ORGANI

SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURANDANALYSI
S

RATI
ONALEANDAI
MSOFTHECOURSE

Under
standi
ngt hecompl exi
tyofOr gani
zati
onalBehaviorisessent ialforeff
ective
management.Whet her special
izi
ng i nf i
nance,mar keti
ng or pr oducti
on – al l
managementi nvol
ves managementofpeopl e and inherent
ly aboutor gani
zing,
i
nfl
uencingandmodifyi
ngt hebehaviorofother
s.

Thesoci alsci
enceshavedevelopedwaysofanal yzi
ngandunder st
andi
ngoursoci al
behaviorinorgani
zat
ions,wit
hparti
cul
aremphasi sontheorgani
zati
onswithinwhich
wewor kandar eemployed.Thi
scoursetakesasocialsci
enceper
specti
vetoint
roduce
studentstothekeyconceptsandtheoret
icalappr
oachesusedinunderst
andingsocial
behaviorinorgani
zat
ions,andtomodelsoforgani
zati
onalanal
ysi
s.

Thiswi l
lbedonewi t
hr efer
encet oexampl
esofcontemporaryorganizat
ionsand
againstt
hebackgroundofthecurrentcompl
exandt
urbul
entchangesinthecontexti
n
whichorgani
zat
ionsoperate.

Wear
eyett
oexami
net
hebehavi
orofi
ndi
vidual
sandhowt
heyi
nter
actwi
theach
ot
heri
ndi
ff
erentwor
kpl
aceor
gani
zat
ions.Topi
csi
ncl
udedef
ini
ngor
gani
zat
ional
behavi
or;per
cept
ion,
per
sonal
it
yandemot
ions;val
ues,
att
it
udesandt
hei
ref
fect
sin
t
hewor
kpl
ace;mot
ivat
ingsel
fandot
her
s;wor
kingi
nteams;communi
cat
ion,
conf
li
ct
andnegot
iat
ion;powerandpol
it
ics;l
eader
shi
p;deci
sionmaki
ng,
creat
ivi
tyandet
hics;
andor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
eandchange.

OBJECTI
VES

Byt
heendoft
hecour
sest
udent
swi
ll
:

 Understand the nature oft he busi ness organi

zat i
on and its det
ermini
ng
characteri
sti
cs
 Understand the bases f or confl
ictand co- operati
on int he employment
rel
ati
onship
 Beabl etodisti
nguishbetweenleader ship,powerandaut hori
ty,andunderst
and
thenatureofdecisionmaking
 Beabl etorecognizediff
erentorganizationalstr
uctures–andbeawar eofhow
the struct
ure ofor gani
zati
ons is changi ng as a r esponse to a changi
ng
envi
ronment

1
  Expl
aint
heor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
oralchal
lengesi
nthewor
kenvi
ronment
.
 I
ll
ust
rat
ethei
mpactofper
cept
ion,
per
sonal
it
yandemot
ions.
 Ar
ti
cul
atet
hei
mpactofval
ues,
att
it
udesandt
hei
nfl
uenceofdi
ver
sit
y.
 Descr
ibet
hemaj
ormot
ivat
ionalt
heor
iest
hataf
fectt
hewor
kpl
ace.
 Cr
it
iquet
hemostpopul
arbasesofpoweri
nor
gani
zat
ions.
 Descr
ibei
ndi
vidualandgr
oup,
creat
ive,
andet
hicaldeci
sionmaki
ng.
 Def
ineor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
eandel
abor
ateoni
tsi
mpactonper
for
mance.

ASSESSMENT

Thecoursewil
lbeassessedthroughcoursei
ndivi
dualworks,t
est
s,groupworkanda
fi
nalexaminat
ion atthe end ofthe Semest
er.The course works and t
est
s wi
ll
cont
ri
bute40%whiletheexaminati
onwil
lcont
ri
butetheremaini
ng60%.

Regul
arattendanceofl
ect
uresandact
ivepart
ici
pat
ionandcont
ribut
ioni
nclasswi
llbe
i
mportantandcanbeusedatanyt i
meifneedari
sesasayardst
ickforgr
adi
ng.

2
DETAI
LEDCOURSEOUTLI
NE

1.I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OR

I
mpor
tanceofor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
or

Fact
orst
hataf
fector
gani
zat
ional
behavi
or

Concept
sofor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
or

Scopeofor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
or

Or
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
ormodel
s

2.LEARNI
NG

Component
soft
hel
ear
ningpr
ocess

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingl
ear
ning

Lear
ningt
heor
ies

Lear
ningandor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
or

3.PERSONALI
TYPERCEPTI
ONANDATTRI
BUTES

PERSONALI
TY

Reasonsf
orst
udy
ingper
sonal
it
y

Per
sonal
it
ymoder
ati
ngf
act
ors

Maj
orper
sonal
it
yat
tr
ibut
es

Theor
iesofper
sonal
it
y

PERCEPTI
ON

Per
cept
ionpr
ocess

Howt
omanaget
heper
cept
ualpr
ocess

3
 Fact
orst
hataf
fectt
heper
cept
ualpr
ocess

I
mpor
tanceofper
cept
ioni
nor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
or

St
agesoft
heper
cept
ualpr
ocess

Causesofper
cept
ualdi
stor
ti
on

ATTRI
BUTI
ON

At
tr
ibut
iont
heor
ies

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingat
tr
ibut
ion

Fundament
alat
tr
ibut
ioner
ror
s

4.ATTI
TUDESANDVALUES

ATTI
TUDES

Component
sofat
ti
tudes

At
ti
tudemoder
ati
ngvar
iabl
es

Bar
ri
erst
ochangi
ngat
ti
tudes

Met
hodst
oover
comebar
ri
erst
ochangi
ngat
ti
tudes

Typesofat
ti
tudes

Consequencesofat
ti
tudet
owar
dsor
gani
zat
ional
per
for
mance

VALUE

I
mpor
tanceofval
ues

Cl
assi
fyi
ngval
ues

Val
uesaccor
dingt
oHof
stede

5.MOTI
VATI
ON

4
 Component
sofmot
ivat
ion

I
mpor
tanceofmot
ivat
ion

Model
sofmot
ivat
ion

Mot
ivat
iont
heor
ies

Mot
ivat
orsi
nanor
gani
zat
ion

Wayst
omot
ivat
eempl
oyees

Howt
omot
ivat
epeopl
ethePRI
DESYSTEM

6.GROUPDYNAMI
CSANDDECI
SIONMAKI
NG

Typesofgr
oups

Reasonsf
orj
oini
nggr
oups

Gr
oupf
ormat
ionst
ages/
devel
opment

Causesofgr
oupconf
li
ct

I
mpr
ovi
nggr
oupper
for
mance

Gr
oupdeci
sionmaki
ngt
echni
ques

I
mpactofgr
oupdeci
sionmaki
ng

Deci
sionenvi
ronment

Typesofdeci
sions

Appr
oachest
opr
obl
em sol
vinganddeci
sionmaki
ng

7.TEAMSI
NANORGANI
SATI
ON

Di
ff
erencebet
weent
eamsandgr
oups

Types/
cat
egor
iesoft
eams

5
 Requi
rement
sforef
fect
ivet
eams

8.LEADERSHI
P

I
mpor
tanceofl
eader
shi
ptoanor
gani
zat
ion

Leader
shi
pst
yles

Leader
shi
ptheor
ies

9.ORGANI
SATI
ONALCONFLI
CTANDSTRESSMANAGEMENT

ORGANI
SATI
ONALCONFLI
CT

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofconf
li
ct

Sour
cesofconf
li
ct

Conf
li
ctmanagementt
echni
ques

STRESSMANAGEMENT

Sour
cesofst
ress

Ef
fect
sofj
obst
ress

Consequencesofst
ress

Met
hodsofmanagi
ngst
ress

10.
ORGANI
SATI
ONALCULTURE;CHANGEMANAGEMENTANDSTRUCTURE

ORGANI
SATI
ONALCULTURE

El
ement
sofor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
e

Typesofor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
e

Howt
ocr
eat
easust
ainabl
eor
gani
zat
ional
cul
tur
e

CHANGEMANAGEMENT

6
 Causesofor
gani
zat
ionalchange

Li
abi
li
ti
esofor
gani
zat
ionalchange

Kur
tLewi
n’sf
orcesf
iel
danal
ysi
s

I
mpor
tanceofor
gani
zat
ionalchange

Pl
annedchange

Typesofpl
annedchange

STRUCTURE

Concept
sofanor
gani
zat
ion

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingor
gani
zat
ional
str
uct
ure

Ef
fect
sofor
gani
zat
ionalst
ruct
ureonempl
oyeebehavi
or

Appr
oachest
oor
gani
zat
ionaldesi
gn

11.
POWERANDPOLI
TICS

POWER

Sour
cesofpower

Howpoweri
sacqui
red

Theor
iesofpower

POLI
TICS

Level
sofpol
it
ics

Pol
it
icalt
act
ics

Dubr
in’
sst
rat
egyf
orgai
ningpol
it
icalpoweri
nanor
gani
sat
ion

7
8
READI
NGLI
ST

1.BedeianG.A.andZamut
oF.R.(
1991)Or
gani
sat
ions:Theor
yandDesi
gn,
Dryder
Press:Chi
cago

2.BluntPet
er(
1985)Or
gani
sat
ionTheor
yandBehavi
or:AnAf
ri
canPer
spect
ive,
Longman:

a.NewYor
k

3.Chi
ldJ.(1984)Organi
sat
ion:AGui
det
oPr
obl
emsandPr
act
i 2nd Ed.
ce( )Paul
Chapman:London

4.Davi
sK.andNewst
rom W.J.(
1985)HumanBehavi
ouratwor
k:Or
gani
sat
ional
Behavi
our

7thEd.
a.( )McGr
aw-
Hil
l
:NewYor
k

5.DawsonS.(
1986)Anal
ysi
ngOr
gani
sat
ions,
Macmi
ll
an:London

6.Fi
ncham,R.and Rhodes,P.(
1988)TheI
ndi
vidual
,Wor
kand Or
gani
sat
ion:
Behavi
our
alSt
udi
es

a.forBusi
nessandManagementSt
udent
s,Wei
denf
eldandNi
col
sonLt
d:
London

7.Gi
bson,L.J,1997,Or
gani
zat
ions:Behav
ior
,st
ruct
ure,Pr
ocesses,McGr
aw-
Hil
l:
NewYork

8.Hersey
,P. ,Blanchar
d H.K.and Johnson E.D.(
1996)Managementof
Organi
sat
ionalBehavi
or:

a.Ut
il
isi
ngHumanResour
ces,
Prent
iceHal
l:NewJer
sey

9.Kamenka E.(
1989)Bur
eaucr
acy:New Per
spect
iveson t
hePast
,Bl
ackwel
l:
Oxf
ord

10.
Lut
hansF.(
1988)Or
gani
sat
ionBehavi 4thEd.
our( )McGr
aw-
Hil
l:Si
ngapor
e

11.
Lut
hans,
F.,
2002,
Organi
zat
ionalBehavi 9thEd.
or( );McGr
aw-
Hil
l:NewYor
k

12.
Moor
ehead,G.andGr
if
fi
n,W.R.(
1995)
,Or
gani
sat
ionalBehavi
or:Managi
ng

9
 Peopl
eand

a.Or
gani
sat
i 4thEd.
ons( )Hought
onMi
ff
in:Bost
on

13.
Peter
s,T.and Aust
in,T.1985,A Passi
on f
orExcel
lence:The Leader
shi
p
Dif
fer
ence,
NewYork:

a.Random House

14.
Pugh D.
S.(Ed.)(1988)Or
gani
sat
ion Theor
y:Sel
ect
ed Readi 2nd Ed.
ngs,( )
Pengi
um:London

15.
Sal
l
isE.andSal
li
sK.(
1988)Peopl
einOr
gani
sat
ions,
Macmi
ll
an:London

16.
Simon A.H.(
1976)Admi
nist
rat
ive Behavi
our
:A St
udyofDeci
sion-
Maki
ng
Processi
n

a.Admi
nist
rat
iveOr
gani
sat
i 3rdEd)
on( ,TheFr
eePr
ess:NewYor
k

17.
Stewar
tR.( 1985)The Real
it
y ofOr
gani
sat
ions:A Gui
de f
orManager
s,
Macmill
an:London

10
I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OR

Thest
udyofOr
gani
zat
ionalBehavi
or(
OB)i
sver
yint
erest
ingandchal
lengi
ngt
oo.I
tis
r
elat
edt
oindi
vidual
s,gr
oupofpeopl
ewor
kingt
oget
heri
nteams.Thest
udybecomes
mor
e chal
lengi
ng when si
tuat
ionalf
act
orsi
nter
act
.The st
udy ofor
gani
zat
ional
behavi
orr
elat
est
otheexpect
edbehavi
orofani
ndi
viduali
ntheor
gani
zat
ion.Not
wo
i
ndi
vidual
sar
eli
kel
ytobehavei
nthesamemanneri
napar
ti
cul
arwor
ksi
tuat
ion.I
tis
t
hepr
edi
ctabi
li
tyofamanageraboutt
heexpect
edbehavi
orofani
ndi
vidual
.Ther
ear
e
noabsol
utesi
nhumanbehavi
or.I
tist
hehumanf
act
ort
hati
scont
ri
but
oryt
othe
pr
oduct
ivi
ty hence t
he st
udy ofhuman behavi
ori
simpor
tant
.Gr
eati
mpor
tance
t
her
efor
emustbeat
tached t
othest
udy.Resear
cher
s,managementpr
act
it
ioner
s,
psychol
ogi
sts,and soci
alsci
ent
ist
s mustunder
stand t
he ver
y cr
edent
ial
s ofan
i
ndi
vidual
,hi
sbackgr
ound,soci
alf
ramewor
k,educat
ionalupdat
e,i
mpactofsoci
al
gr
oupsandot
hersi
tuat
ionalf
act
orsonbehavi
or.Manager
sunderwhom ani
ndi
vidual
i
swor
kingshoul
dbeabl
etoexpl
ain,
predi
ct,
eval
uat
eandmodi
fyhumanbehavi
ort
hat
wi
lll
argel
ydependuponknowl
edge,ski
llandexper
ienceoft
hemanageri
nhandl
ing
l
argegr
oupofpeopl
eindi
ver
sesi
tuat
ions.Pr
eempt
iveact
ionsneedt
obet
akenf
or
humanbehavi
orf
orecast
ing.Theval
uesyst
em,emot
ionali
ntel
li
gence,or
gani
zat
ional
cul
tur
e,j
ob desi
gn and t
he wor
k envi
ronmentar
eimpor
tantcausalagent
sin
det
ermi
ninghumanbehavi
or.Causeandef
fectr
elat
ionshi
ppl
aysani
mpor
tantr
olei
n
how an i
ndi
viduali
sli
kel
yto behavei
n a par
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ion and i
tsi
mpacton
pr
oduct
ivi
ty.An appr
opr
iat
eor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
ecan modi
fyi
ndi
vidualbehavi
or.
Recentt
rends exi
sti
nlayi
ng gr
eat
erst
ress on or
gani
zat
ionaldevel
opmentand
i
mbi
bingaf
avor
abl
eor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
eineachi
ndi
vidual
.Ital
soi
nvol
vesf
ost
eri
ng
at
eam spi
ri
tandmot
ivat
ionsot
hatt
heor
gani
zat
ionalobj
ect
ivesar
eachi
eved.

Thef
iel
doft
heor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
ordoesnotdependupondeduct
ionsbasedon
gutf
eel
ingsbutat
tempt
stogat
heri
nfor
mat
ionr
egar
dingani
ssuei
nasci
ent
if
ic
mannerundercont
rol
ledcondi
ti
ons.I
tusesi
nfor
mat
ionandi
nter
pret
sthef
indi
ngsso
t
hatt
hebehavi
orofani
ndi
vidualandgr
oupcanbecanal
izedasdesi
red.Lar
genumber
ofpsychol
ogi
sts,soci
alsci
ent
ist
sand academi
cianshascar
ri
ed outr
esear
ch on

11
var
ious i
ssues r
elat
ed t
o or
gani
zat
ion behav
ior
.Empl
oyee per
for
mance and j
ob
sat
isf
act
ion ar
edet
ermi
nant
sofaccompl
ishmentofi
ndi
vidualand or
gani
zat
ional
goal
s.Or
gani
zat
ions have been setup t
oful
fi
llneeds oft
he peopl
e.I
ntoday’
s
compet
it
ivewor
ld,
theor
gani
zat
ionshavet
obegr
owt
h-or
ient
ed.Thi
sispossi
blewhen
pr
oduct
ivi
tyi
sensur
edwi
thr
espectt
oquant
it
yofpr
oductt
obepr
oducedwi
thzer
o
er
ror qual
it
y.Empl
oyee absent
eei
sm and t
urnover has a negat
ive i
mpacton
pr
oduct
ivi
ty.Empl
oyeewhoabsent
sfr
equent
lycannotcont
ri
but
etowar
dspr
oduct
ivi
ty
and gr
owt
h oft
heor
gani
zat
ion.I
nthesamemanner
,empl
oyeet
urnovercauses
i
ncr
eased cost of pr
oduct
ion.Job sat
isf
act
ion i
s a maj
or f
act
or t
o anal
yse
per
for
mance ofan i
ndi
vidualt
owar
dshi
swor
k.Sat
isf
ied wor
ker
sar
e pr
oduct
ive
wor
ker
s who cont
ri
but
etowar
ds bui
ldi
ng an appr
opr
iat
e wor
k cul
tur
ein an
or
gani
zat
ion. Or
gani
zat
ions ar
e composed of number of i
ndi
vidual
s wor
king
i
ndependent
lyorcol
lect
ivel
yint
eams,
andnumberofsucht
eamsmakesadepar
tment
andnumberofsuchdepar
tment
smakesanor
gani
zat
ion.I
tisaf
ormalst
ruct
ureand
al
ldepar
tment
shavet
ofunct
ioni
nacoor
dinat
edmannert
oachi
evet
heor
gani
zat
ional
obj
ect
ive.I
tist
her
efor
eimpor
tantf
oral
lempl
oyeest
opossessaposi
ti
veat
ti
tude
t
owar
ds wor
k.They need t
ofunct
ion i
n congeni
alat
mospher
e and accompl
ish
assi
gnedgoal
s.I
tisal
soi
mpor
tantf
ormanager
stodevel
opanappr
opr
iat
ewor
k
cul
tur
e.Useofaut
hor
it
y,del
egat
ionofcer
tai
npower
stosubor
dinat
es,
divi
sionofl
abor
,
ef
fi
cient communi
cat
ion, benchmar
king, r
e-engi
neer
ing, j
ob r
e-desi
gn and
empower
mentar
esomeoft
hei
mpor
tantf
act
orssot
hatanor
gani
zat
ioncanf
unct
ion
aswel
l-
oil
edmachi
ne.Thi
sisnotonl
yappl
icabl
etomanuf
act
uri
ngor
gani
zat
ionsbut
al
sot
oser
viceandsoci
alor
gani
zat
ions
Or
gani
zat
ionalBehavi
or(
OB)canbedef
inedast
heunder
standi
ng,pr
edi
cti
onand
managementofhumanbehavi
orbot
hindi
vidual
lyori
nagr
oupt
hatoccurwi
thi
nan
or
gani
zat
ion.

Or
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
ori
sthest
udyofhow peopl
ebehavebot
hindi
vidual
lyand
wi
thi
ninf
ormalandf
ormalgr
oups.Ever
yor
gani
zat
ion’
sper
for
mancei
sul
ti
mat
ely
dependentont
hemot
ivat
ionall
evel
sofi
tshumanr
esour
cesandt
hewi
ll
ingnessand
abi
li
tyofpeopl
etowor
khar
moni
ousl
yandef
fect
ivel
ytowar
dst
heaccompl
ishmentof

12
shar
edgoal
s.I
nthi
scour
se,youwi
llexpl
oreandexami
net
hei
nter
rel
ati
onshi
psof
i
ndi
vidualper
sonal
it
y and wor
k,t
he char
act
eri
sti
cs ofor
gani
zat
ions and t
hei
r
envi
ronment
sandt
hechal
lengespr
esent
edbyt
heever
-changi
ngcombi
nat
ionof
t
hesef
act
ors.

DEFI
NITI
ONOFOB
“
Organi
zat
ionalbehavi
ori
saf
iel
d ofst
udy t
hati
nvest
igat
es t
he i
mpactt
hat
i
ndi
vidual
s,gr
oups and or
gani
zat
ionalst
ruct
ure have on behavi
orwi
thi
nthe
or
gani
zat
ion,f
ort
hepur
poseofappl
yingsuchknowl
edget
owar
dsi
mpr
ovi
ngan
or
gani
zat
ionalef
fect
iveness”
. Theabovedef
ini
ti
onhast
hreemai
nel
ement
s;f
ir
st
or
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
ori
sani
nvest
igat
ivest
udyofi
ndi
vidual
sandgr
oups,
second,
the
i
mpactofor
gani
zat
ionalst
ruct
ureonhumanbehavi
orandt
het
hir
d,t
heappl
icat
ionof
knowl
edget
oachi
eveor
gani
zat
ionalef
fect
iveness.Thesef
act
orsar
eint
eract
ivei
n
nat
ureandt
hei
mpactofsuchbehavi
ori
sappl
iedt
ovar
ioussyst
emssot
hatt
hegoal
s
ar
e achi
eved.The nat
ure ofst
udy ofor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
ori
sinvest
igat
ive t
o
est
abl
i
shcauseandef
fectr
elat
ionshi
p.

OB i
nvol
vesi
ntegr
ati
on ofst
udi
esunder
taken r
elat
ing t
o behavi
oralsci
encesl
ike
psychol
ogy,soci
ology,ant
hropol
ogy,economi
cs,soci
alpsychol
ogy and pol
it
ical
sci
ence.Ther
efor
e,or
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
ori
sacompr
ehensi
vef
iel
dofst
udyi
nwhi
ch
i
ndi
vidual
,gr
oupandor
gani
zat
ionalst
ruct
urei
sst
udi
edi
nrel
ati
ont
oor
gani
zat
ional
gr
owt
h and or
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
e,i
n an envi
ronmentwher
eimpactofmoder
n
t
echnol
ogyi
sgr
eat
.Theai
m oft
hest
udyi
stoensur
ethatt
hehumanbehavi
our
cont
ri
but
est
owar
dsgr
owt
hoft
heor
gani
zat
ionandgr
eat
eref
fi
ciencyi
sachi
eved.
Or
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
orcanbedef
inedas–“
thest
udyandappl
icat
ionofknowl
edge
abouthumanbehavi
orr
elat
edt
oot
herel
ement
sofanor
gani
zat
ionsuchasst
ruct
ure,
t
echnol
ogy and soci
al syst
ems (
LM Pr
asad)
. St
ephen P Robi
ns def
ines
“
Organi
zat
ionalbehavi
orasasyst
emat
icst
udyoft
heact
ionsandat
ti
tudest
hat
peopl
eexhi
bitwi
thi
nor
gani
zat
ions.
”Ithasbeenobser
vedt
hatwegener
all
yfor
m our
opi
nionbasedont
hesympt
omsofani
ssueanddonotr
eal
lygot
other
ootcauseof

13
t
hehappeni
ng.Sci
enceofor
gani
zat
ionalbehav
iori
sappl
iedi
nnat
ure.Di
sci
pli
nesl
ike
psychol
ogy,ant
hropol
ogyandpol
it
icalsci
encehavecont
ri
but
edi
nter
msofvar
ious
st
udi
esandt
heor
iest
othef
iel
dofor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
or.Al
eadershoul
dbeabl
eto
communi
cat
ewi
thhi
ssubor
dinat
eandkeept
hem i
npi
ctur
east
othehappeni
ngsi
n
t
heor
gani
zat
ion.Peopl
epr
omot
eor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
eformut
ualbenef
it
.Pol
i
ticsi
s
of
ten used t
o cr
eat
e conf
li
ctwi
tht
he ai
m ofenl
argi
ng sel
f-
powerbase t
othe
det
ri
ment
alofor
gani
zat
ionalgr
owt
h.Pol
it
ics,i
nIndi
ancont
exthasmadei
nroads
basedonr
eli
gion,cast
esyst
em i
nthedeci
sionmaki
ngpr
ocesswhi
chhasl
edt
o
f
ormat
ionofi
nfor
malgr
oupsi
ntheor
gani
zat
iont
hatof
tenexpl
oitt
heor
gani
zat
ionf
or
f
ulf
il
lmentofper
sonalgoal
s att
he costofor
gani
zat
ionalgoal
s.Conf
li
ctand
mani
pul
ati
ngpowerbasesneedt
obehandl
edi
nanappr
opr
iat
emannert
omodi
fy
human behavi
or and st
imul
ate var
ious i
ndi
vidual
s t
owar
ds achi
evi
ng hi
gher
pr
oduct
ivi
ty.Powerdynami
cspl
aysasi
gni
fi
cantr
olei
nor
gani
zat
ionsi
tuat
ionsi
n
di
ff
erentenvi
ronment
.

Cont
ri
but
ingFi
eldst
oOr
gani
zat
ionalBehavi
or
1.Psychol
ogy:Psychol
ogy i
s an appl
ied sci
ence,whi
ch at
tempt
sto expl
ain
humanbehavi
ori
napar
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ionandpr
edi
ctsact
ionsofi
ndi
vidual
s.
Psy
chol
ogi
stshavebeenabl
etomodi
fyi
ndi
vidualbehavi
orl
argel
ywi
tht
hehel
p
ofvar
iousst
udi
es.I
thascont
ri
but
edt
owar
dsvar
ioust
heor
iesonl
ear
ning,
mot
ivat
ion,per
sonal
it
y,t
rai
ning and devel
opment
,theor
ies on i
ndi
vidual
deci
sionmaki
ng,l
eader
shi
p,j
obsat
isf
act
ion,per
for
manceappr
aisal
,at
ti
tude,
egost
ate,j
obdesi
gn,wor
kst
ressandconf
li
ctmanagement
.St
udi
esoft
hese
t
heor
iescan i
mpr
oveper
sonalski
ll
s,br
ing changei
n at
ti
tudeand devel
op
posi
ti
veappr
oacht
oor
gani
zat
ionalsyst
ems.Var
iouspsychol
ogi
calt
est
sar
e
conduct
ed i
n t
he or
gani
zat
ions f
or sel
ect
ion of empl
oyees,measur
ing
per
sonal
it
y at
tr
ibut
es and apt
it
ude.Var
ious ot
her di
mensi
ons ofhuman
per
sonal
it
yar
eal
someasur
ed.Thesei
nst
rument
sar
esci
ent
if
ici
nnat
ureand
havebeenf
inal
izedaf
teragr
eatdealofr
esear
ch.Fi
eldofpsychol
ogycont
inues
t
o expl
ore new ar
eas appl
icabl
etot
he f
iel
d ofor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
or.
Cont
ri
but
ionofpsychol
ogyhasenr
ichedt
heor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
orf
iel
d.

14
2.Soci
ology:Sci
enceofSoci
ologyst
udi
est
hei
mpactofcul
tur
eongr
oupbehavi
or
andhascont
ri
but
edt
oal
argeext
entt
othef
iel
dofgr
oup-
dynami
cs,r
olest
hat
i
ndi
vidualpl
ays i
nthe or
gani
zat
ion,communi
cat
ion,nor
ms,st
atus,power
,
conf
li
ctmanagement
,for
malor
gani
zat
iont
heor
y,gr
ouppr
ocessesandgr
oup
deci
sion-
maki
ng.
3.Pol
it
icalsci
ence:Pol
it
icalsci
encehascont
ri
but
edt
othef
iel
dofOr
gani
zat
ional
behavi
or.St
abi
li
tyofgover
nmentatnat
ionall
eveli
s one maj
orf
act
orf
or
pr
omot
ion ofi
nter
nat
ionalbusi
ness,f
inanci
ali
nvest
ment
s,expansi
on and
empl
oyment
.Var
iousgover
nmentr
ulesandr
egul
ati
onspl
ayaver
ydeci
siver
ole
i
ngr
owt
hoft
heor
gani
zat
ion.Al
lor
gani
zat
ionshavet
oabi
debyt
her
ulesoft
he
gover
nmentoft
heday.
4.Soci
alpsychol
ogy:Wor
kingor
gani
zat
ionsar
efor
malassembl
yofpeopl
ewho
ar
eassi
gnedspeci
fi
cjobsandpl
ayavi
talr
olei
nfor
mul
ati
nghumanbehavi
or.I
t
i
sasubj
ectwher
econceptofpsychol
ogyandsoci
ologyar
ebl
endt
oachi
eve
bet
terhumanbehavi
ori
nor
gani
zat
ion.Thef
iel
dhascont
ri
but
edt
omanage
change,gr
oupdeci
sion-
maki
ng,communi
cat
ionandabi
li
tyofpeopl
eint
he
or
gani
zat
ion,
tomai
ntai
nsoci
alnor
ms.
5.Ant
hropol
ogy:I
tisaf
iel
dofst
udyr
elat
ingt
ohumanact
ivi
ti
esi
nvar
iouscul
tur
al
andenvi
ronment
alf
ramewor
ks.I
tunder
standsdi
ff
erencei
nbehavi
orbasedon
val
uesyst
em ofdi
ff
erentcul
tur
esofv
ari
ouscount
ri
es.Thest
udyi
smor
e
r
elevantt
oor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
ort
odayduet
ogl
obal
izat
ion,mer
ger
sand
acqui
sit
ionsofvar
iousi
ndust
ri
es.Theadventoft
he21stcent
uryhascr
eat
eda
si
tuat
ion wher
ein cr
oss-
cul
tur
alpeopl
e wi
llhave t
o wor
kin one par
ti
cul
ar
i
ndust
ry.Manager
swi
llhavet
odealwi
thi
ndi
vidual
sandgr
oupsbel
ongi
ngt
o
di
ff
erentet
hni
ccul
tur
esand exer
ciseadequat
econt
roloreven channel
ize
behavi
ori
nthedesi
reddi
rect
ionbyappr
opr
iat
elymani
pul
ati
ngvar
iouscul
tur
al
f
act
ors.Or
gani
zat
ionbehavi
orhasusedt
hest
udi
esoncompar
ati
veat
ti
tudes
andcr
oss-
cul
tur
alt
ransact
ions.Envi
ronmentst
udi
esconduct
edbyt
hef
iel
dof
ant
hropol
ogy ai
ms t
o under
stand or
gani
zat
ionalhuman behavi
orso t
hat
acqui
sit
ionsandmer
ger
sar
esmoot
h.Or
gani
zat
ionsar
eboundbyi
tscul
tur
e
t
hati
sfor
medbyhumanbei
ngs.

15
I
MPORTANCEOFOB
Whi
lewor
kingi
nanor
gani
zat
ion,
iti
sver
yimpor
tantt
ounder
standot
her
sbehavi
oras
wel
las make ot
her
s under
stand our
s.I
n or
dert
o mai
ntai
n a heal
thy wor
king
envi
ronment
,weneedt
oadaptt
otheenvi
ronmentandunder
standt
hegoal
sweneed
t
oachi
eve.Thi
scanbedoneeasi
lyi
fweunder
standt
hei
mpor
tanceofOB.

Fol
lowi
ngpoi
ntsbr
ingoutt
hei
mpor
tanceofOB−

 I
thel
psi
nexpl
aini
ngt
hei
nter
per
sonalr
elat
ionshi
psempl
oyeesshar
ewi
theach
ot
heraswel
laswi
tht
hei
rhi
gherandl
owersubor
dinat
es.

 Thepr
edi
cti
onofi
ndi
vidualbehavi
orcanbeexpl
ained.

 I
tbal
ancest
hecor
dialr
elat
ionshi
pinanent
erpr
isebymai
ntai
ningef
fect
ive
communi
cat
ion.

 I
tassi
stsi
nmar
ket
ing.

 I
thel
psmanager
stoencour
aget
hei
rsub-
ordi
nat
es.

 Anychangewi
thi
ntheor
gani
zat
ioncanbemadeeasi
er.

 I
t hel
ps i
n pr
edi
cti
ng human behav
ior & t
hei
r appl
icat
ion t
o achi
eve
or
gani
zat
ional
goal
s.

 I
thel
psi
nmaki
ngt
heor
gani
zat
ionmor
eef
fect
ive.

Thusst
udyi
ngor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
orhel
psi
nrecogni
zingt
hepat
ter
nsofhuman
behavi
orandi
ntur
nthr
owsl
ightonhow t
hesepat
ter
nspr
ofoundl
yinf
luencet
he
per
for
manceofanor
gani
zat
ion.

ORGANI
ZATI
ONALCOMPONENTSTHATNEEDTOBEMANAGED

1.Peopl
e:Peopl
ear
ethemai
ncomponentofanyor
gani
zat
iont
hathast
obe

16
 managed.Ever
yindi
vidualhasaper
sonalgoalt
obeachi
eved.Or
gani
zat
ions
musti
dent
if
ytheneedspect
rum ofi
ndi
vidual
sandt
akesui
tabl
est
epsf
ori
ts
f
ulf
il
lmentt
oenabl
ethem t
oper
for
m ef
fect
ivel
ysot
hatt
heycompl
etet
hei
r
al
lot
tedt
aski
nti
me.Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weent
hewor
ker
s,wi
thsubor
dinat
esand
super
ior
sshoul
dbeest
abl
i
shedbasedonf
ullunder
standi
ngandcompl
etef
ait
h
basedonmut
ualt
rustsot
hati
tiseasyt
ocommuni
cat
eandunder
standeach
ot
her
’svi
ews.Wor
kteamsandGr
oupspl
ayavi
talr
olei
ntheor
gani
zat
ion.
I
ndi
vidualmayhavet
okeephi
sper
sonali
nter
estasi
dei
fitconf
li
ctswi
tht
eam
orgr
oup goal
s.I
tist
he t
eam goal
s,accompl
ishmentofwhi
ch cont
ri
but
e
t
owar
ds achi
evi
ng or
gani
zat
ional goal
s. Apar
tfr
om managi
ng i
nter
nal
wor
kfor
ce,i
tisal
soi
mpor
tantt
omanagecust
omer
swhoar
etheendper
sons
usi
ng or
gani
zat
ion’
s pr
oduct
s orser
vices.Ut
mosti
nter
estofst
akehol
der
s,
gover
nment
,empl
oyees,soci
algr
oups and non-
gover
nment
alor
gani
zat
ions
(
NGOs)mustbekepti
nmi
ndast
heypl
ayadomi
nantr
olei
nthesoci
ety.Apar
t
f
rom t
heabove,adequat
econsi
der
ati
onshoul
dal
sobegi
vent
ocompet
it
ors,
r
egul
ator
yagenci
es,
laborf
orce,
suppl
ier
sandr
esour
ceper
sons.
2.St
ruct
ure:Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofor
gani
zat
ions,f
ormalandi
nfor
mal
.Inf
ormal
or
gani
zat
ionsdonothaveaspeci
fi
edst
ruct
ure.For
malor
gani
zat
ionsar
ebui
ld
basedupont
heobj
ect
ivesetf
ori
t.Or
gani
zat
ionalst
ruct
urei
nsuchor
gani
zat
ion
i
shi
erar
chi
cali
nnat
ure,wi
thpeopl
eateachl
evelhavi
ngt
hei
rownobj
ect
ives,
whi
chcont
ri
but
est
owar
dsf
ulf
il
lmentofover
allor
gani
zat
ionalobj
ect
ives.I
n
suchor
gani
zat
ionpeopl
eatl
owerl
evel
srepor
ttohi
gherl
evelmanager
s.The
t
iersy
stem hast
hepr
inci
pleofuni
tyofcommandi
nbui
lti
nit
.Theor
gani
zat
ion
st
ruct
uremaydependupont
hesi
ze,numberofpr
oduct
s/ser
vicespr
oduced,
ski
lland exper
ience oft
he empl
oyees,manager
ialst
affand geogr
aphi
cal
l
ocat
ion oft
he or
gani
zat
ion.An or
gani
zat
ion mayhave sever
all
evel
sand
pyr
ami
dli
keor
gani
zat
ionalst
ruct
ureorf
latst
ruct
ure.Theef
fi
ciencyoft
he
or
gani
zat
ion wi
lldepend upon t
he f
ree f
low oft
he i
nfor
mat
ion,ef
fi
cient
communi
cat
ionsyst
em pr
evai
li
ngi
ntheor
gani
zat
ion,
wel
l-
def
inedaut
hor
it
yand
r
esponsi
bil
it
y suppor
ted by det
ail
ed pol
ici
es,r
ules and r
egul
ati
ons.The
or
gani
zat
ionmusthavewel
llai
doutsyst
ems,
whi
char
eunder
stoodbywor
ker
s,

