VISHNUI

ASACADEMY
ANTHROPOLOGYTESTSERI
ES
TEST4MODELANSWERS

Par
t1(
Att
emptal
lquest
ions8*
20=160mar
ks,
250Wor
dseach)
Q1.Whatiscognit
iveappr
oach?Cr
it
ical
lyexami
nei
tsi
mpl
icat
ionsi
n
Soci
ocul
tur
alAnthropol
ogy
.

Appr
oacht
othequest
ion:
I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Wr
it
eaboutt
hemai
nsi
gni
fi
canceoft
hecogni
ti
veappr
oachi
nbr
ief
.
Body
:
 Wri
teaboutt
hemai
nsi
gni
fi
canceoft
hecogni
ti
veappr
oachi
n
det
ail
.
 Wri
te aboutthe Cogni
ti
ve appr
oach and i
mpl
i
cat
ions i
n soci
o-
cul
tur
alanthr
opol
ogy
 Cr
it
ici
sm ofCogni
ti
veappr
oach:

Concl
usi
on:
 Wri
tethebal
ancedv
iewf
ort
hedev
elopmentoff
urt
herr
esear
chi
n
ant
hropol
ogy

I
ntr
oducti
on:
 Cogni
ti
veapproachaddr
essest
heway si
nwhi
chpeopl
econcei
ve
ofandthi
nkaboutevent
sandobject
sint
heworl
d.

Cogniti
veapproachandi mplicati
onsinsocio-
cultural
anthropology
1.StephenTy l
er'
sconceptofcul t
ureasment alconstr
uctsreinforces
theemicappr oach.Itpost
ulatesthatcul
tur
ei snotanar bi
traryl
istof
i
nstit
uti
ons,ratheracogni ti
veorganizat
ionofmat er
ialphenomena.
Thisimpli
esthatthest udyofcult
uremusti ncludetheperspecti
v eof
thegroupbeingst udi
ed
2.Tyler'sex pl
anat ionofcul turaldi f
ferencesi ncogni ti
v eor ganizati
on
(i
n hi sst udycompar ing t heKoy asabi l
it
yt oi dentify7 ki ndsof
bambooandt heAmer icansi nabil
itytodosohasal argei mpl i
cati
on
onsoci o-culturalanthr opology .Itexpl ainst hegr eati nter-
cultural
variationwhi chwasnotexpl ainedbyMal i
nowski orBrown.
3.Simi l
ar l
ycogni ti
veant hropol ogyal soexpl ainsintracul turalvar i
ati
on
(e.g.,Amer icanWomeni dent if
ymor ecol ours),whi chwasl argely
i
gnor edbypr ev i
ousSchool sofsoci o-culturalanthropol ogy .
4.Har oldConkl in'
sconceptofCul t
ureasani deationsy st em ( f
rom his
study ofHanunao soci ety )descr ibes t he difference i n sensor y
per ceptionandper ceptualcat egori
zat ionwhi chf urt
herexpl ainswhy
ther ei sadi ff
erencei nhow di fferentsoci eti
esper cei v
emat eri
al
phenomenadi f
ferentl
y.
5.Conkl in'
scommondesi gni .
e.,theexi stenceofauni versaldesi gn
har ksbackt ot he19t hcent uryev olutionist’
sv i
ewofpsy chicunityof
manki ndandLev i-
StraussDeepst ructuret herebyr ei nforcingt his
post ulate.

Cr
it
ici
sm ofCogni t
iv eappr oach:
 Focusonsucht hingsascol ourcat egori
esandf olkt axonomi es,
withoutbei ngabl et oelucidatet heirrel
ev ancetounder standing
cultureasawhol e. Oneoft hemostgl ari
ngpr oblemsi sthat
almostal li nv est i
gat ors do t he maj orit
yoft heirr esear ch in
Engl i
sh.Thisi st obeexpect ed,gi ventheel aboratenat ureoft he
i
nv esti
gati
v emet hodsnowbei ngused,butbegst hequest i
onof
j
usthowappl icabl et heresultscanbef orot hercultures.
 Cogni t
iveant hropol ogydeal swi t
habst racttheoriesr egar di
ngt he
natureoft hemi nd.Whi letherehasbeenapl ethor aofmet hods
forassessi ngcul turecont ainedi nt hemi nd,quest ionsr emai n
aboutwhet herr esul tsinfactr efl
ecthowi ndivi
dualsor ganizeand
perceivesoci et y,orwhet hert heyar emer elymanuf acturedby
i
nv esti
gators, hav ingnof oundat i
oni ntheirsubjects’real i
ty.
 Anot hercriti
ci sm i st hatuni versalagr eementonhow t of i
nd
cultureinthemi ndhasy ettoemer ge.

Concl
usi
on:
 Cogni
ti
veapproachhasopenednew avenuesforsocio-
cul
tur
al
ant
hropol
ogy
,insomecasesr ei
nfor
cingandrefur
bishi
ngsome
 ol
dideasandinot
herpr
ovi
dinganal
ter
nat
evi
ewt
oanal
yzet
he
humancondi
ti
on.

Q2.Stat
ethetheori
esregar
dingtheor
igi
nofspokenlanguagesi
nhuman
soci
eti
esbothfrom Bi
ologi
calandcul
tur
alpoi
ntsofv
iew.
Appr
oacht
othequest
ion:

I
ntr
oduct
ion

 Wr
it
eaboutt
heCul
turalevol
ution
 Wr
it
eaboutt
hebi
ological
evoluti
on

Body

 The biological basis of or i

gin of cult
ur e Impli
cat
ions of
envi
ronment alfact
orsi
nev olut
ionofhumancul tur
e.
 Soci
alselectionandoriginofcult
ure
 Pri
medi f
ferencesbetweenbi ol
ogicalandcul
turalevol
uti
on
 HowaBi ologicalevol
utionandcultur
alevol
uti
onaf f
ecteachother
 Theincor
por ati
onofbiologyandcul t
ure
 Wri
tethe t
heori
es r
egar
ding t
he or
igi
n ofspoken l
anguages i
n
humansoci
eti
es
Concl
usi
on
 Speci
alemphasi
sislaid on t
heprinci
pleofselecti
on i
n cult
ural
evol
uti
on,
incl
udi
ngpr
esentat
ionoft
heconceptofcult
ural
fit
ness.
I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Cult
uralevolut
ionhadi t
sbeginni
ngsassoonasani mal swithbr ai
ns
evol
ved,usingthei
rbr ai
nstostor
ei nfor
mat
ionandusingpat ter
nsof
behavi
ourt oshareinfor
mati
onwi t
ht hei
rof
fspri
ng.Socialspeci
esof
i
nsectsandmammal sweremouldedbycultur
alaswel lasbiological
evol
ution.
 Thebi ol ogicalbasi sofor iginofcul tureI mpl i
cat i
onsofenv i
ronment al
factor si nev olutionofhumancul t
ur eo Bef oredeal i
ng wi t
hgenet i
c
evolut i
onofcul t
ure,i tisnecessar ytobr ief
lydi scussthesi gni
ficanceof
ecol ogicaland ot her env i
ronment alci r
cumst ances for origin and
dev elopmentofhumancul tur e,r ecent l
yr eviewedbyDani elNet tl
e,for
exampl e( Nettle2009) .
I tisal mostsel f-
ev identt hatasuppl yoff reshwat erandf ood,and,
consequent l
y,sui tabl e ecol ogi caland cl i
mat i
c conditi
ons f orf ood
product ion and y i
eld ofwat er,wer e necessar yf ort he bi rt
h and
dev elopmentofhumancul ture( seee. g.,Deevey1960) .
oI tisal socl earthatsuppl yofr awmat er i
alsforbui ldi
nghousesandot her
dwel li
ngs,aswel lasf ormaki ngdi ff
er enttool sandot hernecessi ti
es,is
significantf orhumancul ture.Thesecondi ti
onsf orcult
urehav eledt o
two f act s:f i
rstl
y,t hatmanki nd hasbeen abl et oinhabit,pr acti
cally
speaki ng,al lareasont hecont inentandi sl
andsonEar ththatar ef r
eeof
glacier s,and,secondl y ,t
hatt hedi st
ributionofourspeci esi slimi t
edt o
thesear eas.

Soci
alsel
ect
ionandor
igi
nofcul
tur
e
o Wear enat urallycur i
oust o know whatoccur r
ed i nourev oluti
onar y
historyt hatmadeuscapabl eofcul ture.Thi ssequenceofev entsclearly
i
nv olvedsomanymut uallyi nteracti
ngf act orsandcy cl
esofr epeating
causes t hat t heir descr i
pt ion necessar ily si mpl if
ies t he incident s
themsel ves.
o Old supposi ti
ons t hathav e compr ehended bi ologicalev oluti
on and
culturalev oluti
onassepar ateandal t
ernat ivephenomenahav ebeen
replacedbynewex planationst hatemphasi zet heirreci procit
y.Biological
selectioncr eatescapaci tiest hatmakecul tur epossi ble,andcul t
urehas
producednewsel ect i
onoper ator
st hathav eanef fectonourbi ol
ogy .
o Differentsel ecti
onoper ator shav egi venr i
set omanychar acterist
icsin
ourspeci es associ ated wi th culture.These ar e,f orexampl e,erect
walkingont wof eet ,hunt i
ng,speech,const ruct i
onoft ools,handedness
(handednessi snotspeci ficallyhuman:manypr imat es,ev enel ephant s
showi t),agriculture, cooper at i
on,emot ions, facialexpr essions, t
heabi li
ty
toant i
cipat et hingsort heabi l
it
yt of oreshadow t hef uture,imi t
ati
on,
sociall ear ni
ng,empat hy,mor ali
ty,andt het heoryofmi nd,bywhi chi s
meantt hei ndiv i
dual ’scompr ehensiont hatot heri ndiv i
duals,too,hav e
theirownconsci ousness, thought s,emot ionsandf eeli
ngs.
o Manybi ologi calsel ect ionf act or shav ebeenpr oposedasexpl anat i
ons
fortheor i
ginoft hesechar act eristics.Thesei nclude, f
orexampl e, sex ual
select ion,ki nsel ectionanddi ffer entf ormsofgr oupsel ection.Ev en
toget her ,howev er,thesef or msofsel ect iondonotseem t obesuf ficient
asanex planat i
onf oremer genceofhumanul tra-soci ali
ty.
o Ther ef ore,soci alsel ect i
onhasbeensuggest edasapr ocesscapabl eof
explai ning,atl eastpar tly,t heev olut i
onofhumansoci alchar act er istics
(Nesse2009) .Ont heot herhand,howev er,nat uralsel ectionandsex ual
select ion ar e al so suf f
ici entt o expl ain cer tain aspect s ofhuman
behav iour.
o Socialsel ectioni s,inaddi tiont onat uralsel ect i
onandsexualsel ect ion, a
thi
rdf orm ofsel ect i
onoper atingi nbi ol ogi calev ol ution.Nat uralsel ect ion
i
nv olvescompet i
tionbet weeni ndi v i
dual sf orecol ogi calr esour ces,and
sexualsel ection i nv ol ves compet i
tion f or sexualpar tners.Soci al
select iononi tspar tcompr i
sescompet itionf orot hersoci alr esour ces
thant hemember soft heopposi tesex.
oI nsoci alsel ect ion,ani mpor tantr ol ei spl ay edbydi fferentaspect sof
positiv eandnegat i
v ef eedbackgi venbymember soft hesoci algr oupi n
whicht hei ndi v i
duali nquest ionl ives.Ther efor e,i npr actice,i nsoci al
select iont heactofsel ect ioni sper for medbyot heri ndividualst hant he
onewhosef i
tnesswi llbeaf fect edbyt hesel ection.
oI nthisr espect ,soci alsel ect i
ont huscl ear lydi ffersf rom sexualsel ect ion
proper .Topr ov i
deanex ampl e,gener osi tyi sat ar getofposi tivesoci al
select ion i n human soci et ies.Soci alsel ect ion i sav eryi mpor tant
candi dat ei nthesear chf oranexpl anat i
onf orul t
ra- social i
ty,sot ypi calof
thehumanspeci es, sur passi ngt heci rcleofki ndr edi ndiv i
dual s; t
her efor e,
i
ti sr egar dedasasi gni ficantf act ori nemer genceandev olut i
onof
humancul ture.
o Biologi calsoci alsel ect ion,whi ch i nv olv es t he bi ologicalf itness of
i
ndi vidual s,mustnotbeconf usedwi tht hecor respondi ngconcepti n
sociol ogy ,whi chmeanst heov er repr esent at i
onorunder represent ation
ofcer tain ki nds ofi ndiv idual si n a gi ven soci algr oup,such as
overrepr esent at i
onoft al lpeopl ei nabasket bal lteam.
o Thet heor yofsoci alsel ectionwasf irstpr esent edi ni t
sent i
rebr eadt hby
theAmer ican t heor et icalbi ologi stMar yJaneWestEber har di nt wo
paper si n1979and1983.Shedef inedsoci al sel ect ionasasuper -typeof
sexualsel ect i
on—soci alcompet itionf oranyki ndofr esour cest hataf fect
choiceoft hemat i
ngpar t
ner ,notonl yascompet itionf ormember soft he
opposi tesexassuch.Accor dingt oWest -Eber har dsoci alsel ect ioncan
 hav e an ef fecton t he ev olut ion ofchar acteristics thatmake t he
i
ndi vidual mor eat tr
act iveasasoci al par tner .
o Thesechar act er
isti
csi ncl ude, fi
r stly, possessi ngr esour cessuchasgood
health and v it
ali
ty, desi r
abl e per sonal capabi l
it
ies, i nfluent i
al
confeder at esandapower f
ulsoci alst atus.Secondl y,theyi ncludean
i
ncl i
nat iont odi str
ibuteone’ sownr esour cesf aithfull
yandsel ectively
withsoci al compani ons.
o Thirdly,t hesechar act eristicsal soi ncl udet heabi l
itytohav eaf eeli
ng
aboutwhatot herindiv idual sexpectf rom acompani on,andf ourthly,a
strong mot i
vat i
ont o pl easecompani onsand ot hermember soft he
socialgr oup.Cer t
ainly,t hesechar act er isti
cscanbef avour ablei nsex ual
select i
on, too.
o Ofcour se,t hesechar act eristicsdonoty etconst itutecul ture,butt hey
maket hehumanspeci escapabl eofcr eatingandembr acingcul ture.
Evolut i
onofcul turebeganonl yaf tert hecogni ti
veandemot ionalski l
ls
required had ev olved.Soci alsel ect ion of fer san expl anat ion f ort he
present ationofsoci al resour cesandgener osity,bot hofwhi char et ypical
ofev er ycul tur e.
o Thus, i
nt heear l
yst agesoft heev ol utionar yhi storyofourspeci es, social
select i
onwoul dhav ebeenabl et ocr eat et hecondi tionsf ordev elopment
ofcul turebygi vi
ngr iset osuchnecessar ycondi ti
onsf orcul tureas
genui neal truism ini ndiv idual sandt heabi l
ityt ocooper ate.Whi lecul t
ure
cannotbeex plained sol elyont hebasi sofnat uralsel ection,sex ual
select i
onandsoci alsel ection,i t,nev er theless,seemspr obabl et hatof
thesef orcessoci alsel ect ionpl ay edanespeci allyi mpor tantr oleatt he
turningpoi ntoft heev ol utionofmanki ndwhencul turebecamepossi ble.
o Assoonascul t
urehadcomei nt oexi stence,soci alselect ionbecamea
select i
v ef actori nitsownr i
ght .I twast henabl et ocr eatemor eandmor e
compl exsoci alski l
lswhi chi nt ur nl edt odev elopmentofmor eandmor e
compl exf ormsofcul tur e.Int hi sway ,themut ualt eamwor kofgenes,
i
ndi vidual s,env i
ronmentandcul tur e,t hesel f-sust ainingquadr upl ehel ix
ofbiol ogi cal andcul tural evolut ion, wasbor n.

Primediff
erencesbet weenbi ologi
calandcultur
alevol
uti
on
 Ther earecleardifferencesbet weenbiologi
calandculturalevol
ution.
Biologi
calevoluti
on issl ow,wher eascul t
uralevol
uti
on israpid and
acceler
ati
ng.Wi thr egardtoor igi
nofnew f orms,cult
uralevol
uti
oni s
evenmor efruit
fulthanbi ol
ogicalevol
uti
on,especi
all
ywheni tcomest o
 creat iveact i
onandbr illianceofi ndiv idual s( Si mont on2000) .
 Thei deat hatbi ologi calev olut i
oni spr eser vingandconser v ativei sal so
ver yf irml yest abl ished;genef r
equenci esofpopul at ionsusual lyr emai n
the same,assumi ng t hatt he ecol ogi calcondi ti
ons do notchange.
Cul turalev olution,i ncont rast,iscumul at i
v e,becausei tisbasedont he
creat iveact ionofpeopl e,andbecausei tinv ol vescol lectionandst or age
ofi nfor mat i
on.
 Asr ecent lyemphasi zed byCast ro and Tor o( 2014) ,teachi ng asan
accumul ati
vemechani sm ofcul tur ali nher itance,i ni tsessencemost
l
ikel yabsenti nnonhumanpr imat es,haspl ay edasi gni f
icantr olei nour
cumul at i
vecul tural ev olut i
on.
 As cul tural t rai ts become mor e compl ex, cumul ative cul tur al
transmi ssion r equi res i ncrement al t eachi ng t o ensur e accur ate
transmi ssionf rom onegener ati
ont ot henext .Thei deat hatbi ologi cal
ev olutioni snotdi rect ed,wher eascul turalev olutionatl eastcanbe
orient ed( and,ati tsbest ,concei ved) ,i sal sowi del yaccept ed.I tisal so
knownt hatbi ologi cal ev olutioni sirrev ersi bleandnonr epet iti
v e.
 Simpl yput ,natur al select ioncannotr uni ncount erf low, and, f orexampl e,
anext inctspeci esnev err etur ns.Incont r ast ,howev er ,culturalev olut i
on
can,as i s wel lknown,be par t
lyr ev ersi ble and r epet iti
v e,as many
ex ampl esi nt hehi stor yofmanki nd—f ori nst ance,t heRenai ssance—
i
llust rat e.Fur t
her , i
tiswel lknownt hatbi ologi cal ev olut ioni spur posel ess
and oppor tunistic as wel las wi thoutdi rect ion Ev olution ofcul ture,
howev er ,i
spur posef ulbecausei tdependsont hei nt ent i
onsofhuman
i
ndi v i
dual sandsoci eties.Consequent ly ,itf ol lowst hatcul tur alev olut i
on
i
npr inci plei sgoal -orient ed.Bot hbi ol ogi calandcul tur alev olutioncr eate
order ,eachi nitsownr eal m.I not herwor ds, theyr esi stgr owt hofent ropy .
Thi scanhappenbecausebot har eopensy stems.
 Howev er,ther esi stancet ogr owt hofent ropyoccur si ndi f
fer entway sin
theset wof or msofev ol uti
on.Theopennessoft hebi ospher eoft heear t
h
rest sont heener gyf rom t heSunorsomeot hersour ce,suchast he
ener gyder ivedf rom hotspr ingsl ocat edatt hebot t om oft heoceans.
Theev oluti
onofcul ture,i ncont rast ,r ecei vesi tsener gyf rom t hel abour
ofhumanbei ngs,andr est sont hecol lect ionandst or ageofi nfor mat i
on
i
nhumanbr ainsorst ocksout sidet hesebr ains.

Bi
ologi
calev
olut
ionandcul
tur
alev
olut
ionaf
fecteachot
her
 Evol utionofhumancul tur ehaspr oceededhandi nhandwi thbi ol ogical
evol utionofourspeci es;i not herwor ds,ourbi ologyandcul turehav e
exper i
enced coev olution.These t wo f orms ofev ol uti
on hav e many
simi larit
ies,butal soshow cl eardi fferences,asshownear l
ieri nt his
paper .Per hapsthemosti mpor tantoft hesi mi larit
iesi sthepr inci pleof
select ion.
I tseemst hatselect i
on( thoughnotonl ynatur alsel ect i
on)i spossi blythe
solemechani sm i nbot hbi ologi calandcul t
ur alev olutiont hatcr eat es
i
nf or mat i
onandi ncr easesi tsquant i
ty .Select i
oncausesani ncr easei n
theamountofnegat iveent ropyorent halpy.
 Thegener altheor yofsel ectionseemst obev ali
di nbot hbi ol ogical
evol utionand,atl eastt oacer taindegr ee,ev olutionofcul ture.I nhi s
monument alwor k The St r
uct ure ofEv olutionar yTheor y,Stephen J.
Goul d emphat i
cal ly pr esentst he v iew t hati n bi ologicalev ol uti
on
select ionoccur satsev erallev els,begi nningatt hel evelofgenesand
passi ng t hrough t he l evelofi ndi vi
dual s and endi ng att he l ev elof
popul ati
onsandspeci es( Gould2002pages595–744) .
 Wit houtdoubt ,thisf orm ofhi er archicalmodelofsel ectionappl iesev en
bett ert oev olut
ionofcul turet hant oev olutionoft hebi ospher e.Wi thin
ther eal m ofcultur e,sel ect i
on,whi ch, i
ncont rastt obi ol ogicalevol ut i
oni s
i
nt hiscaseatl eastpar tlyconsci ous,consi stsofdeci sionsmadeby
i
ndi v i
dual s,teams,di ffer entsoci et i
esand i nst i
tutions,and f inal l
yby
entiresoci eti
esandal lofmanki nd.

