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LGNOTES

Modul e1:COMMUNI CATIONPROCESS

Intr
oduction
Communi cationi sav i
talpar tofourdai l
yr outi
nes.Wesi tinschoolandl i
stent o
teachers.Wer eadbooksandmagazi nes.Wet alktof r
iends,watcht elevi
sion,and
communi cateov ertheI nternet.Thewor dcommuni cat
ionisusedi ncommont alk,
usually,to mean speaki ng orwr it
ing orsendi ng a message t o anot herper son.
Communi cationi sreal
lymuchmor et hanthat.Itinvol
vesensur i
ngthaty ourmessage
hasr eachedt het ar
getaudi ence,(thatis,thepersonst owhom i tissent)andt hatthe
receiverunder standsandr espondsasy ouwantt hem to.Italsoinv
olvesensur ingthat
youy ourselfablet ounderst and,i
nterpret,andrespondt omessagest hatyour eceive.

Whati scommuni cati

on?
Communi cati
oni st hepr ocessbywhi chi nformat i
oni sshar edbet weeni ndivi
duals
and/ oror ganizationsbymeansofpr eviousl yagr eedsy mbol s( wor ds,signs,pictures,
soundset c.)throughadef inedchannel .Thesy mbol smustbeunder stoodbyt heper son
orper sonswi thwhom wei ntendt ocommuni cate.Bothmustassi gnt hesamemeani ng
tot hesy mbol sused;ot herwise,ther
ei smi scommuni cati
on.Unl esst her
ei sacommon
under standingoft hesy mbol s,i
tisnotpossi bletocommuni cat e.Thi sdef i
nit
ionimpl i
es
thatcommuni cationi stheexchangeofi deas, opinionsandi nf ormat i
ont hroughwr itt
en
orspokenwor dsoract i
ons.
Thepr ocessofcommuni cationissuccessf ulonl ywhent her eceiverunder standsan
i
deaast hesenderi ntendedi t
.Bothpar t
iesmustagr eenotonl yont hei nformat i
on
transmi tt
edbutal soont hemeani ngoft hati nformat i
on.Ther ef oremeani ngiscr uciali
n
communi cat i
on, wher enomeani ngistransf errednocommuni cationhast akenpl ace.

Effect
ivecommuni cati
on
Effect
ivecommuni cati
oniscommuni cati
ont
hatisclearlyandsuccessfullydeli
vered,
receiv
edandunder stood.Eff
ecti
vecommunicati
ontakespl aceonlywhent heli
stener
clearl
yunderstandsthemessaget hatt
hespeakeri
ntendedt osend.Inotherwordsa
speakertransmitsamessageandmustensur ethatthemessagei sdel
iv
er edcl
early.A
l
istenertakesdeli
veryofthemessageandmustbeanact iv
el i
stener
.
Someski ll
sassociat
edwi theff
ecti
vecommunicati
oni nclude:

 Bei
ngagoodl ist
ener
 Usingandrecogni
zi
ngbodylanguageandnon-
ver
bal
communi
cat
ion
 Takingcont
rolofemoti
onandstress
 Underst
andingandempathi
zingwithot
her
s

Communi cat
ioni
seffectiv
eonlywhenboththesenderandtherecei
verarefocusedon
theactofcommunication.Whi
lethesendermustsharpenandimproveskil
l
sof
speaki
ngandwr i
ti
ng,therecei
vermustimprov
eskill
soflist
eni
ngandr eadi
ng.

Funct
ions/
Reasonsofcommuni
cat
ion

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Ther
earemanygoodr easonswhywecommuni catesomuch.Weact
ual
l
yneedt
o
communi
cat
ephy
sical
l
y, soci
all
yandpsy
chol
ogi
cal
ly.

Physicall
y,weneedt ocommuni cat
ejustt
ostayhealthy.Soci
all
yisol
atedpeopl
ear e
twotot hreeti
mesmor el
ikelytodiepremat
urel
ythanarepeoplewithst
rongsoci
alti
es.
I
nf act,researcher
shavef oundpoorcommuni cati
onandl oneli
nesstoincr
easethe
l
ikel
ihoodofmanyser i
ousdi seases,
incl
udi
ngheartdi
seaseandcancer.

Sociall
y,weneedt
ocommunicateinordert
ofeeli
ncl
uded,t
ofeelaff
ection,andtofeel
somesenseofcont r
oloverourli
ves.Tofeelasenseofincl
usi
on,wemustdev elop
rel
ationshi
pswher
ewehav easenseofbelongi
ng.Tofeelaff
ect
ion,wemustdev elop
rel
ationshi
pswher
eweexperi
enceasenseofcar i
ngandbeingcaredfor.Andi norder
tofeelasenseofcontr
ol,wemustcommuni catesomedegreeofi nf
luenceov erour
envi
ronment .

Psychological
ly,weneedt ocommuni cat
esoast odev el
opasenseofi dent
it
yas
humanbei ngs,ofwhowear easr el
atedtootherhumanbei ngs.Mor
especi
fi
cal
ly,we
needtocommuni cat
ef ort
hefol
lowi ngconcret
ereasons:
 To i nform and being informed-Mostofusspend hour seach dayina
reci
procalact s ofinforming and being inf
ormed.We ask and answer
questionsetc.

 Toexpressfeel
i
ngs-thi
sisachi
evedwhenweshareourdisappoi
ntmentsand
tr
iumphs,congr
atul
ateeachother
,communicat
esympathy.Indoingthi
swe
i
nv i
teot
herstooff
ertheemoti
onalsuppor
tweneed.

 To express i
maginati
on-her e,communi cat
ion i
s used to express and
descr
ibethefi
cti
ti
ousev ent
s,peopl
e,andideas.Nor
mallyusedinstoryt
ell
ing,
j
okes,dramaetcforentert
aini
ngpurposes.

 Toper f
orm soci alri
tual
s-Thisi swhencommuni cat
ionisusedtosat i
sfy
soci
alconv enti
ons.Forexampl e,weshakehandsorsayhowar eyouinour
fi
rstmeetingsbecausei tisacommuni cat
ionr
it
ualf or
mali
sed.
Thoughi n
questi
onfor m buttherespondentcompl
etesther
it
ualbyrepeat
ingthesame
words.

 To per
suadeandmot i
vateothers-communi cati
oni susedt o at
temptto
i
nfl
uencethethoughtsandbehav ior
sofot hers.E.g.Pol
it
ici
ansconv i
nci
ng
vot
erstovot
eforthem.Productadvert
isementsetc.
Besidestheaboveconcr eter easons,ot herr easonsast owhywecommuni cat
eof
whichstem f
rom thecompar ati
veadv antagenat ureofhumanbei ngsincl
ude:
 Tomeetphy si
calandphy siol
ogicalneedse. g.food,
shel
ter,cl
othi
ngetc.wit
hout
whi
chashumanbei ngswear enotabl etosur vi
ve.
 Topassoni nf
ormationort orecei
v einformat i
on
 Fordecisi
onmaki ngpur poses
 Toestabli
shandmai ntai
nmut ualrelati
onshi ps

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  Toent
ert
ainandbeent
ert
ained

TheProcessofCommuni cati
on
Inordertoanal
yzetheactivi
tyofcommuni
cati
on,wemustknow t
hepr
ocessandt
he
elementsi
nvol
vedintheprocessofcommuni
cati
on.

Therearesev enelement sorf actor

swhi chmakeupt heprocessofcommuni cationt
o
beeffecti
ve:
 Sour ce/Sender ,i
st heonewhoi nit
iatestheact i
onofcommuni cat
ing.
 Audi ence/Receiveristheper son(s)forwhom t hecommuni cat
ionisintended.
 Goal /Purposei sthesender '
sr easonf orcommuni cati
ng,thedesi r
edr esul
tof
communi cation.
 Message/Cont entistheinformat i
onconv ey
ed.
 Medi um / Channelisthemeansormet hodusedf orconv ey
ingthemessage.
 Feedbacki st hereceiver'
sr esponset ot hecommuni cati
onasobser v edbythe
sender.
 Env i
ronment/ Contextisthebackgr oundi nwhichthecommuni cat
iontakesplace.

Eachoftheseiscompl ex;anyanal
ysisofcommunicationhast
otakeintoaccountthe
vari
ous possi
bil
i
ties ofeach oft hese. The process ofcommunication i
nvol
ves
deci
sionsandacti
v i
ti
esbyt het
woper sonsi
nvol
ved,t
hesenderandthereceiv
er.

Basi
cModel
ofCommuni
cat
ion

Thesenderinit
iatesthepr ocessofcommuni cati
on.He/shehastobeclearaboutthe
purpose(orgoalorobjective)ofthecommuni cat
ionandaboutthet
argetaudi
ence(or
recei
ver
)ofthecommuni cation;t
hati
s,thesenderdeci
deswhyandtowhom t osenda
message.Wecommuni catebecausewewantt omakesomeonedosomet hingortake
someaction,orthinkorfeelinacert
ainway,t
hatis,toi
nfl
uencet
heperson.

Thesenderhast odecidewhatinformat
iontoconv eyandcreatethemessage( or
cont
ent)tobeconveyedbyusingwordsorothersymbolswhi
chcanbeunderstoodby
thei
ntendedrecei
ver
.Theprocessofputt
ingtheideaint
osymbolsiscal
l
edencoding;

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i
nordert
oencode,t
hesenderhastosel
ectsui
tabl
esy
mbol
swhi
chcanr
epr
esentt
he
i
dea,
andcanbeunderst
oodbyther
ecei
ver
.

Thesenderal sochooses'asui t
ablechannelormedi um (l
ikemai l,e-
mai l
,tel
ephone,
face-
to-f
acetalk,
)bywhi chtosendt hemessage.Thechoi ceoft hemedi um dependson
severalf
actorsli
keurgencyoft hemessage, avail
abil
it
yandef fecti
v enessofamedi um,
andtherelati
onshipbetweent hetwocommuni cants.
Final
l
y ,t
hesendert ri
est onot etheeffectoft hemessageont her eceiv
er;thati
s,he
checkswhet herthereceiverhasgott hemessage,how t her eceiverhasr espondedto
themessageandwhet herhehast akent herequir
edaction;thisinformat i
onaboutthe
recei
ver'
sresponseiscal l
edfeedback.

Sender'
sf unct ionsmakeuphal fthepr ocessofcommuni cati
on.Thef uncti
onsofthe
senderar e:
 Bei ngcl earaboutt hegoal /
purposeoft hecommunicati
on.
 Fi ndingoutaboutt heunder st
andingandneedsoft hetar
getaudience.
 Encodi ngt her equi
redi
nf or
mat i
onandi deaswithsymbolstocr
eat ethemessage
tosui tther eceiver
/audience.
 Sel ect ingt hemedi um t
osendt hemessage.
 Maki ngef fortst ogetfeedback,whi chis,f
indi
ngouttheresponseoft hetar
get
audi ence.

Thereceiverbecomesawar ethatamessagehasar r
ivedwhenheper ceiv
esitwithhi s
senses(hemaysee, hear ,feel
, et
c).Ther eceiverattendst othemessageandi nterprets
i
t.Thepr ocessoft ranslatingt hesymbol si nt
oi deasandi nterpr
eti
ngt hemessagei s
cal
leddecoding.Interpretingi sacompl exact ivi
ty;itinvolv
esusi ngknowledgeoft he
symbols,drawinguponpr ev i
ousknowl edgeoft hesubj ectmat t
er,abi
li
tytounderstand,
att
it
udesandv alues,inor dertocr eat
emeani ng.

Therecei
verunderstandsandi nterpr
etsthemessageonthebasi
sofearli
erknowledge.
Themeani ngthatar eceivergi v
est othewordsandot hersymbolsisinf
luencedby
hi
s/herknowledge,i
ntell
i
gence, pastexperi
enceandrel
ati
onwiththesender
.Ifthet wo
haveacommonf iel
dofexper ience,t
herecei
ver'
sunder
standi
ngofthemessagewi llbe
cl
osertowhatt hesenderintended.

Thereceiveralsof eel
sar eacti
ont othemessage;t hisreactionmaybeconsci ousor
unconscious;itmaycausesomechangei nther ecei
v er'
sfacialexpressi
on.I
tdefi
nit
ely
l
eadst hereceivertothink.Ther ecei
vermayt akesomeact i
on, i
frequir
ed.Hemayalso
repl
ytothemessage.Thi sr esponseorrepl
yisf eedback.
Receiver
'sf uncti
ons compl et
e one cycle oft he pr ocess ofcommuni cat
ion.The
funct
ionsoft hereceiv
erar e:

 Att
endingtotherecei
vedmessage,
thati
s,l
i
steni
ng,
readi
ngorobser
ving
 Decodingtherecei
vedmessage
 I
nterpr
eti
ngandunder st
andi
ngthemeani
ngofthemessage
 Respondingtothemessage

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  Gi
vi
ngf
eedbackt
othesenderoft
hemessage

Thisisasi mplif
ieddescri
pti
onofasi ngl
ecy cleint hepr ocessofcommuni cati
on.
Communi cati
onreall
ytakesplaceinsever
alcyclesandt hetwoper sonstaket
urnsand
al
ternatel
ycarr
youtfuncti
onsofsenderandreceiv er
.
Both,thesenderand t hereceiverhaveimpor tantfuncti
onsi nt hecommuni cat
ion
process;i
tcanbesuccessfulonlyifbot
hareef
ficientandattenti
ve
Ty
pesofCommunicat
ion
a) Basi
ngont
hecommuni
cat
ionmedi
um used

Therearet
wotypesofcommuni
cat
ion;Communicat
ionthr
oughwor
dswhichi
scal
led
ver
balcommuni
cati
onandcommunicati
onthr
oughothersymbol
swhichi
scal
l
ednon-
ver
balcommuni
cati
on.

1.Ver balCommuni cati

on
Thet er
m' verbal
'iscoll
oquial
l
yusedt omeanor albutincommuni cati
onst udi
es,'
ver
bal'
meansbyusi ngwor dsandl anguage.Itincl
udesbot hwr it
tenandor al.Mostofour
communi cationisdonebyusi nglanguage;wespeakandwr i
tewhenev erwehav eto
conveyi nf
ormat ion and i
deas,to discuss,to mot iv
ate,to appreci
ate,ort o warn,
repri
mand, compl ai
n,andsoon.Wemaydoanyoft hesethingsoral
lyorinwr i
ti
ng.
Verbalcommuni cati
onisthef or
m ofcommuni cati
oninwhi chmessagei str
ansmit
ted
verball
y.I
tisusual l
ydonebywor dofmout handapi eceofwr i
ti
ng.
VerbalCommuni cati
onisfurt
herdivi
dedintotwocat egori
es:
OralCommuni cati
on
Wr i
tt
enCommuni cat
ion

Or
alCommuni
cat
ion

Oralcommuni cati
onisthecommuni cati
ont
hatusesspokenwor ds.I
tincludesf
ace-t
o-
faceconversati
ons,speech,t
elephoni
cconver
sati
on,vi
deo,r
adio,tel
evi
sion,voi
ceover
i
nternetetc. n or
.I alcommuni cati
on,communicat
ionisinf
luencedbypi t
ch,vol
ume,
speedandcl ar
it
yofspeaking.

Wri
ttenCommunication
Wri
ttencommunicationi sthecommuni cat
ionthatuseswri
tt
ensignsorsy mbols.A
wri
tt
enmessagemaybepr i
ntedorhandwr it
ten.I
nwr i
tt
encommunicat
ion,message
can be transmi
tted v i
a email,lett
er,report,memo etc. Message,in writt
en
communicati
on,i
sinfluencedbythevocabul
ary&grammarused,wr
iti
ngstyl
e,pr
ecisi
on
andclar
it
yofthelanguageused.