17
 super
visor
sandmanager
s.Thel
eadermustkeepopenmi
ndwhi
ledeal
ingwi
th
subor
dinat
esandexer
cisef
ullcont
rolovervar
ioussyst
ems,l
evel
sandensur
e
pl
annedpr
oduct
ivi
tyandachi
evehi
ghl
evelofj
obsat
isf
act
ion.
3.Technol
ogy:Managi
ngt
echnol
ogyi
sani
mpor
tantj
obofanymanagement
.Iti
s
an i
mpor
tantel
ementofany uni
t.Sel
ect
ion oft
echnol
ogy,pr
ocur
ement
,
i
nst
all
ati
on,
oper
ati
onandmai
ntenancei
simpor
tantandnocompr
omi
seshoul
d
bemadei
npr
ocur
ingl
atestoradvancedt
echnol
ogy.Var
ioussyst
emsandsub-
syst
emsshoul
dsuppor
ttechnol
ogyt
hatexi
stsi
nanor
gani
zat
ion.Basedont
he
t
echnol
ogy
,an or
gani
zat
ion shoul
dfor
mul
atej
ob st
ruct
ure and r
esul
tant
pr
ocur
ementofhumanr
esour
cesot
hatt
heyar
ecompl
iment
aryt
oeachot
her
.
Adequat
e at
tent
ion i
s al
so be pai
dto ser
vice i
ndust
ry.Forexampl
e an
appr
opr
iat
edr
il
l,pr
ocedur
esar
einst
all
edi
nhospi
tali
ndust
ryt
oensur
ethatt
he
pat
ient
s’r
ecor
dis mai
ntai
ned pr
oper
ly.On l
ine oper
ati
ons ofal
lsy
stems
r
elat
ing t
o admi
ssi
on r
ecor
d,pastt
reat
ment
,dr
ugs,avai
labi
li
ty ofbeds,
schedul
eofoper
ati
onsmai
ntai
nedsot
hatt
hel
evelofpat
ient
ssat
isf
act
ioni
s
r
aised.I
nmi
nimum numberofdays,maxi
mum number
sofpat
ient
sshoul
dbe
t
reat
ed.Var
ious pr
ocesses r
equi
red t
oregul
atet
hese f
unct
ions f
orm t
he
i
mpor
tantpar
tofser
vicei
ndust
ry.
4.Jobs:Jobi
sanassi
gnmentassi
gnedt
oani
ndi
vidual
.Itencompassesvar
ious
t
asks wi
thi
nit
.Forexampl
e,Per
sonnelmanagerwant
stof
il
lup t
wel
ve
vacanci
esi
npr
oduct
iondepar
tmentwi
thi
nthr
eemont
hs.Jobwi
llhavevar
ious
t
asks i
nbui
lti
nitl
ike desi
gni
ng ofj
ob speci
fi
cat
ion,sel
ect
ion ofmedi
a,
adver
ti
singvacanci
es,
schedul
ingofsel
ect
ionandr
ecr
uit
ingpr
ocess.Manager
,
t
her
efor
ehavet
omanagevar
ioust
askst
oaccompl
ishapar
ti
cul
arj
ob.Thi
smay
f
orm a par
t of manager
ialf
unct
ions.Adequat
e del
egat
ion,super
visi
on,
appl
icat
ionofvar
iouscont
rolt
echni
quesmakest
hej
obsi
mpl
erf
ort
hemanager
.
I
ntr
oduct
ionofcomput
ershavemademanager
ialf
unct
ionssi
mpl
er,
asr
equi
red
i
nfor
mat
ioni
savai
labl
efordeci
sionmaki
ng.
5.Pr
ocesses:Managementofpr
ocessesandi
tsi
nter
-dependencei
sver
ycr
uci
al
t
ohi
ghpr
oduct
ivi
tyandhi
gherj
obsat
isf
act
ion.Whati
simpor
tantf
oramanager
i
stoensur
ehi
ghmor
aleoft
hewor
kfor
ce.Toensur
ethi
s,hemusti
dent
if
y

18
 var
iousmanager
ialdi
ctums.Sel
ectappr
opr
iat
esubor
dinat
est
ocar
ryoutaj
ob
basedonapt
it
ude,per
sonal
it
ytr
ait
s,ment
albui
ldupandat
ti
tude.Heshoul
d
al
soi
nvol
vehi
msel
fandl
eadsubor
dinat
esbyper
sonalexampl
e.I
ndef
ense
ser
vices,i
tist
hequal
it
yofl
eader
shi
pthatmot
ivat
est
roopst
oachi
evenear
i
mpossi
blet
askwher
eever
ythi
ng appear
sto begoi
ng wr
ong.Var
iousr
ole
model
sassi
stl
eader
sini
dent
if
yingast
owhi
chpr
ocess,met
hodorappr
oach
woul
dbesui
tabl
etomoul
dsubor
dinat
esi
nsui
tabl
efr
amet
hatmayber
equi
red
byanyor
gani
zat
ion.Not
hingmot
ivat
eswor
ker
sbet
teri
fyougi
vet
hem t
hei
r
ent
it
lement
sinf
ullandt
rai
nthem t
otakeuphi
gherj
obs.Bydoi
ngso,manager
mustdevel
opandbui
ldanor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
ethatwi
llbi
ndempl
oyeest
oa
common cul
tur
albond.Dur
ing day-
to-
day f
unct
ions,manager
s mustbe
t
ranspar
entandmai
ntai
nahi
ghdegr
eeofval
uesyst
em anddi
spl
ayet
hical
behavi
or.Ther
ear
enoshor
tcut
stot
hisandwi
llpayr
ichdi
videndsi
nti
mest
o
come.
6.Ext
ernalEnvi
ronment
:Whatwehavesof
ardi
scussedi
svar
iouscomponent
sof
anor
gani
zat
iont
hatshoul
dbemanagedpr
oper
ly.Ext
ernalenvi
ronmental
so
pl
aysani
mpor
tantr
olei
nmanagi
ngt
hepoi
ntsdi
scussedabove.Whenwet
alk
aboutmanagi
ngpeopl
eint
heor
gani
zat
ion,
whatwehavet
ost
udyandmanage
i
sthei
nfl
uenceofcul
tur
eandi
tsi
mpactont
hei
ndi
vidual
.Amanagershoul
d
exami
neast
ohow hei
sgoi
ngt
ocopeupwi
tht
hechanges.St
udyofext
ernal
envi
ronment i
s ver
y wi
de and encompasses economi
c,cul
tur
al,soci
al,
gover
nmentr
ulesandr
egul
ati
ons,
legalaspect
s,pol
it
icalcl
imat
e,demogr
aphi
cs
andi
tsi
mpact
.Ifonescanst
heext
ernalenvi
ronmentt
hati
spr
evai
li
ngi
nIndi
an
cont
ext
,onewi
llf
indt
hati
ndi
vidual
sar
eraci
ngt
ocat
chupt
heuppercl
assasi
t
r
elat
est
ost
andar
dsofl
ivi
ng,mat
eri
alpossessi
on,hi
ghereducat
ion,at
temptt
o
copywest
erncul
tur
e,f
oodhabi
ts,dr
essi
ngpat
ter
nandt
hel
ike.Beaut
ypar
lor
s,
pubsandcybercaf
esar
oundeachcor
nerar
eanampl
eevi
denceoft
hei
mpact
ofext
ernalenvi
ronment
.Thi
str
endhasani
mpactonwhatpr
oduct
sorser
vices
ar
eonpr
ior
it
yint
hesoci
etyandi
ndi
cat
est
hebehavi
orofani
ndi
vidual
.Ift
he
abovef
act
orsar
eeval
uat
edappr
opr
iat
ely,amanagerwi
llbeabl
etoex
ami
ne
andpr
edi
cthumanbehavi
ori
ntheor
gani
zat
ion.I
tist
her
efor
eimpor
tantt
o

19
 eval
uat
e mar
ket si
tuat
ion,compet
it
ors,and avai
labi
li
ty of r
aw mat
eri
al,
t
echnol
ogy
,avai
l
abi
li
tyofski
ll
ed,semiski
ll
ed and non-
ski
ll
ed per
sonnel
.In
addi
ti
on,
eval
uat
epr
evai
li
ngcul
tur
eandhowi
ndi
vidual
sar
eli
kel
ytor
espondt
o
t
hecal
loft
heor
gani
zat
ion.Somef
act
orsl
ikegover
nmentr
ules,andpol
it
ical
st
abi
li
tykeepchangi
ng,t
heor
gani
zat
ionsmustcat
erf
orsuchcont
ingenci
es.
Managermustt
her
efor
ekeepi
nmi
ndt
hei
nter
nalandext
ernalf
act
orsand
maket
hebestamal
gam andwor
ktoachi
eveor
gani
zat
ionalef
fect
iveness.

CONCEPTSOFOB

TheconceptofOBi
sbasedont
wokeyel
ement
snamel
y−

 Nat
ureofpeopl
e

 Nat
ureoft
heor
gani
zat
ion

1.Na
tur
eof
Peopl
e
I
nsi
mpl
ewor
ds,nat
ureofpeopl
eist
hebasi
cqual
it
iesofaper
son,ort
hechar
act
er
t
hatper
soni
fi
es an i
ndi
vidualt
hey can be si
mil
aroruni
que.Tal
king att
he
or
gani
zat
ionall
evel
,somemaj
orf
act
orsaf
fect
ingt
henat
ureofpeopl
ehavebeen
hi
ghl
ight
ed.Theyar
e−

 I
ndi
vidualDi
ff
erence−I
tist
hemanager
ialappr
oacht
owar
dseachempl
oyee
i
ndi
vidual
ly,t
hati
sone-
on-
oneappr
oachandnott
hest
ati
sti
calappr
oach,t
hat
i
s,avoi
danceofsi
ngl
erul
e.Exampl
e−Managershoul
dnotbebi
asedt
owar
ds
anypar
ti
cul
arempl
oyeer
athershoul
dtr
eatt
hem equal
lyandt
rynott
ojudge
anyoneonanyot
herf
act
orapar
tfr
om t
hei
rwor
k.

 Per
cept
ion−I
tisauni
queabi
li
tyt
oobser
ve,l
ist
enandconcl
udesomet
hing.I
t
i
sbel
ievi
ngi
noursenses.I
nshor
t,t
hewaywei
nter
prett
hingsandhaveour
poi
ntofvi
ewi
sourper
cept
ion.Exampl
e−Amant
hinksl
ateni
ghtpar
ti
esspoi
l
yout
hwhi
leAnami
kat
hinksl
ateni
ghtpar
ti
esar
eawayofmaki
ngnewf
ri
ends.
Her
eweseebot
hAmanandAnami
kahavedi
ff
erentper
cept
ionaboutt
hesame

20
 t
hing.

 A whol
eper
son−Asweal
lknow t
hataper
son’
sski
llorbr
aincannotbe
empl
oyedwehavet
oempl
oyeeawhol
eper
son.Ski
llcomesf
rom backgr
ound
andknowl
edge.Ourper
sonall
if
ecannotbet
otal
lysepar
atedf
rom ourwor
kli
fe,
j
ustl
ikeemot
ionalcondi
ti
onsar
enotsepar
abl
efr
om physi
calcondi
ti
ons.So,
peopl
efunct
ioni
sthef
unct
ioni
ngofat
otalhumanbei
ngnotaspeci
fi
cfeat
ure
ofhumanbei
ng.

 Mot
ivat
ed behavi
or− I
tist
he behavi
ori
mpl
ant
ed or caused by some
mot
ivat
ionf
rom someper
son,
grouporevenasi
tuat
ion.I
nanor
gani
zat
ion,
we
canseet
wodi
ff
erentt
ypesofmot
ivat
edempl
oyees−

o Posi
ti
vemot
ivat
ion−Encour
agi
ngot
her
stochanget
hei
rbehavi
ororsay
compl
eteat
askbyl
uri
ngt
hem wi
thpr
omot
ionsoranyot
herpr
ofi
ts.
Exampl
e−“
Ifyoucompl
etet
his,
youwi
llgai
nthi
s.”

o Negat
ive mot
ivat
ion− For
cing or war
ning ot
her
sto change t
hei
r
behavi
orel
set
her
ecanbeser
iousconsequences.Exampl
e−“
Ifyou
don’
tcompl
etet
his,
youwi
llbedepr
ivedf
rom t
heof
fi
ce.
”

 Val
ueofper
son−Empl
oyeeswantt
obeval
uedandappr
eci
atedf
ort
hei
rski
ll
s
andabi
li
ti
esf
oll
owedbyoppor
tuni
ti
eswhi
chhel
pthem devel
opt
hemsel
ves.

2.Na
tur
eof
Orga
niz
ati
on
Nat
ureofor
gani
zat
ionst
atest
hemot
ive/
obj
ect
iveoft
hef
ir
m.I
tist
heoppor
tuni
ti
esi
t
pr
ovi
desi
nthegl
obalmar
ket
.Ital
sodef
inest
heempl
oyees’st
andar
d;i
nshor
t,i
t
def
inest
hechar
act
eroft
hecompanybyact
ingasami
rr
orr
efl
ect
ionoft
hecompany.
Wecanunder
standt
henat
ureofanyf
ir
m wi
thi
tssoci
alsyst
em,
themut
uali
nter
esti
t
shar
esandt
hewor
ket
hics.

Letust
akeaqui
ckl
ookatal
lthesef
act
ors−

 Soci
alsyst
em −Ever
yor
gani
zat
ionsoci
ali
zeswi
thot
herf
ir
ms,
thei
rcust
omer
s,

21
 orsi
mpl
ytheout
erwor
ld,andal
lofi
tsempl
oyees-t
hei
rownsoci
alr
olesand
st
atus.Thei
rbehavi
ori
smai
nlyi
nfl
uencedbyt
hei
rgr
oupaswel
lasi
ndi
vidual
dr
ives.Soci
alsyst
em ar
eoft
wot
ypesnamel
y−

o For
mal−Gr
oupsf
ormedbypeopl
ewor
kingt
oget
heri
naf
ir
m orpeopl
e
t
hat bel
ong t
o t
he same cl
ub i
s consi
der
ed asf
ormal soci
al
syst
em.Exampl
e−Asuccesspar
tyaf
terget
ti
ngapr
oject
.

o I
nfor
mal− A gr
oup off
ri
ends,peopl
e soci
ali
zing wi
th ot
her
sfr
eel
y,
enj
oyi
ng,
par
tyi
ngorchi
ll
ing.
Exampl
e−Bi
rt
hdaypar
ty.

 Mut
ual i
nter
est− Ever
y or
gani
zat
ion needs peopl
e and peopl
e need
or
gani
zat
ionst
osur
viveandpr
osper
.Basi
cal
lyi
t’
samut
ualunder
standi
ng
bet
ween t
he or
gani
zat
ion and t
he empl
oyees t
hathel
ps bot
hreach t
hei
r
r
espect
iveobj
ect
ives.Exampl
e−Wedeposi
tourmoneyi
nthebank,i
nret
urn
t
hebankgi
vesusl
oan,
int
erest
,et
c.

 Et
hics−Theyar
ethemor
alpr
inci
plesofani
ndi
vidual
,gr
oup,
andor
gani
zat
ion.
I
nor
dert
oat
tr
actandkeepval
uabl
eempl
oyees,
ethi
calt
reat
menti
snecessar
y
and some mor
alst
andar
ds need t
o be set
.Inf
act
,compani
es ar
e now
est
abl
ishi
ngcodeofet
hicst
rai
ningr
ewar
dfornot
abl
eet
hicalbehavi
or.

SCOPEOFOB

I
n aver
ybr
oad sense,t
hescopeofOBi
stheext
entt
o whi
ch i
tcan gover
n or
i
nfl
uencet
heoper
ati
onsofanor
gani
zat
ion.ThescopeofOBi
ntegr
ates3concept
s
r
espect
ivel
y−

1.I
ndi
vi
dua
lBe
hav
ior
I
tist
hest
udyofi
ndi
vidual
’
sper
sonal
it
y,l
ear
ning,at
ti
tudes,mot
ivat
ion,and j
ob
sat
isf
act
ion.I
nthi
sst
udy,wei
nter
actwi
thot
her
sinor
dert
ost
udyaboutt
hem and
makeourper
cept
ionaboutt
hem.

Exampl
e−Theper
sonali
nter
view r
oundi
sconduct
edt
oint
eractwi
thcandi
dat
est
o

22
checkt
hei
rski
ll
s,apar
tfr
om t
hosement
ionedi
nther
esume.

2.I
nte
r-i
ndi
vi
dua
lBe
hav
ior
I
tist
hest
udyconduct
edt
hroughcommuni
cat
ionbet
weent
heempl
oyeesamong
t
hemsel
vesaswel
last
hei
rsubor
dinat
es,
under
standi
ngpeopl
e’
sleader
shi
pqual
it
ies,
gr
oupdynami
cs,
groupconf
li
cts,
powerandpol
i
tics.

Exampl
e−Ameet
ingt
odeci
del
istofnewboar
dmember
s.

3.Gr
oupBe
hav
ior
Gr
oupbehavi
orst
udi
est
hef
ormat
ionofor
gani
zat
ion,st
ruct
ureofor
gani
zat
ionand
ef
fect
ivenessofor
gani
zat
ion.Thegr
oupef
for
tsmadet
owar
dst
heachi
evementof
or
gani
zat
ion’
sgoal
isgr
oupbehavi
or.I
nshor
t,i
tist
hewayhowagr
oupbehaves.

OBMODELS

Or
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
orr
efl
ect
sthebehavi
oroft
hepeopl
eand managemental
l
t
oget
her
,iti
sconsi
der
edasaf
iel
dofst
udynotj
ustadi
sci
pli
ne.Adi
sci
pli
nei
san
accept
edsci
encet
hati
sbasedupont
heor
eti
calf
oundat
ion,wher
easOBi
sani
nter
-
di
sci
pli
nar
yappr
oachwher
eknowl
edgef
rom di
ff
erentdi
sci
pli
nesl
ikepsychol
ogy,
soci
ology
,ant
hropol
ogy,
etc.ar
eincl
uded.I
tisusedt
osol
veor
gani
zat
ionalpr
obl
ems,
especi
all
ythoser
elat
edt
ohumanbei
ngs.

Ther
ear
efourdi
ff
erentt
ypesofmodel
sinOB.Wewi
llt
hrow somel
ightoneachof
t
hesef
ourmodel
s.

1.Aut
ocr
ati
cMode
l
Ther
ootl
eveloft
hismodeli
spowerwi
thamanager
ialor
ient
ati
onofaut
hor
it
y.The
empl
oyeesi
nthi
smodelar
eor
ient
edt
owar
dsobedi
enceanddi
sci
pli
ne.Theyar
e
dependentont
hei
rboss.Theempl
oyeer
equi
rementt
hati
smeti
ssubsi
stence.The
per
for
mancer
esul
tisl
ess.

23
The maj
ordr
awbacksoft
hismodelar
e peopl
e ar
e easi
lyf
rust
rat
ed,i
nsecur
it
y,
dependencyont
hesuper
ior
s,mi
nimum per
for
mancebecauseofmi
nimum wage.

2.Cus
todi
alMode
l
Ther
ootl
eveloft
hismodeli
seconomi
cresour
ceswi
thamanager
ialor
ient
ati
onof
money.Theempl
oyeesi
nthi
smodelar
eor
ient
edt
owar
dssecur
it
yandbenef
it
s
pr
ovi
dedt
othem.Theyar
edependentont
heor
gani
zat
ion.Theempl
oyeer
equi
rement
t
hati
smeti
ssecur
it
y.

Thi
smodeli
sadapt
edbyf
ir
mshavi
nghi
ghr
esour
cesast
henamesuggest
.Iti
s
dependentoneconomi
cresour
ces.Thi
sappr
oachdi
rect
stodependonf
ir
mrat
her
t
hanonmanagerorboss.Theygi
vepassi
vecooper
ati
onast
heyar
esat
isf
iedbutnot
st
rongl
yencour
aged.

3.Suppor
ti
veMode
l
Ther
ootl
eveloft
hismodeli
sleader
shi
pwi
thamanager
ialor
ient
ati
onofsuppor
t.The
empl
oyeesi
nthi
smodelar
eor
ient
edt
owar
dst
hei
rjobper
for
manceandpar
ti
cipat
ion.
Theempl
oyeer
equi
rementt
hati
smeti
sst
atusandr
ecogni
ti
on.Theper
for
mance
r
esul
tisawakeneddr
ives.

Thi
smodeli
sdependentonl
eader
shi
pst
ri
ve.I
tgi
vesacl
imat
etohel
pempl
oyees
gr
owandaccompl
isht
hej
obi
nthei
nter
estoft
heor
gani
zat
ion.Managementj
obi
sto
assi
stt
heempl
oyee’
sjobper
for
mance.Empl
oyeesf
eelasenseofpar
ti
cipat
ion.

4.Col
l
egi
alMode
l
Ther
ootl
eveloft
hismodeli
spar
tner
shi
pwi
thamanager
ialor
ient
ati
onoft
eamwor
k.
Theempl
oyeesi
nthi
smodelar
eor
ient
edt
owar
dsr
esponsi
blebehavi
orandsel
f-
di
sci
pli
ne. The empl
oyee r
equi
rement t
hat i
s met i
s sel
f-
act
ual
izat
ion. The
per
for
mancer
esul
tismoder
atezeal
.

Thi
sisanext
ensi
onofsuppor
ti
vemodel
.Thet
eam wor
kappr
oachi
sadapt
edf
ort
his
model
.Sel
f-
disci
pli
nei
smai
ntai
ned.Wor
ker
sfeelanobl
igat
iont
ouphol
dqual
it
y
st
andar
dfort
hebet
teri
mageoft
hecompany.Asenseof“
accept
”and“
respect
”is

24
seen.

Sampl
equest
ions
1.Def
ineor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
or.Whatar
evar
iousf
act
orst
hatar
econsi
der
edt
o
r
egul
atei
ndi
vidualbehavi
or?
2.Whatar
evar
iousf
iel
dst
hathavecont
ri
but
edt
othef
iel
dofor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
or?
Expl
aint
hei
rcont
ri
but
ions.
3.Expl
ain var
ious component
sthatshoul
d be t
aken car
e of whi
le st
udyi
ng
or
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
or.
4.Expl
aint
hef
iel
dofor
gani
zat
ional
behavi
orandwhyt
hest
udyi
schal
lengi
ng.

25
Case-
1

NATI
ONALCADETCORPS(
NCC)–ABOONFORSOCI
ALDEVELOPMENT

V.
G.Kondal
kar

Nat
ionalCadetCor
ps(
NCC)i
sanat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionhavi
ngj
uni
orwi
ngandseni
or
wi
ngbot
hforgi
rl
sandboys.Juni
orwi
ngNCCi
smeantf
orsecondar
yschooll
eveland
seni
orwi
ngi
sappl
icabl
eforcol
legest
udent
s.Theobj
ect
iveofNCCor
gani
zat
ioni
sto
i
ncul
cat
edi
sci
pli
nef
ort
heyout
hofournat
ion.AnAr
myOf
fi
ceroft
her
ankofLt
Gener
alcal
ledDi
rect
orGener
al(
DG)headsNCCor
gani
zat
ionatnat
ionall
evel
.The
or
gani
zat
ionhasavastnet
wor
kateachst
atel
evelheadedbyanof
fi
ceroft
her
ankof
Br
igadi
erknownasDeput
yDi
rect
orGener
al(
DDG)ofapar
ti
cul
arst
ate.I
never
yst
ate
t
her
ear
enumberofGr
oupHeadquar
ter
slocat
edati
mpor
tantci
ti
esdependi
ngupon
schoolandcol
legedensi
tyandcomposi
ti
ons.UnderGr
oupHeadquar
ter
sther
ear
e
numberofNCC Bat
tal
ions (
Boys/ Gi
rl
s).Numberofbat
tal
ions i
n each Gr
oup
Headquar
ter
svar
iesdependi
ngupont
hesi
zeoft
hear
ea.I
nthesamef
ashi
on,
number
ofgr
oupsunderaDDGvar
ies.NCCi
sappl
icabl
etoal
lschool
/col
legegoi
ngchi
ldr
en.I
t
i
s vol
unt
ary or
gani
zat
ion i
n nat
ure.DDGs,gr
oup commander
s and bat
tal
ion
commander
sor
gani
zevar
iousevent
sroundt
heyear
.Thesear
easunder
:

(
a)Par
ti
cipat
ioni
npr
ofessi
onal
trai
ningt
hati
ncl
udest
hef
oll
owi
ng:

–Weapont
rai
ning,
incl
udi
ngf
ir
ingorr
if
les,
stenguns,
li
ghtmachi
neguns.

–Dr
il
l.

–Fi
rstai
dtr
aini
ngi
nvar
iouscont
ingenci
es.

–Basi
cfi
eldcr
aftandguar
ddut
ies.

–Basi
cbat
tl
ecr
aftatal
evelofasect
ion(
sect
ioncompr
isesoft
enmen)

(
b)Or
gani
zat
ionoft
rai
ningcampswher
eteamwor
k,comr
adeshi
p,cooper
ati
onand
event
sment
ioni
n(a)abovear
epr
act
iced.Thet
rai
ningcampsar
egener
all
yoft
he
dur
ati
onoft
woweeks.Suchcampsar
ehel
dtwi
ceayear
.

26
(
c)Af
tercompl
eti
onoft
woandf
ouryear
soft
rai
ning,
Bcer
ti
fi
cat
ionandCcer
ti
fi
cat
es
r
espect
ivel
yar
eawar
dedt
othecadet
s.Thecer
ti
fi
cat
eshavepr
efer
encef
oradmi
ssi
on
t
ovar
iouspr
ofessi
onalcour
sesl
ikemedi
cine.I
tal
sohasawei
ghtagef
orgover
nment
j
obs.A per
son havi
ng C cer
ti
fi
cat
e need notappeari
nthe wr
it
ten exami
nat
ion
conduct
edbyUPSC f
orcommi
ssi
onedof
fi
cer
soft
hedef
enceser
viceswhi
chi
sa
maj
orconcessi
on.Suchst
udent
shavet
ofaceSer
viceSel
ect
ionBoar
dsdi
rect
,for
sel
ect
ioni
nthedef
enceser
vicesascommi
ssi
onedof
fi
cer
s.

(
d)I
ndi
vidualhavi
ngCcer
ti
fi
cat
ion(
whi
chi
sachi
evedaf
terf
ouryear
sofNCCt
rai
ning)
get
ssi
xmont
hsseni
ori
tyi
ndef
enceser
vices.

(
e)NCCi
sconsi
der
edasoneoft
hebestor
gani
zat
ionsofourcount
ry.Theor
gani
zat
ion
haspr
oducedbet
terci
ti
zens.

Dur
ingt
hecour
seoft
heat
tachment
,thecadet
sar
egi
venf
ullNCCki
t.Ref
reshmenti
s
pr
ovi
ded dur
ing par
ade days (
twi
ce a week)
.The cadet
s ar
e pr
ovi
ded meal
s,
t
ranspor
tat
ionandmedi
calf
aci
li
ty.Thet
rai
ningi
ntheor
gani
zat
ioni
sacost
lyaf
fai
rto
t
he exchequeroft
he st
ate gover
nment
.NCC of
fi
cer
s have t
oint
eractwi
th ci
vil
admi
nist
rat
ionatst
atel
evel
,di
str
ictl
evel
,andwi
thpr
inci
pal
s/di
rect
orsoft
hecol
leges.
Theyhavet
odealwi
thl
ocalpopul
ati
on,medi
calaut
hor
it
ies,RTO andal
lagenci
es
r
elat
edwi
thci
viladmi
nist
rat
ion.Thi
sinvol
vesadvancepl
anni
ng,
goodcommuni
cat
ion
andi
nter
-per
sonalr
elat
ionshi
p.Soci
al,cul
tur
alandet
hni
cact
ivi
ti
esar
epr
omot
edi
n
t
heNCC.Annualt
rai
ningcampsar
ehel
datst
ateornat
ionall
evel
.Cadet
s,devel
op
f
ri
endshi
pwi
thvar
iousi
ndi
vidual
sandl
ear
ntol
i
vei
nacommuni
tyenvi
ronmentdur
ing
t
rai
ningcamps.NCCcover
sland,
airandnavalbr
anchesandal
lcadet
sar
eputt
hrough
t
rai
ningi
ntheski
lldevel
opmentofr
espect
ivewi
ngs.

Quest
ions

Q.1.WhyNCCi
sconsi
der
edasoneoft
hebestor
gani
zat
ions.

Q.2.How doest
heor
gani
zat
ionr
elat
etof
iel
dofor
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
or?Whatar
e
var
iousagenci
est
hatt
heof
fi
cial
shavet
oint
eract
?

27
Q.3.Whatar
ethebenef
it
sofNCC?

Q.4.Howdoest
hemanagementi
nter
actwi
thex
ter
nalenvi
ronment
alf
orces?

Pr
act
icalAssi
gnment

28
Case-
2

OVERCOMI
NGABSENTEEI
SM ATUNI
QUESCHWEPPESLTD

Uni
queSchweppesLt
dwasmul
ti
nat
ionalPubl
i
cli
mit
edCompanywi
thi
tsheadof
fi
ce
at

London.Thecompany’
s51% shar
eswer
ehel
dbyUni
queand49% byGover
nment
f
inanci
alI
nst
it
uti
onsandi
ndi
vidualshar
ehol
der
s.Uni
queownst
hreef
act
ori
esand
t
hreepar
tl
ymanuf
act
uri
nguni
tsi
.e.t
heyhad6pr
imar
ymanuf
act
uri
nguni
tsl
ocat
edat
Jammu,
Nagpur
,Agr
a,Pune,
Gor
akhapurandHyder
abad.Thet
otalmanpoweri
nthese
si
xuni
tswas1900,andwashel
dbyMat
hew Thomasasmanagi
ngdi
rect
or.Fi
ve
di
rect
orsl
ooki
ngaf
tervar
iousf
inanci
alar
easl
iket
echni
cal
,oper
ati
ons,commer
cial
,
HRandmar
ket
ing,
suppor
tedhi
m.

Agr
auni
twassi
tuat
ednearMat
hur
awi
thamanpowercapaci
tyof450empl
oyees,
i
ncl
udi
ng41execut
ives,
12manager
sandr
emai
ningoper
ator
s.Ar
epr
esent
ati
veuni
on
wasal
sor
egi
ster
edi
nthenameofAssoci
ati
onofChemi
calWor
ker
sint
hecompany.
Thi
suni
twaswor
kingi
n3shi
ft
sandf
oral
lthesevendays.Theaver
ageageoft
he
empl
oyeeswasar
ound30year
s.Agr
auni
twast
heonl
yaut
omat
edpl
antamongt
he
pl
ant
sofUni
queI
ndi
a.I
thadauni
quef
eat
ureofcr
oss-
funct
ionalact
ivi
ti
esatt
he
manager
iall
evelwi
tht
her
esul
tast
rongnet
wor
kingwasobser
ved.Emphasi
son
f
inanci
alr
elat
ionsamongt
heempl
oyeeswasgi
vent
opr
omot
esi
mpl
if
iedwor
kingand
bet
terunder
standi
ngamongt
hem.Uni
quewasknownf
ori
tswel
far
efaci
li
ti
esl
ike–
f
reecant
een,
freet
ranspor
tat
ion,
freeuni
for
m,medi
calr
e-i
mbur
sementupt
o5%oft
he
gr
osssal
aryandal
lot
herbenef
it
saccor
dingt
othest
atut
orynor
ms.Theyal
sopr
ovi
de
wi
thhousi
ngl
oanf
aci
li
ti
est
oempl
oyeest
hroughHDFC andSt
ateBankofI
ndi
a.
Uni
que r
e-i
mbr
ued t
he i
nter
estamounton house l
oan exceedi
ng 4%.The l
oan
ent
it
lementi
sdependentupon t
hei
ncomeofwor
ker
s.I
nspi
teofal
lthef
aci
li
ti
es
pr
ovi
dedt
othewor
ker
sabsent
eei
sm wasver
yhi
ght
huscr
eat
ingpr
obl
emsi
nthe
pr
oduct
ion.I
nJul
y1995,HR execut
ive,Al
okGupt
arecei
vedacompl
aintf
rom l
ine
super
visor
,Pr
akashShar
mat
hatpr
oduct
ionwassuf
fer
ingduet
oabsent
eei
sm i
nhi
s
depar
tment
.Al
okGupt
awasper
plexed.Ther
easonbei
ngt
hatwi
th52weekl
yof
f,9

29
casuall
eavesand22ear
nedl
eavespr
ovi
dedt
othewor
ker
sinl
inewi
thFact
oryAct
1948underSect
ion52,
theabsent
eei
sm r
atewasst
il
l18%.I
nJanuar
y1996,
ameet
ing
wascal
ledbyAl
okGupt
aandi
nconsul
tat
ionwi
thPr
akashShar
ma,
itwasdeci
dedt
hat
war
ningshoul
dbegi
vent
ocr
oni
ccasesandt
hewor
ker
swhohadst
art
edr
emai
ning
absentshoul
dbecounsel
ed.I
nspi
teofdoi
ngt
hisnochangewasobser
vedunt
ilApr
il
1996.Al
ok Gupt
arepor
ted t
o Pr
iya Kumar
,Human r
esour
ces managerabout
i
ncr
easi
ngcompl
aint
srel
atedt
oabsent
eei
sm.Pr
iyaKumar
,Al
okGupt
aandPr
akash
Shar
mai
nabr
ainst
ormi
ngsessi
onconcl
udedt
hatpuni
shmentwasnott
hesol
uti
on.
AnI
ncent
iveschemewasf
eltt
obet
hesol
uti
ont
otheexi
sti
ngpr
obl
em.Thus,t
he
managementof
fer
edt
heempl
oyeest
heschemeofdoubl
ingt
heamountofannual
i
nter
estf
reel
oansf
rom Rs5000t
oRs10000t
othosewhower
eregul
aratt
hei
rwor
k.
Apl
anchal
kedoutf
ort
his:

(
a)Empl
oyeewhohadwor
kedf
ormor
ethan280daysoutof365dayswoul
dget

Rs10,
000i
nter
estf
reel
oan.Empl
oyeeswhower
epr
esentf
ormor
ethan230wor
king
day
s,amountoff
reel
oanwoul
dbeRs5000.Forl
esst
han230t
her
ewoul
dbenol
oan
f
aci
li
ti
es.

(
b)I
naper
iodof4mont
hs,i
fanempl
oyeeavai
lednol
eavet
henhewoul
dbeent
it
led
f
oraddi
ti
onalpaymentofRs500.I
fahal
f-
dayl
eave,
itwoul
dbeRs350andf
oroneday
l
eave i
twoul
d be Rs 250.Si
mil
arl
y,some wor
ker
s who had notshown any
i
mpr
ovementi
nthei
rat
tendance,i
twasdeci
dedt
hatchar
ge-sheetwoul
dbei
ssued.
However
,when t
hechar
gesheetwasi
ssued t
o such casest
heuni
on member
s
r
esi
sted.Ameet
ingcal
l
edbyPr
iyaKumari
nwhi
chhebr
ief
edaboutt
hepr
obl
em of
absent
eei
sm and j
ust
if
ied t
heact
ion t
aken byt
hemanagement
.Ul
ti
mat
elyuni
on
member
swer
econvi
ncedbuti
nsi
stedoncounsel
li
ngandi
ntr
oduci
ngnew i
ncent
ive
schemes i
nst
ead of di
sci
pli
nar
y act
ions al
one. Dur
ing counsel
li
ng sessi
ons
managementf
oundsomeoft
her
easonswhi
chl
edt
oabsent
eei
sm wer
ehi
ghsal
ary
,
f
est
ivalcel
ebr
ati
on,dualempl
oyment
,ver
ygoodf
ami
lybackgr
ound,agef
act
orand
def
ect
iver
ecr
uit
mentpol
ici
esasf
resherwer
etakenf
rom I
TIandwher
elessser
ious
aboutt
hei
rwor
kandl
essmot
ivat
edt
owar
dsaccompl
ishmentoft
heor
gani
zat
ional

30
goal
s.I
twasobser
vedi
nthebegi
nni
ngof1999,t
hatt
her
ateofabsent
eei
sm had
decr
easedf
rom 18% t
o16%.Buti
twasnotsat
isf
act
oryandhencemanagement
deci
dedt
oputi
nmor
eef
for
tsi
nthef
orm ofnewi
ncent
ivesschemeswhi
chwer
ebest
on soci
alr
ecogni
ti
on l
ike;t
ea par
ty,at
tendance awar
ds,r
ecogni
ti
on by seni
or
execut
ives atwor
k pl
ace and cel
ebr
ati
ng f
ami
ly day on 17 Sept
emberi
.e.
,on
Vi
shwakar
maJayant
i.Byt
heendof1999,
theyhadi
ntr
oducedal
lmonet
aryaswel
las
soci
albenef
it
sschemesyett
hreeempl
oyeesamongt
heni
neempl
oyeeswhohad
beeni
ssuedt
hechar
gesheeti
nSept
ember
,1998hadnotshownanyi
mpr
ovementand
r
emai
nedabsentf
ormor
ethan200daysoutof280wor
kingdays.Ther
efor
e,t
he
managementf
inal
lydeci
dedt
oter
minat
ethem,andt
ermi
nat
ionl
ett
erswer
eissuedt
o
t
hem.I
ntheyear2000,ar
emar
kabl
edecl
inewasf
oundi
nther
ateofabsent
eei
sm.I
t
hadr
educedf
rom 16%t
o12%.

QUESTI
ONS

1.I
n youropi
nion,whi
ch al
ter
nat
ivest
epswoul
d bemor
eef
fect
ivef
orr
educi
ng
absent
eei
sm?

2.Whati
sther
oleofnon-
fi
nanci
ali
ncent
ivesovert
hef
inanci
ali
ncent
ives?

3.Howdoyoueval
uat
ethei
mpactoft
ermi
nat
iononabsent
eei
sm?

31
LEARNI
NG

Lear
ningcanbedef
inedast
heper
manentchangei
nbehavi
orduet
odi
rectand
i
ndi
rectexper
ience.I
tmeanschangei
n behavi
or,at
ti
tudeduet
o educat
ion and
t
rai
ning,pr
act
iceandexper
ience.I
tiscompl
etedbyacqui
sit
ionofknowl
edgeand
ski
ll
s,whi
char
erel
ati
vel
yper
manent
.

COMPONENTSOFTHELEARNI
NGPROCESS

Thecomponent
sofl
ear
ningpr
ocessar
e:dr
ive,cuest
imul
i,r
esponse,r
einf
orcement
andr
etent
ion.

1.Dr
ive

Lear
ningf
requent
lyoccur
sint
hepr
esenceofdr
ive-anyst
rongst
imul
ust
hati
mpel
s
act
ion.Dr
ivesar
ebasi
cal
lyoft
wot
ypes-
pri
mar
y(orphysi
ologi
cal
);andsecondar
y(or
psy
chol
ogi
cal
).These t
wo cat
egor
ies ofdr
ives of
ten i
nter
actwi
th each ot
her
.
I
ndi
vidual
soper
ateundermanydr
ivesatt
hesamet
ime.Topr
edi
ctabehavi
or,i
tis
necessar
ytoest
abl
ishwhi
chdr
ivesar
est
imul
ati
ngt
hemost
.

2.CueSt
imul
i

Cuest
imul
iar
ethosef
act
orst
hatexi
sti
ntheenvi
ronmentasper
cei
ved byt
he
i
ndi
vidual
.Thei
deai
stodi
scovert
hecondi
ti
onsunderwhi
chst
imul
uswi
lli
ncr
ease
t
hepr
obabi
li
tyofel
ici
ti
ngaspeci
fi
cresponse.Ther
emaybet
wot
ypesiofst
imul
i
wi
thr
espectt
othei
rresul
tsi
nter
msofr
esponseconcer
ned:gener
ali
zat
ion and
di
scr
imi
nat
ion.