Thei
ncor
por
ati
onofbi
ologyandcul
tur
e

 Usingthelanguageanal ogyoft heor eti

calbiologyf ir
stpr esent
edbyt he
Scott
ish dev elopment albi ol
ogi st Conr ad H.Waddi ngton in 1972
(Waddington1972) ,theAmer i
canepi demi ologistRodr ickWallaceand
hiscompat r
iot, phy l
ogeogr apherRober tG.Wal lace( Wal l
aceandWal l
ace
1999),hav epr oposedt hatt hej ointevolut i
onofhumanbi ologyand
cult
urerestsont hemer gingt oget heroft hegenet ic‘language’andt he
cult
ural‘
language’ ,l
anguagebei ngunder st oodi nt hebr oadestsenseof
theword.
 Subsequentt ot hisincorpor ati
on, itbecamepossi bleforhumansoci eti
es
tobehomesf orspeci ali
z ati
onsandassi mi lat
ionst hatar echaracteri
sti
c
onlyofculture.I nt hi
sway ,mor alit
y ,r
eli
gions,ar t,science,poli
ticaland
economicsy st ems,andt heent i
retyofhumancul turei nalli
tsr i
chness
hav
eemer
ged.

 Overthecenturi
es, manytheori
eshav ebeenputforward—andjust
aboutalloft
hem hav ebeenchallenged,di
scounted,andoft
en
ri
dicul
ed.Eacht heoryaccount
sforonlyasmal lpartofwhatwe
knowaboutl anguage.

 Her e,identifi
edbyt heirdispar agingnicknames,arefi
veoft he
oldestandmostcommont heoriesofhowl anguagebegan.
1.
TheBow- WowTheor y
 Accor dingt othist heory ,languagebeganwhenourancest ors
star t
ed i mitat
ing t he nat uralsounds ar ound them.The f i
rst
speech wasonomat opoei c—mar ked byechoi c wor dssuch
asmoo, meow, splash,cuckoo, andbang.
What'
swr ongwi t
hthistheor y?
 Rel ati
v elyfew wor dsar eonomat opoeic,andt hesewor dsv ary
from onel anguaget oanot her.Fori nst
ance,adog'sbarki sheard
asaui n Brazi
l,ham i n Al bania,andwang,wangi n Chi na.I n
addi ti
on,manyonomat opoei cwor dsar eofrecentori
gin,andnot
allar eder i
vedfrom nat uralsounds.
2.
TheDi ng-DongTheor y

 Thistheory
,favouredbyPlatoandPy t
hagoras,
mai nt
ainsthat
speecharoseinr esponsetotheessenti
alqual
i
tiesofobjectsi
n
theenvir
onment .Theorigi
nalsoundspeoplemadewer e
supposedlyinharmonywi t
hthewor l
daroundthem.

What
'swrongwi t
hthistheory
?
 Apartf
rom somer ar
einstancesofsoundsymboli
sm,t her
eisno
per
suasiv
e evidence,in anylanguage,ofan i
nnate connect
ion
bet
weensoundandmeani ng.
3.
TheLa-LaTheory

 TheDanishl i
ngui
stOtt
oJespersensuggestedthatl
anguagemay
have developed f
rom sounds associ
ated wi
thlove,play
,and
(especi
all
y)song.

What
'swr
ongwi
tht
hist
heor
y?

 AsDavidCryst
alnotesin"HowLanguageWor ks"(Penguin,2005)
,
thi
stheorysti
llfai
lst o accountfor"..
.the gap between the
emoti
onalandtherati
onalaspectsofspeechexpressi
on"
 4.ThePooh- PoohTheor y
 This t
heory hol
ds t
hat speech began
withinterj
ect i
ons—spontaneous cries ofpai n( "Ouch!
"),surpri
se
("
Oh! "
),andot heremot i
ons("Yabbadabbado! "
).
What'
swr ongwi tht hi
stheory?
 Nol anguagecont ai
nsv er
ymanyi nter
jecti
ons,and,Crystalpoi
nts
out,"theclicks,i
ntakesofbreath,andot hernoiseswhichar eused
in t
his way bear li
tt
le r
elati
onship to
thev owelsandconsonant sf oundinphonol ogy."
5.TheYo-He- HoTheor y

 Accor
dingtothi
stheory,l
anguageevol
vedfr
om thegrunt
s,
gr
oans,andsnort
sev okedbyheavyphysi
call
abour.

What
'swrongwiththistheory
?
 Though this noti
on mayaccountforsome oft
he rhy
thmi
c
feat
uresofthelanguage,i
tdoesn'
tgov
eryf
ari
nexpl
aini
ngwher
e
wordscomef r
om.

 AsPet erFar bsay si n"Wor dPl ay:WhatHappensWhenPeopl e

Talk"(Vi nt
age,1993) :"Allthesespecul at
ionshav eser i
ousf l
aws,
andnonecanwi thst
andt heclosescr uti
nyofpr esentknowl edge
aboutt hest ructureofl anguageandaboutt heev ol
uti
onofour
species."
 Butdoest hismeant hatallquestionsabouttheor iginofl anguage
are unanswer able? Notnecessar il
y.Ov ert he past20 y ears,
scholarsf rom suchdi v
ersef i
eldsasgenet ics,ant hropology,and
cogniti
v esciencehav ebeenengaged,asKenneal lysay s,in"a
cross-disci
pli
ne,mul tidi
mensi onalt r
easurehunt"t of indouthow
l
anguagebegan.I ti
s,shesay s," t
hehardestpr oblem i nscience
today."

 AsWi l
li
am Jamesremar
ked,"Languagei
sthemostimper
fectand
expensi
vemeansyetdi
scover
edf orcommuni
cat
ingt
hought.
"

Concl
usi
on
 Pri
nciplesofcul turalevoluti
onar eputf or
wardandcompar edtothe
pri
ncipl
es ofbi ologicalev olut
ion.Specialemphasisi sl ai
d on t
he
pri
ncipl
eofsel ectioni ncult
uralevol
uti
on,incl
udingpresent
ationoft
he
conceptofculturalf i
tness.Theimportanceoflanguageasanecessary
conditi
onforculturalevolut
ionisstr
essed.Subsequent
ly,pr
ime.
Q3.How i s case study met
hod hel
pfuli
n under
standi
ng a soci
al
phenomenon?Explainwit
hsuit
abl
eexample.
Appr
oacht
othequest
ion:
I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Writ
et hemeani
ngandsi
gni
fi
canceoft
hecasest
udymet
hodsi
n
br
ief.

Body
:
 Wri
tethemeani
ngandsi
gni
fi
canceoft
hecasest
udymet
hodsi
n
det
ail
s.
 Wr
it
etheMet
hodsUsedi
nCaseSt
udyResear
ch
 Wri
te about t
he char
acter
ist
ics of t
he case st
udy and t
he
adv
antagesandli
mit
ati
ons

Concl
usi
on:
 Wr
it
eit
ssi
gni
fi
cancei
npr
esentcont
ext
.

I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Casest udyresear
chr emainsacont r
oversialdatacollecti
on
approach.However,itisrecognizedwi del
yindifferentsocial
studi
es.That’sbecausei tenablesresearcherstopr ovidein-
depthexplanati
onsofdi f
ferentsocialbehaviours.
 Mostsoci alsci
encesr ecognizecasest udyresear
chdesign
andmet hodsandt hei
rroleshavebecomemor eprominent
.
Thisapproachisusedt oresear chandwr i
teabouttopi
csin
educati
on,sociology,andcommuni ty-
basedissuesli
kedrug
addict
ion,povert
y,andunempl oyment.

I
n soci
alst
udi
es,t
hecasest
udyi
sa r
esear
ch met
hod i
n
 whi
chaphenomenoni
sinvest
igat
edi
nit
sreal
-l
if
econt
ext
.
I
t’
sanempi
ri
cali
nqui
ryandr
esear
chst
rat
egyt
hati
sbased
onani
n-dept
hinvest
igat
ionofagr
oup,event
,ori
ndi
vidualt
o
expl
oret
heunder
lyi
ngpr
inci
plescauses.

 Essent
ial
ly,t
hisst
udycanbedef
inedasanexpl
orat
oryand
descr
ipt
iveanal
ysi
sofacase.But
,whati
sacasest
udyi
n
r
esear
ch?Wel
l,a case can be anyt
hing t
hata r
esear
cher
want
stoi
nvest
igat
e.Thi
scani
ncl
udeaper
son,agr
oup,an
event
,adeci
sion,apol
icy,per
iod,i
nst
itut
ion,oranyot
her
syst
em t
hatcanbest
udi
edhi
stor
ical
ly.

Body:

 Casest
udyi
samet
hodofexpl
ori
ngandanal
yzi
ngt
hel
if
eof
a soci
aluni
t whet
her i
t be an i
ndi
vidual
,fami
ly or a
communi
ty.I
nor
dert
ohaveapr
operunder
standi
ngofevent
oran i
ndi
vidualora communi
ty,one shoul
d go t
hrough
obser
vat
orymet
hodswi
thsci
ent
ifi
cevi
dencesorel
set
he
obser
vershoul
dpr
esentatt
het
imet
heeventi
shappeni
ng.I
t
hel
psi
n pr
ovi
ding cl
uesand i
deasf
orf
urt
herr
esear
ch.I
t
deepensourper
cept
ionandgi
vesuscl
ear
eri
nsi
ghti
ntot
he
l
if
e ofi
ndi
vidualoran eventora gr
oup.Ex:Kul
ari
ng of
Oceani
aRegi
on

Char
act
eri
sti
cs

1.Resear
chercan t
ake one si
ngl
e uni
tormor
e oreven
si
tuat
ionf
orst
udy.

2.Sel
ect
eduni
tisst
udi
edcompr
ehensi
vel
y.

3.Compl
etest
udyofsoci
aluni
tcover
ingal
ltheaspect
s.
 4.Casest
udyi
smor
equal
it
ati
vet
hanquant
itat
ive.

5.Ef
for
tar
emadet
oknow t
hemut
uali
nter
rel
ati
onshi
pof
casualf
act
ors

6.Behavi
oralpat
ter
noft
heuni
tar
edi
rect
lyst
udi
ed

7.Casest
udyr
esul
tsi
nfr
uit
fulhypot
hesi
sal
ongwi
thdat
a
whi
chmaybehel
pfuli
ntest
ingt
hem.

8.Casest
udymet
hodi
sbasedonassumpt
ionofuni
for
mit
y
i
nthebasi
chumannat
ure.

Advant
ages-

 Thr
ough case st
udy r
esear
chercan obt
ainar
eal&
enl
ight
enedr
ecor
dofper
sonalexper
iences.

 Thi
smet
hodenabl
est
her
esear
cher
stot
raceoutt
he
nat
uralhi
stor
yoft
hesoci
aluni
tand i
tsr
elat
ionshi
p
wi
tht
hesoci
alf
act
orsandot
herf
orcesi
nvol
vedi
nit
s
sur
roundi
ngenvi
ronment
.Int
ensi
vest
udyofsoci
aluni
t
i
snotpossi
blet
hroughot
hermet
hod.

 They r
epr
esentr
ealr
ecor
d ofper
sonalexper
iences.
Reveal
snewr
esear
chpr
obl
em.

Li
mit
ati
ons

1)
Casest
udi
esar
esel
dom compar
abl
e.

2)
Processi
smor
esubj
ect
ive.

3)
Dangeroff
alsegener
ali
zat
ional
wayspr
esentasnoanyset
r
ulesar
efol
lowed.
 4)
Case st
udi
esconsume mor
eti
me and r
equi
ret
remendous
expendi
tur
e.

5)
Cor
rectsampl
ingf
orcasest
udi
esar
enotpossi
blei
nlar
ge
soci
ety,hencemet
hodcan’
tbeusedi
nal
lci
rcumst
ances.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofCaseSt
udymet
hod

Theimpor tantchar act er isticsoft hecasest udymet hodar easunder :

1.Undert hismet hodt her esear chercant akeonesi nglesoci alunit
ormor eofsuchuni tsf orhi sst udypur pose;hemayev ent akea
situat i
ont ost udyt hesamecompr ehensi vely.
2.Her et hesel ect eduni tisst udi edi nt ensi velyi .
e.,itisst udiedi n
mi nut edet ai l
s.Gener all
y ,thest udyext endsov eral ongper iodof
ti
met oascer t aint henat uralhi st oryoft heuni tsoast oobt ain
enoughi nfor mat ionf ordr awi ngcor r
ecti nferences.
3.Int hecont extoft hismet hodwemakecompl etest udyoft he
soci aluni tcov eringal lf acet s.Thr ought hismet hodwet ryt o
under standt hecompl exoff act orst hatar eoper at i
vewi thina
soci al uni tasani ntegr at edt otal ity.
4.Undert hi smet hodt heappr oachhappenst obequal i
tati
veand
notquant itat i
v e.Mer equant i
t ativ ei nfor mat ioni snotcol l
ected.
Ever ypossi bl eef forti smadet ocol lecti nfor mat ionconcer ni
ng
allaspect sofl ife.Assuch,casest udydeepensourper cepti
on
andgi vesusacl eari nsi ghti nt ol ife.Fori nstance,undert his
met hodwenotonl yst udyhowmanycr i
mesamanhasdonebut
shal lpeepi nt ot hef act or sthatf orcedhi mt ocommi tcrimes
whenwear emaki ngacasest udyofamanasacr iminal.The
obj ectiveoft hest udymaybet osuggestway st or eformt he
crimi nal .
5.Inr espectoft hecasest udymet hodanef fortismadet oknow
themut ual int er-rel ationshi pofcausal fact ors.
6.Under case st udy met hod t he behav iour pat tern of t he
concer ni nguni ti sst udi eddi rect lyandnotbyani ndir
ectand
abst ractappr oach.
7.Casest udymet hodr esul tsinf rui tfulhy pothesesal ongwi tht he
dat awhi chmaybehel pf ulint est i
ngt hem,andt husi tenabl es
thegener ali
sedknowl edget ogetr icherandr i
cher .Ini t
sabsence,
gener alisedsoci al sci encemaygethandi capped.
Met
hodsUsedi
nCaseSt
udyResear
ch

 Thi
stypeofr
esear
chusest
hesamest
udymet
hodol
ogywi
th
ot
herr
esear
ch t
ypes.But
,the mostcommon case st
udy
r
esear
chmet
hodst
art
swi
tht
hedef
ini
ti
onofasi
ngl
ecase.I
t
canal
sobeagr
oupcompr
isi
ngsi
mil
arcases.Thesecanbe
i
ncor
por
atedf
oramul
ti
ple-
casest
udy.

Thi
sisf
oll
owedbyasear
cht
odet
ermi
newhati
sal
readyknown
aboutt
hecaseorcases.Thi
ssear
chcani
nvol
vear
evi
ew of
gr
eyl
it
erat
ure,r
epor
ts,andmedi
acont
ent
.Thi
srevi
ew pl
aysa
cr
iti
calr
olei
nenabl
ingt
her
esear
cher
stounder
standt
hecase.
I
tal
soi
nfor
msr
esear
cher
swheni
tcomest
odevel
opi
ngcase
st
udyr
esear
chquest
ions.

I
nmostcasest
udi
es,dat
aisof
tenqual
it
ati
ve,t
houghnot
excl
usi
vel
y. Thus, r
esear
cher
s engage i
n case st
udy
qual
it
ati
ver
esear
ch.Whenr
esear
cher
susemul
ti
plecases,
t
heyanal
yzeeachcasesepar
atel
y.Themescanar
isef
rom
asser
tionsoranal
ysi
saboutt
heent
irecase.

 Casest
udyr
esear
chmet
hodol
ogycani
ncl
ude:

 Per
sonali
nter
views

 Ar
chi
valr
ecor
ds

 Psychomet
rict
est
s

 Di
rectobser
vat
ion
 Case st
udi
es ar
e mor
e i
n-dept
h when compar
ed t
o
obser
vat
ionalr
esear
ch.That
’s because t
hey use sever
al
r
ecor
dsormeasur
eswhi
lef
ocusi
ngonasi
ngl
esubj
ect
.In
some cases,a mul
ti
ple-
case desi
gn can be used.What
’s
mor
e,acasest
udycanber
etr
ospect
iveorpr
ospect
ive.
 Ar
etr
ospect
ive case st
udyuses cr
iter
iat
o choose cases
f
rom hi
stor
icalr
ecor
ds.Pr
ospect
ive case st
udi
es,on t
he
ot
herhand,usesest
abl
ished cr
iter
iawhi
lei
ncl
udi
ng ext
ra
casesasl
ongast
heymeett
hesetcr
iter
ia.

Becausecasest
udi
esusequal
it
ati
vedat
ali
ket
heonecol
lect
ed
f
rom i
nter
views, t
hey t
end t
o be mor
e l
iabl
e. However
,
quant
itat
ive dat
a and quest
ionnai
res can al
so be used.For
i
nst
ance,a case st
udy can be used i
n cl
ini
calr
esear
ch t
o
moni
toranddet
ermi
net
heef
fect
ivenessoft
reat
ment
.

TypesofCaseSt
udyResear
ch

 When you r
esear
ch case st
udy,you expl
ore causat
ion t
o
i
dent
ify t
he under
lyi
ng pr
inci
ples. But
,they can’
t be
gener
ali
zedt
o al
argerpopul
ati
ont
hewayr
esear
cher
sdo
when conduct
ing exper
iment
alr
esear
ch.They al
so can’
t
pr
ovi
de pr
edi
cti
ve power t
he same way cor
rel
ati
onal
r
esear
chcando.Rat
her
,theypr
ovi
deext
ensi
vedat
athatcan
beused t
o devel
op new hypot
hesest
hatcan beused f
or
f
urt
herr
esear
ch.I
tcanal
sobeusedt
ost
udyr
arecondi
ti
ons
orevent
sthatar
ehar
d-t
o-st
udy.

Acasest
udyr
esear
chpapercanf
alli
ntoanyoft
hesecat
egor
ies:

Ill
ustr
ative case study-Thi si s a descri
ptive t
ype ofcase
study.Itusesoneort woi nstancest odescribeanevent.The
purpose ofan i l
lust r
ative case studyi sto make whati s
consideredunf amiliarf amil
iar.Italso providesacommon
languagefort hereader saboutasubj ect.

 Explor
atorycasest udy-Thisisalsocall
edapi l
otcasestudy.
Itcompr i
ses condensed case st udi
es thatar e perf
ormed
beforeal arge-scaleinvestigat
ion.Its purpose i
st o help
resear
chersi dentifyr esearch questi
ons and sel ect the
measurementt ypesbef orethemai ni
nvestigati
on.Themaj or
 drawbackoft hi
sstudyi
sthatitcanmakeini
ti
alf i
ndi
ngs
convi
ncing and lead to thei
r pr
ematur
e release as
concl
usions.

 Cumul at
ivecasest udy-Thisisacasest udythatentail
sthe
aggregationofinformati
onf r
om di f
ferentsourcesthatwere
coll
ectedatvaryingtimes.Thegoali stocol l
ectpaststudi
es
to enhance generali
zati
on withoutspendi ng moret i
me or
costonnewandpr obablyrepeti
tivestudies.

 Crit
icalinstancecasest udy-Thi sexaminesoneorsever al
sit
est oexami neasituati
onofspeci f
icinter
estwithnoor
li
ttl
ei nterestingenerali
zing them.Itcan also beused to
challenge or quest i
on uni versal or highl
y general
ized
asser t
ions.Thismethodcanbeusedt oanswert hecause-
and-effectstudyquesti
ons.

Peopl
emaydef
inecasest
udyr
esear
chdi
ffer
ent
lybasedont
hese
maj
ort
ypesoft
hisi
nvest
igat
ion.Never
thel
ess,i
t’
sani
ntensi
veand
syst
emat
ici
nvest
igat
ionofagr
oup,communi
ty,i
ndi
vidual
s,orot
her
uni
tswher
ether
esear
cher
sexami
nei
n-dept
hdat
athatr
elat
eto
sever
alvar
iabl
es.

Exampl
eofCaseSt
udyResear
ch

 Case st
udy def
ini
ti
on i
n r
esear
ch may var
y. However
,
st
udent
s shoul
d be keen t
o choose t
opi
cs t
hey ar
e
comf
ort
abl
eresear
chi
ng and wr
iti
ng about
.Her
ear
ecase
st
udyr
esear
chquest
ionexampl
est
hatbeusedf
ort
hiski
nd
ofi
nvest
igat
ion.