2.Non-VerbalCommuni cation
Nonverbalcommuni cati
on r efer
st o sendi
ng orr ecei
vi
ng wordl
ess messages.I t
i
ncludesallthings,otherthanwor dsand languaget hatcanconv eymeaning.For
example,graphics l
i
ke pictures,maps,char ts,graphs and di
agrams in a wri
tt
en
document,andbodylanguageandv oicequal
it
iesinspeech.Nonverbalcommunicati
on
i
nvolvestheuseofsy mbols,signs,gest
ure,bodylanguage,postur
e,toneofvoiceor
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f
aci
alexpr ons.
essi

For
ms/
codesofNon- ver bal communi cation
a)Nonv erbal aspect sofwr ittencommuni cation
i
. Col our -mayconv eydi fferentmeani ngse. gRed-maymeandanger ,gr een
maymeanl i
fe.I nt raffi
cl i
ght sRedmeans“ stop” ,y ell
owmeans“ att
ent ion”
andgr eenmeans“ pass” .
ii
. Di agr ams,gr aphs and char ts-t hese r epr esentdi f
ferenti nfor
mat ion
especi all
yt hest atisticalones.Theyar eusedt oshow r el ati
onshipsof
informat ion.
i
ii
. Maps-t heyr epr esenta t err
itor yand ar e used t o conv eyt he space
relationshi pbet weenpl aces.Al so t heyar eusedt o show di r
ectionof
places.
b)Si
gnsandsi gnal s
Asi gni samar kusedt or epr esentsomet hinge. g.+f or“ plus”skul land
crossbonesf or“ danger ”.Si gnsusual lyhav efixedmeani ngs.Asi gnali sa
prev iousl yagr eedmov ementwhi chser vest owar norcommand.e. g.a
comi ngofagr eenl i
ghti sasi gnal“ togoahead”orf ir
ingagunupi n
gat heringsi sasi gnal “todi sper se” .
c)Audit
or ysy mbol s
Aresoundst hatar eusedt oconv eycer tainmeani nge. g.si rensusedt o
war naboutenemyorwar ningaboutf ir
e/acci dent .Whi stl
esar eusedt o
instructsomet hing i n spor ts ori n police ar my t o cal lmember st o
assembl e.
d)Bodyl anguage– r efer st ot hechangest hatoccuri nt hebodyposi ti
onand
movement sthatshowwhatt heper soni sfeelingort hinki ng.
i
. Cl ot hingandaccessor i
es–r efer st ot heki ndofcl othesonewear scan
makeani dentificationofwher ehe/ shewor ksorbel ongs.e. gcombat sf or
soldi ersormi l
itia,hel met sf ormasons, ormot or biker i
ders
ii
. Post ur es–i st hewaywehol dour sel vesort hewaywest andorsi t.e. g.
stiffpost uresshowst ensions,comf ortableleani ngbackshowsar elaxed
mood, leaningf or war dinconv er sationshowsl istener ’
sinter est.
i
i
i. Faci
alexpr essi
ons– t hi
scanshow one’ sinter
est,enj
oyment,surpr
ise,
di
str
ess, shame, cont
empt ,angerorfear.e.g.afrown/yawnsmayconv ey
di
spleasure,rai
sedeyebr owsmayconv eydi sbel
i
eforsurpri
se,smil
emay
conveysat i
sfact
ionorj oy,eyecontactmayconv eyattent
ion/surpr
ise,
avoi
dingey econtactmayconv eythatthespeakeri sly
ingori
sshy.
i
v. Gest
ures – r
efer
st othe movementofhands/head/
body and t
hese
movementsarenatur
alaccompani
mentofspeech.Apersonwhodoes
notmakeanymov ementwhil
espeaki
ngappearssomewhatst i
ffand
mechani
cal
.

e)Paral
anguageisthenon-verbalaspect
soft hespokenwor d.Iti
ncl
udesthe
quali
ti
esofthevoi
ce,thewayweuseourv oi
ce,aswellasthesoundswemake
wit
hoututter
ingwords.Paral
anguagedescr
ibesthevocalquali
tyofaspoken

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 messagesuchas,
vol
ume,
pit
ch,
speed.

i
. Volumeistheloudnessorsoftness,
whi chcanbeconsciousl
yadjust
edto
thenumberofper sonsintheaudi enceandt hedist
ancebet weenthe
speakerandtheli
stener
s;speakingtooloudshowslackofself-
command
orabrasi
venatur
e.

i
i
. Pit
chi sthehighnessorlownessofyourvoice;ahi
gh-pitchedv oiceis
oftenunpleasant,andsuggest
simmat ur
it
yoremot ional disturbance;a
fr
ightenedpersonspeaksi nahighpi
tchedv oi
ce.I
tisbet tertobegi nsoftl
y,
i
nal owpi tchandr ai
sethevol
umeandpi tchasrequired.e. g.Do- l
e-mi
-so
felatido.

i
i
i. Rate/Speed–Howr api
dlyorsl
owlyyouspeak.Rapi
dspeechindi
cates
excit
ement;weincr
easespeedofspeakingtotel
lanint
erest
ingst
ory,and
reducespeedtoexplai
nadiffi
cul
tidea.

i
v. Hesit
ati
onsandnon-fl
uenci
eswhi chform apartofspokenlanguage.
SoundslkeEr
i -er
,Mmmm- ,indi
catethatthespeakerishesi
tati
ngor
cannotfi
ndthenextwordtosay.Soundsl i Ahem!huh!Ah-
ke, ha!Ouch!Oh-
ok!Areusedtoconveyvar
iousideasoremot i
ons.

v
. Sil
encecanbeav eryef
fect
ivewayofcommunicati
on.I
tisnotanegativ
e
absenceofspeechbutaposi t
ivewit
hdrawalorsuspensi
onofspeech.
Shortsi
lencesorpausesarever
yeff
ecti
veingiv
ingemphasist
owor ds.I
n
present
ations,
sil
encecanbeusedeff
ecti
vel
ytoemphasizeapoint
.

Inaf ace-t
o-facesituation,sil
encemayi ndicat
esev er
alt hings.Facial
expressionandpost uremayi ndicat
et hefeel
ingbehindthesilence.Itmay
meant hatthepersonisnotsur ewhatt osay,orissofulloffeelingasto
beunabl etospeak.Sy mpat hywi t
hsomeonewhohassuf feredlossis
often bestexpr essed by keepi ng sil
entratherthan speaki ng.Some
feeli
ngsl i
keangerordi spleasurecanal sobeexpressedbykeepi ngsilent
.

Nonv
erbal Codesandv erbalcodeswor ktogethert oper f
orm sixfunct
ions:
 Tor epeat-Occur swhent hesamemessagei ssentv er
ball
yandnonv er
ball
y
 Toemphasi ze-Theuseofnonv erbalcuest ost r
engtheny ourmessage
 Tocompl ement -Theverbal andnonv erbal codesaddmeani ngtoeachotherand
expandont heirmessageal one
 Tocont radict-Verbal
andnonv erbalconflict.e.
g.Wheny ouareangrywith
somebodyy oumaysayy ouar efinebutnon-v erball
yyoushowuncomf or
tabi
li
ty
withaper son
 Tosubst itute-
Nouseofv erballanguageatal l
.
 Tor egul
at e-
Usedt omoni torandcont rolinteracti
onswi thother
s.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Character
ist
icsofNon-v er
balcommuni cat
ion
Non-verbalcommuni cati
onhasanumberofchar act
erist
icst
hatdi
sti
nguishitfr
om
ot
hercommuni cati
onsystem:
 Maybeuni ntenti
onal
 Nonv erbalcommuni cat
ionconsist
sofmul ti
plecodes
Whennon-v erbalcodesworktogethert
osendt hesamemessage t hei
rimpact
isi
ntensif
ied
 Nonv erbalcommuni cati
onisi mmediate,continuousandnatural.Theyoccur
whenar ei
naf acetofacesit
uati
on
 Nonv erbalcommuni cat
ionisbot huniver
salandcul tur
alhavesoci al
l
yshared
meaning.

Non- verbalcommuni cat ioncanbei ndependentofv erbalcommuni cat i

on;butv erbal
communi cat i
on i s alway s accompani ed by non- ver balcommuni cat ion.Nonv erbal
methodscanbeusedasasubst it
utef orwor dsl i
ket her edcol ourt omeandanger ,or
noddi ngt heheadt omean" yes. "Orbot hmaybeusedt oget heraswhenweshaket he
headandal sosay" no. "Somet imes,agest ureli
kesl appi ngt hehandont het ablemay
beusedwi thwor dsl i
ke, "Wemustdoi t,
"t oemphasi zet hepoi nt.
b) Basi ngonPur poseandSt yl
e
Basedonst yleandpur pose,t her ear et womai ncategor iesofcommuni cationandt hey
bothbear st hei rownchar act eri
st i
cs.Communi cati
ont ypesbasedonst y l
eandpur pose
are:
 For mal Communi cat i
on
 I nformal Communi cation
For malCommuni cat ion
Inf or malcommuni cat ion,cer tainr ules,conv ent ionsandpr inciplesar ef oll
owed
whi lecommuni cati
ngmessage.For malcommuni cat i
onoccur si nf ormalandof fi
cial
sty l
e.Usual l
y prof essi onalset t
ings,cor porate meet ings,conf erences under go
for malpat tern.Inf ormalcommuni cat i
on,useofsl angandf oullanguagei sav oided
andcor rectpr onunci at ioni sr equi red.Aut horit
yl inesar eneededt obef ol l
owedi n
for mal communi cat i
on.
Infor malCommuni cat ion
Infor malcommuni cat ioni sdoneusi ngchannel st hatar eincont r
astwi thf ormal
communi cat i
on channel s.I t’sj usta casualt alk.I tis est ablished f orsoci etal
af f
ili
ationsofmember sinanor gani zati
onandf ace- to-facedi scussi ons.I tusual ly
happensamongf ri
endsandf ami ly.Ininf
For malcommuni cat i
onuseofsl angwor ds,foull anguagei snotr estricted.Usual ly
i
nf or mal communi cat i
oni sdoneor allyandusi nggest ures.Informalcommuni cation,
unl i
kef ormalcommuni cat ion,doesn’ tfoll
ow aut hor it
yl ines.I thel psi nbui l
ding
relationshi ps.
c)Basi ngonLev els/Set t
ingsofcommuni cation
Basingont hedomai nst hr oughwhi chcommuni cationcanoccur ,Communi cationcan
becl assifiedi ntosi xtypes:
 I ntraper sonalCommuni cat i
on.Thi si st heki ndofcommuni cat i
ont hatt akes

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 placewi thinani ndi
vi
dual.Itisinthatyoudealwi thyourselfdi
rect
ly,ar
guingand
discussing backand f ort
h,gi vi
ng yourselfconstantf eedback,and certai
nly
constructingmeani ngs.
 Inter
personalCommuni cation.Thistakesplacebetweent wopeople.
Communi cat
ionbecomesi nterpersonalt
ot heextentthatthepeopleinvol
ved
canseeeachot her’
suniquenessandcanexpl ai
nandpr edicteachother’
s
behav i
ouront hebasisofthatuniqueness.

 SmallGroupCommuni cati
on.Thi
skindofcommuni cat
iontakespl
acewit
hina
smallnumberofpeople.Between3-
15andnotexceeding20peoplee.g.i
na
seminar,t
utor
ialcl
ass.I
ttakespl
aceinacontextwhereeveryper
soncan
par
ti
cipateacti
velywit
htheother
s.

 LargeGroupCommunicati
on.Thi
siscommunicati
ont
hattakespl
acebetween
15-60peopl
eandnotexceedi
ng100.Forexamplei
nalect
ureroom ofabout80
student
s.

 PublicCommuni cat
ion.Thisissi mi lartolargegr oupcommuni cationexceptthat
thenumber sexceed100andpeopl eareal way sgatheredi
nonepl acesuchasa
poli
tical
rallyatt heconsti
tutional squar eorf reedom square.Justoneorf ew
member st alk, whi
letherestoft hegr oupser vesasanaudi ence.Thi sspeaker
-
audiencer el
at i
onshipimpli
est hatt hereislessf eedbackthaninsmal lgr
oup
communi cation.Feedbackiscer t
ai nlyexhibit
edt hroughnonv erbalresponses
l
ikeapplause, boos.Duetot hislackofi nteraction,t
hespeakeri sheld
responsibletopl anandst r
uct urer emar ksthanmaybef el
tbyt hespeakerin
smal l
erset t
ing.

 MassCommuni cat i
on.Itoccurswhenamessagei sconst ructedandt ransmi t
ted
sot hatmanypeopl e,i
ndifferentpl
acesandof t
enatdif f
erentt imes, canr ecei
ve
thesamemessage.Thi si
st hekindofcommuni cati
ont oadi sper sedaudi ence
andi tisalwaysmedi ated.Forinstancet heradi
o,tel
evisi
on, internetarepar tof
themassmedi at hattransmi tt
oadi spersedaudience.Feedbacki sgreatly
delay edasthespeakerandt heaudiencesar eindiff
erentpl aces.
Note:
Ineachoft heabovesettingsonehast ohav ebot hsuf
fici
entRecept i
ve( l
ist
eni ngand
readi
ng)andpr oducti
ve(wr it
ingandspeaki ng)skill
stoeffecti
velycommuni cat eonce
encounteredi nsuchasi tuati
ont hatrequir
esy ouactasacommuni catorbei tatschool,
home, professionalwork,occupat i
onal workori nanyotherpublicdomai n.

Means/Channel
/MediaofCommuni cat
ion
Amedium (pl
ural
:mediaormediums)isthemeansoft r
ansmit
ti
ngorconv
eyi
nga
message.Somemedi acarr
ywr i
tt
enwordsand/orpictur
es/gr
aphics(
li
ket
hemail)and
ot
hermediacarrythevoi
ce(li
ketel
ephone)
.El
ectronicmediacancarr
ybot
hvoiceand
wri
tt
enmat er
ial
.

Conv
ent
ional
Medi
aofCommuni
cat
ion

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Mediawhichhav ebeeni nusef oral ongtimeanddependont raditionalcarr
iersar e
cal
ledconventional forconveni enceandt odist i
ngui
shthem f r
om t hemoder nmedi a
basedonadv ancesi nel ectr
onics.Theyi nclude:
 Mai l
–l ettersorpar celssentbypost
 Courier-acompanyorempl oyeeofacompanyt hattranspor t
scommer cial
packagesanddocument s.
 Handdel i
very
 Telegraph-amachi neusedt otr
ansmi tmessagesi nthef orm ofelectrical
impulsest hatcanbeconv ertedi
ntodat a.
 Telex(shor tform ofTel epr i
nterExchange)ani nt
ernati
onal system oftel egraphy
withprintedmessagest ransmi tt
edandr ecei
vedbyt el
eprint ersusi
ngt hepubl i
c
tel
ecommuni cati
onsnet work.Messagescanbesentandr eceived24hour sa
day.

ModernMedi aofCommuni cat

ion
Mostcommuni cati
oni nthemor emoderncompani esisdonebyel
ect
roni
cmedi a.
Thesearemedi awhi chtransmitsignal
sinst
antl
yf r
om anysour
cetoanydest
inati
oni
n
theworldbymoder nelectr
onictechnol
ogy.Theyinclude:
 Telephone
 Cel l
ularphone
 Voi cemai l
 Fax
 E-mai l
 Teleconf er
encing
 Internet

ChoiceofaMedi um/ Channel

Youneedt oconsi dersev eralaspect si nchoosi ngamedi um f orapar t
icularmessage.
Themai naspect sar e:
 Thet ypeofaudi encey ouwantt oreach.
 Thespeedwi thwhi cht hemessageshoul dbeconv ey ed:Thepr essureoft i
me
andt hedistancebet weent hesenderandt herecei verinf l
uencethechoi ceoft he
medi um.Some medi a ar ef asterand can t r
av eldi stances rapidly,li
ke the
tel
ephone,t hef axandt hee- mail;thesemedi aal sohav etheadv antageofbei ng
persont oper son.
 Need f orconf i
dent i
ali
tyoft hemessagei san i mpor tantconsi derati
on.The
choicewi l
lcer tainlybei nfluencedbyr equir
ementof secr
ecy ;al
lmedi ado
reportonacust omer '
scr edi tstandi ng,
demandsf orov erduepay ment ,andsoon,
areconf i
dent i
al.Theycannotbesentbymedi aliket elegram ortel exorfaxev en
i
ft heyareur gent .
 Needf oraccur acyi nt ransmi ssioni snott hesamef oral lmessages.I fthe
contenttobet r
ansmi t
tedi smai nlydata,youmaket hechoi ceforaccur acyand
speedi ntransmi tti
ng.
 Needf orreliabilit
yoft hemedi um isani mpor t
antf actor.Sendingamessageby
handdel iv
eryi smor er eliablet hanor di
nar ymail;regist eredposti smor ereli
able

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 thanor dinarymai l
.
 Costoft hemedi um andi tsr
elati
veimport
anceandur gency.
 Avai l
abi li
tyofapar ticularmedium tothesenderandt otherecei
verisobv i
ously
anaf fect i
ngf actor.Youcanuseonl yt hosemedi awhi chbothy ouandt he
i
ntendedr eceivercanaccess.Youmayhav eaf axmachi nebutifthereceiver
doesnothav eoneandhasnoar r
angement sforreceivi
ngaf axmessage,y ou
cannotuset hatmedi um.
 Feedbackcapaci t
yoft hemedi um:Forsomemessages,y ouneedi mmedi ate
feedback;y ouhav et ouseamedi um whichwi l
lenabley outogetitatonce,like
thet el
ephone.
 Avai l
abi li
tyofhar dcopyf orr
ecord.
 For mal i
t yoft hemedi um mustbesui t
abletocontentoft hemessage.Al etterof
congr at ulati
oni smor eformalandhasadi ff
erentef f
ectfrom conveyingt he
samemessageor ally
.
 Intensityandcompl exit
yofthemessagei samaj orfactor.

Withi
neachoft hese,therear efur
therdecisionstobemade.Wr it
tenmessagesar e
tr
ansmi t
tedbythemai l,couri
er,t
elegraph,t
elex,fax
,E-mail
,not
iceboardsandbul l
eti
n
boards,newspaper s,magazines.Or almessages ar e car
ri
ed byai rvi
brati
ons,the
microphone/l
oud-speaker,thetel
ephone,cell
ularphone,voi
cemai landtheradio.The
ci
nemaandt heTV ar et hemostpower f
ulmedi aast heycantransmitalltypesof
messages, wr
it
ten,oral
,visualandauditor
y.