Gener
ali
zat
ionoccur
swhenar
esponsei
sel
ici
tedbyasi
mil
arbutnewst
imul
us.I
ftwo
st
imul
iar
eexact
lyal
ike,t
heywi
llhavet
hesamepr
obabi
li
tyofevoki
ngaspeci
fi
ed
r
esponse.The pr
inci
ple ofgener
ali
zat
ion has i
mpor
tanti
mpl
icat
ions f
orhuman

32
l
ear
ning.Becauseofgener
ali
zat
ion,aper
sondoesnothavet
o'compl
etel
yrel
ear
n
eachoft
henewt
asks.I
tal
lowst
hemember
stoadaptt
oover
allchangi
ngcondi
ti
ons
and speci
fi
c new assi
gnment
s.The i
ndi
vidualcan bor
row f
rom pastl
ear
ning
exper
iencest
oadj
ustmor
esmoot
hlyt
onewl
ear
ningsi
tuat
ions.

Di
scr
imi
nat
ioni
sapr
ocedur
einwhi
chanor
gani
zat
ionl
ear
nst
oemi
tar
esponset
oa
st
imul
usbutavoi
dsmaki
ngt
hesamer
esponset
oasi
mil
arbutsomewhatdi
ff
erent
st
imul
us.Di
scr
imi
nat
ion has wi
de appl
icat
ions i
n'or
gani
zat
ionalbehavi
or.For
exampl
e,asuper
visorcandi
scr
imi
nat
ebet
weent
woequal
lyhi
ghpr
oduci
ngwor
ker
s,
onewi
thl
owqual
it
yandot
herwi
thhi
ghqual
it
y.

3.Responses

Thest
imul
usr
esul
tsi
nresponses.Responsesmaybei
nthephysi
calf
orm ormaybe
i
nter
msofat
ti
tudes,f
ami
li
ari
ty,per
cept
ionorot
hercompl
exphenomena.I
nthe
above exampl
e,t
he super
visordi
scr
imi
nat
esbet
ween t
he wor
kerpr
oduci
ng l
ow
qual
it
ypr
oduct
sand t
he wor
kerpr
oduci
ng hi
gh qual
it
ypr
oduct
s,and posi
ti
vel
y
r
espondsonl
ytot
hequal
it
yconsci
ouswor
ker
.

4.Rei
nfor
cement

Rei
nfor
cementi
saf
undament
alcondi
ti
on ofl
ear
ning.Wi
thoutr
einf
orcement
,no
measur
abl
emodi
fi
cat
ionofbehavi
ort
akespl
ace.Rei
nfor
cementmaybedef
inedas
t
heenvi
ronment
alevent
'
saf
fect
ingt
hepr
obabi
li
tyofoccur
renceofr
esponseswi
th
whi
cht
heyar
eassoci
ated.

5.Ret
ent
ion

Thest
abi
li
tyofl
ear
nedbehavi
orovert
imei
sdef
inedasr
etent
ionandi
tscont
rar
yis
knownasf
orget
ti
ng.Someoft
hel
ear
ningi
sret
ainedoveraper
iodoft
imewhi
le
ot
her
smaybef
orgot
ten.

33
FACTORSAFFECTI
NGL
EARNI
NG
Lear
ningi
sbaseduponsomekeyf
act
orst
hatdeci
dewhatchangeswi
llbecausedby
t
hisexper
ience.The keyel
ement
sort
he maj
orf
act
orst
hataf
fectl
ear
ning ar
e
mot
ivat
ion,
pract
ice,
env
ironment
,andment
algr
oup.

Comi
ngbackt
othesef
act
orsl
etushaveal
ookont
hesef
act
ors−

 Mot
ivat
ion−Theencour
agement
,thesuppor
toneget
stocompl
eteat
ask,t
o
achi
eveagoali
sknownasmot
ivat
ion.I
tisaver
yimpor
tantaspectofl
ear
ning
asi
tact
sgi
vesusaposi
ti
veener
gyt
ocompl
eteat
ask.Exampl
e−Thecoach
mot
ivat
edt
hepl
ayer
stowi
nthemat
ch.

 Pr
act
ice−Weal
lknow t
hat”
Pract
icemakesusper
fect
”.I
nor
dert
obea
per
fect
ioni
storatl
eastcompl
etet
het
ask,i
tisver
yimpor
tantt
opr
act
icewhat
wehavel
ear
nt.Exampl
e−Wecanbeapr
ogr
ammeronl
ywhenweexecut
ethe
codeswehavewr
it
ten.

 Envi
ronment− Wel
ear
nfr
om oursur
roundi
ngs,wel
ear
nfr
om t
hepeopl
e
ar
ound us. They ar
e of t
wo t
ypes of envi
ronment – i
nter
nal and
ext
ernal
.Exampl
e−Achi
ldwhenathomel
ear
nsf
rom t
hef
ami
lywhi
chi
san
i
nter
nalenvi
ronment
,butwhensentt
oschooli
tisanext
ernalenvi
ronment
.

 Ment
algr
oup−I
tdescr
ibesourt
hinki
ngbyt
hegr
oupofpeopl
ewechoset
o
hangoutwi
th.I
nsi
mpl
ewor
ds,wemakeagr
oupoft
hosepeopl
ewi
thwhom
weconnect
.Itcanbef
orasoci
alcausewher
epeopl
ewi
tht
hesamement
ali
ty
wor
kint
hesamedi
rect
ion.Exampl
e−Agr
oupofr
eader
s,t
ravel
ers,
etc.

Thesear
ethemai
nfact
orst
hati
nfl
uencewhataper
sonl
ear
ns,t
hesear
ether
oot
l
evelf
orourbehavi
orandever
ythi
ngwedoi
sconnect
edt
owhatwel
ear
n.

LEARNI
NGTHEORI
ES

34
Lear
ningcanbeunder
stoodcl
ear
lywi
tht
hehel
pofsomet
heor
iest
hatwi
llexpl
ainour
behavi
or.Someoft
her
emar
kabl
etheor
iesar
e−

 Cl
assi
calCondi
ti
oni
ngTheor
y

 Oper
antCondi
ti
oni
ngTheor
y

 Soci
alLear
ningTheor
y

 Cogni
ti
veLear
ningTheor
y

1.Cl
ass
ica
lCondi
t
ioni
ngThe
ory
Thecl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ngoccur
swhenacondi
ti
onedst
imul
usi
scoupl
edwi
than
uncondi
ti
oned st
imul
us.Usual
ly
,the condi
ti
oned st
imul
us (
CS)i
s an i
mpar
ti
al
st
imul
us l
ike t
he sound ofa t
uni
ng f
ork,t
he uncondi
ti
oned st
imul
us (
US)i
s
bi
ologi
cal
lyef
fect
ivel
iket
het
ast
eoff
oodandt
heuncondi
ti
onedr
esponse(
UR)t
othe
uncondi
ti
onedst
imul
usi
sanunl
ear
nedr
efl
exr
esponsel
ikesal
ivat
ionorsweat
ing.

Af
tert
hiscoupl
ingpr
ocessi
srepeat
ed(
forexampl
e,somel
ear
ningmayal
readyoccur
af
terasi
ngl
ecoupl
ing)
,ani
ndi
vidualshowsacondi
ti
onedr
esponse(
CR)t
othe
condi
ti
oned st
imul
us,when t
he condi
ti
oned st
imul
us i
s pr
esent
ed al
one.The
condi
ti
onedr
esponsei
smost
lysi
mil
art
otheuncondi
ti
onedr
esponse,butunl
iket
he
uncondi
ti
oned r
esponse,i
tmustbe acqui
red t
hrough exper
ience and i
s near
ly
i
mper
manent
.

35
2.Ope
rant
Condi
t
ioni
ngThe
ory
Oper
antcondi
ti
oni
ngt
heor
yisal
soknownasi
nst
rument
alcondi
ti
oni
ng.Thi
stheor
yis
al
ear
ningpr
ocessi
nwhi
chbehavi
ori
ssensi
ti
vet
o,orcont
rol
ledbyi
tsout
comes.

Let
’st
akeanexampl
eofachi
ld.Achi
ldmayl
ear
ntoopenaboxt
ogett
hecandy
i
nsi
de,orl
ear
nto av
oidt
ouchi
ng a hotst
ove.I
n compar
ison,t
he cl
assi
cal
condi
ti
oni
ngdevel
opsar
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenast
imul
usandabehavi
or.Theexampl
e
canbef
urt
herel
abor
atedast
hechi
ldmayl
ear
ntosal
ivat
eatt
hesi
ghtofcandy
,ort
o
t
rembl
eatt
hesi
ghtofanangr
ypar
ent
.

I
nthe20t
hcent
ury,t
hest
udyofani
mall
ear
ningwascommandedbyt
heanal
ysi
sof
t
heset
wosor
tsofl
ear
ning,
andt
heyar
est
il
latt
hecor
eofbehavi
oranal
ysi
s.

36
3.Soc
ial
Lea
rni
ngThe
ory
Thekeyassumpt
ionsofsoci
all
ear
ningt
heor
yar
easf
oll
ows−

 Lear
ningi
snotexact
lybehavi
oral
;inst
eadi
tisacogni
ti
vepr
ocesst
hatt
akes
pl
acei
nasoci
alcont
ext
.

 Lear
ningcanoccurbyobser
vingabehavi
orandbyobser
vingt
heout
comesof
t
hebehavi
or(
knownasvi
car
iousr
einf
orcement
).

 Lear
ning i
ncl
udes obser
vat
ion, ext
ract
ion of i
nfor
mat
ion f
rom t
hose
obser
vat
ions,
andmaki
ngdeci
sionsr
egar
dingt
heper
for
manceoft
hebehavi
or
(
known as obser
vat
ionall
ear
ning ormodel
ing)
.Thus,l
ear
ning can occur
beyondanobser
vabl
echangei
nbehavi
or.

 Rei
nfor
cementpl
ays an i
mpor
tantr
olei
nlear
ning buti
s notcompl
etel
y
r
esponsi
blef
orl
ear
ning.

 The l
ear
ner i
s not a passi
ve r
ecei
ver of i
nfor
mat
ion. Under
standi
ng,
envi
ronment
,andbehavi
oral
lmut
ual
lyi
nfl
uenceeachot
her
.

37
4.Cogni
t
iveL
ear
ningThe
ory
Cogni
ti
on def
ines a per
son’
s i
deas, t
hought
s, knowl
edge, i
nter
pret
ati
on,
under
standi
ngabouthi
msel
fandenvi
ronment
.

Thi
stheor
yconsi
der
slear
ningast
heout
comeofdel
iber
atet
hinki
ngonapr
obl
em or
si
tuat
ionbaseduponknownf
act
sandr
espondi
ngi
nanobj
ect
iveandmor
eor
ient
ed
manner
.Itper
cei
vest
hataper
sonl
ear
nst
hemeani
ngofvar
iousobj
ect
sandevent
s
andal
sol
ear
nst
her
esponsedependi
ngupont
hemeani
ngassi
gnedt
othest
imul
i.

Thi
stheor
ydebat
est
hatt
hel
ear
nerf
ormsacogni
ti
vest
ruct
urei
nmemor
ywhi
ch
st
oresor
gani
zedi
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hevar
iousevent
sthatoccur
s.

Lear
ning&Or
gani
zat
ionalBehavi
or

Ani
ndi
vidual
’
sbehavi
ori
nanor
gani
zat
ioni
sdi
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
lyaf
fect
edbyl
ear
ning.

Exampl
e−Empl
oyeeski
ll
,manager
’sat
ti
tudear
eal
llear
ned.

Behav
iorcanbei
mpr
ovedbyf
oll
owi
ngt
hel
ist
edt
ips−

 Reduci
ngabsent
eei
sm byr
ewar
dingempl
oyeesf
ort
hei
rfai
rat
tendance.

38
 I
mpr
ovi
ngempl
oyeedi
sci
pli
nebydeal
ingwi
thempl
oyee’
sundesi
rabl
ebehavi
or,
dr
inki
ngatwor
kpl
ace,st
eal
ing,comi
ngl
ate,et
c.byt
aki
ngappr
opr
iat
eact
ions
l
ikeor
alr
epr
imands,
wri
tt
enwar
ningsandsuspensi
on.

 Devel
opi
ngt
rai
ningpr
ogr
amsmor
eof
tensoast
ogr
abt
het
rai
nees’at
tent
ion,
pr
ovi
der
equi
redmot
ivat
ionalpr
oper
ti
eset
c.

39
PERSONALI
TY

Per
sonal
i
tyi
sthecombi
nat
ionofchar
act
eri
sti
csorqual
it
iest
hatf
ormsaper
son’
s
uni
quei
dent
it
y.Per
sonal
it
yist
hesum t
otaloft
hewaysi
nwhi
chani
ndi
vidualr
eact
s
t
o and i
nter
act
s wi
th ot
her
s.Per
sonal
it
y appear
sto be a r
esul
tofbot
hthe
envi
ronment
alf
act
orsaswel
lasher
edi
tar
yfact
orsandmoder
atedbysi
tuat
ional
condi
ti
ons.Ever
yindi
vidualhasauni
que,per
sonalandmaj
ordet
ermi
nantofhi
s
behavi
ort
hatdef
ineshi
s/herper
sonal
it
y.

Reasonsf
orst
udyi
ngper
sonal
it
y

• Appl
icat
ionst
oassessment

• Appl
icat
ionst
opr
edi
cti
onandsel
ect
ion

• Appl
icat
ionst
ochange

I
ndi
vidualDi
ff
erences

• Managementofpeopl
ewoul
d bemuch easi
eri
fever
yonewer
ethesame
(
Amst
rong,
2000)
.

• Butweal
lhavedi
ff
erent
:

– Abi
li
ti
es,
per
sonal
it
ies,
backgr
ounds&cul
tur
e

– Gender
,di
sabi
li
ty,
raceandneeds.

I
nor
gani
zat
ionsi
ndi
vidual
sdi
ff
er:

• Compet
enci
es-
abi
li
ti
esandski
ll
s

– Const
ruct
s-t
he concept
ualf
ramewor
k whi
ch gover
ns how peopl
e
per
cei
vet
hei
renvi
ronment

– Expect
ati
ons-
whatpeopl
ehavel
ear
nedt
oexpectaboutt
hei
rownand
ot
her
s’behavi
or

40
 – Val
ues-
whatpeopl
ebel
ievet
obei
mpor
tant

PERSONALI
TYMODERATI
NGFACTORS

• Her
edi
ty-f
act
orst
hatar
edet
ermi
nedatconcept
ionl
ikephysi
calst
atur
e,f
aci
al
appear
ance,
gender
,temper
ament
,ener
gyl
evel
s(per
sonalt
rai
ts)

• Envi
ronment-t
hecul
tur
einwhi
chwewer
erai
sed,ourear
lycondi
ti
oni
ng,t
he
nor
msamongourf
ami
ly,f
ri
endsandsoci
algr
oups,andot
heri
nfl
uencest
hat
weexper
ience.Ani
ndi
vidual
’
sful
lpot
ent
iali
sdet
ermi
nedbyhow wel
lone
adj
ustt
otheenvi
ronment
.

• Si
tuat
ion – An i
ndi
vidual
’
s per
sonal
it
ychangesi
n di
ff
erentsi
tuat
ions,t
he
di
ff
erentdemandsofdi
ff
erentsi
tuat
ionscal
lfordi
ff
erentaspect
sofone’
s
per
sonal
it
y.

• Bi
ogr
aphi
calChar
act
eri
sti
cs:These ar
e bi
ologi
calchar
act
eri
sti
cs l
ike age,
genderandmar
it
alst
atust
hatmayi
mpactont
heempl
oyee’
sper
for
mance.

• Tenur
e:Thel
ongert
heper
sonst
aysont
hej
ob,accor
dingt
oresear
ch,t
hel
ess
l
ikel
yhe/shei
stol
eave.Tenur
eandj
obsat
isf
act
ionar
eposi
ti
vel
yrel
ated.

• Abi
li
ti
esandl
ear
ning:Whatonecandomadeupofi
ntel
lect
ualandphysi
cal
abi
li
ti
es

• Par
ent
ing;f
rom mot
her
sandf
ather
s,chi
ldr
ent
endt
otakei
nwhatt
heyar
e
exposedt
oint
hei
rear
li
eryear
s.

• Educat
ion and Job t
rai
ning;I
tis one way i
n whi
ch young peopl
elear
n
knowl
edgeandski
ll
s

• Mani
pul
ati
ngofr
ewar
ds;Thesear
eputi
npl
acet
orecogni
zeempl
oyeesf
or
t
hei
rachi
evement
sbutt
heyar
edonewi
tht
hemi
ndt
hator
gani
zat
ionsand
soci
etybel
ievet
hatpeopl
ecanl
ear
nandchanget
hei
rbehavi
or.

41
 • Fact
orst
hati
nfl
uence human behavi
ori
ncl
ude;emot
ions,r
iskavoi
dance,
st
ereot
ypi
ng,mal
ecompet
it
iveness.Nat
urepr
edi
sposesust
oactandi
nter
act
i
npar
ti
cul
arwaysIpar
ti
cul
arci
rcumst
ances.

MAJ
ORPERSONAL
ITYATTRI
BUTES
Fol
lowi
ngar
ethef
ivemaj
orper
sonal
it
yat
tr
ibut
est
hati
nfl
uenceOB−

1.LocusofCont
rol
Locusofcont
roli
sthecent
erofcont
rolofani
ndi
vidual
’
scodeofconduct
.Peopl
ecan
begr
oupedi
ntot
wocat
egor
iesi
.e.
,i
nter
nal
sandext
ernal
srespect
ivel
y.

Peopl
ewhoconsi
dert
hemsel
vesast
hemast
ersoft
hei
rownf
atesar
eknownas
i
nter
nal
s,whi
le,t
hosewhoaf
fi
rmt
hatt
hei
rli
vesar
econt
rol
ledbyout
sidef
orces
knownasext
ernal
s.

Bef
ore maki
ng any deci
sion,i
nter
nal
s act
ivel
y sear
ch f
ori
nfor
mat
ion,t
hey ar
e
achi
evementdr
iven,andwantt
ocommandt
hei
renvi
ronment
.Thus,i
nter
nal
sdowel
l
onj
obst
hatcr
avescompl
exi
nfor
mat
ionpr
ocessi
ng,
taki
ngi
nit
iat
iveandi
ndependent
act
ion.

Ext
ernal
s,ont
heot
herhand,ar
emor
ecompl
iant
,mor
ewi
ll
ingt
ofol
lowi
nst
ruct
ions,
so,
theydowel
li
nst
ruct
ured,
rout
inej
obs.

2.Machi
avel
li
ani
sm
Machi
avel
li
ani
sm i
sbei
ng pr
act
ical
,emot
ional
lydi
stant
,and bel
ievi
ng t
hatends
j
ust
if
ymeans.

Machi
avel
li
ansar
eal
wayswant
ingt
owi
nandar
egr
eatper
suader
s.Her
ear
ethe
si
gni
fi
cantf
eat
uresofahi
gh-
machi
ndi
vidual
s−

 Hi
gh-
Machspr
eferpr
eci
sei
nter
act
ionsr
athert
hanbeat
ingaboutt
hebush.

 Hi
gh-
Machst
endt
oimpr
ovi
se;t
heydonotnecessar
il
yabi
debyr
ulesand
r
egul
ati
onsal
lthet
ime.

42
  Hi
gh-
Machsgetdi
str
act
edbyemot
ionaldet
ail
sthatar
eir
rel
evantt
othe
out
comeofapr
oject
.

3.Sel
f-
est
eem
I
tist
heext
entupt
owhi
chpeopl
eei
therl
ikeordi
sli
ket
hemsel
ves.Sel
f-
Est
eem i
s
di
rect
lyr
elat
edt
otheex
pect
ati
onsofsuccessandon-
the-
jobsat
isf
act
ion.

I
ndi
vidual
swi
thhi
ghsel
f-
est
eem t
hinkt
hatt
heyhavewhati
ttakest
osucceed.So,
t
heyt
akemor
echal
lengeswhi
lesel
ect
ingaj
ob.

Ont
heot
herhand,i
ndi
vidual
swi
thl
ow sel
f-
est
eem ar
emor
esuscept
ibl
etoex
ter
nal
di
str
act
ions.So,t
heyar
emor
eli
kel
ytoseekt
heappr
ovalofot
her
sandt
oadaptt
he
bel
ief
sandbehavi
orsoft
hoset
heyr
espect
.

4.Sel
f-
moni
tor
ing
Sel
f-
moni
tor
ing i
sthecapabi
li
tyofr
egul
ati
ng one’
sbehavi
oraccor
ding t
o soci
al
si
tuat
ions.I
ndi
vidual
s wi
th hi
gh sel
f-
moni
tor
ing ski
lleasi
lyadj
ustt
hei
rbehavi
or
accor
ding t
o ext
ernal
,si
tuat
ionalf
act
ors.Thei
rimpul
sive t
alent
s al
low t
hem t
o
pr
esent publ
ic per
sonae whi
ch ar
e compl
etel
y di
ff
erent f
rom t
hei
r pr
ivat
e
per
sonal
it
ies.

However
,peopl
ewi
thl
owsel
f-
moni
tor
ingski
ll
scannotcovert
hemsel
ves.Regar
dless
ofanysi
tuat
ion,t
heyar
eal
wayst
hemsel
ves.Theyhaveanat
ti
tudeof
,“whatyousee
i
swhatyouget
.”

5.Ri
skt
aki
ng
Gener
all
y,manager
sar
erel
uct
antont
aki
ngr
isks.However
,indi
vidualr
isk-
taki
ng
i
ncl
inat
ionaf
fect
sthebul
kofi
nfor
mat
ionr
equi
redbyt
hemanager
sandhow l
ongi
t
t
akest
hem t
omakedeci
sions.

Thus,i
tis ver
yimpor
tantt
orecogni
ze t
hese di
ff
erences and al
ign r
isk-
taki
ng
pr
opensi
tywi
thpr
eci
sej
obdemandst
hatcanmakesense.

THEORI
ESOFPERSONALI
TY

43
Wehavesomet
heor
iest
hatexpl
ainani
ndi
vidual
’
sper
sonal
it
y.

1.Si
gmundFr
eud’
s-Ps
ychoa
nal
yt
icThe
ory
Thi
stheor
yisbasedont
hebel
ieft
hatpeopl
ear
eencour
agedmor
ebyunf
oreseen
f
orcest
hant
heconsci
ousandl
ogi
calt
hought
.Fr
eudbel
ievedt
hatmostoft
het
hings
i
nli
fear
enotpr
esentatt
heconsci
ousl
evelbutt
heyar
epr
esentatanunconsci
ous
l
evel
.

Thef
eat
uresofFr
eud’
stheor
yincl
udet
hreeat
tri
but
es−I
d,Ego,
andSuper
ego.

 I
d−I
tdef
inest
hei
nnat
ecomponentofper
sonal
it
y.I
tist
hei
mpul
siveand
unconsci
ouspar
tofmi
nd t
hatseeksi
mmedi
atesat
isf
act
ion.Exampl
e− A
hungr
ybabycr
iest
il
lhe/
shei
sfed.

 Ego−I
tisder
ivedf
rom I
dandassi
stsi
ndeal
ingwi
tht
heext
ernalwor
ld.I
tal
so
hel
psi
ntr
ansl
ati
ngt
hei
nnerneedsi
ntoexpr
essi
ons.I
tdeal
swi
thpr
act
icaland
r
ati
onalt
hinki
ngpr
ocess.Exampl
e−Wehaveaf
ightwi
thourf
ri
endandexpect
t
hef
ri
endt
otal
kfi
rst
,event
houghbot
hofuswantt
otal
k.

 Super
ego−I
tisdi
ff
erentf
rom egoandi
spar
ti
all
yunconsci
ous.I
tincl
udest
he
t
radi
ti
onalval
uesofsoci
etyasi
nter
pret
edbyourpar
ent
s.I
tal
sohel
psi
nthe
i
ntegr
alvi
sion ofpuni
shment
.Exampl
e− Ram came l
atet
oday so he i
s
gr
oundedf
oraweek.

2.Er
i
kson’
sThe
ory
Thi
stheor
yst
atest
hatper
sonal
it
yisgr
oomedt
hroughoutl
if
eti
me.Hepr
esent
sei
ght
di
sti
nctst
ageseachwi
tht
wopossi
bleout
comes.Successf
ulcompl
eti
onofeach
st
agel
eadst
oaheal
thyper
sonal
it
y.Thesest
agesar
e−

 I
nfancy−I
tist
heper
iodbet
ween0-
1year
sofage.I
nthi
sst
age,chi
ldr
enl
ear
n
t
he abi
li
tyt
otr
ustot
her
s dependi
ng on t
hei
rcar
egi
ver
s.Unsuccessf
ul
compl
eti
oni
nthi
sst
ager
esul
tsi
nanxi
etyandi
nsecur
it
y.Exampl
e−Chi
ldr
enof
t
hisagear
emor
ecomf
ort
abl
ewi
tht
hosef
acest
heyseemor
eof
tenandnot

44
 wi
thst
ranger
s.

 Ear
lyChi
ldhood−I
tist
heper
iodbet
ween1-
3year
sofage.I
nthi
sst
age,
chi
ldr
enl
ear
ntobei
ndependent
.Ifgi
vensuppor
t,t
heybecomemor
econf
ident
el
set
heybecomedependentoverot
her
s.Exampl
e−Chi
ldr
eni
nthi
sagear
e
t
aughthowt
owal
k,howt
otal
ket
c.

 Pl
ayAge−I
tist
heper
iodbet
ween3-
6year
sofage.I
nthi
sst
age,chi
ldr
en
asser
tthemsel
vesf
requent
ly.Thef
ail
urel
eadst
odevel
opmentofasenseof
gui
ltamongt
hem.Exampl
e−Chi
ldr
eni
nthi
sagegr
oup,
needt
obet
aughthow
t
obehaveandshoul
dbet
aughtt
obef
ocused.

 SchoolAge−I
tist
heper
iodbet
ween6year
sofaget
il
lpuber
ty.I
nthi
sst
age,
chi
ldr
enbecomemor
einnovat
ive.Theyf
eelconf
identandwantt
oachi
evet
hei
r
goal
s.I
fnotencour
agedt
heymayf
eeli
nfer
ior
.Exampl
e−Teenager
sshoul
dbe
pr
otect
ed and par
ent
sneed t
o under
stand t
hem and shoul
d handl
ethem
pat
ient
ly.

 Adol
escence−Thi
sst
agei
sat
ransf
ormat
ionf
rom chi
ldhoodt
oadul
thood.
Her
echi
ldr
enf
indt
hei
rowni
dent
it
yandshoul
dbegui
dedandsuppor
tedi
n
or
dert
ohel
pthem chooset
her
ightdi
rect
ion.Exampl
e−Deci
sionsuchas
whi
chst
ream t
ochoosesci
enceorcommer
ceet
c.happensdur
ingt
hisst
age.

 Ear
lyChi
ldhood−Thi
sst
agei
sal
soknownasyoungadul
thood.Her
e,t
hey
begi
ntoopenupandbecomemor
eint
imat
ewi
thot
her
s.Exampl
e−Maki
ng
cl
osef
ri
ends.

 Adul
thood−I
nthi
sst
age,t
heyf
ocusonest
abl
ishi
ngcar
eerandset
tl
ingdown
wi
thr
elat
ionshi
pst
hatar
eimpor
tant
.Exampl
e−Appl
yingf
orj
obs.

 Mat
ureAdul
thood−I
nthi
sst
age,aper
soni
sol
dandt
husi
nthi
sst
aget
he
pr
oduct
ivi
tysl
owsdown.Exampl
e−Taki
ngcar
eoft
hef
ami
ly.

3.She
ldon’
sPhy
siognomyThe
ory

45
Thi
stheor
y was pr
oposed by Wi
ll
iam Shel
don.He pr
esent
s per
sonal
it
ies by
cl
assi
fyi
ngi
ndi
vidual
sint
oconveni
entcat
egor
iesbasedont
hei
rbodyshapes.They
ar
e−

 Endomor
phs

 Mesomor
phs

 Ect
omor
phs

Endomor
phs
I
nthi
scat
egor
y,t
hebodyi
ssof
tandspher
ical
.Peopl
ewi
tht
hiski
ndofper
sonal
it
y
l
ovecomf
ort
,eatal
ot,l
iket
obear
oundpeopl
eanddesi
reaf
fect
ion.Somecommon
endomor
phf
eat
uresar
elar
geamountoff
ataccumul
ati
on,i
nsat
iabl
eappet
it
e,l
arger
f
rameet
c.

Someendomor
phper
sonal
it
iesar
eJohnGoodman,
JackBl
acket
c.

Mesomor
phs
I
nthi
scat
egor
y,t
hebodyi
shar
dandr
ect
angul
arphysi
que.Peopl
ewi
tht
hiski
ndof
per
sonal
it
yli
ke t
otake r
isk,ar
e cour
ageous and have power
.Some common
mesomor
phf
eat
uresar
ewi
deshoul
der
s,smal
lwai
st,
lowbodyf
at.

Somemesomor
phper
sonal
it
iesar
eJenni
ferGar
ner
,Ti
naTur
neret
c.

Ect
omor
phs
I
nthi
scat
egor
y,t
hebodyi
sfr
agi
le,
flatchestanddel
icat
ebody.Peopl
ewi
tht
hiski
nd
ofper
sonal
it
yar
e anxi
ous,ambi
ti
ous and dedi
cat
ed.Some common ect
omor
ph
f
eat
uresar
enar
rowf
rame,
lowbodyf
at,
etc.

Somenot
abl
eect
omor
phper
sonal
it
iesar
eBr
adPi
tt
,Br
uceLeeet
c.

46
PERCEPTI
ONANDATTRI
BUTES

Peopl
e’
sper
cept
ionsandat
tr
ibut
ionsi
nfl
uencehowt
heybehavei
nthei
ror
gani
zat
ion.
Per
cept
iondescr
ibest
hewaypeopl
efi
lt
er,
organi
zeandi
nter
pretsensor
yinf
ormat
ion.
At
tr
ibut
ionexpl
ainshow peopl
eact
,det
ermi
ninghow peopl
ereactt
otheact
ionsof
ot
her
saswel
l.Accur
ateper
cept
ional
lowsempl
oyeest
oint
erpr
etwhatt
heyseeand
heari
nthewor
kpl
aceef
fect
ivel
ytomakedeci
sions,
compl
etet
asksandacti
net
hical
manner
.Faul
typer
cept
ionsl
eadt
opr
obl
emsi
ntheor
gani
zat
ion,
suchasst
ereot
ypi
ng,
t
hatl
ead peopl
eto er
roneousl
ymakeassumpt
ions.Per
cept
ion i
san i
ntel
lect
ual
pr
ocessoft
ransf
ormi
ngsensor
yst
imul
itomeani
ngf
uli
nfor
mat
ion.I
tist
hepr
ocess
ofi
nter
pret
ingsomet
hingt
hatweseeorheari
nourmi
ndandusei
tlat
ert
ojudgeand
gi
veaver
dictonasi
tuat
ion,
per
son,
groupet
c.

I
tcanbedi
videdi
ntosi
xtypes−

 Ofsound−Theabi
li
tyt
orecei
vesoundbyi
dent
if
yingvi
brat
ions.

 Ofspeech−Thecompet
enceofi
nter
pret
ingandunder
standi
ngt
hesoundsof
l
anguagehear
d.

 Touch−I
dent
if
yingobj
ect
sthr
oughpat
ter
nsofi
tssur
facebyt
ouchi
ngi
t.

 Tast
e−Theabi
li
tyt
orecei
vef
lavorofsubst
ancesbyt
ast
ingi
tthr
oughsensor
y
or
gansknownast
ast
ebuds.

 Ot
her senses− They appr
ove per
cept
ion t
hrough body, l
ike bal
ance,
accel
erat
ion,
pai
n,t
ime,
sensat
ionf
elti
nthr
oatandl
ungset
c.

 Oft
hesoci
alwor
ld−I
tper
mit
speopl
etounder
standot
heri
ndi
vidual
sand
gr
oupsoft
hei
rsoci
alwor
ld.
Exampl
e−Pr
iyagoest
oar
est
aur
antandl
ikest
hei
r
cust
omerser
vice,soshewi
llper
cei
vet
hati
tisagoodpl
acet
ohangoutand
wi
llr
ecommendi
ttoherf
ri
ends,
whomayormaynotl
ikei
t.Pr
iya’
sper
cept
ion
aboutt
her
est
aur
anti
sgood.

Pe
rce
ptua
lPr
oce
ss
47
Per
cept
ualpr
ocessar
ethedi
ff
erentst
agesofper
cept
ionwegot
hrough.Thedi
ff
erent
st
agesar
e−

 Recei
ving

 Sel
ect
ing

 Or
gani
zing

 I
nter
pret
ing

Recei
ving
Recei
vingi
sthef
ir
standmosti
mpor
tantst
agei
nthepr
ocessofper
cept
ion.I
tist
he
i
nit
ialst
agei
nwhi
chaper
soncol
lect
sal
linf
ormat
ionandr
ecei
vest
hei
nfor
mat
ion
t
hrought
hesenseor
gans.

Sel
ect
ing
Sel
ect
ingi
sthesecondst
agei
nthepr
ocess.Her
eaper
sondoesn’
trecei
vet
hedat
a
r
andoml
ybutsel
ect
ivel
y.Aper
sonsel
ect
ssomei
nfor
mat
ionoutofal
linaccor
dance
wi
thhi
sint
erestorneeds.Thesel
ect
ionofdat
aisdomi
nat
edbyvar
iousext
ernaland
i
nter
nalf
act
ors.

 Ext
ernalf
act
ors−Thef
act
orst
hati
nfl
uencet
heper
cept
ionofani
ndi
vidual
ext
ernal
lyar
eint
ensi
ty,si
ze,cont
rast
,movement
,repet
it
ion,f
ami
li
ari
ty,and
novel
ty.

 I
nter
nalf
act
ors−Thef
act
orst
hati
nfl
uencet
heper
cept
ionofani
ndi
vidual
i
nter
nal
lyar
epsychol
ogi
calr
equi
rement
s,l
ear
ning,backgr
ound,exper
ience,
sel
f-
accept
ance,
andi
nter
est
.

Or
gani
zing
Keepi
ngt
hingsi
nor
derorsayi
nasynchr
oni
zedwayi
sor
gani
zing.I
nor
dert
omake
senseoft
hedat
arecei
ved,
iti
simpor
tantt
oor
gani
zet
hem.

Wecanor
gani
zet
hedat
aby−

48
  Gr
oupi
ngt
hem ont
hebasi
soft
hei
rsi
mil
ari
ty,
proxi
mit
y,cl
osur
e,cont
inui
ty.

 Est
abl
ishi
ngaf
igur
egr
oundi
sthebasi
cpr
ocessi
nper
cept
ion.Her
ebyf
igur
e
wemeanwhati
skeptasmai
nfocusandbygr
oundwemeanbackgr
ound
st
imul
i,
whi
char
enotgi
venat
tent
ion.

 Per
cept
ualconst
ancyt
hati
sthe t
endencyt
o st
abi
li
ze per
cept
ion so t
hat
cont
ext
ualchangesdon’
taf
fectt
hem.

I
nter
pret
ing
Fi
nal
ly,wehavet
hepr
ocessofi
nter
pret
ingwhi
chmeansf
ormi
ngani
deaabouta
par
ti
cul
arobj
ectdependi
ngupont
heneedori
nter
est
.Int
erpr
etat
ionmeanst
hatt
he
i
nfor
mat
ionwehavesensedandor
gani
zed,i
sfi
nal
lygi
venameani
ngbyt
urni
ngi
t
i
ntosomet
hingt
hatcanbecat
egor
ized.I
tincl
udesst
ereot
ypi
ng,
hal
oef
fectet
c.

I
mpor
tanc
eof
Per
cept
i
oni
nOB
Weneedt
ounder
standwhatt
her
oleofper
cept
ioni
nanor
gani
zat
ioni
s.I
tisver
y
i
mpor
tanti
nest
abl
ishi
ngdi
ff
erentr
oleofper
cept
ionsl
ike−

 Under
standi
ngt
het
askst
obeper
for
med.

 Under
standi
ngassoci
atedi
mpor
tanceoft
asksal
lot
ted.

 Under
standi
ngpr
efer
redbehavi
ort
ocompl
eter
espect
ivet
asks.

 Cl
ari
fyi
ngr
oleper
cept
ions.

Forexampl
e,ever
ymemberi
nagr
ouphast
obecl
earr
egar
dingt
her
oleal
lot
tedt
o
t
hem.Pr
ogr
ammerwr
it
est
hecode,
test
erchecksi
t,et
c.

HANDLI
NGATTRI
BUTI
ON

Peopl
ecommonl
yat
tr
ibut
esuccesst
oski
ll
,l
uckorchance.Peopl
etendt
oreactt
o
si
tuat
ionsbasedonwhatt
heyt
hinkcausedt
heevent
.Justasper
cept
ionscanbe

49
f
aul
ty,
att
ri
but
ionscanbei
naccur
ateaswel
l.Or
gani
zat
ionscanensur
epeopl
e
at
tr
ibut
eact
ionsmor
eef
fect
ivel
ybypr
ovi
dingdi
ver
sit
ytr
aini
ng.Thi
shel
pspr
eventa
host
il
ewor
kenvi
ronmentf
orpeopl
efr
om di
ff
erentcul
tur
es.Byt
rai
ningpeopl
etomake
mor
eaccur
ateat
tr
ibut
ions,
dai
lyoper
ati
onsr
unmor
esmoot
hly.Thi
shel
psr
educe
f
aul
tyat
tr
ibut
ions,
suchasmanager
swhoat
tr
ibut
eexcept
ionalper
for
mancet
ochance
ast
heyr
esi
stassi
gni
ngmor
echal
lengi
ngwor
ktoqual
if
iedi
ndi
vidual
stheyvi
ewas
l
ucky.

50
ATTI
TUDES&VALUES

At
ti
tudei
sahypot
het
icalconst
ructwhi
chcannotbedi
rect
lyobser
ved–i
nfer
redf
rom
whatpeopl
esayanddo.At
ti
tudeobj
ect
sar
econcr
ete,
abst
ract
,aboutpeopl
e,gr
oups
ofpeopl
eandi
nani
mat
eobj
ect
s.Behavi
ourt
owar
dsobj
ect
sisdependentupon
at
ti
tudet
owar
dst
hem.At
ti
tudest
endt
oper
sistunl
esssomet
hingi
sdonet
ochange
t
hem.At
ti
tudescanf
allanywher
eal
ongacont
inuum f
rom ver
yfavour
abl
etover
y
unf
avour
abl
e.Theyr
efl
ecthowonef
eel
saboutsomet
hing.I
nor
gani
zat
ions,
att
it
udes
ar
ebot
hposi
ti
veandnegat
iveeval
uat
ionst
hatempl
oyeeshol
daboutaspect
soft
hei
r
wor
kenvi
ronment
,af
fect
ingj
obbehavi
or.At
ti
tudesar
edi
rect
edt
owar
dssomeobj
ect
aboutwhi
chaper
sonhasf
eel
ingsoraf
fectandbel
ief
s.

