COMMUNI

CATI
ON
Communicat
ioni
st hepr
ocessbywhichinformat
ioni
stransmitt
edbet
weeni
ndi
vi
dual
s
and/
oror
ganizat
ionssothatanunder
standingpr
oducesresul
ts.

Effect
ivecommunicat
ionmeansreachingall
thepart
iesi
nvolv
edi nt
hecommuni
cati
on
processinasimpl
eandconcisewaythatthereisnomisunderst
andi
ng.I
tal
someans
communi cat
iont
hatiscompl
eteandt her
eforef
eedbackisatt
ained.

Admi nist
rati
vecommuni cati
oni
sthetr
ansmissi
onandaccurat
erepl
icat
ionofi
deas
ensuredbyf eedbackforthepur
poseofel
ici
ti
ngact
ionswhichwil
laccompli
shthe
organizati
onalgoals.

Communi
cati
oni
nbusi
nessinvolv
escommuni
cat
ingwi
thst
aff
,cust
omer
s,suppl
i
ers,
owner
sandcommuni
ty(publ
ics)
.

Ther
oleofcommuni
cat
ioni
nanor
gani
zat
ion

Communi
cat
ioni
sthel
i
febl
oodofanyor
gani
zat
ion;
ithasani
mpacti
n:

1.Thest
ruct
ureoft
heor
gani
zat
ion

2.Del
egat
ionandconsul
tat
ion

3.Mot
ivat
ion

4.Sal
esandmar
ket
ing

5.Humanr
esour
cemanagementandwor
kfor
cepl
anni
ng

6.Leader
shi
pandmanagementst
yles

Communicationi
sanessentialelementofbusi
nesssuccess;
iti
sthecorner
stoneof
coor
dinat
ion.Goodcommuni cati
oncanhav eaposit
ivei
mpactuponempl oy
ee
moti
vati
onandperformance.Effecti
vecommunicati
onwithcust
omersisessenti
alf
or
busi
ness.

TheCommuni
cat
ionPr
ocess
Forcommunicat
iont
obecompl ete,
itmustgot
hroughf
ivest
agest
hatar
ecal
l
edt
he
el
ementsofcommunicat
ion.Theseelement
sar
e:
• Sender
• Message
• Medi
um
• Recei
ver
• Feedback

Sender
Thi
sist
heinit
iator
/ori
ginofmessage/
inf
ormati
on.He/
sheencodest
hemessage,
i.
e.
put
ti
ngthoughtsorideastoget
hert
oformul
ateamessage.
Message
I
tist
hev
erbal
ornon-
ver
bal
cont
entt
obet
ransmi
tt
ed.
Medi
um
I
tist
hemethodusedtot
ransmi
tmessagesort
hepat
hwayt
hatmessagesf
oll
owt
o
r
eachther
ecei
ver
.Iti
sal
socall
edt
hechannel
.
Recei
ver
Thisr
efer
stothepersontowhom amessageisi ntended.I
tist
hedesti
nat
ionoft
he
message.Therecei
verdecodesthemessagei
.e.inter
preti
ngandat
tachi
ngmeaningt
o
themessageinordert
ounder st
andi
t.
Feedback
I
tist
heresponsebyt
herecei
vert
othesenderofamessagewhi
chpr
ompt
sthesender
t
oactinacertai
nway.

TYPESOFCOMMUNI
CATI
ON

Defi
nit
ion:t
hisisconvey
ingofmessagesorinfor
mat
ionf
rom oneper
sont
oanot
her
wit
hanai m ofgett
ingmaximum under
standi
ng.

I
ncommunicati
on,i
nfor
mationi
spassedbetweenindiv
idual
soror
gansbymeansof
pr
evi
ousl
yagreedsymbols–words,
gest
uresordrawings.

Thet
ypesofcommuni
cat
ioni
ncl
ude:

 I
nter
nal
 Ext
ernal

I
nter
nal
communi
cat
ion–Ref
erst
oexchangeofi
nfor
mat
ionormessagesbet
ween
per
sonsordepar
tment
softhesameor
gani
zat
ione.
g.bet
weenempl
oyees,
companyandshar
ehol
der
s.
I
mpor
tance

a.Bett
erunderstanding/goodrel
ati
onshi
ps-
goodinter
nalcommuni cat
ion
i
mpr ovesunderstandi
ngbetweenemployeesbecausecomplaint
sofstaff
ar
ecommuni catedingoodti
meandi nri
ghtway,hencelesschancesofany
misunderst
anding.
b.Greateref
fici
ency-Soundcommunicationsyst
em enabl
esmanagementto
communi catetosupervi
sor
sandsubor di
natestaf
faboutanychangei
n
poli
cyhenceef f
ici
encyofworkeri
ncrease.
c.Ef
fect
ivecoor
dinat
ion-
Empl
oyeescanco-
ordi
nat
emor
eef
fect
ivel
yor
pr
esenceofgoodcommunicati
onsyst
em.
d.Incr
easeproduct
ivi
ty-
goodcommuni
cat
ionenablesmanagementt
o
communi cat
efast
erandgetnewi
deasfrom employ
eeshencei
ncr
ease
product
ivi
ty.

Ext
ernal
communicati
on-
Referstoexchangeofi
nfor
mat
ionormessages
bet
weenorgani
zat
ionsorof
fices.

I
mpor
tance

a.Goodreputat
ion–Effect
ivecommunicati
onwit
hcust
omersandother
busi
nessenterpr
isesenablesanor
ganizat
iont
oest
imat
egoodreputat
ion
hencei
ncreasepresti
ge.
b.I
mpr ovementinpubli
crelat
ions-
Ifanor
ganizat
ioncommuni
cat
ewit
hthe
generalpubli
caboutit
sacti
v i
ti
esandserv
icesthenmor
epeopl
ebecome
i
nterestedtodealwit
hit.
c.Bet
terbusi
nessprospects–Duetogoodcommunicat
ionacompanycan
at
tractmor
ecustomer shencei
ncreasei
nsal
es.
d.Choiceofcust
omers-Communicati
onhelpsanorgani
zat
iontoget
i
nformati
onabouttheli
kesanddisl
ikesofthecust
omershencehel
ping
them t
oproducegoodsaccordi
ngtot hei
r
e.Eff
ecti
venegoti
ati
ons-Tradeof
fi
ces,
cust
omsaut hor
it
ies,
Banksandother
fi
nanci
ali
nsti
tut
ions,
incomeandV.A.
Toff
icesandpostoffi
ceaut
hori
ti
es
 t
hatr
equi
ret
act
ful
negot
iat
ionsar
enot
hingbutcommuni
cat
ion.
f
. Jobr equirement-I
nmostar ease.g.per sonnel,publicr
elati
ons,mar ket
ing,
sales,labourrel
ations,edi
tors,writer
s, teachers,advocatesandresearchers
requirehighlydevelopedcommuni cationski l
ls.Executi
vesarealsoexpected
tomakespeeches, prepar
epamphl etsbr ochuresandconductmedi a
i
nterviewsi nordertopr oj
ectaf avouri
tei mageoft hei
rorgani
zati
on; hence
abili
tytocommuni cateeffecti
velyhasbecomeani mportantj
obr equir
ement.

FORMSOFCOMMUNI
CATI
ON

1.Wr
it
tencommuni
cat
ion

I
tincl
udes;
journal
s,magazi
nes,r
eport
s,l
etters,memos,not
ices,
minutes,
newspaper
s,documentat
ion,
proposal
,ci
rcular,
brochur
es,f
orms,questi
onnai
res.

Adv
ant
ages

a)Accurateandpreci
se–ser
ioust
hathast
obegi
vent
othei
deaswhi
chhav
etobe
wellorgani
zed.

b)Canber
efer
redt
osev
eral
timesi
fther
eisneedt
odoso.

c)Canbeusedf
orfut
ur er
efer
encee.
g.pr
eviousyear
srepor
tcanbeusedt
o
for
mul
atenewpoli
ciesandfi
xcurr
entt
argets.

d)Usedf
orconf
ident
ialmessages

e)Usedasal
egal
documente.
g.mi
nut
es.

f
) Possi
bletoincl
udecompl
exanddet
ail
edi
nfor
mat
ion(
sui
tabl
eforl
engt
hy
messages).

g)Mini
mizeschancesofdistor
ti
ont
hatoccurwhenamessagei
spassedor
all
y
f
rom onepersontotheother.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

a)Noi
mmedi
atef
eedback.

b)Sl
ow–t
akest
imet
oreacht
her
ecei
verhencel
eadi
ngt
odel
ayedf
eedback.

c)Qui
ckclar
if
icat
ioni
sn’
tpossi
blei
ncaset
her
ecei
verhasn’
tunder
stoodt
he
message.
 d)Canl
andi
ntowr
onghandsorgetl
ost
.

e)Nonbenef
ici
alt
oil
l
iter
ateandv
isual
l
yimpai
red.

f
)Isexpensi
vebecauseonei
ncur
spost
ageexpenses.

g)Conf
ident
ial
inf
ormat
ionmaybef
orged/al
ter
edbysomepeopl
e.

1.Or
alcommuni
cat
ion

I
tincl
udes:f
acetoface,
radi
o,meet
ings,
speeches/or
alpr
esent
ati
on,
phone,
semi
nar
s,
gr
oupdiscussi
ons.

Adv
ant
ages

1.Cl
ari
fi
cat
ioncanbemadei
ncaseofdoubt
s.

2.Fast
;lesst
imei
stakenf
ormessagest
oreacht
her
ecei
ver
.

3.Messagesr
eacht
hei
ntendedper
son.

4.Benef
ici
alt
othei
l
li
ter
ateandv
isual
l
yimpai
red.

5.Speechi
samor
epower
ful
tool
ofper
suasi
onandcont
rol
.

6.Pr
omot
esf
ri
endl
yrel
ati
onsbet
weenpar
ti
escommuni
cat
ionwi
theachot
her
.

7.Nonver
balcuescanbeusedtorei
nfor
cet
hemessagee.
g.gest
ure,
faci
al
expr
essi
ons.Movementofhands.

8.Per
sonal
appeal
-thecommuni
cat
ori
spr
esent
.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

1.Notbenef
ici
alt
othedeaf
.

2.Nor
ecor
dsf
orf
utur
eref
erence.

3.Messagecanbemi
ssedoutbyt
her
ecei
verduet
opoorl
i
steni
ngski
l
ls.

4.Notsui
tabl
eforl
engt
hymessages,
somet
hingv
eryi
mpor
tantmaybeomi
tt
ed.

5.Hav
enol
egal
val
i
dit
yunl
esst
aped/r
ecor
ded.

6.Hi
ghchancesofdi
stor
ti
ondur
ingt
ransmi
ssi
on
 CHANNELSOFCOMMUNI
CATI
ON
Ther
ear
efour
,namel
y: Or
al Vi
sual

Wr
it
ten Audi
ovi
sual

2.Wr
it
tencommuni
cat
ion

I
tincl
udesjour
nals,
magazi
nes,r
eport
s,l
ett
ers,
memos, not
ices,
mi nutes,
newspaper
s,document
ati
on,pr
oposal
,ci
rcul
ar,br
ochur
es,f
orms, questi
onnai
res.

Adv
ant
ages

h)Accurateandpreci
se–ser
ioust
hathast
obegi
vent
othei
deaswhi
chhav
etobe
wellorgani
zed.

i
) Canber
efer
redt
osev
eral
timesi
fther
eisneedt
odoso.

j
) Canbeusedf
orfut
ur er
efer
encee.
g.pr
eviousyear
srepor
tcanbeusedt
o
for
mul
atenewpoli
ciesandfi
xcurr
entt
argets.

k)Usedf
orconf
ident
ialmessages

l
) Usedasal
egal
documente.
g.mi
nut
es.

m)Possi
bletoincl
udecompl
exanddet
ail
edi
nfor
mat
ion(
sui
tabl
eforl
engt
hy
messages).

n)Mini
mizeschancesofdistor
ti
ont
hatoccurwhenamessagei
spassedor
all
y
f
rom onepersontotheother.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

h)Noi
mmedi
atef
eedback.

i
) Sl
ow–t
akest
imet
oreacht
her
ecei
verhencel
eadi
ngt
odel
ayedf
eedback.

j
) Qui
ckclar
if
icat
ioni
sn’
tpossi
blei
ncaset
her
ecei
verhasn’
tunder
stoodt
he
message.

k)Canl
andi
ntowr
onghandsorgetl
ost
.

l
) Nonbenef
ici
alt
oil
l
iter
ateandv
isual
l
yimpai
red.

m)I
sexpensi
vebecauseonei
ncur
spost
ageexpenses.
 n)Conf
ident
ial
inf
ormat
ionmaybeormaybef
orged/al
ter
edbysomepeopl
e.

3.Or
alcommuni
cat
ion

I
tincl
udes;f
acetoface,
radi
o,meet
ings,
speeches/or
alpr
esent
ati
on,
phone,
semi
nar
s,
gr
oupdiscussi
ons.

Adv
ant
ages

9.Cl
ari
fi
cat
ioncanbemadei
ncaseofdoubt
s.

10.
Fast
;lesst
imei
stakenf
ormessagest
oreacht
her
ecei
ver
.

11.
Messagesr
eacht
hei
ntendedper
son.

12.
Benef
ici
alt
othei
l
li
ter
ateandv
isual
l
yimpai
red.

13.
Speechi
samor
epower
ful
tool
ofper
suasi
onofandcont
rol
.

14.
Promot
esf
ri
endl
yrel
ati
onsbet
weenpar
ti
escommuni
cat
ionwi
theachot
her
.

15.
Nonverbalcuescanbeusedtor ei
nfor
cet
hemessagee.
g.gest
ure,
faci
al
expr
essions,movementofhands.

16.
Per
sonal
appeal
-thecommuni
cat
ori
spr
esent
.

Di
sadv
ant
age

7.Notbenef
ici
alt
othedeaf
.

8.Nor
ecor
dsf
orf
utur
eref
erence.

9.Messagecanbemi
ssedoutbyt
her
ecei
verduet
opoorl
i
steni
ngski
l
ls.

10.
Notsui
tabl
eforl
engt
hymessages,
somet
hingv
eryi
mpor
tantmaybeomi
tt
ed.

11.
Hav
enol
egal
val
i
dit
yunl
esst
aped/r
ecor
ded.

12.
Highchancesofdi
stor
ti
ondur
ingt
ransmi
ssi
on.

Non-
Ver
bal
communi
cat
ion

Def
ini
ti
on:
communi
cat
ionwi
thoutuseofwor
ds;
alsocal
l
edbodyl
anguage.I
tis
communi
cat
iont
hroughsi
gnal
s.Al
lver
bal
communi
cat
ioni
saf
fect
edbynon-
ver
bal
communi
cat
iont
hataccompani
esi
t.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion

1.Ki
nesi
cs(
bodyl
anguage)

I
tisthewaythebodycommunicat
eswit
houtwor
dst
hroughmov
ementofi
tspar
ts.
Majorel
ementsofbodyl
anguagei
ncl
ude;

a)Faceandeyes–t
hef
acei
swher
ewel
ookf
ormostexpr
essi
onsofwhati
sgoi
ng
oninsi
deus.

Asmi
l
eshowsamusementandgoodhumor
.

Af
rownshowsbor
edom andf
rust
rat
ion.

Mai
ntai
ningey
econt
actweshowouri
ntensi
tyofi
nter
est
.

Br
iefey
econt
actr
eveal
sembar
rassment
,ti
midi
tyandner
vousness.

b)Gest
ures–mov
ementofot
herbodypar
tse.
g.handsandt
hebody
.

c)Bodyshapeandpost
ure–post
urer
efer
stot
heposi
ti
onoft
hebody
.

Si
tt
ingf
orwar
dandl
i
steni
ngat
tent
ivel
ytot
hespeakeri
ndi
cat
esi
nter
est
.

Beingsadwi
thcr
ossedar
mshel
dti
ght
lyonone’
schestcommuni
cat
es
def
ensiv
emood.

d)Appearance–meansclothing,hairandador
nment(
arti
fact
s).I
ttel
l
sotherswe
wanttobeseen.Ourcl
othingindicatesandt
ell
sot
hersaboutourage,
rel
igion,
sex,
cultur
eandprof
ession.