Barri
er stoCommuni cat ion
Peoplei nt hewor ldar enotexact l
yali
ke.Culturesorcount
riesar
enott hesame.These
diff
erences,howev er,cancausepr oblemsi nconv eyi
ngyourmeanings.Eachperson’
s
mind i s dif fer
entf r
om ot hers.As a result,message sender
’s meanings and t
he
receiver’
sr esponsear eaf fectedbymanyf actors,suchas:
 Semant i
cbar r
ier s
 Phy si calBarri
er
 Psy chol ogicalbar ri
ers
 Emot i
onalbarriers
 Per cept ualbarriers
 Bar riersinvolv
ingv aluesatt
it
udesetc.

a) Semant icBarri
er
A basic principle of communi cati
on ist hatt he symbolsthe sender uses to
communi cat
e messages musthav ethe same meani ng i
n boththe sender’
s and
recei
ver’
smi nds.Youcannev erbesur ethatthemessagei nyourmindwi l
lbeclearl
y
senttoyourrecei v
er.Thewor l
disfullwi
therrors,
asar esul
tofdif
fer
encesinsemant i
c
(meaning)under st
anding.
Ifsomeonet alkst oyouinItal
ian,andy oudon’tknow It
ali
an,t
hisissemanticbarri
er.
Meaningexistsint heminds,
notint hewords.

Probl
em inConv
ent
ionsofMeani
ng
Denotat
ion
SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Adenotat
ionisusuall
ythedicti
onarydefiniti
onofawor d.Denotat
ivemeani ngsname
Obj
ect
s,peopleoreventswithouti
ndicati
ngposi t
iveornegati
vequalit
ies.Suchwords
ascar
,desk,book,house,andwat erconv eydenotat
ivemeanings.Ther ecei
verhasa
si
mil
arUnderst
andingofthethi
nginwhi cht hewordisused.

Connotati
on
A connotati
onisani mplicat
ionofawor dorasuggest i
onsepar atefrom t
heusual
defi
niti
on.Somewor dshasconnot ati
vemeani ngs,t hatis,quali
tat i
vejudgmentsand
personalr
eacti
ons.
Thewor dmani sdenot ati
ve,f
ather,prophet
,brotherar econnot at
ive.Somewor dshave
posit
iveconnotati
onsi nsomecont extsandnegat iv
emeani ngsi not her
s.Forexample,
sl
im gir
landslim chances.
Thedenot at
ionofthisexampl eisar edrosewithagr eenst em.Theconnot at
ionist
hat
i
tisasy mbolofpassi onandl ov
e-t hisiswhatther oser epresent
s.Thedenot ati
onisa
brown cross.The connot at
ion i
s a sy mbolofr eli
gion,accor ding tothe media
connotati
on.Howev er,t
obemor especifi
cthi
sisasy mbol ofChr i
stiani
ty.

StopSign
Denotati
on—Stop(evenwit
houtwords,werecogni
zet
hemeani
ngf
rom t
heshapeand
col )Connot
or ati
on—Risk(
acci
dentorti
cket
)

b) Phy sical Barr

iers
Communi cationdoesnotconsi stofwor dsal one.Anot hersetofbarri
ersiscausedby
yourownphy sicalappear ance,y ouraudience,ort hecont extofthedocumentort he
presentat
ion.Youri deas,howev ergoodandhowev erski l
l
full
yimpar t
ed,areatthe
mer cyofv ari
ouspot ent i
alphy si
cal bar
ri
ers.
 ForWr i
ti
ng:Ther eisawhol ebarrageofpossi blephysi
calblocks,jammedor
jaggedmar gi
ns,f i
ngerpri
nt sorsmudges,uncl earphot ocopi
es,unreadabl
eword
processorPr intout,
wat erorcof f
ee,teaspotset c.
 ForSpeaki ng:Mumbl ing,notenunci at
ing,speaki ngtooquickl
y,noisesbecome
ofhi ssingv enti
lati
on.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 c) Psy chologi
calBar ri
ers
Becauseoft hechangi ngwor ld,everyonehashisownconceptofr eal
i
ty.Also,human
beings,sensor yperceptions–t ouch,sight
,heari
ng,smell,andt asteareli
mi t
ed,and
eachper son’sment alf il
terisuni que.Inourdailyint
eracti
onwi t
hot her
s,wemake
vari
ousabst racti
ons,inferencesandev al
uat
ionsoft
hewor l
dar oundus.

d) Emoti
onalBar
ri
ers
Onepossibl
epsychol
ogicalbl
ocki
semot
ional
,youmaybeemot ional
l
ybl
ocki
fyouar
e
announci
nganewpol i
cyyoumaybecomepopul
arorunpopul
ar:

e) Percept
ionofReali
ty:Theperceptualpr
oblem isthatpeopl
ethi
nkdiff
erent
ly
Slant
ing-Isunfai
rinfactualreport
ing.Whenpr esentingsomepar t
icul
arfact
s,you
i
ncludey ourownbi asedideasi ntoit,youmakesl antingstat
ement.Trynottolet
personalpr
efer
encesaffectyourfact
ual r
eport
ingofinformati
on.

Inf
erri
ng-Conclusi
onsmadebyr easoni
ngfrom evidencearecall
edi nfer
ences.We
makeassumpt ionsanddr
awconclusi
onseventhoughwear enotabletoi mmediatel
y
veri
fytheev
idence.Somei
nfer
encesarebot
hnecessaryanddesir
able;other
sarerisky,
evendangerous.

NecessaryInfer
ences-Whenwereachaf or
eigncountry
,wear esurethatwewi l
lbe
tr
eated pol
itel
y.When wepostal et
ter
,wei nf
erthatitwillreach i
tsdest
inat
ion.
Conclusi
onswemakeaboutt hi
ngswehav enotobserveddi
rectl
ycanoftenbeagainst
ourwishes.

f) Barr
ier
sInvol
vi
ngVal ues,
Att
itudesetc.
Bot
hpersonali
tyandat t
it
udear ecompl excogni
ti
veprocess.Thedif
fer
encei
sthat
per
sonal
i
tyusuall
yisthoughtofasthewholepersonwhereasatt
it
udemaymakeupthe

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
personal ity.Thet erm at ti
tudedescr ibespeopl eand expl ainst heirbehav i
or .Mor e
preci selyanat ti
tudecanbedef inedasaper si stenttendencyt of eelandbehav ei na
particul arwayt owar dssomeobj ect.
Forexampl e:Nameidoesnotl i
keni ghtshi ft,sohi sat ti
tudei snegat i
v etowar dshi s
wor kassi gnment .
Ar ecei ver ’
sat t
itudet owar damessagecandet er minewhet heri tisaccept edorr eject ed.
Theef fect ivenessi si nfluenced al so byt hev alues,at t
itudes,and opi ni
onsoft he
communi cat ors.
Peopl er eactf av or abl ywhent heyr ecei veagr eeabl emessage.Recei vers’viewsoft he
i
nfor mat ionwi llaf fectt heirresponse.Thi sr esponsecoul dbewhatt hesenderdesi r es
orj ustt heopposi te.Occasi onal l
ypeopl er eactaccor dingt ot hei
rat ti
tudest owar da
sit
uat i
onr at hert hant ot hef acts.
Cl osedMi nd- Somepeopl ehol dr i
gidv iewsoncer tainsubj ect s.Theymai ntaint heir
ri
gidv iewsr egar dl essoft heci rcumst ances.Suchacl osedmi ndedper soni sv ery
diff
icul tt ocommuni catet o.
Sender ’sCr edibility
Otherf act or saf fect ingat tit
udes, opinionsandr esponsesar e;
 Env ironment al stresses
 Per sonal pr obl ems
 Sensi t
ivity
Abar riert ocommuni cationisany t
hingt hatdi st ortsthepr ocessofcommuni cation.I t
makes one mi ss par ts of a message or t he whol e message or cr eat es
misunder st anding of a message or i nf ormat i
on.Ther e ar e many bar rierst o
communi cat ion.Howev er,i
nt hiscont extt heywi llbecat egor i
zedasf oll
ows:
a) I nter nalbar riers:such as t hose i nhabi ted by t he peopl ei nt he pr ocess of
communi cat ione. g.
theirmoods, preoccupat i
ons, atti
tude, tasteandpr eferences, onewhost ammer set c
b)Ext er nalbar riers:t hisi sany thingi nthecommuni cati
onenv ironmentt hatdi stor t
st he
processofcommuni cat i
one. g.noi se.Noi secanbephy sicalsuchasbr eakdowni n
comput ers, telephoneet c.Itcoul dbef rom unwant edmusi c,childrenshout i
nget c

MODULE2:GRAMMATI
CALSKI
LLS
PARTSOFSPEECH
Wordsar
ethebasi
cel
ement
sinanyl
anguagewhi
char
efor
medoutbycombi
ning
l
ett
erst
ogi
vemeani
ng.Par
tsofspeechar
ethebasi
cwor
dscombi
nedt
oget
hert
ofor
m
ut
ter
ancesorspeechi
nal
anguage.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Expr
essi
ngNouns
1
WrenandMart
in(
2004) def
inenounasawor
dusedast
henameofaper
son,
placeor
t
hing.Thi
sdef
ini
ti
ondoesnotcompl
etet
hemeani
ngoft
henoun,t
hisi
sbecauset
her
e
ar
ewor
dst
hatar
enounsandy
ett
heydonotnamet
hing,per
sonort
hing.Howcanwe
2
sayaboutbeaut
y,ki
ndness,j
udgment
,et
c.?Iagr
eewi
thMel
aku, t
hatanouni
sawor
d
t
hatweusef
orgi
vi
nganamet
oaper
son,
place,
thi
ngs,
qual
i
ty,
ideaoract
ion.
Ther
ear
efourchar
act
eri
sti
cst
hathel
ptoi
dent
if
ynouns:
 Theyar
epr
ecededbydet
ermi
ner
s(a,
the,
an,
some,
etc.
)
 Theyar
eheadwor
dsofNounPhr
asese.
g.Themostdanger
ousper
son(
HW)
 Theycanchangei
ntosi
ngul
ari
tyandpl
ural
i
ty,
i.
e.chi
l
d-chi
l
dren
 Theycanhav
especi
alendi
ngs,
e.g.chi
l
d-hood.
Ty
pesofNouns
 Pr
operv
s.CommonNouns
Pr
opernounsar
enounst
hatcanst
andal
one,t
heydonotal
l
owpl
ural
i
ty,t
heyhav
eno
det
ermi
ner
sandnor
mal
l
ytheyst
artwi
thcapi
tall
ett
ers.Theyar
enounsofpar
ti
cul
ar
peopl
eort
hings.I
nexampl
e[1]bel
owt dMal
hewor egezai
spr
opernounsi
ncei
tagr
ees
wi
tht
het
hreechar
act
eri
sti
csofpr
opernoun.
1]Mal
[ egezai yboy
snotanaught .
Commonnounsar
enounsgi
veni
ncommont
opeopl
e,t
hingsorpl
aces.I
nthesent
ence
[
1]abov
e,t dboyi
hewor sacommonnounsi
ncei
tisgi
vent
oacommonboywhoi
snot
par
ti
cul
arbutany
one.Themaj
orf
eat
uresofcommonnounsar
ethatt
heybegi
nwi
th
smal
ll
ett
ersi
nthemi
ddl
eoft
hesent
ence,
theyt
akear
ti
clesanddet
ermi
ner
sandf
inal
l
y
t
heyal
l
owsi
ngul
ari
tyandpl
ural
i
ty.
 Count
abl
evs.uncount
abl
enouns
Count
abl
eNounsar
ethosenounst
hatcanbecount
edei
therbysi
ngl
eobj
ectorgr
oup
ofobj
ect
s.Thi
ski
ndofnounal
l
owsonet
ofi
ndt
het
otalnumberoft
hingsorpeopl
e.
Count
abl
enounscanbechangedf
rom si
ngul
art
opl
ural
.Thepl
uralofcountnounscan
bedonebyaddi
ngsuf
fxes–s,-
i es,-
ies,orput
ti
ngt
henounsi
ntogr
oupssowecount
t
hem consi
der
ingt
hesegr
oups.Fori
nst
ance,achai
r,gr
oupofpeopl
e,anar
myof

1
WrenandMarti
n;HighSchoolEngl
i
shGrammarandComposi
ti
on;
2004:
05.
2
Melaku,
Simpl
i
fiedEngl
ishGrammarpg.2

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
sol
dier
,andoraswampofbeesar
esomeofcommonnouns.
 Non-
CountorMassnouns
Thesear
enounst
hatcannotbecount
ed.Theyar
eli
qui
d,wat
er,andf
loorandwood.I
t
i
sdi
ff
icul
ttof
indt
het
otalnumberoft
heseobj
ect
sbecauseoft
hei
rnat
ure.These
nouns ar
e al
way
sin si
ngul
arf
orm.Thus,t
heyhav
e no i
ndef
ini
te ar
ti
cles a,an.
Somet
imes,
thesenounsar ecededbysome,
epr any
,li
tt
le,
etc.someuncount
abl
enouns
ar
e abst
ractnouns whi
l
e ot
her
s ar
e subst
ances t
hatar
e consi
der
ed uncount
abl
e
3
(
Thomson&Mar
ti
net1986)
Exampl
esofuncount
abl
enounsar
eshowni
nthet
abl
e1bel
ow:

Tabl
e1:
Uncount
abl
eNouns
Wat
er Sugar Suggest
ion
Mi
l
k Fl
oor I
nfor
mat
ion
al
cohol sal
t news

f
urni
tur
e Soap Lov
eness
f
ir
ewood Ri
ce Hat
red
wal
l Sand Lonel
i
ness

 Abst
ractv
s.Concr
eteNouns
Abst
ractnounsar
enounst
hatcannotbeseen,f
elt
,touchedorsmel
l
ed.Wr
enand
4
Mar
ti
n(2004) asser
tthatanabst
ractnouni
snameofaqual
i
ty,act
ionorst
ate
consi
der
edapar
tfr
om t
heobj
ectt
owhi
chi
tbel
ongs.Exampl
esofabst
ractnounsar
e
ki
ngdom,
hat
red,
blackness,
chi
l
dhood,
str
engt
h,t
hef
t,j
udgment
,wi
sdom andgospel
.
Concr
etenounsar
enounst
hatcanbeseen,t
ouchedorev
enf
elt
.Thesenounsar
e
5
def
ini
teandspeci
fi
c.Accor
dingt
oKaj
are(
2007)
, concr
etenounsar
enounst
hatr
efer
t
otangi
bleorphy
sical
obj
ect
sorsubst
anceswhi
chcanbecount
edanduncount
ed.
Fori
nst
ance;
chai
r,goat
,sal
t,sandet
c.

3
Thomson&Mar ti
net,1986
4
WrenMarti
n(ibi
d)pg6.
5
Kaj
are,
J.S.Engl
ishlanguagef
orAdv
ancedl
evel
Student
s;2007:
58-
59

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Expr
essi
ngPr
onouns
Apronouni
sawor dthati
susedt
orepl
aceorr
epr
esentt
henouns.Theyar
eused
i
nst
eadori
nthepl
aceofnounsornounphr es,he,she,i
ase.Exampl t,I
,we,y
ou,her
,
t
hatet
c.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofPr
onouns
 Theyhav
esi
mil
arf
unct
ionasNP,
i.
e.t
heycanbesubj
ectorobj
ect
Hel
ovesher
.
 Theydonotal
l
owmodi
fi
cat
ion
Themanwi
thbl
acksui
t
*Hewi
tht
hebl
acksui
t.
 Theydi
ff
erent
iat
ehumanv
snon-
human
He/
she/
I/We-f
orhumanandi
tfornon-
human.
 Theydi
sti
ngui
shsi
ngul
arandpl
ural
 Theyi
ndi
cat
eper
sons

1 I We

2 You You

3 He/
she/
it They

Ty
pes ofpr
onouns
Ther
ear
emanyt
ypesofpr
onouns:
 Per
sonal
pronouns
Thesepr
onounsar
eusedt
oident
if
ythespeakeroraper
son
g.I
E. ,we,
you,
they
,she,
he
 Possessi
vepr
onouns
Theyshowpossessi
on(
att
ri
but
ive&pr
edi
cat
ive)
e.
g.my
,her
,hi
s,our
,thei
rforat
tri
but
iveand mi
ne,her
s,hi
s,our
s,t
hei
rsf
or
pr
edi
cat
ive,
 Demonst
rat
ivePRO:demonst
rat
etheposi
ti
onoft
heobj
ectandt
henumberi
n

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 r
elat
iont
othespeaker e;t
.Exampl heset
wopensar
emi
ne.Thi
ssent
encet
ell
s
somet
hingt
hatpensar
einpl
ural
andar
eneart
othespeaker
.
Thi
{ s,t
his-t
hese,
that
-t
hose}
 Ref
lexi
vePRO:addsuf
fi
xessel
f/
sel
vesandar
eusedt
oref
erbackt
othespeaker
orhear
erwhoi
sdoi
ngcer
tai
nact
ion.Iwi
l
lgot emy
her sel
f.
[
Mysel
f,our
sel
ves,
himsel
f,t
hemsel
ves]
 Rel
ati
vePRO:usedt
opostmodi
fyr
elat
ivecl
ause.Thi
smeanst
hatt
heygi
ve
mor
einf
ormat
ionaboutt
her
elat
ivecl
ause.Theyar
edi
ff
erentf
rom i
nter
rogat
ive
pr
onounssi
ncet
heydonotaskquest
ionsbutt
heyaddqual
i
tiest
othecl
ause
Thatbook,whi
chi
sst
ol ound.A boywhosemot
en,hasbeenf hercameher
e
passedt
heexam.[
Whi
ch,
wher
e,when,
who,
whose,
that
]
 I
nter
rogat
ives:
areusedt
oaskquest
ions,
Theyi
ncl whi
ude: ch,
what
,wher
e,how,
whi
ch,
etc.
Exampl
e:Whenwi
l
lyoucomeback?Howdi
dithappen?