THREECOMPONENTSOFATTI
TUDE

1.Cogni
ti
veComponent–Theopi
nionorbel
iefsegmentofanat
ti
tude.

2.Af
fect
iveComponent–Theemot
ionalorf
eel
ingsegmentofanat
ti
tude.

3.Behav
ior
alComponent–Ani
ntent
iont
obehavei
nacer
tai
nwayt
owar
ds
someoneorsomet
hing.

Fest
inger
’sCogni
ti
veDi
ssonance:Anyi
ncompat
ibi
li
tybet
weent
woormor
eat
ti
tudes
orbet
weenbehavi
orandat
ti
tudes.Peopl
e’
sat
ti
tudesorbel
ief
scanbeconsonant(
in
l
ine)
,di
ssonant(
atodds)
,ornotr
elat
edt
oeachot
her
,Ifdi
ssonant
,weexper
ience
psychol
ogi
caldi
scomf
ort
.Indi
vidual
sseekt
oreducet
hisuncomf
ort
abl
egap,
or
di
ssonance,
tor
eachst
abi
li
tyandconsi
stency.Consi
stencyi
sachi
evedbychangi
ng
t
heat
ti
tudes,
modi
fyi
ngt
hebehav
ior
s,ort
hroughr
ati
onal
izat
ion.

Desi
ret
oreducedi
ssonancedependson:

I
mpor
tanceofel
ement
s

Degr
eeofi
ndi
vidual
inf
luence

Rewar
dsi
nvol
vedi
ndi
ssonance

51
ATTI
TUDEMODERATI
NGVARI
ABLES

Themostpower
fulmoder
ator
soft
heat
ti
tudebehavi
orr
elat
ionshi
par
e:

I
mpor
tanceoft
heat
ti
tudeCor
respondencet
obehavi
or

Accessi
bil
it
y

Ex
ist
enceofsoci
alpr
essur
es

Per
sonal
anddi
rectexper
ienceoft
heat
ti
tude

CHANGI
NGATTI
TUDES

Bar
ri
erst
ochangi
ngat
ti
tudes:

 Pr
iorcommi
tment

 I
nsuf
fi
cienti
nfor
mat
ion

Met
hodst
oover
comebar
ri
ersandchangeat
ti
tudes:

 Pr
ovi
dingnewi
nfor
mat
ion

 Useoff
ear

 Resol
vingDi
scr
epanci
es

 I
nfl
uenceoff
ri
endsandpeer
s

 Theco-
opt
ingappr
oach

WHATARETHEMAJORJOBATTI
TUDES?(
Typesofat
ti
tudes)

 JobSat
isf
act
ion;Aposi
ti
vef
eel
ingaboutt
hej
obr
esul
ti
ngf
rom aneval
uat
ionof
i
tschar
act
eri
sti
cs.

 JobI
nvol
vement
;Degr
eeofpsychol
ogi
cali
dent
if
icat
ionwi
tht
hej
obwher
e
per
cei
vedper
for
mancei
simpor
tantt
osel
f-
wor
th.

52
  Psy
chol
ogi
calEmpower
ment
;Bel
iefi
nthedegr
eeofi
nfl
uenceovert
hej
ob,
compet
ence,
jobmeani
ngf
ulness,
andaut
onomy.

 Or
gani
zat
ionalCommi
tmentI
dent
if
yingwi
thapar
ti
cul
aror
gani
zat
ionandi
ts
goal
s,whi
lewi
shi
ngt
omai
ntai
nmember
shi
pint
heor
gani
zat
ion.Thr
ee
di
mensi
ons:Af
fect
ive–emot
ionalat
tachmentt
oor
gani
zat
ion Cont
inuance
Commi
tment–economi
cval
ueofst
ayi
ng Nor
mat
ive-mor
aloret
hical
obl
igat
ions Hassomer
elat
iont
oper
for
mance,
especi
all
yfornewempl
oyees.
Lessi
mpor
tantnowt
hani
npast–nowper
hapsmor
eofoccupat
ional
commi
tment
,loyal
tyt
o12pr
ofessi
onr
athert
hanagi
venempl
oyer
.

 Per
cei
vedOr
gani
zat
ionalSuppor
t(POS)Degr
eet
owhi
chempl
oyeesbel
ieve
t
heor
gani
zat
ionval
uest
hei
rcont
ri
but
ionandcar
esaboutt
hei
rwel
l-
bei
ng.
Hi
gherwhenr
ewar
dsar
efai
r,empl
oyeesar
einvol
vedi
ndeci
sion-
maki
ng,
and
super
visor
sar
eseenassuppor
ti
ve.Hi
ghPOSi
srel
atedt
ohi
gherOCBsand
per
for
mance.

 Empl
oyeeEngagement
;Thedegr
eeofi
nvol
vementwi
th,
sat
isf
act
ionwi
th,
and
ent
husi
asm f
ort
hej
ob.Engagedempl
oyeesar
epassi
onat
eaboutt
hei
rwor
k
andcompany.

CONSEQUENCESOFJOBSATI
SFACTI
ON

 JobPer
for
mance;Sat
isf
iedwor
ker
sar
emor
epr
oduct
iveANDmor
epr
oduct
ive
wor
ker
sar
emor
esat
isf
ied!Thecausal
it
ymayr
unbot
hways.

 Or
gani
zat
ionalCi
ti
zenshi
pBehavi
ors;Sat
isf
act
ioni
nfl
uencesOCBt
hrough
per
cept
ionsoff
air
ness.

 Cust
omerSat
isf
act
ion;Sat
isf
iedf
ront
li
neempl
oyeesi
ncr
easecust
omer
sat
isf
act
ionandl
oyal
ty.

 Absent
eei
sm;Sat
isf
iedempl
oyeesar
emoder
atel
ylessl
ikel
y14t
omi
sswor
k.

 Tur
nover
;Sat
isf
iedempl
oyeesar
elessl
ikel
ytoqui
t.Manymoder
ati
ngvar
iabl
es

53
 i
nthi
srel
ati
onshi
p.Economi
cenvi
ronmentandt
enur
e Or
gani
zat
ional
act
ions
t
akent
oret
ainhi
ghper
for
mer
sandt
oweedoutl
owerper
for
mer
s

 Wor
kpl
aceDevi
ance;Di
ssat
isf
iedwor
ker
sar
emor
eli
kel
ytouni
oni
ze,
abuse
subst
ances,
steal
,bet
ardy,
andwi
thdr
aw.

Despi
tet
heover
whel
mingevi
denceoft
hei
mpactofj
obsat
isf
act
ionont
hebot
tom l
ine,
mostmanager
sar
eei
therunconcer
nedaboutorover
est
imat
ewor
kersat
isf
act
ion.

VALUES

Basi
cconvi
cti
onst
hataspeci
fi
cmodeofconductorendst
ateofconductorend-
stat
e
ofexi
stencei
sper
sonal
l
yorsoci
all
ypr
efer
abl
etoanopposi
teorconver
semodeof
conductorend-
stat
eofexi
stence.

 Char
act
eri
sti
csofVal
ues:

 Cont
entAt
tr
ibut
e–t
hatt
hemodeofconductorendst
atei
simpor
tant

 I
ntensi
tyAt
tr
ibut
e–j
usthowi
mpor
tantt
hatcont
enti
s.

 Val
ueSyst
em

 Aper
son’
sval
uesr
ankor
der
edbyi
ntensi
ty

 Tendst
ober
elat
ivel
yconst
antandconsi
stent

I
MPORTANCEOFVALUES

 Pr
ovi
deunder
standi
ngoft
heat
ti
tudes,
mot
ivat
ion,
andbehavi
ors

 I
nfl
uenceourper
cept
ionoft
hewor
ldar
oundus

 Repr
esenti
nter
pret
ati
onsof“
ri
ght
”and“
wrong”

54
 I
mpl
ythatsomebehavi
orsorout
comesar
epr
efer
redoverot
her
sOr
gani
zat
ional
Behavi
or

CLASSI
FYI
NGVALUES–ROKEACHVALUESURVEY

1.Ter
minalVal
ues;Desi
rabl
eend-
stat
esofexi
stence;t
hegoal
sthataper
son
woul
dli
ket
oachi
evedur
inghi
sorherl
if
eti
me

2.I
nst
rument
alVal
ues;Pr
efer
abl
emodesofbehavi
orormeansofachi
evi
ngone’
s
t
ermi
nalval
ues

3.Peopl
einsameoccupat
ionsorcat
egor
iest
endt
ohol
dsi
mil
arval
ues;but
val
uesvar
ybet
weengr
oupshowever
,Val
uedi
ff
erencesmakei
tdi
ff
icul
tfor
gr
oupst
onegot
iat
eandmaycr
eat
econf
li
ct

VALUES:Val
uesdi
ff
eracr
osscul
tur
es

HOFSTEDE’
SFRAMEWORKf
orassessi
ngcul
tur
e

1.PowerDi
stance:Theext
entt
owhi
chasoci
etyaccept
sthatpoweri
ninst
it
uti
ons
andor
gani
zat
ionsi
sdi
str
ibut
edunequal
ly.Lowdi
stance Rel
ati
vel
yequalpower
bet
weent
hosewi
thst
atus/
weal
thandt
hosewi
thoutst
atus/
weal
th Hi
ghdi
stance
Ext
remel
yunequalpowerdi
str
ibut
ionbet
weent
hosewi
thst
atus/
weal
thandt
hose
wi
thoutst
atus/
weal
th

2.I
ndi
vidual
ism vs.Col
lect
ivi
sm:
indi
vidual
ism r
efer
stoThedegr
eet
owhi
chpeopl
e
pr
efert
oactasi
ndi
vidual
srat
hert
hanamemberofgr
oupsont
heot
herhand
Col
lect
ivi
sm;At
ightsoci
alf
ramewor
kinwhi
chpeopl
eexpectot
her
singr
oupsof
whi
cht
heyar
eapar
ttol
ookaf
tert
hem andpr
otectt
hem.

3.Mascul
ini
tyvs.Femi
nini
ty;Mascul
ini
ty Theext
entt
owhi
cht
hesoci
etyval
ues

55
 wor
krol
esofachi
evement
,power
,andcont
rol
,andwher
easser
ti
venessand
mat
eri
ali
sm ar
eal
soval
uedFemi
nini
ty Theext
entt
owhi
cht
her
eisl
it
tl
e
di
ff
erent
iat
ionbet
weenr
olesf
ormenandwomen.

4.Uncer
tai
ntyAvoi
dance;Theext
entt
owhi
chasoci
etyf
eel
sthr
eat
enedbyuncer
tai
n
andambi
guoussi
tuat
ionsandt
ri
est
oavoi
dthem Hi
ghUncer
tai
ntyAvoi
dance:
Soci
etydoesnotl
ikeambi
guoussi
tuat
ionsandt
ri
est
oavoi
dthem.Low
Uncer
tai
ntyAvoi
dance:Soci
etydoesnotmi
ndambi
guoussi
tuat
ionsandembr
aces
t
hem.

5.Long-
ter
m vs.Shor
t-
ter
m Or
ient
ati
onLong-
ter
m Or
ient
ati
on Anat
ionalcul
tur
e
at
tr
ibut
ethatemphasi
zest
hef
utur
e,t
hri
ft
,andper
sist
enceShor
t-
ter
m Or
ient
ati
on
Anat
ionalcul
tur
eat
tr
ibut
ethatemphasi
zest
hepr
esentandt
heher
eandnow.

Hof
stede’
sFr
amewor
kanAssessment

 Ther
ear
eregi
onaldi
ff
erenceswi
thi
ncount
ri
es;

 Theor
igi
naldat
aisol
dandbasedononl
yonecompany

 Hof
stedehadt
omakemanyj
udgmentcal
lswhi
ledoi
ngt
her
esear
ch

 Somer
esul
tsdon’
tmat
chwhati
sbel
ievedt
obet
rueaboutgi
vencount
ri
es.

 Despi
tet
hesepr
obl
emsi
tremai
nsaver
ypopul
arf
ramewor
k

56
At
ti
tudesandJobSat
isf
act
ion

• At
ti
tudesar
eeval
uat
ivest
atement
s–ei
therf
avour
abl
eorunf
avour
abl
e,
concer
ningobj
ect
s,peopl
eorevent
s.

• Theyr
efl
ecthowonef
eel
saboutsomet
hing.

• I
nor
gani
zat
ions,
att
it
udesar
ebot
hposi
ti
veandnegat
iveeval
uat
ionst
hat
empl
oyeeshol
daboutaspect
soft
hei
rwor
kenvi
ronment
,af
fect
ingj
obbehavi
or.

Typesofat
ti
tudes

• Jobsat
isf
act
ion:

– Ani
ndi
vidual
’
sgener
alat
ti
tudet
owar
dshi
sorherj
ob.

• Jobi
nvol
vement
:

– Measur
est
hedegr
eet
owhi
chani
ndi
viduali
dent
if
iespsychol
ogi
cal
ly
wi
thhi
sorherj
ob.

• Or
gani
sat
ionalcommi
tment
:

– Thest
atei
nwhi
chanempl
oyeei
dent
if
ieswi
thapar
ti
cul
aror
gani
zat
ion
andi
tsgoal
s,andwi
shest
omai
ntai
nmember
shi
pint
heor
gani
zat
ion.

Jobsat
isf
act
ionandi
tsef
fectonempl
oyeeper
for
mance

• I
ncr
easedempl
oyeepr
oduct
ivi
ty

• Reducedabsent
eei
sm

• Reducedt
urnoverr
ates

• I
ncr
easedcust
omersat
isf
act
ion

Howcanmanager
sincr
easeempl
oyeej
obsat
isf
act
ion?

• Pr
ovi
dingment
all
ychal
lengi
ngwor
k;

57
 – Peopl
epr
eferj
obswi
thchar
act
eri
sti
csmaki
ngwor
kmor
echal
lengi
ng
enabl
ingt
hem uset
hei
rski
ll
s,abi
li
ti
es,
off
eri
ngavar
iet
yoft
asks,
f
reedom andf
eedbackonhowwel
ltheyar
edoi
ng.

• Gi
vingequi
tabl
erewar
ds;

– Paysyst
emsandpr
omot
ionalpol
ici
esper
cei
vedasj
ust
,unambi
guous
andi
nli
newi
tht
hei
rexpect
ati
ons.Whenpayi
sseenasf
airbasedonj
ob
demands,
indi
vidualski
lll
evel
,andcommuni
typayst
andar
ds,
sat
isf
act
ioni
sli
kel
ytor
esul
t.

• Suppor
ti
vewor
kcondi
ti
ons;

– Wor
kingenvi
ronmentof
fer
ingper
sonalcomf
ortandf
aci
li
tat
ingheal
th
wor
king.

• Suppor
ti
vecol
leagues;

– Peopl
egetmor
eoutofwor
kthanmer
elymoneyort
angi
ble
achi
evement
s.Formostempl
oyees,
wor
kal
sof
il
lst
heneedf
orsoci
al
i
nter
act
ion.

58
MOTI
VATI
ON

Mot
ivat
ioncanbedescr
ibedast
hei
nter
nalf
orcet
hati
mpact
sthedi
rect
ion,
int
ensi
ty,
andendur
anceofaper
son’
svol
unt
arychoi
ceofbehavi
or.I
tconsi
stsof−

 Di
rect
ion−f
ocusedbygoal
s.

 I
ntensi
ty−bul
kofef
for
tal
locat
ed.

 Per
sist
ence−amountoft
imet
akenf
ort
heef
for
ttobeexer
ted.

Exampl
e−At
eam l
eaderencour
agest
eam member
stowor
kef
fi
cient
ly.

Fe
atur
esof
Mot
i
vat
i
on
Mot
ivat
ioni
sani
nter
nalf
eel
ing,
thati
s,i
tdef
inest
hepsychol
ogi
calst
ateofaper
son.
I
tisacont
inuouspr
ocessandweshoul
dmakesur
ethati
tisnotdi
stur
bed.Aper
son
shoul
dbeencour
agedcompl
etel
y.

Mot
ivat
ionconsi
stsoft
hreei
nter
act
inganddependentel
ement
s−

 Needs−Ther
equi
rement
sordef
ici
encywhi
chi
scr
eat
edwhenevert
her
eis
physi
ologi
cali
mbal
ance.

 Dr
ives−Thevar
iouscampsorevent
sor
gani
zedt
omot
ivat
etheempl
oyeesand
gi
vet
hem newoppor
tuni
ti
es.

 I
ncent
ives−Empl
oyeesneedt
ober
ewar
dedf
ort
hei
rni
cewor
kinor
dert
okeep
t
hem encour
aged.

I
mpor
tanc
eof
Mot
i
vat
i
on
Weneedt
omot
ivat
eempl
oyeesbecauseoft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons−

 Mot
ivat
edempl
oyeear
emor
equal
it
yor
ient
ed.

 Hi
ghl
ymot
ivat
edempl
oyeesar
emor
epr
oduct
iveascompar
edt
oot
her
empl
oyees.

59
  I
thel
psi
nachi
evi
ngt
hreebehavi
ordi
mensi
onofhumanr
esour
cenamel
y

o Candi
dat
esmustbeat
tr
act
ednotonl
ytoj
oinbutal
sor
emai
nint
hef
ir
m.

o Empl
oyeesmustper
for
mtaski
nadependabl
emanner
.

o Empl
oyeesshoul
dbecr
eat
ive,
spont
aneousandi
nnovat
iveatwor
k.

Ma
slow’
sHi
er
arc
hyof
Nee
dsThe
ory
Thi
stheor
ywaspr
oduced i
n or
dert
o answert
hequest
ion “
Whatmot
ivat
esan
i
ndi
vidual
”.Ever
ysecond need comes t
ofor
ce when t
he f
ir
stneed i
s sat
isf
ied
compl
etel
y.Masl
ow expl
ainedt
hehi
erar
chyofneedsbygr
oupi
ngt
hem i
ntot
wo:
def
ici
encyneedsandgr
owt
hneeds.

Physi
ologi
calNeeds
Ever
yindi
vidualneedst
otakecar
eoft
hebasi
crequi
rement
srequi
redt
osust
ain.
Theser
equi
rement
sincl
udef
oodt
oeat
,cl
othi
ngt
owearandshel
tert
oli
vei
n.These

60
necessi
ti
esar
erel
ati
vel
yindependentofeachot
herbutar
efi
nit
e.

Saf
etyNeeds
Ever
ybodywant
stost
ayi
napr
otect
edenvi
ronmentwi
thmi
nimaldangersot
hatt
hey
canhaveapeacef
ull
if
e.Saf
etyneedsbasi
cal
lyi
ncl
udespr
otect
ionf
rom physi
ologi
cal
dangerl
ike acci
dentand havi
ng economi
c secur
it
yli
ke bank account
s,heal
th
i
nsur
ance

I
n an ent
erpr
ise,i
tincl
udes j
ob secur
it
y,sal
aryi
ncr
ement
,et
c.The manager
ial
pr
act
icet
osat
isf
ythi
sinvol
vesof
fer
ingpensi
onscheme,
provi
dentf
und,
grat
uit
yet
c.

Soci
alNeeds
Wehaveal
lhear
dthatmani
sasoci
alani
mal
,wewantt
obet
her
ewi
tht
hosepeopl
e
wher
ewear
elovedandwear
eaccept
edaswear
e;nobodywant
stobej
udged.Thi
s
i
sacommonr
equi
rementever
yhumandesi
res.

Thi
stheor
yhel
psmanager
stot
hinkaboutencour
agi
ngt
hei
rempl
oyeesbyi
dent
if
ying
empl
oyee needs.I
n shor
t,i
tpr
esent
s mot
ivat
ion as const
ant
ly changi
ng f
orce,
expr
essi
ngi
tsel
ftot
heconst
antneedf
orf
ulf
il
mentofnewandhi
gherl
evel
sofneeds.

Est
eem
Est
eem meanst
het
ypi
calhumandesi
ret
obeaccept
edandval
uedbyot
her
s.Peopl
e
of
teni
nvol
vei
napr
ofessi
onorhobbyt
ogai
nrecogni
ti
on,ear
nfameandr
espect
.
Accor
dingt
oMasl
ow,t
heneedsofhumanshavest
ri
ctgui
del
ines-t
hehi
erar
chi
es
r
athert
hanbei
ngshar
plysepar
ated,
arei
nter
rel
ated.Thi
smeanst
hatest
eem andt
he
consequentl
evel
sar
enotst
ri
ctl
ysepar
atedbutar
ecl
osel
yrel
ated.

Sel
f-
Act
ual
izat
ion
Sel
f-
act
ual
iz
ati
onmeansr
eal
izi
ngone’
sful
lpot
ent
ial
.Masl
ow descr
ibest
hisasa
desi
ret
ocompl
eteever
ythi
ngt
hatonecan,
tobecomet
hemostt
hatonecanbe.

61
GROUPDYNAMI
CS

Agr
oupcanbedef
inedast
woormor
eint
eract
ingandi
nter
dependenti
ndi
vidual
s
whocomet
oget
hert
oachi
evepar
ti
cul
arobj
ect
ives.Agr
oupbehavi
orcanbest
ated
asacour
seofact
ionagr
oupt
akesasaf
ami
ly
.

Ty
pesof
Groups
1.For
malGr
oups
Thesear
ethet
ypeofwor
kgr
oupscr
eat
edbyt
heor
gani
zat
ionandhavedesi
gnat
ed
wor
kassi
gnment
sandr
oot
edt
asks.Thebehavi
orofsuchgr
oupsi
sdi
rect
edt
owar
d
achi
evi
ngor
gani
zat
ionalgoal
s.

Thesecanbef
urt
hercl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wosub-
groups−

 Commandgr
oup−I
tisagr
oupconsi
sti
ngofi
ndi
vidual
swhor
epor
tdi
rect
lyt
o
t
hemanager
.

 I
nter
estgr
oup−I
tisagr
oupf
ormedbyi
ndi
vidual
swor
kingt
oget
hert
oachi
eve
aspeci
fi
cobj
ect
ive.Exampl
e−Agr
oupofwor
ker
swor
kingonapr
ojectand
r
epor
ti
ngt
othesamemanageri
sconsi
der
edasacommandgr
oup.Agr
oupof
f
ri
endschi
ll
ingoutt
oget
heri
sconsi
der
edasi
nter
estgr
ouporsaymember
sof
acl
ub.

2.I
nfor
malGr
oups
Thesegr
oupsar
efor
medwi
thf
ri
endshi
psandcommoni
nter
est
s.Thesecanbe
f
urt
hercl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wosub-
groups−

 Member
shi
p gr
oup:Member
shi
p gr
oups ar
ethe gr
oups of i
ndi
vidual
s'
bel
ongi
ng t
othe same pr
ofessi
on and knowi
ng each ot
her
.Forexampl
e,
t
eacher
soft
hesamef
acul
tyi
nauni
ver
sit
y.

 Fr
iendshi
pgr
oup:Fr
iendshi
pgr
oupsar
ethegr
oupsofi
ndi
vidual
sbel
ongi
ngt
o
sameagegr
oup,havi
ngsi
mil
arvi
ews,t
ast
esandopi
nions.Thesegr
oupscan

62
 al
sobef
ormedout
sidet
hepl
antorof
fi
ceandcanbei
nthef
orm ofcl
ubsand
associ
ati
ons.

 Ref
erencegr
oup:Ref
erencegr
oupsar
ethegr
oupwher
eindi
vidual
sshapet
hei
r
i
deas,
bel
ief
s,val
ueset
c.Theywantsuppor
tfr
om t
hegr
oup.

3.Taskgr
oup

Tasksgr
oupsar
ethegr
oupsf
ormedbyanor
gani
zat
iont
oaccompl
ishanar
rowr
ange
ofpur
poseswi
thi
naspeci
fi
edt
ime.Thesegr
oupsar
etempor
aryi
nnat
ure.Theyal
so
devel
opasol
uti
ont
oapr
obl
em orcompl
etei
tspur
pose.I
nfor
malcommi
tt
ees,
task
f
orcesandwor
kteamsar
eincl
udedi
ntaskgr
oups.Theor
gani
zat
ionaf
terspeci
fyi
nga
gr
oupmember
shi
p,assi
gnsanar
rowsetofpur
posessuchasdevel
opi
nganew
pr
oduct
,eval
uat
ingapr
oposedgr
ievancepr
ocedur
e,et
c.

Re
asonswhyPe
opl
eJoi
nGr
oups
Ther
eisnopar
ti
cul
arr
easonanswer
ingwhyi
ndi
vidual
sjoi
ngr
oups.Gr
ouphel
ps
i
ndi
vidualt
ofeelst
ronger
,havef
ewersel
f-
doubt
s,andbemor
econt
rar
ytot
hreat
s.

Thef
oll
owi
ngpoi
ntshel
pusunder
standt
heneedofj
oini
ngagr
oupbyi
ndi
vidual
s−

 Secur
it
ymi
rr
orsst
rengt
hinnumber
s.St
atuspi
npoi
ntsapr
est
iget
hatcomes
f
rom bel
ongi
ngt
oaspeci
fi
cgr
oup.I
ncl
usi
oni
nagr
oupi
sconsi
der
edas
i
mpor
tantbecausei
tpr
ovi
desr
ecogni
ti
onandst
atus.

 Sel
f-
est
eem t
ransmi
ts peopl
e'
sfeel
ings of sel
f-
wor
th.Member
shi
p can
somet
imesr
aisef
eel
ingsofsel
f-
est
eem l
ikebei
ng accept
ed i
nto a hi
ghl
y
val
uedgr
oup.

 Af
fi
li
ati
onwi
thgr
oupscanmeetone'
ssoci
alneeds.Wor
kgr
oupssi
gni
fi
cant
ly
cont
ri
but
etomeett
heneedf
orf
ri
endshi
psandsoci
alr
elat
ions.

 Gr
oups r
epr
esent power
.What most
ly cannot be achi
eved i
ndi
vidual
ly
becomes possi
ble wi
th gr
oup ef
for
t.Powermi
ghtbe ai
med t
o pr
otect

63
 t
hemsel
vesf
rom unr
easonabl
edemands.I
nfor
malgr
oupspr
ovi
deopt
ionsf
or
i
ndi
vidual
stopr
act
icepower
.

 Peopl
emayj
oinagr
oupf
orgoalachi
evement
.Somet
imesi
ttakesmor
ethan
oneper
sont
oaccompl
ishapar
ti
cul
art
ask.

 Or
gani
zat
ionalmot
ivest
ojoi
ngr
oups:Or
gani
zat
ionsf
ormf
unct
ionalandt
ask
gr
oupsbecausesuchgr
oupshel
ptheor
gani
zat
ioni
nst
ruct
uri
ngandgr
oupi
ng
t
heor
gani
zat
ionalact
ivi
ti
esl
ogi
cal
lyandef
fi
cient
ly.

 I
nter
per
sonalat
tract
ion:I
ndi
vidual
sconi
ctoget
hert
ofor
minf
ormalori
nter
est
gr
oup,ast
heyar
eal
soat
tr
act
edt
oeachot
her
.Thef
act
orst
hatcont
ri
but
eto
i
nter
per
sonalat
tr
act
ionar
esex,si
mil
arat
ti
tudes,per
sonal
it
yandeconomi
c
st
andi
ng.Thecl
osenessofgr
oupmember
smayal
sobeani
mpor
tantf
act
or.

 Suppor
tforgr
oupgoal
s:Thei
ndi
vidual
smayal
sobemot
ivat
edbyt
heot
her
gr
oup member
sto j
oin.For exampl
e,a cl
ub,whi
ch i
s dedi
cat
ed t
o
envi
ronment
alconser
vat
ion,maymot
ivat
eindi
vidual
stoj
oin.I
ndi
vidual
sjoi
n
gr
oups,suchast
hesei
nor
dert
odonat
ethei
rmoneyandt
imet
oat
tai
nthe
goal
stheybel
ievei
nandt
omeetot
heri
ndi
vidual
swi
thsi
mil
arval
ues.

Gr
oupRol
es
Theconceptofr
olesi
sappl
icabl
etoal
lempl
oyeeswi
thi
nanor
gani
zat
ionaswel
las
t
othei
rli
feout
sidet
heor
gani
zat
ion.Ar
olei
sasetofexpect
edbehavi
orpat
ter
ns
at
tr
ibut
edt
otheonewhooccupi
est
heposi
ti
ondemandedbyt
hesoci
aluni
t.

I
ndi
vidual
spl
aymul
ti
pler
olesatt
hesamet
ime.Empl
oyeesat
temptt
ounder
stand
whatki
nd ofbehavi
ori
sexpect
ed f
rom t
hem.An i
ndi
vidualwhen pr
esent
ed by
di
ver
gentr
oleexpect
ati
onsexper
iencesr
oleconf
li
ct.Gr
oupr
olesar
edi
videdi
nto
t
hreet
ypes−

 Task-
ori
ent
edRol
es

64
  Rel
ati
onshi
p-or
ient
edRol
es

 I
ndi
vidualRol
es

1.Task-
ori
ent
edRol
es
Rol
esal
lot
tedt
oindi
vidual
saccor
dingt
othei
rwor
kandel
igi
bil
it
yisknownast
ask-
or
ient
edr
oles.Task-
ori
ent
edr
olescanbr
oadl
ydi
videi
ndi
vidual
sint
osi
xcat
egor
ies
i
nit
iat
or,i
nfor
mer
,cl
ari
fi
er,summar
izer
,real
it
ytest
erand i
nfor
mat
ion seeker
sor
pr
ovi
der
srespect
ivel
y.

 I
nit
iat
or−Theonewhopr
oposes,
suggest
s,def
ines.

 I
nfor
mer−Theonewhoof
fer
sfact
s,expr
essesf
eel
ings,
givesopi
nions.

 Cl
ari
fi
er−Theonewhoi
nter
pret
s,def
ines,
clar
if
iesever
ythi
ng.

 Summar
izer−Theonewhol
inks,
rest
ates,
concl
udes,
summar
izes.

 Real
it
yTest
er−Theonewhopr
ovi
descr
it
icalanal
ysi
s.

 I
nfor
mat
ionseeker
sorpr
ovi
der
s−Theonewhogi
vesi
nfor
mat
ionanddat
a.

Theser
olespr
esentt
hewor
kper
for
medbydi
ff
erenti
ndi
vidual
saccor
dingt
othei
r
mar
keddesi
gnat
ion.

2.Rel
ati
onshi
p-or
ient
edRol
es
Rol
est
hatgr
oupi
ndi
vidual
saccor
dingt
othei
ref
for
tsmadet
omai
ntai
nheal
thy
r
elat
ionshi
pint
hegr
oupandachi
evet
hegoal
sar
eknownasr
elat
ionshi
p-or
ient
ed
r
oles.Ther
ear
efi
vecat
egor
iesofi
ndi
vidual
sint
hiscat
egor
ynamel
y:har
moni
zer
,
gat
ekeeper
,consensust
est
er,
encour
ager
,andcompr
omi
ser
.

 Har
moni
zer
s−Theonewhol
imi
tst
ensi
onandr
econci
lesdi
sagr
eement
s.

 Gat
ekeeper−Theonewhoensur
espar
ti
cipat
ionbyal
l.

 ConsensusTest
er−Theonewhoanal
yzest
hedeci
sion-
maki
ngpr
ocess.

65
  Encour
ager−Theonewhoi
swar
m,r
esponsi
ve,
act
ive,
showsaccept
ance.

 Compr
omi
ser−Theonewhoadmi
tser
ror
,li
mit
sconf
li
ct.

Theser
olesdepi
ctt
hevar
iousr
olesani
ndi
vidualpl
ayst
omai
ntai
nheal
thysel
fas
wel
lasgr
oupr
elat
ionshi
ps.

3.I
ndi
vidualRol
es
Rol
est
hatcl
assi
fyaper
sonaccor
dingt
othemeasur
eofi
ndi
vidualef
for
tputi
nthe
pr
ojectai
medi
sknownasi
ndi
vidualr
oles.Fi
vet
ypesofi
ndi
vidual
sfal
lint
othese
r
oles:aggr
essor
,bl
ocker
,domi
nat
or,
caval
ier
,andavoi
dance.

 Aggr
essor−Theonewhodeval
uesot
her
s,at
tacksi
deas.

 Bl
ocker−Theonewhodi
sagr
eesandr
ebel
sbeyondr
eason.

 Domi
nat
or−Theonewhoi
nsi
stssuper
ior
it
ytomani
pul
ate.

 Caval
ier−Theonewhot
akespar
tinagr
oupnon-
product
ivel
y.

 Avoi
dance−Theonewhoshowsspeci
ali
nter
estt
oavoi
dtask.

We
ll
-Func
ti
oni
ngGr
oups
Weknow whatagr
oupi
s,whyi
tisi
mpor
tantt
ofor
m agr
oup,andwhatt
hegr
oup-
or
ient
edr
olesar
e.Now weneedt
oknow how t
omar
kagr
oupasawel
l-
funct
ioni
ng
gr
oup,
whatf
eat
uresar
enecessar
yforagr
oupt
omar
kitasef
fi
cient
.

Agr
oupi
sconsi
der
edef
fect
ivewheni
thast
hef
oll
owi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs.

 Rel
axed,
comf
ort
abl
e,f
ri
endl
yat
mospher
e.

 Taskt
obeexecut
edar
ewel
lunder
stoodandaccept
ed.

 Member
sli
stenwel
landact
ivel
ypar
ti
cipat
eingi
venassi
gnment
s.

 Assi
gnment
sar
emadecl
earandar
eaccept
ed.

66
  Gr
oupi
sacquai
ntedofi
tsoper
ati
onandf
unct
ion.

 Peopl
eexpr
esst
hei
rfeel
ingsandi
deasopenl
y.

 Consensusdeci
sion-
maki
ngpr
ocessi
sfol
lowed.

 Conf
li
ctanddi
sagr
eementcent
err
egar
dingi
deasormet
hod.

GROUPFORMATI
ONSTAGESANDDEVELOPMENT

1.Mut
ualAccept
ance(
for
ming)

• Maki
ngAccept
ance

• Shar
ingAcquai
ntances

• Di
scussi
ngSubj
ect
s

• Test
ingEachOt
her

• Bei
ngDef
ensi
ve

Thever
yfi
rstst
ageofagr
oupdevel
opmenti
scal
led"
Mut
ualAccept
ance(
for
ming)
".
Thi
sst
agei
schar
act
eri
zedbyagr
eatdealofuncer
tai
ntyaboutt
hegr
oup’
spur
pose,
st
ruct
ure,
andl
eader
shi
p.t
hemember
soft
hegr
oupgetf
ami
li
arwi
thoneanot
herand
check,
whi
chi
nter
-per
sonalbehavi
ori
saccept
abl
eandwhi
chi
sunaccept
abl
ebyt
he
ot
hermember
soft
hegr
oup.Thi
shel
psal
lthemember
sofagr
oupt
oknoweachot
her
bet
ter
.

2.Communi
cat
ionandDeci
sion-
Maki
ng(
stor
ming)

 Expr
essi
ngAt
ti
tudes

 Est
abl
ishi
ngNor
ms

67
  Est
abl
ishi
ngGoal
s

 Openl
yDi
scussi
ngTasks

 Bei
ngDef
ensi
ve

Thesecondst
ageofgr
oupdevel
opmenti
s"Communi
cat
ionandDeci
sion-
maki
ng
(
stor
ming)
''
.Dur
ingt
hisst
age,
ther
eisi
ntr
a-gr
oupconf
li
ct,
member
sacceptt
he
exi
stenceoft
hegr
oup,
butt
her
eisr
esi
stancet
otheconst
rai
ntst
hatt
hegr
oup
i
mposesoni
ndi
vidual
it
ygr
oupmember
sshar
ethei
ropi
nionsandf
ormul
atet
he
gr
oup'
sgoal
s.Thr
oughcommuni
cat
ionanddeci
sion-
maki
ng,
thest
ruct
urebecomes
cl
earandt
hegr
oupmov
est
othet
hir
dst
age.

3.Mot
ivat
ionandPr
oduct
ivi
ty(
nor
ming)

• Cooper
ati
ng

• Wor
kingAct
ivel
yonTasks

• Bei
ngCr
eat
ive

Thet
hir
dst
agei
s"Mot
ivat
ionandPr
oduct
ivi
ty"
,whi
chi
schar
act
eri
zedbyashar
ed
accept
anceamongmember
sofwhatt
hegr
oupi
str
yingt
odo.I
tisi
nthi
sst
agewher
e
cl
oser
elat
ionshi
psdevel
opandt
hegr
oupdemonst
rat
escohesi
veness.Ther
eisnowa
st
rongsenseofgr
oupi
dent
it
y.Thi
sst
agei
scompl
etewhent
hegr
oupst
ruct
ure
sol
idi
fi
esandt
hegr
ouphasassi
mil
atedacommonsetofexpect
ati
onsofwhatdef
ines
cor
rectmemberbehavi
or.Eachper
sonr
ecogni
zesandaccept
shi
srol
easwel
last
o
acceptandt
ounder
standt
her
olest
oot
her
s.Member
sal
sobecomemor
ecomf
ort
abl
e
wi
theachot
heranddev
elopasenseofgr
oupi
dent
it
yanduni
ty.

4.Cont
rol
andOr
gani
zat
ion(
per
for
ming)

• Wor
kingI
ndependent
ly

• Assi
gni
ngTasksBasedonAbi
li
ty

• Bei
ngFl
exi
ble

68
Thef
our
thst
agei
s"Cont
rolandOr
gani
zat
ion"
,inwhi
cht
hemember
sper
for
mther
oles
t
heyhaveaccept
edanddi
rectt
hei
rgr
oupef
for
tst
owar
dgoalat
tai
nment
.Thest
ruct
ure
att
hispoi
nti
sful
lyf
unct
ionalandaccept
ed.Gr
oupener
gyhasmovedf
rom get
ti
ngt
o
knowandunder
standeachot
hert
oper
for
mingt
het
askathand.Forper
manentwor
k
gr
oups,
per
for
mingi
sthel
astst
agei
nthei
rdevel
opment
.