2.Pr
oxemi
cs

Def
ini
tion:r
efer
stouseofspacet
ocommuni
cat
e.Spacecr
eat
esmeani
ngi
nusandi
n
ot
hers.Typesofspace:

a)Personal
space–r efer
st oourownspacet obeabl etocommuni cat
ewit
hothers.
I
tisthedistancet hatwehav eforustobepreparedtoint
eractwithot
her
s.Some
peoplewelcomecl oseinformal si
tt
ingar
rangementswhileother
sarethr
eat
ened
bythoseappr oachingt hem closel
yandrespondnervousl
y.Henceweshouldtry
tobecomef ami l
iarwi t
ht hei
rfeeli
ngsaboutproxi
mity.
 b)Terr
it
orial
space–referstopeoples’
needtoestabli
shandmai nt
aincer
tai
n
spacesofthei
rown.Inneighbor
hoods,theusefences,
rocksortreesmark
ter
ri
tor
ies/boundar
ies.Theyareusedtoindicat
eownership.

3.Hapt
ics

Thi
siscommuni cat
ionthr ought ouch.Iti
sthestudyofhowweuset ouchtoconv ey
meaning.Touchingisani mpor tantaspectofhumanwel lbeing,meaningitis
det
ermi nedbywherei nthebodyonet ouchesandunderwhatci r
cumst ances.Touch
i
sdetermi nedbysociety
’snor msandi tvari
esontheage,status,genderandt hose
bei
ngt ouched.I
tcanbewel comi ng,e.g.acryi
ngchil
disheldbyt heparents,and
unwel
comi nge.
g.sexual harassment .

Ty
pesoft
ouch

a)Pr
ofessi
onal
touch–doct
or/nur
set
oapat
ient
.

b)Soci
al/pol
i
tet
ouch–gov
ernedbysoci
etynor
ms.

c)Fri
endl
y/warmtouchbycl
oseindi
vidual
s–Itcongr
atul
ates,
comf
ort
sor
encour
agese.
g.hug,
patontheshoulder
s.

d)I
nti
mat
e/l
ovet
ouch–commi
tt
edbyi
nti
mat
epeopl
e–l
over
sorcoupl
es.

e)Sexual
touch–usedt
oar
ousesexual
feel
i
ngs.

4.Par
alanguage

Bythiswemeanhowaper sonsayssomet hi
ng.I
tinvol
vesthe‘ how’ofaspecial
voi
cer atherthanthe‘
what’ofthewor ds.I
tincl
udesthosehi ntsandsignsi
na
person’sv oi
cethatgi
vesusmeani ng.Itcanbeshown throughuseof pit
ch,
volume,
speed/rate.
 5.Si
l
ence

Itcancommuni cat
eal otofinf
ormati
on.I
tcanmeanboredom,t
otalr
eject
ionor
sati
sfact
ion.Iti
salsoaneffect
ivet
oolort
echni
queofencour
agi
ngfeedback.Itmust
beusedski l
l
full
ytoenableonetogetther
ighti
nfor
mati
on.

6.Chonemi
cs

Itisthest udyofuseoft i
me.Weper cei
vet i
me, str
uct ure ourt i
meandusei tasa
power fulcommuni cati
ont ool
.Thishel psust osett hest agef ort he
communi cationprocess.Di f
ferentcult
uresperceiv
et i
medi f
ferentl
y.Ti meper
cepti
on
i
ncl udes:punctuali
ty,wil
li
ngnesst owaitand inter
action.Timeal soaf fect
sour
l
ifestyles.Timecanal sobeusedasani ndicatorofstatuse.g.inmostCompani eswork
duringt heday ,
Afri
cant i
mei scharacter
izedbyunpunct ual
i
tyandl ateness,Eur
opean
timei scharacteri
zedbypunct uali
tyandear l
i
ness.

NB:Somescholar
scl assi
fynonv
erbal
communi
cat
ionaspost
ure,
faci
alexpr
essi
ons,
gest
ures,
eyecontactandtouch.

VI
SUAL/
GRAPHI
CCOMMUNI
CATI
ON

Graphiccommuni cati
oniscommuni cat
ionthroughpicturessymbol
sanddi agrams
ofdiffer
entki
nds.Graphsanddiagramsar eusedinconjuncti
onwit
hwrit
ing.Thi
s
ensuresthatr
eaderrecei
vesbot
hv erbalandpict
orial
message.

Wer
emember
:-
75%-
see 3%-
smel
l 16%-
hear 6%-
touch

Ty
pesofgr
aphi
ccommuni
cat
ion

i
. Tabl
es

Mostdir
ectmet hodofpresent
ingl
argeamount
sofst
asti
calinf
ormat
ion:
-They
shoul
dbe carefull
yplannedtoensurethattheypr
esentthedataintheclear
est
andsimplestway.Shouldcont
ain:
-

a)Ti
tl
ecl
ear
lyi
ndi
cat
escont
ent
.

b)Br
iefbutexpheadi
ngsoncol
umnsandr
ows.

c)Uni
tsofmeasur
ementcl
ear
lyshown.

d)Anyexpl
anat
orycomment
spr
esent
edasnot
es.
 e)Scal
e.

METHODOFTRANSPORT USEDI
NNAI
ROBI

Age gr
oup Ownmeans Publ
i
ctr
anspor
t Tot
als

18 12 6 18

18-
25 15 10 25

25-
40 25 18 43

40-
55 13 32 45

-
55 6 12 28

Tot
als 71

i
i
. Char
ts

a)Pi
e-char
t

Usedtoshow t
herel
ati
vesizeofsepar
atecomponent
s ofawhol
ee.
g.pi
e-
char
tshowingpassesinKCSEexam.

Mat
h-30% 30/ 360=1080
100*

Phy
sics-
20%20/ 360=720
100*

Geogr
aphy-
5%5/ 360=180
100*

Hi
stor
y-45/ 360=1440
100*

b)Barchar
t

Consist
sofagraphofdi
ff
erentofshi
psofdi
ff
erentl
engt
heachr
epr
esent
inga
numericalf
igur
e.

Thel
ongert
he bar
,incr
easeofv
aluedenot
edt
her
efor
ecanpr
esent
compar
ati
vesi
zeoff
igur
e cl
ear
lye.
g.y
ear
lypr
ofi
tsofB.
A.T

c)Or
gani
zat
ionalchar
t

I
tshows cl
ear
lywhoi
sinchar
ge ofeachdepar
tment
.Itshowst
heli
neof
aut
hor
it
y,t
hechai
nofcommandandthef
lowsofcommunicat
iontobeused.

C.
E.O

Managi
ngDi
rect
or

Gener
almanager

Canbev
aluabl
einhi
ghl
i
ght
ing separ
atest
agesi
nasequence ofev
ent
se.
g.

St
epsf
oll
owedwhenswi
tchi
ngonacomput
er.

Swi
tchonpowersuppl
y

Powerbut
ton

Moni
tor

Wai
tfori
ttost
art

d)Gr
aphs.

I
tisav al
uabl
eform ofcommuni cat
ion.Iti
sameansofpr esenti
ngdatabet
ween
t
wochangi ngel
ementsinform ofaline.Theshapeofwhichthenatur
eof
r
elat
ionshi
pataglancee.g.Graphshowi ngrai
nfal
landt
emper atur
e.

J F M A M J J A S O

10 10 20 25 20 10 5 5 10 5

20 30 25 15 15 15 25 20 30 25
Gant
tchar
ts

Usedtoshow compari
son bet
weenwor kt
hathasbeenschedul
edandwor
kthat
hasact
ual
lybeenaccompli
shedinr
elat
iontot
ime.

Pi
ctogr
ams

Shows inf
ormati
on repr
esent
edinthefor
m offi
guresand symbols.I
tei
ther
i
ndicat
esbysizeornumberoff
igur
ese.g.t
henumberofpeopl
eineachprovi
nce.

Car
togr
ams

Speci
alki
ndofmapusedtogiv
ei nf
ormat
ione.
g.dist
ri
buti
onofpeopl
eorthings
wit
hinacountr
yorregione.
g.Numberoft ouri
sthot
elsi
nKeny
a ornumberof
hospi
tal
s wi
thi
n Nai
robiPr
ovince.

Vi
sual
planni
ng

Canbebui l
tuptoshowvi
rt
ual
l
yanyinf
ormati
oni
nasimplepl
ane.g.st
affhol
iday
seminarperi
odsorcompl
expl
ane.
g.Acti
vi
ti
esofacompanyoverayearwit
hanumber
ofvari
abl
es.

Theseoff
erflexi
bil
i
tyandcaseupdat
ing,enabli
ngfutur
etr
endst
obeplott
ed,changes
seenandplanningtobemade.Iti
savail
ableinpaperchar
ts,
magnet
icboar
ds.

Comput
ergr
aphi
cs

Presenceofgraphicsappl
icat
ionsoftwareincomput
ershasenabl
edpeopleto
representi
nformati
oninform ofchart
s,graphs,
maps,t
abl
es,e.
t.
c.I
tisfaster
,
attr
activev
isuall
yandiseasil
yinter
pret
ed.

ABCorPar
etocur
ve

Thi
sisashapecr eat
edwhenbarsofaPar
etochar
tareprogr
essi
vel
ysummedand
pai
ntsj
oined.Paret
ochartf
ormedwhenbar
saresortedi
ntosi
zeorderwi
tht
hehi
ghest
onthel
eft.I
thelpstohi
ghli
ghtpr
obl
emsorthi
ngsrequi
ri
ngwork.
Zchar
ts.

I
tisachart
/curvethatcombi
nescurr
entcumulat
iveandmov i
ngtot
alval
uesforagiven
r
egist
eredmeasurement.I
tshowsbothprogr
essinshortandl
ongterm(For
ml et
terZ).

Br
eakEv
enChar
t

Str
ategi
ctool
usedtoplotfi
nancialr
evenueofbusinessunitagai
nstt
imeorsal
est
o
det
erminepoi
ntwheresalesoutput=Revenuegenerated.

Mul
ti
plebargr
aphs

Usedtocompar
edat
awi t
hmoret
hanoneit
em e.
g.compar
isonoft
wost
udent
s.Ben
andBery
ldi
danexam i
nbothmat
hemati
csandBiol
ogy.

Fr
equencypol
ygon

I
tisusedtopl
otfi
gur
esbyusi
ngupperclassboundar
iesagainstt
hecumul
ati
ve
f
requenci
esofcer
tai
ndat
a.(
Liv
e/cumulati
vefr
equencypoly
gon)

Pl
otfr
equencydensi
tyagainstmidpoi
ntsofint
erv
alsandj
oint
hem wi
thast
rai
ghtl
i
ne-
Fr
equencydensi
ty=frequency:
-classwidt
h.

Hi
stogr
am

I
tisabargr
aphi
nwhi
cht
hear
eabari
spr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hef
requency
.Her
e,

a.Nogapsi
nbet
weenbar
s.

b.Wher
ecl
asswi
dthsar
ethesamet
hehei
ghtofeachbari
sthef
requency
.

c.Wher
ecl
asswi
dthsar
eunequal
thear
eaofeachbari
sthef
requency
.
 d.Bot
haxeshav
eanumer
ical
scal
e.

Scal
eandDemandCur
ves

Showther
elati
onshi
poftheeconomyandproducer
sasvari
ousf
act
orsint
heeconomy
aff
ectt
hepurchasi
ngpowerofbuyer
sandtheabil
it
yofpr
oducer
stosuppl
y.

Fact
orsconsi
der
edwhenusi
ng(
choosi
ng)v
isual
communi
cat
ion.

Pur
pose-
Thei
nfor
mat
iont
obepr
esent
ede.
g.f
igur
es

Topici.
e.accompani esoutputoverseveralmonthsorchangesofav erageear ni
ngov er
aperiodofy ears.Abarchartwil
lbethemostappr opriat
emethodi fyouwi sht oshow
howal argefigureisdiv
idedi.
e.expendit
ureofapr esentaver
ysimplev isual stat
ement
ofsli
cereceivedbyeachki nd.Graphsareidealwhendeal i
ngwithtwov ariablesi.e.t
wo
setsoffi
guresconst antl
y.Theyaresuit
ableforshowinghowf i
guresofal lkindschange
overaper i
odoft ime.

Reader ship-Remembert hatspeci

ali
stsareabletounderstandcomput ergraphs,tabl
es
andot herdi agramsmuchmor eeasil
yt hanthegeneralpublic.Asageneral r
ule,
the
greatert henumberoft hepeoplet
hesimpl eri
tshouldfaci
li
t ate.Somegraphic
presentat i
onsar ef
areasiert
o producet hanother
se.g.at ablecanbepr oducedneatl
y
andlegi blywithminimum equipment.

Atabl
egraphwil
lneedagr
aphpaperwhi
l
eapi
echar
twi
l
lrequi
repai
rofcompasses
andaprot
ract
or.

Adv
ant
ages

 Hel
psi
nsi
mpl
i
fyi
ngcompl
i
cat
edorcompl
exdat
aandf
igur
es.

 Enabl
esqui
ckerunder
standi
ng,
duet
oit
ssi
mpl
i
fiedf
ormat
.

 Audi
encesar
emorel
i
kel
ytobei
nter
est
edi
nachar
tordi
agr
am t
hanan
expl
anat
ioni
nwor
ds.

 Moreper
manentf
orm ofcommuni
cat
ion-oner
emember
s75%ofwhathe/
she
sees.

 Char
tsordi
agramscaneasi
l
ybet r
ansf
err
edont
oov
erheadt
ranspar
ency
pr
esent
ati
ontolar
gegapsofpeopl
e.
  Mor
eaccur
ateandpr
eci
set
hanor
alcommuni
cat
ion.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Notsui
tabl
efort
hev
isual
l
yimpai
red.

 Expensi
vet
opr
oducebecauset
heyr
equi
respeci
alf
aci
l
iti
es.

 Somer
equi
ret
echni
cal
ski
l
lst
oint
erpr
ett
hem.

 Somear
ecompl
i
cat
edt
oconst
ruct
.

AUDI
OVI
SUALCOMMUNI
CATI
ON

Useofsi
ghtandsoundtocommunicateeffect
ivel
y;si
mplyl
i
steni
ngtosospeaki
ngisn’t
averyef
fect
ivewayofl
ear
ningbecausewer emember16%ofwhatwehearand
remember75%ofwhatweseeand91%t hechannel i
smost
lyusedf
ormasspublici
ty,
masspropagandaandmasseducati
on,advert
isement.

Audiovi
sualaidsrefert
oaidsusedtosupplementor
alinf
ormat
ion.Theyi
ncl
ude
whi
teboar
d,project
ors,T.
V.,Comput
ers,f
li
pchart
s,vi
sualf
il
ms.

Fact
orsconsi
der
edwhenchoosi
ngai
ds

Av
ail
abi
l
ity–chooseai
dst
hatar
enotav
ail
abl
e.

Sui
tabi
l
ity–ai
dshoul
dmat
chwi
thcont
entbei
ngpr
esent
ed.

Costandconveni
ence–someaidsar
echeap–whiteandchal
kboar
ds,
other
s
expensi
ve,
chooseaidst
hator
gani
zat
ioncanaf
for
d.

Sizeofaudience–aT.
V.Screencan’
tbeusedforalargeaudienceandroom butaf
il
m
canbepr oj
ectedt
oasuit
abl
edimensi
onwhetheraudienceissmallorl
arge.

Env
ironment–fil
m &pr
oject
orsr
equi
readar
kroom whi
l
ebl
ack&whi
teboar
drequi
res
awellli
troom.

Ty
pesofaudi
encee.
g.execut
ives

Techni
quesofusi
ngv
isual
aids(
for
)

1.Pl
anwhati
stobecommuni
cat
edandchooset
her
ightv
isual
aid.
 2.Knowhowt ohandl
eequi
pmenty
ouar
etouse.I
ftoocompl
i
cat
edbr
inga
techni
ciant
ohel
p.

3.Lookatav
isual
aidonl
ywhenaudi
encei
slooki
ngatati
t.

4.Tal
ktot
heaudi
enceandnott
hev
isual
aid.

5.Foraidsl
ikesl
i
des,
prepar
ethem i
nsuchawayt
hatt
heyar
enumber
edt
osor
t
them out
.

Fact
orst
oconsi
deri
nchoosi
ngachannel
ofcommuni
cat
ion

1.Ur
gencyoft
hemessage.

2.Language

3.Cont
ent

4.Costofchannel

5.Dest
inat
ion/pl
ace

6.Technol
ogy

PRI
NCI
PLESOFEFFECTI
VECOMMUNI
CATI
ON
Pri
ncipl
esofeff
ect
ivecommuni
cati
on-scient
if
icaspect
sthatmustbet
akeni
nto
accounti
nallmedi
aofcommunicat
ion.Theyi
nclude:

1.Compl
eteness

Yourbusi
nessmessageiscompletewheni
tcont
ainsal
lfact
sther
eaderorl
i
stener
needstor
eactt
oy ourdesi
redact
ion.