 How and why ar

e empl
oyees abusi
ng dr
ugs at
wor
kpl
aces?

 Howi
ssoci
almedi
ainf
luenci
ngmoder
nbusi
nesses?
  Whatar
et hemostef fect
ivewaysf
orsmal
lbusi
nesses
t
oplantheiradver
tisi
ngbudget?

 Howcansoci
almedi
aadshel
pindr
ivi
ngcust
omer
s?

 Howcanempl
oyeesengagedur
ingt
ought
imes?

 How canabusinessconsi
dersmal
lcust
omer
stomake
bi
ggerprof
its?

 How goodiscarequali
tyforcompl
expat
ient
satmaj
or
Nur
sePr act
iti
oner
-LedCli
nics?

 How effect
ive are paedi
atr
ic pai
n management
pr
act
icesbynurses?
 Di
ffer
entdat
acol
lect
ionmet
hodscanbeusedt
oassessand
under
standeachcasesepar
atel
y.Thi
scanl
eadt
oabet
ter
under
standi
ngoft
hephenomenonunderi
nvest
igat
ion.The
goaloft
he case st
udy r
esear
ch desi
gn i
sto pr
ovi
de a
f
ramewor
kthatcanbeusedt
oeval
uat
eandanal
yzecompl
ex
i
ssues.

 Fori
nst
ance,i
nthel
astt
woexampl
esabove,acasest
udy
canbeusedt
oshedl
ightont
henur
singpr
act
iceasahol
ist
ic
appr
oach.I
tcanal
sopr
ovi
deaper
spect
ivet
hatwi
lli
nfor
m
t
henur
sest
ogi
vei
mpr
ovedcar
etot
hei
rpat
ient
s.

Howt
oDoCaseSt
udyResear
ch

Whenwr
iti
ngacasest
udypaper
,fol
low t
hesest
eps,suggest
ed
byourwr
iti
ngpr
ofessi
onal
s:

1.Determinet
hecaset
ostudy,dat
acol
lect
ionmet
hods,and
theinf
ormati
ont
ogat
her
.

2.Sel
ectt
hesubj
ect
sorpeopl
etopar
tici
pat
eint
hecasest
udy.

3.Prepar
er el
evantmat er
ial
sl i
ke quest
ionnair
es to coll
ect
rel
evanti
nformat
ion.Thisshouldal
soincludeyourresearch
 pr
obl
em.

4.Uset
hecol
lect
eddat
atowr
iteyourcase.

5.Addt
heappendi
cesandr
efer
ences

6.Pr
oof
readandedi
tyourf
inalcasest
udypaper

Ev
olut
ionandscope:
 Thecasest
udymet
hodi
sawi
del
yusedsy
stemat
icf
iel
dresear
ch
t
echni
quei
nsoci
ologyt
heseday
s.Thecr
edi
tfori
ntr
oduci
ngt
his
met
hodt
othef
iel
dofsoci
ali
nvest
igat
iongoest
oFr
eder
icLePl
ay
whousedi
tasahand-
mai
dent
ost
ati
sti
csi
nhi
sst
udi
esoff
ami
l
y
budget
s.Her
ber
tSpencerwast
hef
ir
stt
ousecasemat
eri
ali
nhi
s
compar
ati
vest
udyofdi
ff
erentcul
tur
es.
 Dr
.Wi
l
li
am Heal
yresor
tedt
othi
smet
hodi
nhi
sst
udyofj
uveni
l
e
del
i
nquency
,andconsi
der
edi
tasabet
termet
hodov
erandabov
e
t
he mer
e use of st
ati
sti
caldat
a.Si
mil
arl
y,ant
hropol
ogi
sts,
hi
stor
ians,nov
eli
sts and dr
amat
ist
s hav
e used t
his met
hod
concer
ningpr
obl
emsper
tai
ningt
othei
rar
easofi
nter
est
s.
 Ev
enmanagementexper
tsusecasest
udymet
hodsf
orget
ti
ng
cl
ues t
o sev
eralmanagementpr
obl
ems.I
n br
ief
,case st
udy
met
hodi
sbei
ngusedi
nsev
eraldi
sci
pli
nes.Notonl
ythi
s,i
tsusei
s
i
ncr
easi
ngdaybyday
.
Assumpt
ions:Thecasest
udymet
hodi
sbasedonsev
eralassumpt
ions.
Theimport
antassumpt i
onsmaybel istedasfoll
ows:
1.Theassumpt i
onofunifor
mi tyinthebasichumannaturei nspi
te
of the fact-
that
-human behav i
our may vary according to
si
tuati
ons.
2.The assumption ofstudying the natur
alhist
oryoft he uni
t
concerned.
3.Theassumpt i
onofcompr ehensivestudyoft
heunitconcerned.
Maj
orphasesi
nvol
ved:
Maj
orphasesi
nvol
vedi
ncasestudyar
easfol
l
ows:
1.Recogni
ti
onanddeter
minati
onoft
hestat
usoft
hephenomenon
 tobei nvesti
gatedortheunitofat t
ent
ion.
2.Collecti
on of dat a,exami nati
on and hi stor
y of the gi
ven
phenomenon.
3.Diagnosisandi denti
fi
cati
onofcausalf actorsasabasi sf or
remedi alordevelopmentaltr
eatment.
4.Appl i
cati
onofr emedialmeasur esi.e.
,treatmentandt her
apy
(thi
sphasei sof t
encharacteri
zedascasewor k)
.
5.Follow-up pr ogramme t o det ermi
ne ef fect
iveness of t
he
treatmentappl i
ed.
Adv
ant
ages:Ther
ear
esev
eraladv
ant
agesoft
hecasest
udymet
hod
t
hatf
oll
owf
rom t
hev
ari
ouschar
act
eri
sti
csout
li
nedabov
e.Ment
ionmay
bemadeher eoft hei mpor tantadv ant ages.
1.Being an ex haust i
v e st udyofa soci aluni t,t he case st udy
met hodenabl esust ounder st andf ullyt hebehav i
ourpat ternof
theconcer neduni t.Int hewor dsofChar lesHor tonCool ey,“case
studydeepensourper cept ionandgi vesusacl ear eri nsightinto
l
ife….I tget satbehav iourdi rect l
yandnotbyani ndirectand
abst ractappr oach. ”
2.Thr ough case st udy a r esear cher can obt ainar ealand
enlight enedr ecor dofper sonalexper ienceswhi chwoul dr eveal
man’ si nnerst ri
vings,t ensi onsandmot i
vationst hatdr i
vehi mt o
actional ongwi tht hef or cest hatdi recthi mt oadoptacer tai
n
patter nofbehav i
our .
3.Thismet hodenabl est her esear chert ot raceoutt henat ural
histor yoft hesoci aluni tandi t sr elat i
onshi pwi tht hesoci al
factor sandt hef orcesi nv ol vedi ni tssur roundi ngenv ironment .
4.Ithel psi nf ormul at ingr elev anthy pothesesal ongwi tht hedat a
whi chmaybehel pf uli nt est ingt hem.Casest udies, thus,enabl e
thegener alisedknowl edget ogetr icherandr icher .
5.Themet hodf aci
litat esi nt ensi vest udyofsoci aluni tswhi chis
gener al l
ynotpossi blei fweuseei thert heobser vationmet hodor
themet hodofcol lect ingi nf ormat iont hr oughschedul es.Thi sis
ther easonwhycasest udymet hodi sbei ngf requent l
yused,
particul arlyinsoci al resear ches.
6.Informat i
oncol l
ect edundert hecasest udymet hodhel psal otto
the r esear cheri nt he t ask ofconst ructing t he appr opri
ate
quest ionnai reorschedul ef ort hesai dt askr equi rest hor ough
knowl edgeoft heconcer ninguni v er se.
7.Ther esear chercanuseoneormor eoft hesev eralr esearch
met hodsundert he case st udymet hod dependi ng upon t he
prev alentci rcumst ances.I not herwor ds,t heuseofdi ffer
ent
 met hodssuchasdept hi nt erviews,quest ionnai r
es,document s,
studyr epor tsofi ndi v i
dual s, letter s, andt hel ikeispossi bleunder
casest udymet hod.
8.Casest udymet hodhaspr ov edbenef i
ci ali ndet ermi ningt he
natur e ofuni t
st o be st udi ed al ong wi tht he nat ure oft he
univer se.Thi si st her easonwhyatt i
mest hecasest udymet hod
i
sal ter nat ivelyknownas“ modeofor gani singdat a” .
9.Thismet hodi sameanst owel lunder standt hepastofasoci al
unitbecauseofi tsemphasi sofhi st or i
calanal ysis.Besi des,i tis
alsoat echni quet osuggestmeasur esf ori mprov ementi nthe
cont ex toft hepr esentenv ironmentoft heconcer nedsoci al units.
10. Case st udi esconst it
ut et he per fectt ype ofsoci ological
mat er ialast heyr epr esentar ealr ecor dofper sonalexper iences
whichv eryof tenescapet heat t ent i
onofmostoft heski ll
ed
resear cher susi ngot hert echni ques.
11. Case st udy met hod enhances t he exper ience of t he
resear cherandt hisi nt urni ncr easeshi sanal ysingabi li
tyand
skil
l.
12. Thi smet hodmakespossi bl et hest udyofsoci alchanges.
Onaccountoft hemi nut est udyoft hedi ffer entfacet sofasoci al
unit,t her esear chercanwel lunder st andt hesoci alchanget hen
andnow.Thi sal sof aci l
i
t atest hedr awi ngofi nf erencesand
helpsi nmai ntai ningt hecont i
nui t yoft her esearchpr ocess.I n
fact,itmaybeconsi der edt hegat ewayt oandatt hesamet ime
thef inal dest i
nat ionofabst ractknowl edge.
13. Casest udyt echni quesar ei ndi spensabl ef ort her apeut i
c
andadmi ni str
at i
v epur poses.Theyar eal soofi mmensev aluei n
takingdeci sionsr egar dingsev er almanagementpr oblems.Case
dataar equi teusef ulf ordi agnosi s,t her apyandot herpr actical
casepr obl ems.

Li
mit
ati
ons:I
mpor
tantl
i
mit
ati
onsoft
hecasest
udymet
hodmayaswel
l
behighlighted.
1.Case si t
uati
ons ar e seldom compar able and as such t he
i
nf ormat i
ongat heredincasest udiesi sof tennotcompar abl e.
Sincet hesubjectundercasest udyt el
lshistoryinhisownwor ds,
l
ogi calconcept sanduni t
sofsci entif
icclassif
icati
onhavet obe
readi ntoitoroutofitbyt hei
nvestigator.
2.Read Bai n does notconsi dert he case dat a as si
gnif
icant
scientifi
c data since theydo notpr ov
ide knowl edge oft he
“i
mper sonal, uni
v er
sal
, non-ethical, non-practi
cal,repetit
ive
 aspect sofphenomena. ”Reali nformat ioni sof tennotcol lected
becauset hesubj ectivi
tyoft her esear cherdoesent eri nt he
collect i
onofi nformat ioninacasest udy .
3.Thedangeroff alsegener ali
sat i
oni salway st her einv iewoft he
factt hatnosetr ulesar efollowedi ncol lect i
onoft hei nf ormat ion
andonl yf ewuni t
sar est udied.
4.Itconsumesmor et i
meandr equiresl otofexpendi t
ur e.Mor e
ti
mei sneededundercasest udymet hodsi nceonest udyt he
natur al hi
st orycyclesofsoci al unit
sandt hatt oomi nutel y.
5.Thecasedat aar eof tenv it
iatedbecauset hesubj ect,accor ding
toReadBai n,maywr it
ewhathet hinkst hei nv estigatorwant s;
and t he gr eatert he r appor t,the mor e subj ectivet he whol e
processi s.
6.Casest udymet hodi sbasedonsev eralassumpt i
onswhi chmay
notbev eryr eali
sticatt imes, andassucht heusef ulnessofcase
datai sal way ssubj ecttodoubt .
7.Casest udymet hodcanbeusedonl yinal i
mi tedspher e.,itisnot
possi blet ousei ti ncaseofabi gsoci et y.Sampl i
ngi sal sonot
possi bleunderacasest udymet hod.
8.Responseoft hei nv esti
gat ori sani mpor tantl imitationoft he
casest udymet hod.Heof tent hinkst hathehasf ullknowl edgeof
theuni tandcanhi msel fanswerabouti t.I ncaset hesamei snot
true,t henconsequencesf ollow.Inf act,t hisismor et hef aultof
ther esear cherr athert hant hatoft hecasemet hod.

Concl
usi
on:
I
nanut
shel
l,acasest
udyent
ail
scol
lect
ingdat
athatl
eads
t
o a bet
ter under
standi
ng of a phenomenon. The
met
hodol
ogyofacasest
udypr
ovi
desaf
ramewor
kthati
s
usedt
oanal
yzeandeval
uat
emor
ecompl
exi
ssues.

Q4.Whatar ethet
oolsofdat
acoll
ecti
on?Di
scusstheadvant
agesand
l
imitat
ions ofpart
ici
pant– observ
ati
ons as a t
echni
que ofdata
col
lect
ion.

Appr
oacht
othequest
ion:
I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Wr
it
ethemeani
ngoft
het
ool
sofdat
acol
l
ect
ioni
nbr
ief
.

Body
:
 Wri
teabouttheprosandconsofdatacol
l
ect
ionmethods
(
comparison)
 Wri
teaboutthepart
ici
pant–obser
vati
onsmethodi
ndetai
l
 Discuss the adv
antages and l i
mit
ati
ons of par
ti
cipant –
observat
ionsasat
echniqueofdat
acoll
ect
ion.
Concl
usi
on:
 Wr
it
eit
spr
esentsi
gni
fi
cance

I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Thedev i
cesori nst
rumentsusedt ocol l
ectthedataarecal
leddata
col
lect
iontools.Thet ool
sar equestionnai
resonpaper sorsyst
em
based(vir
tualform)inter
views,checkli
sts,
inter
views,
etc.Whatare
quanti
tat
ivedatacollecti
onmet hods?
 Datacollect
ionmethodi
st hepr
ocessofgat
heri
nginf
ormat
ion
fr
om diff
erentsour
cestofi
ndanswerst
ospeci
fi
cprobl
emsand
quest
ions.

 The goalisto discov

erqualit
y evi
dence t
hatal
l
ows y
ou t
o
for
mulatecr
edi
bleanswersandconcl
usi
ons.

 Dataempowersyout omakei nformeddecisi

ons,spotpr oblems,
back up yourarguments,discovert r
ends and patterns,and
under
standyourtar
getcustomer sandaudit
ory.Today
,col lecti
ng
datai
sthekeytoalmostanymar ket
ingandbusi
nessstrategy .

I
nant hr
opologyl
istofthetoolsofdatecoll
ecti
onareobser vat
ion,
i
ntervi
ew,schedules,quest
ionnair
e,Casest udy,genealogy,l
ife-
hi
story, oral hist
ory, secondary sources of i nf
ormation,
parti
ci
pator
ymet hods.Anal
ysis,i
nter
pret
ati
onandpr esentat
ionof
data.
THEPROSANDCONSOFDATACOLLECTI ONMETHODS
(COMPARISON)
 Here,wewil
lcompar
ethemostpopulardat
agatheri
ngmet
hods
andtechni
quesi
natabl
efor
mf oryourconveni
ence.

Dat
aCollect
ion
Method Adv antages Disadv ant ages
–Accur at escreening.
Thei nterv i
eweecan’ t
providef alse –Hi ghcost sast his
informat ionsuchas met hodr equi reast aff
gender ,age, orrace. ofpeopl et operform
–Thei nt ervewercan t
i hei nt
er vi
ew.
captur er aw –Thequal i
tyoft he
1.Intervi
ew emot ions, tone,voice, col lecteddat adepends
Theint er
viewisa andwor dchoi cest ogainont heabi lit
yoft he
meet i
ngbet weenan adeeperunder standing.i
nt ervi
ewert ogat her
–I nterviewer scanask dat awel l
.
i
nterviewerand
foll
ow- upquest i
onsand–At ime- consumi ng
i
nterviewee.Inter
v i
ews
requireaddi ti
onal processt hatinv olves
canbedonef ace-to- inf
or mat ionto transcription,
faceorv i
av i
deo under standat ti
tudes, or ganizat ion,repor t
ing,
conferencingtools. mot ivati
ons, etc. etc.
Dat
aCollect
ion
Method Adv
ant
ages Di
sadv
ant
ages
–Easeofdat a
col l
ect ion–anonl ine –Sur v ey
sur veywi thahundr edorf raud.Answer smaynot
mor er espondent scan behonest .Ther ear e
beconduct edf ast . peopl ewhoanswer
–Onl inesur vey sar e onlinesur veysj ustt o
easi lyaccessi bl eand r ecei veapr omi sed
canbedepl oy edv ia rewar d.
manyonl i
nechannel s –Manyquest ions
l
ikeweb, mobi le, emai l, mi ghtbel eft
2.Sur veysand etc. unanswer edand
Quest i
onnai r
es –Lowpr icecompar ed par t
icipant smaynot
Theyar eusedt oask t oot hermet hods stayf ul lyengagedt o
respondent sasetof –Easyt oanal y seand t heend.
quest i
ons( bot ht ypes pr esentwi th –Wi thoutsomeonet o
–open-andcl osed- di fferentdat a expl ain, par t
icipants
endedquest i
ons) .Ov ervisual i
zat i
ont ypes mayhav edi fferent
thepastdecade, the –Awi der angeofdat a int erpr etat i
onsofy our
useofonl i
nesur v eys t ypescanbecol lect ed quest ions.
hassky r
ocket ed. suchasat ti
tudes, –Cannotf ull
ycapt ure
opi nions, values, et c. emot ionsandf eeli
ngs.
–Easymeasur et he –Hi ghcost s–f ocus
react ionof groupsar emuchmor e
3.FocusGr oups cust omer st oy our expensi v ecompar edto
Af ocusgr oupi ncludesbr and, product s, or sur vey s.
dialoguewi thagr oup mar ketingcampai gns. –Moder at or
ofdel i
beratelysel ed–Themoder
ect atorcan Bi as.Moder ator scan
partici
pantswho askquest ionst ogai na hav easi gnifi
cant
discussapar ti
cular deeperunder standi ngofimpactont heout come
topic.Parti
ci pant s’ t her espondent s’ oft hedi scussi on.
answer sinf uenceeachemot
l ions. –Forsensi tive
otherdur i
ngt he –Themoder atorcan t opics, par t
icipants
discussion.Thef ocus obser venon- ver bal cannotgi vehonest
groupi sledbya responses, suchasbodyanswer s.
personcal leda l
anguageorf aci al –Theext r
ov ert
moder ator. ex pressi ons. member scan
–Pr ov idebr ainst ormingdomi nat et he
Dat
aCollect
ion
Method Adv
ant
ages Di
sadv
ant
ages

conver sationwi tha

oppor tuniti
esand mor eaggr essive
par ti
cipant scancr eate appr oacht ogi ving
newi deas. feedback.
–Si mpl et ocol lect
dat a.Obser vationdoes
notr equi retechski lsof–Cannotst
l udy
ther esear cher . atti
tudesandopi nions
–Al l
owsf oradet aied byobser
l ving.
descr ipt i
onof –Cant akeal otof
4.Obser v ati
on behav i
our s,intentions, t i
mei ft heobser verhas
Observ at i
oni nvolvesaandev ent s. towai tf orapar ticular
personwhoobser v es –Gr eat eraccur acy eventt ohappen.
events, peopl e,and anddat aqual i
ty.The –Ahi ghpot entialfor
i
nteract i
onsar ounda obser v ercanv iew observ er ’
ssubj ectiv e
topictopr ovidear ich par ti
cipant sint heir bias.Theper sonal view
descriptionoft hem. nat ural environmentandoft heobser vercanbe
Observ at i
onhappensi ndirectlycheckt heir anobst aclet omaki ng
thenat ur alsettngof behav
i i
our . vali
dconcl usions.
thepar ticipant. –Doesn’ tdependon –Expensi vemet hod.I t
Ethnogr aphi cresear ch,peopl e’swi l
lingnesst o r equir
esahi ghcost ,
forexampl e,r
elies repor t.Some effort
,andpl entyof
pri
mar ilyon respondent sdon’ twant t i
me.
observ ation. tospeakabout –Si t
uat ionsoft hepast
themsel vesordon’ thav
ecannotbest udied.
Dat
aCollect
ion
Method Adv
ant
ages Di
sadv
ant
ages

ti
mef ort hat.
–Easeofdat a
col l
ect i
on–t hedat a
alreadyexi stsandno
5.Recor dsand addi t
ional ef fortis
Document s needed.
Thismet hodi nvoles –Noneedofsear
v ching –I nformat ionmaybe
extract i
ngand andmot i
v ating outofdat eor
analy singdat af r
om respondent st o inapplicable.
existingdocument s. par t
icipate. –Thepr ocessof
Thedocument scanbe–Al lowsy out ot rack ev aluatingdocument s
i
nter nal toan progr ess.Hel psy ou andr ecor dscanbet i
me
organi zat i
on( suchas under standt hehi story - consumi ng.
emai ls, salesreports, behindanev entand –Canbeani ncomplete
recor dsofcust omer t rackchangesov era datacol lectionmet hod
feedback, activit
ylogs,per i
odoft ime.For becauset her esearcher
purchaseor ders,et ) ex
c. ampl e,youmaywant hasl esscont rolover
orcanbeex ternal tof i
ndoutwhyt her ear etheresul ts.
(suchasGov ernment lot sofnegat i
v er ev iews –Somedocument s
repor ts). from y ourcust omer s maybenotpubl icl
y
abouty ourpr oduct s.In available
Dat
aCollect
ion
Method Adv
ant
ages Di
sadv
ant
ages

t
hiscase,
youcanl
ookat
r
ecordedcust
omer
s’
f
eedback.