5. Adj
our
ning

Ther
eisanadj
our
ningst
age.I
nthi
sst
age,
thegr
ouppr
epar
esf
ori
tsdi
sbandment
.
Hi
ght
askper
for
mancei
snol
ongert
hegr
oup’
stoppr
ior
it
y.I
nst
ead,
att
ent
ioni
s
di
rect
edt
owar
dwr
appi
ngupact
ivi
ti
es.Responsesofgr
oupmember
svar
yint
his
st
age.Somear
eupbeat
,baski
ngi
nthegr
oup’
saccompl
ishment
s.Ot
her
smaybe
depr
essedovert
hel
ossofcompani
onshi
pandf
ri
endshi
psgai
neddur
ingt
hewor
k
gr
oup’
sli
fe.

CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFFORMALGROUPS

1.St
ruct
ureandSt
atusHi
erar
chy

Gr
oupmember
spossessdi
ff
erentchar
act
eri
sti
csorat
tr
ibut
eswhi
chgi
vet
hem a
posi
ti
oni
nthegr
oup.Ev
erygr
oupmemberoccupi
esaposi
ti
on—whet
herl
oworhi
gh.
Amember
’sposi
ti
onwi
ll
bedet
ermi
nedbyf
act
orssuchasi
ndi
vidualaggr
essi
veness,
(
stat
us)
,andpower
,inf
luence—whi
cht
heyhol
dint
heor
gani
zat
ionori
nasoci
ety.

Consci
ousl
yorunconsci
ousl
ygr
oupmember
seval
uat
eeachot
herandcr
eat
eaki
ndof
hi
erar
chyi
nthegr
oup.I
nthe2a1gr
oupsi
tdependsoni
ssuesandact
ivi
ti
esoft
he
gr
oup.Forexampl
e,i
nacr
imi
nalgr
oup–dar
ingi
nacademi
cgr
oup–i
ntel
li
gencei
na
spor
ti
nggr
oup-nat
uralt
alentet
c

2.Rol
es

Thesei
ncl
udeexpect
edr
oles,
per
cei
vedr
olesandenact
edr
oles.

Expect
edRol
es;i
nthef
ormal
groupar
ethej
obdescr
ipt
ionr
oleswhi
char
eknownt
o

69
t
heper
sonoccupyi
ngacer
tai
nposi
ti
onandal
ltheot
hergr
oupmember
s.

ThePer
cei
vedRol
es;t
hesear
ethesetofbehavi
orsandper
for
mancesaper
son
occupyi
ngaposi
ti
onbel
ieveshe/
sheshoul
dengagei
n.

Enact
edRol
es;t
hesear
ethesetofbehavi
orst
hatt
hei
ndi
vidualact
ual
lyengagesi
n.
enact
edr
olesar
enear
lyt
hesameasper
cei
vedr
oles.Di
ff
erencesandconf
li
ctswi
ll
occurwhent
het
hreer
olebehavi
orsdi
ff
er.I
fforexampl
e,enact
edr
olesdi
ff
er
si
gni
fi
cant
lyf
rom t
heexpect
edr
olest
heper
sonmayf
acesever
esanct
ionsi
ncl
udi
ng
separ
ati
onf
rom t
hegr
oup.

3.Nor
ms

Thesear
ethe“
agr
eed-
upon”r
ules/
lawsorst
andar
dsofi
ndi
vidualandgr
oupbehavi
or
devel
opedasar
esul
tofmember
sint
eract
ingoverat
ime.Theyar
ethewr
it
ten
r
ules/
laws.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofNor
ms

(
a)Nor
msar
enor
mal
lynotwr
it
ten.I
nmostcasesnor
msar
eei
therver
bal
ly
communi
cat
edorevennotst
atedi
nanywaybutar
esomehowknownbygr
oup
member
s.

(
b)Nor
msar
eaccept
edt
ovar
yingext
ent
sbygr
oupmember
s.Somenor
msar
e
accept
edt
otal
ly,
andot
her
sonl
ypar
ti
all
y.

(
c)Somenor
msmayappl
ytoal
lgr
oupmember
sort
oonl
ysomegr
oupmember
s.

(
d)Somenor
msar
eposi
ti
veandot
her
sar
enegat
ive.

4.Leader
shi
p

I
nthef
ormalgr
oup,
thel
eaderexer
cisesl
egi
ti
mat
eaut
hor
it
y-]
j1eIt
orewar
dorpuni
sh
gr
oupmember
s.I
nthei
nfor
malgr
oup,
thel
eaderemer
gesbecausehe/
sheenj
oys
f
air
lyhi
ghst
atus.I
ninf
ormalgr
oupsper
manentl
eader
sar
erar
e.Member
skeep
year
ningt
ohavesomeonet
ofol
low.

70
5.Cohesi
veness

Descr
ibest
hest
rengt
hofgr
oupmember
s’desi
ret
oremai
nint
hegr
oupandt
hei
r
commi
tmentt
othegr
oup.Cohesi
venessi
saf
orcepul
li
ngmember
stoget
herand
wor
kingagai
nstt
heever
ypr
essur
efor
cest
hatar
epul
li
ngmember
sawayf
rom each
ot
herandf
rom t
hegr
oup.Hi
ghl
ycohesi
vegr
oupshaveahi
ghmot
ivat
iont
obe
t
oget
her
.Int
hewor
kcont
ext
,hi
ghl
ycohesi
vegr
oupsar
enotal
wayspr
oduct
ive
becauseoft
hedevel
opi
nggr
oupmember
soft
hepr
obl
emsof
.

I
MPROVI
NGGROUPPERFORMANCE

• Set
ti
ngsuper
-or
dinat
egoal
s

• Smoot
hing-emphasi
zingcommoni
nter
est
sanddownpl
ayi
ngdi
ff
erences

• Al
ter
ingst
ruct
uralvar
iabl
es

• Aut
hor
it
ati
vecommand-maybeef
fect
iveonl
yint
heshor
trun.

• Pr
ovi
sionofadequat
eresour
ces

• Compr
omi
se-mut
ualconsensus-maynotbepossi
bleatt
imes.

• Al
ter
inghumanvar
iabl
es-changi
ngbehavi
ourandat
ti
tudesoft
hosei
nvol
ved.
Longt
ermr
esul
ts.

GROUPDECI
SION-
MAKI
NGTECHNI
QUES

Deci
sionmaki
ngi
sthepr
ocessofmaki
ngachoi
ceamongpossi
bleal
ter
nat
ive
cour
sesofact
ions.Muchofwhatmanager
sandsuper
visor
sdoi
ssol
vepr
obl
emsand
makedeci
sions.Newmanager
sandsuper
visor
s,i
npar
ti
cul
ar,
oft
ensol
vepr
obl
ems
andmakedeci
sionsbyr
eact
ingt
othem.Theyar
e"undert
hegun"
,st
ressedandv
ery
shor
toft
ime.Consequent
ly,
whent
heyencount
eranewpr
obl
em ordeci
siont
hey
mustmake,
theyr
eactwi
thadeci
siont
hatseemedt
ohavewor
kedbef
ore.

71
1.I
nter
act
inggr
oups:member
smeeti
naf
reeat
mospher
eandr
andoml
ycont
ri
but
e
t
owar
dsapr
obl
em athandi
naf
acet
ofacesessi
on.

2.Br
ainst
ormi
ng:i
nthi
ssessi
ongr
oupmember
smakesuggest
ionst
othepr
obl
em
r
egar
dlessoft
hei
rli
kel
ihoodt
obei
mpl
ement
ed.I
tisani
dea-
gener
ati
onpr
ocess
t
hatspeci
fi
cal
lyencour
agesal
lal
ter
nat
ives,
whi
lewi
thhol
dinganycr
it
ici
sm of
t
hoseal
ter
nat
ives.I
tismeantt
oover
comepr
essur
esf
orconf
ormi
tyi
nthe
i
nter
act
inggr
oupt
hatr
etar
dthedevel
opmentofcr
eat
iveal
ter
nat
ives.I
tdoest
his
byut
il
izi
ngani
dea-
gener
ati
onpr
ocesst
hatspeci
fi
cal
lyencour
agesanyandal
l
al
ter
nat
ives,
whi
lewi
thhol
dinganycr
it
ici
sm oft
hoseal
ter
nat
ives

3.Nomi
nalgr
oupt
echni
que:Agr
oupdeci
sion-
maki
ngmet
hodi
nwhi
chi
ndi
vidual
member
smeetf
ace-
to-
facet
opoolt
hei
rjudgment
sinasyst
emat
icbut
i
ndependentf
ashi
on.Thenomi
nalgr
oupt
echni
quer
est
ri
ctsdi
scussi
onor
i
nter
per
sonalcommuni
cat
iondur
ingt
hedeci
sion-
maki
ngpr
ocess,
hence,
thet
erm
nomi
nal
.Gr
oupmember
sar
eal
lphysi
cal
lypr
esen,
butmember
soper
ate
i
ndependent
ly.

4.Delphigr
ouptechni
que:agroupofexpert
sexpr
esst
hei
rvi
ewsr
egar
dingapr
obl
em
buttheydon’
tmeetinafacetofacesessi
on

Pot
ent
ialAdvant
agesandDi
sadvant
agesofGr
oupDeci
sionMaki
ng

• Mor
einf
ormat
ion,
exper
ti
se,
andvi
ewpoi
ntsar
eavai
labl
etohel
psol
vepr
obl
ems.

• Mor
eal
ter
nat
ivesMor
eal
ter
nat
ivesar
egener
atedandconsi
der
eddur
ing
deci
sionmaki
ng.

• I
ncr
easedunder
standi
ngTher
eisi
ncr
easedunder
standi
ngandgr
eat
er
accept
anceofdeci
sionbygr
oupmember
s.

• Gr
eat
ercommi
tmentTher
eisi
ncr
easedcommi
tmentofgr
oupmember
stowor
k
har
dandsuppor
tthedeci
sion.

72
Whygr
oupdeci
sionscanbebad

• Conf
ormi
tywi
thsoci
alpr
essur
esSomemember
sfeeli
nti
midat
edbyot
her
sand
gi
vei
ntosoci
alpr
essur
est
oconf
orm.

• Domi
nat
ionbyaf
ewmember
sAmi
nor
it
ydomi
nat
es;somemember
sget
r
ail
roadedbysmal
lcoal
it
ionofot
her
s.

• Ti
medel
aysMor
eti
mei
srequi
redt
omakedeci
sionswhenmanypeopl
etr
yto
wor
ktoget
her
.

• Acr
isi
sisanunexpect
edpr
obl
em t
hatcanl
eadt
odi
sast
eri
fnotr
esol
ved
qui
ckl
yandappr
opr
iat
ely.

Deci
sionenvi
ronment
s

1.Cer
tai
nEnvi
ronment
:Of
fer
scompl
etei
nfor
mat
iononpossi
bleact
ions,
alt
ernat
ives
andt
hei
rconsequences.

2.Ri
skEnvi
ronment
:Lackscompl
ete(
adequat
e)i
nfor
mat
ionbutof
fer
spr
obabi
l
iti
es
oft
hel
ikel
yout
comesf
orpossi
bleact
ional
ter
nat
ives.

3.Uncer
tai
nEnvi
ronment
:Lackssomuchi
nfor
mat
iont
hati
tisdi
ff
icul
ttoassi
gn
pr
obabi
li
ti
est
othel
ikel
yout
comesofal
ter
nat
ives.

TypesofDeci
sions

• Pr
ogr
ammedDeci
sion:Appl
iesasol
uti
onf
rom pastexper
iencet
oar
out
ine
pr
obl
em.

• Non-
progr
ammedDeci
sion:Appl
iest
oaspeci
fi
csol
uti
oncr
aft
ed(
desi
gned)f
or
auni
quepr
obl
em.

Appr
oachest
oPr
obl
em Sol
vingandDeci
sionMaki
ng

Whenconf
ront
edwi
thapr
obl
em,
peopl
ear
eli
kel
ytoadoptei
theroft
hef
oll
owi
ng
appr
oaches-St
opi
torMopi
t.

73
 Ast
op-
itappr
oachseekst
osol
veapr
obl
em,
sot
hatt
hepr
obl
em nol
ongerexi
sts.
I
tst
hreef
ormsar
epr
event
ion,
eli
minat
ion,
andr
educt
ion.

 Amop-
itappr
oachf
ocusesont
heef
fect
sofapr
obl
em i
nst
eadoft
reat
ingt
he
pr
obl
em.Themopi
tappr
oachei
ther
;tr
eat
sit
,tol
erat
esi
torr
edi
rect
sit
.

TEAMSI
NORGANI
SATI
ONS

At
eam i
sagr
oupwhosemember
swor
kint
ensi
vel
ywi
theachot
hert
oachi
evea
speci
fi
ccommongoalorobj
ect
ive.

DI
FFERENCESBETWEENAGROUPANDATEAM

GROUP TEAM

• Maynothaveacommongoalor Al
wayshasacommongoalorobj
ect
ive
obj
ect
ive
Al
wayshasadi
sti
nctl
eader
• Maynothaveadi
sti
nctl
eader
I
sal
waysf
ormeddeci
sivel
y(f
ormal
ly
• Maybef
ormedf
rom an
f
ormed)
i
mpr
ompt
u
Li
fet
imei
susual
lymedi
um-
ter
m
• set
ti
ng(
maybei
nfor
mal
lyf
ormed)
Ther
eisal
waysr
elat
ionali
nter
act
ion
• Li
fet
imemaybever
yshor
t-
ter
m
(
team
• Maynotnecessar
il
yber
elat
ional
member
sknoweachot
her
)
(
peopl
e
Al
waysacer
tai
ndegr
eeof
• maynotknoweachot
her
)
cohesi
veness
• Maynotnecessar
il
ybecohesi
ve
Member
sar
emostt
imescommi
tt
edt
o
• Member
smaynotbecommi
tt
ed
achi
evi
ngt
hegr
oup’
sgoal
s
t
o

74
achi
evi
ngt
hegr
oup’
sgoal
s Team l
eaderi
sappoi
ntedf
oll
owi
ngset

• Gr
oupl
eadermaynotnecessar
il
y cr
it
eri
a
beappoi
ntedf
oll
owi
ngsetcr
it
eri
a
Eachmemberhasadi
sti
nctr
olet
opl
ay
(
mayar
isesi
tuat
ional
ly)
i
n
• Notal
lmember
shavear
olet
o
t
het
eam
pl
ayi
nthegr
oup
Al
mostal
waysor
gani
sedor
• Notnecessar
il
yor
gani
sedor
coor
dinat
ed
coor
dinat
ed
Eachmemberi
shel
daccount
abl
efor
• Member
sar
enotnecessar
il
y
t
hei
r
account
abl
efort
hei
ract
ions
act
ions
• Di
ssol
uti
onoft
hegr
oupmaybe
adhoc Di
ssol
uti
onofat
eam nor
mal
lyf
oll
ows

cer
tai
npr
ocedur
es

TYPES/
CATEGORI
ESOFTEAMS

1.Pr
obl
em-
sol
vingt
eams

Thesear
eteamsofshor
tti
medur
ati
onai
medataddr
essi
ngaspeci
fi
cpr
obl
em or
usual
lyf
rom t
hesamedepar
tment
,af
tert
hei
ssue/
probl
em i
sover
,thet
eam i
s
di
sbanded.Gr
oupsof5-12empl
oyeesf
rom t
hesamedepar
tmentwhomeetf
oraf
ew
hour
seachweekt
odi
scusswaysofi
mpr
ovi
ngqual
it
y,ef
fi
ciency,
andt
hewor
k
envi
ronment
.Inpr
obl
em-
sol
vingt
eams,
member
sshar
eideasorof
fersuggest
ionson
howwor
kpr
ocessesandmet
hodscanbei
mpr
oved

2.Cr
oss-
funct
ional
teams

Thi
sist
het
ypi
calt
eam i
ntheor
gani
zat
ioncomposedofmember
sfr
om di
ff
erent
depar
tment
swhowor
konat
askonpr
ojectbasi
s.Thenat
ureandi
mpactoft
he

75
pr
obl
em athandcut
sacr
ossdi
ff
erentpar
tsoft
heor
gani
zat
ion.Forexampl
e,t
osetup
anot
hercampus,
star
thi
gherdegr
eepr
ogr
ammes,

Thesear
eteamsmadeupofempl
oyeesf
rom aboutt
hesamehi
erar
chi
call
evel
,but
f
rom di
ff
erentwor
kar
eas,
whocomet
oget
hert
oaccompl
ishat
ask.Many
or
gani
zat
ionshaveusedhor
izont
al,
boundar
y-spanni
nggr
oupsf
oryear
s.E.
g.t
ask
f
orces,
commi
tt
ees

Feat
uresofOper
ati
ons

•Neednothaveanest
abl
ishedchai
rman.Thet
eam i
tsel
fmaydeci
det
ofi
lli
nthe
chai
rmanort
her
esponsi
bil
it
y.

•I
ndi
vidual
swhoar
eopen-
mindedandwhohavel
ongert
ermi
nsi
ghtshoul
dbe
sel
ect
ed.

•Themember
sshoul
dal
sobepeopl
ewhoar
enotaf
rai
dofconf
ront
ati
onandchange.

Pr
obl
ems

(
i)Takeal
ongt
osel
ectandsetupt
hanpr
obl
em-
sol
vingt
eams

(
ii
)Compar
edt
opr
obl
em-
sol
vingt
eamst
heyar
echar
act
eri
zedbyi
nit
ialf
eel
ingsof
mi
str
ustbet
weenmember
s.

3.Sel
f-
dir
ect
edwor
kteams

Ar
ecentt
ypeoft
eam oper
ati
ont
hati
squi
ckl
ygai
ningpopul
ari
ty;t
heyar
ecomposed
ofor
dinar
ywor
ker
swhobesi
det
hei
rnor
malwor
k,t
eam upt
omaket
hef
oll
owi
ng
deci
sionsf
ort
hei
rsect
ion:

•Theyt
hemsel
vessel
ectt
hei
ndi
vidual
stoser
veont
het
eam

•Det
ermi
net
hewor
ktobeper
for
mede.
g.out
putf
ort
heweek

•Chooset
heappr
oachandpr
ocedur
est
obeadopt
edi
ntheper
for
manceoft
hei
rwor
k

76
•Theal
locat
ionofr
esour
cesavai
labl
eint
hesect
ion

•hel
poneanot
her

Sel
f-
dir
ect
edwor
kteamsar
enotappr
opr
iat
eforever
yor
gani
zat
ion.Theyar
eaf
air
ly
adv
ancedf
orm ofor
gani
zat
ion.

Pr
obl
em-
sol
vingt
eamswer
eont
her
ightt
rackbutt
heydi
dn’
tgof
arenoughi
nget
ti
ng
empl
oyeesi
nvol
vedi
nwor
k-r
elat
eddeci
sionsandpr
ocesses.Thi
sledt
o
exper
iment
ati
onswi
tht
rul
yaut
onomoust
eamst
hatcoul
dnotonl
ysol
vepr
obl
emsbut
i
mpl
ementsol
uti
onsandt
akef
ullr
esponsi
bil
it
yforout
comes.

Typi
cal
ly,
thi
sincl
udespl
anni
ngandschedul
ingofwor
k,col
lect
ivecont
rolovert
he
paceofwor
k,maki
ngoper
ati
ngdeci
sions,
andt
aki
ngact
iononpr
obl
ems.Ful
lysel
f-
managedwor
kteamsevensel
ectt
hei
rownmember
sandhavet
hemember
seval
uat
e
eachot
her
’sper
for
mance.

REQUI
REMENTSFORTEAM EFFECTI
VENESS

Fort
eamst
oachi
evet
hepur
poset
heyar
esetupf
or,
theymustbegi
vensuppor
tby
managementi
ncl
udi
ng:

•Topl
evelcommi
tment

•Management—empl
oyeet
rust

•Wi
ll
ingnesst
otaker
isks

•Commi
tmentt
otr
aini
ng

a) TopLevelManagement

Topl
eader
sint
heor
gani
zat
ionneedt
odemonst
rat
ethei
rbel
iefaboutt
henecessi
tyof
t
eamsbyof
fer
ingt
hef
oll
owi
ng:

•At
tent
ionandr
ecogni
ti
onsoast
oenhancet
heconf
idenceoft
eam member
s

77
•Cl
earunder
standi
ngoft
heor
gani
zat
ionalgoal
sandobj
ect
ivest
hateacht
eam i
sto
hel
paccompl
ish

•Adequat
eandpr
omptaccesst
ofi
nanci
alandot
herr
esour
cest
hatsuppor
tact
ivi
ti
es
i
nthet
eam.

b) Management
-Empl
oyeeTr
ust

Tr
ustneedst
obebui
ltatt
wol
evel
s:bet
weenmanagementandt
eam member
sand
amongt
het
eam member
sthemsel
ves.

Member
smustbel
ievei
nthei
ntegr
it
y,behavi
orandabi
li
ti
esofeachot
her
.Ift
eam
member
sbel
ievet
hatmanagementhast
rusti
nthegr
oup,
thet
rustwi
thi
ngr
oup
member
sthemsel
vesi
senhanced.

Manager
sneedt
obeawar
ethatt
rusti
sdi
ff
icul
ttobui
ldbutcanber
uinedbyasi
ngl
e
r
ealorper
cei
vedmi
stake.

c) Wi
ll
ingnesst
oTakeRi
sks

Teamsandt
eam appr
oachar
erel
ati
vel
ynewmanagementpr
act
ices(
andst
yle)
.
Ther
efor
e,t
heappr
oachi
sst
il
lregar
dedbymanager
sasachangeandchangei
s
associ
atedwi
thr
isks.Manager
sandt
eam member
smustacceptt
hechangeandt
he
r
iskst
hataccompanyi
tasnewpr
act
ice.

Tor
educeont
her
isksassoci
atedwi
tht
hechange,
member
smusthaveal
linf
ormat
ion
t
heycan.

d) Commi
tmentt
oTr
aini
ng

Thet
eam appr
oachi
mpl
iesmor
esel
fdi
rect
ionandsel
f-
managementbecauseoft
he
di
sappear
anceoft
hechai
nst
ruct
urewher
ethi
shappens.Thet
eam appr
oachal
so
r
equi
resi
ndi
vidualt
olosei
nter
msofper
sonalpr
ivi
legesandgai
nint
ermsofgr
oup’
s
wel
l
-bei
ng.Ther
efor
e,t
rai
ningi
sessent
ial
formember
stoappr
eci
atet
her
equi
red
at
ti
tudesandbehavi
orsoft
het
eam wor
kst
yle.

78
DECI
SSI
ONMAKI
NG

Gr
oup deci
sion-
maki
ng commonl
y known as col
labor
ati
ve deci
sion-
maki
ng i
sa
si
tuat
ionf
acedwheni
ndi
vidual
scol
lect
ivel
ymakeachoi
cef
rom t
heal
ter
nat
ives
bef
oret
hem.

Thedeci
sioni
sthennol
ongerat
tr
ibut
abl
etoanyi
ndi
vidualgr
oupmemberasal
lthe
i
ndi
vidual
sandsoci
algr
ouppr
ocessesl
ikesoci
ali
nfl
uencecont
ri
but
etot
hedeci
sion
out
come.

Thedeci
sionsmadebygr
oupsar
emost
lydi
ff
erentf
rom t
hosemadebyi
ndi
vidual
s.
Forex
ampl
e,gr
oupst
endt
omakedeci
sionst
hatar
emor
eext
remet
hant
hosemade
byi
ndi
vidualmember
s,asi
ndi
vidual
stendt
obebi
ased.

Adv
ant
age
sof
GroupDe
cis
ionMa
king
Gr
oupdeci
sionmaki
nghast
woadvant
agesoveri
ndi
vidualdeci
sionmaki
ng.

Syner
gy
I
tist
hei
deat
hatt
hewhol
eisgr
eat
ert
hant
heaggr
egat
eofi
tspar
ts.Whenagr
oup
makesadeci
sioncol
lect
ivel
y,i
tsj
udgmentcanbepower
fult
hant
hatofanyofi
ts
member
s.Thr
ough di
scussi
ng,quest
ioni
ng,and col
labor
ati
ve appr
oach,gr
oup
member
scani
dent
if
ymor
ecompl
eteandr
obustsol
uti
onsandr
ecommendat
ions.

Shar
ingofi
nfor
mat
ion
Gr
oup deci
sionst
akei
nto accountawi
derscopeofi
nfor
mat
ion aseach gr
oup
membermay cont
ri
but
e di
sti
ncti
nfor
mat
ion and exper
ti
se.Shar
ing i
nfor
mat
ion
i
ncr
eases under
standi
ng,cl
ari
fi
es i
ssues,and f
aci
li
tat
es movementt
owar
ds a
col
lect
ivedeci
sion.

Di
sadv
ant
age
sof
GroupDe
cis
ionMa
king
Themaj
ordi
sadvant
agesofgr
oupdeci
sionmaki
ngar
easf
oll
ows−

79
Di
ff
usi
onofResponsi
bil
i
ty
Gr
oupdeci
sionmaki
ngr
esul
tsi
ndi
str
ibut
ionofr
esponsi
bil
it
ythatr
esul
tsi
nlackof
account
abi
li
tyf
orout
comes.I
nthi
sway,ever
yonei
sresponsi
blef
oradeci
sion,and
nooner
eal
l
yis.Mor
eover
,gr
oupdeci
sionscanmakei
teasi
erf
ormember
stor
efuse
per
sonalr
esponsi
bil
it
iesandbl
ameot
her
sforbaddeci
sions.

LowerEf
fi
ciency
Gr
oupdeci
sionscansomet
imesbel
essef
fi
cientt
hani
ndi
vidualdeci
sions.I
ttakes
addi
ti
onalt
ime because t
her
eisa need ofact
ive par
ti
cipat
ion,di
scussi
on,and
coor
dinat
ion among gr
oup member
s.Wi
thoutgood f
aci
li
tat
ion and st
ruct
ure,
meet
ingscangetel
imi
nat
edi
ntr
ivi
aldet
ail
sthatmaymat
teral
ott
ooneper
sonbut
nott
otheot
her
s.

Gr
oupt
hink
Oneoft
hebi
ggestdi
sadvant
ageofef
fect
ivegr
oupdeci
sionmaki
ngi
sgr
oupt
hink.I
tis
apsychol
ogi
calphenomenont
hatoccur
swi
thi
nagr
oupofpeopl
einwhi
cht
hewi
sh
f
orhar
monyorconf
ormi
tyr
esul
tsi
nani
ll
ogi
calordysf
unct
ionaldeci
sion-
maki
ng
out
come.

Byr
efr
aini
ngt
hemsel
vesf
rom out
sidei
nfl
uencesandact
ivel
ysuppr
essi
ngopposi
ng
vi
ewpoi
ntsi
nthei
nter
estofmi
nimi
zingconf
li
ct,gr
oupmember
sreachaconsensus
deci
sionwi
thoutcr
it
ical
eval
uat
ionofsubst
it
utevi
ewpoi
nts.

Gr
oupt
hinksomet
imespr
oducesdehumani
zingact
ionsagai
nstt
heout
-gr
oup.

Gr
oupDe
cis
ion-
Mak
ingTe
chni
que
s
I
nor
dert
oel
imi
nat
egr
oupt
hinkandgr
oupshi
ftf
rom agr
oup,wecanusef
our
di
ff
erentt
echni
quest
hatwi
llhel
pusmakeacol
labor
ati
vedeci
siont
hati
sbestf
ort
he
gr
oup.Theset
echni
quesar
e−

 Br
ainst
ormi
ng

 Nomi
nalgr
oupt
hinki
ng

80
  Di
dact
ict
echni
que

 Del
phit
echni
que

Br
ainst
ormi
ng
Thi
stechni
quei
ncl
udesagr
oupofpeopl
e,most
lybet
weenf
iveandt
eni
nnumber
,
si
tt
ingar
oundat
abl
e,pr
oduci
ngi
deasi
nthef
orm off
reeassoci
ati
on.Themai
nfocus
i
songener
ati
onofi
deasandnotoneval
uat
ionoft
hesei
deas.

I
fmor
eideascanbeor
igi
nat
ed,
theni
tisl
ikel
ythatt
her
ewi
llbeauni
queandcr
eat
ive
i
deaamongt
hem.Al
lthesei
deasar
ewr
it
tenont
hebl
ackboar
dwi
thapi
eceofchal
k
sot
hatal
lthet
eam member
scanseeever
yideaandt
ryt
oimpr
ovi
set
hesei
deas.

Br
ainst
ormi
ngt
echni
quei
sver
yef
fect
ivewhent
hepr
obl
em i
scompar
ati
vel
ypr
eci
se
andcanbesi
mpl
ydef
ined.Acompl
expr
obl
em canbedi
videdi
ntopar
tsandeach
par
tcanbedeal
twi
thsepar
atel
yatat
ime.

Nomi
nalGr
oupThi
nki
ng
Thi
stechni
que i
s si
mil
art
o br
ainst
ormi
ng exceptt
hatt
his appr
oach i
s mor
e
st
ruct
ured.I
tmot
ivat
esi
ndi
vidualcr
eat
ivi
ty.Member
sfor
mthegr
oupf
ornamesake
andoper
atei
ndependent
ly,or
igi
nat
eideasf
orsol
vingt
hepr
obl
em ont
hei
rown,i
n
si
lenceandi
nwr
it
ing.Member
sdonotcommuni
cat
ewel
lwi
theachot
hersot
hat
st
rongper
sonal
it
ydomi
nat
ioni
sevaded.

Thegr
oupcoor
dinat
orei
thercol
lect
sthewr
it
teni
deasorwr
it
est
hem onal
arge
bl
ackboar
dsot
hateachmemberoft
hegr
oupcanseewhatt
hei
deasar
e.These
i
deasar
efur
therdi
scussedonebyonei
ntur
nandeachpar
ti
cipanti
smot
ivat
edt
o
commentont
hesei
deasi
nor
dert
ocl
ari
fyandi
mpr
ovet
hem.Af
teral
lthesei
deas
havebeendi
scussed,t
heyar
eeval
uat
edf
ort
hei
rmer
it
sanddr
awbacksandeach
act
ivel
ypar
ti
cipat
ingmemberi
sneededt
ovot
eoneachi
deaandal
loti
tar
ankont
he
basi
sofpr
ior
it
yofeachal
ter
nat
ivesol
uti
on.

Thei
deawi
tht
hehi
ghestcumul
ati
ver
anki
ngi
ssel
ect
edast
hef
inalsol
uti
ont
othe
pr
obl
em.

81
Di
dact
icI
nter
act
ion
Thi
stechni
quei
sappl
icabl
eonl
yincer
tai
nsi
tuat
ions,buti
sanexcel
lentmet
hod
whenasi
tuat
ionact
ual
lydemandsi
t.Thet
ypeofpr
obl
em shoul
dbesucht
hati
t
gener
atesout
puti
nthef
orm ofy
esorno.Sayf
orexampl
e,adeci
sioni
stobemade
whet
hert
obuyornott
obuyapr
oduct
,tomer
geornott
omer
ge,t
oexpandornott
o
expandandsoon.Theset
ypesofdeci
sionr
equi
resanext
ensi
veandexhaust
ive
di
scussi
onandi
nvest
igat
ionsi
nceawr
ongdeci
sioncanhaveser
iousconsequences.

Ther
ear
emanyadvant
agesaswel
lasdi
sadvant
agesoft
hist
ypeofsi
tuat
ion.The
gr
oupt
hatmakest
hedeci
sioni
sdi
videdi
ntot
wosub-
groups,
onei
nfavoroft
he“
go”
deci
sionandt
heopposi
ngi
nfavorof“
nogo”deci
sion.

Thef
ir
stgr
oupenl
ist
sal
lthe“
pros”oft
hepr
obl
em sol
uti
onandt
hesecondgr
oupl
ist
s
al
lthe“
cons”
.Thesegr
oupsmeetanddi
scusst
hei
rdi
scover
iesandt
hei
rreasons.

Af
tert
ir
ingdi
scussi
ons,t
hegr
oupsswi
tchsi
desandt
ryt
ofi
ndweaknessesi
nthei
r
ownor
igi
nalst
andpoi
nts.Thi
sint
erchangeofi
deasandunder
standi
ngofvar
ious
vi
ewpoi
ntsr
esul
tsi
nmut
ualaccept
anceoft
hef
act
sast
heyexi
stsot
hatasol
uti
on
canbeputt
oget
herar
oundt
hesef
act
sandul
ti
mat
elyaf
inaldeci
sioni
sreached.

Del
phiTechni
que
Thi
stechni
quei
sthei
mpr
ovi
sedver
sionoft
henomi
nalgr
oupt
echni
que,exceptt
hat
i
tinvol
vesobt
aini
ngt
heopi
nionsofexper
tsphysi
cal
lydi
stantf
rom eachot
herand
unknownt
oeachot
her
.

Thi
sisol
atesgr
oupmember
sfr
om t
heunduei
nfl
uenceofot
her
s.Basi
cal
ly,t
het
ypes
ofpr
obl
emssor
ted byt
hist
echni
quear
enotspeci
fi
cin nat
ureorr
elat
ed t
oa
par
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ionatagi
vent
ime.

Forexampl
e,t
het
echni
quecoul
dbeusedt
oexpl
aint
hepr
obl
emst
hatcoul
dbe
cr
eat
edi
ntheeventofawar
.TheDel
phit
echni
quei
ncl
udest
hef
oll
owi
ngst
eps−

 Thepr
obl
em i
sfi
rsti
dent
if
ied and apanelofexper
tsar
esel
ect
ed.These

82
 exper
tsar
easkedt
opr
ovi
depot
ent
ialsol
uti
onst
hroughaser
iesoft
hought
ful
ly
desi
gnedquest
ionnai
res.

 Eachexper
tconcl
udesandr
etur
nst
hei
nit
ial
quest
ionnai
re.

 Ther
esul
tsoft
hequest
ionnai
rear
ecomposedatacent
rall
ocat
ionandt
he
cent
ralcoor
dinat
orpr
epar
esa second setofquest
ionnai
re based on t
he
pr
evi
ousanswer
s.

 Each memberr
ecei
vesa copyoft
her
esul
tsaccompani
ed byt
hesecond
quest
ionnai
re.

 Member
s ar
erequi
red t
orevi
ew t
he r
esul
ts and r
espond t
othe second
quest
ionnai
re.Ther
esul
tst
ypi
cal
lyt
ri
ggernew sol
uti
onsormot
ivat
echanges
i
ntheor
igi
nali
deas.

 Thepr
ocessi
srepeat
edunt
ilagener
alagr
eementi
sobt
ained.

83
LEADERSHI
P

Leader
shi
pcanbedef
inedast
heabi
li
tyoft
hemanagementt
omakesounddeci
sions
andi
nspi
reot
her
stoper
for
m wel
l.I
tist
hepr
ocessofdi
rect
ingt
hebehavi
orofot
her
s
t
owar
dsachi
evi
ngacommongoal
.Inshor
t,l
eader
shi
pisget
ti
ngt
hingsdonet
hrough
ot
her
s.

I
mpor
tanc
eof
Lea
der
shi
p
Leader
shi
pisver
yimpor
tanti
naf
ir
m asi
tleadst
ohi
gherper
for
mancebyt
het
eam
member
s,i
timpr
ovesmot
ivat
ion and mor
alewi
thi
nthemember
s,and hel
pst
o
r
espondt
ochange.

Leader
shi
p f
aci
li
tat
es or
gani
zat
ional success by cr
eat
ing r
esponsi
bil
it
y and
account
abi
li
tyamongt
hemember
soft
heor
gani
zat
ion.I
nshor
t,i
tincr
easesval
uei
n
anor
gani
zat
ion.

L
eade
rVsMa
nage
r
Al
eaderi
ssomeonewhom peopl
efol
loworsomeonewhogui
desordi
rect
sot
her
s.A
manageri
ssomeonewhoi
sresponsi
blef
ordi
rect
ingandcont
rol
li
ngt
hewor
kand
st
affi
nanor
gani
zat
ion,
orofadepar
tmentwi
thi
nit
.

Themai
ndi
ff
erencebet
weent
het
woi
sthatal
eaderwor
ksbyexampl
e,whi
lea
managerdi
ctat
esexpect
ati
ons.I
famanagergoesagai
nstt
her
ules,t
hatwi
llt
arni
sh
hi
sposi
ti
onasamanager
.Ifal
eadergoesagai
nstt
heexampl
eheorshei
str
yingt
o
set
,thatwi
llbeseenasaset
back.Fol
lowi
ngar
eaf
ewsubt
ledi
ff
erencesbet
weent
he
t
wo−

 Al
eaderi
sani
nnovat
orandcr
eat
orwher
easamanageri
sacommander
.

 Al
eadercan’
tbeamanagerbutt
heopposi
tei
spossi
ble,amanageri
smor
e
t
hanal
eader
.

 Al
eaderdoeswhati
sri
ght
,whi
let
hemanagermakest
hingsr
ight
.

84
  Al
eaderdeal
swi
thchangewher
easamanagerpl
ansf
orachange.

 Al
eadergi
vesdi
rect
ion t
o do somet
hing wher
east
he managerpl
ansf
or
ever
ythi
ngt
hati
stobedone.

 Al
eaderencour
agespeopl
ewher
east
hemanagercont
rol
speopl
e.

 Al
eaderhandl
escommuni
cat
ion,cr
edi
bil
it
y,and empower
mentwher
easa
managerdeal
swi
thor
gani
zingandst
aff
ing.

L
eade
rshi
pSt
yl
es
Di
ff
erentl
eader
shi
pst
ylesexi
sti
nwor
kenvi
ronment
s.Thecul
tur
eandgoalofan
or
gani
zat
iondet
ermi
newhi
chl
eader
shi
pst
ylef
it
sbest
.Someor
gani
zat
ionsof
fer
di
ff
erentl
eader
shi
pst
yleswi
thi
nanor
gani
zat
ion,dependi
ngont
henecessar
ytasks
t
ocompl
eteanddepar
tment
alneeds.