Aspect
stobeconsi
der
ed:

 Answeral
lthequest
ionsasked.

 Gi
vesomet
hingext
ra,
ifdesi
rabl
e.

 Checkf
ort
hefi
veW’sandanyotheressent
ial
s(who,
what
,wher
e,when,
how)
e.
g.Whenannounci
ngameeti
ng.
 2.Conci
seness

Concisenessissayingwhaty ouhavetosayinthefewestwor dspossiblewit

hout
sacri
fi
cingtheotherpri
nci
plesofcommuni cati
on.Itcont
ribut
est oemphasis.By
el
iminatingunnecessar
ywor ds,youhel
ptomakei mpor t
antideast ostandout.A
conci
semessagesav esti
meandexpensef orbothsenderandr eceiv
er.Toachieve
conci
seness:

-
Eli
minat
ewor
dyexpr
essi
onse.
g.

Wor
dyexpr
essi
on br
iefexpr
essi
on

I
naconsi
der
abl
enumber of
ten

I
ncl
osepr
oxi
mit
y near

Pur
suantt
oyourenqui
ry asy
our
equi
red

-
Incl
udeonl
yrel
evantst
atement
s

-Av
oidunnecessaryrepet
it
ionandcheckthefl
owofyourinf
ormat
ion.Repet
it
ion
i
nducesmonot onyorirr
it
ati
one.g.Repeati
tagai
n,r
etur
nbackthebook,myf r
iendsand
Iwewenthomeet c.

3.Cl
ari
ty

Thismeansgett
ingyourmessageacrosssothattherecei
verwi
llunder
standwhaty
ou
aretr
yingt
oconvey.Youwantthatpersont
ointerpr
etyourmessagewiththesame
meaningyouhaveinmind.Cl
ari
tycanbediscussedunder:

Cl
ari
tyoft
hought

Theideai
nthemindofthetr
ansmi
tt
ermustbecl
ear.He/sheshoul
dbeclearaboutt
he
obj
ecti
veofcommunicat
ion,
whati
stobecommunicated,whi
chmedium wil
lbemore
sui
tabl
efort
hispur
pose.

Cl
ari
tyofexpr
essi
on

Thetr
ansmitt
ershoul
dbecar
eful
aboutt
hemeani
ngsofwor
dsandoft
heor
gani
zat
ion
ofwords.He/
sheshould:

a)Usesi
mpl
ewor
ds
 Pompouswor
ds Si
mpl
ewor
ds

Demonst
rat
e show

Acquai
nt t
ell
/i
nfor
m

Subsequentt
o af
ter

Pr
evi
oust
o/pr
iort
o bef
ore

b)Useconcr
eteexpr
essi
ons

Theycr
eat
evi
sual
imagesandar
eeasyt
oregi
ster
.

Vagueandgener
al Concr
eteandef
fect
ive

Goodsar
esoonbeingdi
spat
ched goodswi
l
lbedi
spat
chedon
Febr
uar
y10,2015

Theint
erestr
atei
shi
gh t
hei
nter
estr
atei
s16%per
annum.

Avoi
dwor dsli
kehigh,l
ow,big,
small,l
arge,short
,qui
ck,
slow,sever
al,
frequent
,
most,l
east.Theseareopi
nion/cont
extualwords.I
nst
ead,indi
cat
ethespecifi
c
number.

c)Pr
eferact
iveconst
ruct
ionsbecauset
heyar
eeasyt
ounder
stand.

Passi
ve(
awkwar
d) Act
ive(
elegant
)

Yourcont
ri
but
ioni
shi
ghl
yappr
eci
ated Al
lofusappr
eci
atey
our
cont
ri
buti
on

d)Avoi
dexcessiv
euseofi
nfi
nit
ivee.
g.t
ogi
ve,
tot
each,
tot
akeet
c.Thi
sst
ylei
s
i
mpersonalandfor
mal
.

Acti
onint
hei
nfi
nit
ive(
imper
sonal
,i
ndi
rect
) act
ioni
nthev
erb
(di
rect
)

Mywor ki
stot
akechi
l
drent
oschool It
akechi
l
drent
o
school

e)Av
oidj
argon

Jar
gon–Speci
all
anguageoft
rade,
prof
essi
onorf
iel
dofst
udye.
g.medi
cine,
 l
aw,
educat
ionet
c.

-
ref
erst
owor
dsaswel
lasast
yleofwr
it
ing

-
creat
esdi
ff
icul
ti
esofunder
standi
ng,
makest
hest
ylef
ormal
andst
if
f.

For
mal
andst
if
f Si
mpl
eandpr
efer
abl
e

Weacknowl
edge wet
hanky
ou

Wewi
l
lcont
acty
ou wewi
l
lwr
it
e/cal
lyou

I
naccor
dancewi
th accor
dingt
o

f
) Av
oidambi
gui
ty

Amessagei
sambi
guousi
fitcanmeanmor
ethanonet
hing.I
tiscausedby
:

a)Car
elessuseofper
sonal
pronouns

Johnt
oldPet
ert
hathi
steacherwasaway
.

b)I
ndeci
siv
euseofadv
erbs

Onl
yJanehasbeenseenbyt
hedi
rect
or.

Janehasonl
ybeenseenbyt
hedi
rect
or.

Janehasbeenseenbyt
hedi
rect
oronl
y.

c)Faul
typunct
uat
ion

GOSLOW WORKI
NPROGRESS

GOSLOW.WORKI
NPROGRESS

“
Thedeput
y,”sai
dthechai
rman,
“isaf
ool
.
”

Thedeput
ysai
d,“
thechai
rmani
saf
ool
.
”

d)Useofwor
dswi
tht
woormor
ear
easofmeani
ng

Wedi
spensewi
thcar
e

Di
spense-t
opr
epar
emedi
cines

Di
spensewi
th–t
ogetr
idof
,todi
smi
ss
 g)Useshortsent
ences–theyaresimpleanddemandl
essconcent
rat
ioni
nreadi
ng.
Ensur
ethatyourmessageiscoherent(
youri
nfor
mat
ionf
lowswell)

4.Consi
der
ati
on

Showconsi
der
ati
onf
ort
her
eaderi
nyourl
ett
ers:

a)Adoptt
hey
ou-
att
it
ude

Av
oidI
’
sandWe’
sanduseasmanyy
ou’
saspossi
ble.

Donotf
orgett
her
eader
’spoi
ntofv
iewi
nthewhol
eofy
ourl
ett
er.

I
/we-
att
it
ude

Iwashappyt
oheart
hatmyl
ett
erofJanuar
y2015pr
ovi
dedy
ouwi
thsuf
fi
cient
i
nfor
mation

Weof
ferawi
der
angeofcour
sesy
oucanchoosef
rom

You-
att
it
ude

Thanky
ouf
ory
ourassur
ancet
haty
ouhadsuf
fi
cienti
nfor
mat
ion

Youhav
eachoi
ceofawi
der
angeofcour
sest
hatar
eof
fer
edi
nthi
sinst
it
ute

b)Emphasi
zeposi
ti
ve,
pleasantf
act
s

Expr
essr
efusal
inaposi
ti
vemannere.
g.wer
egr
ett
oVswewi
sht
oinf
ormy
ou

Doi
ngref
usali
nast r
aightf
orwar
dmanneri
npl
ainwor
dshasbadf
arr
eachi
ng
ef
fect
sonthereader
.

Anapproachwit
hanegati
veconnotat
ioni
rr
it
atesthereaderandmakeshi
m/her
feel
thatyoul
ackbusi
nessmannersandgentl
eness.

Aposit
iveapproachconv
incest
hereaderofyourhelpl
essnessoryourgenui
ne
di
ff
icul
ti
es.Suchanapproachsays‘
no’butret
ainsthecustomer’
sgoodwill
.

Negat
ive:
Wear
esor
ryt
haty
ouf
ail
edt
hei
nter
view.

Posi
ti
ve:
Wewi
sht
oinf
ormy
out
haty
oudi
dnotgot
hrought
hei
nter
view.

c)I
mpar
tint
egr
it
ytoy
ourmessages

Observeethi
cal
pri
nci
ples:
sincer
it
yandf
airt
reat
ment
.Thesei
mpr
esst
he
speaker.
5.Cour
tesy

Cour
tesydemandsaconsi
der
ateandf
ri
endl
ybehav
iourt
owar
dsot
her
s.

Pr
inci
plest
hatpr
omot
ecour
tesy

1.Answert
hel
ett
erspr
ompt
ly

-
answert
hel
ett
ert
hesameday

-acknowledget
hel
ett
erwasr
ecei
vedandshowt
hepr
obabl
eti
mey
our
equi
ret
o
sendaf ullr
epl
y

2.Omi
tir
ri
tat
ingexpr
essi
ons

Somewor dsandexpressi
onsar
enegat
ivei
nconnot
ati
onandi
rr
it
atet
her
eader
especi
all
ywhentheyhave‘y
ou’e.
g.

Youf
orgot
,youar
epr
obabl
yunawar
e,y
ouri
rr
esponsi
bleappr
oach…

3.Apol
ogi
zesi
ncer
elyf
oranomi
ssi
on;
thankgener
ousl
yforaf
avour
.

Expr
essy
ourr
egr
etspr
ompt
lyandsi
ncer
elymakeupf
oranomi
ssi
onatt
heear
li
est
.

I
fyourecei
veafav
our
,acknowl
edgei
tpr
ompt
lyandt
hankt
heper
songener
ousl
yfor
bei
ngkindtoy
ou.

6.Cor
rect
ness

1.Gi
vecor
rectf
act
s

-Usecor
rectf
act
sandexpr
esst
hem i
ncor
rectl
anguage

-Donott
ransmi
tanymessageunl
essy
ouar
eabsol
utel
ysur
eofi
tscor
rect
ness

-I
fnotsur
e,v
eri
fyi
t

-I
fthemessageinvol
vesanylegalmat
ter
,makesur
eyouknowt
hecor
rectl
egal
posi
ti
onbefor
ey oucommi tany
thing.

2.Sendy
ourmessageatt
hecor
rectt
ime

-
Transmi
tandr
espondt
oal
lmessagesatt
hemostt
hemostappr
opr
iat
eti
me

-Thepr
inci
pleofcor
rectt
imingst
ipul
atesthaty
oucommuni
cat
eyourmessageata
ti
mewhenitisli
kel
ytoprovemosteffect
ive.

3.Sendy
ourmessagei
nthecor
rectst
yle
-
Thisist
hepr
inci
pleofadapt
abi
l
ityi
cey
ouadapty
ourmessaget
otheneedsoft
he
r
eceiv
er.

-Consi
derhi
seducat
ionalbackgr
ound,thewidt
hofhi
svocabul
ary
,speci
ali
zed
knowledgeoft
hesubject
,hispsychol
ogical
makeupet
c

-
Ift
her
ecei
verisalayman,
all
jar
gonmustbeexcludedandfact
sshouldbeexpl
ainedi
n
asi
mpl
elanguage.I
fhehasexpertknowl
edgei
nasubjectgodeeperi
ntot
heissue.

-
Whenadapti
ngyourmessaget
otheneedsofyourr
eceiv
er,
changei
tinsuchaway
t
haty
oupreserv
eit
sfact
ualandit
semoti
onalcont
ent.