 Parti
ci
pantobservati
onisaspecifi
ct y
peofdatacoll
ectiontypicall
y
usedinethnographyorquali
tat
iveresear
ch.Sever
aldiscipl
i
nesuse
thi
smet hodol
ogyasschol ar-
pract
iti
oner
swor ktogai nacl oseor
i
ntimatefamil
iari
tywit
haspecificgroupofindi
vi
dual
si nat argeted
demographic.

 Anycommuni t
ycan become partofa par tici
pantobser v
at i
on
met hod of dat a col l
ect
ion. Occupat
ional , rel
igious, and
geographicaldemographi
csarecommonpoi ntsofi nterestwhen
evaluati
ngcommuni cati
onstudi
es,soci
alpsy chology,orcul tural
anthropology.

 Thef i
rstuseoft hi
smet hoddatestot heear
ly19thcentur
ywhen
JosephMar iestatedt hatthe“bestwayt ogett oknow Indi
ans
(Nativ
eAmer icans)ist obecomel i
keoneoft hem,anditi sby
l
ear ni
ngt hei
rlanguaget hatwewi l
lbecomet hei
rfel
low ci
ti
zens.
”
FrankCushi ng,Bronisl
awMal i
nowski,andMargaretMeadwer eal
l
extensiv
euser softhiscoll
ecti
onopti
on.
  Sever
aladv
antagesanddi
sadvantagesofparti
cipantobserv
ati
on
arewort
hnoti
ngwhenappr
oachingaquali
tat
iveresearchproj
ect
.

Li
stoft
heAdv
ant
agesofPar
ti
cipantObser
vat
ion

I
tpr
ovi
desr
esul
tst
hatl
endv
ali
dit
ytoapr
oposedt
heor
y.

 Parti
ci
pant obser
vat
ion pr
ovi
des hi
gh l
evel
s of f
lexi
bil
i
tyf
or
resear
cher
s.

 Mor
einsi
ght
sbecomeav
ail
abl
ebecauseofpar
ti
cipantobser
vat
ion.

I
tprovi
des pr
acti
caladv
ant
ages t
o dat
a col
l
ect
ion t
hatot
her
met
hodscannot
-use.

 Par
ti
ci
pantobser
vat
ioncancapt
urechangi
ngat
ti
tudes.

I
topenst
hedoorf
orr
esear
cherspecul
ati
on.

 Resear
cher
shav
emor
eway
stopr
oducer
eal
resul
ts.

 Theinfor
mat
iongat
her
edbypar
ti
cipantobser
vat
ionasapr
edi
cti
ve
qual
i
t y
.

 Par
ti
ci
pantobser
vat
ioncanbeanopen-
endedpr
ocess.

I
tpr
ovi
desi
nsi
ghti
ntoani
ndi
vi
dual
orgr
oupat
ti
tude.

Li
stoft
heDi
sadv
ant
agesofPar
ti
cipantObser
vat
ion

 Par
ti
ci
pantobser
vat
ionhasahi
ghr
iskofbi
asent
eri
ngt
hedat
a.

 Ther
epr
esent
ati
vesampl
ebei
ngst
udi
edi
srel
ati
vel
ysmal
l
.

I
tt akesa lotoft
ime t
o gat
herf
act
ualdat
a usi
ng par
ti
cipant
observat
ion.

 Et
hical
quest
ionsex
istf
ort
hisqual
i
tat
iver
esear
chmet
hod.

 Sel
f-
sel
ect
ioncancausei
nfor
mat
ionbi
ast
oappeari
nthecol
l
ect
ed
dat
a.
  Par
ti
ci
pantobser
vat
ionr
eli
esheav
il
yont
heski
l
lsoft
her
esear
cher
.

 Thedatacoll
ect
edt
hroughpar
ti
cipantobser
vat
ioni
ssomewhat
subj
ect
ive.

 Par
ti
ci
pant
-obser
vat
ion-
gat
her
s-si
tuat
ion-
speci
fi
c-dat
a.

I
tcan be chal
lengi
ng t
o dupl
i
cat
ethe r
esul
ts ofpar
ti
cipant
obser
vat
ionwor
k.

 Resear
cher
smusthav
efami
l
iar
it
ywi
tht
hesubj
ectmat
tert
hey
st
udy.

I
tdoesnotpr ov
ideast
ati
sti
calr
epr
esent
ati
onoft
hegat
her
ed
i
nter
vent
ion.

Concl
usion
 Parti
cipantobserv at
ionrequiresresearcher
st obecomesubjecti
ve
parti
cipantsinthesenset hatt heyusetheinformati
ongainedfr
om
personalinvolvementt ointeractwit
horgai nfurt
heraccesstothe
group bei ng studied. Thi s acti
vit
yi mplies a dimension of
i
nformat i
ont hatisoftenlackingwhenconduct ingsurv
eysordir
ect
i
ntervi
ews.

Itisamet hodt hatal

sor equi
resresearcher
st obeobject
iveand
recor
dev ery
thingthathappensaroundt hem wit
houtl
etti
ngthei
r
emotionsorfeeli
ngsinf
luencethei
rfindi
ngs.

 When r evi
ewing t he participant observati
on adv ant
ages and
disadvantages, iti s essent i
al t
o r emember t hat authenti
c
objectiv
ityi
sani dealsituat
ion, buti
tisrarelyanact ual
it
y.Allofus
seet hewor ldwel iveint hroughdi ff
erentey esbecauseofour
environment,indi
v i
dualchoices,andper sonalizedinfl
uences.That
meanst heonl yresearchert hatis100% accur at
ei sanunbi ased
i
ndividualwhoi salreadyfami l
iarwit
ht hesmal ldemogr aphicin
quest i
on
Q5.Compareandcont
rastbet
weenquest
ionnai
reandschedul
east
ool
s
ofdat
acoll
ect
ion.

Appr
oacht
othequest
ion:
I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Wr
it
ethemeani
ngoft
hebot
hquest
ionnai
reandschedul
einbr
ief
.
Body
:
 Wr
it
ethemeani
ngoft
hebot
hquest
ionnai
reandschedul
eindet
ail
.
 Writ
et he Compar
e and cont
rastbet
ween quest
ionnai
re and
schedul
eastool
sofdat
acoll
ect
ion.
Concl
usi
on:
 Wr
it
ethebal
ancedv
iewoft
hebot
hthemet
hods.

I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Bothquest i
onnaire,andschedul earepopularl
yusedmet hodsof
coll
ecti
ngdat ainr esear
chser vi
ce.Thereismuchr esembl ancei n
natureoft heset womet hods,butint hetechnicalpoi ntofv iew,
therei
sdi f
ferencebetween,two.
 Bothquest i
onnaireandschedulesaremuchusedt ool
sgat heringa
vari
etyofdat a.Theyhav ebeenusedf orthecollecti
onofper sonal
prefer
ences,soci almuch ot her dat
a,t he increasing use of
schedules and quest i
onnai
re is probably due t o i ncreased
emphasi s by socialscienti
ston quant i
tat
ive measur ementof
unif
orm accumul ateddata
Di
ff
erences:

 Quest ionnai rei s sel f

-admi nistered,and schedul es i s a br i
dge
betweent hei nterviewer ,andr espondent .
 Quest ionnai rearegener all
ysentt hroughmai lt oinfor mant stobe
answer edasspeci fi
edi nacov eringl etter .Schedul ei sgener all
y
fi
ll
edoutbyt her esear chwor kerwhocani nt erpretquest ionswhen
necessar y.
 Tocol l
ectdat athroughquest i
onnai reisr elat ivelycheap.Tocol lect
dat a t hrough schedul e i s r elat i
vely mor e expensi ve as a
consi derable amountofmoneyhas t o be spenti n appoi nting
enumer atorandr esear chwor kerandi mpar tingt rainingt ot hem.
Schedul ei sf acet of acei nteractionwher er esearchersi t
swi th
i
nf ormantandr eadsoutquest ionnai re,andnot esdownanswer s.
 Nonr esponsei susual l
yhi ghi ncaseofquest ionnai re,andmany
peopl er eturnquest ionswi thoutanswer ingal lquest i
ons,howev er,
non- r
esponsei nschedul eisgener all
yv er yl ow becauset hesear e
fi
ll
edbyt her esear cherwhoi sabl et ogetanswert oal lquest ions,
butt herer emai nsI nterviewerbi asandcheat ingi nschedul e.
I ncaseofquest i
onnai re, i
tisnotal way scl earast owhor epl i
es, but
i
ncaseofschedul ei dent i
tyofr espondenti sknown.Al so, condi tion
under whi ch t he r esponses wer e gi v en i s not known i n
quest ionnaire.
 Quest ionnai re met hod i sl i
kel yt o be v er y sl ow si nce many
respondent s,donotr eturnquest i
ons,despi tesev er alr emi nder s,
buti ncaseofschedul ei nformat i
oni scol lect edwel lint i
me.
 Quest ionnai remet hodcanbeusedonl ywhent her espondent sar e
l
iterateandcooper at i
ve,buti ncaseofschedul e,infor mat ioncan
becol lected, eveni ni l
li
teratesoci ety.
 Riskofcol lecti
ngi ncompl eteandwr ongi nf ormat ioni sr elat
ively
mor eunderquest i
onnai remet hod, parti
cul ar l
ywhent hepeopl ear e
unabl et ounder standt hequest ionpr oper ly.Buti ncaseofschedul e
thei nformat i
oncol lectedi sgener allycompl et eandaccur ateas
enumer atorscanr emov et hedi fficulti
es.

Concl
usi
on:
 Thesuccessofquesti
onnai
remethodl
iesmoreint
hequal
it
yofa
quest
ionnai
rei
tsel
f,butinthecaseofschedul
esmuchdepends
 upon how honest
y and compet
ency of t
he enumer
atorand
resear
cher
.

Q6.Cri
ti
cal
lyexaminethecontri
but
ionofPosi
ti
vi
standNon-
Posi
ti
vi
st
appr
oachesi
nSocialSci
enceResear
ch.
Appr
oacht
othequest
ion:
I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Wr
it
ethemeani
ngoft
hePosi
ti
vi
standNon-
Posi
ti
vi
sti
nthebr
ief
.
Body
:
 Wr
it
ethemeani
ngoft
hePosi
ti
vi
standNon-
Posi
ti
vi
sti
nthedet
ail
.
 Wr
it
ethecompar
isonbet
weent
hebot
hindet
ail
.
Concl
usi
on:
 Wri
tethe main adv
ant
ages bet
ween bot
h met
hods and i
ts
si
gni
fi
cance.
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Posit
ivi
sts bel
ieve society shapes the i
ndi
vidual and use
quanti
tat
ive methods,interpr
eti
vi
sts bel
i
eveindivi
dual
s shape
soci
etyandusequalit
ati
vemet hods.
 Non-
Posi t
ivi
stsconsi
derunderst
andi
ngthesubjecti
vityofaperson
asataskofsoci ali
nvesti
gati
on.I
tadmit
st hatabsoluteobj
ect
ivit
y
i
snotpossi bl
e.Butatthesamet imesociologi
stsli
kemaxWeber
ar
guet hatsociali
nvesti
gati
onsshoul
dbedoneobj ectiv
elyasfar
aspossibl
e.
 Positi
vism and Inter
pret
ivi
sm ar ethetwo basi
capproachest o
research met hods in Soci ol
ogy. Posi
ti
vi
st pref
er scienti
fi
c
quantitat
ive methods, while Int
erpr
eti
vi
sts pr
efer humanisti
c
quali
tativ
emet hods.
Posi
ti
vi
sm

 Posi ti
v istspr ef erquant itative met hods such as soci alsur vey s,
structur ed quest ionnai res and of f
icialst ati
st i
cs because t hese
hav egoodr eli
abi li
tyandr epr esent ati
v eness.
 Posi ti
v istsseesoci etyasshapi ngt hei ndivi
dualandbel iev
et hat
‘
soci al fact s’shapei ndividual act ion.
 The posi tivi
st t radi ti
on st resses t he i mpor t
ance of doi ng
quant itativer esear chsuchasl ar ge-scal esur v
ey sinor dert ogetan
ov erviewofsoci et yasawhol eandt ouncov ersoci altrends,such
ast her elationshi pbet weeneducat ionalachi evementandsoci al
class.Thi st ypeofsoci ologyi smor ei nterested int rendsand
pat t
er nsr at hert hani ndividuals.
 Posi ti
v istsal sobel iev ethatsoci ologycanandshoul duset hesame
met hodsandappr oachest ost udyt hesoci alwor l
dt hat“ natur al”
sciences such as bi ology and phy si
cs use t oi nvestigatet he
phy sicalwor ld.Byadopt ing “sci ent i
fi
c”t echni quessoci ol
ogi sts
shoul d be abl e,ev entual ly
,t o uncov ert he l aws t hatgov ern
soci etiesj ustassci enti
st shav edi scov eredt hel awst hatgov ern
thephy si
cal wor ld.
 Inposi tivi
str esear ch, soci ologistst endt ol ookf orr el
ati
onshi ps, or
‘
cor relat i
ons’bet weent woormor ev ari
ables.Thi sisknownast he
compar ativemet hod.

I
nter
pret
ivi
sm orNon-
Posi
ti
vi
st

 AnInter pretivi
stappr oacht osoci alr esearchwoul dbemuchmor e
quali
tative,usi ng met hods such as unst r
uctured i nter v
iews or
part
icipantobser v
at i
on
 Int
erpret i
v i
sts,orant i
-positiv
ist sar guet hatindi
vidual sar enotj ust
puppet swhor eactt oext er
nal soci alforcesasPosi ti
vistsbel i
eve.
 Accordingt oI nt
erpretivistsindi vidualsar eintr
icat eandcompl ex
and di fferent peopl e exper ience and under st and t he same
‘
objectiver eali
ty’inv erydi ff
erentway sandhav et heirown,of ten
verydi fferent,reasons f oract i
ng i nthe wor ld,t hus sci entifi
c
methodsar enotappr opr i
ate.
 Int
erpretiv i
stsresearchmet hodsder i
v efrom ‘
social actiont heory‘
 Int
erpretiv i
stsact uall
ycr i
ti
cise‘ scientif
icsociol ogy’( Posi t
ivi
sm)
becausemanyoft hest ati
sti
csi tr el
iesonar ethemsel v essocial l
y
construct ed.
 Int
erpretiv i
stsarguet hati nor dert ounder standhumanact i
onwe
 needtoachi
eve‘
Ver
stehen‘,orempathet
icunder
standi
ng– we
needtoseethewor
ldthroughtheeyesoftheactorsdoingt
he
acti
ng.

Concl
usi
on:
 Positi
vism and I
nter
pret
ivi
sm ar
et hetwo basi
capproachest o
research methods in Sociol
ogy. Posi
ti
vi
st pref
er scient
if
ic
 quant
it
ati
ve methods, whi
l
e I
nter
pret
ivi
sts pr
efer humani
sti
c
qual
it
ati
vemethods.

Q7.Tracethegenesi
sanddevel
opmentoff
iel
dwor
kinanthropologi
cal
resear
ch.Assessi
tsi
mport
anceint
hedevel
opmentofAnt
hropology.
Appr
oacht
othequest
ion:
I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Wr
it
ethesi
gni
fi
canceofFi
eldwor
ktr
adi
ti
oni
nbr
ief

Body
:

 Wri
tethemeaningandsignif
icanceoffieldworktr
adit
ion
 Wri
tethecontri
buti
onsofanthropol
ogi
st
 Wri
te about the genesis and dev elopment of fiel
dwor
ki n
ant
hropol
ogicalr
esear
ch.
 Wri
teaboutt heimport
anceinsol v
ingt heissuesrel
atedtotr
ibal
community
Concl
usi
on:
 Wr
it
ethewhet
heri
thasanysi
gni
fi
cancei
npr
esentcont
ext

I
ntr
oduct
ion:

 Oneoft hebasi
cf eat
uresofant hr
opology,di
stinguishi
ngitfrom
otherr
elat
edsubj
ects,especi
all
yonesf rom t
hesoci alsci
ences,i
s
theimport
anceat
tachedbyanthropologytofi
eldwork.
 Fiel
dwor kis def
ined as the fi
rst
-hand obser vat
ion ofhuman
societi
estounderstandpeopleandtheircultur
einnat ur
alhabi
tat.
The need forthe dev el
opmentoff ieldworkt r
aditi
on was f
irst
real
ized as a reaction t
or emovet he infl
uence ofar mchair
anthropol
ogybasedont heval
ues,att
itudesandi deasofwester n
 soci
ety
,promotedbysoci
alant
hropol
ogi
stsi
ncl
udi
ngLH Mor
gan
andEB'Ty
lor.
 Thoughsomei ndividualst udieswer edoneear l
ieral
so,buti twas
Frans’
sboaswhost ressedonhav i
ngamandat or
yf i
eldwork(by
endoft he19t hcent ury)bef oremaki nganygener al
izat
ion.Along
withhisstudents,hest artedt hefiel
dwor ktr
adit
ionandcar r
iedout
manyst udieson t he originalinhabitantsofAmer i
ca in Bri
ti
sh
Columbia.Soon,l argenumber soff i
eldworkswer ecarr
iedoutby
social
anthropologistsfrom Br it
ainandAmer i
ca.
 By1922,whenBr oni
slaw Mali
nowskipublishedthefi
rstdetai
led
fi
eldwork" Argonauts of West er
n Pacifi
c",fiel
dworktradit
ion
becamet hehallmarkofsoci alanthropol
ogyand displ
ayed the
i
mpor tance ofpar ti
cipantobservat
ion (f
iel
dworktechni
que)i n
explanati
onofhumani ty.
 Mal i
nowskisetnew st andar dsandrulesfori mmer si
oni ntri
bal
societi
esandunderst andt hem.Today ,manynewt echni
queshav e
beenaddedt of i
eldwor k,l i
keani nt
ervi
ew,casest udy,etc.for
continui
ngthefiel
dwor kt raditi
onandextendt hetypeofsoci et
ies
studiedbyant
hropol ogists,forhav
ingabetterunderstandingofthe
origi
nanddevelopmentoft hehumanfrom allperspecti
ves.

 Manyf i
eldworkersf i
ndthisapersonallytransformingexperi
ence.
Av ari
antofpar t
icipantobservati
onal soexi stswi t
hinbiol
ogical
anthr
opology,wher e pri
matologi
sts may anal yse the social
dynamicsofamonkeyorapesoci etybyspendi nglongper i
ods
observi
ngt hegr oupandbei ngt o someext entacceptedbyi t.
Howev er
,thecr ucialdif
fer
encei sthatonl yhumanbei ngscant alk
totheanthropologistandrefl
ectont heirsocietythr
oughlanguage.

Dev
elopmentoff
iel
dwor
kinant
hropol
ogi
calr
esear
ch.

I
tist
ruet
hatal
lev
ent
staki
ngpl
acei
nsoci
etycannotbest
udi
edat
t
hesamet
ime.I
tisal
sot
ruet
hatal
lphenomenaar
enotv
isi
blet
o
senseor
gan.I
ntheseci
rcumst
ances,anant
hropol
ogi
stt
akeshel
p
ofot
hert
echni
quesofdat
acol
l
ect
ionsuchasi
nter
view,
casest
udy
,
schedul
e,quest
ionnai
re,
etc.
 Al
ltechni
ques ofdat
a col
l
ect
ion hav
e some adv
ant
ages and
di
sadv
ant
ages.Ther
efor
e,anant
hropol
ogi
stt
akeshel
pofmor
e
t
hanonet
echni
que,whenheorshegoest
ocol
l
ectdat
afr
om t
he
f
iel
d.I
nfi
eldwor
k,anant
hropol
ogi
stgoest
othef
iel
dandst
ays
wi
tht
he peopl
e whom he want
sto st
udy
.He obser
ves t
he
phenomenaunderst
udyandr
ecor
dst
hem sy
stemat
ical
l
y.Thus,
f
iel
dwor
kisani
mpor
tantmeansf
ort
heant
hropol
ogi
stt
oexpl
ore
andanal
yset
hedat
aandt
odev
elopat
heor
yint
hebasi
s.