Wef
indf
ivedi
ff
erentl
eader
shi
pst
ylesi
nthecor
por
atewor
ld.Theyar
easf
oll
ows−

Lai
ssez-
Fai
re
Al
aissez-
fai
rel
eaderdoesnotdi
rect
lysuper
viseempl
oyeesandf
ail
stopr
ovi
de
r
egul
arupdat
es t
othose underhi
s super
visi
on.Hi
ghl
yexper
ienced and t
rai
ned
empl
oyees wi
th mi
nimalr
equi
rementofsuper
visi
on f
allundert
he l
aissez-
fai
re
l
eader
shi
pst
yle.

But
,notal
lempl
oyeespossesst
hesef
eat
ures.Thi
sleader
shi
p st
ylebl
ockst
he
pr
oduct
ionofempl
oyeesneedi
ngsuper
visi
on.Thel
aissez-
fai
rest
ylei
mpl
ement
sno
l
eader
shi
porsuper
visi
onef
for
tsf
rom manager
s,whi
chcanl
eadt
opoorpr
oduct
ion,
l
ackofcont
rolandi
ncr
easi
ngcost
s.

Aut
ocr
ati
c
Theaut
ocr
ati
cleader
shi
pst
yleper
mit
smanager
stomakedeci
sionsal
onewi
thout
t
he i
nputofot
her
s.Manager
s access t
otalaut
hor
it
y and i
mpose t
hei
rwi
llon
empl
oyees.Nooneopposest
hedeci
sionsofaut
ocr
ati
cleader
s.Count
ri
esl
ikeCuba
andNor
thKor
eaoper
ateundert
heaut
ocr
ati
cleader
shi
pst
yle.

85
Thi
sleader
shi
p st
yle benef
it
sthose who r
equi
re di
rectsuper
visi
on.Cr
eat
ive
empl
oyeeswhopar
ti
cipat
eingr
oupf
unct
ionsdet
estt
hisl
eader
shi
pst
yle.

Par
ti
cipat
ive
Thi
sisal
soknownast
hedemocr
ati
cleader
shi
pst
yle.I
tval
uest
hei
nputoft
eam
member
sandpeer
s,butt
her
esponsi
bil
it
yofmaki
ngt
hef
inaldeci
sionr
est
swi
tht
he
par
ti
cipat
ivel
eader
.Par
ti
cipat
ivel
eader
shi
p mot
ivat
esempl
oyee mor
alebecause
empl
oyeesmakecont
ri
but
ionst
othedeci
sion-
maki
ng pr
ocess.I
taccount
stoa
f
eel
ingt
hatt
hei
ropi
nionsmat
ter
.

Whenanor
gani
zat
ionneedst
omakechangeswi
thi
nit
sel
f,t
hati
sint
ernal
ly,t
he
par
ti
cipat
ivel
eader
shi
pst
ylehel
psempl
oyeesacceptchangeseasi
lyast
heypl
aya
r
olei
nthepr
ocess.Thi
sleader
shi
pst
ylemeet
schal
lengeswhencompani
esneedt
o
makeadeci
sioni
nashor
tper
iodoft
ime.

Tr
ansact
ional
Tr
ansact
ionall
eader
shi
pst
ylei
sfor
medbyt
heconceptofr
ewar
dandpuni
shment
.
Tr
ansact
ionall
eader
s bel
ieve t
hat t
he empl
oyee'
s per
for
mance i
s compl
etel
y
dependentont
heset
wof
act
ors.Whent
her
eisanencour
agement
,thewor
ker
sputi
n
t
hei
rbestef
for
tandt
hebonusi
sinmonet
aryt
ermsi
nmostoft
hecases.I
ncaset
hey
f
ailt
oachi
evet
hesett
argett
heyar
egi
venanegat
iveappr
aisal
.

Tr
ansact
ionall
eader
spaymor
eat
tent
iont
ophy
sicalandsecur
it
yrequi
rement
soft
he
empl
oyees.

Tr
ansf
ormat
ional
Tr
ansf
ormat
ionall
eader
shi
phast
heabi
li
tyt
oaf
fectempl
oyee'
sper
cept
ionst
hrough
t
her
etur
nst
hator
gani
zat
ionget
sint
hef
orm ofhumancapi
talbenef
it
s.Thesel
eader
s
have t
he abi
li
tyt
oreap hi
gherbenef
it
s byi
ntr
oduci
ng knowl
edge management
pr
ocesses,
encour
agi
ngi
nter
per
sonalcommuni
cat
ionamongempl
oyeesandcr
eat
ing
heal
thyor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
e.

I
t hel
ps i
n f
lour
ishi
ng or
gani
zat
ional i
nnovat
ion by cr
eat
ing a par
ti
cipat
ive

86
envi
ronmentorcul
tur
e.I
tpr
omot
esacul
tur
ewher
etheempl
oyeeshaveaut
onomyt
o
speakaboutt
hei
rexper
iencesandshar
eknowl
edge.

I
thasbeenseent
hatt
ransf
ormat
ionall
eader
sar
emor
einnovat
ivet
hant
ransact
ional
andl
aisse-
fai
rel
eader
s.

L
eade
rshi
pthe
ory
1.Tr
adi
t
iona
lThe
ory
Tr
adi
ti
onalt
heor
yisat
heor
ybasedondi
ff
erentt
rai
tsofahumanbei
ngs.I
tassumes
t
hatl
eader
sar
ebor
nandnotmade.Accor
dingt
othi
stheor
y,l
eader
shi
pbehav
iori
s
t
hesum t
otalofal
ltr
ait
sthatal
eaderpossess.

Thust
hist
heor
ygi
vest
hepr
ofi
leofasuccessf
ulandcompl
etel
eader
.Accor
dingt
o
t
hist
heor
y,t
her
ear
efi
vehumant
rai
ts.Theyar
e−

 Physi
calt
rai
t−i
tincl
udesener
gy,
act
ivi
ty,
appear
ance,
andhei
ght
.

 Abi
li
tyt
rai
t−i
tincl
udesj
udgement
,knowl
edge,
andf
luencyi
nspeech.

 Per
sonalt
rai
t−i
tincl
udessel
f-
conf
idence,
creat
ivi
ty,
andent
husi
asm.

 Wor
ktr
ait−i
tincl
udesor
gani
zat
ionandachi
evement
.

 Soci
alt
rai
t− i
tincl
udesi
nter
per
sonalski
ll
,cooper
ati
veness,popul
ari
tyand
pr
est
ige.

Dr
awbacks
Fol
lowi
ngar
ethemaj
ordr
awbacksoft
hist
heor
y−

 Tr
ait
sar
enotar
rangedaccor
dingt
othei
rimpor
tance.

 Ther
eisnoquant
it
ati
vet
oolt
ojudget
hehumant
rai
ts.

 Thi
str
aitcan’
tbeuseduni
ver
sal
ly.

87
  Thi
str
aitcanbeachi
evedanddevel
oped.

 Si
tuat
ionalf
act
orsar
eavoi
ded.

2.Be
hav
ior
alThe
ory
Thi
stheor
y expl
ains t
he ef
fect
iveness ofl
eader
shi
p.Accor
ding t
othi
stheor
y,
l
eader
shi
phast
woqual
it
iesi
.e.
,i
nit
iat
ingst
ruct
ureandconsi
der
ati
on.Thesequal
it
ies
ar
etest
edwi
thhi
gherandl
owerl
evel
swi
thpr
operi
nter
sect
ionofeachot
her
.

I
nit
iat
ingSt
ruct
ure
I
tist
hel
evelupt
owhi
chal
eaderi
staskor
ient
edanddi
rect
stheempl
oyeet
owar
ds
achi
evi
ngagoal
.Int
hiscase,
thel
eadergi
vesi
nst
ruct
ion,
makespl
anandschedul
es
wor
kact
ivi
ti
es.

Consi
der
ati
on
I
tist
hel
evelupt
owhi
chal
eaderi
sconcer
nedwi
tht
hesub-
ordi
nat
es,i
deasand
f
eel
ings.Consi
der
atel
eader
sar
efr
iendl
y,t
heyshow concer
nforsub-
ordi
nat
es’wel
l-
bei
ngandsat
isf
act
ion.

Thi
stypeofl
eader
shi
pisachi
evedbyper
for
manceandi
sfoundt
obeef
fect
ive.Buti
t
i
snott
hebestwayassi
tuat
ionalf
act
orsar
enott
akeni
ntoconsi
der
ati
on.

88
 3.Cont
i
nge
ncyThe
ory
Accor
dingt
othi
stheor
y,pr
opoundedbyPaulHer
seyandKenBl
anchar
d,bel
ievest
he
ef
fect
ivenessofal
eaderi
sdependentont
heact
ionorr
eadi
nessofhi
sfol
lower
s.By
r
eadi
nesswemeant
heext
entt
owhi
cht
hef
oll
ower
sar
eabl
eandwi
ll
ingt
oachi
eve
t
hegoal
.

Thi
stheor
yisexpl
ainedont
hebasi
soff
ourcases.

 Case1−I
ncaseone,
wehavehi
ghr
elat
ionshi
pbehavi
orandl
owt
askbehavi
or.
Thel
eadermot
ivat
est
hef
oll
ower
sandhel
psi
ndeci
sionmaki
ng.Notmuch
pr
oduct
ivi
tycanbeseeni
nthi
scasebutt
hesenseoft
oget
her
nessi
shi
gh.

 Case2−I
ncaset
wo,wehavehi
ghr
elat
ionshi
pbehavi
oraswel
lashi
ght
ask
behavi
or.I
nthi
scombi
nat
ion,t
hel
eaderexpl
ainst
hedeci
sionandhel
pst
o
bui
ldconf
idenceoft
heempl
oyees.I
nthi
scase,pr
oduct
ivi
tyaswel
lasl
oyal
ty
t
owar
dst
hel
eaderi
smor
e.

 Case3−I
ncaset
hree,
wehaveacombi
nat
ionofl
owr
elat
ionshi
pbehavi
orand
l
ow t
askbehavi
or.Her
eweseet
hatt
hel
eaderdel
egat
est
her
esponsi
bil
it
yof
deci
sionmaki
ngt
othef
oll
ower
s.I
nthi
scase,t
her
eispoorcommuni
cat
ionas
wel
laspoorpr
oduct
ion.

89
 Case4−Her
ewedealwi
thacombi
nat
ionofl
owr
elat
ionshi
pbehavi
orandhi
gh
t
ask behavi
or.The l
eader gi
ves speci
fi
c di
rect
ion and super
vises t
he
per
for
mance.Thi
stheor
yisef
fect
iveonl
yift
hel
eader
schanget
hei
rst
yle
i
rr
espect
iveoft
her
eadi
nessoft
hef
oll
ower
s.

90
ORGANI
SATI
ONALCONFLI
CT

Conf
li
ctcanbedef
inedasament
alst
ruggl
eresul
ti
ngf
rom i
ncompat
ibl
eoropposi
ng
needs,
dri
ves,
wishes,
andext
ernalori
nter
naldemands.Wher
ether
ear
epeopl
e,t
her
e
i
sconf
li
ct.

Theyar
eusual
lyt
akeni
nanegat
iveassoci
ati
on.However
,thi
sisi
naccur
ateas
conf
li
ctsar
enecessar
yforheal
thyr
elat
ionshi
ps.I
tal
ldependsont
heappr
oachwe
uset
oresol
vet
heconf
li
ct.

Cl
ass
if
ic
ati
onof
Conf
l
ict
Whenwet
hinkoft
hedi
ff
erentt
ypesofconf
li
ct,wemi
ghti
nst
ant
lyt
hinkoft
heones
r
efer
redt
oinl
it
erat
ure,
especi
all
yinf
ict
ion.Theycanbeappl
iedt
oreall
if
e,ofcour
se.
However
,incont
empor
aryt
imes,t
ypesofconf
li
ctwhi
char
eeasi
lyi
dent
if
iabl
ear
e
cl
assi
fi
edi
ntof
ourdi
ff
erentt
ypes−

 I
ntr
aper
sonal

 I
ntr
agr
oup

 I
nter
per
sonal

 I
nter
group

I
ntr
aper
sonalConf
li
ct
I
ntr
aper
sonalconf
li
ctt
akespl
acewi
thi
nani
ndi
vidual
.Theper
sonexper
iencesi
tinhi
s
ownmi
nd.Thus,i
tisat
ypeofconf
li
ctt
hati
spsychol
ogi
cali
nvol
vingt
hei
ndi
vidual
’
s
t
hought
s,val
ues,pr
inci
ples and emot
ions.I
ntr
aper
sonalconf
li
ctmay come i
n
di
ff
erentf
orms,f
rom t
hesi
mpl
emundaneonesl
ikedeci
dingwhet
herornott
ogo
veganf
orl
uncht
oonest
hatcanaf
fectmaj
ordeci
sionssuchaschoosi
ngacar
eer
pat
h.

However
,thi
stypeofconf
li
ctcanbequi
tedi
ff
icul
ttohandl
e,i
fyouf
indi
thar
dto
deci
pheryouri
nnerst
ruggl
es.I
tresul
tsi
nrest
lessnessanduneasi
ness,orcaneven

91
causedepr
essi
on.Onsuchoccasi
ons,i
tisadvi
sedt
oseekawayt
oletgooft
he
anxi
etybycommuni
cat
ing wi
th ot
herpeopl
e.Event
ual
ly,when t
he per
son f
inds
hi
msel
f/her
sel
foutoft
hesi
tuat
ion,
he/
shecanbecomemor
eempower
edasaper
son.
Thus,
theexper
iencei
nvokesaposi
ti
vechangewhi
chhel
psi
nper
sonalgr
owt
h.

I
ntr
agr
oupConf
li
ct
I
ntr
agr
oupconf
li
ctoccur
samongi
ndi
vidual
swi
thi
nat
eam.Thei
ncompat
ibi
li
ti
esand
mi
sunder
standi
ngsbet
weent
eam member
sleadst
oint
ragr
oupconf
li
ct.I
tst
art
sfr
om
i
nter
per
sonaldi
sagr
eement
sli
ket
eam member
shavedi
ff
erentper
sonal
it
ieswhi
ch
mayl
eadt
otensi
onordi
ff
erencesi
nvi
ewsandi
deas.Sayf
orexampl
e,dur
inga
pr
esent
ati
on,member
soft
het
eam mi
ghtf
indt
henot
ionspr
esent
edbyt
heone
pr
esi
dingt
obeer
roneousduet
othei
rdi
ff
erencesi
nopi
nion.

Wi
thi
nat
eam,conf
li
ctcan be hel
pfuli
n comi
ng up wi
th deci
sions,whi
ch wi
ll
event
ual
lyal
low t
hem t
oachi
evet
hei
robj
ect
ivesasat
eam.But
,ift
hedegr
eeof
conf
li
ctdi
srupt
shar
monyamongt
hemember
s,t
hensomeser
iousgui
dancef
rom a
di
ff
erentpar
tywi
llbeneededf
ori
ttobeset
tl
ed.

I
nter
per
sonalConf
li
ct
I
nter
per
sonalconf
li
ctmeansaconf
li
ctbet
weent
woi
ndi
vidual
s.Basi
cal
ly,
thi
soccur
s
becauseofsomedi
ff
erencesi
npeopl
e.Wehavevar
iedper
sonal
it
ieswhi
chusual
ly
l
eadt
oincompat
ibl
echoi
cesandopi
nions.So,i
tisanat
uraloccur
rencewhi
chcan
event
ual
lyhel
pinper
sonalgr
owt
hordevel
opi
ngourr
elat
ionshi
pswi
thot
her
s.

I
naddi
ti
on,adj
ust
ment
sar
enecessar
yformanagi
ngt
hist
ypeofconf
li
ct.However
,
wheni
nter
per
sonalconf
li
ctbecomest
oodest
ruct
ive,
cal
li
ngi
namedi
atorhel
pssoas
t
ohavet
hei
ssuer
esol
ved.

I
nter
groupConf
li
ct
I
nter
groupconf
li
ctoccur
swhenami
sunder
standi
ngar
isesamongdi
ff
erentt
eams
wi
thi
nanor
gani
zat
ion.Forexampl
e,t
hemar
ket
ingdepar
tmentofanor
gani
zat
ioncan
comei
nconf
li
ctwi
tht
hecust
omersuppor
tdepar
tment
.Thi
sisbecauseoft
hevar
ied

92
set
sofgoal
sandi
nter
est
soft
hesedi
ff
erentgr
oups.I
naddi
ti
ont
othi
s,compet
it
ion
al
socont
ri
but
est
oint
ergr
oupconf
li
ct.Ther
ear
eot
herf
act
orswhi
chi
ncr
easet
his
t
ypeofconf
li
ct.Someoft
hesef
act
orsmayi
ncl
udear
ival
ryi
nresour
cesort
he
boundar
iessetbyagr
oupt
oot
her
swhi
chf
ormst
hei
rowni
dent
it
yasat
eam.

Conf
li
ctshoul
dnotal
waysbeper
cei
vedasapr
obl
em r
atheratt
imesi
tisachancef
or
gr
owt
handcanbeanef
fect
ivemeansofopeni
ngupamonggr
oupsori
ndi
vidual
s.
However
,whenconf
li
ctbegi
nst
osuppr
essordi
sruptpr
oduct
ivi
tyandgi
veswayt
o
mor
econf
li
cts,
thenconf
li
ctmanagementi
swhati
sneededf
orpr
obl
em r
esol
uti
on.

Conf
li
ctResol
uti
on
Conf
li
ctr
esol
uti
oni
samet
hodbywhi
cht
woormor
epar
ti
esf
indapeacef
ulsol
uti
on
t
oadi
sagr
eementamongt
hem.Thedi
sagr
eementcanbeper
sonal
,fi
nanci
al,
pol
it
ical
,
oremot
ional
.When a di
sagr
eementar
ises,of
ten t
he bestcour
se ofact
ion i
s
negot
iat
iont
oresol
vet
hedi
sagr
eement
.Weal
lknow t
hatwhenpeopl
egat
herf
ora
di
scussi
on,i
tisnotnecessar
ythatwhatonet
hinksi
sri
ghtt
heot
hert
hinkst
hesame
way
,thi
sdi
ff
erencei
nthi
nki
ngorment
ali
tyl
eadst
oconf
li
ct.

"
I’
m doi
ngmybestatwor
kandyouexpectmet
odomor
e!Whydon’
tyouaskt
heot
her
t
eam member
s?"Thi
sist
hest
artofaconf
li
ct!Letusknowaboutsomeoft
heconf
li
ct
managementt
echni
ques.

Conf
l
ict
Mana
geme
ntTe
chni
que
s
Wegeti
ntoaconf
li
ctwhent
heper
sonopposi
tet
oushasadi
ff
erentmi
ndset
.Iti
s
ver
ycommoni
nawor
kpl
acet
ogeti
ntodi
ff
erencesofopi
nion.Somet
imest
her
eisa
conf
li
ctbet
weent
woormor
eempl
oyees,somet
imesempl
oyeeshaveaconf
li
ctwi
th
t
hei
rmanager
sandsoon.Nowt
hequest
ioni
s,howcanwemanagedi
sagr
eement
sin
wayst
hatbui
ldper
sonalandcol
l
egi
alr
elat
ionshi
ps?

Her
ear
efi
vest
rat
egi
esf
rom conf
li
ctmanagementt
heor
yformanagi
ngst
ressf
ul
si
tuat
ions.Noneoft
hem i
sa"
one-
size-
fi
ts-
all
"answer
.Whi
chonei
sthebesti
na
gi
vensi
tuat
iondependsonvar
iet
yoff
act
ors,i
ncl
udi
nganappr
aisaloft
hel
evel
sof

93
conf
li
ct.

 Col
labor
ati
ng−wi
n/wi
n

 Compr
omi
sing−wi
nsome/
losesome

 Accommodat
ing−l
ose/
win

 Compet
ing−wi
n/l
ose

 Avoi
ding−nowi
nner
s/nol
oser
s

1.Col
labor
ati
ng
Thi
stechni
quef
oll
owst
her
ule"
Iwi
n,youwi
n".Col
labor
ati
ngmeanswor
kingt
oget
her
byi
ntegr
ati
ngi
deassetoutbymul
ti
plepeopl
e.Theobj
ect
iveher
eist
ofi
ndacr
eat
ive
sol
uti
onaccept
abl
etoever
yone.I
tcal
lsf
orasi
gni
fi
cantt
imecommi
tmentbuti
snot
appr
opr
iat
eforal
lconf
li
cts.

Thi
stechni
quei
susedi
nsi
tuat
ionswher
e−

 Ther
eisahi
ghl
eveloft
rust

 Wedon'
twantt
otakecompl
eter
esponsi
bil
it
y

 Wewantot
her
stoal
sohave"
owner
shi
p"ofsol
uti
ons

 Peopl
einvol
vedar
ewi
ll
ingt
ochanget
hei
rthi
nki
ng

 Weneedt
owor
kthr
oughani
mosi
tyandhar
dfeel
ings

However
,thi
spr
ocesst
akesal
otoft
imeandener
gyandsomemayt
akeadvant
ageof
ot
herpeopl
e'
str
ustandopenness.

Exampl
e−Abusi
nessmanshoul
dwor
kcol
labor
ati
vel
ywi
tht
hemanagert
oest
abl
ish
pol
ici
es,butcol
labor
ati
vedeci
sion-
maki
ng r
egar
ding of
fi
cesuppl
ieswast
est
ime
bet
terspentonot
heract
ivi
ti
es.

94
 2.Compr
omi
sing
Thi
stechni
quef
oll
owst
her
ule"
Youbend,Ibend"
.Compr
omi
singmeansadj
ust
ing
wi
theachot
her
’sopi
nionsandi
deas,
andt
hinki
ngofasol
uti
onwher
esomepoi
ntsof
bot
hthepar
ti
escanbeent
ert
ained.Si
mil
arl
y,bot
hthepar
ti
esneedt
ogi
veupon
someoft
hei
rideasandshoul
dagr
eewi
tht
heot
her
.

Thi
stechni
quecanbeusedi
nsi
tuat
ionswher
e−

 Peopl
eofequall
evel
sar
eequal
lycommi
tt
edt
ogoal
s

 Ti
mecanbesavedbyr
eachi
ngi
nter
medi
ateset
tl
ement
soni
ndi
vidualpar
tsof
compl
exmat
ter
s

 Goal
sar
emoder
atel
yimpor
tant

I
mpor
tantv
aluesandl
ong-
ter
m obj
ect
ivescanbeder
ail
edusi
ngt
hist
echni
que.Thi
s
pr
ocessmaynotwor
kifi
nit
ialdemandsar
ehi
ghandmai
nlyi
fther
e'snocommi
tment
t
ohonort
hecompr
omi
sesol
uti
ons.

Exampl
e−Twof
ri
endshadaf
ightandt
heydeci
det
ocompr
omi
sewi
theachot
her
t
hroughmut
ualunder
standi
ng.

3.Accommodat
ing
Thi
stechni
quef
oll
owst
her
ule"
Ilose,youwi
n".Accommodat
ingmeansgi
vingupof
i
deasandt
hought
ssot
hatt
heot
herpar
tywi
nsandt
heconf
li
ctends.Thi
stechni
que
canbeusedwhen−

 Ani
ssuei
snott
hati
mpor
tantt
ousasi
tist
otheot
herper
son

 Wer
eal
izewear
ewr
ong

 Wear
ewi
ll
ingt
oletot
her
slear
nbymi
stake

 Weknowwecannotwi
n

95
  I
tisnott
her
ightt
imeandwewoul
dpr
efert
osi
mpl
ybui
ldcr
edi
tfort
hef
utur
e

 Har
monyi
sext
remel
yimpor
tant

 Whatt
hepar
ti
eshavei
ncommoni
sagooddealmor
eimpor
tantt
hant
hei
r
di
ff
erences

However
,usi
ngt
hist
echni
que,
one'
sowni
deasdon'
tgetat
tent
ionandcr
edi
bil
it
y,and
i
nfl
uencecanbel
ost
.

Exampl
e−Whenwef
ightwi
thsomeonewel
ovewechooset
olett
hem wi
n.

4.Compet
ing
Thi
stechni
quef
oll
owst
her
ule"
Iwi
n,youl
ose"
.Compet
ingmeanswhent
her
eisa
di
sput
eaper
sonoragr
oupi
snotwi
ll
ingt
ocol
labor
ateoradj
ustbuti
tsi
mpl
ywant
s
t
heopposi
tepar
tyt
olose.Thi
stechni
quecanbeusedwhen−

 Weknowyouar
eri
ght
.

 Ti
mei
sshor
tandaqui
ckdeci
sioni
stobemade.

 Ast
rongper
sonal
it
yist
ryi
ngt
ost
eamr
ollusandwedon'
twantt
obet
aken
advant
ageof
.

 Weneedt
ost
andupf
orourr
ight
s.

Thi
stechni
quecanf
urt
herescal
ateconf
li
ctorl
oser
smayr
etal
iat
e.

Exampl
e−Wheni
nadebat
ethepar
tywi
thmor
efact
swi
ns.

5.Avoi
ding
Thi
stechni
quef
oll
owst
her
ule"
Nowi
nner
s,nol
oser
s".Avoi
dingmeanst
hei
deas
suggest
edbybot
hthepar
ti
esar
erej
ect
edandat
hir
dper
soni
sinvol
vedwhot
akesa
deci
sionwi
thoutf
avor
inganyoft
hepar
ti
es.Thi
stechni
quecanbeusedwhen−

 Theconf
li
cti
ssmal
landr
elat
ionshi
psar
eatst
ake

96
  Wear
ecount
ingt
otent
ocool
off

 Mor
eimpor
tanti
ssuesar
epr
essi
ngandwef
eelwedon'
thavet
imet
odealwi
th
t
hispar
ti
cul
arone

 Wehavenopowerandweseenochanceofget
ti
ngourconcer
nsmet

 Wear
etooemot
ional
lyi
nvol
vedandot
her
sar
ounduscansol
vet
heconf
li
ct
mor
esuccessf
ull
y

Usi
ngt
hist
echni
quemayl
eadt
opost
poni
ngt
heconf
li
ct,t
hatmaymakemat
ter
s
wor
se.

97
STRESSMANAGEMENTI
NANORGANI
SATI
ON
Thenat
ureofst
resshasbeenst
udi
edbyschol
arsi
nawi
der
angeofacademi
c
di
sci
pli
nes.Physi
cians,
psychi
atr
ist
s,andr
esear
cher
sinmanagementhaveal
lst
udi
ed
i
tscausesandi
tssympt
oms,
andhavedef
inedt
het
ermi
navar
iet
yofdi
ff
erentways.

St
ressi
sdef
inedas"
ther
eact
ionsofi
ndi
vidual
stonewort
hreat
eni
ngf
act
orsi
nthei
r
wor
kenvi
ronment
s”.

Accor
dingt
oRobbi
ns(
2008)
,St
ressi
sadynami
ccondi
ti
oni
nwhi
chani
ndi
viduali
s
conf
ront
edwi
thanoppor
tuni
ty,
const
rai
nt,
ordemandr
elat
edt
owhatheorshedesi
res
andf
orwhi
cht
heout
comei
sper
cei
vedt
obebot
huncer
tai
nandi
mpor
tant

St
resscanbeei
therposi
ti
veornegat
ive.Somenew wor
ksi
tuat
ionscanbr
ingus
posi
ti
vechal
lengesandexci
tement
.Forexampl
e,pr
omot
ionst
onew j
obspr
esent
empl
oyeeswi
thposi
ti
vest
ress.Empl
oyeesmayf
eelanxi
ousaboutt
hei
rnew wor
k
assi
gnment
s;t
heyal
soant
ici
pat
ethem eager
lyandl
ookf
orwar
dtot
headdi
ti
onal
chal
lenges,r
ewar
ds,and exci
tement
.Int
hese cases,t
he new and uncer
tai
njob
si
tuat
ionscr
eat
e posi
ti
ve st
ress.The posi
ti
ve st
ressi
sal
so cal
led t
he eust
ress.
However
,ther
ear
ecer
tai
not
hert
ypesofwor
kthatar
ever
ythr
eat
eni
ngandanxi
ety-
ar
ousi
ng.Forexampl
e,depr
essi
oni
ntheeconomycancr
eat
enegat
ivest
ressf
orsal
es
per
sonnel
,becauset
heywi
llbemuchmor
eanxi
ousaboutmaki
ngsal
escommi
ssi
ons
andsal
esquot
as.

Forever
yindi
vidualt
her
eisanopt
imum l
evelofst
ressunderwhi
chheorshemay
per
for
mtof
ullcapaci
ty.I
fthest
ressexper
iencedi
sbel
owt
hisopt
imum l
evel
,thent
he
i
ndi
vidualget
sbor
ed,t
hemot
ivat
ionall
evelt
owor
kreachesal
ow,poi
nt,andapat
hy
set
sin.I
foneoper
atesi
naver
ylowst
ressenv
ironmentand const
ant
lyexper
iences
bor
edom,t
heper
soni
sli
kel
ytopsychol
ogi
cal
lyorphysi
cal
lywi
thdr
aw f
rom wor
k.
Psychol
ogi
calwi
thdr
awalwi
llr
esul
tin car
eless mi
stakes bei
ng f
requent
lymade,
f
orget
ti
ngt
odot
hings,andt
hinki
ngoft
hingsot
hert
hanwor
kdur
ingwor
khour
s.
Physi
calwi
thdr
awalwi
llmani
festi
tsel
fin i
ncr
eased r
ates oft
ardi
ness and

98
absent
eei
sm,whi
chmayul
ti
mat
elyl
eadt
otur
nover
.Thought
heopt
imum st
ressl
evel
i
sdi
ff
erentFor
m di
ff
erenti
ndi
vidual
s,eachi
ndi
vidualcansenseanddet
ermi
nehow
muchst
ressi
sfunct
ionalf
orani
ndi
vidualt
ooper
atei
napr
oduct
ivemanner
.

Resear
chi
ndi
cat
est
hatt
hosewhopossesshi
ght
oler
anceofambi
gui
ty,
int
ernall
ocus
ofcont
roland sel
f-
est
eem seem t
o ef
fect
ivel
yhandl
ea hi
gh l
evelofst
ress.An
i
ndi
vidualpossessi
nghi
ghdegr
eeoft
oler
ancef
orambi
gui
tyal
lowshi
mtoexper
ience
ver
yli
tt
leangui
shwhi
leoper
ati
ngundercondi
ti
onsofi
nsuf
fi
cienti
nfor
mat
ionori
nan
uncer
tai
nenvi
ronment
.Peopl
ewi
thani
nter
nall
ocusofcont
rolal
sohandl
est
resswel
l
si
ncet
heyf
eelt
heyar
eincont
roloft
hesi
tuat
ion,r
athert
hanf
eel
ingcont
rol
ledbyt
he
si
tuat
ion t
hey ar
efaci
ng.Thi
s makes i
tpossi
blef
or t
hem t
o manage t
hei
r
envi
ronment
alst
resswi
thoutexper
ienci
ngi
tshar
mfulef
fect
s.Thosewi
thhi
ghsel
f-
est
eem al
sohandl
est
resswi
theasesi
nceahi
ghsel
f-
est
eem i
ncr
easest
heconf
idence
andenabl
est
hem t
odealwi
thst
ressf
ulsi
tuat
ionswi
thcal
mnessandcl
eart
hinki
ng.
Themor
esuccessf
ull
yonehandl
esast
ressf
ulsi
tuat
ionwi
thoutpani
cki
ngorget
ti
ng
over
whel
med byi
t,t
hemor
econf
ident
lywi
llt
hei
ndi
vidualf
acef
urt
herst
ressf
ul
si
tuat
ions.Thus,
iti
spossi
blet
orai
seone’
scapaci
tyt
ohandl
eindi
ff
erentsi
tuat
ions.

SOURCESOFSTRESS
St
ressi
sar
eal
it
yofourever
ydayl
if
e.Ther
ear
ebot
hposi
ti
veandnegat
ivest
resses
t
hatcomef
rom ourwor
kandnon-
wor
kli
ves.Aspoi
ntedoutbyNear
.Ri
ce,andHunt
(
1980)andSckar
an(
1986)
,amongot
her
s,t
hewor
kandnon-
wor
kdomai
nsofone'
sli
fe
ar
ecl
osel
yint
err
elat
ed.Thest
ressesand st
rai
nsexper
ienced i
n onedomai
n ar
e
car
ri
edovert
otheot
her
.Thus,i
foneexper
iencesst
ressatwor
k,t
hatst
resswi
llbe
car
ri
edovert
othehome.
Onemaj
orsour
ceofj
obst
ressi
sthej
obi
tsel
f.Thewayt
hej
obi
sdesi
gned,
the
amountoft
imepr
essur
eani
ndi
vidualf
acesandt
heamountofexpect
ati
onsot
her
s
hav
eofaper
sonatwor
kcanal
lleadt
ojobst
ress.I
nter
per
sonalr
elat
ionshi
psar
ea
secondsour
ceofj
obst
ress.Howmuchcont
actani
ndi
vidualhaswi
thcowor
ker
sand
manager
s,how much t
imeheorshedeal
swi
th cl
ient
sorconsumer
s,and how
pl
easantt
hose i
nter
act
ions ar
e al
linf
luences ofhow much st
ress an i
ndi
vidual

99
exper
iencesatwor
k.Thi
rdsour
cei
spr
obl
emsi
nper
sonall
ives,whi
chcanspi
l
lover
i
ntot
hewor
kenvi
ronment
,addi
ngf
urt
hert
ensi
ont
oanal
readyst
ressf
ulwor
ksi
tuat
ion.
SOURCESOFJOBSTRESS
1.JobChar
act
eri
sti
cs
 Rol
eambi
gui
ty
 Rol
econf
li
ct
 Rol
eover
load
 Et
hicaldi
lemmas
2.I
nter
per
sonalRel
ati
onshi
ps
 Amountofcont
actwi
thot
her
s
 Deal
ingwi
thpeopl
einot
herdepar
tment
s
 Or
gani
zat
ionalcl
imat
e
3.Or
gani
zat
ionalFact
ors
4.Per
sonalFact
ors
 Car
eerconcer
ns
 Geogr
aphi
calmobi
li
ty
 Rat
eofl
if
echange

1. JobChar
act
eri
sti
cs
Amaj
orsour
ceofj
obst
ressi
saper
son'
srol
eint
heor
gani
zat
ion.Ar
olei
ssi
mpl
ythe
setofexpect
ati
onst
hatot
herpeopl
eint
heor
gani
zat
ionhavef
orani
ndi
vidual
,For
exampl
e,super
visor
s,cowor
ker
s,cust
omer
sandsuppl
ier
sexpectanempl
oyeet
o
behavei
ncer
tai
npr
edi
ctabl
eway
s.Theexpect
ati
onsot
her
shaveofanempl
oyeear
c
somet
imesuncl
ear
,inconf
li
ct,ort
oohi
ghf
ort
heempl
oyeet
omeetwi
thi
nthet
ime
al
lot
ted,
andheorsheexper
iencesst
ress.
 Rol
eAmbi
gui
ty:Whent
her
eisal
otofuncer
tai
ntysur
roundi
ngj
obdef
ini
ti
onsor
j
ob expect
ati
ons,peopl
e exper
ience r
ole ambi
gui
ty.Wi
tht
he r
ecenti
ncr
ease i
n
mer
ger
sandacqui
sit
ionsamongmaj
oror
gani
zat
ions,mor
eandmor
eempl
oyeesar
c
exper
ienci
ng j
ob st
ress as a r
esul
tofr
ole ambi
gui
ty.Rol
e ambi
gui
tyi
s anxi
ety
ar
ousi
ngamongempl
oyeest
hatl
eadst
ojobst
ress.

100
 Rol
eConf
li
ct:Of
tenempl
oyeesdi
scovert
hatdi
ff
erentgr
oupsofpeopl
einan
or
gani
zat
ionhavewi
del
yvar
yingexpect
ati
onsoft
hem,andt
hatt
heycannotmeetal
l
t
hoseexpect
ati
ons.Thi
sinconsi
stencyofexpect
ati
onsassoci
atedwi
thar
olei
scal
led
r
oleconf
li
ct,
whi
chr
esul
tsi
nst
ress.
 Rol
eOver
load:Rol
eover
loadi
sasi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
chempl
oyeesf
eelt
heyar
e
bei
ngaskedt
odomor
ethant
imeorabi
li
typer
mit
s.Wor
kingundert
imepr
essur
eis
especi
all
yst
ressf
ul.
 Rol
eUnderl
oad:Rol
eUnderl
oadi
sthecondi
ti
oni
nwhi
chempl
oyeeshavet
oo
l
it
tl
ewor
ktodoort
ool
it
tl
evar
iet
y-i
nthei
rwor
k.Forexampl
e,sal
espeopl
einast
ore
wi
th no cust
omer
,st
andi
ng ar
ound al
ldaywi
th not
hing t
o do,coul
d besai
dto
exper
ience r
ole underl
oad.I
roni
cal
ly,r
ole underl
oad l
eads t
olow sel
f-
est
eem,
i
ncr
easedf
requencyofner
voussympt
omsandi
ncr
easedheal
thpr
obl
ems.
 Et
hicalDi
lemmas:Et
hicaldi
lemmassuchaswhet
herornotoneshoul
drepor
t
t
heobser
vedunet
hicalbehavi
orsofanot
herper
soncancauseext
remel
evel
sofst
ress
i
nindi
vidual
s.Thi
swi
llbeespeci
all
ytr
uef
ort
hosewhohavest
rongmor
alval
uesof
r
ightandwr
ongandadeepsenseofper
sonalandcor
por
atesoci
alr
esponsi
bil
it
y.
Tensi
onsar
isebecauseonemi
ghthavet
ocont
endagai
nstone'
sowncol
leagueswho
mi
ghtbecl
osef
ri
ends,
andmayf
earofr
epr
isalandot
herundesi
rabl
econsequences.