BARRI
ERSTOEFFECTI
VECOMMUNI
CATI
ON
Bar
ri
ersar
eanyobst
aclesordif
fi
cul
ti
est
hatcomeinthewayofcommunicat
ion.They
maybephysi
cal
,mechani
cal,
psychol
ogi
cal
,cul
tur
alorl
i
ngui
sti
cinnat
ure.
Somecommonbar
ri
ersi
ncl
ude:
1.Wrongchoiceofmedia-
Anunsuit
abl
emedi
um mayactasabar
ri
ert
oeffect
ive
communicat
ione.g.amanagersendi
ngamemotocompli
mentanemploy
eefora
di
sti
ngui
shedperformance.
2.Phy
sical
bar
ri
ers
a)Noise-al
lkindsofphy si
cali
nter
fer
encelikeil
legi
blehandwr
it
ing,
smudgedcopiesof
dupl
icatetypescri
pt,t
elephoneconnect
ions,loudnoisemadebymachines,
blar
ingof
el
ectroni
cdev icessuchasspeakers,et
c.
b)Ti
meanddi
stance-
Especi
all
ywher
ether
ear
enot
elephones,
faxes,
int
ernet
.
c)Env
ironment
alst
ress-
Hight
emper
atur
eandhumi
dit
y,poorv
ent
il
ati
on,
ast
ronggl
are.
d)Subj
ect
ivest
ress-
Sleepl
essness,
il
lheal
th,
eff
ect
sofdr
ugs,
moodv
ari
ati
onset
c.
e)Ignoranceofthemedi
um-Useofamedium wit
hwhi
chthecommunicat
orsar
enot
famili
arwithe.
g.useofmapstoi
nstr
uctworker
swhohav
enotbeentaughttor
ead
maps.
3.Semant
icbar
ri
ers
a)Int
erpr
etati
onofwords-
ther
ecei
verf
ail
stoassi
gnt
hesamemeani
ngt
oawor
das
thesenderhadint
ended.
b)Bypassedi
nst
ruct
ions-
Ift
hesenderandtherecei
verat
tr
ibutedif
fer
entmeaningst
o
thesamewordorusediff
erentwor
dsforthesamet hi
nge.g.Takethi
slet
terandbur
nit
.
c)Denot
ati
onsandconnot
ati
ons-Denot
ati
vemeani
ngisthel
it
eralmeani
ngofawor d,i
t
i
nformsandnamesobject
swithouti
ndi
cati
nganyposi
ti
veornegati
vequal
i
tiese.
g.dog,
manetc.
Connot
ati
vemeani
ngsar
ousequal
i
tat
ivej
udgment
sandper
sonal
react
ionse.
g.honest
,
compet
ent
,si
ncer
eet
c.
4.Di
ff
erentCompr
ehensi
onofReal
i
ty
Ther eali
tyofanobj ect,anevent,
oraper sonisdi
ffer
enttodifferentpeople.Real
ityis
notaf ixedconcept ;i
tiscomplex,i
nf i
nit
eandconti
nuall
ychangi ng.Besides,each
humanbei nghasal i
mitedsensorypercepti
onandauni quement alfi
lt
er.Not wo
perceivereali
tyi
ni dentical
manner s.Onaccountofdif
ferentabstracti
ons,inf
erences,
andev aluati
ons,theycompr ehendr eal
it
yinadif
fer
entway .Thismaysomet i
mesl ead
tomi scommuni cation.
Thesebar
ri
ersar
eexpl
ainedunder
:-
a)Abst r
acting-thepr ocessoff ocusingattenti
ononsomedet ailandomi tt
ingot hers.
Abstracti
ngposesagr avebarriertocommuni cat
ion,fordetailswhi chlookper t
inentto
oner eport,
mayl ooki nsi
gnifi
cantort r
ivi
al t
oanot her.Wedonott akeal lowancesf or
thesedifferences, andmi sunder st
andingsarise.Veryof ten,wey iel
dt ot he“ al
l
ness”
fal
lacy.Webel i
ev ethatwhat everweknoworsayaboutanobj ectorev entisal lthati
s
wor t
hknowi ngorsay i
ngabouti t.Andunfor t
unately,
t helessweknow, thesur erwef eel
weknowi tal l
.Wecanov er
comet hisbarr
ierifweconst antl
ykeepi nmi ndt hatan
abstractcannev erbet hewhol estory.
b)Slanti
ng-Givingapar ticul
arbiasorslantt ot her eal
ity.Inaway , slant
ingissimil
arto
al
lness.Inallness,weknowonl yapar tandar ei gnorantoft herest ,butwethinkwe
knowt hewhol e.Inslanting,weareawar eoft heexi stenceofot heraspect s,butwe
deli
beratel
ysel ectaf ewandmaket hem r epresent ati
v eofthewhol e.Unfort
unately
,the
aspectswesel ectareusual l
yunfavourable.Ifamani saccust omedt oheavydr i
nki
ng,
wedubhi m asadr unkar dandtendt oforgett hathemayaswel l beagoodf ri
end,a
l
oyal employee, andaki nd-hear
tedman.I foneex ecutiveofaf ir
mi sheldguilt
yoffraud,
webegi ntosuspectev eryotherexecutiveandt hei mageoft hefirmi sspoil
ed.To
overcomet hisbar r
ierweshoul dtrytobeobj ect i
veinourobser vationsand
assessment sandweshoul dtrytoavoidt hemi stakeofj udgingthewhol ebywhatmay
beonl yafracti
onofi t.
c)Infer
ring-Whatwedi r
ectlysee,hear ,
feel,smellorcanimmedi atel
yveri
fyandconfi
rm
constit
utesaf act.Butthest atement sthatgobey ondfactsandt heconcl
usionsbased
onf act
sar ecall
edi nf
erences.I frainsf ai
l,wecani nf
erthatpriceswil
lgoup.Whi l
e
drawingi nf
erences,weshoul dcar efull
ydistingui
shbetweenf actsandassumptionsand
makesur ethatourinferencesar ebasedonv er
if
iabl
efacts.
5.Mechani
cal
Bar
ri
ers
Theyar ebarrier
scausedbyt hechannelsempl oyedforinterper
sonal,,
groupormass
communi cat i
on.Channelsbecomebar ri
erswhent hemessagei sinter
feredwi thby
somedi sturbancewhichi ncreasesthediff
icult
yinreceptionorpreventssomeel ements
ofthemessagef rom reachingitsdesti
nati
onorbot h.Theabsenceofcommuni cat
ion
facil
i
tiestoowoul dbeamechani calbarri
er.Techni
call
y,suchbar r
iersar eclubbed
togetherunderonegener al t
erm” channelnoise.
”e.g..
ar undownorwhi stl
ing
microphone, wrongplacementofl oudspeaker s,di
stur
bancesonst ati
cr adio,arol
l
ing
screenont elevi
sion,
smear edi nkonanewspaperet c.
6.Psy
chol
ogi
cal
Bar
ri
ers
Themaybeduet
osoci
alorpsy
chol
ogi
cal
probl
ems.
a)Atti
tudes,Opini
onsandSel fI
mage- Tiedupwiththeterm‘ f
rameofr ef
erence’ i
sthe
term self
-i
mageor‘ sel
f-
concept ’
i.e.,t
hewayani ndiv
iduallooksathimself,orthe
pictur
ehehasofhi msel
f.Iti
sthis’ sel
f-image’t
hatmakesusal way sdefendourpoi ntof
view,tointer
pretmessagesint hewaywewi shtoint
erpretthem andto’reali
ty’
accordingtoourownpr e-conceivednot ions.
Personalatt
it
udesandopi
nionsoftenactasbarri
erst
oef f
ect
ivecommunicati
on.I
f
i
nformationagreeswit
houropi
nionsandatti
tudes,wetendtorecei
vei
tfavour
ablyand
vi
cev er
sa.Thisleadst
ocommuni cat
ionsel
ecti
vit
y.
b)Emoti
ons-Emoti
onsplayanimport
antrol
eintheactofcommunicati
on.I
fthesender
i
sperpl
exed,worri
ed,
excit
ed,af
rai
d,ner
vous,hi
sthi
nkingwil
lbebl
urredandwil
lnotbe
abl
etoorganizehi
smessageproperl
y.
c)Resist
ancetochange-“Theri
skofbeingchangedisoneofthemostfri
ghtening
prospect
smanyofus f ace”(
CarlRogers)
.Wer esi
stchangei
nanyform exceptwhen
wear econvi
ncediti
stoourbenefi
t.So,newideasthatdonotsuppor
tourownv i
ews
areresi
stedoutr
ight
.
Theef f
ect
ivecommuni catorshouldther
eforedoesnotwai tf
orr esi
stancetobui
ldup
buttakespeopleintoconfidenceevenattheplanningst
age,hel i
stenstothei
rpointof
viewwithrespect
, i
nvol
v esthem i
nthechange, t
alkstothem aboutthebenefi
tsthe
changewillbri
ng,assuresthem thatt
hei
rsecur i
tywil
lnotbeaf f
ected,andexpl
ainsthe
reasonswhyt hechangei snecessary
.
d)Defensi
venessandFear-Defensiv
enessisman’
scompell
ingneedt
ojusti
fyhi
msel
f,
i
.e.
,torati
onal
izeorexpl
ainthemi stakeswemake,
theat
ti
tudesandopi
nions.
Fearisanaffectofgreatpotencyindet er
mini
ngwhatt heindividualwil
lpercei
ve,think
anddo.( I
zar
dandTomki ngs).
Whencombi nedwithnervousness, anxi
ety,
andt ension,
fearresul
tst
osl owandnar rowthinkingwhichselect
sanddi stortscommuni cati
on.
Duringanint
erview,acandidate’
sf ear,
tensi
onandanxietytellsonhi sper
formance: he
fumblesforwords,misinter
pretsquestionsandingeneralgivesapoorshowofhi msel f.
e)Cl osedmi nd-
Aper sonwi thacl osedmi ndhasdeepl yingrainedprejudicesandisv er
y
diffi
culttocommuni catewi th.Suchaper sonwi llsay,“Look, Ihavemadeupmymi nd,I
knowwhatIknow.AndIdon’ twantt oknowany thingel se.Soj ustdon’tbotherme.”If
suchaper sonisencour agedt ostatetheirreasonsf orreject
ingamessageorpr oposal,
theymayr evealdeep-r
oot edprejudices,opini
ons, andemot i
ons.Per haps,onecan
attemptt ocounteractthosepr ejudices.Butiftheyr eactwi thangerandgi veasharp
rebuf ft
oany onewhot riestoar guewi ththem, theypr ecludeal lpossibi
li
tyof
communi cati
on.
f)St
atus-consciousness-Thi
sexistsineveryor
ganizati
onandisoneoft hemajor
barr
iersofcommuni cati
on.I
tissit
uationinwhichsubordi
natesareafr
aidof
communi cati
ngupwar danyunpleasantinf
ormati
on.Theyareeithert
ooconsciousof
thei
rinfer
iorst
at usorafrai
dofbeingsnubbed.St at
usconscioussuperi
orsthi
nkthat
consulti
ngtheirjuni
orswouldbecompr omisi
ngtheirdi
gni
ty.Thisisaveryser
ious
barr
iertofacetof acecommuni cati
on.
Thesour ceofcommuni cation-
Ifther eceiverhassuspici
onaboutorpr ej
udiceagainst
somesour ceofcommuni cati
on, thereislikelytobeabarri
ertocommuni cation.Peopl
e
tendtor eactmoreaccordingtot heiratt
itudet owar
dsthesourceofthef actsthanthe
factsthemselves.I
fastatementemanat esf rom gr
apevi
ne,themanagerwi l
l notgi
ve
credencet oit
,butt
hesamest atementcomi ngfrom atr
ustedsuper
visorwill
i
mmedi atel
ybebeli
eved.
g)I
natt
enti
veness-Peopl
eoftenbecomei
natt
enti
vewhil
er ecei
vi
ngamessagein
par
ti
cul
ar,i
fthemessagecont ai
nsanewidea.I
natt
ent
ivenessmayal
soarisef
rom
di
str
acti
one.g.peoplepassi
ngby,noi
seet
c.
h)Faul t
ytransmission-Amessagei snev ercommuni catedf rom onepersont oanother
i
ni tsenti
rety.Thi
si strueinpar t
icularofor almessages.I fadeci si
onhasbeenr eached
byt heboardofdi rect
or s,
itmustbei nt heform ofal engt hywor dedresolution.This
resoluti
oncannotbepassedont ot hef act
orywor kersi nthesamef orm.Ithast obe
translat
edinsi mplelanguagesot hatt heymayeasi l
yunder standit
.Buttransl at
ion
cannotbeper f
ect.Inthepr ocessoft ranslati
on,inter
pr etati
onandsi mpli
ficati
on, apar
t
oft hemessageget slostordistorted.
i
)Poorr etent
ion-St
udiesshowt hatempl oy
eesretai
nonl
yabout50%oft heinformat
ion
communi catedtothem.Ther estislost
.Thus,inf
ormati
oniscommuni catedthrough
threeorfourstages,veryl
itt
lereachest hedesti
nati
onandofthatli
tt
lealso,onlya
fract
ionisli
kelytober et
ained.Poorr et
entionmayleadtoi
mper f
ectresponses, whi
ch
mayf urt
herhampert hecommuni cat
ionprocess.
J)Unsolici
tedcommuni cat
ion-
Unsoli
cit
edcommuni cat
ionhastofacest r
ongerbarr
ier
s
thansoli
cit
edcommuni cati
on.IfIseekadvice,
itshouldbepresumedt hatIwil
ll
ist
ento
i
t.Butifasaleslet
tercomest omeunsol i
cit
ed,i
tisnotv er
ysurethatIwill
paymuch
attent
iontoit
.
Measur
est
oOv
ercomet
heBar
ri
ers
1.Maketheor
ganizat
ionst
ruct
urest
rai
ght
for
war
dandt
hecommuni
cat
ionl
i
nes
cl
earanddi
rect
.
2.I
nplaceoffor
malandrigi
drel
ati
onshi
ps,acli
mateoft
rustandconf
idence
t
hroughoutt
heor
ganizati
onshoul
dbecreated.
3.Communi cationmustbewel l
-plannedandwell-
constr
ucted.Why,towhom and
whenaret hebasicquesti
onst obeconsider
edinplanningthecommuni cat
ion.
Thecontentsoft hecommunicat i
onshouldbeadequateandcompl ete;
the
sent
encesl ogicalandwel
l-
organisedandthelanguagesimple,cl
earand
ambiguous.
4.Themedi um andt hemethodofcommuni cat
ionshoul
dbechosencar ef
ull
yto
suittheparti
cularcommuni cati
onneeds.Someti
mes,oralcommunicati
onis
faster,
butitmaybesuppor tedbywri
ttencommunicat
ion.Theequi
pmentand
mechani caldevicestobeusedshouldbecareful
lysel
ectedandwel
l-maint
ained
topr ev
entbreakdowns.
5.Thefl
owofinformationshoul
dbecaref
ull
yregul
atedt
omai ntai
ntheopti
mum
fl
ow.Car
efulprocessingofi
nfor
mat
iontoeli
minateal
lunnecessar
yinf
ormat
ion
 wi
l
lensur
ethatcommuni
cat
ionchannel
sar
enotov
erl
oaded.
6.Improvehumanr el
ati
onswi
thi
ntheorgani
zat
ion.Thi
swi l
lautomat
icall
yreduce
oreli
minatebehavi
oural
bar
ri
erstocommunicati
on,encouragi
ngco-operat
ioni
n
placeoffr
ict
ionandbyimpr
ovingper
sonnelr
elati
onsbetweenmanagementand
staff
.

BUSI
NESSCORRESPONDENCE

1.BUSI
NESSLETTERS

Formalwrit
tendocumentthathasaspeciall
ayoutandisusedtoshowbasi
c
tr
ansacti
onsenteredIt
oe.g.makingandplaci
ngoforders.Maki
ngadj
ustment
sfor
customerorapologi
zeforcredi
t.Let
ter
sconveytwotypesofmessages.

I
mpl i
citmessage–conveyedt
hrought
heappear
anceoft
hel
ett
ere.
g.qual
i
tyofpaper
used,fondorhandwr
it
ing.

Ty
pes

1.Lett
ersofi
nqui
ry–thesearesimpl
elet
ter
sseekingfori
nfor
mat
iononpr
ices,
l
iter
atur
eorfav
oursconcer
ninggoodsandser
vices.

2.Cr
edi
tlet
ter
s–t
hesear
elet
ter
swr
it
tent
ocl
aim cr
edi
t.

3.Sal
esl
ett
ers–wr
it
tent
oadv
ert
isepr
oduct
s.

4.Employmentlett
ers–seekingt
ofi
l
lav acantposit
ione.
g.appl
icat
ionl
ett
ers,
i
nvi
tati
ontointervi
ews,
thankyoul
ett
ersorresignati
onl
ett
ers.

5.Social
let
ter
s–seekt omaintainafr
iendl
yrel
ati
onshipwi
thcustomer
sandot
her
organi
zat
ionse.
g.congr
atulatory
,sy
mpathy,t
hanky oul
ett
ers.

I
mpor
tantdet
ail
swhenwr
it
ingf
ormal
let
ter
s

A.Appl
i
cat
ionl
ett
er(
jobpur
poses)

1stpar
agraph–r ef
ert
othesour
ceofi
nfor
mat
ioni
.e.adv
ertf
rom newspaper
,int
ernetor
i
nternaladvant
age.

2ndpar
agr
aph-gi
vedet
ail
swhyy
out
hinky
ouqual
i
fyf
ort
hej
ob.

3rdpar
agr
aph–i
ndi
cat
ewhaty
out
hinky
oumaydof
ort
hej
obi
fhi
red.

4thpar
agr
aph–i
ndi
cat
eanyencl
osur
esi
.e.cer
ti
fi
cat
e,copi
esoft
est
imoni
alsand
det
ail
edCV.

5thpar
agr
aph–concl
udebyt
hanki
ngt
her
eaderi
nadv
ance.

B.I
nvi
tat
ionf
orani
nter
view

1st–r
efert
oappl
i
cat
ionl
ett
eri
nter
msofdat
e,r
efer
encenumberandsubj
ect
.

2ndpar
agr
aph–gi
vedet
ail
swhyy
out
hinky
ouqual
i
fyf
ort
hej
ob.

3rd–i
ndi
cat
eit
emst
obr
ingi
.e.I
D,or
igi
nal
cer
ti
fi
cat
es,
passpor
te.
t.
c.

4th–concl
udebyur
gingr
eadert
oappearf
ori
nter
view.

C.Let
terofi
nqui
ry

1st-r
efert
osour
ceofi
nfor
mat
ion.

2nd–

3rd–r
equestf
ort
ermsofpay
ment
.

4th–appeal
forqual
i
ficat
ion.

D.Quot
ati
onl
ett
er

1st–r
efert
othel
ett
erofi
nqui
ry–subj
ectr
efnumber
,dat
e,st
atementonav
ail
abi
l
ityof
i
tems.

2nd–gi
vedet
ail
sont
hegoodsav
ail
abl
e;i
temi
zet
hem andabl
etosuppl
y.

3rd–st
atet
ermsofpay
ment

4th–appeal
foror
der
.

E.Or
derl
ett
er

1st–r
efert
oquot
ati
onl
ett
ers–subj
ect
,dat
e,r
efnumber

2nd–gi
vedet
ail
sofi
temst
haty
our
equi
re(
it
emi
zet
hem)

3rd–st
atepr
efer
redmodeofpay
ment
.
4th–st
atewhengoodsshoul
dbedel
i
ver
edandmodeofdel
i
ver
y

5th–concl
udebyt
hanki
ngt
hem i
nadv
ance.

F.Compl
aintl
ett
er

1st–r
efert
ospeci
fi
clet
terofcompl
aint–dat
eitoccur
redordamagecaused.

2nd–expl
aincompl
ainti
ndet
ail
s.

3rd-expl
aini
nconv
eni
encescausedi
.e.t
imel
ostandmoneyl
ost
.

4th–concl
udebyr
equest
ingf
orr
emedy
.

APOLOGY/ADJUSTMENT

1st–r
efert
ocompl
aintl
ett
er–r
efer
encenumber
,dat
e,subj
ect
.

2nd–apol
ogi
zef
ori
nconv
eni
encescaused.

3rd–expl
ainhowmi
stakeoccur
red.

4th–gi
vesol
uti
on

5th–i
nst
il
lconf
idencei
ncust
omer
sbyassur
ingt
hem mi
stakewon’
thappen.

PRESERVATI
ONOFLEGALBUSI
NESSLETTERS

Char
act
eri
sti
csoff
ull
blockedl
ayout

1.Openpunct
uationi
sused–thismeansther
earenopunctuat
ionmarksoutsi
de
bodyofl
ett
er.Youcanusecommasandf ul
lst
opsinmaintextbutnomarksare
usedi
ninsi
deaddress,
date,
salut
ati
on,
complementar
ycl
oseorend.

2.Al
ll
inesst
artatl
eftmar
ginwi
thnoexcept
ions.

3.I
fyouusef
ull
yblockedl
ayoutf
orfir
stpageofal
ett
eroranycommuni
cat
ional
so
bl
ockt
hesecondandsubsequentpages

4.Page#shoul
dbeatt
hel
eftmar
gin,
alongwi
tht
her
efer
ence,
dat
e.
 5.I
tisnecessar
ytol
eav
eonecl
earl
i
nespacebet
weeneachsect
ion.

COMPONENTS

1.Logo–aspeci
all
ogocanhel
ptoi
dent
if
yacompany
.

2.Lett
erhead–consi
sttheaddressofper
sonsendingt
hel
ett
eri
tshoul
dincl
ude
postaddress,
emai
laddress,
fax#andt el
ephone#.

3.Refer
ence–ini
ti
alsofwri
terort
ypi
stmayal
sobeaf
il
ingr
efer
ence(
thesender
)
yourr
ef(f
rom t
herecei
ver
).