 The f
oundat
ion ofev
olut
ionar
ytheor
yint
he f
iel
d ofcul
tur
al
ant
hropol
ogy i
s r
egar
ded as t
he t
heor
eti
cal begi
nni
ng i
n
ant
hropol
ogy
.Butcul
tur
alev
olut
ioni
stsar
egener
all
ycr
it
ici
zedas
ar
mchai
rant
hropol
ogi
st,
becauset
heywer
enotf
iel
dwor
ker
s.

 They r
eli
ed t
oo much upon dat
a gat
her
ed by t
rav
ell
ers,
busi
nessmen,admi
nist
rat
ors and mi
ssi
onar
ies,who wer
e not
ant
hropol
ogi
sts and l
acked ant
hropol
ogi
calknowl
edge ofdat
a
col
l
ect
ion.Howev
er,t
hei
rinf
ormat
ionpl
ayedsi
gni
fi
cantr
olei
nthe
st
udy of cl
assi
cal cul
tur
al ev
olut
ioni
sts,who at
tempt
ed t
o
r
econst
ructt
he ev
olut
ionar
ydev
elopmentst
ages ofcul
tur
e or
cul
tur
ali
nst
it
uti
onsl
i
kef
ami
l
y,mar
ri
age,ki
nshi
p,l
aw,pr
oper
ty,
soci
ety
,ar
t,r
eli
gion,
etc.i
nauni
-l
inearsequence.

Wor
ldVi
ew

 Ty
lorwasv
erymuchawar
eoft
hepr
obl
em.Hewasnotuncr
it
ical
of
t
hese dat
a and of
ten at
tempt
ed t
otest t
hei
r accur
acy by
compar
ati
vemet
hod.Hi
smai
ntoolwas“
thet
estofr
ecur
rence”or
“
under
signedcoi
nci
dence”bywhi
chst
atement
swer
eev
aluat
ed
accor
dingt
othei
rfr
equencyi
not
heraccount
s.

 L.
H.Mor
gan,anAmer
icancl
assi
calcul
tur
alant
hropol
ogi
standa
cont
empor
aryofE.
B.Ty
lor
,hadat
tempt
edt
ocol
l
ectdat
afr
om t
he
 f
iel
dusi
ngsomer
esear
cht
echni
ques,
thoughnotv
erysci
ent
if
ical
l
y
andsy
stemat
ical
l
y.
 Mor
ganv
isi
tedandi
nter
viewedmanyI
ndi
answi
thnot
ebooki
n
hand and col
l
ect
ed dat
a on games,dance,r
eli
gious bel
i
efs,
cust
oms and t
radi
ti
ons,l
anguage,mat
eri
alcul
tur
e,f
rom of
gov
ernmentand f
ami
l
yor
gani
zat
ion ofI
roquoi
s.He publ
i
shed
t
hem i
nthef
orm ofabook,
LeagueofI
roquoi
s(1951)
.
 Her
eMor
ganal
sousedgeneal
ogi
calt
echni
quet
ost
udyki
nshi
p
or
gani
zat
ion.Si
nce t
hen,geneal
ogi
calt
echni
que became an
i
mpor
tant t
oolt
o st
udy ki
nshi
ps sy
stem of a soci
ety and
associ
atedbehav
iourpat
ter
nsl
i
kedut
ies,pr
ivi
l
eges,st
atus,r
oles
et
c.
 Thi
smet
hodwassuccessf
ull
yappl
i
edbyW.
H.RRi
ver
sinhi
sst
udy
onTodaofNi
l
gir
isar
ea,whi
chwasst
udi
edi
n1904andpubl
i
shed
i
n1906.Mor
ganusedanot
hert
echni
queofdat
acol
l
ect
ionknown
as ‘
Quest
ionnai
ret
echni
que’
.In or
dert
o est
abl
i
shed dat
a on
ev
olut
ionofki
nshi
pter
minol
ogi
esandor
igi
nsofAmer
icanI
ndi
ans
i
nAsi
a.
I
nAmer
ica,t
hesy
stemat
icf
iel
dsur
veybeganwi
tht
hewor
kof
Fr
anz-
Boasi
nBaf
fi
nlandBr
it
ishl
andandBr
it
ishCol
umbi
a.Fr
anz
Boashadgonet
oBaf
fi
nlandi
n1883pr
imar
il
yasageogr
apher
,
l
ooki
ng f
ort
he cul
tur
alef
fectoft
he peopl
e oft
hei
rphy
sical
env
ironment
.Butas he l
i
ved and t
rav
ell
ed wi
th Eski
mos,he
becameconcer
nedwi
tht
hei
mpor
tanceofsoci
alt
radi
ti
onasa
det
ermi
nantofcul
tur
eandper
sonal
i
ty.Hi
sreal
i
zat
ionofsoci
al
t
radi
ti
onsofshapi
nghumanl
i
fet
urnedhi
sint
erestf
rom geogr
aphy
t
o et
hnol
ogy
,and mar
ked t
he begi
nni
ng ofhi
s car
eeras an
ant
hropol
ogi
st.

 Thef
iel
dexpedi
ti
onswer
efol
l
owedbyA.
C.HaddonofCambr
idge
shor
tl
yaf
ter
war
dsi
nEngl
and.Haddonl
edabandofschol
art
o
conductf
iel
dresear
chi
nTor
res’
sst
rai
tsr
egi
onoft
hepaci
fi
cin
1898and1899.
 Thef
amous‘
Tor
res’
sst
rai
tExpedi
ti
on’becameat
urni
ngpoi
nti
n
t
hehi
stor
yofSoci
alAnt
hropol
ogyi
nGr
eatBr
it
ain.Thi
sexpedi
ti
on
wast
hef
ir
sti
nter
disci
pli
nar
yant
hropol
ogi
calexpedi
ti
onmeantt
o
cov
eral
lsi
desofpr
imi
ti
vel
i
febyt
rai
nedant
hropol
ogi
sts.

 Ri
ver
scamet
oIndi
ain1904andst
udi
edTodaofNi
l
gir
iar
ea.The
monogr
aphonTodawaspubl
i
shedi
n1906.

 Sel
i
gmen,anot
herBr
it
ish ant
hropol
ogi
st,conduct
ed f
iel
dwor
k
among t
heVedasofSr
iLanka,whi
ch waspubl
i
shed i
n 1911.
Pr
ofessorA.
R.Radcl
i
ff-
Brown,ast
udentofRi
ver
sandHaddon,
camet
oIndi
ato conductf
iel
dwor
kamong t
ri
besofAndaman
I
sland.Hest
ayedamongt
hem f
rom 1906t
o1908.

 Hedut
if
ull
yrecor
dedAndamanesemy
ths,cer
emoni
es,cust
oms
et
c.wi
thav
iew t
oreconst
ructt
hecul
tur
alhi
stor
yoft
hesenon-
l
i
ter
atepeopl
eofI
ndi
anI
sland.

 Br
oni
sl
aw KasparMal
i
nowski
,apupi
lofHobhouse,West
ermar
ck
andSel
i
gmen,car
ri
edf
iel
dresear
chast
epf
urt
her
.Henotonl
y
spental
ongerper
iodt
hananyot
herant
hropol
ogi
stsbef
orehi
m
and af
terhi
m al
so,i
n asi
ngl
est
udyofpr
imi
ti
vepeopl
e,‘
The
Tr
obr
iandI
slander
sofMel
anesi
a’bet
ween1914t
o1918,buthe
wasal
so t
hef
ir
stant
hropol
ogi
stt
o conductf
iel
dwor
kthr
ough
nat
ivel
anguage,hewast
hef
ir
stt
oli
vet
hroughhi
swor
kincent
er
ofnat
ivel
i
feandi
ntr
oducet
hemet
hodofpar
ti
cipantobser
vat
ions
i
nant
hropol
ogi
cal
resear
ch.

 Bei
ngapar
ti
ci
pantobser
verandhav
ingaknowl
edgeofnat
ive
l
anguage,whom hewasst
udy
ing(
Trobr
iandI
slander
s),hewas
successf
uli
n gat
her
ing,v
asti
nfor
mat
ion on soci
al,r
eli
gious,
economi
candpol
i
ticall
i
feofTr
obr
iandI
slander
sofMel
anesi
a.I
t
can be f
air
lysai
dthatcompr
ehensi
vef
iel
d st
udi
esi
n moder
n
 ant
hropol
ogy
,di
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
lyar
eder
ivedf
rom hi
steachi
ng.

 Leach st
udi
ed t
he pol
i
ticalsy
stem ofHi
ghl
and Bur
ma (
now
My
anmar
),whi
chwaspubl
i
shedi
n1949.Fi
rt
hcar
ri
edoutf
iel
dwor
k
amongt
heTal
l
ancy
,whi
chwaspubl
i
shedi
n1949.Fi
rt
hst
udi
ed
t
hepr
imi
ti
veeconomi
csoft
heNewZeal
andMaor
i,whi
chappear
ed
i
n1949.

 Ev
ancePr
it
char
dst
udi
est
heAzandeandt
heNuer
,whi
chwer
e
publ
i
shedi
n1937and1940r
espect
ivel
y.

 Whi
l
eBr
it
ishant
hropol
ogi
stsconduct
edr
esear
chondi
ff
erentt
ri
bal
gr
oups,f
oll
owi
ng st
ruct
uralf
unct
ionalappr
oaches i
nthe t
hir
d
decadeof20thcent
ury
,Amer
icanant
hropol
ogi
stst
art
edf
iel
dwor
k
wi
thav
iew t
o know t
he i
mpactofcul
tur
e on per
sonal
i
tyor
i
nfl
uenceofper
sonal
i
tyoncul
tur
eorbot
h.Theyf
ormedasepar
ate
schoolofant
hropol
ogi
calt
hought
,whi
chi
sknownas‘
Cul
tur
eand
Per
sonal
i
tySchool
’
.
 Mar
getMeadconduct
edf
iel
dwor
kamongSamoawi
thav
iew t
o
r
ecor
dwhet
hert
her
ebel
l
iont
hatmar
kedadol
escentper
sonal
i
tyi
n
west
erncul
tur
eswasapr
oductofbi
ologi
calchangesoccur
ri
ngat
puber
tyorar
esul
tofcul
tur
alci
rcumst
ances.Herst
udyonSamoa
was publ
i
shed i
n 1928. Her book “
Growi
ng up i
n New
Gui
nea”(
1930)wasbasedonf
iel
dwor
kcar
ri
edamongManust
ri
be
ofNewGui
nea.
 Mead br
oughtanot
heri
mpr
ovementi
nthe st
udy ofcul
tur
e
per
sonal
i
tybyempl
oyi
ngcamer
aandt
aper
ecor
der
stocapt
ure
char
act
eri
sti
cal
l
ysi
gni
fi
cantbehav
iour
alev
ent
sint
hei
rsi
tuat
ional
cont
extandt
opubl
i
shi
tdi
spl
ayt
heser
ecor
dsal
ongwi
thwor
d
descr
ipt
ions.

 These pi
oneer
ing exper
iment
s used f
ordat
a col
l
ect
ing wer
e
i
mpor
tantcont
ri
but
ioni
nfi
eldwor
ktr
adi
ti
oni
nant
hropol
ogy
.
 Anot
heri
mpr
ovementi
nfi
eldwor
ktr
adi
ti
onbyMeadi
suseof‘
Re-
St
udy
’met
hodt
oshowchangest
aki
ngpl
acei
nasoci
ety
.Shehad
st
udi
edManusi
n1928andagai
nvi
sit
edamongt
hem i
nlat
efor
ti
es
t
orecor
dchangesi
nManusSoci
ety
.HerbookCul
tur
alPat
ter
ns
and Techni
calChange (
1995)deal
s wi
th changi
ng aspect
s of
ManusLi
fe.

 Rut
hBenedi
ct,anot
herpi
oneerandpat
ter
nsofcul
tur
eper
sonal
i
ty
school
,conduct
edherf
ir
stf
iel
dwor
kamongt
heSar
ranoI
ndi
ansi
n
Cal
i
for
niaundert
hesuper
visi
onofA.
LKr
oeberi
n1922att
heage
of35y
ear
s.Herf
iel
dst
udi
esf
oll
owedoft
heZuni(
1924,
1925)
,the
Cochi
ti(
1925)
,andt
hePi
ma(
1926)
.

 Benedi
ct’
sfi
eldexper
iencewi
thPi
mawascr
uci
albecauseher
eshe
t
ri
edouti
deaofst
udy
ingandunder
standi
ngpeopl
ethr
oughan
anal
ysi
soft
hei
rchar
act
eri
sti
c‘cul
tur
epat
ter
ns’
.

 Anot
herpi
oneerofcul
tur
e per
sonal
i
ty was Li
nton,who was
basi
cal
l
yanar
chaeol
ogi
st,
butt
urnedi
ntocul
tur
alant
hropol
ogi
sti
n
1922,
whenhewassentt
oMar
quesaI
slandbyt
heBi
shopMuseum.
Thus,
hegotoppor
tuni
tyt
oli
vewi
tht
hepeopl
eofMar
quesaI
sland
andcent
redhi
sint
erestonper
sonal
i
tyst
ruct
ure,
soci
alandcul
tur
al
t
radi
ti
onsandmat
eri
alcul
tur
es.

 Hewi
thKar
diner
,dev
elopedt
heconceptof‘
basi
cper
sonal
i
tyt
ype’
.

 Kor
a-Du-
Boi
sanot
herl
adyant
hropol
ogi
st,besi
desMar
getMead
andRut
hBenedi
ct,
conduct
edf
il
edwor
kinv
il
lageont
heI
ndonesi
an
I
slands of Al
or, and r
ecor
ded not onl
y mor
e t
radi
ti
onal
et
hnogr
aphi
cfact
s,butal
socol
l
ect
edei
ghtl
engt
hybi
ogr
aphi
es,
dr
eam,and chi
l
dren’
s games and admi
nist
rat
ed a numberof
pr
oject
ivet
est
s.

 Herbook on Al
orwas publ
i
shed i
n 1944.She dev
eloped t
he
 conceptof‘
ModalPer
sonal
i
ty’
.Av
eryi
mpor
tantdev
elopmenti
n
t
he f
iel
dwor
ktr
adi
ti
on came i
nto bei
ng when an Amer
ican
ant
hropol
ogi
st,Rober
tRedf
iel
d,conduct
edf
iel
dwor
kamongf
olk
andur
banv
il
lagesi
nAmer
ica,wi
thav
iewt
oknowt
hedi
mensi
ons
ofci
vi
li
zat
ionandf
olk-
Urbancont
inuum.

 I
n1927-
28Redcl
i
ffemadet
wot
ri
pst
otr
adi
ti
onalMexi
canVi
l
lage
whi
chr
esul
tedi
npubl
i
cat
ionofhi
sbook,Tepozt
lan(
1930)
.Ont
he
basi
sofhi
sfi
l
edwor
kinapeasantv
il
lageChankom i
nAmer
icaand
May
avi
l
lagei
nEngl
and,Redf
iel
dpubl
i
shedhi
sbookon,Peasant
Soci
etyand Cul
tur
e(1956)
.Si
nce t
hen,t
he st
udyofpeasant
communi
ti
esgotmoment
um i
nfi
l
edwor
ktr
adi
ti
onofant
hropol
ogy
.

 Thef i
eldwor ki sof2v arieties,t heyar ePar ti
cipantobser v
at i
on
andnon- participantobser vationGenesi sofFi el
dwor k
1) Fi el
dwor k r equi res f ir
st hand obser vation, r ecor ding or
document ing, whatoneseesandobser ves.
2)Dat agener ateddependsuponf i
eldwor kerhi msel f,hispsy che,hi s
l
ev elofi nvolvementandabi l
itytoseeandv i
sual i
zet hings.
I npar ti
cipant ,hegoest ot hef iel
dandst ayswi t
ht hepeopl ewhom
hewant st ost udy .Wher easi nnon- par tici
pantobser vat i
on, hev isi
ts
thef i
eldbutobser vesext er nallyfollowst hebookswr ittenont hem.
Butcur rentlyt he conceptoff ield wor k emphasi zes on di rect
i
nv olvementoft heobser verwi t
hhi ssubj ects.
 Theant hropol ogi calf iel
dwor ksst artedi n19t hcent urybyHenr y
Mor gan.Fort hef i
rstt imef i
el dwor ki ntroducedi ntoant hropol ogy
byhi m.Hest udiedeski mosandI r
oquoi s’Indians.Mor gani st he
fir
stper sonwhost udiedki nshi pindet ail.
 Hei ntr
oduced Schedul emodelofDat acol l
ection.Fr anzboas,
emphasi zed det ail
ed dat a col l
ect i
on dur ing hi sv isitt o Baf fin
Isl
andandhepr omot edt hecul tureshoul dbest udiedhi st or
ically
butnotcompar at i
vely( histor i
calpar ticularism)bywhi chwecan
producei nclusi vet heor i
eswhi char enotet hno- cent ricinnat ure.
W. H.R.r i
v er
sar eal sopar tofTor ris-straitexpedi t
ionofOceani a
region.
 Ri versal sov i
si t
edI ndia,andst udiedTodat ribalcommuni t
yof
 Tami lNādu.Hei scr edit
edf ori nt r
oduci ngGeneal ogi esi nDat a
Col lect ion.R. C.br own,i sal sopar tofTor ri
s- straitexpedi tion.He
camet oI ndi at oconductf i
el dwor kamongt het ribesofAndaman
Islands.Hehadt akenupnonpar ticipantobser vat i
ont ost udy
Andaman i slander s.Mal inowskii st he per son who i ntroduced
par ticipantobser v ation i n ant hr opol ogy .He was f amous f or
conduct i
ngf ieldwor ki nnat i
v elanguage.
 His mai n f ocus was under st andi ng t he soci al change of
Trobr ianderi slander s, Mel anesi ant ribesandPol ynesi ant ribes.He
emphasi zedt her oleofi nf ormer si npr ov i
di ngf ieldwor kandf i
eld
dat a.He was i nst rument ali n br i
ngi ng outt he r ules f ort he
resear cher sEdmundl each, studi edBur mesesoci et i
es( Kachi nand
Shan)f orunder st andi ngt hechangei npol i
ticalsy stem.Ray mond
fir
th,st udied economi c sy stems among t he maor is ofNew
Zeal and.
 Ray mondFi rthwasl at erresponsi blef ori nitiatingdi scussi onson
ethni ci tyinant hr opol ogy .Thecont ri
but i
onsofcul tur alper sonal ity
school ar eenor mous.Mar gar etmeadconduct edf ieldwor kamong
Samoani slands, Ar apesh, Mundugumorandt shambol i.
 Shei sf amousf ori nt roduci ngv isualant hr opol ogy( phot ogr aphs,
video- taping) i ntof ield wor ks.Rut h benedi ct,st udied pi ma,
puebl oz oni ,Kwaki ut l
, dobuandal soJapanesecul tur eandnat i
onal
char act erst udi es.Abr am Kar dineronMar quesan’ sofPol ynesi a.
Cor a- du- bois, didf ieldwor katal or e,andI ndonesi anv i
llage.
 Shei ncl udedet hnogr aphicf act s,col lect edbi ogr aphi c,dr eamsof
chi l
dr en by whi ch she concl uded, cul tur e and per sonal ity
i
nf luenceseachot her .Thepost -moder nistphasei .e.,thecur rent
phase of ant hropol ogy pr imar i
ly deal s wi th anal y sing t he
ethnogr aphi cwr i
tings.I tcanbeconsi der edasat er t
iar ymet hodof
obser v at i
on.I tst udies aboutl i
ngui st i
cs and al ready wr i
tten
ethnogr aphi es.
 Thus,ant hr opol ogy mov ed f rom t he st age of ARM- CHAI R
ANTHROPOLOGYt oDETAI LEDMONOGRAPHI CSTUDI ESwi tht he
par ticipantobser vat i
on t o a st age ofdependence on t erti
ar y
sour ce.Nev erthel ess,i thadbr oughtoutani nnov at i
v emet hodof
par ticipantobser v ationi .e,cur rent lyi nusei nsev er aldev el oping
count ries.Themet hodsar e:PRA( par ticipantr ur alappr aisal )and
RRA( rapi dr ural appr ai sal).
  Whi ch helpsi nr educi
ng t het i
meoff i
eld st
udy,i tbringsout
i
nt erdi
sci
plinary knowl edge f or r ural dev el
opment gi ving
i
mpor t
ance t ot he aspirati
onsofl ocalcommuni ty.Conclusion
Thus t he Fieldworkt r
adi t
ion i
n ant hropologywas t heoret
icall
y
startedbyCl assicalevoluti
onistsandsy stemati
call
ydev elopedby
Diffusi
onists and Reached pr act
icalit
y by Funct i
onali
sm and
Cul t
urepersonal i
tyschool.
 Thecl assicalmodelofFi eldworkiscal l
edPar ti
cipantmodelof
Fi
el dwor k.Fieldworktraditionmadest udyofant hr opol
ogymor e
holisti
candaut hent
ic.