2. I
nter
per
sonalRel
ati
onshi
ps
Anot
hermaj
orsour
ceofst
ressi
nor
gani
zat
ioni
spoori
nter
per
sonalr
elat
ionshi
pswi
th
super
visor
s,subor
dinat
es,cowor
ker
s.orcl
ient
s.Wheni
nter
per
sonalr
elat
ionshi
psat
wor
kar
eunpl
easant
,empl
oyeesdevel
opagener
ali
zedanxi
ety,adi
ff
usef
eel
ingof
dr
ead aboutupcomi
ng meet
ingsand i
nter
act
ions.Thr
eeaspect
sofi
nter
per
sonal
r
elat
ionshi
psatwor
k,whi
chhaveanegat
ivei
mpactonj
obst
ress,
areasf
oll
ows:
 Amountofcont
actwi
thot
her
s:Jobsvar
yint
ermsofhowmuchi
nter
per
sonal
cont
acti
sbui
lti
ntot
hem.Toomuchpr
olongedcont
actwi
thot
herpeopl
ecancause
st
ress.
 Amountofcont
actwi
thpeopl
einot
herdepar
tment
s:Havi
ngcont
act
swi
th
peopl
eout
sideone'
sowndepar
tmentcr
eat
esaspeci
alsor
tofst
ress.Peopl
einot
her

101
depar
tment
sdonotal
wayshaveanadequat
eunder
standi
ngofj
obsout
sidet
hei
rown
ar
eas,
whi
chcancausest
ress.
 Or
gani
zat
ionalcl
imat
e:Theover
allpsychol
ogi
calcl
imat
eoft
heor
gani
zat
ion
cancr
eat
est
ress.Whenday-
to-
dayl
if
einanor
gani
zat
ioni
smar
kedbyunf
ri
endl
y,
di
stant
,orhost
il
eexchanges,
empl
oyeesar
econt
inual
lyt
enseandt
hiscausesst
ress.

3. Or
gani
zat
ionalFact
ors
Fol
lowi
ngar
etheor
gani
zat
ionalf
act
orst
hatcausest
ressi
nindi
vidual
s:
 Wor
kenvi
ronmentf
act
orssuch asnoi
se,heal
,poorl
ight
ing,r
adi
ati
on and
smokear
est
ress-
induci
ngagent
s.
 I
nsuf
fi
cientr
esour
cessuchast
ime,budget
,rawmat
eri
als,spaceormanpower
al
soi
nducest
ressi
nthewor
kenvi
ronment
.Whenonehast
opr
oduceandper
for
m
wi
thi
nadequat
eresour
cesonal
ong-
ter
m basi
s,t
hisnat
ural
lyi
mposesst
ressesand
st
rai
nsont
hei
ndi
vidual
swhoar
eresponsi
blef
orget
ti
ngt
hej
obdone.
 St
ruct
uralf
act
orsi
nthe or
gani
zat
ionalset
ti
ng such as st
affr
ules and'
r
egul
ati
onsandr
ewar
dsyst
ems,
maycausest
ress.
 Lackofcar
eerpr
omot
ioni
nor
gani
zat
ionsmaybesomet
imecausest
ress.
 Env
ironment
alf
act
orsofst
ressi
ncl
udesuddenandunant
ici
pat
edchangesi
n
t
hemar
ket
place,
technol
ogy,
thef
inanci
almar
ketandsoon.

4. Per
sonalFact
ors
Empl
oyees’per
sonall
iveshaveamar
kedef
fectont
hei
rli
vesatwor
k.I
fthi
ngsar
e
goi
ngwel
lper
sonal
ly,
theyar
emor
eli
kel
ytobeupbeatandopt
imi
sti
c.Theyhavemor
e
ener
gy and pat
ience f
ordeal
ing wi
th pr
obl
ems atwor
k.On t
he ot
herhand,i
f
empl
oyees ar
e havi
ng some per
sonalpr
obl
ems,t
hey mi
ghtbe mor
etense or
di
str
act
edwhent
heygot
owor
k.
Fact
orst
hati
nfl
uencehowmuchst
resspeopl
ebr
ingf
rom t
hei
rper
sona!l
ivest
o
t
hewor
kset
ti
ngar
easf
oll
ows:
 Car
eerConcer
ns:Onemaj
orcar
eerconcer
nthatcancausest
ressi
slackofj
ob
secur
it
y.A second car
eerconcer
nthatcan cause empl
oyees st
ress i
s st
atus

102
i
ncongr
uit
y,i
.e.
,havi
ngj
obswi
thl
essst
atus,powerandpr
est
iget
hant
heyt
hinkt
hey
deser
ve.
 Geogr
aphi
calMobi
li
ty:Geogr
aphi
calmovescr
eat
est
ressbecauset
heydi
srupt
t
her
out
inesofdai
lyl
if
e.Whengeogr
aphi
calmovesar
cunder
takenaspar
tofaj
ob
t
ransf
er,
themovescanbeevenmor
est
ressf
ul.Thet
ransf
err
edempl
oyeesar
eli
kel
yto
f
eeloutofcont
rolatwor
k,t
oo,and exper
iencet
hei
rnew wor
kenvi
ronment
sas
unpr
edi
ctabl
e.

EFFECTSORCONSEQUENCESOFJOBSTRESS
Negat
ivest
resshasunpl
easantconsequencesf
ort
hem,t
hei
rfami
li
esandf
ort
he
or
gani
zat
ionst
heyser
ve.
Ef
fect
sont
heI
ndi
vidual
Thei
mpact
sofdi
str
essoni
ndi
vidual
sar
eoff
oll
owi
ngt
ypes:
 The subj
ect
ive ori
ntr
aper
sonalef
fect
s ofst
ress ar
efeel
ings ofanxi
ety,
bor
edom, apat
hy, ner
vousness, depr
essi
on, f
ati
gue, and anger
. Somet
imes
exper
ienci
ngt
hest
ressmaycauseaggr
essi
vebehavi
orsont
hepar
toft
hei
ndi
vidual
.
 Thecogni
ti
veef
fect
sincl
udepoorconcent
rat
ion,shor
tat
tent
ionspan,ment
al
bl
ocksandi
nabi
li
tyt
omakedeci
sions.
 Thephysi
ologi
calef
fect
scanbeseeni
nincr
easedhear
tandpul
ser
ate,hi
gh
bl
oodpr
essur
e,dr
ynessoft
hroat
,andexcessi
vesweat
ing.
 Thebehavi
oralef
fect
sar
cmani
festi
n such t
hingsasacci
dentpr
oneness,
dr
inki
ng,excessi
veeat
ing,smoki
ng,i
mpul
sivebehavi
ors,depr
essi
on,andwi
thdr
awal
behavi
ors.
 Themani
festheal
thef
fect
scoul
dbest
omachdi
sor
der
s,ast
hma,eczema,and
ot
herpsychosomat
icdi
sor
der
s.I
naddi
ti
on,
thement
alheal
th,
i.
e.t
heabi
li
tyt
ofunct
ion
ef
fect
ivel
yinone'
sdai
lyl
if
e,wi
llal
sodecl
ineasexcessi
vest
ressi
sexper
ienced.

Consequencesf
ort
heFami
ly
Negat
ive st
ress,whi
ch i
s handl
ed byi
ndi
vidual
sin dysf
unct
ionalways,such as
dr
inki
ngorwi
thdr
awalbehavi
ors,
wil
lhaveanadver
seef
fectont
hei
rhomel
if
e.Spouse

103
abuse,chi
ldabuse,al
ienat
ionf
rom f
ami
lymember
s,andevendi
vor
cecoul
dresul
t
f
rom dysf
unct
ionalcopi
ngmechani
sms.

Consequencest
oOr
gani
zat
ions
The adver
se consequences on an or
gani
zat
ion i
ncl
ude l
ow per
for
mance and
pr
oduct
ivi
ty,
highr
atesofabsent
eei
sm andpoordeci
sion-
maki
ng.I
tal
sol
eadst
oloss
ofcust
omer
sbecauseofpoorwor
kerat
ti
tudes,i
ncr
easedal
ienat
ionoft
hewor
ker
f
rom t
hej
ob,andevendest
ruct
iveandaggr
essi
vebehavi
orsr
esul
ti
ngi
nst
ri
kesand
sabot
age.Thest
ressesexper
iencedbyempl
oyeeswhot
akeoncr
it
icalr
olesandar
e
r
esponsi
blef
orsaf
etycansomet
imesbedet
ri
ment
alt
othepubl
ic.Fori
nst
ance,t
he
st
ressesexper
iencedbyat
rai
ndr
iverorr
ail
wayguar
d,ort
hatofanai
rl
inepi
lot
,
nav
igat
or,orai
rtr
aff
iccont
rol
lermayr
esul
tinser
iousacci
dent
s.Needl
esst
osayt
hat
t
hecost
sofempl
oyeest
resst
otheor
gani
zat
ioni
nter
msofl
ostpr
ofi
ts,poori
mage
andl
ossoff
utur
ebusi
nessar
eenor
mous.

METHODSOFMANAGI
NGSTRESS
St
ressi
saf
act
ort
hatever
ybodyhast
ocont
endwi
thonadai
lybasi
sbot
hint
hewor
k
andnon-
wor
kspher
esofl
if
e.Si
ncet
hebodyhasonl
yal
imi
tedcapaci
tyt
orespondt
o
st
ress,i
tisi
mpor
tantf
ori
ndi
vidual
stoopt
imal
l
ymanaget
hei
rst
ressl
evelt
ooper
ate
asf
ull
yfunct
ioni
nghumanbei
ngs.
Ther
ear
esever
alwaysi
nwhi
chst
resscanbehandl
edsot
hatt
hedysf
unct
ional
consequencesofst
resscanber
educed.Someoft
hem ar
e:

Rol
eAnal
ysi
sTechni
que(
RAT)
TheRol
eAnal
ysi
sTechni
quehel
psbot
hthemanagerandt
heempl
oyeet
oanal
yzet
he
r
equi
rement
sand expect
ati
ons f
rom t
he j
ob.Br
eaki
ng-
down t
he j
ob i
nto var
ious
component
scl
ari
fi
est
her
oleoft
hej
obf
ort
heent
ir
esyst
em.Thi
sal
sohel
pst
o
el
imi
nat
ereduct
ionofwor
kandt
husl
ower
ingdownt
hest
ressl
evel
.

JobRel
ocat
ion
Jobr
elocat
ionassi
stancei
sof
fer
edt
oempl
oyeeswhoar
etr
ansf
err
ed,byf
indi
ng

104
al
ter
nat
iveempl
oymentf
ort
hespousesoft
het
ransf
err
edempl
oyeesandget
ti
ng
admi
ssi
onsi
nschool
sfort
hei
rchi
ldr
eni
nthenewpl
ace.Thesear
rangement
shel
pto
r
educet
heanxi
etyandst
ressf
ort
hemovi
ngf
ami
ly.

Recr
eat
ionalPr
ogr
am
Pr
ovi
dingr
ecr
eat
ionalf
aci
li
ti
es,ar
rangi
nggr
oupmedi
tat
ionpr
ogr
ams,hel
ptor
educe
t
hest
ressl
evel
soft
heempl
oyees.

Empl
oyeeAssi
stancePr
ogr
am
Anot
herwi
del
yusedst
rat
egyi
stheempl
oyeeassi
stancePr
ogr
ams,whi
chof
fera
var
iet
yofassi
stancet
oempl
oyees.Thesei
ncl
udecounsel
ingempl
oyeeswhoseek
assi
stanceonhowt
odealwi
thal
coholanddr
ugabuse,
handl
ingconf
li
ctsatt
hewor
k
pl
ace,
deal
ingwi
thmar
it
alandot
herf
ami
lypr
obl
ems.

Car
eerCounsel
ing
Car
eerCounsel
inghel
pst
heempl
oyeet
oobt
ainpr
ofessi
onaladvi
cer
egar
dingcar
eer
t
hatwoul
dhel
pthei
ndi
vi
dualt
oachi
eveper
sonalgoal
s.I
tal
somakest
heempl
oyees
awar
eofwhataddi
ti
onaleducat
ionalqual
if
icat
ionsorspeci
ali
zedt
echni
calt
rai
ning,i
f
any
,(hatt
heyshoul
dacqui
re.Bybecomi
ngknowl
edgeabl
eaboutt
hepossi
bleavenues
f
oradvancement
,theempl
oyeeswho consi
dert
hei
rcar
eer
sto bei
mpor
tantcan
r
educet
hei
rst
ressl
evel
sbybecomi
ngmor
ereal
ist
icaboutt
hei
ropt
ionsandcanst
art
pr
epar
ingt
hemsel
vesf
ori
t.

Ti
meManagement
Anot
herwayofcopi
ngwi
thst
ressi
stomanaget
imemor
eef
fect
ivel
y.Peopl
ecanl
ear
n
t
ogetbet
teror
gani
zedsot
hatt
heycandot
hei
rwor
kmor
eef
fi
cient
ly.

Del
egat
ion
Anot
herwayofcopi
ngwi
thj
obst
ressi
stodel
egat
esomer
esponsi
bil
it
iest
oot
her
s.
Del
egat
ioncandi
rect
lydecr
easewor
kloadupont
hemanagerandhel
pst
oreducet
he
st
ress.!

105
Mor
eInf
ormat
ionandHel
p
Somenewempl
oyeeshavet
ospendmor
eti
meonaj
obt
hannecessar
ybecauset
hey
ar
enotsur
ewhatt
heyar
edoi
ng.Soi
tisnecessar
ythatsomehel
pshoul
dbepr
ovi
ded
bef
oredoi
ngt
hewor
kthatwoul
dleadt
omuchef
fi
cient
,ef
fect
ivewor
k.I
twoul
dal
so
r
educeanxi
etyandst
ressamongt
heempl
oyees.

Heal
thMai
ntenance
Pr
obabl
ythemostf
requent
lyused or
gani
zat
ionalst
ressmanagementpr
ogr
am i
s
heal
thmai
ntenance.Manycompani
esi
nvestl
argesum ofmoneyi
ngym andspor
t
f
aci
li
ti
esf
ormai
ntai
ningt
heheal
thoft
heempl
oyees.

Super
visorTr
aini
ng
Anot
hert
ypeofst
ressmanagementPr
ogr
am t
hator
gani
zat
ions ar
eexper
iment
ing
wi
thi
ssuper
visort
rai
ning.Theemphasi
sonsuper
visor
ytr
aini
ngPr
ogr
am i
show t
o
pr
eventj
obst
ress.Manager
sar
etr
ainedt
ogi
vebet
terper
for
manceappr
aisal
s,t
o
l
ist
ent
oempl
oyees’pr
obl
emsmor
eef
fect
ivel
y,andt
ocommuni
cat
ejobassi
gnment
s
andi
nst
ruct
ionsmor
ecl
ear
ly.

I
ndi
vidualSt
ressReduct
ionWor
kshops
Someor
gani
zat
ionshaveal
sosponsor
edi
ndi
vidualst
ressr
educt
ionwor
kshopsf
or
t
hei
rempl
oyees.Thesepr
ogr
amsi
ncl
udebi
ofeedback,
medi
tat
iont
ocar
eercounsel
ing,
t
ime managementand i
nter
per
sonalski
ll
s wor
kshops.I
nlect
ures and semi
nar
s,
par
ti
cipant
s ar
e gi
ven a basi
c under
standi
ng oft
he causes ofst
ress and i
ts
consequences.Then,par
ti
cipant
sar
egi
venmat
eri
alst
ohel
pthem i
dent
if
ythemaj
or
sour
cesofst
ressi
nthei
rownl
ives,andsomest
rat
egi
esf
ordeal
ingwi
tht
hatst
ress
mor
eef
fect
ivel
y.
Or
gani
sat
ionalSt
ruct
ureandcl
imat
e
Thest
ruct
ureandcl
imat
eofawor
kset
ti
ngal
soi
nfl
uenceoccupat
ionalst
ress
exper
iencedbyanempl
oyee.Thr
eei
nter
vent
ionalst
rat
egi
eshavebeensuggest
ed;

106
Decent
ral
isat
ion
Or
gani
sat
ionsdescr
ibedascent
ral
ised(
wit
htal
lor
gani
sat
ionst
ruct
ures)of
tenhave
i
ncr
easedst
ressamongwor
ker
s.St
rat
egi
esf
orhel
pingpr
omot
edecent
ral
isat
ion
wi
thi
nor
gani
sat
ionhencebecomei
ncr
easi
ngl
ypopul
ari
nrecentyear
s.Thesegr
oups
f
orm at
eam t
hati
sident
if
iedasaut
onomousbecauset
hemember
sdet
ermi
net
he
di
rect
iont
hegr
oupwi
llf
oll
owal
ongwi
thpr
ocedur
esandpol
ici
est
hatwi
llgui
degr
oup
member
s.Thegr
oupal
soshar
est
her
ewar
dswi
thal
lmember
soft
het
eam.

Par
ti
cipat
iveDeci
sion-
maki
ng
Anot
hert
echni
quet
hati
srel
atedt
odecent
ral
isat
ioni
spar
ti
cipat
ivedeci
sionmaki
ng
(
PDM)
.Thi
sinvol
vescr
eat
ingsyst
emsandcommuni
cat
ionchannel
ssot
hat
empl
oyeesar
einvol
vedi
nmaki
ngi
mpor
tantdeci
sions.Thi
swi
llbr
ingmor
e
i
nfor
mat
ionavai
labi
li
tyt
oempl
oyeesandt
heyi
ntur
nfeelagr
eat
ersenseofi
nfl
uence
andcont
rol
,thusdecr
easi
ngambi
gui
tyanddi
str
ess.Toensur
ethesuccessofPDM
managementshoul
dbecommi
tt
edt
othephi
losophyofPDM andsecondl
ytheki
ndof
deci
sionst
hatar
eof
fer
edf
orempl
oyeepar
ti
cipat
ionshoul
dbet
hosei
ssuest
hataf
fect
t
hei
rdai
lywor
k.

Cl
imat
esur
veys
Cl
imat
esur
vey(
att
it
udesur
veys,
opi
nionsur
veysorempl
oyeer
eact
ionsur
veys)ar
e
desi
gnedt
oel
ici
templ
oyeer
eact
ionsandpr
efer
encest
oassi
stmanagementi
n
devel
opi
ngact
ionst
rat
egi
est
hatmi
ghti
mpr
oveor
gani
sat
ionalef
fect
ivenessand
i
ndi
vidualempl
oyeesat
isf
act
ion.Thesesur
veysactasaki
ndoft
her
momet
erwi
th
r
egar
dtocl
imat
einanor
gani
sat
ion.Sever
alspeci
fi
csuggest
ionshavebeenof
fer
ed
abouthowt
oimpr
oveasur
veyef
for
tfi
rstwel
ldesi
gnedquest
ionnai
res,
secondl
y
empl
oyeesshoul
dbeal
lowedt
ocompl
etet
hesur
veyanonymousl
y,t
hir
dlysur
vey
ef
for
tsshoul
dbepur
suedonar
egul
arbasi
sforexampl
eannual
lyandl
ast
lyi
tis
i
mpor
tantt
oof
ferf
eedbackandt
her
esul
tst
opar
ti
cipant
s.

Humanr
esour
cemanagementsyst
em
Ther
eist
hepot
ent
ial
forempl
oyeest
oexper
iencest
ressf
rom t
het
imet
heybegi
n

107
wor
kingi
sapar
ti
cul
arset
ti
ngunt
ilt
het
imet
heyl
eave.Humanr
esour
cemanagement
hasbeeni
dent
if
iedast
hef
unct
ionwi
thi
nor
gani
sat
ionst
hatdealwi
tht
hemany
t
ransact
ionsexper
iencedbyi
ndi
vidual
sinor
gani
sat
ions.I
nter
vent
ionsassoci
ated
wi
tht
hef
oll
owi
nghumanr
esour
cesyst
emsar
edi
scussedbel
ow:
Recr
uit
mentandsel
ect
ion
Recr
uit
mentandsel
ect
ionar
epr
ocessest
hatat
tr
actpeopl
etoanor
gani
sat
ionandt
o
sel
ectpeopl
ewhohavet
hebest‘
fi
t’f
ort
heor
gani
sat
ionalr
equi
rement
s.I
n
r
ecr
uit
ment
,onebasi
cst
rat
egyi
stoof
ferpot
ent
ialempl
oyeesar
eal
ist
icj
obpr
evi
ew
(
RJP)
.Gai
ningr
ealexper
iencebef
orebegi
nni
ngaj
obhel
psi
ndi
vidual
sbui
ld
r
esi
stancet
ounr
eal
ist
icexpect
ati
onst
hatmi
ghtl
eadt
ost
ressaf
tert
heyar
ehi
red
(
Mit
ter
sonandI
vancevi
ch,
1987)
.
Thesecondwayi
nwhi
chst
resscanber
educedf
orempl
oyeesi
nsel
ect
ionpr
ocessi
s
usi
ngsel
ect
ionmet
hodst
hatar
erel
iabl
eandval
id.Thi
sist
omat
chski
lland
behavi
our
all
ybasedj
obr
equi
rementf
orexampl
e,aper
sonwi
thal
owt
oler
ancef
or
ambi
gui
tyandheorshei
sfor
cedt
owor
kinaj
obt
hatcal
lsf
orwor
kingal
one,
the
i
ndi
vidualmi
ghtf
indt
hej
obver
yst
ressf
ul.
Soci
ali
sat
ionandor
ient
ati
on
Af
terent
eri
ngt
heor
gani
sat
ion,
ani
ndi
viduali
sfacedwi
tht
het
askofbecomi
ng
adj
ust
edt
othenewwor
kenvi
ronment
.Thi
sper
iod,
oft
encal
ledsoci
ali
sat
ionhasbeen
consi
der
edashavi
nggr
eatr
educt
ionpot
ent
ialf
orst
ress.Humanr
esour
ce
pr
act
it
ioner
sshoul
dbeact
ivel
yinvol
vedi
nthepr
ocessofpl
anni
ngandf
aci
li
tat
ing
t
hesepr
ogr
ammesai
medatensur
ingsuccessf
ulsoci
ali
sat
ioni
ntoor
gani
sat
ions
(
Jackson,
1984)
.
Goalset
ti
ng
Goalset
ti
ngi
nvol
vesdet
ermi
ningspeci
fi
cst
andar
dsofper
for
mancet
hatwi
llbe
sought
.Goalset
ti
ngassi
stsi
nther
educt
ionofst
ressi
nfourways(
LockeandLat
har
n,
1984)f
ir
st,
theempl
oyeemeasur
esasenseofsat
isf
act
ionwhenagoali
sachi
eved,
secondl
y,t
hepr
ocessofbei
ngi
nvol
vedi
nindi
vidualact
ioncanber
eassur
ing,
thi
rdl
y,
t
hegoalset
ti
ngpr
ocesst
hatgi
vet
heempl
oyeeasenseofcont
inual
lymovi
ngt
owar
ds
adef
inedt
arget
,four
thl
ytor
educet
hef
eel
ingsofl
uncht
imewi
thr
egar
dto
per
for
manceeval
uat
ion.Awel
l-
knownsyst
em ofgoalset
ti
ngi
smanagementby

108
obj
ect
ive(
MBO)
,whi
chwasdevel
opedbyP.Dr
uker
.
Per
for
mancef
eedback
Recei
vingf
eedbackonper
for
mancehasl
ongbeenunder
stoodt
oaf
fectmot
ivat
ion
andsat
isf
act
ion.Thei
nter
vent
ionst
rat
egyi
nvol
vespr
ovi
dingt
rai
ningt
osuper
visor
s
f
ocussedonunder
standi
nghowper
for
manceeval
uat
ionsyst
emsoper
ateandbased
ondevel
opment
aleval
uat
ionot
hert
hanj
udgement
al(
Ivancevi
chandMat
teson1980)
.
Tr
aini
ng
Tr
aini
nghasbeeni
dent
if
iedasani
mpor
tantcomponentofi
nter
vent
iont
odealwi
th
occupat
ionalst
ress(
Saut
eretal
…1990)
.Sever
alpr
ocessoft
rai
ningshoul
dbe
pur
suedwi
thr
egar
dtost
ressmanagement
.
Car
eerdevel
opment
Thi
sisabouti
ndi
vidual
revi
tal
izat
ion,
probl
em i
dent
if
icat
ion,
andi
ncr
easedempl
oyee
ski
llbui
ldi
ng,
impr
ovedt
alentmat
chi
ngandi
ncr
easedgoalcommi
tment
.Thesyst
em
i
nvol
vesat
rai
ningpr
ogr
ammeaboutval
ueofl
ater
almoves,
ident
if
icat
ionofski
ll
sthat
t
ransf
erbet
weenj
obf
ami
li
es.
Anot
hercar
eerpr
ogr
ammeacompanymai
ntai
nsi
sacar
eerr
esour
cecent
ref
ocused
onavar
iet
yoft
opi
cssuchaseducat
ionaloppor
tuni
ti
es,
car
eerpl
anni
ng,
thewor
ldof
wor
kandmanagementwi
thcomput
eri
sedi
nfor
mat
ionbankoncar
eerpl
anni
ngand
devel
opment
.
Speci
alpr
ogr
ammes
Thesear
epopul
arl
yknownasempl
oyeeassi
stancepr
ogr
ammes(
EAP)andheal
th
awar
enesspr
ogr
ammes.Thepr
imar
yai
m ofanEAPi
stodecr
easet
heef
fectont
he
per
sonalpr
obl
em t
hatcani
mpactonpr
oduct
ivi
ty(
Saut
eretal
…1990)
.Heal
th
awar
enesspr
ogr
ammesai
m att
hepr
event
ionofi
ll
nesst
hrougheducat
ionand
adv
ocacyofgoodheal
th.Theser
vicesi
ncl
udenut
ri
ti
on,
fit
ness,
andexer
cise,
smoki
ng
asser
ti
onandheal
thr
iskappr
aisal
s.
Physi
calqual
it
ies
Ther
ear
emul
ti
plewaysofdeal
ingwi
tht
hephysi
calenvi
ronmentst
ressor
s
encount
eredwher
epr
act
it
ioner
smi
ghtal
tert
heenvi
ronmentt
odealwi
tht
hest
ressor
f
orexampl
e,decr
easet
henoi
sel
evelorcutt
hel
ightgl
are.Thesecondst
rat
egyi
sto
uset
heexper
ti
seoft
heper
sonsi
nthej
obt
ogener
atei
deasandsol
uti
onsabouthow

109
t
oimpr
ovet
hewor
kingcondi
ti
onst
hatar
ecausi
ngst
ress.

Or
gani
zat
ionassessmentwi
llhel
pmoni
torwor
kpl
acei
nter
vent
ionst
hrough
absent
eei
sm andt
urnoverr
ates,
Jobsat
isf
act
ion,
Wor
kcl
imat
etot
raceposi
ti
ve
i
ndi
cat
orsofst
ressr
educt
ionandbot
tom l
inecostsavi
ngs.I
neval
uat
ingt
he
ef
fect
ivenessofst
ressmanagementi
nter
vent
ions,
iti
sdi
ff
icul
ttodet
ermi
net
hebest
wayofmeasur
ingt
heconst
ruct
.Or
gani
sat
ion’
sst
ruct
ure,
ter
ri
tor
yandcl
imat
ear
eal
so
r
elat
edt
ooccupat
ionalst
ressandbur
nout
.However
,thedi
ff
icul
tywi
thusi
ngwor
k
cl
imat
easanout
comemeasur
eineval
uat
ingst
ressmanagementef
fect
ivenessst
ems
f
rom t
hel
ackofcl
ari
tywi
thwhi
chcl
imat
eisdef
ined.

110
ORGANI
SATI
ONALCULTURE

Or
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
e can be def
ined as t
he gr
oup nor
ms,val
ues,bel
ief
s and
assumpt
ionspr
act
icedi
nanor
gani
zat
ion.I
tbr
ingsst
abi
li
tyandcont
rolwi
thi
nthe
f
ir
m.Theor
gani
zat
ioni
smor
est
abl
eandi
tsobj
ect
ivecanbeunder
stoodmor
ecl
ear
ly.

Or
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
e hel
ps t
he gr
oup member
stor
esol
ve t
hei
r di
ff
erences,
over
comet
hebar
ri
ersandal
sohel
pst
hem i
ntackl
ingr
isks.

El
eme
ntsof
Orga
niz
ati
ona
lCul
t
ure
Thet
wokeyel
ement
sseeni
nor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
ear
e−

 Vi
sibl
eel
ement
s−Theseel
ement
sar
eseenbyt
heout
erwor
ld.Exampl
e,dr
ess
code,
act
ivi
ti
es,
set
up,
etc.

 I
nvi
sibl
eel
ement
s−Thesei
nnerel
ement
soft
hegr
oupcannotbeseenby
peopl
eout
sidet
hegr
ouporf
ir
m.Exampl
e,val
ues,nor
ms,assumpt
ions,et
c.
Nowl
etusdi
scusssomeot
herel
ement
sofor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
e.Theyar
e−

 St
ori
es−St
ori
esr
egar
dingt
hehi
stor
yoft
hef
ir
m,orf
ounder
.

 Ri
tual
s−Pr
eci
sepr
act
icesanor
gani
zat
ionf
oll
owsasahabi
t.

 Symbol−Thel
ogoorsi
gnat
ureort
hest
ylest
atementofacompany.

 Language−Acommonl
anguaget
hatcanbef
oll
owedbyal
l,
li
keEngl
ish.

 Pr
act
ice−Di
sci
pli
ne,dai
lyr
out
ineorsayt
het
ightschedul
eever
yonef
oll
ows
wi
thoutanyf
ail
ure.

 Val
uesandNor
ms−Thei
deaoverwhi
chacompanyi
sbasedort
het
houghtof
t
hef
ir
misconsi
der
edasi
tsval
ueandt
hecondi
ti
ont
oadoptt
hem ar
ecal
led
nor
ms.

 Assumpt
ions−I
tmeansweconsi
dersomet
hingt
obet
ruewi
thoutanyf
act
s.
Assumpt
ionscanbeusedast
hest
andar
dofwor
king,meanst
heempl
oyees

111
 pr
epar
ethemsel
vest
oremai
nabovest
andar
d.

Di
f
fer
ent
Type
sof
Orga
niz
ati
ona
lCul
t
ure
Thecul
tur
eaf
ir
mfol
lowscanbef
urt
hercl
assi
fi
edi
ntodi
ff
erentt
ypes.Theyar
e−

 Mechani
sti
candOr
gani
ccul
tur
e

 Aut
hor
it
ari
anandPar
ti
cipat
ivecul
tur
e

 Subcul
tur
eandDomi
nantcul
tur
e

 St
rongandWeakcul
tur
e

 Ent
repr
eneur
ial
andMar
ketcul
tur
e

1.Mechani
sti
candOr
gani
cCul
tur
e
Mechani
sti
ccul
tur
eisf
ormedbyf
ormalr
uleandst
andar
doper
ati
ngpr
ocedur
es.
Ever
ythi
ngneedst
obedef
inedcl
ear
lyt
otheempl
oyeesl
iket
hei
rtask,r
esponsi
bil
it
y
and concer
ned aut
hor
it
ies.Communi
cat
ion pr
ocess i
s car
ri
ed accor
ding t
othe
di
rect
ion gi
ven byt
he or
gani
zat
ion.Account
abi
li
tyi
s one oft
he keyf
act
ors of
mechani
sti
ccul
tur
e.

Or
gani
ccul
tur
eisdef
inedast
heessenceofsoci
alval
uesi
nanor
gani
zat
ion.Thus
t
her
eexi
stsahi
ghdegr
eeofsoci
abi
li
tywi
thver
yfewf
ormalr
ulesandr
egul
ati
onsi
n
t
hecompany.I
thasasyst
emat
ichi
erar
chyofaut
hor
it
ythatl
eadst
owar
dsf
reef
lowof
communi
cat
ion. Some key el
ement
s of or
gani
c cul
tur
e i
ncl
ude aut
hor
it
y,
r
esponsi
bil
it
y,account
abi
li
tyanddi
rectf
lowt
owar
dst
heempl
oyee.

2.Aut
hor
it
ari
anandPar
ti
cipat
iveCul
tur
e
Aut
hor
it
ari
ancul
tur
emeanspowerofone.I
nthi
scul
tur
e,powerr
emai
nswi
tht
het
op
l
evelmanagement
.Al
lthedeci
sionsar
emadebyt
het
op managementwi
th no
empl
oyeei
nvol
vementi
nthedeci
sionmaki
ngaswel
lasgoalshapi
ngpr
ocess.The
aut
hor
it
ydemandsobedi
encef
rom t
heempl
oyeeandwar
nst
hem f
orpuni
shmenti
n
caseofmi
stakeori
rr
egul
ari
ty.Thi
stypeofcul
tur
eisf
oll
owedbymi
li
tar
yor
gani
zat
ion.

112
I
npar
ti
cipat
ivecul
tur
e,empl
oyeesact
ivel
ypar
ti
cipat
eint
hedeci
sionmaki
ngandgoal
shapi
ngpr
ocess.Ast
henamesuggest
s,i
tbel
ievesi
ncol
labor
ati
vedeci
sionmaki
ng.
I
nthi
stypeofcul
tur
e,empl
oyeesar
eper
fect
ioni
st,
act
iveandpr
ofessi
onal
.Al
ongwi
th
gr
oupdeci
sionmaki
ng,
grouppr
obl
em sol
vingpr
ocessi
sal
soseenher
e.

3.Subcul
tur
eandDomi
nantCul
tur
e
I
nsubcul
tur
e,somemember
soft
heor
gani
zat
ionmakeandf
oll
owacul
tur
ebutnotal
l
member
s.I
tisapar
tofor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
e,t
huswecanseemanysubcul
tur
esi
n
anor
gani
zat
ion.Ever
ydepar
tmenti
nacompanyhavet
hei
rowncul
tur
ethatget
s
conver
tedt
oasubcul
tur
e.So,t
hest
rengt
handadapt
abi
li
tyofanor
gani
zat
ional
cul
tur
eisdependentont
hesuccessofsubcul
tur
e.

I
ndomi
nantcul
tur
e,maj
ori
tyofsubcul
tur
ecombi
net
obecomeadomi
nantcul
tur
e.
Thesuccessofdomi
nantcul
tur
eisdependentont
hehomogenei
tyoft
hesubcul
tur
e,
t
hati
s,t
hemi
xtur
eofdi
ff
erentcul
tur
es.Att
hesamepoi
ntoft
ime,somecol
dwar
bet
weenadomi
nantcul
tur
eandami
norcul
tur
ecanal
sobeseen.

4.St
rongandWeakCul
tur
e
I
nast
rongcul
tur
e,t
heempl
oyeesar
eloyalandhaveaf
eel
ingofbel
ongi
ngness
t
owar
dst
heor
gani
zat
ion.Theyar
epr
oudoft
hei
rcompanyaswel
lasoft
hewor
kthey
doandt
heysl
avet
owar
dst
hei
rgoalwi
thpr
opercoor
dinat
ionandcont
rol
.Per
cept
ion
andcommi
tmentar
etwoaspect
sthatar
eseenwi
thi
ntheempl
oyees.I
nthi
scul
tur
e,
t
her
eisl
essempl
oyeet
urnoverandhi
ghpr
oduct
ivi
ty.

I
naweakcul
tur
e,t
heempl
oyeeshar
dlypr
aiset
hei
ror
gani
zat
ion.Ther
eisnol
oyal
ty
t
owar
dst
hecompany.Thus,
empl
oyeedi
ssat
isf
act
ionandhi
ghl
abort
urnoverar
etwo
aspect
soft
hiscul
tur
e.

5.Ent
repr
eneur
ialandMar
ketCul
tur
e
Ent
repr
eneur
ialcul
tur
eisaf
lexi
bleandr
isk-
taki
ngcul
tur
e.Her
etheempl
oyeesshow
t
hei
rinnovat
ivenessi
nthi
nki
ngandar
eexper
iment
ali
npr
act
ice.I
ndi
viduali
nit
iat
ions
maket
hegoaleasyt
oachi
eve.Empl
oyeesar
egi
venf
reedom i
nthei
ract
ivi
ty.The

113
or
gani
zat
ionr
ewar
dst
heempl
oyeesf
orbet
terper
for
mance.

Mar
ketcul
tur
eisbasedonachi
evementofgoal
.Iti
sahi
ghl
ytar
get
-or
ient
edand
compl
etel
ypr
ofi
t-
ori
ent
edcul
tur
e.Her
ether
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
heempl
oyeesand
t
heor
gani
zat
ioni
stoachi
evet
hegoal
.Thesoci
alr
elat
ionamongt
hewor
ker
sisnot
mot
ivat
ing.

Howt
oCr
eat
eanOr
gani
zat
i
ona
lCul
t
ure
Anor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
eiscr
eat
edwi
tht
hecombi
nat
ionofcer
tai
ncr
it
eri
athatar
e
ment
ionedbel
ow−

 Thef
ounderoft
heor
gani
zat
ionmaypar
tl
ysetacul
tur
e.

 Theenvi
ronmentwi
thi
nwhi
cht
heor
gani
zat
ionst
andar
dsmayi
nfl
uencei
ts
act
ivi
ti
est
osetacul
tur
e.

 Somet
imesi
nter
changeofcul
tur
einbet
weendi
ff
erentor
gani
zat
ionscr
eat
e
di
ff
erentnewcul
tur
es.

 Themember
soft
heor
gani
zat
ionmaysetacul
tur
ethati
sfl
exi
blet
oadapt
.

 New cul
tur
esar
eal
socr
eat
edi
nanor
gani
zat
ionduet
odemandoft
imeand
si
tuat
ion.

Thecul
tur
eofanor
gani
zat
ionalcanchangeduet
ocomposi
ti
onofwor
kfor
ce,
mer
ger
andacqui
sit
ion,pl
annedor
gani
zat
ionalchange,andi
nfl
uenceofot
heror
gani
zat
ional
cul
tur
e.

114
ORGANI
SATI
ONALCHANGE

Or
gani
zat
ionalchangecanbedef
inedast
heal
ter
ati
oni
nst
ruct
ure,t
echnol
ogyor
peopl
einanor
gani
zat
ionorbehavi
orbyanor
gani
zat
ion.Her
eweneedt
onot
ethat
changei
nor
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
eisdi
ff
erentf
rom changei
nanor
gani
zat
ion.Anew
met
hodorst
yleornewr
ulei
simpl
ement
edher
e.

Anor
gani
zat
ionalchangeoccur
sduet
otwomaj
orf
act
orsnamel
y−

 Ext
ernalf
act
or−Ext
ernalf
act
orsar
ethosef
act
orst
hatar
epr
esentout
sidet
he
f
ir
m butf
orcet
hef
ir
mtochangeori
mpl
ementanewl
aw,
rul
eet
c.Forexampl
e,
al
lbanksar
eboundt
ofol
lowt
her
ulesl
aiddownbyt
heRBI
.

 I
nter
nalf
act
or−I
nter
nalf
act
orsar
ethosef
act
orst
hatar
ecausedori
ntr
oduced
i
nsi
deanor
gani
zat
iont
hatf
orcesachange.Forexampl
e,nosmoki
ngi
nthe
wor
kpl
ace.