4.Dat
e–st
yleusedi
sDay–Mont
h–Year
.

5.Receiv
esaddr
ess/insi
de–inf
ormati
oni
dent
if
yingt
hedescr
ipt
ionsent
,it
i
ncludes;
name,f
ull
postal
addr
ess,t
ownpostcode.

6.Sal
utat
ion–t
hisi
sthegr
eet
ingpar
toft
hel
ett
erwhi
chcommencesl
ett
erandt
he
message.

7.Headi
ng/subj
ect–i
tgi
vest
het
hemeofwhatt
hel
ett
eri
sabout
.

8.Body–separ
atebodyintoparagr
aphswi
thanewi
deai
neach,
leav
escl
earl
i
ne
spacebet
weeneachparagraph.

9.Compl ementarycl
ose–pol i
tewayofendingalett
eri
.e.y
ourfai
thful
lyor
sincer
ely.Makesureitmatcheswithsalut
ati
oni.
e.i
fyouusedearsir/madam,
yoursfai
thful
ly
.Ifother
wise,dearMr.orMrs.…………………y our
ssincerel
y

10.
Signat
ure–thi
sistheconsentoft
hewr
it
ert
othesubj
ectmat
teroft
hel
ett
eri
s
usuall
yhandwr
it
ten.

11.
Sendername–i
ndi
cat
efemal
eswi
thacour
tesyt
it
lei
nbr
acket
se.
g.y
our
s
fai
thf
ull
y.

12.
Desi
gnat
ion/posi
ti
on

13.
Encl
osures–somet i
mesal ett
ercar
ri
esalongwi
thi
tsomeotherdocuments–
pri
celi
st,i
nvoi
ce,r
eceipts.I
nsuchcasesamenti
onshoul
dbemadet hese
encl
osures.Madeatleftmargi
n.

14.
Copi
es–i
ndicat
ecopies,
nameofany oner
eceiv
ingcopiesofl
ett
ere.
g.CC.
Paul
i
neUl
are(fi
nancemanager
),JudyOchol
lah(market
ingmanager)
.

I
fmor
ethant
wo,
useal
phabet
ical
order
.

Quest
ion
 Youhav ej
ustpur
chasedanexpensi
vesui
tofcomput
ersandhav
efoundt
hem
faul
ty;

a)Wr
it
eal
ett
erofcompl
aint

b)Assumeyouar
ecomput
ersuppl
i
erandr
espondt
olet
terwr
it
ingal
ett
erof
adj
ustment
.

St
yleusedi
nbusi
nessl
ett
ers

Combinati
onofwordsusedandstructur
eoflanguage,t
herear
epeopleofwhom
weshallneedtousemoreformall
anguagei.
e.whenwr it
ingt
ot hosemuchhigh
st
atusthanus.Si
milar
lyt
herearesi
tuati
onscall
ingforf
ormali
ty–disci
pli
nar
y
l
ett
erorrequestf
orovercl
uepayments.

Whenwr
it
inganybusi
nessl
ett
eroneshoul
demphasi
zeont
he‘
you’
viewpoi
nt.

‘
You’
viewpoi
nt

Thisinvol
vesseeingsi t
uati
onformt her eadersstandpointandchoosingwor ds
str
ucturesthatwil
l br
ingafavourableresponsei ntheirminds.I
tmeanspl ace
yourreadersinthecentreofthi
ngsi .
e.talkingtothem andaboutthem.
Somet i
mei ti
nvolvesjustbei
ngfriendlyandt reat
ingthem thewaytheyliketobe
tr
eated.Atotherti
mesi trequi
resskillf
ullyhandli
ngpeoplewi t
hcaref
ullychosen
wordsandor dertogetdesiredreactione. g.

‘
We’
view ‘
You’
viewpoi
nt

1.Wear epl
easedt
ohav
eyournewA/
C YourA/
Cisnowopenf
or
yourconv
ert

2.Wehav
erecei
vedy
ourr
epor
tofMy Thanky
ouf
ory
ourr
epor
tofMay
1

3.Wehav eshi
ppedt
het
wodozendesksy
ouor
der
ed Youror
deroft
wodozen
desksshoul
d r
eachyouwi
this
l
etter
.

Useofposi
ti
vewor
ds

Thi
smeansusi
ngposi
ti
vewor
dswhenexpr
essi
ngposi
ti
vemessage.

Negat
ive Posi
ti
ve
1.Wer
egr
ett
oinf
ormy
out
hatwecannotper
mitSi
ncet
hel
adi
esbookcl
ubhas

Youtouseourcl
ubhousef
oremeet
ingasl
adi
es r
eser
vedcl
ubhousef
or
Sat
urday
,the

Bookcl
ubaskedf
ori
tfi
rst
. Thebestwecandoi
sof
fery
ou
our

Wecanhoweverl
ety
ouuseourconf
erencer
oom conf
erencer
oom whi
ch
seat
s60peopl
e.

Buti
tseat
sonl
y60peopl
e.

. Smoki
ngisn’
tper
mit
tedany
wher
eexcepti
nthe Smoki
ngi
sonl
yper
mit
ted
i
nthel
obby.

Lobby
.

3.Wecannotdel
i
vert
hegoodst
il
lFr
iday
. Wecandel
i
vert
hegoodson
Fr
iday
.

4.Weregrett
oinf
ormy
out
hatwemustdeny Fort
het
imebei
ngwecan
ser
veyouonly

Yourr
equestf
orcr
edi
t Onacashbasi
s.

Qual
i
tiesofagoodl
ett
er/Essent
ial
sofanef
fect
ivebusi
nessl
ett
er

1.Pr
ompt
ness–r
espondt
othel
ett
erASAP(
Assoonaspossi
ble)
.

2.Knowl
edgeoft
hesubject–ensur
eyouar
eaccur
atel
yinf
ormedonsubj
ect
matt
eronwhatyouar
ewr i
ti
ngabout
.

3.Usesofpl
easantandposi
ti
veappr
oachi.
e.avoidanswer
ingwi
tha‘
no’
or‘
sor
ry’
.
Writ
eanot
herti
mei nst
eadof‘
no’
,‘
Iwil
ltr
y’i
nsteadofsor
ry.

4.Goodsal esmanship–ev er
ylet
terf
rom or
gani
zat
ionshouldbeanambassador
from t
hatorgani
zationandshouldcar
ryamessagethatenhancesor
gani
zati
on
reput
ationtothereader.

5.Accuracy,compl
eteandclear–everydet
ailofinformati
oni
ncl
udedi
nbusiness
l
ettershouldbeaccurat
eandcomplete.I
rr
elevantinfor
mati
onshoul
dnotbe
i
ncluded.Useful
infor
mat i
onshal
lnotbecommi t
ted.
2.MEMO

Amemomeansanot et
oassist
sthememor y
.Iti
susedwit
hinthesameest.ifi
san
off
ici
alfor
m ofcommunicat
ionbuti
slessf
ormalthananof
fici
all
ett
er.Sal
utati
onsand
complementar
yclosear
ebothomitt
edbutthebodyofthememoshoul dbeheadedto
defi
nethesubj
ect.

Uses

1.Toi
ssuei
nst
ruct
ionst
othest
aff
.

2.Tocommuni
cat
epol
i
cyt
othest
aff
.

3.Usedt
ogi
veorseeksuggest
ions.

For
m /Lay
out

I
NTERNALMEMO(
Cent
eredHeadi
ng)

TO:

FROM:

DATE:

SUBJECT:

Body

(
Ful
l
ybl
ockedl
ayout
)

Si
gnat
ure

I
nit
ial
s/Posi
ti
on

3.OFFI
CEFORMS
For
m:pr
int
eddocumentwi
thbl
ankspacest
obef
il
ledi
nthedat
aandi
nfor
mat
ion.

Pur
poses/Funct
ions

a)Dat
acol
l
ect
ion

b)Faci
l
itat
ingt
hef
lowofof
fi
cewor
k

c)St
orageofi
nfor
mat
ion.

d)Communi
cat
ionofdeci
sionsmade.

e)Enabl
i
ngef
fect
ivei
mpl
ement
ati
onofof
fi
cepr
ocedur
es.

Fact
orsconsi
der
edwhendesi
gni
ngnewf
orms

1.Cost–shoul
dnotbet
ooexpensi
vet
opr
oduce

2.Pur
pose–shoul
dsui
tit
spur
pose/needsf
ort
hecompany
.

3.Si
ze–shoul
dbest
andar
di.
e.A4.

4.Appear
ance–t
hef
orm shoul
dbeneatandpr
esent
abl
e.

5.Wor
ding–shoul
dnotcont
ainunnecessar
ydet
ail
s.

6.Lay
out/ar
rangementofdat
a–shoul
dbear
rangedi
nal
ogi
cal
sequence.

For
msdesi
gn

I
tist
hepr ocessofdet
ermini
ngthepurpose,
contentandlayoutofaform.Iti
s
i
mportantthatf
ormsarewelldesi
gnedbecausepoordesignincreasecostofusi
ng
f
orms,thenumberofcleri
caler
ror
sandf l
owofwor kwil
lbeaf f
ected.

Qual
i
tiesofawel
ldesi
gnedf
orm

1.Purpose–awel
ldesi
gnedf
orm shoul
dbeaccor
dingt
othespeci
fi
cpur
poseof
use.
2.I
dent
ifi
cati
onofdata–whendesigni
ngforms,appropri
atedat
ashoul
dbe
i
ncl
udedtoensurethatt
heyareeasi
l
yidenti
fi
ed.Thiscanbedonebycol
ourof
f
orm usi
ngcleart
it
lesornumberi
ngthefor
ms.

3.Adequatespacef orf
il
li
ngin–f ormsshouldhaveadequatever
ti
caland
hori
zontalforf
il
li
ngininfor
mation.Spaceprov
ideddependsonmet hodoff
il
li
ng
i
nandi nfor
mat i
onspacepr ov
ideddependsonmet hodoffil
l
inginandvol
umeof
i
nformationrequi
red.

4.Margi
nali
gnment–welldesi
gnedf
orm shoul
dhav
eadequat
emar
ginpunchi
ng
t
hatfor
m canbefi
l
led.

5.Paperqual
it
yandsize–shouldhaveappr
opr
iat
epaperqual
i
ty,
wei
ghtandsi
ze.
Typeofpaperusedwil
ldependon;

a.#ofcopi
est
obepr
oduced.

b.Met
hodofst
orage.

c.Vol
umeofi
nfor
mat
ion.

d.Appear
anceoft
hef
orm andi
mpr
essi
ont
obecr
eat
ed.

e.Fr
equencyofhandl
i
nganddur
ati
onofst
orage.

6.Simpl
ici
ty–designedfor
m shoul
dbesi
mpleandconv eni
entt
ouse.Compl
icat
ed
formswasti
ngandt heyi
ncr
easepot
ent
ial
err
ors.Languageusedshoul
dal
sobe
simpl
etounderstand.

7.Cl
eari
nstr
uct
ions–agoodf or
m shoul
dbesel
finst
ruct
ingt
oenabl
etheusert
o
pr
ovi
derequi
redinf
ormat
ion.

8.Legi
bil
i
ty–thetypef
aceforpri
ntingshoul
dbeclear,di
sti
nctandeasi
ert
oread,
shoul
dbeappropri
atebutnotexcessvari
ance/exchangeoffontsi
zeorty
pe.

9.Att
racti
veandbalancel
ayout–Layoutoffor
m shouldbeofgoodappear
ance.
Shouldhaveenoughpri
ntedi
nfor
mat i
onandnotovercrowded,shoul
dal
sobe
wellbal
ancedinter
msofv er
ti
calandhori
zontal
ali
gnment.

10.
Logicalorderofinf
ormati
on–t heitemsint heform shouldlogi
call
yfol
l
owone
anotherintheorderofdataent r
yandpr ocessing.Prefer
enceshouldbegivento
groupinginfor
mat i
ontogethere.g.personalinf
ormat i
on,educati
onbackgr
ound,
workingexperiencee.
t.cfaci
li
tatesorganizedandl ogi
calresponsewhenfi
lli
ngi
n
theforms.
4.CI
RCULARS

Theyar
eforasmal
l
ergr
oupbutnot
icest
olar
gergr
oupsofpeopl
eref
erencenumber
.

Theyaregeneral
l
yr ef
err
edtoascir
cul
ationsl
ipsandareusedt ogivei
nfor
mati
on;they
canbesentfrom headoffi
ce/companybranches.Eachbranchisexpect
edtoci
rculat
e
thedocumenttoallit
smembers.Havethefol
lowingpart
s;

a)Nameofor
gani
zat
ion/l
ett
erhead

b)Dat
e

c)Ci
rcul
ar

d)Subj
ect

I
tdoesn’
thav
esal
utat
ionsorcompl
ement
arycl
ose.

5.NEWSLETTER

I
tspur posei
stomakesur ethateveryoneknowswhati sgoingoni nthei
rdepart
ments
andotherdepartments,
offi
ces,hencemaki ngt
hem feelpartoftheorgani
zati
on.They
mightalsocontai
ninfor
mat i
onincompanypol i
cies,
achievement s,
mov etoanew
premisesorthelaunchofnewpr oductinf
ormati
oninnewsl et
tershouldfl
owlogical
l
y
andoneshoul dusereport
edspeech.

Out
li
nepr
inci
plesofpr
oduci
nggoodnewsl
ett
ers.

Expl
aingui
del
i
nesf
orwr
it
inggoodnewsl
ett
ers

6.ADVERTI
SEMENT&PUBLI
CITYMATERI
ALS

Theyaredonetoadver
ti
seandtodescr
ibeapr
oductoraser
vicepubl
i
clyi
nor
dert
o
persuadepeopl
etobuyorusei
t.

Ty
pesofadv
ert
isement

1.Dir
ectadvert
s–t hesewill
appeari
nlocal
andnat
ional
dai
l
yorweekl
y
newspapers,magazinesandj
ournal
s.
 Ty
pes

a)Classi
fi
edadver
ti
sement-short
,onecol
umnwideadvert
sappear
inggr
ouped
undermainheadi
nginnewspaperandmagazi
nes.I
nfor
mati
onrunsonoft
enin
thesametypewithnospeci
alheadi
ngs.

b)Di
splayclassif
ied–wi t
hintheconfi
nesofcl
assi
fi
edadv er
tssmall
display,
di
spl
aymaybei ncl
uded.Theyall
owf ort
heuseofl
argerboldt
ypefacesformor
e
at
tr
activ
el ayout.

2.Di
rectmai
ladv
ert
isi
ng

Dir
ectmailent
ail
ssaleslet
ter
s,leaf
lets,
brochur
esandcoupons.Saleslet
ter
whichwithmoderntechnol
ogycanbeaddr esseddir
ect
lybynamet oindiv
idual
andalsohavethei
rs.Col
ouredleafl
etscanalsooff
erdi
scount
s,reducedprice
andloans.

Theobj
ect
iveofadv
ert
isi
ngi
stoi
nfor
m,per
suadeorr
emi
nd.

MEETI
NGS

Defi
nit
ion:Agroupofpeopl
ewhocomet oget
hert
otal
kanddi
scussi
ssuesat
st
akeholdersorrel
ati
ngtoor
gani
zat
ions.

Ty
pesofmeet
ing

1.For
mal
meet
ings

Meet i
ngsheldaccor
dingtot helaiddowncompanies,ar
ti
cleofassoci
ati
on/
consti
tut
ion.Theyhaverulesgov erni
ngthemini
mum numberofpeoplewhoshouldbe
presenti
nor dert
hemeeting.Itsrecordmustbekeptbythecompanysecret
ary
.They
i
ncluded;

AGM –heldonceinayeart
oassesst
radi
ngoft
heor
gani
zat
ionov
ert
hey
ear
.Al
lthe
st
akehol
dersarei
nvi
tedtoat
tend.

 Stat
utor
ymeeti
ngs–heldsothatdi
rect
orsandshar
ehol
der
scan
communicat
eandconsi
derspeci
alr
eports.Publ
i
ccompani
esar
erequi
redby
 l
awt
ohol
dthesemeet
ings.

 Boardmeeti
ngs–heldasoft
enasindi
vi
dualorganizat
ionr
equi
res.Theyar
e
at
tendedbyall
dir
ect
orsandchai
redbychai
rpersonoftheboar
d.

 N/
A–(
highl
yfor
mal
meet
ing)

2.I
nfor
mal
meet
ings

Meeti
ngsnotrest
ri
ctedbysomerul
es,
theytaketheform ofabrainst
ormi
ng
sessi
onordi
scussionsessi
onwher
estr
ictagendaisn’
tnecessaryandminut
es
maynotbekept.