ExpressingAdj
ect
ives
Adjecti
veisawor dclasscat
egor
ythatusedt
omodi
fyorgi
vequal
i
tiesofnounsor
pr
onouns.Adj
ect
ivesar
eusedt
oaddsomet
hingt
othemeani
ngoft
henouns.The
pl
acement
sofadj
ect
ivesdi
ff
erf
rom l
anguaget
olanguage.
(
2) Engl
i
sh A+N:Agoodchi
l
d
Swahi
l
i N+A:Mt
otomzur
i
Adj
ect
ivesar
econt
radi
ctedwi
thadv
erbssi
ncet
heyhav
ethesamef
ormsofst
ruct
ures.
Whatdi
ff
erent
iat
ethem dependsonhowt
heyar
eusedi
nsent
enceconst
ruct
ion.How
canwei
dent
if
yadj
ect
ives?Sr an6 asser
eedhar tst
hatadj
ect
ivesar
ethecompl
ement
s
qual
i
fyi
ngt
hesubj
ect
s;t
hus,
theydonotmodi
fyv
erbsbutnouns.Thev
erbssuchas‘
to
be’
,toseem’
,tobecome’
,appear
,look,f
eel
,tur
n,et
c.hav
etobef
oll
owedbyt
he
adj
ect
ivesr
athert
hanadv
erbsf
orexampl
e:Thepr
esi
dentf
eltsad.
(
3)Hegr
ewbi
g.
Mwanakomboappear
ssmar
t
Al
lbol
dwor
dsar
eadj
ect
ivesast
heyaddi
nfor
mat
ionaboutnounsandpr
onouns.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofAdj
ect
ives
6
Sr
eedhar
an,
V.Howt
oWr
it
eCor
rectEngl
i
sh,
pg75

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
  Adjecti
vespr emodifynouns, e.g.Thebigfathen.
 Adjecti
vescanbeseeni ncompar ati
veandsuperlat
ive
Smal l
–smal l
er,small
est
 Adjecti
vescanoccurascompl ement sal
one:thehouseisbeaut
iful
 Mostadj ecti
vesall
owaddi t
ional of-l
ytomakei tadverb.Happi
l
y, ki
ndl
y,et
c.
 Adjecti
vescanbei ntensi
fi
edbyv er
y,et
c.
Averynot or
iousgir
l
Suf
fi
xesofadj ecti
vesareasfollow;
(
4)-
abl
e,-
al,
-ous,
-some,
-y,
-ful
l
,-l
i
ke,
-l
ess,
-i
ve,
-ous,
-ant
,-i
shet
c.
Funct
ionsofadj
ect
ives
 Theycanf
unct
ionascompl
ementort
heobj
ectorsubj
ect
:
Mar
yisbeaut
if
ul,Iwi
l
lbesad
 Adj
ect
ivesar
eusedasexcl
amat
ions
Mar
vel
ous!
 Adj
ect
ivescanpostmodi
fynouns
E.g.
Any
thi
ngnew?Somet
hingi
mpor
tant
?
 They(
adj
ect
ives)canbeshor
tened(
ver
blesscl
ause)
Cal
lmel
ateri
fpossi
ble
Theymayappearast
heheadsofNP,i
.e.t
heunaccept
abl
e,y
ouar
etal
ki
ngt
he
i
mpossi
ble.

Ki
ndsofAdj
ect
ives
Wr
enandMar
ti
n(i
bid)pr
oposet
hatadj
ect
ivesar
edi
vi
dedi
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ngcl
assesor
ki
nds:
 Descr
ipt
iveadj
ect
ives
Theseadj
ect
ivesar
eusedt
odescr
ibeort
oshow t
hequal
i
tiesoft
henounsor
pr
onouns.Exampl
es
eChi
Thesear nesephones.
Lushot
oisv
erymount
ainousdi
str
ict
.
Mat sal
esoi azyguy
.
Thei
tal
i
cwor
dsi
nexampl
es1t
o3ar
edescr
ipt
iveadj
ect
ivesbecauset
heydescr
ibe
t
hequal
i
tiesofcor
respondi
ngnouns.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
  Adj
ect
ivesofQuant
it
y
Theseadj
ect
ivesgi
veorshow how mucht
hingsar
einv
olv
edorhow t
henounsar
e
meant
.Theseadj
ect
ivesanswert
hequest
ionhowmuch.
Exampl
es
Ihadenought
imet
othi
nkabouti
t.
hewhol
Shespentt edayr
eadi
ngnov
el.
Fewcommodi
ti
eswer
esol
d.
Agai
n,exampl
esabov
eindi
cat
equant
it
yadj
ect
ives.Thesear
etheoneswi
thi
tal
i
cand
sot
heyshowhowmucht
hecor
respondi
ngnounsar
emeant
.

 Adj
ect
ivesofNumber
Thesear
esomet
i ed Numer
mescal
l icaladj
ect
ives.Theyar
eused t
o show t
he
numberofnounsi
nvol
ved.Theyal
way
sanswert
hequest
ionhowmanynouns.
MamaMasumbukohast
wel
vechi
l
dren.
Hei
sthef
ir
stbor
n.
enei
Theywer therchosenpr
esi
dentofI
JASO.
 Demonst
rat
iveAdj
ect
ives
Thesear
etheadj
ect
ivest
hatshowdemonst
rat
ionwhi
chper
sonort
hingi
smeant
.It
poi
ntsoutt
hepar
ti
cul
arnouni
nrel
ati
ont
othespeaker
.
Consi
derexampl
esbel
ow:
Thi
sboyi
snaught
y.
Thosewhocameher
eyest
erday
.
 I
nter
rogat
iveadj
ect
ives
Thesear
etheadj
ect
ivest
oget
herwi
thnounsusedt
oaskquest
ions.
Exampl
es
Whi
chr
oadshal
lIpass?
Whosebooki
sthi
s?

Expressi
ngAdverbs
Thesewor dsar
eusedt
omodi
fyot
herwor
dcl
assessuchasv
erbs,
adj
ect
ives,
adv
erbs,
et
c.Adv
erbsspeci
fyt
hemodeofact
ionofv
erbs.
Exampl
e:y
est
erday
,ver
y,f
rankl
y,nor
mal
l
yet
c.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 Ther
earetwofuncti
onsofadverbs.Thesefunct
ionsareasdef
inedbelow:
 Theyareusedtomodi f
yotherwords
Iam fr
ankl
ytir
ed
Shespoketoeverybody
Thedayaft
ertomorrow
 Theyareadver
bialcl
auseelementsE.g.Youareleavi
ngtomorrow

Typesofadv erbs
Therearethreety pesofadv erbs
 Singleadv erbs
Thesear emadeupofasi ngleadv
erbie.soon,
. j
ust
,ali
ke,etc.Example,
Iwil
l
bet heresoon.
 Compoundadv erbs
Theyar ecombi ned wi thmor et hanoneadv er
b.E.g.pleasecome ear lyinthe
mor ning
I ssomehowdi
ti fficul
t.
 Compl exadv erbs
Theynor mal l
yendwi t
hsuf fxessuchas–l
i yasin;normall
y,occasional
l
y,happi
ly
,
sandyr ai
ny,etc.

TheKindsofAdverbsduet ot hei
rMeanings
Adverbsar
efurt
hersubdi v
ideddependi ngont hemeani
ngt
heyconv
ey:
Space Theyliveinrur al(where)
Iwentt oplayinggr ound
Ti
me Iwill
v i
si m onSat
thi urday(when)
Il
ivedher esince1961
Theyof t
engot othedancinghall
Process (manner ,i
nstrument ,andmeans)how
Shewal ksslowl y
Ispoket othephone
Sheeat swithspoons

Degr
ee Youhav
eanswer tsuf
edi fi
cient
ly
mbadl
I‘ ymissedyou

Modal
i
ty Icer
tai
nlyaccepty
ourpr
oposal
.

ExpressingVer
bs
Av erbisawor dthatexpressestheevent,act
ion,theprocessoract
ivi
tydonebythe
subject
.Nounsar edoingandact ionwords.Verbr ef
erstot heki
ndofthewordthat
showst heacti
on,
stateofbeingoreventdonebyt hesubj
ect.
SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
TypesofVerbs
7
Accordi
ngtoThomsonandMar
ti
net(
1986)ver
bsar
eident
if
iedi
ntot
wocl
asses,
whi
ch
ar
e:
 Mainv erbs(
V)
 Auxi
li
ar yver
bs(
Aux)

MainVer b
Themai nv er bsst andont heirownandgi vecompl etemeaningoft heact i
on.Exampl e
walk,dance, pl ay, si
ng,et c.becauset heyshowt heactionofdoingsomet hi
ng.Thewor d
goesist hemai nv erbsincei tshowst heact ionofmov i
ngfrom oneplacet oanother.
TypesofMai nVer bs
Mainv erbsar eal sobeingsubdi videdintot wot ypes:
Regularv erbs:t heyhav especi alregul arendi ngf orm usedt omar kpastandpast
parti
cipl
eplay ed, danced, j
umped, ar
rived,etc.
I
rregularverbs:t heyhav ei rregularornospeci alendingswhenmar kingpastorpast
parti
cipl
ecome, see, r
un, eat,writ
eet c.
Auxil
iaryVer bs
Auxil
iaryverbsar et hev erbst hatcannotst andal oneandgi vecompl etemeaning.The
mainf uncti
onoft heauxi li
aryv erbsist ohel pt
hemai nverbsinitscompl eti
onoft hei
r
functi
ons.Exampl esofauxi li
aryv erbsi ncludev erbssuchasbe,hav e,do,may ,shal
l
,
ought.

ExpressingPreposit
ions
Thisisawor dt hatshowsrel
ati
onshi
pamongwor ds.Preposi
ti
onscombi newi
thNoun
Phraset ofor
m DPwhi chmodi
fi
esnounsorver
bs.
Exampl esat,i
n,on,under,
near
,besi
de,i
nsi
de,wi
th,onbehal
fof,accor
dancetoet
c.
Themanwi thknife
Her andownt heri
ver.

PREPOSI
TION DESCRI
PTI
ON
i
n
 I
nsi
desomet
hing,
e.g.wat si
eri nt
hebucket

 Ati
tsst
ati
on,
thet
rai
nisi
n,t si
hebusi n

 I
fsomeone/
somebodyi
sinf
ori
t,he/
she/
iti
sgoi
ngt
obepuni
shed]

 Usedwhensay
ingaper
iodoft
imewhi
chi
snotspeci
fi
c,e.
g.i
n

7
ThomsonandMar
ti
net
,APr
act
ical
Engl
i
shGr
ammar
,1986:
105

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 Mar
ch,
in2014

On  Att
hesur
faceofsomet
hing,
li
ket
abl
e,f
loor
,et
c.

 Par
ti
cul
arar g.ony
ea.e. ourl
eft

 Aboute.
g.ar
eyoust
il
l ngoni
speaki t

 Cont
i g.keepon
nuee.

 Wearsomet
hinge.
g.puty
ourshi
rton

 Wr
it
tene.
g.hedr
ivesacarwi
t snameon
hhi

 Usedwhenmenti
oningt
heexactdat
ewhensomet
hinghappened,
t
h
g.OnFr
e. iday
,on15 May

I
nto  I
nadirecti
ontogetinsi
desomet hi
ng,e.
g.whoi
st hr
owi onei
ngst nto
t
heroom?Hei sgoingintother
oom.
Ont
o  I
nthedirecti
ontothet opofsomet hi
ng,e.
g.t
hrow st
onesint
ot he
r
oof,Don’ umpont
tj othetabl
e

Under  Belowsomet
hing,hei
scar
ryi sbookunderhi
nghi sar
m;puti
tunder
thetabl
e

Acr
oss  Fr
om onesi
det
oanot
her
,e. kacr
g.wal osst
hef
iel
d

Behi
nd Att
hebackoft
hingorper
sone.
gMymot sbehi
heri ndt
hehouse

Of Usedtoshowwhatapartbel
ongtoorcomesf
rom e.
g.partofyourbody
Thequalit
ythatsomet
hinghas,e.
g.thecostofthef ood,Pr dentof
esi
Tanzani
a

Of
f Awayfrom aplacee.g.takeitofftheroad
Outofbus,tr
ain,pl
ane,etc.getoffthebus
Notatwork,schoolbecauseofhol i
dayorill
.
Nolongerl
iki
ngorwant ingsomet hing,
e.g.Iam of
fmydr
inknowaday
s

To Usedt
oshowpurposeori
ntent
ion,
e. ngt
g.Iam goi ocook
Usedaf
tert
heverbbetoshowar r
angement sorgi
veanordere.
g.y
ouar
e
SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 towait
Tosayt hedi
rect
ionwheresomet
hingorsomeonegoese.
g.t
heyaregoi
ng
toschool
Usedtoshowwhor ecei
vessomet
hing,t
oldorshownsomet
hinge.
g.who
sai
dthattome?

For Usedtosaywhoisint
endedtogetorusesomet hi
nge.g.hel
eftamessage
forVi
cky
Tohelpsomeoneorsomethi
nge.g.Icar
ri
edtwobucketsfory
ou
Usedtotal
kaboutadist
ancee.
g.theywalkedf
ormi l
es

Al
ong Fr
om oneendofsomet
hingt
oanot g.al
here. ongt
her
oadorast
rai
ghtl
i
ne.

Al
ongsi
de Usedt
osaythatt
hingsorpeopl
eexistt
ogetheratthesamet
ime
Si
monspentayearwor ngal
ki ongsi
detherefugees

NB:Itisimport
anttoknowt hatsomepreposi
ti
onslike‘to’and‘for
’maybeconf usi
ng
wit
hot herwordcategori
es.Forexamplet hepreposit
ion to maybeconf usingwith
i
nfini
ti
veto.Youcandiffer
entiat
ethem byknowingt hemeani ngofpr eposit
iont oas
descri
bedabove;al
soinfi
nit
ivetoisdi
ff
erentfr
om prepositi
ont ointhatinfi
niti
vetois
al
way sfol
lowedbyabareverb.

Similarl
y,preposit
ion f
orandconj uncton f
i oralso conf
use.Preposit
ion f
orcanbe
under st
oodaswel lbyknowingit
smeani ngasexplai
nedabove,anotherquickwayt
o
dif
ferenti
atet hem isthatpreposi
tion f
orisfol
lowedbyanounorpr onounwher
e
conjunctionforisasubstit
uteofbecause,e.
g.Icameher ebecauseyoucal l
edme=I
cameher eforyoucall
edme.

I
tisadvi
sedt
hatonetakesti
met odi
scussthemeani
ngoft
hesewor
dswhi
chwi
l
lmake
hi
m/heruset
helanguageinateaseandst
ri
kingway.

ARTICLES
Arti
clesarewor dswhi chappearbef or
enouns.Thei rfunct
ionist omodi f
ynouns,i .e.
theyt el
lwhetheranouni sdef ini
te(known)ori ndef
ini
te(notknown)andnumber
(whetheranouni ssingularorplural
).Arti
clesarefoundinanylanguageoft hewor l
dfor
the same function.Howev ert hei
rpl ace ofoccur r
ence di
ffersfrom l anguage to
l
anguage.TheEngl ishlanguagear ti
clesarea,anandt he.Youwillseethatthemeani ng
alsodependsonwhatar ti
clesappearbef or
ei t
.Forexampl el ookatt hef ol
lowing
sentences:
Pl
easebuymeanor ange

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 Theor
angewassosweet
!

The nouns above have di

ff
erentmeanings whi
ch areintr
oduced by the art
icl
es
appear
ingbefor
ethem.Thenounor angei
noneabov emeansoneorange,butorangein
twoabovemeansonebutbot hthespeakerandthehearerknow t
heorangewhi chis
bei
ngdiscussedabout.Seet
hetabl
ebelowtolear
nmor eaboutEngl
ishar
ti
cles.

Ar
ti
cle Descr
ipt
ion

A Thisarticlepl
aysthefollowi ngfunctionsinEngli
sh:
Ittel
l
st hatthenounaf teri ti
ssingular,e.
g.abook
Ittel
lst hatthenounaf teri ti
snotspeci fi
c,notknownbyt hehearer
.A
constructionli
keat eachermeanst hatthi
sisnotknownbyt hehearer.
Thusi nsent encesanounnotknownwi l
lbewr it
tenwitharti
cleaini t
s
fir
ststart.Forexample, at eacherwhot aughtusEngli
shistal
l,thet
eacher
comesf rom centr
alTanzani a.Itisimportanttoknow thatthi
sarti
cleis
used onl y beforethe nouns t hatt hei
rpr onunci
ati
ons startwitha
consonantsound, i.
e.thei rpronunciati
onsandnotspelli
ng.