Kur
tLe
win’
sFor
ceFi
el
dAna
lys
is
Kur
tLewi
n,i
sanot
edor
gani
zat
ionalt
heor
ist
,whopr
oposedt
hef
orcef
iel
danal
ysi
s
f
oror
gani
zat
ionalchange.I
nthi
stheor
y,hehaspr
ior
it
izedt
wof
act
orsf
orchangei
n
anor
gani
zat
ion,
namel
y−

 Dr
ivi
ngf
orce−Dr
ivi
ngf
orcecanbedef
inedasanor
gani
zat
ionalf
orcet
hat
makesachangewi
thr
espectt
ost
ruct
ure,peopl
eandt
echnol
ogy.I
nshor
t,i
t
dr
ivest
heor
gani
zat
ionf
rom onecul
tur
etoanot
her
.

 Rest
ori
ngf
orce−Rest
ori
ngf
orcei
sthef
orcewhi
chchangest
hecul
tur
efr
om
t
heexi
sti
ngst
atet
otheol
dst
ate.I
tindi
cat
esabackwar
dmot
ionwhi
let
he
dr
ivi
ngf
orcei
ndi
cat
esaf
orwar
dmot
ion.

I
mpor
tanc
eof
Orga
niz
ati
ona
lCha
nge
Ther
eisaneedofchangei
nanor
gani
zat
ionbecauset
her
eisal
waysahopef
or
f
urt
herdevel
opment
,andi
nor
dert
osur
vivei
nacompet
it
ivemar
ket
,theor
gani
zat
ion
needst
obeupdat
edwi
thchanges.However
,wehavel
ist
edsomer
easonst
oexpl
ain

115
whychangesar
edel
iber
atel
ymadeandcar
eful
lypl
annedbyt
heor
gani
zat
ionbef
ore
i
mpl
ement
ati
on.

 I
timpr
ovest
hemeanst
osat
isf
ytheeconomi
crequi
rement
sofpeopl
e.

 I
tenhancest
hepr
ofi
tabi
li
tyofor
gani
zat
ion.

 I
tpr
omot
esempl
oyeesat
isf
act
ionandwel
l-
bei
ng.

Pl
anne
dCha
nge
Wecandef
inepl
annedchangeasanyki
ndofal
ter
ati
onormodi
fi
cat
ionwhi
chi
sdone
i
nadvanceanddi
ff
erent
lyf
ori
mpr
ovement
.

TheNeedf
orPl
annedChange
Pl
annedchanget
akespl
acesi
nanor
gani
zat
ionwhent
her
eisademandf
orchange
duet
otwot
ypesoff
orces.Thesef
orcesar
egr
oupedi
ntoi
nter
nalsour
cesand
ext
ernalsour
ces.

I
nter
nalf
orcest
hatl
eadt
oapl
annedchangei
nanor
gani
zat
ioni
ncl
udeobsol
escence
ofpr
oduct
ion and ser
vice,new mar
ketoppor
tuni
ti
es,new st
rat
egi
c di
rect
ion,
i
ncr
easi
ngwor
kfor
cedi
ver
sit
y,andshi
fti
nsoci
o-cul
tur
alval
ues.

Ext
ernalf
orcest
hatl
eadt
oapl
annedchangei
nanor
gani
zat
ioni
ncl
uder
egul
ator
s,
compet
it
ors,mar
ketf
orce,cust
omer
s,and t
echnol
ogy.Each oft
hesef
orcescan
cr
eat
epr
essi
ngdemandf
orchangei
nsmal
lorbi
g,publ
icorpr
ivat
e,busi
nessornon-
busi
nessor
gani
zat
ions.

Pr
ocessofPl
annedChange
Oncet
hemanagementdeci
dest
oimpl
ementsomechangesi
ntheor
gani
zat
ion,i
t
needst
obedonecar
eful
lyasi
tisaver
ysensi
ti
vei
ssue.I
tisver
yimpor
tantf
oral
lthe
empl
oyeest
oadaptt
ochange.Accor
dingt
oKur
tLewi
n,t
hepl
annedor
gani
zat
ional
changei
simpl
ement
edi
nthr
eedi
ff
erentst
ages.Theyar
e−

 Unf
reezi
ng−I
nthi
sst
age,t
heor
gani
zat
ionst
udi
esi
fthechangei
srequi
redor

116
 not
,whatandwhyi
sthechangenecessar
y.Consi
der
ingt
heent
ir
esi
tuat
ion,
t
heor
gani
zat
iondeci
desf
orappr
opr
iat
echange.Thusapl
anandst
rat
egyi
s
f
ormul
atedasr
equi
red.

 Changi
ng−I
nthi
sst
age,t
heor
gani
zat
ionexecut
est
hepl
anandpr
ogr
am f
or
change.Fort
hispur
pose,pr
operpr
ecaut
ionsar
etakeni
nor
dert
omai
ntai
n
cooper
ati
on and coor
dinat
ion bet
ween t
he empl
oyees and management
,
avoi
dingmi
scommuni
cat
ionordi
sput
es.Adequat
esuper
visi
onandcont
roli
s
ar
rangedasneeded.

 Ref
reezi
ng−Thi
sist
hef
inalst
age,i
nor
dert
obr
ingor
gani
zat
ionalchange.By
wayofsuper
visi
on,t
heor
gani
zat
ion t
ri
est
o eval
uat
etheef
fect
ivenessof
change.Col
lect
ingal
lthi
sinf
ormat
ion,t
hemanagementi
nter
pret
swhet
hert
o
cont
inueorr
epl
acechangebysomeot
heral
ter
nat
ivesort
omakef
urt
hermi
nor
changes.

Ty
pesof
Pla
nne
dCha
nge
Ont
hebasi
sofacompany’
srequi
rementpl
annedchangei
scl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hree
t
ypes.Theyar
e−

 Changei
nst
ruct
ure

 Changei
ntechnol
ogy

 Changei
npeopl
e

1.Changei
nSt
ruct
ure
Wesayt
hatt
hepl
annedchanger
equi
redi
schangei
nst
ruct
urewhendevel
opmenti
s
r
equi
redi
nthesef
oll
owi
ngar
eas−

 Changei
nmanagement

 Newmanagement

117
  Changei
nposi
ti
onorl
ocat
ion

 Changei
nobj
ect
ive,
rul
es,
regul
ati
onset
c.

 Launchi
ngnewbr
anches

2.Changei
nTechnol
ogy
Wesayt
hatt
hepl
annedchanger
equi
redi
schangei
ntechnol
ogywhendevel
opment
i
srequi
redi
nthesef
oll
owi
ngar
eas−

 Needofof
fi
ceaut
omat
ion

 I
nst
all
ingnewhar
dwar
eandsof
twar
e

 Execut
ingnewwor
kingpr
ocedur
es

 Newmet
hodsi
npr
oduct
ionf
unct
ion

 Pr
oduci
ngnewpr
oduct
sanddevi
ces

 Newt
rai
ning,
resear
chanddevel
opmentpr
ogr
am

3.Changei
nPeopl
e
Wesayt
hatt
hepl
annedchanger
equi
redi
schangei
npeopl
ewhendevel
opmenti
s
r
equi
redi
nthesef
oll
owi
ngar
eas−

 Newcandi
dat
erequi
rement

 Pr
omot
ionordemot
ion

 Tr
ansf
ert
oot
herl
ocat
ion

 Suspensi
onordi
smi
ssal

 Deput
ati
on

118
 Tr
aini
nganddevel
opment

119
POWER,
POLI
TICS

POWER
Powermustbeusedbecausemanager
smusti
nfl
uencet
hoset
heydependon.Power
al
soi
scr
uci
ali
nthedevel
opmentofmanager
s’sel
f-
conf
idenceandwi
ll
ingnesst
o
suppor
tsubor
dinat
es.Fr
om t
hisper
spect
ive,
powershoul
dbeaccept
edasanat
ural
par
tofanyor
gani
zat
ion.Manager
sshoul
drecogni
zeanddevel
opt
hei
rownpowert
o
coor
dinat
eandsuppor
tthewor
kofsubor
dinat
es;i
tispower
lessness,
notpower
,that
under
minesor
gani
zat
ionalef
fect
iveness.

Robi
ns(
1984)
,def
inespoweras,
capaci
tyt
hatonehast
oinf
luencet
hebehavi
ourof
ot
her
s.
Poweri
stheabi
li
tyt
omar
shal
thehuman,
inf
ormat
ional
,andmat
eri
alr
esour
cest
oget
somet
hingdone.

PowerandAut
hor
it
y
Poweremphasi
sesmani
pul
ati
on.Theper
sonwi
thpowerhast
heabi
li
tyt
ogetan
i
ndi
vidualorgr
oupt
odosomet
hing,
ort
ochangei
nacer
tai
nway.Suchaper
soncan
mani
pul
ateot
her
s.
Aut
hor
it
yemphasi
sesl
egi
ti
macyoraccept
ance.Theper
sonwi
thaut
hor
it
yhast
he
abi
li
tyt
omani
pul
ateandchangeot
her
s.

Powerneednotbel
egi
ti
mat
e.Aut
hor
it
yisal
waysl
egi
ti
mat
e.Aut
hor
it
yisl
egi
ti
mised
byt
hepur
sui
tofcol
lect
ivegoal
sthatar
eassoci
atedwi
thgr
oupconsensus.Poweri
s
t
hepur
sui
tofi
ndi
vidualornar
rowgoal
sassoci
atedwi
thgr
oupcompl
iance.

PowerandI
nfl
uence
I
nfl
uenci
ngi
stheuseofbot
hpowerandaut
hor
it
yinor
dert
oal
tert
heat
ti
tudesof
peopl
esot
hatt
heycanchangei
nacer
tai
nway.Forexampl
e,t
hewayt
heyper
for
m or
t
hewayt
heyf
eel
sat
isf
ied.

120
THEORI
ESABOUTTHESOURCESOFSOCI
ALPOWER
Anal
ysi
ngt
hedef
ini
ti
onofpowershowst
hef
oll
owi
ngel
ement
s:
•Ef
fect
ance—get
ti
ngone’
sway
•Thenecessi
tyofsoci
ali
nter
act
ionbet
weent
woormor
epar
ti
es
•Abi
li
tyofi
nfl
uenci
ngot
her
s
•Out
comesf
avour
ingonepar
tyovert
heot
her

Wecant
her
efor
e,t
alkofSOCI
ALORI
NTERPERSONALPOWERast
heabi
li
tyt
oget
one’
swayi
nasoci
alsi
tuat
ion.
Ther
ear
e4t
heor
iesaboutsour
cesofpower
;thati
s,whoget
spowerandhowt
heyget
i
t.
1.EMERSON’
SPOWER—dependencyt
heor
y
2.SALANCI
K&PFEFFER’
SSTRATEGI
C-Cont
ingencyModel
3.MI
NTZBERG’
Sobser
vat
ionsont
heGenesi
sofPoweri
nor
gani
sat
ions
4.FRENCHANDRAVEN’
SBasesofSoci
alPower

POWER-DEPENDENCYTHEORY
Soci
ologi
stRi
char
dEmer
sonst
atest
hatt
hedependenceofAct
orAuponAct
orBi
s:
•Di
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onalt
oA’
smot
ivat
ionali
nvest
menti
nthegoal
s,whi
chBcanhel
pto
achi
eve.
•I
nver
sel
ypr
opor
ti
onalt
otheavai
labi
li
tyoft
hosegoal
sout
sidet
heA-
Brel
ati
onshi
p.
Ther
efor
e,i
fBhassomet
hingAst
rongl
ywant
s,andAcanonl
ygeti
tfr
om B,
Bhas
poweroverA.i
nthecont
extoft
heor
gani
sat
ion,
thi
simpl
iesasoci
alr
elat
ionbet
ween
r
esour
cest
hatar
econt
rol
ledbyonepar
tyanddesi
redbyanot
herpar
ty.Suppl
yofsuch
r
esour
cesi
ncl
udesr
ewar
ds,
commodi
ti
es,
goal
set
c.

STRATEGI
C-CONTI
NGENCYMODELOFPOWER
Accor
dingt
oGer
aldSal
anci
kandJef
freyPf
eff
er,
organi
sat
ionalpoweri
sint
hehands
ofi
ndi
vidual
s,uni
tsanddepar
tment
sthatar
emosti
mpor
tanti
nsol
vingt
he
or
gani
sat
ion’
smostcr
it
icalpr
obl
ems.Themostcr
it
icalpr
obl
emsusual
lyor
igi
nat
eor
ar
eli
kel
ytoor
igi
nat
efr
om envi
ronment
aluncer
tai
nty.

121
Thet
heor
yissayi
ngt
hatt
hosewi
tht
hemostval
uabl
eorspeci
alexper
ti
sef
ort
he
sur
vivaloft
heor
gani
sat
ionshoul
dhavet
hemostpower
.

Ther
esear
cher
saddt
hatt
hosewhogett
hispowert
endt
ousei
ttoenhancet
hei
rown
sur
vivalbycont
rol
li
ngscar
cer
esour
ces:
a)bypl
aci
ngkeyal
li
esi
nkeyposi
ti
ons
b)Thr
ought
hedef
ini
ti
onofor
gani
sat
ional
probl
emsandpol
ici
es
Ot
her
wise,
Sal
anci
kandPf
eff
ervi
ewor
gani
sat
ionalpowerr
atherposi
ti
vel
ybecausei
t
i
sint
hehandsofcr
it
icalpr
obl
em sol
ver
s.

MI
NTZBERG’
SOBSERVATI
ONS
Accor
dingt
oHenr
yMi
ntzber
g,or
gani
sat
ionalpowerhas5possi
blesour
ces:
•Cont
rolofr
esour
ces
•Cont
roloft
echni
cal
ski
ll
s
•Cont
rolofabodyofknowl
edge
•Legalpr
erogat
ives(
excl
usi
ver
ightt
oimposechoi
ces)
•Accesst
othosewhohavepower(
basedi
nthe1stf
ourbases)

Accor
dingt
oMi
ntzber
gmanypeopl
ecanhaveaccesst
opower
.Inor
derf
oronet
o
becomean“
Inf
luence,
”onehast
oinvol
vehi
msel
f/her
sel
finapowergame,
tobeabl
e
t
ocont
rolt
heor
gani
sat
ionsdeci
sionsandact
ions.Ther
efor
e,besi
desapowerbase,
f
oronet
obean“
inf
luencer
”onemustexer
tener
gyandpol
it
icalski
ll
.

FRENCHANDRAVEN’
SBASESOFSOCI
ALPOWER
Soci
alExchangeTheor
y
Accor
dingt
othi
stheor
ywhatgoesonbet
weendi
ff
erenti
ndi
vidual
sisanexchangeof
soci
alcommodi
ti
es.Soci
alcommodi
ti
esar
eanyneedaper
soncanhavef
rom anot
her
per
son.Soci
alcommodi
ti
escanbepsychol
ogi
cal
,emot
ionalmat
eri
al.Thel
ongl
istof
soci
alcommodi
ti
esi
ncl
udessucht
hingsasl
ove,
respect
,power
,inf
luence,
i
nfor
mat
ion,
prai
se,
blame,
att
ract
ion,
rej
ect
ionet
c.
•I
fwhatwer
ecei
vef
rom t
heot
herpar
tyi
smor
ethanwhatwegi
ve,
wecont
inuet
he

122
exchanger
elat
ionshi
p.
•I
fwhatwer
ecei
vef
rom t
heot
herpar
tyi
sequalt
owhatwegi
ve,
wewi
llcont
inuet
he
exchanger
elat
ionshi
p.
•I
fwhatwer
ecei
vef
rom t
heot
herpar
tyi
slesst
hanwhatwegi
ve,
wewi
llt
ermi
nat
eor
al
tert
heexchanger
elat
ionshi
p.

Fi
vebasesofpower
Thef
ivebasesofpowerwer
epr
oposedbyt
hesoci
alpsychol
ogi
stsFr
enchandRaven,
i
nanow-
classi
cst
udy(
1959)
.Theydevel
opedaschemeoff
ivecat
egor
iesofpower
whi
chr
efl
ect
edt
hedi
ff
erentbasesorr
esour
cest
hatpowerhol
der
srel
yupon.One
addi
ti
onalbase(
inf
ormat
ional
)wasl
ateradded.

Legi
ti
mat
ePower

Legi
ti
mat
ePowerr
efer
stopowerofani
ndi
vidualbecauseoft
her
elat
iveposi
ti
onand
dut
iesoft
hehol
deroft
heposi
ti
onwi
thi
nanor
gani
zat
ion.Legi
ti
mat
ePoweri
sfor
mal
aut
hor
it
ydel
egat
edt
othehol
deroft
heposi
ti
on.I
tisusual
lyaccompani
edbyvar
ious
at
tr
ibut
esofpowersuchasuni
for
ms,
off
iceset
c.Thi
sist
hemostobvi
ousandal
sot
he
mosti
mpor
tantki
ndofpower
.

 Gui
del
inesf
orusi
ngl
egi
ti
mat
epoweri
ncl
ude
- Makepol
it
ecl
earr
equest
s

- Expl
aint
her
easonsf
ort
her
equest
s

- Donotexceedyourscopeofaut
hor
it
y

- Ver
if
yaut
hor
it
yifnecessar
y
- Fol
lowpr
operchannel
s
- Fol
lowupt
over
if
ycompl
iance.
- I
nsi
stoncompl
iancei
fappr
opr
iat
e
Ref
erentPower

123
Ref
erentPowermeanst
hepowerorabi
li
tyofi
ndi
vidual
stoat
tr
actot
her
sandbui
ld
l
oyal
ty.I
t'
sbasedont
hechar
ismaandi
nter
per
sonalski
ll
soft
hepowerhol
der
.Her
e
t
heper
sonunderpowerdesi
rest
oident
if
ywi
tht
heseper
sonalqual
it
ies,andgai
ns
sat
isf
act
ion f
rom bei
ng an accept
ed f
oll
ower
.Nat
ional
ism orPat
ri
oti
sm count
s
t
owar
dsani
ntangi
blesor
tofr
efer
entpoweraswel
l.Forexampl
e,sol
dier
sfi
ghti
nwar
s
t
odef
endt
hehonoroft
hecount
ry.Thi
sist
hesecondl
eastobvi
ouspower
,butt
he
mostef
fect
ive.

Ref
erentpoweri
susual
lygr
eat
estf
oraper
sonwhoi
sfr
iendl
yat
tract
ive,char
ming
andt
rust
wor
thy

Wayst
oacqui
reandmai
ntai
nref
erentpower

- Showaccept
anceandposi
ti
ver
egar
d
- Actsuppor
ti
veandhel
pful
- Usesi
ncer
efor
msofi
ngr
ati
ati
on
- Def
endandbackuppeopl
ewhenappr
opr
iat
e
- Dounsol
ici
tedf
avor
s
- Makesel
fsacr
if
icest
oshowconcer
n
- Keeppr
omi
ses
Exper
tPower

Exper
tPoweri
sani
ndi
vidual
'
spowerder
ivi
ngf
rom t
heski
ll
sorexper
ti
seoft
heper
son
andt
heor
gani
zat
ion'
sneedsf
ort
hoseski
ll
sandexper
ti
se.Unl
iket
heot
her
s,t
hist
ype
ofpoweri
susual
lyhi
ghl
yspeci
fi
candl
imi
tedt
othepar
ti
cul
arar
eai
nwhi
cht
heexper
t
i
str
ainedandqual
if
ied.

Gui
del
inesf
orusi
ngexper
tpower

- Expl
aint
her
easonf
orar
equest
- Pr
ovi
deevi
dencet
hatar
equestwi
llbesuccessf
ul
- Do not make r
ash, car
eless or i
nconsi
stent
st
atement
s
- Donotexagger
ateormi
srepr
esentf
act
s

124
 - Li
sten ser
iousl
y t
o t
he per
sons concer
ns and
suggest
ions
- Actconf
ident
lyanddeci
sivel
yinacr
isi
s
Thi
stypeofpoweri
sfur
therbr
okendownl
ateronasI
nfor
mat
ionPower
.
I
nfor
mat
ionPower
Whi
let
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenexper
tpowerandi
nfor
mat
ionpoweri
ssubt
le,peopl
e
wi
tht
hist
ypeofpowerar
ewel
l-
inf
ormed,up-
to-
dat
eandal
sohavet
heabi
li
tyt
o
per
suadeot
her
s.Anot
herdi
ff
erencewoul
d bet
hatpeopl
ewi
th Exper
tPowerar
e
per
cei
vedbyhi
s/heri
mageofexper
ti
set
oshowcr
edi
bil
it
y(i
.e.aqual
if
ieddoct
ori
na
doct
oruni
for
m),whi
leonewi
thI
nfor
mat
ionPowerdoesnothaveast
ri
ctneedt
o'l
ook
t
hepar
tofapr
ofessi
onal
'
,butt
heymustkeepupt
odat
ewi
thnewr
esear
ch,andhave
conf
idencei
ndebat
ing,
orar
eper
suasi
ve.

Rewar
dPower

Rewar
dPowerdependsupont
heabi
li
tyoft
hepowerwi
eldert
oconf
erval
uedmat
eri
al
r
ewar
ds;i
tref
erst
othedegr
eet
owhi
cht
hei
ndi
vidualcangi
veot
her
sar
ewar
dof
someki
ndsuchasbenef
it
s,t
imeof
f,desi
redgi
ft
s,pr
omot
ionsori
ncr
easesi
npayor
r
esponsi
bil
it
y.Thi
spoweri
sobvi
ousbutal
soi
nef
fect
ivei
fabused.Peopl
ewhoabuse
r
ewar
dpowercanbecomepushyorbecamer
epr
imandedf
orbei
ngt
oof
ort
hcomi
ngor
'
movi
ngt
hingst
ooqui
ckl
y'
.

Gui
del
inesf
orUsi
ngRewar
dPower

- Of
fert
het
ypeofr
ewar
dthatpeopl
edesi
re
- Of
ferr
ewar
dst
hatar
efai
randet
hical
- Donotpr
omi
semor
ethanyoucandel
iver
- Expl
aint
hecr
it
eri
aforgi
vingr
ewar
dsandkeepi
tsi
mpl
e.
- Pr
ovi
der
ewar
dsaspr
omi
sedi
frequi
rement
sar
emet
.
- User
ewar
dssymbol
ical
ly
Coer
civePower

Coer
civePowermeanst
heappl
icat
ionofnegat
ivei
nfl
uencesont
oempl
oyees.I
tmi
ght

125
r
efert
otheabi
li
tyt
odemot
eort
owi
thhol
dot
herr
ewar
ds.I
t'
sthedesi
ref
orval
ued
r
ewar
dsort
hef
earofhavi
ngt
hem wi
thhel
dthatensur
est
heobedi
enceoft
hoseunder
power
.Coer
civePowert
endst
obet
hemostobvi
ousbutl
eastef
fect
ivef
orm ofpower
asi
tbui
ldsr
esent
mentandr
esi
stancewi
thi
nthet
arget
sofCoer
civePower
.

Gui
del
inesf
orusi
ngCoer
civepowert
omai
ntai
nDi
sci
pli
ne

- Expl
ainr
ulesandr
equi
rement
sandensur
ethatpeopl
eunder
standt
heser
ious
consequences.
- Respondt
oinf
ract
ionspr
ompt
lyandconsi
stent
lywi
thoutanyf
avor
it
ism
- I
nvest
igat
etogett
hef
act
sbef
orer
epr
imandi
ng
- Exceptf
ort
hemostser
iousi
nfr
act
ions,
provi
desuf
fi
cientor
alandwr
it
tenwar
nings
- Admi
nist
erwar
ningsandr
epr
imandi
npr
ivat
e
- St
aycal
m andavoi
dappear
inghost
il
e
- Expr
essasi
ncer
edesi
ret
ohel
ptheper
soncompl
ywi
thr
oleexpect
ati
ons
- I
nvi
tet
heper
sont
osuggestwayst
ocor
rectt
hepr
obl
em
- Mai
ntai
ncr
edi
bil
it
ybyadmi
nist
eri
ngpuni
shmenti
nnon-
compl
iant
- Usepuni
shment
sthatar
elegi
ti
mat
e

POSSI
BLERESPONSESTOUSEOFPOWER

Empl
oyeesar
eli
kel
ytor
espondt
othevar
iouspowerbasesi
n3ways:

•Resi
stance

Empl
oyeesar
eli
kel
ytor
espondwi
thr
esi
stancet
ocoer
civepower
,par
ti
cul
arl
y:

(
i)I
fiti
sappl
iedf
requent
ly

(
ii
)Ifi
tappear
sthatt
hel
eaderhasnoj
ust
if
icat
iont
oappl
yit

•Compl
iance

Empl
oyeeswi
llper
for
m orbehaveaccor
dingt
othemanager
’swi
shes.Compl
iance
i
mpl
iest
hatt
heywi
llmeett
hemi
nimum accept
abl
elevelwi
thoutput
ti
ngi
next
raef
for
t.

126
Legi
ti
mat
epowerandr
ewar
dpowerar
eli
kel
ytodr
awt
hecompl
iancer
esponse.

•Commi
tment

Thi
sist
heent
husi
ast
icr
eleaseofener
gyandabi
li
tyi
nper
for
mancebyempl
oyees.
Commi
tmenti
sthemostdesi
rabl
eout
comeoft
heuseofmostpower
.Ref
erentpower
andexper
tpowerar
emostl
ikel
ytodr
awt
her
esponseofcommi
tment
.

Resi
stanceCompl
ianceCommi
tment

Useofpowercanbot
hbeposi
ti
veandnegat
ive.Leadi
ng,i
nfl
uenci
ng,sel
li
ng(
ani
dea)
,
per
suadi
ng ar
e cases when poweri
s used posi
ti
vel
y.Cr
ushi
ng,f
orci
ng,hur
ti
ng,
coer
cingar
enegat
iveusesofpower
.

Wheni
ndi
vidual
shaveper
sonalgoal
stopur
sueandhavepower
,theyt
endt
oappl
y
powerabuse.Thi
sseemst
ojust
if
yLor
dAct
on’
sobser
vat
iont
hat“
powert
endst
o
cor
rupt
;absol
utepowercor
rupt
sabsol
utel
y”.

I
NFLUENCEABI
LITYOFTHETARGETSOFPOWER

How easi
lyt
hepowerhol
dercani
nfl
uenceat
argetdependsonhow t
hef
oll
owi
ng
f
act
orsaf
fectt
het
arget
:

i
) Dependency
Dependencyi
shi
ghi
fthet
arget
:

- Cannotescapef
rom t
her
elat
ionshi
p
- Per
cei
vesnoal
ter
nat
ives
- Val
uest
hepower
-hol
der
’sr
ewar
dsasuni
que
i
i)Uncer
tai
nty
I
ndi
vidual
swhoar
enotsur
eoft
hemsel
vesexposet
hemsel
vest
ohi
ghi
nfl
uenceoft
he
powerhol
der
.

i
ii
)Per
sonal
it
y

127
Theper
sonal
it
ychar
act
eri
sti
cst
hataccountf
orhi
ghi
nfl
uenceabi
li
tyi
ncl
ude:

- Hi
ghneedf
oraf
fi
li
ati
on(
easi
l
ygr
oupi
nfl
uenced)
- Lowt
oler
ancef
orambi
gui
ty
- Anxi
ety
i
v)I
ntel
li
gence
I
ntel
li
gentpeopl
ear
egener
all
ygoodl
ist
ener
sbutbecauset
hepowerhol
der(
li
ke
ever
ybodyel
se)maybehol
dingt
hem i
nhi
ghest
eem,t
heybecomer
esi
stantt
othe
i
nfl
uenceofot
her
s.

v)Gender
Womeni
nlessdevel
opedsoci
eti
esseem t
osubduet
othei
nfl
uenceofpowerhol
der
s.
Thei
nfl
uencer
educesandt
hesoci
etybecomesmor
eandmor
edevel
oped.

vi
)Age
Youngpeopl
ear
esuscept
ibl
etoi
nfl
uence.Asagei
ncr
easest
hisdecl
ines.

vi
i)
Cul
tur
e
Soci
eti
est
hatemphasi
zei
ndi
vidual
it
y,di
ssentanddi
ver
sit
ytendt
oaccountf
orl
ess
i
nfl
uenceabi
li
ty.Soci
eti
eswhi
chemphasi
zecohesi
veness(
col
lect
ivi
sm)
,agr
eement
anduni
for
mit
ytendt
opr
omot
einf
luenceabi
li
ty.

128
ORGANI
ZATI
ONALPOLI
TICS(
OP)

OP i
nvol
vesi
ntent
ionalact
sofi
nfl
uencet
oenhanceorpr
otectt
hesel
f-
int
erestof
i
ndi
vidual
sorgr
oups.Anemphasi
sonsel
f-
int
erestdi
sti
ngui
shest
hisf
orm ofsoci
al
i
nfl
uence.Manager
sar
eendl
essl
ychal
lengedt
oachi
eveawor
kabl
ebal
ancebet
ween
empl
oyees’sel
f-
int
erest
sandor
gani
zat
ionali
nter
est
s.Pol
it
icalbehavi
orbecomesa
negat
ivef
orcewhensel
f-
int
erest
ser
odeordef
eator
gani
zat
ionali
nter
est
s.

Uncer
tai
ntyt
ri
gger
spol
it
icalbehavi
or-
pol
it
icalmaneuver
ingi
str
igger
edpr
imar
il
yby
uncer
tai
nty.Commonsour
cesofuncer
tai
ntywi
thi
nor
gani
zat
ionsar
e;

 Uncl
earobj
ect
ives
 Vagueper
for
mancemeasur
es
 I
ll
-def
ineddeci
so0npr
ocesses
 St
rongi
ndi
vidualorgr
oupcompet
it
ion
 Anyt
ypeofchange
Level
sofPol
it
icalAct
ion

Al
thoughmuchpol
it
icalmaneuver
ingoccur
satt
hei
ndi
viduall
evel
,ital
socani
nvol
ve
gr
ouporcol
lect
iveact
ionasdescr
ibedbel
ow;

1.Net
wor
klevel–Thi
siscooper
ati
vepur
sui
tofgener
alsel
f-
int
erest
s.I
t’
sal
oose
associ
ati
onsofi
ndi
vidual
sseeki
ngsoci
alsuppor
tfort
hei
rgener
ali
nter
est
s
2.Coal
it
ionl
evel–I
t’
sani
nfor
malgr
oupboundt
oget
herbyt
heact
ivepur
sui
tofa
si
ngl
eissue.Whent
het
argeti
ssuei
sresol
ved(
asexual
lyhar
assi
ngsuper
visor
i
sfi
red)
,thecoal
it
iondi
sbands.
3.I
ndi
viduall
evel–I
ndi
vidual
spur
suegener
alsel
fint
erest
s

Pol
it
icalt
act
ics

Anyonewhohaswor
kedi
nor
gani
zat
ionhasf
ir
sthandknowl
edgeofbl
atantpol
it
icki
ng.
Bl
ami
ngsomeoneel
sef
oryourmi
stakei
sanobvi
ouspol
it
icalpl
oy.Butot
herpol
it
ical
t
act
icsar
esubt
le.Resear
cher
shavei
dent
if
iedar
angeofpol
it
icalbehavi
or;

129
1.At
tacki
ngorbl
ami
ngot
her
s– I
tisusedt
oavoi
dormi
nimi
zeassoci
ati
onwi
th
f
ail
ure.React
ivewhenscapegoat
ingi
sinvol
ved.Pr
oact
ivewhengoali
stor
educe
compet
it
ionf
orl
imi
tedr
esour
ces
2.Usi
ng i
nfor
mat
ion asapol
it
icalt
ool– I
nvol
vest
hepur
posef
ulwi
thhol
ding or
di
stor
ti
on ofi
nfor
mat
ion.Obscur
ing an unf
avor
abl
esi
tuat
ion byover
whel
ming
super
ior
swi
thi
nfor
mat
ion.
3.Cr
eat
ing f
avor
abl
eimage – Adher
ing t
o or
gani
zat
ionalnor
ms and dr
awi
ng
at
tent
ion t
o ones successes and i
nfl
uence. Taki
ng cr
edi
t f
or ot
her
s
accompl
ishment
s
4.Devel
opi
ngabaseofsuppor
t–Get
ti
ngpr
iorsuppor
tforadeci
sion.Bui
ldi
ngot
her
s
commi
tmentt
oadeci
siont
hroughpar
ti
cipat
ion
5.Pr
aisi
ngot
her
s–Maki
ngi
nfl
uent
ialpeopl
efeelsogood
6.For
mingpowercoal
it
ionswi
thst
rongal
li
es– Teami
ngupwi
thpower
fulpeopl
e
whocangetr
esul
ts
7.Associ
ati
ngwi
thi
nfl
uent
ialpeopl
e–Bui
ldi
ngasuppor
tnet
wor
kbot
hinsi
deand
out
sidet
heor
gani
zat
ion
8.Cr
eat
ingobl
igat
ions(
reci
proci
ty)–Cr
eat
ingsoci
aldebt
s(Idi
dyouaf
avor
,soyou
owemeaf
avor
)

COMMONPOLI
TICALTACTI
CSUSEDI
NORGANI
SATI
ONS

1.Legi
ti
macy
;rel
yingonone’
sposi
ti
onofaut
hor
it
ytoexpectt
hatar
equesti
sin
accor
dancewi
thor
gani
zat
ionalpol
ici
esandr
ules.

2.Rat
ionalPer
suasi
on;pr
esent
ing l
ogi
calar
gument
sand f
act
ualevi
dencet
hata
r
equesti
sreasonabl
e.

3.I
nspi
rat
ionalAppeal
s;devel
opi
ngemot
ionalcommi
tmentbyappeal
ingt
otar
get
’s
val
ues,
needs,
hopesandaspi
rat
ion.

4.Consul
tat
ion;i
ncr
easi
ngt
het
arget
smot
ivat
ionandsuppor
tbyi
nvol
vinghi
m/heri
n
deci
dinghowt
hepl
anorchangewi
llbedone.

130
5.Exchange;r
ewar
dingt
het
argetwi
thbenef
it
sorf
avour
sinexchangef
orsuppor
ti
nga
r
equest
.

6.Per
sonal
Appeal
s;aski
ngf
orcompl
iancebasi
ngonf
ri
endshi
porl
oyal
ty.

7.I
ngr
ati
ati
on;usi
ngf
lat
ter
y,pr
aiseorf
ri
endl
ybehavi
orpr
iort
omaki
ngar
equest
.

8.Pr
essur
e;usi
ngwar
nings,
repeat
eddemandsandt
hreat
s.

9.Coal
it
ions;enl
ist
ingt
heai
dofot
herpeopl
etoper
suadet
het
argetorusi
ngorusi
ng
t
hesuppor
tofot
her
stogett
het
argett
oagr
ee.

Dubr
in’
sSt
rat
egi
esf
orgai
ningpol
it
icalpoweri
nor
gani
zat
ions:

i
) Mai
ntai
nAl
li
ancewi
thPower
fulPeopl
e
Thef
ormat
ionofal
li
ancesorcoal
it
ioni
saver
yef
fect
iveappr
oachi
ngai
ningand
mai
ntai
ningpower
.Ifi
mpor
tantpeopl
ecannotber
eached,t
heal
li
ancecanbewi
th
t
hei
rsecr
etar
iesorper
sonalassi
stant
swhohaveeasyaccesst
othebosses.

i
i)Embr
aceorDemol
ish
Thi
sisaMachi
avel
li
anPr
inci
plet
hatpeopl
ear
eei
theral
li
esorenemi
es.Ther
eisno
mi
ddl
egr
ound.Mi
ddl
egr
oundgr
oupscangangagai
nstyou,
ther
efor
e,ar
eenemi
est
o
bedemol
i
shed.

i
ii
)Di
videandRul
e
Thosewhoar
edi
videdcannotf
orm acoal
it
ionoral
li
anceagai
nstyou.Di
videandr
ule
l
eavesonewi
thunr
ival
edaccesst
oresour
cest
hatwoul
dot
her
wisebycompet
edf
or.

i
v)Mani
pul
ateCl
assi
fi
edI
nfor
mat
ion
Ani
ndi
vidualwhohasval
uabl
einf
ormat
ionaboutsensi
ti
vear
eascangai
npower
.For
exampl
e,t
radesecr
etsofcompet
it
ors,
sour
cesofpot
ent
ialt
roubl
efort
heor
gani
zat
ion
et
c.

v)MakeaQui
ckShowi
ng

131
Thi
sisbasedont
hepr
inci
pleof1sti
mpr
essi
on.Bet
he1sti
nmaki
ngani
mpor
tant
suggest
ionori
mpr
ovement
.Posi
ti
veat
tent
ioni
sgai
ned,l
eadi
ngt
opowert
odoot
her
mor
ebenef
ici
alorl
ong-
ter
m under
taki
ngs.

vi
)Col
lectandUseofsi
tuat
ions
Thi
sispl
ayi
ngFat
herChr
ist
masi
nit
ial
lybutt
heoper
ator(
powerseeker
)doesi
s
expect
ingt
hatbenef
ici
ari
esowesomet
hingi
nret
urnandwi
llbeexpect
edt
opayupat
t
heappr
opr
iat
eti
me.

vi
i)
Avoi
dDeci
siveEngagement
Al
soknownasFabi
ani
sm;t
heOper
atoropt
sforevol
uti
onar
yrat
hert
hanr
evol
uti
onar
y
engagement
.TheOper
ator(
powerseeker
)sl
owl
ybutsur
elybecomesent
renched.
He/
sheai
mst
oini
ti
all
ygai
nconf
idenceandt
rustofot
her
s.

vi
ii
) Pr
ogr
essOneSt
epataTi
me
A.
k.— Camel
’
sHeadi
ntheTent
;thepowerseekert
akesonest
epatat
ime.He/
she
pr
ogr
essi
vel
ygai
nsaf
oot
hol
dint
hecompany.

i
x)Wai
tforaCr
isi
s
Pr
inci
ple:Thi
ngsmustgetwor
sebef
oret
heygetbet
ter
.Thepowerseekerwai
tsf
ora
cr
isi
sandusesi
ttoshowhi
s/heri
mpor
tancei
ntheschemeoft
hings.

x)TakeCounselwi
thCaut
ion
Thi
sisast
rat
egyf
orr
etai
ningpower
.Thepowerhol
deravoi
dspr
act
icessuchas
par
ti
cipat
ion,
empower
mentorevendel
egat
ion.

I
fot
herpeopl
ecanal
sot
akedeci
sions,
thent
heywi
llr
educeyourpower
.

132
133