessofcommuni tyor gani zat i
    on.The
    communi tyor gani zeri snotaper sont oshoul dert her esponsi bi l
    ityorsol v ing
    problemsoft hepeopl e.Inst eadhehast omaket hepeopl et or espondf orwhi ch
    theor gani zerpr ov idest hev ariousav enuesandshowsdi ffer entr oot swhi l
    e
    deali
    ngwi tht hecommuni t ypr oblems.
    5. Mot i
    vat or– t hecommuni t yor gani zerst imul atesandsust ai nsact ivei nter est
    among t hepeopl ef orr eachi ng asol utiont ot heneedsand pr obl ems.The
    communi tyor gani zerencour agest hecommuni tyt ot akeupami nort askand
    compl etei tsuccessf ullywhi chwoul denabl et hepeopl et ot akeupdi fficultt ask.
    6. Facil
    itator–t hecommuni tyor gani zerhel pst hecommuni tyt oar ticulat et heir
    needs,cl ar i
    fyandi dent if
    yt hei rpr obl ems,expl or er esol utionst rategi es,sel ect
    andappl yi ntervent ionst rat egi es,anddev elopt hei rcapaci tiest odealwi tht heir
    ownpr obl emsmor eef fect ivel y.A f aci l
    itat orhel pscl ientsy stemsal t
    ert heir
    envir
    onment .
    7. Educat or– t hecommuni tyor gani zeraseducat orconv ey si nf ormat iont ot he
    communi ty and t he br oader env ironment .Or gani zer pr ov ides i nf ormat i
    on
    necessar yf orcopi ng wi th pr obl em si t uations,assi stst he communi tyi n
    practi
    cing new behav iour s orski lls,and t eaches t hr ough model i
    ng.The
    communi tyor ganizerpr ov idesi nf ormat ionnecessar yfordeci sionmaki ng.

    While wor ki
    ng wit
    ht he people ofdiff
    erentbackground orf r
    om diff
    erent
    geographicalsetupthediff
    erentrolescanbeappli
    ed.Alltherol
    esneednotbeor
    cannotbeappl i
    edinal
    lthesetti
    ngst oal
    ltheprobl
    ems.Theref
    oredependingupon
    thesit
    uationandt heneedsandpr oblemsofthecommunityappropr
    iater
    olehast o
    beapplied.

    Char
    act
    eri
    sti
    csofaCommuni
    tyOr
    gani
    zer

    1. Ir
    reverence– theor ganizerconsider
    snot radit
    ion,law orv alueast ot
    all
    y
    sacredwheni tworksagainstthepeople.
    2. A SenseofHumor– t okeepsaneandav oidgi vi
    ngupi nf rustr
    ation,the
    organizermustmai nt
    ainasenseofhumor .
    3.Cr eati
    v i
    ty– anythingcanbeusedasor ganizi
    ngmat eri
    albuti tr equi
    res
    creati
    veimaginati
    ont ouset hepossi
    bil
    it
    ies.
    4. Anor ganized personali
    ty– Heshoul d beabl eto acceptand wor kwith
    i
    rrati
    onalit
    iesfort he purpose ofchange.He shoul dr ecognize thateach

    587
    per sonorcommuni tyhasahi erar chyofv alues.Hemustbecomesensi ti
    vet o
    ever ythingt hatishappeni ngar oundhi m.Hei salwaysl earningandev ery
    i
    nci dentt eacheshi m somet hing.Hemustal soacceptwi thoutf earorwor ry
    thatt heoddsar eal way sagai nsthi m andbepr eparedforthat.
    5. Freeand Open Mi nd– Hemusthavea f lexi
    blepersonal i
    ty,nota r igid
    structur et hatbr eaks down when somet hing unexpect ed happens.The
    organi zerwhi le wor king wi tht he communi tydoes nothav e anyhi dden
    agendaorpr econcei vedi deas.
    6. Discer ningandCr i
    ticalEye– t heor ganizershoul dbeabl etol ookatt he
    situationanddi fferentiateitcr it
    ically.Anysi t
    uat i
    onhast obev i
    ewedt hrough
    theey esoft hepeopl ecar efullyandf i
    ndouti tsmagnitude,sy mptomsand
    causes.
    7. Recept i
    veEar– t heor gani zerhast obeagoodandanat t
    ent i
    veli
    stener,
    l
    isteni ngt ot hepeopl eandt ot heirpr oblem.Theor gani
    zerwhi lewor ki
    ngwi th
    thecommuni t
    yhast obeper sonhav i
    ngpat i
    entlist
    eni
    nganddoesnotbe
    per soncommandi ngov erthepeopl e.
    8. Flexibi l
    ity–not oosi tuationsar eexact lyalike.Conditi
    onscanchangei na
    shor ttimeandt heor ganizermustt hereforealway sbeonhi stoes.
    9. Tenaci t
    y–whi l
    eor gani zinghasi tsexcitementanddr amat i
    cmoment ,itisa
    tediouspr ocessandt heor gani zeri sof tent emptedtogi veup,buti fan
    organi zeri st enacious, hewi lllear nt oimprove.

    Thecommuni tyor ganizercanbegui dedbyt hef oll


    owingwheni ntegrati
    ngwi tht he
    communit
    y:
    • Int
    egrati
    ondoesnotmeani mbibi
    ngt hev icesofsomecommuni tymember s
    suchasexcessi vedrinkingandsmoki ng,gambl i
    ng,womani zingandshar i
    ngof
    sexi
    stjokes,
    • Moneyi sasensi ti
    veissue.Becar efulnott obef inanci
    all
    yi ndebtedt oany one
    andthinkt wicebeforelendingmoneyt ocommuni t
    ymember s.Ther eareal otof
    val
    uesat tachedt omoneywhi chmaygeti nt hewayoft heCOi nest abli
    shing
    equali
    tywithpeopl einthecommuni t
    y.
    • Checky ourselfwhenof f
    eredgift
    s.Ther eareinstanceswhengi f
    tof f
    eringsarea
    wayofbecomi ngbehol dent othegift
    -giver
    .Also,thismannerofr elati
    ngi soften
    associat
    edwi t
    habusiv epracti
    cesofsomegov er
    nmentextensi onwor kers.

    588

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