Theyi
ncl
ude;

 Managementmeeti
ngs–att
endedbyagroupofmanager
swhomayneed
t
odiscussaspeci
fi
cmatt
er,
repor
torpr
ogressorr
ecei
veprogr
essr
epor
ts.

 Departmentmeetings–cal l
edbyheadofdepar
tmentormanagerofa
cert
ainsect
ion.Allstaf
fwil
lbeinvi
tedt
oatt
endsotthatinfor
mat
ioncan
bepassedonr eportsrecei
vedfr
om somemembersr egardi
ngaspeci
fi
c
proj
ect.

Ter
minol
ogi
esused.

1.Agenda–l
i
stofi
temst
obedi
scussedi
nameet
ing.

I
mpor
tance

-
Ifi
tisci
rcul
atedi
nadv
ance,
Ihel
ptopr
epar
ethemember
stopar
ti
cipat
eful
l
y
i
nthemeet i
ng.

-
Hel
pschai
rper
sont
oconductt
hemeet
ingsmoot
hly
.

-
Ensur
est
hatonl
ymat
ter
srel
evantt
othatpar
ti
cul
armeet
ingar
edi
scussed.

-
Faci
l
itat
espr
epar
ati
onofmi
nut
es.

2.Convener–personwhoi
saut
hor
izedt
ocal
lthemeet
ingnor
mal
l
yiti
sthe
chai
rperson.

3.Conv
ene–t
ocal
lforameet
ing.

4.Minut
es–recor
dsoftheproceedi
ngofameet
ing.Theyar
elegal
documentand
canbeusedi
nacourtroom.
5.Quorum –mini
mum numberofpeopl
ewhocanholdav
ali
d/l
egal
meet
ing
cont
ainedi
ntheconst
it
uti
onoftheor
gani
zat
ion.

6.Adj
our
n–t
oendorpost
poneameet
ingt
oal
aterdat
e.

7.Cast
ingvote–vot
eall
owedt
othechai
rper
sont
odeci
deorani
ssuewhenv
otes
oneachsidear
eequal
.

8.Chai
rper
son–t
erm usedt
oref
ert
oany
bodywhochai
rsameet
ing.

9.Secr
etar
y–per
sonr
esponsi
blef
orkeepi
ngr
ecor
dsoft
hepr
oceedi
ngsoft
he
meeti
ng.

10.
Procedur
almotions–t hesearecer
tai
nmoti
onsthatar
edel
i
beratel
yai
medat
makingmeetingeffect
iveespeci
all
ywhenmeet
inggoesonfort
oolongori
s
inef
fect
ivee.
g.

a)Themeet
ingl
eav
est
hemat
teront
het
abl
e/l
eti
tli
e.

b)Thequest
ioni
snotnowput
.

c)Thedi
scussi
oni
sadj
our
ned.

d)Themeet
ingpr
oceedst
othenexti
tem ofbusi
ness.

e)Themeet
ingi
sadj
our
nedsi
nedi
e–i
ndef
ini
tel
y.

11.
Poi
ntsoforder–theseareoppor
tuni
ti
esgiv
enf ori
nterr
upti
onst
othedebat
e
andthyconnect
edwithcorr
ectpr
ocedureofthemeet i
ng.

Theyi
ncl
ude;

a)Meet
ingi
sn’
tquadr
ate.

b)I
tem bei
ngdi
scussedi
sn’
tont
heagenda.

c)Speakeri
sn’
tspeaki
ngt
otheagenda.

d)Speakeri
sn’
tspeaki
ngt
othesubj
ect
.

12.
Speakingt
hroughthechair–meanst hatal
lremar
ksmustbeaddr
essed,
person
tothemeeti
ngt oavoi
ddirectcommunicati
onbetweenmember
swhichnoteor
leadi
ngtoseveral
conversati
onstaki
ngplace.
 13.
Not
iceoft
hemeet i
ng–itmakesmember sawarethatameeti
ngwill
takepl
ace
onaspeci
fi
eddate.Nor
mall
ygivensevendayspri
ortothemeeti
ng.Agood
not
icemusthav
emeet i
ngvenue,dat
eandtime.

ROLESOFTHECHAI
RPERSON

1.Ensur
esthatt
hemeetingi
spr
oper
lyconv
ened,
val
i
dit
yconst
it
utedandt
hose
peopl
eri
ghttoat
tend.

2.Makesur
ethequor
um i
spr
esent
.

3.Ensur
esthatei
thermi
nut
esofl
astmeet
inghasbeenci
rcul
atedandr
eadon
meeti
ng.

4.Gi
vest
hosewhowi
sht
ocont
ri
but
eequal
oppandencour
agesmember
stov
iew.

5.I
ncaseofanydi
sput
e,hei
stheonet
odeci
deandactf
air
lyandi
mpar
ti
all
y.

6.Shoul
drejectanymattert
hatmaybei
ntr
oducedt
hati
sout
sideagendawi
thi
n
meeti
ngjurisdi
cti
on.

7.Mai
ntai
nsorderdur
ingpr
oceedi
ngsandbr
eaksupanyunr
ulydi
sput
ebet
ween
members.

8.Shoul
dinsi
stt
hatal
lmotions,
amendmentsandr
emarksareaddr
essedt
o
ensur
ether
eisnodi
rectcommunicat
ionbet
weendi
ff
erentmembersint
he
meeti
ng.

9.Shoul
dseet
oitt
hatv
oti
ngi
scar
ri
edouti
nst
ri
ctaccor
dancewi
thr
egul
ati
ons.

10.
Intheev
entofequalv
otingandwher
eregul
ati
onsal
l
owheshoul
dusehi
s
casti
ngdeci
de(power)
.

11.
Aft
ereachdi
scussi
on,
heshoul
dsummar
izeal
li
nfor
mat
ionf
ort
hebenef
itoft
he
meeti
ng.

12.
Ifanot
hermeet
ingi
stobehel
d,heshoul
dobt
ainagr
eementofmember
sabout
theti
meofthemeeti
ng.

13.
Shouldmakesuret
hatadequat
enot
etakendur
ingt
hemeet
ingsot
hatt
heyar
e
proper
lywr
it
ten.

14.
Shoulddecl
aremeet
ingcl
osedorendofbusi
nessori
nav
ali
dquor
um has
ceased,gi
verul
i
ngsonpoi
ntsoforder
.
 ROLESOFTHESECRETARY

1.Bef
oremeeti
ngdut
yist
opr
epar
eandci
rcul
atet
henot
iceoft
hemeet
ingt
oal
l
members.

2.Pr
epar
eagendapaper
sandci
rcul
atet
hem wi
tht
henot
ice.

3.Ensuresthatv
enuei
sreadywi
thal
lrequi
rement
s–wel
lar
rangedf
urni
tur
eand
stat
ion.

4.Dur
ingmeet
ingensur
ethatv
enuei
sopenedi
ngoodt
ime.

5.Mustensur
epr
operdi
str
ibut
ionofmat
eri
alst
obeused.

6.Shoul
dtakecompr
ehensi
veandadequat
enot
es.

7.Shoul
dprovi
desuppor
tinthemeet
ingsConducte.
g.dr
awi
ngchai
r’
sat
tent
iont
o
poi
ntofandprov
idi
ngref
erencemater
ial
stobeused.

8.Duri
ngvot
ing,
sec.shoul
dassi
stchai
rper
sonbycount
ingofv
otesonbehal
fof
chai
r.

9.Aft
ermeet
ingheshoul
dpr
epar
eanddr
aftmi
nut
es,
repr
oduceandci
rcul
atet
hem
tot
hemembers.

10.
Shoul
dmai
ntai
nal
li
mp.Fi
l
esanddocument
srel
atedt
othemeet
ing.

ROLESOFMEMBERS

1.Tomakecont
ri
but
ionst
othemeet
ing.

2.Topr
epar
eoni
temsi
ntheagendaf
ort
hemeet
ing.

3.Par
ti
cipat
einv
oti
ng.

4.I
nfor
mthechai
rper
sononi
temst
obedi
scussed.

5.Ensur
ethatt
heyat
tendt
hemeet
ingont
ime.

6.Readandv
eri
fymi
nut
esoft
hepr
evi
ousmeet
ing.

FACTORSCONSI
DEREDWHENFORMI
NGCOMMI
TTEE.
 1.Member
stof
orm.

2.Pur
pose/r
eason.

3.Qual
i
ficat
ionsofmember
s.

4.Ti
mef
orexi
stence.

5.Cost
.

6.Leader
s.

MI
NUTES

Def:Anoff
ici
alwri
tt
enr ecor
dofwhatissaidinameet
ingandwhatdeci
sionar
etaken
ther
e.Oncesignedbythechairper
son,
theybecomel
egall
ybi
ndi
ng,maynotbealter
ed
submitt
edtothecourtforevi
dence.

COMPONENTS

1.Headi
ng–cont
ainst
hef
oll
owi
ngi
nfor
mat
ion;

 Ty
peofcommuni
cat
ion.

 Nameofgroupmeet
ing,
day,
dat
e,t
ime,v
enuee.g.t
heminutesofMaendel
eo
r
d
WomenGrouphel
don23 August2010i
ntheboardr
oom at9.00am.

2.Memberspr
esent–cont
ainsnamesoft
hosepr
esenti
nthemeet
ing.Theor
deri
s
asf
oll
ows;

Nameof
: -Chai
rper
son.

- Pr
inci
pal

- Tr
easur
er.

- Secr
etar
y.

Member
s–Al
phabet
ical
order
.

3.Absentwi
thapol
ogy–cont
ainst
hosewhoi
nfor
medchai
rper
sonofhi
sabsence
duetovar
iousr
easons.

4.Absent–t
hosewhodi
dn’
tat
tendanddi
dn’
tgi
veandr
easons.

5.I
nat
tendance–anyv
isi
tor
swhoat
tendedt
hemeet
ing.
 6.Min1/
2010:
Prel
imi
nari
es–contai
nsi
nfor
mati
ononhowchai
rper
sonopened
t
hemeeti
ng;wel
comingguest
sandpr
ayer
s.

7.Min2/2010: Confi
rmati
onofmi nutesofprev
iousmeet i
ngs–t
hisi
swherethe
secr
etaryreadsthroughthemi nutesofthepreviousmeeti
ngandtheyar
e
appr
ov edbybot hthechairandsecr et
arybysigning.

8.Min3/
2010:Matt
ersar
isi
ngfrom pr
ev i
ousmeeting–thisi
swhenmat
ter
soft
he
pr
evi
ousagendawasn’
tproperl
yaddressedorcomprehended.

9.Mi
n4/
2010:
Body–t
hiscont
ainst
hef
ir
sti
tem i
ntheagenda.

Mi
n5/
2010:
secondi
tem i
nagendae.
t.
c.

10.
A.O.
B.–t
hisi
ncl
udesot
hermi
norpoi
ntst
onot
ethatar
enoti
ntheagenda.

11.
Dat
efort
hemeet
ing

12.
Adj
our
nment–t
hemeet
ingi
scl
osed–wor
dofpr
ayer
,par
ty/school
ant
hem.

13.
Signat
orycl
ose–wher
ethechai
rper
sonandsecr
etar
ysi
gn.

Chai
rper
son Si
gnat
ure Dat
e

Secr
etar
y Si
gnat
ure Dat
e

Ty
pesofmi
nut
es

Thr
eet
ypes:

 Resol
uti
on

 Act
ion

 Nar
rat
ive

Resol
uti
on

Minut
eswhererecorderconcent
ratesonr
ecor
dingonlythefi
nalpr
oductsofthe
di
scussi
onorfi
nalresolut
ionsar
riv
ed,compl
etel
yignoreal
lprel
i
minarydiscussi
ons
hel
d.

Theai
mistokeepthemeeti
ngdi
sagreementpointveryconf
ident
ial
,howeverbestused
tor
ecor
drout
inei
tem whi
chdon’
tinv
olvealotofdiscussi
ons.Theyhavetwocolumns
i
.e.t
it
leandr
esol
uti
onpassede.
g.

Ti
tl
e Resol
uti
on

El
ect
ionoft
hechai
rper
son onamaj
ori
tyv
ot eMarywaselect
edto
replaceAnnwhohasret
ir
ed.

Annual
conf
erencev
enue itwasresol
vedthatr
oom 4wil
lbeadopt
edas
aconfer
encecentref
or2010.

Si
gnat
orycl
ose–comesaf
terdi
scussi
ngal
lthei
tems.

Act
ion

Minuteswhosemai npur
poseistoplanf
oracer
tai
nproject/ev
ent.Theyconcent
rat
e
onwhatt hemeeti
ngdecidedshoul
dbedonei.
e.act
ionandpeoplegivenr
esponsi
bil
i
ty
forcert
ainact
ion.

Hav
etwocol
umns

Act
ion Responsi
bil
i
ty

Deadl
i
nef
orr
ecr
uit
ment25/
08/
2010 Mr .Al
noort
oadv
ert
iset
hev
acanci
eson
t
h
5

Sel
ect
ioni
nter
viewswer
eschedul
ed Per
sonnel
manager
,mar
ket
ingand

he2ndweekofAugust
Fort Fi
nancemanagerf
ort
hesel
ect
ionpanel

Si
gnat
orycl
ose

Nar
rat
ive

Minut
esthatseekt or
ecordasmuchaspossi bl
ewhatwassai dinthemeeting.These
minut
esrecordeveryt
hingthatwasdiscussedandresolved.Itshowspreli
minary
di
scussi
onsandr eset
;-usedwheni ti
snecessaryt
or ecordal l
contri
but
ionsofeach
i
ndivi
dualmember .Gi
veacompl et
eaccountofeachdeci sionandhav eadvantageor
pr
omot i
nggreat
lycontri
buti
onof

1.Ti
tl
e/headi
ngofi
temsunderdi
scussi
on.

2.Anyf
act
orst
akeni
ntoconsi
der
ati
ondur
ingdi
scussi
on.

3.Thi
nki
ngt
hati
nfl
uencemember
sinar
ri
vi
ngatehdeci
sions.
 4.Fi
nal
resol
uti
on.

5.Responsi
bil
i
ty.

QUESTI
ONS

a)Youaret
hesecr
etaryt
otheRi
rut
asel
fhel
pgr
oup,
ithel
dameet
ing.Thef
oll
owi
ng
wastobedi
scussed;

1.I
mpr
ovi
ngt
hecr
aft
smaki
ngpr
oject
.

2.Di
scussi
ngr
etur
nsf
rom r
ecent
lyhel
dexhi
bit
ionsoft
hecr
aft
s.

3.Hol
dingapar
tyt
ocel
ebr
atet oup3rdanni
hegr ver
sar
y.

Requi
red:
wri
temi
nut
esoft
hemeet
ing.

Sour
cemember
sofRi
rut
asel
fhel
pgr
oupwi
thnot
iceandagenda

b)Youar
ethesecr
etar
ytotheWelf
arecommi t
teeinyouror
gani
zat
ion,
recent
lyi
thel
d
ameeti
nginwhi
chthefol
lowi
ngwerediscussed;

1.Openi
ngofst
affcant
een.

2.Conductofcommi
tt
eet
reasur
er.

3.Empl
oymentofacl
eri
cal
off
icerf
ory
ourof
fi
ce.

Requi
red:
wri
temi
nut
esusi
ngt
her
esol
uti
onappr
oach.

I
NTERVI
EWS
Defi
nit
ion:Oralexchangeofi
nfor
mat
ionbet
weent
woormor
epar
ti
esonamat
terof
commoni nterest
.
Pur
poses
1.Secur
einf
ormat
ioni
.e.t
he r
ecei
veri
sthesour
ceofi
nfor
mat
ion
2.Togi
vei
nfor
mat
ion-
Thesenderi
sthesour
ceofi
nfor
mat
ion
3.Toi nf
luencebehav
iore.
g.i
ncounseli
ngi
nter
views,t
hei
nter
viewerai
msat
changingbehavi
orofanint
erv
iewee.

TYPESOFI
NTERVI
EWS
 1.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionaccor
dingt
othei
nter
viewpl
an

a)Pl
annedi
nter
view

Thi
sisanint
erv
iewt
hati
sgui
dedbyadet
ail
edpl
an,
prepar
edi
nadv
ance.The
pl
ancover
s:

 Obj
ect
ivesoft
hei
nter
view
 Ar
easofi
nter
estonpar
toft
hei
nter
view
 Quest
ionst
obeaskedandor
dert
ofol
l
ow.
 Scor
est
obeawar
dedf
oreachquest
ion.
Thi
sensur
est hatal
lareasofinterestar
ecov er
edandthatt
heinter
viewi
scarri
ed
outi
nanorderlymannerandt hereisunifor
mitydur
ingt
heprocess.However
,it
l
acksfl
exi
bil
i
tysinceinter
viewisrestri
ctedtoasetofquest
ions.
a.Unpl
annedi
nter
view
Itf
ollowsnopre-det
erminedcourseofacti
on.Theint
ervi
ewisgiv
enfr
eedom t
othe
courseinrel
ati
ontospecialci
rcumstancethatmayexist
.Ther
earenopre-
det
ermi
ned
questionsandanswers.