An Thisisanot herarti
cl
ewhichpl ayst hesamef unct
ionsast hearti
clea.In
Linguist
ics,iscall
edadi f
ferentappear anceofamor phemea.Ar t
i ea
cl
becomesanwheni tappearsbefor ethenounswhichst artwithav owelin
theirpronunciat
ionsandnoti nt heirappearancei
nwr iting.Forexampl e
seewhyt henounhourusesar ti
clean,itisbecausepronunci at
ionoft he
wor dstartswithav owelsound.I tisemphasizedheret hatthefunct i
ons
ofar t
i eanar
cl ethesameast hoseofar t
i ea.
cl

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 The Thisarti
cleplaysthefoll
owingfuncti
onsinEngli
sh:
Itisusedbef or
enounst hatareplural
,forexample,youcannotsay* a
booksbutt hebooks.
Usedbef orenounst hatareknownbybot hthespeakerandt hehearer;
for
exampl ewhensomeonesay stheteacherishere.Thismeanst hatt he
teacherisknown.
Usedwhenanouni sment i
onedf orthesecondt imei nspeakingor
writi
ng.Seet heearl
ierusedexampl e,ateacherwhot aughtusEnglishis
tal
l,theteachercomesf r
om centralTanzani
a,wherethesecondt eacher
usesar t
i et
cl he.

Otherf
uncti
onsofarti
clethe
I
tisusedbefore:
 Nount hatisuni
que,forexampl
e,t
hesun,t
heear
th,t
hesky
,the
presi
dentofTanzani
a,et
c.

 Thingsthatarefoundinthehouse,e.
g.t
her
oof
,thewi
ndow,t
he
bedroom,thekit
chen,
etc.

 Thi
ngst hataresharedbyt
hecommuni
ty,e.
g.t
hei
nter
net
,the
market
,thestadi
um,etc.

 Usedbeforecomparat
ivesandsuper
lat
ives,e.
g.t
het
all
est
,the
shor
testi
nthecl
ass.

 Forgeneri
cr eference,forexampl
ewhenonesay sthegiraf
feis
good.Thi
smeanst hatthecl
assofgi
raf
fei
sgood.TheCommunity
Devel
opmenti sgood;t hewholecl
assofCommunityDev
elopment
atacert
aininsti
tutionisgood.

NB:Iti
simport
anttoknowt hatsomenounsmayappearwi
thoutar
ti
cles.Forexampl
e,
thenounwater
,youcannotsay* awat
er,
thought
heymaybeusedwitharti
clet
hewhen
speaki
ngaboutthenounwater, g.t
e. hewater.

CONJUNCTIONS
Thesearewordswhichar eusedt oputtoget
herot
herpar
tsofasentenceorphrase.
Onemaysayt hattheyar enail
swhichholdotherwor
dstoget
her
.Therearedif
ferent
part
sofconj
uncti
onswhi chareexpl
ainedbel
ow.
 Coor di
natingconj
uncti
ons

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
  Subordi
nati
ngconjunct
ions
 Corr
elat
iveconj
uncti
ons

Coordi
nat
ingconjuncti
onsar
efor,and,
but,
or,yet
,so
Thesehavethef unct
ionofjoi
ningtwoequalpartsofsent
encest
oget
her
,i.
e.wor
ds,
cl
ausesorphrases.Seethef
oll
owingexamples
 Iboughtmangoesandy ouboughtor
anges
 Mydaddyandmummywentt otown

 Iboughtmangoesf
ory
out
oeat

 Ical
l
edy
oubuty
oudi
dnotpi
ckt
hephone

 Iwi
l
lleav
etomor
rowsoy
oubet
tert
akey
ourmoneysoon

Subor
dinat
ingconj
unct
ions
After nowt hat
i
nor der(that
) wher ever
unless ast hough
alt
hough once
i
nsof aras whet her
until because
as prov i
ded(that
)
i
nt hat while
when before
asf aras since
l
est why
whenev er eveni f
assoonas sot hat
nomat terhow event hough
wher e supposi ng(t
hat)
asif how
i
nasmuchas than
though i
f
i
ncase( t
hat) that
ti
ll

Theseareusedtojoinanindependentcl
auseandadependent(
subor
dinat
ing)cl
ause
toget
her
.Forexample:
 Iwil
lgi
veyouagiftsi
ncey ouarehar
dworki
ngper
son
SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
  Tanzani awi l
l beadev elopedcount r
yasmuchast hereisplentyofgasi n
Mt wara
 Si mbawi llbeatYangat hought heyhav eaBr azil
ianmanager
 Takesomej uicewi thy ouincaset hebuswon’ tstopatMomboRest aurant
 Il i
keeat ingUgal ithaneat i
ngcookedr ice
Activi
ty
Const ructatleastt wosent encesf oreachoft heabov esubor dinat
ingconjunctions
Correlativeconj unctions
ei
ther ...or
Usedt oshowt hatonl yoneoft het wopar t
sofsent encei spossibl
eort r
ue, e.
g.Youcan
ei
thercomeorl eave
both...and
Usedt oshowt wopossi blethings, forexampl e,bothJumaandAl iaremyf ri
ends
neither...nor
Usedt osayt hatt het woar gument sar ei mpossible.Thev erbusedi nthi
stypeof
const ructi
oni ssingul arforexampl e,neitherMlundi norEliaki
mui sshort.
notonl y...butal so
Usedt oshowt hatt heargument scar ri
edi nthetwoconst ruct
ionswer edone,possible,
etc.Forexampl e, notonl ydoesLundi readstorybooks, butalsoav erygoodf ootbal
ler

Conj
ugat
iveadv
erbs

af
teral
l i
naddi
ti
on Next

Al
so I
nci
dent
all
y Nonet
hel
ess

asar
esul
t I
ndeed ont
hecont
rar
y

Besi
des i
nfact ont
heot
herhand

Consequent
ly i
not
herwor
ds ot
her
wise

Fi
nal
l
y I
nst
ead st
il
l

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
f
orexampl
e Li
kewi
se t
hen

Fur
ther
mor
e Meanwhi
l
e t
her
efor
e

Hence Mor
eov
er t
hus

Howev
er Nev
ert
hel
ess

Along with subordi

nat
ing conjunct
ions,conjugat
ive adver
bs are used t o join
i
ndependentanddependentcl ausestoget
her.I
nusingt heseadver
bs,separat
et hem
fr
om therestofthesent
encebyacommai ftheyappearatthebegi
nningofasentence;
but,useasemi col
onbeforethem andacommaaf t
erthem whent heyappearatt he
middleofasentence.

Acti
vi
ty
Constr
uctt
wosent
encesf
oreachoft
heabov
econj
ugat
iveadv
erbs.

2.
1 ENGLI
SH TENSES

Intr
oduct i
on
Tensei sther elat i
onshipbet weent het imeofspeaki ngandt het i
meofev ent.Onemay
bespeaki ngnowaboutanev entthatoccur r
edatt hetimebef orethespeaki ng[ known
aspastt ense] ,theev entoccur ri
ngnow att het i
meofspeaki ng[ pr esentt ense]or
speakingaboutanev entt ooccuraf terthet imeofspeaki ng[ knownasf ut uret ense].It
i
sv eryimpor tantf orauserofanyl anguaget oknow t hatanysent ence/ utterance
cannotbesepar atedf r
om t het wo–sent encesandt i
meofev ent.Perhapst hisiswhyi t
i
ssai dthe“Engl ishi st het enses.”Thi spar ti
cul archapt erintroducesy oui ntoEngl i
sh
tensesandpr ov idesy ouwi thsomepr act i
cest omakey ouunder st
andt het enseswel l
andknowhowt ouset hem i ny ourdailyconv ersat i
on.
Ther eisanacut edebat eonhowmanyt ensesdowehav ei nEngl i
sh,andgener all
yi nall
l
anguagesoft hewor l
d.Somehav ebeenar guingt hattherear et hr
eet enses, i.
e.pr esent,
past,andf utur et ense;anot hergr ouphasbeenar guingt hattherear eonl yt wot enses
andt hatthef utur eisnotat ensebecauseav er bdoesnotchangei tsshapet oexpr ess
thet i
meofact i
on.Thel astgr oup,andofcour set hecampwhi chtheaut horsuppor ts,
arguest hatt her ear et wel vet ensesi nl anguage.Si nceweagr eet hatat ensei sa
rel
ationshipbet weenanev entandt het imeofspeaki ng,thent herearet wel vei nstances
ofthisrelati
onshi p.Eachoft hesei sdelineatedbel ow; t
heaut horput st heset ensesi nto

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
t
hreegr
oups,
namel
y,t
hepr
esentgr
oup,
thepastgr
oupandt
hef
utur
egr
oup.

ThePr
esentGr
oup

 Si
mplepresent
 Pr
esentconti
nuous
 Pr
esentperf
ect
 Pr
esentperf
ectcont
inuous

Si
mpl
ePr
esent

I
ti scal l
edsi mpl
epresentbecausei tisusedt oexpr essabouteventswhichoccur
frequently
.Onemayar guethatitisusedt oexpressaboutobj ect
shabi
ts.Thi
nkofyour
habi ttodri
nkwater,got oschoolorj ob,got ochur chormosque,toeatornott oeat
Ugal i
.Thesear ethi
ngsonewi l
lexpressbyusi ngsi mplepresentt
ense.Onepeculi
ar
thingaboutt hist
ensei sthatt heverbi nthet enseist hesameandi tisbareforal
l
per sons,exceptf
orthirdper sonsingularonly.Seehow onemayexpr esstheissues
abov eusingsimpl
epr esenttense.

Foral
lotherPersons
IeatUgal i
ev eryday
.OrIdon’
teatUgal
i
Igot oschool .
IteachEngl i
sh.
Yout eachEngl i
sh
Theyf astforalmost30days.

ForThi
rdPersonSingular
He/she/i
teatsUgal i
She/he/i
tteachesEnglish
I
t/she/hefastsforalmost30day
s

Pr
esentCont
inuous

I
nt histense,thespeakeri ssayingt
hatanact i
onisnow andi tisst i
lli
nprogress.
Therefor
e,thespeakingi sgoingsimult
aneousl
ywithdoingt heacti
onbei ngspoken
about.Thisist hetenset hatgoeswit
hf ormssuchasam,i s,ar
e+i ng.Thetypeof
vari
ati
onweexper i
enceint hesi
mplepresentt
enseisnotthecasehereandanyot her
tenseexceptforthepresentperf
ectwhi
chweshallal
sodiscusslat
er.Forexample,

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 Iam studyi
ngEnglish
Wear ecookingPil
au
Youareplayingfootbal
l
Theyarewalkingslowly
Onewouldagr eewi t
hmet hatthet
ense[presentcont
inuous]i
sthemostwel
l
-known
andusedtensebyEngl i
shlanguagel
earner
s.

Pr
esentPer
fect

Whydospeaker susepr esentper fect?Asi mpl eansweri sthatthespeakerwant st o

showt hatanact i
onhasbeendonenowandi tiscompl ete.I
faspeakersay snimefunga
ml angoi nKi swahi lithenonecanseet hedoorcl osed;nimefuangua,thenonecansee
theclot heshangedundert hesunorsomewher et odr
y.Inthissense,
apr esentperfect
i
susedf oract ionswhi chhav ej ustbeencompl etedatthemomentofspeaki ng.I
nt his
typeoft ensespeaker suset hefollowingstructureofsentences:
Foral lotherPer sons
Ihav eclosedt hedoor
Ihav eeat enUgal i
Ihav efinishedmyassi gnment
Ihav edonemyl aundry
ForThi rdPer sonSi ngular
Justlikei tisforf ir
stper sonsi ngularpresent,presentperf
ectalsoadds–si ntheverb,
buther e–si saddedi nt otheauxi l
iaryhaveandi tchangesintohas.Thus,
He/ she/ithaseat enUgal i
She/ he/ithasf inisheditsassi gnment
It
/she/ hehasdonehi slaundry

Pr
esentPer
fectCont
inuousTense

Heret hespeakerexpl ai
nsthatanact ionstartedsomet imeear l
ieranditissti
lli
n
continuat i
on.Onemayuset hi
sexpr essioninKiswahi l
iasani nstanceofapr esent
perfectcont i
nuoust enseNimekuani kif
undishaKiingerezatanguwakat iul
e.Thus,the
presentper fectcontinuoustensetakest hisform: Have+been+i ngforallot
her
persons, andhas+been+i ngfort hi
rdper sonsingular.Seethef oll
owingexampl es:
Foral lotherPersons
Ihavebeent eachingEngl i
shf oryearsnow
Theyhav ebeenwai ti
ngf orDonnassuppor tsince2002
SimbaandYangahav ebeent hebestder biesinTanzani a
ForThi rdPer sonSingular
Shehasbeenmyf avouri
tes

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 Hehasbeengossipingdayandni ght
Iti
s,however
,impor
tanttoknowt hatonemayeasi l
ycram t
her ul
esfort
hetensesand
sti
l
lgetprobl
emswheni tcomesintousingthem.So,thebestwayt omast
erthem i
sto
makepracti
cesasmuchaspossi bleforeasyandcomfort
ablecommunicati
on.

PastTense

 Si
mpl
epast

 Pastcont
inuous

 Pastper
fect

 Pastper
fectcont
inuous

Si
mpl
ePast

Thist ensei susedbyaspeakert osayt hi

ngswhi chwer edonebef oret het imeof
speaki ng, i
tmaybesomemi nut es, hour s, days,weeks, months,oryearsago.I tiscal l
ed
simpl epast ,alsoknownaspastt ense, becausei tdoesnotsaywhet hert heact ionwas
perfectiveorpr ogr essive.Thi sty peoft ensedoesadd–edi nregularverbst oform past .
Remembert hatsomev erbsdochanget hei
rfor m orothers,lkecut
i ,willnotchange
theirform when–edi sadded.Seet hef ol l
owingexampl esofsimplepastt ense.
IcookedUgal i
Icutmyf ingerwhenIwassl icingoni onsy ester
day
Iwr oteal et tertomydar l
ing
IwashappywhenIj oinedt heLushot oInstitut
eofJudicialEducation
Act i
vit
y
Makeal i
stofatl eastt went yirregul arv er bsandmakesent encesf r
om eachv er
busi ng
asi mpl epastt ense.
PastCont inuousTense
Her ethespeakerspeaksofanact ionwhi chwasdonei nthepastbuti twaspr ogressive.
Her ethespeakerhasanaddi ti
onalel ementi nspeaki ngwhichwecal lhere“ apoi ntof
reference. ”ie.Iwaseat
. i
ngwhenJumacamei n.WhenJumacamei ni swhatwecal la
referencepoi nther e.Ev enwheny oudon’ tovertl
ysayt hereferencepoint,itisalway sin
yourmi nd( i.
e.t hespeaker s’ort hehear er’smind) .I
npastcont i
nuousweuset hef or
m
was/ we+- i
ng.Seet hefollowingexampl es.
Iwast eachi ngMat hemat icsl asty ear
Theywer esi ngingwaal ade
Theywer epl ayi
ngf orSi mbabef oret heywentt oTPMazembe
PastPer fect
Inthist ense, thespeakersay sthatanact ionwasdonei nthepastandi twascompl eted

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
beforeanot
her.Ar efer
encepointisusuallysaidovert
lyinthisti
meoft ense.I
nthe
tenseweusethef orm had+-ed.Seet hefol
lowingexamples:
IhadcookedUgal ibeforeKi
godoropassed
Ihadeatenthr
eepi eceswhent heytol
dmet hatwasdog’
smeat
Shehadababywhenshegotmar ri
ed
NB: I
tisi
mportanttoknowt hattherearetwof msofhav
or e:
Hav easanauxili
aryverbli
ke,Ihav
ecooked,theyhavel
eft
,etc.

Hav
easamai
nver
b,l
i
keIhav
emoney
,theyhav
etwocar
s,et
c.

Therefor
ef or
mingpastperf ectf r
om theconstruct
ionsi
n2abov e,
itbecomes:
Ihadhadmoney
Theyhadhadt wocar s
PastPerfectConti
nuousTense
Herethespeakeri sspeakingoft heeventwhichwasbei ngdoneinthepastbuti twas
bei
ngdonebef or
eanot her.i.e.Theact ionwasi nprogressi
veandi thappenedbefore
anotherthi
ng.Inthi
stypeoft enset hespeakerusest heform:Had+been+i ng.Seethe
fol
lowingexamples:
Ihadbeent eachi ngMat hemati
csf ortwoyearsbeforeIwenttoEurope
Shehadbeensay ingthatforalongtime.