Concl
usi
on:

 Anthropologistsmaywr i
teup thei
rdat ainr epor t
s,ar t
icl
es,or
j
ournalcont r
ibut
ions.Wheretheproj
ectisinter
discipl
inaryorteam-
based,t hesemaybeco- author
ed.Alt
ernativ
ely,theymaydescr i
be
thei
rex periencesandfindi
ngsinthefor
m ofanet hnography .

Q8.Di
scusst
henatur
eandl ogi
cofanthropol
ogicalf
iel
dwor kmet
hods.
Howthesedi
ff
erf
rom thoseofothersoci
alsci
ences?Discuss.
Appr
oacht
othequest
ion:
I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Writ
et hemeani
ngandsi
gni
fi
canceoft
hef
iel
dwor
kmet
hodsi
n
br
ief.
Body
:
 Wr
it
ethenat
ureandl
ogi
cofant
hropol
ogi
cal
fiel
dwor
kmet
hod.
 Wri
tehowi ti
suni
queHowt
hesedi
ff
erf
rom t
hoseofot
hersoci
al
sci
ences.

Concl
usi
on:
 Wr
it
eit
spr
esentr
elev
anceandsi
gni
fi
cancei
nresol
vi
ngt
het
ri
bal
 i
ssues.

I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Fi
eldworkisamongt hemostdist
incti
vepracti
cesant
hropologi
sts
bri
ngt othestudyofhumanl i
feinsociety.Throughf
iel
dwork,the
socialant
hropol
ogistseeksadetail
edandi nti
mateunderst
anding
ofthecontextofsoci
alacti
onandrelati
ons.
 Todayant hr
opologyhasbecomeabr oad-basedstudymuchmor e
thananyot herscient
ifi
cdiscipl
i
neasi thast odealwithawi der
vari
ety ofpr obl
ems.Ant hropol
ogy i
ncludes a broad range of
approachesderivedfr
om bothnatur
alandsocialsci
ences.
Body
:
 Thev ariousway santhropologi
stsconductresearchinnaturalisti
c
set
tings,ori nt hef i
eld,arecalledf i
eldmethods.Theyi nclude
part
icipation in sociall i
fe and vari
ous for
ms ofobser vat i
on.
Anthropol ogyreliesonf i
eldmet hodsasi tsulti
matesour ceof
i
nformat ion.Resear chi nthef i
eld,knownasf i
eldwor
k,inv olves
col
lectingpr i
mar ydataonhumans, otherpr
imates,andtheobj ects
andpr ocessesr elev
antt othei
rli
ves.

 Throughfurtherexaminati
on,analysis,andcompar
isoni
nlibr
ary,
l
aboratory
,orof fi
cesett
ings,researcherspr
oducet
hedisci
pli
ne’
s
generalpr
incipl
esandtheoret
icaladvances.

 Variousfieldmethodsar eused, dependingont hedataav ai

lable,t
o
i
lluminateachosenpr oblem.Thedi v
erser angeofi nterestsin
anthropologyisusuallyrepresentedintheNor thAmer i
cantraditi
on
byr efer
encet oitsf oursubf iel
ds,namel y,physi
calorbi ological
anthropology; archaeology ; sociocult
ural anthropology, also
known as cul t
uralorsoci alanthropology oret hnology;and
l
inguisti
cant hropology.Ther eis,howev er,signi
fi
cantov erlapin
thekindsofdat a,andt hereforethefiel
dmet hods,usedi neachof
thesubfields.
Met
hodsoft
heFourSubf
iel
ds

1.
Biol
ogi
calAnt
hropol
ogy

 Physicalorbi ologicalant hropol

ogymakesuseoff i
eldmet hods
combi ned wi th labor atory wor k to understand aspects of
humanki ndasabi ologicalspecies.Theplaceofhumansi nnature,
thei
ranat omy,phy siol
ogy ,ev ol
uti
on,simil
ari
ti
esanddi ff
erences
withrelatedspecies, physicaladaptat
ionstovari
ousenvir
onment s,
and bi ol
ogicaldiver si
tyar e alltopics ofint
erestto biol
ogical
anthr
opol ogyandar estudiedinthef i
eld.

 Biol
ogicalstudiesofdeceasedi ndi
vi
dualsandpastgr oupsmake
useofar chaeologi
caltechniquestoacquiref ossil
,bone,andot her
ti
ssuesampl esandr ecordt hecontextinwhi cht heyar efound.
Genet i
candmedi calstudiesusebl ood,ot herphy sicalsamples,
and anthropomet r
icdata,suchaswei ghtand hei ght,coll
ected
fr
om l i
vi
ngordeceasedi ndividual
s.Ethol
ogicalorani mal behavi
our
studiesofnonhumanpr i
mat esmakeuseofsoci alobservati
onand
l
imitedparti
cipati
oninanimal gr
oups.

2.
Archaeol
ogy

 Archaeologicalanthropologyusesf i
eldmet hodstounder standall
aspectsoft hehumanpast ,withpar t
icularemphasi sonwhatcan
belearnedf rom remai ni
ngmat erialculture,incl
udingart
ifactsand
str
atigr
aphic cont exts.Field archaeologists conductl andscape
surveysandsampl i
ngt olocatesi tesofpasthumanact ivi
tyand
i
dent i
fypatter nsofoccupat ionoft hel andscape.Theyconduct
control
led excav at
ionst o coll
ectar tif
act sand human r emains,
fr
om whi cht heyassembl edetail
eddat aaboutpar t
icul
arsites.

In ethnoarchaeology,li
ving people are observed and joined by
meansofpar ti
ci
pant -
observati
onandconv er
sati
oninor dertolearn
how ar t
if
actsar emadeanddi sposed.Discardedobject sandt he
processesi nvolv
ed int hef ormationofar chaeologicalsites,or
taphonomy ,ar e also observed tol earn how t oi nterpretthe
archaeologicalr
ecord.

3.
Soci
ocul
tur
alAnt
hropol
ogy

 Soci
ocul
tur
alant
hropol
ogyst
udi
escont
empor
aryhumangr
oupsi
n
 thefieldinor dertounder st
andt herangeofsocialr el
ati
onships
andor ganizat
ionsthathumangr oupsexhibit
,aswellasthelearned
beli
efsandv aluest hatguidebehav i
our.Mostf i
eldworki nt hi
s
subfi
el disdirected toward pr
oducing ethnogr
aphies,orwr it
ten
descripti
onsofet hnicgroups.Thus,ethnologi
calfi
eldtechniques
areoftentermedet hnographicmethods.

 Liv
ing among t he people under study , ethnographer
s use
observ at
ionanddescr i
pti
onoft hesett
ingsi nwhi chpeopleli
ve,
parti
cipant-
observ
ati
on i n soci
al act
ivi
ties,v ari
ous f or
ms of
i
nterviewing,andfocusgroups.Part
ici
pant -
observati
oniscult
ural
anthropology’
scentralcontr
ibut
iontothemet hodologyofsocial
science.

4.
Lingui
sti
cAnt
hropol
ogy

 Lingui stic anthropology is concer ned wit

hl anguage and i ts
relationshipt ohumancul tureandbi ol
ogy.Thef ieldmet hodsof
l
ingui sticanthropologyincludei ntervi
ewingspeakersofal anguage;
engagi ngi npartici
pant-obser vati
ont odiscoverlocal l
yimpor t
ant
soci al cont exts and cor responding language use;r ecording
nat uralist
icutterancesanddi scourse;anddescribingnon- spoken
formsofl anguage,suchaswr i
ti
ngsy st
emsi nphy sicalmediaand
visual signing.

 Linguist
icanthropologistsinthef i
eldneedt olear nlocallanguages
i
nanat ural
ist
icsetting,withoutt heaidofwr itt
ent extsort rained
teachers. Language st r
ucture, incl
uding phonol ogy ( sound
systems),mor phol
ogy ( word st ruct
ure),and sy ntax ( sent ence
struct
ure),canbewor kedouti nt hefi
eldbycol lecti
ngnumer ous
textsforcompar i
sonandanal ysis.Theway si nwhi chlanguageuse
i
nt er
sects with socialand cul turalconv entions,i ncluding t he
l
inguisti
cf orms used i n part
icularsituations and t he cul tural
meani ngsattr
ibutedtot hem,arebestst udiedi nthef i
eld.

Cat
egor
iesofAnt
hropol
ogi
calFi
eldMet
hods

 Allanthr
opologi
calf
iel
dmet
hodscanbegr
oupedi
ntof
ivebasi
c
categori
es:

(
1)mat
eri
alobser
vat
ion,
(
2)bi
ologi
cal
obser
vat
ion,

(
3)behav
iour
alobser
vat
ion,

(
4)di
rectcommuni
cat
ion,

(
5)par
ti
cipant
-obser
vat
ion.

 Allf
ivetypesoffiel
dmethodsinvol
veobser
vat
ion,i
ncl
udingthe
useofanyoft hefi
vehumansensestoacqui
rei
nformat
ionabout
theenvi
ronment.

 Ther earet wobasicmeansbywhi cht hefieldresearcherengages

wi t
h a t opic of st udy: subject-
object and subj ect
-subject
relat
ionships.A subject-obj
ectr elat
ionshipi s pure obser vat
ion,
i
nv olvi
ngasubj ect(t
heobser vi
ngant hropologist
)andanobj ect
(theobser vedthi
ng,setti
ng,orperson).Subj ect
-objectrelat
ionsar e
one-way ,inthatanact i
veobser vercollectsinformationabouta
passive,independent,
ornonr espondingobj ect.

 Thisisanappr opr i
atemethodtol ear
naboutinani
mateobj ects,
i
ncludingarti
facts,whichrefl
ecthumanandnonhumanpr i
mat e
acti
vi
ty.Iti
salsoidealwhencoll
ect
ingdataonwhatpeopleactuall
y
do asopposet o whatt heysayt heydo orwhen biologyand
behaviourarebei ngobservedwit
houtpurposef
ulinputfrom the
peopleunderstudy .

 Subj ect-subj
ectr elat
ions,on the ot
herhand,involv
e a mut ual
,
dialogical r el
ationshi
p bet ween two t hi
nki
ng bei ngs. This
relationshipi sidealforresearchsit
uat
ionsinwhi cht hepeople
studiedar ecapabl eofandwi ll
i
ngt ocommuni cat
ei nfor
mation
aboutt heiri
nnerstatesorbeli
efs.

 Thesubj ect-
subjectmodeofengagemental l
owst hemeani ngs,
abst
ractions,and ment almodel s ofinfor
mantst o be dir
ectly
communi cated.Thesedat aar eamongt hemosti nter
esti
ngand
ri
chfor msofant hr
opologicalknowledge.Whil
eallfiel
dmet hods
i
nvolveobser v
ation,t
heyv aryinthedegreetowhichsubject
-object
orsubject-
subjectengagementi sused.
 Technol
ogi
esofFi
eldwor
k

 Anthropologi
stsuseawi dev ari
etyoft echnologiesto enhance
whatcanbet akeni nbyt hesensesandr ecordedinmemor y
.
Surveyandexcav at
ionofar ti
factsandbi ologicalremainsmake
useofmanyt ools,rangi
ngf rom rulerstor emotesensingand
geographicinf
ormationsystemsequi pmentt opr eci
sel
ylocat
eand
mapf inds.Simpletrowelsindr ysett
ings,andhosesi nwetones,
ai
dt herecoveryofobject
sf r
om theear t
h.

 Allanthropologicalfiel
dwor kmakesi ntensi
v euseofwri
ting,ei
ther
on paperorv i
a comput er,to produce permanentr ecords of
fi
ndings, orf
ieldnot es.Descr i
pti
vefi
eldnotesaresuppl
ement edby
technologiesthatal l
ow thedi rectcaptur
eofi nfor
mati
on.Sound
recordingall
owsex actwor ds,songs,andlingui
sti
csampl estobe
coll
ected.Phot ography al lows the capture ofsett
ings,si t
es,
objects,andact i
vit
ies.

 Cinemat i
crecor di
ngcapturesv i
sualact
ionandsoundt oget herand
i
spar ti
cular
lyusef ulf
orthestudyofdanceandcr afttechniques.Of
course,portablecomputersallowstorageofal lofthesemedi aand
canr unhelpfulappli
cati
ons,suchasdat abasesthatst oredat afor
furt
her anal ysis. Geneal
ogical infor
mat ion, for exampl e, is
managedmuchmor eeasilywi t
hthehel pofcomput erdat abases.
Wher etherearenopowergr i
ds,portabl
esol arel
ectri
csy stemscan
beusedt opowert hi
sequipment .

Et
hicalI
ssues

 Av ari
etyofet hicalconcer
nssur round fi
eldwork.Forexampl e,
anthropologist
smustt akecar et
ocol lecti
nformat i
oninthef i
eld
withoutproducingharm ordi
scomf ortf
ortheirhosts.Fi
eld-
workers
avoidputtinginformant
sintodangerousorawkwar dpositi
ons.For
i
nst ance,fi
eld-
workersmayallowinformantstoremai nanonymous
i
ftheydesi re.

 Fiel
d-workersmayal soencounterconfli
ctsovertheownershi
pand
studyoft hear t
if
acts,bi
ologi
calspecimens, andev enet
hnographi
c
datatheycol lect.Thepopulati
onsunderst udy ,aswellaspeople
acti
ng as t heirdescendants orr epresent
at i
ves,maychal l
enge
researchers.Toensur ethatlocalgroups’approv ali
ssecur
edand
 respect
ed,
iti
sv i
talt
hatproperper
mitsbeobtainedandt
hatt
hose
groupsbeconsul
tedandinvolv
edintheresear
ch.

Obj
ect
ivi
ty,
Subj
ect
ivi
ty,
andI
nter
subj
ect
ivi
ty

 All anthropologi
cal r esearch requir
es acute attenti
on t o
perspecti
vesasani ntegralpartofi t
ssystem ofknowledge,or
epi
stemol ogy
.I nthef ield,thi
sattenti
on t
akesthef orm ofan
awarenessofmul ti
plepoi nt
sofv iew,gui
dingassumptions,and
purposes.

 From t heper spect

iveoft her esear cher,therearet hreepossi bl
e
epistemol ogical stances,each wi t
h i t
s own st rengths and
weaknesses,andeachappr opr i
atet odi f
ferentkindsoff i
el dwork:
objectivi
t y,subj ect
ivi
ty,andint ersubjectiv
ity.Objecti
vityrefersto
perceivinganddescr i
bingsomet hingf r
om asneut ralandunbi ased
aper spect i
veaspossi bleinordert opr oduceobser vati
onst hatcan
be v erified by a t rai
ned communi t
y of obser vers.Al though
objectivi
t ycannev erbeabsol uteorper f
ect,itisani mpor t
ant
baseline f r
om whi ch to accur at el
y and compar ably measur e
objects, organi sms,andbehav i
our s.

 Objecti
v i
tyisalsoneededt oprovi
deaf act
ualdescr i
pti
onofwhat
t
hings phy si
cal
ly exist,as opposed t oi magined,abst ract
,or
met aphysicalenti
ties.I talso provi
des a gui de foraccur acy
.
Withouta commi tmentt o obj
ectiv
ity
,ant hr
opol ogi
calfieldwork
l
osesi tsgroundingper spect
iveaswellasi t
strustworthi
ness.

Whatmakesant
hropol
ogi
cal
resear
chmet
hoduni
que?

 Thesei ncl
udei t
s:cross-
cult
uralorcompar ati
veemphasis,i
ts
evol
utionary/
hist
ori
calemphasi s,it
secologi calemphasi
sand
i
ts hol i
sti
c emphasis.1.A cr oss-
cult
uralor compar ati
ve
approachiscentral
toanthropol
ogicalunderstandi
ng.

 The distincti
ve aspect of resear
ch in ant hropol
ogy is
theexpl
oration ofthe complexit
y and nuances ofhuman
i
nteract
ivi
ty,aswel lasitscult
ure.Asar esear
chdi sci
pli
ne,
anthr
opology combi nes humanisti
c and soci al science
 st
rat
egi
es.

 what is unique about ethnographi

c fiel
dwork? Why do
anthr
opologi
stsperfor
m thiskind offiel
d work?thisal
lows
anthr
opologi
ststoputpeoplef
irstasweanalysehowsocieties
work.Eventhoughthewholewor l
disthefiel
d,Anthr
opol
ogists
focusondetai
lsandpatter
nsofhumanl i
fe.

 TheUni queAspectofEt hnogr

aphicFieldworkEthnographyis
quali
tati
ver esear
ch,notquantit
ati
ve.Ethnographersfocuson
thest udyofi ndi
vidualgroupsofpeopl eandcul tur
es,often
studyi
ng a speci fic aspect l
ike language, geography or
economi cs.

i
mpor
tantmet
hodi
nant
hropol
ogy

 Par
tici
pantobservationist
hequi ntessent
ial fi
eldworkmethodin
ant
hropology. Ant hropol
ogists use v ar i
ous degr ees of
par
ti
cipant observation,from f ullparticipation i
n ongoing
act
ivit
iestopassi
veobser vati
onwi thi
nthel ocationsofi
nter
est.

Whatar
ethe5met
hodsofant
hropol
ogy
?

 Someofthemor ecommont
ypesofant
hropol
ogi
calr
esear
ch
methodsi
ncl
ude

(
1)i
mmer
sioni
nacul
tur
e,

(
2)anal
ysi
sofhowpeopl
eint
eractwi
tht
hei
renv
ironment
,

(
3)l
i
ngui
sti
canal
ysi
s

(
4)ar
chaeol
ogi
cal
anal
ysi
s,

(
5)anal
ysi
sofhumanbi
ology
.

Whati
sther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenf
iel
dwor
kandant
hropol
ogy
?
  Fieldwork i s among t he most di st
inct
ive pr acti
ces
ant hr
opologistsbri
ng t
ot hestudyofhuman l i
fein society
.
Thr oughf i
eldwor
k,thesocialanthr
opologi
stseeksadet ai
led
andi nti
mat eunderst
andi
ngoft hecontextofsocialact
ionand
relati
ons.

 Fi
eldworki st he mostimpor t
antmethod by whi ch cul
tural
ant
hropologist
sgatherdatatoanswertheirresear
chquesti
ons.
Whilei
nteracti
ngonadai l
ybasiswit
hagr oupofpeople,cul
tural
ant
hropologist
sdocumentt heirobser
vationsandper cept
ions
andadjustthefocusofthei
rresear
chasneeded.

Concl
usi
on:

 Thr
ough ant
hropol
ogywe st
udyour
sel
vesbyl
ear
ning how we
compar et oot hers:ourancestors,ot
herpeopl
esandcult
ures,and
ourcousi nsi nt heani malkingdom.Ther angeoffi
eldmet hods
ref
lectsant hropology’seff
orttounder st
andhumani
tyfr
om wi thin
andwi thout ,i
nbot hit
sbroadestout l
inesandit
smostpar ti
cular
manifestations.

Par
t2(
Att
emptal
lquest
ions6*
15=90mar
ks,
200Wor
dseach)
Q1.Cri
ti
cal
lyexaminethatt
hest
ruct
ureandcont
entofl
anguagear
e
i
nfl
uencedbycult
ure.

I
ntr
oduct
ion:

 Wr
it
eaboutt
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenl
anguageandcul
tur
e.

Body

 Wr
it
eaboutt
heSapi
r-
Whor
fHy
pot
hesi
s,Soci
oli
ngui
sti
csModel
 Wr
it
ether
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenl
anguageandcul
tur
e.
 Wr
it
eIt
sPr
esentsi
gni
fi
cance

Concl
usi
on
 Addt
hepoi
ntsr
egar
dingt
hei
tspr
esentv
iewt
ounder
standt
hecul
tur
e
 I
ntroduct i
on
 Languagest udi
esinanthropologicalcontextisalsocalledaslinguisti
c
anthropology.Languageistheessent i
alpartoft hecult
ure.Anyst udyof
cul
tureisi ncompletewi
thoutthei nvol
vementofl i
ngui
sti
cstudies, st
udy
oflanguagehasbecomeasi gnif
icantpartofculture.
 Thef ocusonst udyofl
anguagesi nanthropologyhadbeguni nt hel at
e
t
h
19 cent uryatthetimeofemer genceofant hropologi
calthought.
 Thefi
rstsi
gnif
icantstudyofl
anguageis“pri
mit
ivecul
tur
e”byE.B.Tayl
or.
.
Thesigni
fi
canceofuseofl anguageforfi
eldworkwasbr oughtoutby
Mali
nowskiinhisstudyofTrobri
andisl
ands.