2.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionaccor
dingt
ost
ruct
ureoft
hei
nter
view

a)St
ruct
uredi
nter
view
Thisisani nt
ervi
ewt hatisdivi
dedintosev er alstruct
urespartsorsections.Each
sectionmaybeconduct edbydiffer
entinterv iewer si
nadi f
ferentplaceortime.The
mainai m oftheint
ervieweristoall
owt hei nt er
viewandt heinterv
ieweespeci al
izat
ion
andt ofacil
it
atecoverageofareasofi nter
est .Italsofaci
li
tat
essoundj udgementina
j
obi nter
viewoneachcandi dat
e’sspecialar easofper formance.Itishowev erti
me
consumi ngandmayr equir
euseofmanyi nt er v
iewershencecost lytothecompany .
b)Uni
nst
ruct
edi
nter
view
Theseareconductedi
noneconti
nuoussessi
onandaren’
tdi
videdi
ntosect
ions.
The
i
nterv
ieweeisaskedquest
ionsonar
easofint
erestr
andomly
.
3.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionaccor
dingt
odegr
eeofdomi
nat
ion
a)Di
rect
ive
Thisiswher ethei nterv
iewerseekstotaldominat
ionov ert
hei nt
ervi
eweebygivi
nghim
orherroom t orespondadequat el
y.I
nter
v i
ewerasksmanyquest i
onsandexpectsv
ery
parti
cularanswer s.Hei nfl
uencesthedir
ectionoftheinter
vieweewhomov estowards
hi
sdesi reddirecti
on.Thi sismainl
yusedi nconducti
ngpol l
s/censustofaci
li
tat
eeasy
processingoft her esul
ts.
b)Non-
Dir
ect
ive/Casual
Noneoft heparti
esdomi nat
eandi schar
acter
izedbyacomplet
egi
veandt
ake
approach.Thereisalotoffreedom i
ntheexchangeofi
deas;
noneoft
hepar
ti
escanbe
cal
ledtheinter
viewer/inter
vieweestr
ict
ly.
St
ressi
nter
views
Thepr i
maryobj ect
iveist
ot esttheinterv
iewee’sabili
tyt
ocopewi t
hstress.The
i
ntervi
eweei ssubjectedt
oav erystressi
ngenv i
ronmente. g.beinggivenadi f
fi
cultt
ask
toaccomplish,beingaskedv eryhumi l
iat
ingquestionsbeingabusedorev enmocked,
exposedtov eryharshconditi
onsuchasbr ightl
ightandheat .Thei nt
ervi
eweei sput
defensi
veallthet i
meandt heinterv
iewert r
iestoannoy/f rustratehim /her.
Pr
epar
ati
onf
orani
nter
view
A)I
nter
viewer
s

1.Hav
eadearpi ct
ureofthecompany
’spr
ofi
l
eandt
henat
ureoft
henat
ureoft
he
j
obthei
nter
viewerbeinghel
d.
2.Knowt
het
ypeofchar
act
erandper
sonal
i
tyr
equi
redf
ort
hej
ob.
3.Sendthel
ett
erswell
inadv
ancesot
hatt
hecandi
dat
ear
en’
tinconv
eni
encedand
al
ldocumentstocar
ry.
4.Makepropersi
tt
ingarrangementfort
hecandi
dat
einthewait
ingroom.Itshoul
d
bequit
ewithpr
ov i
sionfornewspaper
sandmagazinessot
hatcandidat
escan
feel
rel
axed.
5.I
nter
viewitsel
fshoul
dbeconduct
edi
naqui
etr
oom wher
ether
eisal
i
ttl
eorno
i
nter
rupti
on.
6.I
fthecandidat
eist
obeinter
viewedbyacommi t
tee,
eachmembershoul
dbe
possessi
onofacopyofthebiodat
aofthecandi
datetoav
oidconf
usi
onand
wastage.
7.Youshoul
ddeci
debef
orehandwhi
chmemberoft
hecommi
tt
eewi
l
lini
ti
atet
he
i
nter
view.
8.Quest
ionst
obeaskedshoul
dbear
rangedwel
lal
soal
l
owi
ngf
orawar
dofmar
ks
 f
ort
heappr
opr
iat
equest
ions.

B)I
nter
viewee

1.Knowyoursel
fi.
e.bef
oreappl
yi
ngf
oranyj
ob;
knowwhyy
ouar
eappl
yi
ngf
ori
t,
whet
heritwil
lsui
tyou.
2.Knowthecompanyi
nwhichyouareseeki
ngthej
obi
.e.t
ryt
ofi
ndouti
tsact
ual
gr
owthovert
heyear
sanditsfut
urepr
ospect
s.
3.Preparefort
hequest
ionsthatarel
ikel
ytobeaskede.
g.quest
ionsaboutyour
hobbies,
achiev
ement,pr
ospects,r
elat
ionshi
pwi
thfamil
yandfri
endse.t
.c.
4.Pr
epar
equesti
onsthatyouwoul
dli
ketoasktheint
ervi
ewer.Thi
squesti
ons
mi
ghtrel
atet
oformatandinf
ormal
trai
ning;
promoti
onalav
enues,benef
it
se.t
.c.
5.Arri
vefort
heint
erv
iewi
nti
me,
bedr
essedappr
opr
iat
elyandt
akewi
thy
oual
lthe
requi
reddocument
s.
Conductdur
ingi
nter
views
1.Don’
tbenervousoragi
tat
edwhi
leenter
ingtheinter
viewr
oom.Seecaref
ull
y
whereyouaregoi
nganddon’
ttr
ipoverthecarpetordoor
mat.Donotweara
scowlorst
upidsmil
ewhenent
eri
ng.
2.Gr
eett
hei
nter
viewer(
s)wi
thapol
i
tegoodmor
ning/af
ter
noon.
3.Don’
tsi
tdownunt
ily
ouhav
ebeenaskedt
o;si
tinanat
ural
composedmanner
.
4.Whent hei
ntervi
ewerstar
tst
heconver
sat
ion,payatt
enti
ontowhathesay
s.
Don’
tinter
rupthi
m; r
espondtohi
m onl
yattheappropri
atet
ime.
5.Givever
yrel
evantanswer
stohi
squest
ions.Don’tr
ambleal
ongbecausethe
i
nterv
iewerwi
llgetbor
edanddon’
tbet
ooabr uptbecausey
ouwil
lappeartobe
rude.
6.Don’
ttrytomakeanexhi bi
ti
onofyourknowledgebyboast
ingofyourcapabi
li
ty,
i
tisforthei
nter
viewertofi
ndouthowcapabl eyouar
eandwi l
lj
udgeyouwi t
hthe
hel
pofsomepenet rat
ingquest
ionswhichyoumustanswerfrankl
y.
7.I
fther
eissomet
hingy
oudon’
tknow,
admi
titst
rai
ghtf
orwar
dly
.
8.I
fy ouarebei
ngint
ervi
ewedbysomeonewhodoesn’
tpossessasmanycolleges,
degreeasyouhave,don’
tshowof
f.Gi
vet
heint
ervi
eweryourful
lcooper
ati
onand
respect
.
9.Youar
eexpect
edt
ohav
eyourv
iewsandy
ouneednott
oagr
eeev
ery
thi
ngt
he
 i
nter
viewersay
sbutyoualsoneednott
oannoyhi
m /her
.Remai
ncal
m and
f
ri
endlythr
oughoutt
heint
ervi
ew.
10.
Beposi
ti
vei
nyourat
ti
tudeandexpr
essent
husi
asm f
ort
hej
obandt
hecompany
.
11.
Donotkeepshif
tingi
ny ourseat,
bite/chewyourfi
ngernai
ls,smoot
heny ouhai
r,
playwit
hthepapersonthetable,adjustt
heknotofyourneckti
ebecauseall
thesearesi
gnsofnerv
ousness.
12.
Wheny ouareaskedquesti
onsaboutyourprevi
ousjob,befrankbutavoi
d
negat
iveatt
it
udeofy ourf
ormeremployerorcoll
eagues.Mentiononl
ythe
posi
ti
vepleasantandconstr
uct
iveaspectsofyourearl
ieremployment
.
13.
Ift
heinter
viewerhasn’
ttal
kedaboutt
hejob,
don’
tbeaf
rai
dtoaskquest
ions
becauseful
l knowl
edgewil
lhel
ptodecidewhet
hery
ououghtt
oaccepti
tornot
.
14.
Wheni
tisover
,donotfor
gett
othankt
heint
erv
iewer
,youmayev
enaskt
act
ful
l
y
whent
heresul
tswi
llbemadeknowntoyou.
15.
Ift
hejobisof
fer
ed,
youmayacceptiti
mmedi
atel
yoraskf
ort
imet
othi
nkov
eri
t
dependi
ngwit
hthecir
cumst
ances.
Appl
yi
ngf
oraj
ob
Sour
cesofi
nfor
mat
ionaboutav
acantposi
ti
on
1.Local
andi
nter
nat
ional
newspaper
s
2.I
nter
net
3.I
nter
nal
andext
ernal
not
iceboar
ds
4.Radi
oandTV
5.Car
eerof
fi
ces
6.Pr
ivat
eandpubl
i
cempl
oymentagenci
es.
Theappl
i
cat
ioni
tsel
f
1.Appl
i
cat
ionl
ett
er
2.Appl
i
cat
ionf
orm
3.Cur
ri
cul
um v
itae

CURRI
CULUM VI
TAE/RESUME
Thi
sisashor
thi
stor
yofaper
son’
scour
seofl
i
fe,
ithast
hef
oll
owi
ngcomponent
s.
1.Ti
tl
ei.
e.cur
ri
cul
um v
itae.
 2.Personali
nformati
on–name, age/year/
dateofbi
rt
h,mar
it
alst
atus,
cont
act
s,
Gender,nat
ional
it
y,rel
i
gion,
languagesspoken.
3.Car
eerobj
ect
ives
4.Per
sonal
prof
il
e
5.Educat
ionbackgr
ound
6.Ot
herqual
i
ficat
ions.
7.Job/workexperience–year,
company
/or
gani
zat
ion/
inst
it
uti
on,
posi
ti
onhel
d,
keyr
esponsi
bil
it
ies,ski
l
lsacquir
ed.
8.Associ
ati
on–y
ear
,or
gani
zat
ion/gr
oup/posi
ti
onhel
d.
9.Vol
unt
arywor
k.
10.
Hobbi
es/i
nter
est
s
 Mustber
elat
edt
othecar
eer
.
 Mustshowcr
eat
ivi
ty.
I
mpor
tanceofhobbi
es/
int
erest
s
1.Showst
hecr
eat
ivenat
ureofaper
son
2.Passi
oni
nthatar
ea.
3.Soci
albei
ng.
4.Hel
psi
nassi
gni
ngt
asks.
5.Deci
dingt
heco-
cur
ri
cul
aract
ivi
ti
es.

11.Ref
erees–nameofper
son,
nameofor
gani
zat
ion,
cont
act
s,posi
ti
on

REPORTWRI
TING

Abusinessr
epor
tisanor
der
lypr
esent
ati
onoff
act
saboutaspeci
fi
cbusi
nessor
pr
ogramme.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenor
alandwr
it
tenf
orm
Or
al Wr
it
ten
 Can’
tbekeptf
orf
utur
eref
erence Canbekeptf
orf
utur
eref
erence
 Canbedeni
ed Per
manentr
ecor
d,can’
tbedeni
ed.
 Vague Wr
it
ert
endst
obeaccur
ate
 Canbedi
stor
teddur
ingt
ransmi
ssi
on Canbet
ransmi
tt
edwi
thoutdanger

I
nfor
mat
iveandi
nter
pret
iver
epor
ts
I
farepor
tmerel
ypresent
sfact
sper
ti
nentt
oanissue,
iti
sinf
ormati
vebutifi
tanal
yses
t
hedrawsconcl
usi
onandmakesrecommendat
ioniti
sdescr
ibedasint
erpr
eti
ve.
Ty
pesofr
epor
ts
Cl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hreecat
egor
ies:
1.Basi
sofl
egal
for
mal
i
ties
a)For
malreports–onepr
eparedinaprescr
ibedf
orm andpr
esent
edaccor
dingt
o
anest
.procedur
etoaprescr
ibedaut
horit
y.
b)Infor
malr
eport
s–usual
lyinf
orm ofper
son–per
soncomm.(
oral
for
m)i
tcan
alsobepr
esent
edi
nform ofmemo/l et
ter
.

2.Basi
sofpeopl
edr
aft
ingt
her
epor
t
a)Repor
tsbyindi
vi
dual
s–r
epor
tssubmit
tedbyexecuti
vehead,co.sec.oraudi
t
ar
e -t
hesearenatural
l
yrel
atedtowor kinthei
r
owndepts.
b)Reportbycommi t
tee–sometimesreport
sareneededonsubject
snot
concerni
nganydepart
mentorsoimpor t
antt
hatiti
sthoughtadvi
sabl
eto
associat
emor et
hanpersonwitht
hem.Insuchcasescommi tt
eesor
subcommi t
teesarepr
epared.
Thesear
esi
gnedbychai
rper
sonoft
hecommi
tt
ee.
3.Basi
soft
henat
ureoft
her
epor
t
Thesear epr
eparedandpr esent
edatregul
ardescr
ibedint
erval
sinusualrout
ineof
business.Maybesubmittedannuall
y,semiannual
l
y ,
monthlyorweekly,
general
ly
containmerestatement
soff actsi
ndetail
orsummar i
zedform wi
thoutanopini
onor
recommendat i
on.
a)Progressr epor
ts–descr
ibedandassesspr ogr
essmadedur
ingaparticul
ar
peri
od.Pr esentanA/Cofworkalreadydone,i
nprogr
esswi
thotherr
elevantf
act
s
anddet .Wor kyett
obecompleted.
b)Exami
nat
ionr
epor
t–speci
all
ycommi
ssi
onedt
ocov
eri
mpor
tantaspect
s/
 events;prepar
eafterathor
oughinvest
igati
on.Oldfil
esar estudied,
important
factscompi l
ed,i
nterv
iewconduct
edandquest ionnai
resci r
culat
edsot hatcer
tai
n
conclusionscanbemade.Thesemay/maynotcont ainrecommendationsnut
fi
ndingsandconcl usi
onsmustinfl
uencethefinaldecisione.g.r
eportt
oassess
effect
ivenessofa
c)Recommendat ionr
eport–sameasexami nat
ionreport
sbuttheymustendwit
h
specifi
cr ecommendati
ons.Dat
aisanalyzedi
nsuchamannert hatt
heanal
ysi
s
i
nev i
tablyleadstor
ecommendationbeingimplementedatt
heend.These
reportsareargumentat
iveandpersuasi
veint
one.
d)Stat
ist
icalreport
s–ast henamesuggests,t
heserepor
tsarel
argel
ymadeupof
fi
nanci
al data,mathchart
sandt
abularcolumnsoffi
gurese.
g.fi
nanci
alr
epor
t.

St
ruct
uresofar
epor
t
2r
epor
tst
ruct
ures
1.Longf
ormal
str
uct
uredi
vi
dedi
nto
a)Prel
iminari
es-cont
ainti
lepage,t
abl
eofcont
ent
s,f
orwar
d/pr
eface,
acknowledgement,
int
roducti
on/summary
.
b)Essent
ialel
ements–contai
nter
msofr
efer
ence,
procedur
e,f
indi
ngs,
concl
usions,
recommendati
ons.
c)Suppl
ement
s/f
inal
sect
ion–cont
ainr
efer
ences,
appendi
ces,
indexand
gl
ossary
.
2.Fundament
alst
ruct
ure–hast
hreepar
ts
a)I
ntr
oduct
ion–t
it
le,
ter
msofr
efer
ence,
procedur
e/met
hodol
ogy
.
b)Body–f
indi
ngs,
concl
usi
on.
c)Fi
nalsect
ion–r
ecommendat
ions(
ifr
equest
ed)
.Appendi
ces(
ifnecessar
y)
si
gnatur
e.
COMPONENTSOFAREPORT
1.Tit
le–i tshoul
dbesel fexplanator
yandtothepoint.I
tshouldi
nclude;t
hename
ofthedepar t
ment,subjectandanyotherrel
evantinfowhichhel
pt oconveyt
he
subjectoftherepor
taccur atel
yandpreci
sel
y.
2.Termsofr ef
erence–t hisgiveapreciseindi
cati
onoftheareacoveredbythe
report
,theexactsubjectofthereportwhichincl
udesdates,
placesandpeople
i
nv ol
vedinthereportshouldbement ioned.Anymatter
sspecifi
call
yexcl
uded
 fr
om thereportshouldalsobementionedtoprev
entpeoplefrom cri
ticizingt
he
wri
terforthefail
i
ngt ocovercer
tai
naspects.I
twil
lal
soall
owt hem t
oj udgethe
concl
usionsandr ecommendat i
onsinthecont
extofthedatawhi chtheyar e
based.Detai
lsofhowr eportwascommi ssi
onedandbywhoshoul dal sobe
mentioned.Thiswill
guidethosewri
ti
ngittoavoi
dbiasont hecontent .