Fut
ureTense

 Si
mpl
efut
ure

 Fut
urecont
inuous

 Fut
urePer
fect

 Fut
ureper
fectcont
inuous

Si
mpl
eFut
ure

Thisisat ensewher easpeakeri sspeakingnowbutaboutt hi

ngswhichwi l
lbedonein
thetimet ocome.I tmaybef orthethi ngstohappeninaminute,day,
week, monthor
yearst ocome.Itiscall
edsi mpl efuturebecauseitdoesnottel
li
ftheactionis
perfectiv
eorprogressive,justtheact ionwil
lhappeninfut
ure.I
nthistense,aspeaker
usest heform wil
l+v er
b.Seet hefollowingexamples:
Iwil
l/shal
lcookUgal i
Simbawi l
l defeatYanga
Yangawi l
l defeatSimba
SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
NB: I
tisi mpor t
antt olearnt hedi fferencesbet weenwi l
landshal lhere.
Bothwi l
landshall areusedt or efert hingswhi chwi l
l happeninf uture,butshalli
sused
onlybyt hef ir
stpersonsi ngul ar“ I
”andf ir
stper sonpl ural“
we” .Exampl e,
Ishallcome
Weshal l buyy ouacarf oryourgr aduat ion
But
Theywi llcome
Shewi llbuyy ouacarf oryourgr aduat ion
Howev er,bothf i
rstper sonsi ngul arandpl uralmayusewi l
l.Thenwhyshal lf orfir
st
persononl y?Arationalansweri st hatshal lisusedf orcommi t
ment sandi ti
saper son
whocommi t
s,onecan’ tmakecommi tmentf oranot herper son.
FutureCont i
nuous
Heret hespeakeri ssay ingaboutt heev entwhi chwi l
lhappeni nf utur ebuti
twi llbein
continuation.Aspeakerusest hef orm wi ll
/shall+- ing.Seet hef ol
lowi ngexampl es:
Iwil
l best udy i
ngnexty ear
Iwil
l betrav ell
ingt omor rowaf t
ernoon
FuturePer fect
Heret hespeakeri sspeaki ngaboutanev entwhi chwi l
lhappeni ntimet ocome,butt he
acti
onwi llbecompl etedbef oreanot herthing( befor ear ef
erencepoi nt).I
nthi
st ypeof
tense,aspeakerusest hef or m will/shall+hav e+- ed.Seet hef oll
owi ngexampl es:
Iwil
l havecookedUgal iwhent heyar rivef rom shamba
Ishallhav egr aduat edmyPhDbef oreIgetmar r
ied
Theywi llhav espokengoodEngl ishin2015

Futur
ePerfectTense
Hereaspeakerisspeakingaboutanactionwhi chwil
lhappeninti
met ocomebuti twi
ll
havehappenedbeforeanothert
hingandi twil
l bei
nprogressi
ve.Thespeakerusesthe
f m wi
or l
l/
shall+ing.Seethefol
lowingexampl es:
Iwil
lhavebeencookingUgal i
Iwil
lhavebeendancingMaki ri
ki
ri
Wewi l
lhavebeeneatingthechicken

Asi twashi ghli

ghtedearli
er,foranyper sontospeakconf i
dent
lyandunder standably,
graspingoft ensesinanyl anguagei s,then,commandi ng.Accordi
ngly,oneneedst o
8
hav eallcarest omast erthet ensesofal anguaget hey arelear
ning.Itisl i
kewise
signif
icantt
ounder li
neherethatthebestwayt olearntospeakalanguagei stospeaki t
ratherthanlearningthewr i
ttendescr i
pti
onsoft helanguage.I
tis,thus,upony outo
l
ear ntospeakt hef ormsoft het ensewehav edescr i
bedinthi
schapt er,consideri
ng
8
Notetheuseoftheyandthemsel
vesint
hischapter;
youmayt hi
nkt
hatt
heyar
ewr
ongl
yusedi
nsome
const
ruct
ions,
buttheyar
eusedinthatwayforsocialr
easons.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
thatsomepeopl emaywel lmast erthef ormul aandst i
llf
ailt
ospeakthem.
Sentence
Asent encei sagr oupofwor dsconsi stedofasubj ectandapr edi
cat
ewi t
hacompl ete
meani ng.Asent encei sagr oupofwor dsnor mal l
ymadeupofsubj ectandpredi
cate
thatex pr
essesacompl etethoughtormeani ng.
- Thesubj ectisthepar tofthesent encet hatnameswhom orwhatt hesentenceis
about .
- Thepr edicateist hepar tofthesent encet hatsay ssomethi
ngaboutthesubject
.
e.g.Dogswer ebar king; Peterjumped.
Tomat oesandcar rotsarecol ourful v
eget ables
 Nei thert het omat onort hepeppergr owsunder ground.
-Inthedi stancef lowedar i
ver.
Basingont heirpurpose, Sentencesar ein4ki nds;
- ADecl arati
ve–t hatmakesast atement .
- AnI mper at
ive–gi vesacommand/makesar equest.
- Ani nterrogat i
ve–asksaquest i
on.
- Anexcl amat ory–expr essesemot i
ons/ f
eelings

Formalagreementi nEnglishSentences
Thefocusher eisthatthesubjectshouldagreewithitsver
bi nter
msofnumber .
- Numberr ef
erst otheform ofawor dthati
ndicateswhetheriti
ssingul
arorplural
.
- Singularsubjectsrequir
esingularver
bswhilepluralsubj
ectsrequi
repl
uralverbs.
Example,
Thefoliageont hetreespr ov
idesshade.
Paul
,alongwi t
hhi sfri
endsgo/ goestothetown.

Mistakesi nsubject -
v erbagr eementar esomet i
mesmadei nthef ol
lowingsi t
uati
ons;
- Whenwor dscomebet weent hesubj ectandt hev erb.
e.g.Theshar pfangsi nt hedog’ smout hlookscar y.
- Whenav erbcomesbef orethesubj ect.
e.
g.i nthedistancewasaboxofchal ks.
- Wi t
hcompoundsubj ects
Thesear esubj ectsmadeupoft wolinguisticunit
sj oinedbyaconj unction.
- Joy ceandBr ownar eacont endedcoupl e.
N.B;whensubj ectsar enotj oinedbyei ther …or,
neither …nor,notonly…butal so,t
heverb
agreeswi ththesubj ectcl osert othev erb.
e.
g.Nei therthenegot i
atornort heunionl eaderswantt hest r
iketocont i
nue.
Neithertheuni onl eader snort henegot i
at orwantst hest r
iket ocontinue.
 Wi t
hi ndefinit
epr onouns( anyone, somebody , anything,everybody )–thesedo
alway stakesi ngularv erbs.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Qui
z:
 Nei therofthosehairsty
les………. you.Suit/
suit
s
 Bot hoft hepuppies…..
cute.Look/ l
ooks
 EitherLucasorMwenda…needed.I s/ar
e
 Nei therthestudentsnorthet eacher……readyfort
hematch.I
s/ar
e
 Nei thertheSpeakernort hemember sofparl
iament
………corrupt
ion.
Accepts/accept
 Inf araway ….
.thepoli
cest at
ions.Is/are
 Anol dchairwithbrokenlegs…..ours.Are/i
s

Pr
onounagr eement
 Apr onounmustagr eei
nnumberwi t
ht hewordorwordsitr
eplaces.Thewor
d
r
eferr
edtobyapr onouniscaledant
l ecedent.
g.Ashashowedmeherweddi
e. ngri
ng.
-Studentsenroll
edi
ntheartclassmustprovidet
hei
rident
it
ycards.
QUIZ:Eachoft hesecomputershas…Drawbacks.
its/
their.

CommonEr
ror
sinEngl
i
sh

- Oneofacommonmi stakeinv olvesusingadj ectivesinplacesofadverbsasi

n:
- Peterneedsahai r
cutbadi nst eadofPet erneedsahai cutbadl
r y.
- Il
aught ooloudwhenIam embar r
assedi nsteadofIl aughtooloudl
ywhenIam
embar rassed.
- Sheiswal kingsosl ow=shei swal kingsosl owl y
.
- ‘
Wel landgood’
Theset wowor dsareof t
enconf used.Goodi sanadj ecti
vethatdescr
ibesanoun
while‘well’
isusuallyanadv er bdescr i
bingv erbs.
- WhenAmosgotAI DS,hedi scov eredwhohi s…. f
riendsreall
ywere.Good/wel
l
- Howi sy ourshirt
?Itis……good/ well
- Shehasdone….i nherexami nations.Good/ wel l
- Repetiti
onofsubj ectsinclauses:
- Thegi r
l whodancedwi thyou* sheismycousi n.
- IknowMbal amwezi who* hei sherbr other.
- Misuseoft hewor dcosti nitsadj ectiv
ef orm.
- Mostuser sar eli
kelytomi stakenl ysay

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 MODULETHREE:
LISTENI
NGANDREADI
NGSKI
LS

MeaningofListeni
ng
Li
steni
ngisthephy sicalreal
it
yofhearingwhatanotherper sonsays.Thelist
ener
part
ici
pat
espsy chologicall
ywiththespeaker
.Inthi
spr ocesst her
eisanact i
ve
decodi
ngandi nter
pretingofverbalmessages.Inshortli
steningisthereceiv
er’
sact
ivi
ty
i
ncommuni cation.

Compar isonbet weenLi steningandHear i

ng
Ther ei softenconf usi
onbet weent heset wor elat edconcept st hati slisteningand
hear i
ng.Howev ert het woconcept sar equi tedi ff
er enti ntermsoft hei
ri mpl icati
on.
Hear ingi sthepr ocessofcol lecti
ngt hesoundwav est hrought heear sandsendi ng
them t ot he br ai
n.Li stening involves hear ing and l istening with under standi ng.It
i
nv olvesbot hbodyener gyandmi ndi nt hewhol epr ocess.List eningr equi r
esbot h
deliberat eeffor t
sandkeenmi nd.Itneedsbot hphy sicalandpsy chologicalef f
or t
s.On
the ot herhand,hear i
ng i nvolves per ceiving the sound.Hear ing i st he phy si
cal
componentofl istening.Iti
sapassi veact ivi
tyandef fortl
ess.
Listeningi sar ecept i
veski l
l.Thismeanst hatlist
eni ngi sapr ocessi nwhi chy oudonot
producebutr ecei ve,dealwi thandunder standal anguage.Thi sisanessent i
alf orgood
communi cation.Li steningmeansat tentivenessandi nterestpercept i
bleint hepost ure
and expr ession.I timpl i
esdecodi ngi .e.t r
anslat i
ngt hesy mbolsi nto meani ng and
i
nt erpretingthemessagecor r
ectly.
Listeningi sani mpor t
antski l
linourdai l
yl i
fe,especi all
ywhenwet alktosomeone.We
hav et ounder standt heper sonwet alkt oinor dert ohav easat i
sfyingconv ersation.No
mat terhow y ou communi cate,listening i st he mosti mpor tantcommuni cation
techni quesonecanmast er.Iti
nv ol
vesconcent r
ationonwhatt heot herpersoni ssay i
ng.

Listeni
ngasaFunct i
onofCommuni cati
on
Listeni
ngbel ongst othecat
egor yofrecepti
vecommuni cati
onski l
ls.Throughlist
eni
ng
onecanacqui reideas,i
nfor
mat i
on,andf eel
ingsfr
om otherpeople.Ef f
ective
communi cati
ondependsont heabil
itytoli
stenproper
ly.
Listeni
ngi nvol
v escommuni cat
ionofor almessagebetweent hespeakerandt he
l
istener.Thisser vesasabasisforacqui si
ti
onofinfor
mation,ideas,att
itudesand
feeli
ngsf rom thespeaker.

StepsofLi st
ening
Therear efourstepsofli
steni
ng:
1.Hear i
ng
Thelistenerpaysattent
iontothespeakeri
nordertoheart
hemessage.
2.Int
erpretati
on
I
nterpretati
onexploit
sli
stener
’svocabul
ary
,knowledgeandexper
iencei
nor
dert
o
understandthemessage.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
3.Evaluati
on
Thisstepallowsthelist
enertodeci
dewhattodowi thther
ecei
vedinfor
mation.Then
he/shei satli
bert
yofchoosingtobeli
eveornotbel
ievi
ng.
4.Response
Thelistener’
sresponsetothemessagemaybei nwor dsori
nbodylanguage.Response
hel
pst hespeakert oknowifthel
ist
enerhasgotthemessageincl
udinghis/
herreact
ion
toit
.

St
rat
egi
esf
orDev
elopi
ngLi
steni
ngSki
l
ls

Languagelearni
ngdependsonl i
steni
ng.List
eni
ngprov
idestheaur
ali
nputthatserves
ast he basi
sf orl
anguage acquisi
ti
on and enabl
eslear
nerstoint
eractin spoken
communi cat
ion.

List
eningSt r
ategies
Thesear etechniquesoractivi
ti
esthatfaci
li
tat
ecomprehensi
onandr ecal
lofli
steni
ng
i
nput .Li
steni
ngst rategi
escanbeclassifi
edaccordi
ngtohowtheli
stenerprocessesthe
i
nput .Li
steni
ngst rategi
escanbeclassifi
eddependi
ngonhowt hel
istenerprocesses
theinput.
1.Top-downst r
at egy/Backgroundknowledge

Thisisthel
istenerbasedst
rategy;t
heli
stenertapsintobackgroundknowl edgeofthe
topi
c,thesituati
onorcontext,thetypeoft ext,andthelanguage.Thi sbackground
knowledgeact i
vat
esasetofexpect ati
onst hathelptheli
stenert oint
erpretwhatis
heardandantici
patewhatwi
llcomenext.Top-downst r
ategi
esinclude

 Li
steningforthemaini
dea
 Predi
cting
 Drawinginfer
ences
 Summar i
zi
ng

2.Bott
om-up str
ategi
es aretextbased;theli
stenerr
eliesont
hel anguagei
nthe
message,
thati
s,thecombinat
ionofsounds,wor
ds,andgrammart
hatcreat
esmeani
ng.
Bot
tom-upstr
ategi
esincl
ude

 Li
steni
ngforspeci
fi
cdetail
s
 Recogni
zi
ngcognates
 Recogni
zi
ngwor d-
orderpat
ter
ns

Ty
pesofList
ening
a.Activelistening:-t his occurs when one deci de to part
ici
patef ull
yi nthe
conversation.Itinvol
v esresist
ingallpsy
chologicalandphy si
ologi
caldistr
acti
ons
andinvestingment alandemot i
onalenergyinthelist
eningprocess.
b.Passivelistening:-t hisoccursbyexer cisi
ngl i
tt
leornoener gyinthel i
steni
ng
process e. g.listeni
ng wi t
h dr i
ft
ing mind.Passi veli
stenercannotexpectt o
understandmuchaboutt hemessage.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
ThePr
ocessofLi stening
a.Receivi
ng:-dur inglisteningoner eceivesbot hv erbalandnonv erbalmessages,
notonlyt hewor dsbutal sot hegestures, facial expressions, t
oneofv oiceet c.
b.Understanding:-t hi
si nv olv
esl earningwhatt hespeakermeans.Oneputi nto
considerati
onbot hthet houghtst hatar eexpr essedandemot ionaltonet hat
accompani est heset hought s.Inthisst ageav oidpremat urej udgmentunt i
ly ou
understoodmessagef ul
ly,youneedt oaskquest i
onset c.
c. Remember ing:-Si mpl ymean r etaining t he massage t hatwe r eceive and
understand.Youcanaugmenty ourmemor ybyt akingnot es,taper ecordingt he
message.
d.Evaluati
ng:-refer stot hej udgingofmessageorr atherdoi ngacr iti
calanal y
si s.
Duringev al
uationr esistunt i
l y
oufullyunder st andt hespeaker ’
spointofv iew.
e.Respondi ng:-responsesar efeedbackori nfor mat i
ont hatonesendsbackt ot he
speaker.Ittell
st hespeakerhowy ouf eel andt hinkabouthi sorhermessage.

Eff
ecti
veList
ening
Themajoraim ofeff
ect
iveli
steni
ngapartf
rom ot
her
sistof
oll
owwhatt
hespeakeri
s
sayi
ng.Thefoll
owingar
et heti
psforef
fect
ivel
ist
eni
ng:

 Stopt alking: itisnotpossi bletol istenwhi l

et alking.
 Putt hespeakeratease: encour aget hespeakert ot alkcomf or t
ably.Uneasyand
uncomf ort abl eper sondoesnotspeakcl ear l
y.
 Showadesi ret olisten.
 Shownon-v erballythaty ouar ei nterest edt olistenandt haty ouar el i
st ening.
Makeey e cont actandkeepi tst il
l.Ot heract swhi char edi sturbingmaket he
speakerf eel thaty ouar enotat tendi ng.
 Wr i
tedownt hemai npoi ntsandcheckf ort heircor rect ness.Thi smakest he
speakermor er esponsibleandcl eari nwhats/ hesay s.Sinces/ hereal izesy our
seriousat tent ion.
 Donotcr eat eort oleratedistractions.Cal li
ngorr ecei vingot her soral lowi ng
other st oi nt erruptdi sturbsandi rrit
atest hespeaker .
 Bepat ient : thespeakerneedst imet osaywhats/ hewant st osay .Somepeopl e
areshyorner vousorcannoteasi lyfindwor dst ospeak.I ftheyar ei nter ruptedor
hurried, theygetmor ener vous.
 Keepy ourt emperundercont rol-Sinceangr yper sonscannotspeakcl ear l
yand
cannotl ist en.
 Listenbet weenl ines-Concent rateonwhati snotbei ngsai daswel l aswhati s
beingsai d.Non–v erbalsignspr ovidecl uest owhati snotsai d.Peopl edonot
alway ssaywhatt heymean, butbodyl anguager eveal sspeaker ’
sat ti
tudesand
emot i
onal st ates.
 Askquest ionsatsui t
ablemoment st ogetacl earunder standi ng.Ify ouar enot
sureofwhatt hespeakeri ssaying, ask.Thi sisqui teaccept able.Alsost at ewhat
youunder st and.I tisagoodi deat or epeati ny ourownwor dswhatt hespeaker
saidi nor dert oconf i
rmt haty ouunder stood.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
  Keepanopenmi nd-Donotj
umptoconclusi
ons.Avoi
dmakinganyjudgement
s
unti
lthespeakerhascomplet
edspeaki
ng,ot
herwiseyouwil
lendupinprej
udi
ce.
Propereval
uati
oncanbemadeonl yaft
erget
tingful
li
nfor
mation,
and
underst
anding.