Body
:
Ithasbeen seent hatl anguagei smuch mor ethant heext ernal
expr essi on andcommuni cationof i nter nal t hought s f or mulat ed
i
ndependent l
yoft hei
rv erbalizati
on.
Indemonst rati
ngt hei nadequacyandi nappr opriatenessofsucha
view ofl anguage,at t
ent i
onhasal readybeendr awnt ot heway si n
whi chone’ snat ivelanguagei sint i
mat elyandi nal lsor tsofdet ail
s
relatedt other estofone’ slifeinacommuni tyandt osmal lergr oups
wi t
hint hatcommuni ty.I n ant hropol ogyt her ear et wo model sof
study ingt her elati
onshi pbet weenl anguageandcul t
ur e.
Sapi r-
Whor fHy pothesis:I twas pr oposed by Edwar d Sapi rand
Benj ami nWhor fandi tsay sthatl anguagei nfluencest hewaywet hink.
Itist hef oundat ionoft het heor yofl i
ngui sti
cdet erminism whi ch
statest hati ti si mpossi blet of ullyleam orunder standasecond
l
anguage because t he pr i
mar yl anguage i si ngrained wi thin an
i
ndi vidual .Consequent l
y ,itisi mpossi blet of ull
yunder st andot her
cultures.
Soci olinguisticsModel :Thesecondmodeli ssoci olinguist i
cmodel ,
whi chbel i
ev esandst udieshow l anguagei sinf l
uencedandshaped
wi t
hini tscul turalcont extwi thunder standi ngonhow peopl euse
l
anguage. Soci oli
ngui sts,ledbyAmer icanl inguistWi l
liam Labov ,
hav e st udied i n det ailaboutt he i nteract i
ons ofl anguage under
differentsoci al,economi corpol i
ticalsi t
uat ional ongwi tht hei mpact
of v arious soci o-cultural f actors l ike gender ,et hnicity,cl ass,
situationset c.onl anguage.Onei mpor t
antf indingofsoci oli
ngui sts
 studi esi st hat -'
basedont hecul tur eweseesi gnifi
cantdi f
fer encesi n
thei ndi vidual suseofgr ammar( structure)andv ocabul ary(cont ent )
'.
Butwi t hinacul tur ewehav esi gni ficantdiffer encest oobser vebased
on t hegender ,cl asset c.E. g.,i n Uni ted St ateswehav eEngl i
sh
l
anguage wi t
h peopl ef rom di fferentet hni citi
es hav i
ng di f
ferent
cultur es.Thesecul tur aldi fferencesar eexpr essedt hr ought heuseof
speci ficwor dsandpat ternsofspeechbydi ff erentet hni cgr oups.
Cur rent ly,Amer ican mai nstream Engl ish has v ar i
antsl ike Bl ack
Engl ishVer nacular( BEV) ,Af ricanAmer icanEngl ish( AAE) ,orAf rican
Amer icanVer nacul arEngl ish( AAVE)basedondi ff
er entet hnicityand
cultur e.Thesel ocalpr onunci ationsandsl angshel pt hem inshowi ng
all
egi ancet oownet hni cgr oups.
Thr oughl anguageusei ndi ffer entsi t
uat i
ons,wecanknow mor e
aboutsoci etyi .
e. ,how i thasor gani zedt hesoci alr elati
onshi psand
cultur alnor ms.Theuseofdi fferentsent enceal ternativesbyone
persononchangeofper soni nf ronti sn'tjustamat terofchoi ceon
struct ur ebutanexer cisebasedont hecul tur alv al
ues,nor ms,st atus
anddegr eeofpol i
teness.Or ,wecant aket hecaseofI ndi awher e
witht hechangeofcul turet hedi al ectsoft hel anguagechangewi th
differencesofst ruct ureandcont ent .Manywor ds,phr aseset c.ar e
speci fict ot hespeci ficcommuni ties.
Butal ongwi tht hecul tur e,at tr i
but esoft hespeakeri .e.,mal eor
femal e, poororr ichal soi nf l
uencet helanguageev eni ftheircul tureis
same.Whet heri tsUni tedSt at esorJapan,f emal e’ssect st ohav e
mor ePol i
tenessi nsent enceswi thr i
singi nt onat i
onatt heendof
sent encesandf requentuseoft agquest ions( toseekaf firmat i
on) .
E.g.,inJapan,f emal esat tachanhonor i
fic" o- "tonouns,i .
e. ,ifmal es
willcal l bookashon, femal escal l i
tOhno.

Concl
usi
on:

 Thr ough t
he use ofl anguage,anyski ll
s,techniques,products,
modesofsoci alcontrol,andsooncanbeexpl ained,andtheend
resultsofany one’sinventivenesscanbemadeav ail
abletoanyone
elsewi t
hthei ntel
lectualabili
tytograspwhatisbei ngsaid.Spoken
l
anguageal onewoul dt husv ast
lyextendtheamountofusabl e
i
nf ormati
oni nanyhumancommuni tyandspeedupt heacquisi
ti
on
of new ski l
ls and t headapt ati
onof techniques t o changed
circumstancesornewenv i
ronments.

Q2.Expl
aint
hebasi
cfeat
uresof‘
Post
moder
nism’
inAnt
hropol
ogy
.
Appr
oacht
othequest
ion:

I
ntr
oduct
ion:

 Wri
tethemainconceptoft
he‘
Post
moder
nism’
inAnt
hropol
ogyi
n
ant
hropol
ogy
.

Body
:

 Wri
tethemainconceptoft
he‘
Post
moder
nism’
inAnt
hropol
ogyi
n
ant
hropol
ogy
.

 Wr
it
ebasi
cfeat
uresof‘
Post
moder
nism’
inAnt
hropol
ogy
.

 Wr
it
eaboutt
hecr
it
ici
sm

Concl
usi
on:

 Writ
etheconcl usioninopt
imi
sti
cwayl i
keThus,t
oconcl ude,wecan
saythat,ant
hropol ogi
stsr
eal
i
zedt hatthei
rknowledgeofot her
sis
possi
blysubjectiveandimper
fectbutthatdoesnotmeant hatiti
s
i
mpossibletost udyhumanandthei
rcult
uresci
enti
fical
l
y.

I
ntr
oduct i
on:
 Post moder ni
sm i s basical l
y a cr it
ic of Et hnogr aphies.Many
assumpt ionsof20t hcent ur yfi
el dwor kandet hnogr aphiesbecame
subjectofdebat ein1980sonwar ds.Postmoder nism emer gedasa
theoreti
cal perspect i
ve i n ant hropology i n 1980s because of
subjecti
vityini
nterpretat
ionofdi fferentcultures.
 PostModer ni
sm espouses a sy stemat i
c skept i
cism ofgr ounded
theoreti
calperspective.PostModer nism bel i
evest hatin20t hcent ury
anthropologist
sbel ongst oCol oni alera,hencebel i
evet hatpeopl e
havenotgi v
encor r
ectopi nionorr ealopinionbecauseet hnogr aphers
arerelatedt opolit
icalauthor it
y.Hencei ti snotsur ethev oi ceisof
ethnographeroroft hepeopl e.
 Maincont ri
buti
oni sgi venbyJamescl i
fford,St ephenandMi chel
focault
,t heycrit
icizedt hesubj ectivit
yinst udyAnt hropol ogy .This
theory gav e systemat ic Skept i
cism of gr ounded t heor eti
cal
perspective.

Mai
ncont
ri
but
ions.
 Inant hropology ,Moder nism under st
oodwi tht headv ancementof
capital
ism,Post modernism deal swit
hwhatcomesaf t
ercapi t
alism,
Postmoder nism i nAnt hropol ogyi sthemoder nappr oach,moder n
thi
nkingi ntheev ol
uti
onofCul ture.
 Postmoder nism wasconcer nedaboutet hnographyandanal ysi
st hat
descr i
bedwast heview oft hepeopleoroft heet hnographer.Post
moder nism ar guesforObj ectiv
ityandtoreducet hesubjecti
vit
yonl y
tothest udi
es.
 Postmoder nism inAnt hropol ogystar
tedinthe1940sandt ookf inal
shapei nt he80s.Theconceptwaspr oposedbyJamesCl i
fford,
Derri
da, Wolf.Postmoder nism claimsthatiti
simpossibletohav ean
objectiveandneut ralknowl edgeofanot hercul
ture.

Postmoder ni
sm hav
ebeendi
vi
dedi
ntot
wov
erybr
oadcamps:
(1)skepti
calPM
(2)Affi
rmati
vepm

(
1)Skepti
calPostmodernism:
 Itmeansraisi
ngthequesti
onsabouttheet hnogr
aphies,whetherwhat
theyobserv
edandwr i
ttenintheethnographyisactualcult
ureornot.
cult
ureornot.ThisPost-moderni
stquest i
onsthel anguageusedi n
ethnogr
aphyanddoubtedt hei
nfor
mant s

(
2)Af f
irmat iv
epost moder nism:
 Affirmative post moder nist s questions whet her t he ethnography
collectedi sinclusi
veornot .Thepopul arskept i
calPostmoder ni
sts
arespi l
fordandPopul araf f
ir
mat i
vepostmoder ni
stsareEdwar ds
sapi ersandWhor f
 Finally,post -moderni
st s adv ocatet hati n wr it
ing ethnography’s,
i
mpor tanceshoul dbegi v ent ocollect i
ngt hei nformationfrom less
vocalsect i
onsoft hesoci etyandt heyal sobel i
ev ethatthereisno
absol utet ruth,every
thing i sr el
ati
v e,wher ei ndivi
dualconst r
ucts
his/herr eali
tyaccordi
ngt ot heircul
ture, envi
ronmentandexper ience.

Thebasi
cfeat
uresofPostmoder
nism ar
e—

1.Cri
ti
calofScienti
fi
cAppr oach— Acc.t o Mel
ford Spi
ro,Post
Moderni
sm postul
atesthatbecauseoft hesubjecti
vit
yoft he
humanexperi
ence,Anthropologycannotbeascience.Further
,
 sinceobj ecti
vityisanI l
lusion,Ant hr opol ogycannotcont ributet o
theper spectivesofopposedgr oups-f emal esandt hirdwor ld.
2.Reflexi
v e Ant hropology — Post moder nists gi ve ot her
anthropologistsanoppor tunitytor econsi dert hei rappr oachest o
cultur
alanal ysisandbecomesensi tiv
et ot hei rownunconsci ous
assumpt i
ons
3.Emi c Appr oach — Postmoder ni sm r emov es t he dist inction
between t he ant hr opologist and t he obser ved. The
Anthropol ogi
stdoesnotassumeanyaut hor i
tyandi nt hisway
l
eav esr oom fort heinterpretationsoft heobser v ed
4.Focusondescr ipti
onr athert hani nt erpretationandexpl anat ions.
Ondocument ationrathert hant heor ies.
5.Reflexi
v e Ethnogr aphies — r athert han wr i
ting conv ent ional
anthropologicalr eports,therei saf ocusont hepr ocessofdoi ng
fi
eldwor k and per sonal exper iences. Post moder nist s see
fi
eldwor kasanoppor tunitytor eflectuponandanal yzet heirown
cultur
esaswel lasothercul t
ures.
6.Met hodologies — t wo met hodol ogi es char acteri
ze Post
moder nists-Deconst ructi
on,whi chi nvolvesdemy sti
fyingt exts
tor evealar bitrarypr esupposi ti
onsand i nt uitivei nterpr etation
i
nv olv
ingi ntr
ospect i
veunder standi ng.

Cr
it
ici
sm:
 Highlyconfusinganddet r
imentaltouse.
 Overdependenceonot hersandsi mplyrel
yi
ngotherar easmakest hi
s
approachNonaut hentic.Theydidn’thaveanysol
ut i
on
 SomeAnt hropologistsbelievethatpostmoder nism hasi ntr
oduced
poli
ti
cal bi
asi nanthropology.whichmayunder mineitslegi
timacy.
 Postmoder ni
stscannotdi smisssci ent
if
icmethod.Obj ect
ivi
tyisnot
impossible.
 Postmoder nist
sr elyonapar t
icularmoralmodelasopposedt o
empiricaldata.

Concl
usi
on
 Thus,toconclude,wecansayt hat
,ant
hropologi
stsr
eali
zedt hatt
heir
knowledgeofot hersispossiblysubj
ectiv
eandi mperfectbutt hat
doesnotmeant hati
tisimpossibl
etostudyhumanandt heircul
ture
sci
entif
ical
ly
.
 Thereisaneedf orreconst
ructi
onofet hnogr
aphi
cbecausepost
modernistsbeli
evethattheor
iesaresubjectedtodi
stor
tions.Hence
 thereis need f orcul
turalconstructwherei tshould be r
ati
onal
objecti
veandinclusi
ve.
 Postmoder ni
st semphasizeav iscer
alunderst
andi
ngasopposedt o
anintel
lect
ual oneandtakeastrongstanceonobjecti
vi
ty.Whil
ethere
aremanycr it
icsofthei
rv iew,t
heyhav enevert
hel
essbroughtcri
ti
cal
thi
nkinginanthropol
ogy.

Q3.Dist
ingui
shbetweentechni
que,met
hodandmet
hodol
ogy
.Exami
ne
thei
rrol
einanthr
opologi
calst
udies.
Appr
oacht
othequest
ion:
I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Wr
it
ethemeani
ngoft
her
esear
chi
nbr
ief
.
Body
:
 Wr
it
ethemeani
ngoft
heal
lthr
eei
nbr
ief
.
 Wr
it
etheDi
sti
ngui
shbet
weent
echni
que,
met
hodandmet
hodol
ogy
.
 Exami
net
hei
rrol
einant
hropol
ogi
cal
studi
es.

Concl
usi
on:
 Wr
it
ethesi
gni
fi
canceoft
her
esear
chi
nsol
vi
ngt
hei
ssues.

I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Research basi
cally means sear ch forknowl edge,whi ch is
sci
enti
f i
candsy stemat icsearchf oringeni
ousi nformat
ionor
dataonspecifi
ctopi c.
 The v ari
ous way s ant hr
opologists conduct r esear
ch in
natur
alist
icsett
ings,ori nt hef i
eld,arecall
edfieldmet hods.
Theyincludepar t
icipat
ioninsoci allif
eandv ar
iousf or
msof
observati
on.Ant hropology rel
ies on f i
eld met hods as its
ult
imatesourceofi nfor
mat i
on.
 1.Resear ch Techni que:I treferst ot he behav i
our(skil
l)and
i
nstrument sweusei nperformi ngresearchoper ati
onssuch
asmaki ngobser vati
ons, r
ecor dingdata,processi
ngofdat a.
2.Resear chMet hods:Itreferstot heModelwhi chweadopti n
coll
ect i
ngt hedat a.LikePar t
icipantmodelornon- Partici
pant
model .
3.Resear chMet hodology:Itist her easoni
ngbehi ndchoosi ng
ofat echniquei namet hodi nor dertosol vether esearch
problem sy stemat i
cally.I
tmaybeunder stoodasasci ence
ofstudy inghowr esearchisdonesci ent
ifi
call
y.Whenwet al
k
aboutr esear
chmet hodology,weconsi deraboutt hel ogic
behindt hemet hodsint hecont extofourresearchst udy .

Concl
usion:
 Forinstance,Parti
cipati
onobserv at
ionsaretheMet hodswhereas
typeofsy stem weadopti ndoingi nt
ervi
ew orschedulei
scalled
Techniqueandt hesci enti
fi
creasonbehi ndchoosingorselect
ing
themet hodandt echniqueismet hodology.

Q4.Expl ainthe si
gni
fi
cantr
ole ofan i
nfor
manti
n ant
hropol
ogi
cal
fi
eldwork.
I
ntroduction:
Appr
oacht
othequest
ion:
 Writ
ethemeani
ngoft
hei
nfor
manti
nant
hropol
ogi
calf
iel
dwor
kin
br
ief.
Body
:
 Wri
tethemeani
ngoft
hei
nfor
manti
nant
hropol
ogi
calf
iel
dwor
kin
det
ail
.
 Wri
tethe si
gni
fi
cantr
ole ofan i
nfor
manti
n ant
hropol
ogi
cal
f
iel
dwor
k.

Concl
usi
on:
 Wr
it
eit
spr
esentsi
gni
fi
cancei
nbr
ief
.
I
ntr
oduct
ion:
Intradi
ti
onalanthr
opologi
calfieldr esearch,keyinformantsar e
usedprimari
lyasasour ceofi nfor
mat iononav ari
etyoft opi
cs,
suchaskinshi
pandf amil
yorganizat
ion, economicsystem,poli
ti
cal
str
uctur
e,andrel
i
giousbeli
efsandpr actices.
"Someonewhoi snotonlyknowledgeableabouthi
sorherown
cult
urebutwhoisableandwi
ll
i
ngt ocommuni cat
ethi
sknowl
edge
i
n an underst
andabl
e wayto an anthr
opologi
storsome other
outsi
der
 Thewor d" i
nformant"isanant hr
opologicalconcept
,acommon
ter
mf orpeopleonemeet sinthefi
eldandget sinfor
mati
onfr
om;
andsincethegoaloff i
eldworki
stoobt aininf
ormati
on,i
tissel
f-
evi
dentt hatt he "i
nformants"musthav e a centralpl
ace i
n
anthr
opol
ogy .
Body
:
 Ani nf
ormantisaper sonwhohasspeci al
izedknowl edgeand/or
experti
se abouta parti
cul
arcultur
e ormember s ofa group.
Researchersident
if
yi nf
ormants earl
y on duri
ng t he r
esearch
processasameanst o gai
n access,inf
ormation,and ongoi
ng
feedback during t
he coll
ecti
on and gat her
ing of dat a for
i
nterpret
ati
on.
 Event
uall
y,i
nformantspr
ovidecult
urali
nter
pret
ationandanal
ysi
s,
notonlycul
tur
alinf
ormat
ion.Ensuri
ngtheaccuracyandval
idi
tyof
 i
nfor
mantpr
ovideddat
aisani
mpor
tantmet
hodol
ogi
calpr
obl
em i
n
et
hnogr
aphi
cresear
ch.
 Nat i
vei ndivi
duals who pr ovi
de inf
ormation to an et hnographer
duringf ieldworkarer eferr
edt oasinfor
mant s.Thet er
mi mpli
esa
procedur e during et hnographi
c inter
viewing i n whi ch semi -
structuredori nformalin-depthquesti
onsar easkedi nanat urali
sti
c
setti
ng,and i nformant sanswer .Recentl
y,ot hert ermssuch as
consul tantsorcol laboratorshav ebeenpr eferred,indicati
ngt he
greaterpar t
ici
patoryandequalr oleofthesekeyi ndivi
dualsi nthe
moder nper i
od.

 Since 1971, t he Amer ican Ant hr

opological Association has
publ i
shed gui del
ines t hat set out t he et hi
calr esponsi bil
ity’
s
ant hr
opologistshav et oinf ormants.Thesei ncludeav oidi
nghar m
orwr ong,respect i
ng informant s’wel l
-bei
ng,saf ety,dignit
y ,and
privacy,act i
v el
y consul ting i n order t o establi
sh benef icial
relati
onships, and pr otect i
ng anony mi t
y i ft hat is desi red.
Increasingl
y,et hnogr apher s submi t proposalst o instit
utional
review boards,whi chexami ner esear
chi nvolvi
nghumansubj ect s.
Likeot herscienti
sts,ethnogr aphersthenar erequiredtoobt aint he
i
nf ormedconsentoft heirsubj ects.

A t rusti
ng,reciprocal,and cooper ati
ver elat
ionship between
i
nfor mantsandet hnogr apher
sdev elopsgr adual
lythroughoutthe
fi
eldwor kperi
od.Si nceet hnographi
ci ntervi
ewingof teninvol
ves
fi
nancialpay ments,i nformants benefitfrom theirpar t
ici
pat
ion
di
rect l
y.Infor
mant s also may gai nr espectand pr esti
ge fr
om
wor ki
ngwi t
hanthropologists.

 Theymayexpectf riendshi
p,favours,orgi ft
s.Asr el
ati
onships
changeanddeepen,et hnogr
aphersgainaddi ti
onalinsi
ghtintothe
cult
uref
rom theemi cornat i
vepointofv i
ew.Ev ent
uall
y,i
nformants
provi
de cul
turali nterpr
etat
ion and anal ysi
s,notonl y cultural
i
nformati
on.Et hnographersselectdi f
ferentkindsofi nformants
dependi
ngont heirresearchdesi
gnandgoal s.

Iftheethnogr
apheri
sseekingtowri
teagener
alcult
uraldescri
pti
on,
av ari
etyofinfor
mants,ol
dandy oung,menandwomen,maybe
necessary.Each of these has ordi
nar
y knowledge t hat t
he
ethnographercombinesthroughaseriesofinter
views,buildi
ng
 them i
ntotheaccountofthecul
ture.I
ftheethnographeri
swr i
ti
nga
descr
ipti
ont hatrequi
resexpertknowledge,suchasast udyof
shamanisti
cbelief
sandpr acti
ces,thenper hapsonlythosewho
havethi
skindofknowledgebecomei nfor
mant s.