Exampl
e
Studyrequestedbysalesdi
rectori
nvest
igatespresentsal
esordermethod,
document at
ionandpresentproposal
sforre-or
gandi mprovement.Recogni
zet
hat
requi
rementsofotherdepartmentsmustbemeti nanyre-
orgsuggested.
3.Procedureofmethodol
ogy–t hi
sconcernsmethodsofinv est
igati
ontobe
adoptedincol
lect
ingdat
aforreportwri
ti
ng.Wri
terexpl
ainsmet hodsusedtoget
thedata.I
nd.Useofquesti
onnai
res,i
nter
views,
consult
ation,l
ibrar
yresear
ch,
experi
mentati
on.

4.Findi
ngs-t
hisistheheartofther
eport,i
tpr
esent
sinsi
mpleclearandunbiased
termsanA/Cofev entorci
rcumstanceswhichf
ormthesubj
ectofthereport.To
prepar
efi
ndings:
a)Organi
zeyourmateri
alinsect
ionsaccordi
ngt othesubj
ectar
eaandpr esent
eachoneunderacleardescri
pti
veheadingwhichshouldbeclearl
ynumber ed.
Thisasst
.readeri
nfi
ndingexactl
yinf
ohe/ sherequi
resandwillal
soassist
thosewhowi shcr
ossrefert
otheconclusionsandrecommendat i
ons.
b)Wr it
einsi
mpleclearsty
leaboutt
hetopicunderconsiderat
iononly
.Findi
ngs
shoulddonomor ethanobserveandrecord.Theyshouldn’
tint
erpr
etby
attempti
ngtofi
ndcausesf ort
heeventtheydescri
bednorshoul dthey
recommendwhatact ionshoul
dbetaken.
5.Concl
usions–t hissecti
ondescri
besandtir
est ointerpretf
actsand
obser
v at
ionspresentedint
hefindi
ngs.Thi
sinterpretati
ongivesclearreasons
whycer t
ainci
rcumstancescamei nt
obeing.I
nor derf orthi
ssecti
ont oappear
rel
i
able;
I
tmustf
oll
owonl
ogi
cal
l
yint
hef
indi
ngs.
Itmustbecomposedofandsensibl
einter
pret
ati
onwhi chincar
eful
throughat
thepl
anni
ngshouldrestondat
apresent
edinfi
ndings.Prepar
ethem undert
he
sameobjectheadi
ngsasthefi
ndi
ngsinthesameor derandsyst
em of
numberi
ng.

6.Recommendat
ion(
ifnecessar
y)–f
inal
maj
oract
ionofar
epor
tusedt
oput
 for
wardafutur
ecauseofact ionconcerni ngtopicunderinvest
igati
on.Each
shoul
dbeasspecifi
caspossi ble,i
nsteadofsay ing“somet hi
ngshouldbedone
tocor
rectt
hepoorser v
iceintheor g.makeonel i
ke”staffshouldbeaddedto
ensur
ethatco-
exchangecount erisstaf
f edallti
mewheny oufeelli
kepresent
arr
angementofacertainaspectoft hetopicsandconcl usi
ons.Shouldreston
i
nfoinfi
ndi
ngsandr easoningintheconcl usi
ons.

7.Appendi
ces–contai
nmater
ial
rel
evanttot
hecontentbutwouldi
nter
ruptt
he
ar
gumentifi
ncl
udedint
hemaintext.I
tmayconsi
stofthefol
lowi
ng;
a)Ful
lst
ati
sti
cal
tabl
es.
b)Copesofbl
ankquest
ionnai
re.
c)Copi
esoff
il
ledi
nquest
ionnai
re.
d)Mapsanddi
agr
ams.
e)Bibli
ography(onlyi
fyouresearchfrom l
ibr
ary
)e.g.Saleemi(i
nit
ial
s),
business
communi tyreportwri
ti
ng,(1975)oxfor
dpubli
shers.Ifmanybooksar eused,
arrangeinalphabeti
calor
derusingthesurnameoft heauthor
.

8.Signatur
e,dateorposi
ti
on–all
repor
tsshoul
dconcludei
nthesi
gnat
ure(name)
andt hedateandifwri
tt
enbyalar
gecommi t
tee,
chair
per
sonofcomm.should
si
gn.

TOPI
C13ESSAYWRI
TINGSKI
LLS

ESSAYWRI
TING

Anessayi sashor tpi

eceofwr it
ingthatdiscusses,descri
besoranaly sesatopic.Itcandi
scuss
asubjectdirect
lyorindir
ectl
y,seri
ouslyorhumor ously.Itcandescri
beper sonalopini
ons,
or
j
ustreportinfor
mat i
on.Anessaycanbewr i
ttenf
rom anyper spect
ive,butaremostcommonl y
wri
tt
eni nthef i
rstperson(I
),orthi
rdperson( subj
ectsthatcanbesubst i
tut
edwi t
hthehe,she,i
t,
ort
heypr onouns) .

Ther
ear
emanydi
ff
erentki
ndsofessay
s.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
hemostcommonones:

Exposi
tor
y
Thef
unct
ionoft
heexposi
tor
yessayi
stoexpl
ainsomet
hingt
other
eaderbygi
vi
ngdi
rect
ions
ori
nst
ruct
ions,
ort
oacquai
nty
ourr
eaderwi
thknowl
edgeabouthowt
ocompl
eteat
askorhow
somet
hingi
sdone.Youar
edemonst
rat
ingy
ourownknowl
edgeandexpl
aini
ngwi
thf
act
s,not
y
ouropi
nion.I
tisv
eryi
mpor
tantt
haty
ourt
oneber
easonabl
eandt
haty
ourpr
esent
ati
onbe
f
act
ual
andbel
i
evabl
e.
Compar
eandCont
rast
Theessaycoul
dbeanunbi
aseddi
scussi
on,
oranat
temptt
oconv
incet
her
eaderoft
hebenef
it
s
ofonet
hing,per
son,orconcept
.Itcoul
dal
sobewr
it
tensi
mpl
ytoent
ert
aint
her
eader
,ort
o
ar
ri
veatani
nsi
ghti
ntohumannat
ure.Theessaycoul
ddi
scussbot
hsi
mil
ari
ti
esanddi
ff
erences,
ori
tcoul
djustf
ocusononeort
heot .Acompar
her isonessayusual
l
ydi
scussest
hesi
mil
ari
ti
es
bet
weent
wot
hings,
whi
l
ethecont
rastessaydi
scussest
hedi
ff
erences.

CauseandEf
fect
Thecause/
eff
ectessayex
plai
nswhyorhowsomeev
enthappened,
andwhatr
esul
tedf
rom t
he
ev
ent
.Thi
sessayi
sast
udyoft
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
woormor
eev
ent
sorexper
iences.
Theessaycoul
ddi hcausesandef
scussbot fect
s,ori
tcoul
dsi
mpl
yaddr
essoneort
heot
her
.A
cause essay usual
l
ydi
scusses t
he r
easons whysomet
hing happened. An ef
fectessay
di
scusseswhathappensaf
teraspeci
fi
cev
entorci
rcumst
ance.Sour
cesar
eof
tenr
equi
redi
na
cause/
eff
ectpaper
,andy
ourchoi
ceoft
hesesour
cesi
simpor
tantast
heyr
efl
ectont
hev
ali
dit
y
ofy
ourar
gument
.
Ar
gument
ati
ve(
Per
suasi
ve)
Anar gumentat
iveessayisonethatatt
empt stopersuadet her
eadertothewr i
ter
'spointofv i
ew.
Thewr it
ercaneit
herbeseriousorfunny,butalway
st r
iestoconv i
ncethereaderofthev ali
dit
y
ofhisorheropinion.Theessaymayar gueopenly,oritmayattempttosubtlypersuadet he
readerbyusingir
onyorsarcasm.Yourappr oachistot akeastandonanissueanduse
evidencetobackupy ourst
ance,nottoexploreanunresolvedtopi
c.

Youmustchooseasi
de,makeacasef
ori
t,consi
derandr
efut
eal
ter
nat
ivear
gument
s,and
pr
ovet
otheundeci
dedr
eadert
hatt
heopi
nioni
tpr
esent
sist
hebestone.Youmustbeawar
e
ofot
hersi
desandbef
airt
othem;
dismi
ssi
ngt
hem compl
etel
ywi
l
lweakeny
ourownar
gument
.
I
tisbestt
otakeasi
det
haty
oubel
i
evei
n,pr
efer
abl
ywi
tht
hemostsuppor
ti
ngev
idence.I
tcan
of
tenbeeducat
ionalt
o adoptadi
ff
erentposi
ti
onf
rom whaty
oumi
ghtnor
mal
l
ychoose
(
debat
ingr
equi
rest
hiski
ndoff
lexi
bil
i
ty)
.
TOPI
C14READI LLSREADI
NGSKI NGSKI
LLS

Thi
sisl
ear
ningt
oident
if
ywor
dsandgett
hei
rmeani
ng.Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofr
eadi
ng;
1.Fast
err
eadi
ng
2.Bet
terr
eadi
ng

1.FASTERREADI
NG
Theav .Adul
treadingataspeedof200–300p/ minbutsomer eadat600wordsper
minuteJohnF.Kennedyi sreputedtohaveread1000wor dsperminut
e.I
tisi
mpor t
ant
toi
ncreasethespeedofr eadingforef
fect
ivenessbuti
tisequall
ygoodtounder
stand.
Readerscanbesl oweddwonby ;
a)Compl
exi
tyoft
hemat
eri
al.
b)Aut
hor
’sst
yle.
c)Ty
pef
acewhi
chi
shar
dtor
ead.
d)Monot
onousl
ayoutandpr
esent
ati
on.
e)Unf
ami
l
iarwor
dsandexpr
essi
ons.

Thephy
sical
processofr
eadi
ng
Wheny ouread,youreyesdon’ tmovesmoot hlyacrossthepagewi t
houtst
opping
becausethiswil
lcauseabl ur.Youreyescanonl yfocusonthewor dswhentheyar e
stati
onedi.
e.wheny ouready oureyesstoptot akeinawordorphr asebef
oremov i
ng
stopsarecall
edfixat
ions.Everyonelastsfor½or¼second.The#ofwor dsyouf ocus
onandt akein@ onef i
xati
oni scal
ledtherecognit
ionspan.Itshouldbesi
xwor ds.
Fact
orsaf
fect
ingt
her
eadi
ngpr
ocess
1.Regression–t hisi
sthet endencytoback-
tr
eadwhilereadingi.
e.bypoorr
eader
s
whot endtof ocusoneachwor dwhil
ereadi
ng.Indi
vi
dual wordsdon’
tconvey
muchmeani nguntilt
heyar ejoi
ned.Donotconcent
rat
eoneachwor dbecausei
t
wil
laffectyourrecognit
ionspanf i
xati
on.
2.Subvocal
izat
ion/readingaloud–sl owreadersregi
stert
hesoundofthewords
astheyr
eadingbyeitherextmout hi
ngorinternal
l
yacknowledgi
ngthesound.On
readi
ngal
oudt heavail
abl
er eadercanonlyreadatabout125wordsperminute.
 3.Pai
nti
ngt
hewor
dwi
thaf
ingerorr
uler
.
4.Comfort–phy
sicaldi
scomfortcanalsoaff
ecttheeaseandfl
uencywi
thwhi
ch
toomuchcomf or
treducesyourconcent
rati
on.Whenlooki
ngatcomfor
tone
consi
der;
i
) Posi
ti
on–comf
ychai
r@ t
abl
ehei
ghti
smostsui
tabl
eforser
ious
i
i
) Li
ght
ing–adeskt
opi
sthemostcommonl
yaccept
ed.
i
i
i) Eyesi
ght–youneedt
odoaney
e-checkr
egul
arl
ytoensur
egoodey
esi
ght
forgoodr
eadi
ng.
i
v) Rest
s–avoi
dbeingdest
ruct
edbynoi
se,
hunger
,thi
rstandal
soal
l
ow
your
sel
fbr
eaks.

2.BETTERREADI
NG
Whenreadi
ngconsi
dery
ourr
eadi
ngpr
ior
it
ieswhi
chmi
ghtbef
orpl
easur
eorf
or
j
udgement.

Readi
ngt
echni
ques;
 Scanni
ng
Thi
sal
lowsyoutogetabr oadi
deaofthecommonl
yusedwhenl
ooki
ngf
oraspeci
fi
c#
i
nthedir
ect
ory
,dict
ionar
yofanswer.

 Ski
mmi
ng
Thi
sisther eadi
ngwheny ouwanttogetabroadoutl
i
neofthei
nformati
onandignor
ing
det
ail
s.Whenski mming,onelooksatt
hefi
rstsent
encei
nthefi
rstpar
agraphandthe
l
astsentenceinthel
astparagraph.
 SQ3Rt
echni
que
Itst
andsforsurvey,questi
ons,read,recit
eandrevi
ew.Thi smethodhelpstounderst
and
themeaningandor ganizati
onoft extbooksreadi
ng.Italsomakesreadingact
ive,
underst
andingofreadingassignment s,prov
idesst
ructureandplanofacti
on,asenseof
contr
oloverreadi
ngassi gnmentenhancesr emember ingandrecal
li
ngfrom memor y
.
Helpsmaintai
nat t
enti
onandmakesi teasy.
 SQ3Rsur
vey
Thi
smeansqui
ckl
yrev
iewingtheassi
gnedreadingforcl
uesaboutthemethodtocr
eat
e
ament
almap.Cl
uesaretextmarker
si.
e.contentoutl
i
neforl
earni
ngobject
ives,
headi
ngs,
subheadi
ngsandot
hert
ext
ual
cluest
hensel
ect
ivel
y.
Readthepart
softhechapt
er,t
hetit
le,he1stpar
t agr
aph,
readtopi ngs.1st
c/headi
sent
enceofeachparagr
aph,l
astparagr
aphorsummaryofchapterthenqui
ckl
yscan
thevi
sualai
dse.
g.fi
gures,
photosandtabl
es.
Quest
ion
Predi
ctquest
ionsthatwil
lbeansweredbyt hereadi
ngmat er
ial
s.Tur
nmaj orheadings
andsubheadi
ngsintoquestionsandrecordthem.Answerthem whil
ereading,dev
elop
quest
ionskps.Ouratt.Makesreadi
nginterest
ingandi
ncreasescomprehensionofwhat
i
sbeingread.
Read
Readt hei
nfor
mationonesectionatatime;don’tf
ocusondet ai
l
sbutsearchfort
he
rel
ati
onshipamongt hemainideasandtheirsupport
ingdetai
l
s.Lookfori
nfor
mation
thatanswerst
hepr edi
ctedquesti
ons.Trymakingbri
efnotesabouti
mportantpoi
ntsin
themar gi
nsofthetext
.

Reci
te/Recal
l
Afterr
eadi
ngeachsecti
on,takeafewminutestorecal
ltheimpor
tantpoi
nts.Reci
te
them al
oudorwri
tethem down.Immedi
aterecal
lofinf
or mati
oni
sessenti
altostor
ing
theinf
ormati
oni
ny ourl
ongt er
m memory.
Rev
iew
Reviewistheout standingassignmentt oseehowt heinformat i
onfittogether.Evaluat
e
yourunderstandingofr eadingassignment,thenor gani
zei deasandsuppor tdetai
ls.You
canalsoreferbackt oheadi ngsandsubheadi ngsandanswer sgivent opredicted
questi
ons.Lookatt hemar ginnoteshighl
ightedi nf
ormationt henorganizey our
i
nformationintoflowchar ts,outl
ineandotherv isualai
ds.Thensummar izethemai n
purposeandi deasi nfewsent ences.