Agoodacti
vel i
stenerwil
l avoid:
 Hav i
ngpr econceiv
edi deasaboutt hespeakerand/ ort
opic
 Int
erruptingorfi
nishingof fthespeaker ’
ssent ences
 Thinkingaboutunr elatedthought s,possibl
yt r
iggeredbythespeaker
 Selectiv
ehear i
ng-oronl yhearingwhatr einforcesthei
rpointofvi
ew
 Tuningoutbecauset heydon’tv al
ueorr espectthespeaker
 Jumpi ngi nandrespondi ngimmedi atel
y
 Takingof fenceatsomet hingthatissaidormaki ngnegati
veassumpti
onsabout
somet hingthatissaid.
 Reactingt oamanner ism and/ortot hespeaker ’
sappearance.

Dev
elopi
ngLi
steni
ngCompr
ehensi
onSki
l
ls
Li
steni
ngandcompr ehendingarecloselyrelated.Thisisbecauseonel ist
ensinor derto
comprehend.Mor eoveronecompr ehendswhi leli
stening.Asonel istenshe/sheshoul d
beabletocompr ehend.
Compr ehensi
onismani f
estedindi f
ferentl
ev elsduri
ngt heli
steni
ngpr ocess.Onemay
havefullcomprehensi
onandpar tialcomprehensi on(whenpoi ntsar elessimportant).
Somepoi ntsneedproperattenti
onbecauset hemat terbeingpresent edisverycr
uci al
.
Rememberf l
exi
bil
it
yinli
steningandcompr ehensioni sveryi
mpor tant .

Li
steni
ngcomprehensionski
l
ls
Li
steni
ngforcomprehendi
ngpresupposest
hel
i
stenert
o:
 Li st
enatt
enti
vely

 Fol
l
owt
hespeaker

 Possessawider
angeofv
ocabul
arywhi
chi
srel
atedt
othesubj
ectbei
ng
di
scussed.

 Recogni
zegener
alspeechpatter
nandmajorspeechdi
visi
onsi.
e.int
roducti
on,
mainbodyofspeech,t
ransi
ti
onalwor
ds,
changeofideas,shi
ftofemphasis,
summaryandconclusi
on.

 Rel
atet
het
opi
cwi
tht
heexper
ienceoft
hewor
ld(
pri
orknowl
edge)

 Geti
nter
esti
nthet
opi
c.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 Stepst
oLi
steni
ng-Compr
ehensi
on
S/
N COMPREHENSI ONSTEPS HOW TOTAKETHESTEPS
1. Li
stenat
tenti
vel
y  Showhi ghconcentrati
on
 Av oi
dnoiseanddistracti
ons
 Bef ocused,
donotl etyour
mindabsentfr
om thet opi
c(do
notwonderaway)
 Fixyoureyesonthespeaker

2. Fol
l
owt
hespeaker  I
magi newhathei ssayi
ng
 Speakal ongwi t
hhim
 Becloset ohimi nthought
3. Possessv
ocabul
ary  Readwi delyont hetopi
c
beforethelecture
 Searchthel i
brary
 Bri
ngt omemor yallwords
rel
atedtot hetopic

4. Recogni
segener
alspeechpat
ter
n  Knowwhati ntroduct i
oni s
given
 Beconsci ousoft hemaj or
speechdi visions
 Not etransitional wordssuch
asnow, then, l
at er,onthe
otherhand, firstly,howev er
etc.
 Not eshiftofemphasi s,
changeofi deaset c.
 Not ewhent hespeakeri s
summar izingal lpoints(that
momenti si mpor t
ant).
 Not etheconcl usion
5. Pr
evi
ousknowl
edge  Thinkaboutwhaty ouknow
aboutt het opi cbef ore.
 Thinkaboutwhati sgoingon
atthemomentr el
atedt othe
topic
 Thinkaboutt hehor ri
bleor
pleasantexper ienceaboutt he

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 t
opi
c

Adopt
edf
rom;
NOUN(
2004)pp.21

Dev
elopi
ngLi
steni
ngCompr
ehensi
onSki
ll
s

Li
steningcomprehensi
onisakeyi ni
tial
stepi ncommuni cati
on.Thebet
terstudentscan
understandwhatisbei ngsaid,thebet terwi llbetheirabil
it
yto communi cate. I
n
addit
ion,theywil
lbebet t
erablet onoticet hecharact
erist
icsofthetargetlanguage
whichwi l
lhel
ptoimprovethei
rlanguagedev elopment.

Inordertohav egoodskill
sinli
steni
ngcompr ehensionandt ospeakitf
luent
ly,al
ear
ner
should pract
ise li
steni
ng to audio and vi
deo aids (di
alogues,thematictext
s and
narrat
ivestor
ies).I
tispref
erabl
et ohaveEngli
shtranscr
iptsofaudioandv i
deomateri
al.
Learnersshoul dpracti
celist
eningcompr ehensi
onwi thsubsequentspeaki nginthe
fol
lowingsequence:

1.Lear ner sshoul dl i

stent oeachsent encesev eraltimes.Att hesamet i
met heyshoul d
seeeach
sent encei nt het r
anscr ipt.
2.Lear nersneedt omakesur et heyunder st
andev er yt
hingclear l
yineachsent encei n
termsof
pronunci ation, vocabul aryandgr ammar .
3.Wi t
houtl ooki ngi ntothet r
anscr i
pt,l
ear nersshoul dtrytorepeateachsent ence( sayi t
aloud)
exact lyast heyhear di t.Wi thoutbei ngabl etor epeatasent ence,alearnercannot
under standi t.
4.Theni tisessent ialthatl earnerslist
ent ot hatparticul
arconv ersati
onort ext( story)i n
shor t
paragr aphsorchunks, sayeachpar agraphal oud,andcompar etothet r
anscr i
pt .
5.Fi nallyitisnecessar ythatl earnersl i
stent othewhol econv ersati
onorst or ywi thout
i
nt erruptionsev eraltimes,andt rytot ellthecont entoft hewhol econversationort ext
(story)t heyhear d.Theycanwr i
tekeywor dsandphr ases,ormai nideasasapl an,or
quest ionsont hatpar ticulardi alogueort exttomakeeasi erf orthem toconv eyt heir
cont enti n English.I ti si mpor tantf orl earner
st o compar ewhatt heysai dt ot he
transcr i
pt .

Skil
lsforNoteTakingi
ntheLect ure
Notet aki
ngisonewayofenhanci nglist
eni
ng.Notet
aki
ngwhi
chisdoneimproper
ly
createsabarri
ert
oef f
ect
iveli
stening.Thel
ist
enerhast
obevest
edwithski
l
lsfornote
taki
ngbef or
e,dur
ingandaftert
hecl assasfoll
ows:

A.Bef
oreClass
1.Dev
elopamindsetwhichisgear
edtowar
dsli
stening
2.Goovert
hematerial
softheprevi
ousl
ect
urewhilewait
ingf
ort
henextl
ect
uret
o

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
begin.
3.Pr evi
ewt heassi gnedr eadingstoestabli
shsomebackgr oundknowl edge.
4.Det erminewhaty ouknowandwhaty oudonotknowaboutt hemat erial
inorderto
focusy ourlist
eningorl ear ni
ng.
5.Ski mr el
evantreadi ngassignment stoacquaintyouwi tht hemai ni
deas, new
technical t
ermset c.
6.Dowhaty oucant oi mpr oveyourphysicalandment alalertness(ti
redness, hunger,
sleepiness,theplacewher eyousiti
nthecl assr
oom, canaf fectmot i
vat i
onand
attenti
on) .
7.Choosenot ebookst hatwi l
lenhanceyoursy stemati
cnot e–t aki
ng; haveasepar ate
notebookwi thfullsizedpagesf oreachcour se.
8.Dev eloptheposi ti
v eintent
iontoli
sten.

B.Duri
ngClass
Thefoll
owingstepsareaimedatimpr ovi
ngy ournotetaki
ngstrategi
esinlect
uresand
seminar
s.
1.Arriv
eont i
me.Of t
enitisatthebeginningoft
helecturethatt
hesubj ecti
s
i
ntr
oducedandt heoutli
neoft helecturei
ssetout .Ify
oumi ssthis,you
mayspendtherestofthelectur
etryi
ngt oworkoutwhatisgoingon.
2.Si
twhereyoucanseeandhearthespeakereasi
l
yandwherether
ear
eno
di
str
act
ions.Resi
stdi
str
act
ions,
emotionalr
eact
ionsorbor
edom.
3. Makesureyouareanacti
veli
stener
.Acti
vel
ist
eni
ngisathi
nki
ngact
ivi
ty.
Themor eyouthi
nkaboutt
heideasyouarenoti
ngdown,t
hemoreyouwill
under
standandrememberthem atalat
erdat
e.
4. Concentr
ateonwhatthespeakeri
ssay
ing.Not
ethatt
hespeaker
’sbody
languageprov
idescl
uestowhatisi
mport
ant.
5. Deci
dewhythelect
urei
si mport
antt
oy ou.Ify
oudonothaveaclear
reasonf
orl
i
steni
ngtoaspeaker
,youwi
llnotbeamot
ivat
edl
i
stener
.
6. Devel
opaf lexi
blenote-takingstrategy,whi
chcanbeadapt edt osuitthe
styl
eoft helect
ure.Learny ourlecturer’
ssty
le.Not
icehows/ heoper ates.
Somel ectur
erswillgi
vey ouanout l
ineofwhatthelecturewi
llcoveratthe
beginni
ngandsomel ecturersmaysum upt hemosti mportantpointsat
theend.Somewi l
ldistr
ibutehandout s,orwil
lpostlectur
enotesonlinein
advanceoraf t
erthelecture,towhichy oucanaddyourowncomment s.
7. Notethepatter
nofor ganizat
ioni
nthelecture.Doesitbeginorendwitha
bri
efsummar yoft hemainconcepts,themesori deas?Howar edetail
sor
examples used to develop speci
fi
c points? Whati st he r
elat
ionshi
p
betweenthepointspresented?
8. Revi
ew yournotesaft
erthelect
ure.Youshoul dthi
nkabouthow y our
lect
urenotesrel
atet
oy ournot
esfrom thecourser
eadings.Lookoutfor
thedevel
opingthemesoft hecourse,andthinkabouthow thisl
ecture

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 r
elat
est
othepr
evi
ousl
ect
uresi
nyourcour
se
9.Ask yoursel
f:whatquesti
ons does t
hisl
ecture answer
?Whati sthe
rel
ati
onshipbet
weenthelectur
esandt her
eadingsrecommended?What
possi
bleexaminat
ionquest
ionscoul
dbeanswer edf r
om t
heinf
ormat
ion
youhavegather
ed?
10.Organizeyournotesasawayt or
evi
ew,
testy
ourunder
standi
ngofi
deas,
andprepar
ef orexami
nat
ions.
11.
Useabbrev
iat
ionswhennecessar
y.Theuseofabbrev
iat
ionssav
est
ime
andener
gy.Exampl
es:b/
4–bef or
e,i
/c–inchar
ge,sb–somebody
12.Usesy mbols( wherenecessar
yorimportant
)Sci encest
udentsappl
y
mor esy mbolsthanstudent
sofart
sorsoci
alsciences.I
nsciencest
her
e
areinternat
ionall
yaccredit
edsymbol
s.Examples:=equals,>mor e,%
percentage
13.Beconsist
entinyouruseoffor
m,abbrevi
ati
onsetcinyournot
es.Gi
ve
headi
ngst oimpor
tantpoi
ntsandorgani
zati
onalcl
ues:mainpoi
ntsand
examples.
14.Wri
tet
henot esinyourownwords,
buti
fyoucannotdon’
tleti
ttakeaway
y
ourat
tent
ionfrom t
helect
ure.
15.Askquesti
onsi fyoudon’tunderst
and.Thel ect
ure/
presentermayall
ow
ti
meforquest
ionsattheendoft heclass.Ot
herwiseapproachthel
ect
urer
orpr
esent
eraftert
heclass.
16.Listencareful
lyt
ot hei
nformat
iongiventowardtheendofthecl
ass;
summar ystatement
smaybepar t
icul
arl
yvaluabl
einhighl
i
ght
ingmai
n
points;
ther
emaybepossiblequi
zquesti
onsetc.

C.AfterClass
1.Clearupanyquest i
onsordoubt sraisedbythel ect
urebyaskingeit
herthe
teacherorclassmates.
2.Fil
linmissingpointsormisunderstoodtermf rom t
extorothersources.
3.Edityournotes.Labelmai
npoi nts,addquestionstobeanswer ed.Highl
i
ght
keypointsinthenoteswithdiff
erentcolorsofink.
4.Thinkov erwhatyouhavelearnt;makeseparat enotesofyourideasand
refl
ecti
ons.

TheLect ur
e
Lecturesarer atherlikeanextendedrevi
ew ar t
icle.Theyat t
emptt oint
roduceanew
subjectinanaccessi bleway,provi
dinganout l
ineofbot hi
tspr i
ncipaldebatesandi ts
vari
ouschr onologies.Atthei
rbesttheyuseful
lyrev iewt helat
estunpubl i
shedr esearch
andi tseff
ectsonpr evi
ousdebates,whil
eal sol inkingupot hercomponent soft he
course.Becauseoft henecessaryspeedoft hel ect ur
ei ti
simper ativ
et hatyoul i
sten

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
andunder standbef or eyout akenot es.Donott rytowr iteev er y
thingdownorev en
everything y ou coul d.Fol low t he ar gument (s),and sel ectively notet he ev i
dence
deploy ed.
TheSemi nar
Semi narcl assest ake a wi de v ari
etyoff orms,whi ch requi r
e st udentst o engage
diff
erent ly.Howev er,gener all
yt heyar ei ntendedt oexami nei ssuesi ngr eaterdept h
than al lowed i nl ect ures and,consequent l
y,demand subst ant i
alpr eparati
on from
student st owor kef fect i
vely.Ast hei
rpur posei st oenabl est udent stoexpl oretheir
i
deas, thequal i
tyandcoher enceoft hediscussi onv ari
es,andwi t
hi tyourneedi stot ake
notes.Al thought het ut or'
sj obist okeept hedi scussionr el
ev ant,whati srelevanttoy ou
maynotbet osomeoneel se.
Again,donotwr i
teev erythingdown,orj ustnot ewhatt het utorsay s( s/hemaybe
playi
ngdev il
'sadv ocat etopr omot edebat e).Follow thediscussi onsoy ouunderstand
i
tspr incipalt hemesandt hennot ethem down.Youmayf indi teasi ertowr it
eupy our
notesaf tert hetutor i
al.Agai n,her earesomesuggest ions:
 Dob epunct ual .Iti
satt hebegi nningofl ecturesandsemi narsthatthesubj ectis
introducedandt heappr oachtobet akeni ssetout .Mi sst hisandt herestwi l
l
seem amy stery .
 Donotrushtopackupandgoassoonasy ouheart
hetutor
/l
ectur
erstar
ttosum
up.Thecl
osingremarksof
tenr
aisei
mpor
tanti
ssuesthatwi
llbedi
scussedinthe
fol
lowi
ngclass/
lect
ure.
 Not edownthenamesofthehi
stor
iansassoci
atedwithpar
ti
cul
arar
gument
sor
schoolsofthought
.Ifi
ndoubtaskt hetutor
/l
ectur
ertowrit
eanameont he
blackboar
d.
 Donotgotosleepwhenyour
eceiv
eahandout
.Mar
kandannotat
eit
;refert
oiti
n
yourot
hernot
es;soi
nsixmonths'
ti
meyouknowwhyyouweregi
venit.
Not e-
TakingSki ll
s
Effecti
venot etakingfrom lecturesandreadi
ngsisanessent i
alskil
lforuniv
ersi
tystudy.
Goodnot et aki
ngal l
owsaper manentrecordforr evi
sionandar egi
sterofrelevant
pointsthaty oucani ntegratewi t
hy ourownwr it
ingandspeaki ng.Goodnot et aking
reducest heriskofplagiarism.Italsohel
psy oudi
stingui
shwherey ourideascamef rom
andhowy outhinkaboutt hoseideas.
Effecti
venot etakingrequires:
 r ecognizingthemai nideas
 i
dent
if
yingwhati
nfor
mat
ioni
srel
evantt
oyourt
ask
 hav
ingasy
stem ofnot
etaki
ngt
hatwor
ksf
ory
ou
 r
educi
ngt
hei
nfor
mat
iont
onot
eanddi
agr
am f
ormat
 wher
epossi
ble,
put
ti
ngt
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
nyourownwor
ds
 r
ecor
dingt
hesour
ceoft
hei
nfor
mat
ion