 Manyet hnographersfindt hatt heydev elopspeci alrappor

twi t
h
onlyonei ndi
vidualandt hatpersonbecomest hekeyinformantand
often the focus ofa per son-center
ed et hnography.Research
projectsmayi nterestcertai
npeopl emor et hanothers,andsome
topicsmaybei gnoredordev al
ued.Thus, ethnographersint
erest
ed
i
ngenderandwomen’ sexper iencesmaybedi sregardedbyt he
menofapar ti
cularcult
ure.Suchci r
cumst ancesmayenhancet he
rel
at i
onship bet ween women i nformants and women
ethnographers.

 Ensur i
ngt heaccuracyandv ali
dit
yofinformantpr ov
ideddat aisan
i
mpor t
antmet hodologicalproblem in et hnographi
cr esearch.In
cont r
ast t o sur vey-
based i nquiri
es, wher e repli
cabil
it
y and
compar i
sont ooutsidedatamaybepossi ble,inf
ormant-baseddata
arecr it
icall
yassessedv iaadi ff
erentprocess.I deall
y,increasi
ng
rapportshoul dproducei ncreasi
ngaccur acy ,butthi
sisnotal ways
true.Informantsmayl i
e,av oidsensiti
vei ssues,orjustnotknow.
Ethnogr aphicresearchof f
ersthepossibili
tyofr epeatinter
viewsin
whi chinformationcanbecheckedorcl ari
f i
ed.

Inadditi
on,checkingdat av i
amul t
ipleinformantsmayi ndicat
e
whethertheinformantis“ typical”or“idi
osyncrati
c.”Et
hnographer
s
alsocheckinformants’statement sagainsttheirownobservati
ons.
Infor
mant s’misrepresentations orav oidances provi
de cult
ural
i
nf or
mationjustastheiraccur atestatement sdo.

Concl
usi
on:

 Ensur i
ngt heaccuracyandv al
idit
yofi nformantprovideddatai s
animpor t
antmet hodologicalproblem inethnographicresearch.
In contrastto survey-based inquiries,wherereplicabil
it
yand
compar isontoout sidedat amaybepossi bl
e,i
nformant -
based
data are crit
ical
lyassessed v ia a differ
entprocess.I deall
y,
i
ncr easi
ngr apportshouldpr oducei ncreasi
ngaccur acy,butthis
i
snotal way strue
Q5.Explai
nthedif
fer
encebet
ween‘Emic’&‘Et
ic’andhow doest
he
di
ff
erenceder
ivef
rom t
hest
udyofl
anguage?
Appr
oacht
othequest
ion:
I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Wr
it
ethemeani
ngoft
heEmi
c’&‘
Eti
c’i
nbr
ief
.

Body
;
 Wr
it
ethemeani
ngoft
heEmi
c’&‘
Eti
c’i
ndet
ail
 Wri
te dif
fer
ence between ‘
Emic’& ‘
Etic’and how does t
he
di
ff
erencederi
vefrom t
hestudyofl
anguage.
Concl
usi
on:
 Writ
et he i
ts pr
esentsi
gni
fi
cance one ov
erot
heri
n pr
esent
si
tuati
on.

I
ntr
oducti
on
 EmicandEt icaret wodi f
ferentapproacheswhent r
yingt oexpl ain
soci
alreali
tiesobser vedwhileconduct ingfiel
dwor kinant hropology
andothersoci alsciences.Eti
cper spectiveist heperspectiveoft he
obser
ver.Int hisappr oacht her esearcheri st r
y i
ngtoexpl aint he
soci
alreali
tiestheyobser v
eusi ngthet heoreti
calappar atusofsoci al
sci
ences.
 Emicperspect i
v eistheper specti
veoft hest udiedsocialgr oup.I n
thi
sapproach, theperspecti
ves,explanations,l
ogic, meanings,beli
ef s
andwor l
dviewoft hest udi
edpeopl eareusedt oexpl ai
nt hepar t
icular
 values,bel iefs orpr acti
ces.Thi si sthe way t he act
ualpeopl e
under standwhatt heydoandt hi nk.Eticfocusesonquant i
tyand
spendsl esst imef ordat acollectionandEmi cf ocusesonQualit
yand
spendsmor etimef ordat acollection.
 Mast eringt helocall anguagesi sabsol utel
ynecessar ywhereasa
functionall anguagei senoughi nt hecaseofEmi candacquaintance
l
anguagesenoughi nthecaseofEt icapproach.
 Languagei st hecogni ti
v esystem andi tcar r
iesthet r
uemeaningof
ourknowl edge.Themeani ngsoft hewor ds,texts,nar
rat
ivesand
behav iourar eutmosti mpor t
anti nEmi c.Wher easi nEti
cappr oach
youj ustanal y
set hepat ternsoft hebehav i
our.

Themaincontri
but
ionofthisschooli
sto gi
vedi
ff
erencebet
ween
obser
vermodel
andactormodel

ETI
C EMI
C

1.
Obser
verpoi
ntofv
iew 1.Act
orpointofv
iew orpeopl
e’
s
poi
ntofv
iew

2.
Real
i
tyasdescr
ibedbyObser
ver
. 2.Real
i
tyunder
stoodbyact
or

3.
Pri
mar
ymet
hodi
sObser
vat
ion 3. Pri
mar y met hod i s
obser
vingbypart
icipat
ing.
4.
Non par ti
ci
pant model of 4.Par
ti
cipantmodel.
obser
vat
ion

5.
No need f
or l
ear
ning Local 5.needf
orl
ear
ningl
ocal
language
Language

6.
Object
iveist
o under
stand t
he 6.to underst
and people’
s worl
d
poi
ntofview fr
om t
heirpatt
ernsofbehavi
or.

7.
Spend mini
mum t
ime f
ordat
a 7.Spendmaxi
mum t
imef
ordat
a
col
lect
ion

8.
Quant
it
y 8.Qual
i
ty
Concl
usion
I
nduct
ionistheprimar
ystrat
egyoftheresear
chi nEmicapproachwher
e
asincaseofEt i
capproachDeducti
oni simpor t
ant.Thatisthenew
Et
hnographi
cisInduct
ivewhereasol
dethnographyisdeduct
ive.

Q6.Discusst he cont
ri
buti
onsoff i
eld wor
kint
he dev
elopmentof
ant
hropologi
calconceptsandt
heor
ies.
Appr
oacht
othequest
ion:
I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 Wr
it
ethemeani
ngoft
hef
iel
dwor
kinbr
ief
.
Body
:
 Wr
it
ethemeani
ngoft
hef
iel
dwor
kindet
ail
.
 Discussthe contr
ibut
ionsoffiel
d worki
nthe dev
elopmentof
anthropol
ogi
calconceptsandt
heori
es.

Concl
usi
on:
 Wr
it
eit
spr
esentsi
gni
fi
cancei
nshor
t.

I
ntr
oduct
ion:
 The t
erm ‘f
iel
dwork’isused t
o descri
be r
esearch in al
lar
eas
ofant
hropol
ogyfrom soci
alandcult
uralant
hropologytomedical
orbi
ologi
calant
hropol
ogy.
  Fi
eldworkisamongt hemostdist
incti
vepracti
cesant
hropologi
sts
bri
ngt othestudyofhumanl i
feinsociety.Throughf
iel
dwork,the
socialant
hropol
ogistseeksadetail
edandi nti
mateunderst
anding
ofthecontextofsoci
alacti
onandrelati
ons.
 Fiel
dwor k theori
es are defined by “notes and queries” i
n
anthropology.Iti
sthefi
rst
-handinfor
mat i
onofpeopl
ethroughthe
techniquesofper sonalobservat
ion,int
ervi
ewsand inter
acti
ons
thatinclude prol
onged st
ayamong t he peopl
e who are bei
ng
studi
ed.

Body
:

 Thet erm‘ fi
eldwork’isusedt odescr i
ber esearchinallareasof
anthropol
ogyf r
om soci alandcult
uralanthropologytomedi calor
biol
ogicalanthropology.Thepracti
ceof‘fi
eldwork’canbedonei na
vari
etyofdi f
ferentsett
ingssuchasanur banorv i
rt
ualenvi
ronment,
asmal lt
ribalcommuni ty,amuseum,l i
brary,cult
urali
nsti
tuti
on,
business,orapr imateconservat
ionarea.

 Thereisageneralconsensusamongstanthr
opologist
st odayt
hat
fi
eldworkcamet obeconsi deredpartofthepr acti
ceofsoci al
anthropol
ogywit
hthewor kofoneofthef
oundingfathersofBri
ti
sh
anthropol
ogy,
Broni
slawMal i
nowski
.

 Unlike the ‘ armchair ant hropologists’bef ore him,Mal i

nowski
advocated,i nsteadofst udyingot herpeopl esf r
om thecomfortof
universi
tyl i
br ar
ies,goi ng ‘i
ntot hef ield’
:t hatis,li
vi
ng wit
ht he
peoplehewasst udy i
ng, engagingi ntheircommuni t
y,l
ear
ningtheir
l
anguage,eat ingt hei
rf ood,andt akingpar ti nthei
rever
ydayl i
fe.
SinceMal i
nowski ’
st i
me,f i
eldwork–t radit
ionall
y,awayfr
om one’ s
ownsoci ety–hasbeenr egardedasanessent i
alandnecessar y
partofanant hropologist’sprofessional t
rai
ning.

 Fiel
dworkoveranextendedperi
od–t ypical
l
y1-2y ear
s-hasbeen
thoughtofaspart
iculartosoci
alanthropol
ogy,andpartofwhat
dist
ingui
shest
hediscipl
inef
rom ot
hersocialsci
ences.
 Today ,someant hropologist
ssti
llconsidert
hatdoingfi
eldworki n
the t radi
ti
onal Mal inowskian sense i s an essent ial and
disti
nguishing aspectofant hr
opologicalresear
ch.Others see
fi
eldwor kasencompassi ngawi dev ari
etyofpracti
cesi
ndi ff
erent
setti
ngs,and as one of many di ff
erent methods by whi ch
anthropologist
scangai ninti
mateknowledgeofacommuni ty
.

 Fiel
dwor ki t
selfisi ncreasi
nglypr acti
sedi nhi ghlycont empor ar y
setti
ngs, aswellast hemor etr
aditi
onal‘remot e’ ones.Fi eldworki s
amongt hemostdi sti
nctivepracti
cesant hr opologistsbr i
ngt ot he
study ofhuman l ifei n society
.Thr ough f iel
dwor k,t he soci al
anthropologistseeksadet ail
edandi ntimat eunder standingoft he
contextofsoci alact ionandr el
ations.Fi eldwor ki napr eviousl y
unfamili
arset ti
nghasamongi tai msadeepunder st andingt hat
encompassesasmuchaspossi bleofan‘ insider’s’per spectiv
e.

 Conductedinamor efamili
arset ti
ng, i
tcanl eadtheanthropologist
–andt hoseforwhom heorshewr it
es–t olookatev er
ydayr eali
ty
i
nnewandunex pectedway s.Wher efiel
dwor kisconduct edwithin
museums,ar chi
ves,orcul t
ur alinstit
uti
ons,t heprocesscanbe
simil
arinthatthesocialant hropologistseekst ounder standthe
underl
yingsymboli
candcul turalmeani ngsofat ext,oracol l
ecti
on
ofobj ect
s.Equall
y,biologicalant hr
opologistsfrequent l
y base
resear
chpr oj
ect
sonhumanr emai nsorar tefact
shel dinmuseum
coll
ecti
ons.

 Fiel
dwor kcant akemanydi fferentfor
ms,shapedbyf actor
ssuch
as:thetopicofi nvestigation,questionsguidi
ngt her esearch,where
theresearchwi llbecar riedout ,whoi sfundingit,externalpolit
ical
oreconomi cfact ors,theage, sexorethnici
tyoft heant hropol
ogist,
thetechnologicalf acili
ti
esav ail
able.Newerf ormat sforr esearch,
suchasuseofmul t
iplesi t
esandt hestudyofl arge-scalecentres
ofpowersuchasi nt er
gov ernment alorgani
sat i
ons,ar ebecomi ng
i
ncreasinglycommon;asi st heuseofv i
sualt echnologiesand
methodsofpr esent ati
onsuchasf i
l
m,phot ographyand di gital
medi a.

 Ant
hropol
ogi
stsmayassembl
edat
ainnumer
ousway
s.Theymay
 gatherquantit
ati
veinformati
onbyconduct i
ngsurvey
soranal y
sing
records such as histori
calarchives,gover
nmentr eport
s and
censuses. Quant i
tat
ive data is of t
en useful for bi
ological
anthropol
ogistsinmappi ngphysicaltr
ait
swithi
napopul at
ion,or
makingcr oss-
populat
ioncomparisons.

 Quanti
tati
veinf
ormationi
sal sousefulandof t
ennecessarywhen
anthr
opologi
sts work on interdi
sci
pli
nary proj
ect
s wi t
h other
speci
ali
sts.Howev er
,forthe mostpar tsocialanthr
opologi
sts
concentr
ateongatheri
ngqualit
ativ
edata.

 Theydo so byconduct i
ng i
ndividualand group interviews,by
undert
akingoralhistori
es,thr
oughonl inediscussionforumsand,
mostimpor t
antl
y,throughtheMalinowskiantradi
tionof‘par t
ici
pant
observ
ation’
.
Part
ici
pant observation enables the socialant hropologist to
undert
ake detai
led,lengthyand of ten complexobser vationsof
soci
alli
feinfi
nedet ail
.

 Itmaybedi rect
edtosuchdi sparategroupsasav i
rt
ualnet work,a
tr
ibalv i
ll
age,oranact i
vi
stgr oup inanur ban environment.By
parti
cipati
ng inthef abricofdai l
ylifeaswel lasmor ef ormal
ceremoniesandr i
tuals,anddi scussinghis/herdev elopi
ngi deas
with will
ing member s oft he communi t
y( somet imes termed
‘
infor
mant s’)the fi
eldwor kerbui l
ds up a pr ogr
essiv el
y deeper
understandingofwhati shappening.

 Manyf i
eldworkersf i
ndthisapersonallytransformingexperi
ence.
Av ari
antofpar t
icipantobservati
onal soexi stswi t
hinbiol
ogical
anthr
opology,wher e pri
matologi
sts may anal yse the social
dynamicsofamonkeyorapesoci etybyspendi nglongper i
ods
observi
ngt hegr oupandbei ngt osomeext entacceptedbyi t.
Howev er
,thecr ucialdif
fer
encei sthatonl yhumanbei ngscant alk
totheanthropologistandrefl
ectont heirsocietythr
oughlanguage.

 Thefiel
dwor kisof2v ariet
ies,t
heyarePart
ici
pantobserv
ati
on
andnon-par
ti
cipantobservati
onGenesi
sofFiel
dwork
1) Fi
eldwork requires fir
st hand observati
on, recor
ding or
document ing, whatoneseesandobser ves.
2)Dat agener ateddependsuponf ieldwor kerhi msel f,hi spsy che,hi s
l
ev el ofi nv ol vementandabi li
tyt oseeandv isual izet hings.
I npar ti
ci pant , hegoest ot hef i
eldandst ay swi t
ht hepeopl ewhom
hewant st o st udy .Wher easi n non- par ticipantobser vation,he
visitst hef iel
dbutobser vesext ernal lyf ollowst hebookswr i
ttenon
them.Butcur r entlyt heconceptoff ieldwor kemphasi zesondi rect
inv olv ementoft heobser verwi thhi ssubj ect s.
 Theant hr opol ogicalf iel
dwor ksst artedi n19t hcent urybyHenr y
Mor gan.Fort hef irstt imef i
eldwor ki nt roducedi ntoant hropol ogy
byhi m.Hest udiedeski mosandI roqui ousI ndi ans.Mor gani st he
fir
stper sonwhost udi edki nshipi ndet ai l
.
 Hei nt roducedSchedul emodelofDat acol lect ion.Fr anzboas,
emphasi z ed det ai l
ed dat a col lect i
on dur i
ng hi sv isitt o Baf fin
Islandandhepr omot edt hecul tureshoul dbest udi edhi stori
cally
butnotcompar at ively( historicalpar ticul ar i
sm)bywhi chwecan
producei nclusi vet heor i
eswhi char enotet hno- cent ricinnat ure.
W. H. R.r iv ersar eal sopar tofTor ris-st raitexpedi ti
onofOceani a
regi on.
 Ri v er sal sov isitedI ndia,andst udiedTodat ribalcommuni tyof
Tami lNādu.Hei scr editedf ori ntroduci ngGeneal ogiesi nDat a
Col lect ion.R. C.br own,i sal sopar tofTor r
is-str aitexpedi t
ion.He
camet oI ndiat oconductf ieldwor kamongt het ribesofAndaman
Islands.Hehadt akenupnonpar ti
ci pantobser vationt ost udy
Andaman i slander s.Mal i
nowskii st he per son who i nt r
oduced
par ticipantobser vat i
on i n ant hr opol ogy .He was f amous f or
conduct ingf ieldwor ki nnat ivelanguage.
 Hi s mai n f ocus was under st andi ng t he soci al change of
Trobr ianderi sl ander s, Melanesi ant ri
besandPol ynesi ant ri
bes.He
emphasi z edt her ol eofi nformer si npr ov idingf i
el dwor kandf ield
dat a.He was i nst rument ali n br ingi ng outt he r ules f ort he
resear cher sEdmundl each, studiedBur mesesoci eties( Kachi nand
Shan)f orunder st andi ngt hechangei npol i
ticalsy stem.Ray mond
fir
th,st udi ed economi c sy stems among t he maor i
s ofNew
Zeal and.
 Ray mondFi r
thwasl aterr esponsi blef ori nitiatingdi scussi onson
ethni cityi nant hropol ogy .Thecont r
ibut i
onsofcul turalper sonal i
ty
schoolar e enor mous.Mar garetmead conduct ed f ield wor k
 amongSamoani slands, Ar apesh, Mundugumorandt shambol i.
 Shei sf amousf ori ntroduci ngv isualant hropology( phot ogr aphs,
vi
deo- tapi ng) i ntof ield wor ks.Rut h benedi ct,st udied pi ma,
puebl ozoni ,Kwaki ut l
, dobuandal soJapanesecul tur eandnat ional
char acterst udies.Abr am Kar dineronMar quesiansofPol y nesi a.
Cor a-du- bois,didf ieldwor katal ore, andI ndonesi anv illage.
 Shei ncl udedet hnogr aphi cf acts,col l
ectedbi ographi cs,dr eamsof
children by whi ch she concl uded, cul ture and per sonal ity
i
nf l
uenceseachot her .Thepost -
moder nistphasei .
e. ,thecur rent
phase of ant hropol ogy pr imar il
y deal s wi th anal ysing t he
ethnogr aphicwr i
tings.I tcanbeconsi deredasat ertiar ymet hodof
obser vat ion.I tst udies aboutl ingui stics and al ready wr i
tten
ethnogr aphies.
 Thus,ant hropol ogy mov ed f rom t he st age of ARM- CHAI R
ANTHROPOLOGYt oDETAI LEDMONOGRAPHI CSTUDI ESwi tht he
par t
icipantobser vat i
on t o a st age ofdependence on t er ti
ar y
sour ce.Nev erthel ess,i thadbr oughtoutani nnov at i
v emet hodof
par t
icipantobser v ationi .e,cur rentlyi nusei nsev eraldev elopi ng
count ries.Themet hodsar e:PRA( par ti
cipantr uralappr aisal )and
RRA( rapi drural appr ai sal ).
 Whi ch hel psi nr educi ng t het imeoff ield study ,i tbr i
ngsout
i
nt erdisci pl
inary knowl edge f or r ural dev elopment gi ving
i
mpor tance t ot he aspi rationsofl ocalcommuni ty.Concl usi on
Thust he Fi eldwor kt radi t
ion i n ant hropol ogywas t heor et i
cal ly
startedbyCl assicalev ol uti
oni stsandsy st emat i
cal l
ydev elopedby
Diffusioni sts and Reached pr act icalit
y by Funct i
onal ism and
Cul t
ur eper sonal ityschool .
 Thecl assi calmodelofFi eldwor ki scal ledPar ticipantmodelof
Fi
el dwor k.Fieldwor kt raditionmadest udyofant hr opol ogymor e
holisticandaut hent i
c.

Concl
usi
on:

 Anthropol
ogistsmaywr i
teup thei
rdat ainr epor t
s,arti
cles,or
j
ournalcont r
ibut
ions.Wheretheproj
ectisinter
discipl
inar
yort eam-
based,thesemaybeco- author
ed.Alt
ernativ
ely,theymaydescr i
be
thei
rexperiencesandfindi
ngsintheform ofanet hnography.