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Bar ri
er st oEf fect i
veLi steni ng
Effect ivel isteni ngr equi r est hel istenert odi rectal ltheat tent iont ot hespeaker
other wi secommuni cat ionmaybebl ocked.Thef actor swhi chcanhi nder
communi cat i
onar esi mpl yr efer redt oascommuni cat ionbar ri
ers.Thef ollowi ngar ethe
bar ri
er st oef fect ivecommuni cat ion.
1.Ment al dist ract ion-t ry i
ngt ot hinkofot hert hingst hant hel ect ureorspeaker stalk
act sasabar riert ol i
st eni ng.
2.Wander i
ngat tent i
on-t hi si swhent hel i
st ener’smi ndi ssetawayf r
om t hespeaker ’
s
talkorpr esent at i
on.Theout comeofwhi chi scommuni cat ionbr eakdown.
3.Pl anni ngt opr esentagoodar gument-l ist ener’sef for t
st opr epar eanar gumentora
quest i
oni nor dert oaskt hespeakerl eadshi mt olosel isteni ngconcent rat i
on.The
out comeofwhi chi st omi sst her estoft hespeaker ’
spoi nt s.
4.Lackofi nt er est-t hishi nder sl i
st eni ngsi ncet hel i
st energet sbor edt ot hesubj ect
present edort opi cunderdi scussi on.
5.Av oidingt heef fortt ounder st andwhati sdi ffi
cult-i nat tempt st oav oid
under standi ngdi fficultconcept sort opi c, thel istenerdi vert sat tentionhencebl ocking
communi cat i
on.
6.Li stener ’
st endencyt ocr it
icizet hespeaker-cr iti
cizingspeaker ’
sappear ance,
manner isms, voi ce, l
anguageandot her scausespoorl i
st eni ng.Thi si sbecausemostof
thel istener ’
st imei sdev ot edf orcr iticism r ender i
ngl essat tentiont ol isteni ng.
7.Emot ional bl ocks( deafspor ts)-t hel isteneri scar riedawaybyemot i
onal fantasies
andi magi nat ionswhi char enotr elatedt ot het opicbei ngdi scussed.I nt hissi tuationt he
l
isteneri sbl ockedawayf rom ef fect i
v ecommuni cation.
8.Emot ional exci t
ement-i rritatingemot ionswhi chr esul tf rom f eelingangr yduet o
genderbi as, r
aci al prejudi ceoranyot hercausesmayl eadaspeakert obement all
y
upset .Theout comeofwhi chi st hatt hel istenersetawayf rom t hespeaker ’
si ntended
message.
9.Impat ience-i ncommuni cat iont her uleoft urntaki ngi sv eryi mpor t
ant .Thi smeans
thatt hel i
st enerhast oal lowt hespeakert ospeakwi thoutunnecessar yint errupt i
ons.
Buti ncaset hel istenerdoesnotwai tunt ilthespeakerhasf inishedt hent hi s
i
nt errupt iondecr easest heabi lityoft hel istenert ocompr ehendt hei ntendedmessage.
10.Poorheal th-whent hel isteneri sov er whel medbyi l
lnessi .ef eelingpai n,headache
oranyot heri ll
nesst henhi s/ herabi li
tyt ol istenget saf fectedhencei mpedi ngl i
stening
ability.
11.Excessi venot et aki ng-t ryingt ot akedownext ensi v enot esi soneoft hef actorst hat
distur bl i
st eni ng.Thi shasanadv er seoutcomet othel istener ,sincehe/ shemi ssest he
point s.

READINGANDSTUDYSKI LLS
ReasonsforReadi ng
Normall
y begi nners ar e notaccustomed to many t ypes of texts and reading
assi
gnment srequiredatcol l
ege.
Therear
et wobasi cr easonsforreadi
ng:Onereadsbecauseheenjoysr eadi
ngandt hey
feel
li
kereading.Oneal soreadsbecausehehasto.Thati
sf oraspecif
icpurpose.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
TypesofReadi ng
Readi ngforPleasure
Readi ngisoneoft hemostpl easurableaswel lasmostawar di
ngpur suit
sinlif
e.One
canengagei nleisurereadingforsheerr el
axat i
on,e. g.l
unchbreak,i ntheev eni
ng,
duri
ngt heweekend.I nthi
scasei tdoesnotmat terwhet herweunderstandwhatwear e
readingornot .Somepeopl edol eisurereadingser iouslyto“i
mprovet hemselves”i.
e.
theyr eadf orentertai
nmentwi thamor eser iouspur poseofwideningknowl edgeor
skil
lse. g.buyi
ngnewspaper s,magazi nesandj our nalstokeepthemsel vesupdatedon
topicalissues.Wet endt oskim overthewhol etextbecauseourunder standi
ngwi l
lnot
betest ed.

ReadingforStudy
Whenwer eadbecausewehav etoread.Inthi
scasewhetherwer eadi ndi
vidual
l
yori n
groupsweknowt hatourunderstandingwil
lbetest
ed.Wetherefor
esetasi detimeforit
.
Wet aket r
oublet oprepareourselv
esphy si
call
y,ment
all
yandemot ionall
y.Wecr eate
conduciveenvir
onmentf orreadi
ng.Weal sothi
nkofthepurposeforreading.Weshoul d
askour sel
ves,whatexact lywewantoutofwhatwear er eadi
ng.Theanswert hen
governsthereadingstrat
egy.

ReadingSt r
ategies
Ski
mmi ng/r
eadi ngforgenerali
dea
Ski
mmi ng,alsoknownassur v
eyr eadingi sapr ocessofl ooki
ngov erat extquickl
yt o
getagener alideaoft hetextorimpr essi
onofi t.Wedonott r
oubletoreadal lt
hewor ds.
Reader’
sey esmov efastatthet i
tl
esoft hemat eri
als,t
ablesofcont ents,andt hefi
rst
andthel astsent encesinparagraphs.St udentsskim whenr ev
iewingforexami nati
ons,
fewmoment sbef or
eent er
inginanexami nati
onroom;somepeopl eskim newspaper s
befor
ebuy i
ngt hem,get t
ingthedet ail
sdur ingthepresentati
on,weal soski m bookst o
seeiftheyar erelevantforourpurpose.Wear eadvisedtoski m materi
alsinli
brari
est o
seeiftheyar erelevantforourdefinedpur posesbef orewest artr
eadingt hem orbefore
webuyt hem forsale.

Scanning/ r
eadingf orspecificinformat ion
Wescanwhenwear el ookingf orpar ti
cularinfor
mat ioninat ext.Wescanov erthe
secti
ons,chapt ers,passagest hatar enotr el
evant.Thi soccurswhenoneknowswhat
hewant sandwher etogeti t,sohemov esey esqui ckl
ydownt hepageseekingfor
speci
ficwor dsandphr ases.Usual l
y,ar eaderhasaspeci fi
ci nformati
onorconceptin
mindandhe/ shel ooksi tupi nt hemat eri
alt ofindi t
smeani ngandot herrel
ated
i
nformat ion.Wescani nor dert of i
ndt hespecificdetailswerequi reandwhichwemust
remembercompl etel
yandpr ecisely.
Scanning i s usefulin:l ocating st atement s,definiti
ons,for mulas,new ter
ms and
concept s,t
hechar tsandf igures.
Exampl esofscanni ng:at elephonedi r
ectory,aconfer enceguide, atr
ainti
metabl
e.

I
ntensi
ver
eadi
ng/st
udyreadi
ng
Thi
sisatypeofr
eadinginwhichar
eaderr
eadsandt
hinksaboutwhati
sbei
ngr
eadso

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
thatitisunder st
ood,remember edandcontextual
ized.Itneedstobewor kedat ,wit
h
ti
me f orr eflect
ion,thoughtanal ysi
s,cri
ti
cism,compar i
son,not es made,poi nt
s
highli
ghtedandemphasi zed,thewholesummar i
zed.Studyreadingisdonewhenonei s
readingf orassignment,pr esentat
ionandforanswer i
ngexami nati
on.St udentsare
advisedtor eadintensi
velyinordertobeabl
et owr i
temeani ngf
ulassignments,report
s
andpr esentati
on.

Extensi
vereading
Extensi
vereadingi nv olvesreadingmanyandv ari
etyofbooksf orgeneraloruni versal
meaningandpl easur e.Inext ensi
ver eading,
readingisbeyondreadingtheschool books.
Inextensi
ver eading,oner eadslargequant it
iesofmat eri
alsorlongtextsforgl obalor
generalunderstanding,wi t
ht heintenti
onofobt ai
ningpleasur
ef r
om thet exts.I nthi
s
kindofreadingpeopl e( students)areallowedt ochoosethebookst heywantf orreading.
Studentsarenotr estrictedinclasstochooset hesame.

TheProcessofReadi ng
Thereareanumberofact ionsreaderscant akei nordert ounder
standawor dor
passage.Thi
sar elist
edpossibl
er emedi
esintheor derofincreasi
ngdisr
upti
venessto
thefl
owofr eading.Themor edrasti
ctheacti
ont aken,t
hemor eyoul
osethethreadof
whaty ouarer eading.Thef ol
l
owi ngstepswi l
lhelpar eadertoreadt hepassage
caref
ull
yandgett hebenefi
toutofit.

1.Ignoreandr eadon.Ifthewor dorpassagei snotcr i

ti
caltounder
standi
ng,t
henthe
mostef f
ecti
veact i
onistoignorei t
.Forexample,
fai
lureswithi
ndescr
ipt
ionsanddet
ail
s
usuall
ycansaf elybeignored.Ifthereaderfai
l
stounder st
andalargepropor
ti
onofthe
text
,thi
sisevidencethatthe‘ignoreandreadon’str
ategyisnotworki
ng.

2.Suspendj udgment.Theseareawai tandseest r

ategythatshoul
dbeappl iedwhen
thereaderthinksthefai
lurewil
lbeclari
fi
edlater
.Forexampl e,new wordsorgeneral
pri
ncipl
esareof tenexpl
ainedinsubsequenttext
.Thest r
uctureofthetextshoul
dtell
thereaderwhenani deaislikel
ytobeclari
fi
edlater
.Ifiti
snot,itmaybenecessaryto
gobackandr er
ead.

3.Form at ent
ati
v ehypot hesi
s.Herethereadertri
estof i
gureoutfrom cont
extwhata
word,sentence,orpassagemeans.Thehy pothesi
smaybeapar ti
alhypot
hesi
sora
quit
especi fi
chy pothesis.Itactsasapendi ngquestion( Col
li
ns,Brown,Morgan,&
Brewer,1977)thatther eadertestsasheorshecont i
nuesr eadi
ng.Thi
sisaparti
cul
arl
y
usefulstr
ategytoappl yi fastatementisabstractorvague,orifanunknownwor dis
fai
rl
ycentralandtherear ecluestoitsmeaning.

4.Rer eadthecurrentsentence(s).I
fther eadercannotform atentati
vehy pothesis,
theni toft
enhelpstor er
eadt hecurr
entsent enceorsentences,l
ookingforar evised
i
nt erpr
etat
ionthatwoul dclari
fytheproblem.Thi sisespecial
lyusefulifther eader
per cei
vessomecont r
adicti
on orseveralpossi bl
eint
erpret
ati
ons.Buti tisa f airl
y
disrupti
veremedy.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
5.Rereadtheprev i
ouscontext.Jumpingbackt othepreviouscont
extisevenmor e
di
srupti
vetotheflowofreading.Butifthereisacont
radi
ctionwit
hsomeearli
erpiece
ofthetextorthereaderi
sov erl
oadedwi t
ht oomanypendingquesti
ons,t
henjumping
backandrereadi
ngisthemostef f
ecti
vestrategy
.

6.Goi
ngtoanexpertsource.Themostdi sr
uptiveactionthereadercantakeistogot o
anoutsi
desource,suchasat eacher
,parent,dict
ionary,orotherbook.Butt hi
si s
someti
mesrequir
ed,f
orexampl ewhenawor disrepeatedl
yusedandt hereadercannot
fi
gur
eoutwhatitmeans,orwhenawhol esecti
onoft extdoesnotmakesense.

Readi
ngCompr
ehensi
onSt
rat
egi
es

The f
oll
owing str
ategi
es can ensur
ethat st
udent
s ar
e successf
ulon r
eadi
ng
compr
ehensiont
ests.

Fi
ndingmai nidea:areadershoul
dreadbylooki
ngaboutt hemainidea;whatar
eading
passageismost lyormainl
yabout.Onemayalsothinkaboutthebestti
tl
eforar
eading
passage.Thet i
tl
esomet i
mest el
l
saboutt
hemai nideaoft hewhol
epassage.St
udents
shouldaskthemselveswhatthereadi
ngpassageisabout.

Recal
li
ngfactsanddet
ail
s:st
udents/
readersshoul
dlookf orfact
sanddet
ail
st hathas
happenedinareadi
ngpassage.Payi
ngv erycl
oseattent
iont otheev
ent
soft hestory
andtheorderi
nwhicht
heyhappenedwillhel
pwiththi
sstr
at egy.

Underst
andingSequence:thereadershouldcheckthesequenceofcertai
nthi
ngsand
eventshappenedwit
hinthereadingpassageinorder.Schol
arsexpl
aint
hatwor
dssuch
asf i
rst
,second,l
ast,before,oraf t
erappeari
ngi nthepassagemaybeofhel pto
underst
andthesequenceoft hepassage.

Recognizi
ngcauseandeffect
:areadershoul
dbeabletoident
if
ythecauseandef
fect
ofsomet hi
nghappenedandwhyi thappened.Whent hetextuseswordssuchas
because,why,
reasonorwhathappened,
thi
ssignal
scauseandeff
ect.

MakingPr edict
ions-reader
sshouldal
somakepr edict
ionandguessaboutwhatwil
l
happennexti nar eadi
ngpassage.Wor
dsl i
kepredi
ct,
probabl
yormostl
ikel
ycanhel
pa
studentt
opr edi
ctorguesssomet hi
ngthatfol
l
ows.

FindWor dMeaninginContext
:becausesomewordshavemor et
hanonemeani ng,
reader
sneedt oknow themeaningofawor dusedinar eadi
ngpassage.Tr
yeach
answermeaningi nthesent
encewheret hewor
dappear
s,andchooset heonet
hat
makest hemostsensei
nthereadi
ngpassage.

Disti
ngui
shingbetweenfactandopini
on:i
nthereadi
ngpassageonemayf indseveral
factsandopinions.Areadershoul
dbeabletodeter
minewhichofcourseisafactor
opini
on.Studentssimpl
yneedtoaskthemsel
vestwoquest
ions:‘
Canthi
sstatementbe

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
pr
oved?
’or‘
Doest
hisst
atementt
ell
whatsomeonet
hinksorf
eel
s?’

I
denti
fyi
ngauthor’spur
pose:r
eader
sneedt
ounderstandthereasonanauthorwr
otea
par
ti
cularpassage.Thi
sshoul
dbedonetotheent
irepassage,and/
oraboutaspeci
fi
c
par
agraph.

Making i
nfer
ences:when asked t
o make an inf
erence,student
s need t
of igure
somethi
ngoutthatareadi
ngpassagedoesnotexpl
i
citl
ystat
e.Thisoft
encontai
nst he
wordsyoucantel
l,det
ermi
neorconcl
ude.

I
nter
pret
ingfigurat
ivelanguage:i
nthepassageonemayf
indfigur
ati
vel
anguagessuch
assimil
es,met aphorsandi di
oms.Studentswil
lhav
etoidenti
fyapart
icul
artypeof
fi
gur
ati
velanguage.

Summar i
zing:ar eadershoul
d beablet o choosethebestsummar yofar eading
passage.Youmaynotf indt
hedir
ectwayofdoi ngthi
sinther
eadingpassage.St
udents
wil
lneedtot hi
nkaboutthemostimpor
tantideastofi
ndthebestsummary.

Readi
ngandNot
e-Taki
ngst
rat
egi
es

Readingf orpl easureorasawayt orelax,li

kewhenr eadi nganov el
,newspaperor
magazi nei susuall
ya‘ passi
ve’exercise.Wheny ouar estudy i
ngr eadi
ngshoul dbeseen
asan‘ active’exercise,inot
herwor dsy ouengagewi thyourr eadingtomaxi mizey our
l
earning.Oneoft hemostef f
ect i
veway sofact ivel
yengagi ngwi thyourr eadingist o
makenot esasy ougoal ong–l inki
ngpoi nts,takingoutkeypoi ntsofinformat i
onet c.
Bywr it
ingnot es,iny ourownwor ds, youwillbef orcedtot hi
nkaboutt hei deast hatare
presentedi nt hetextandhow y oucanexpl ai
nt hem coher entl
y.Thepr ocessofnot e-
taki
ngwi ll,theref
ore,helpyour etai
n,anal y
seandul ti
mat elyrememberandl earnwhat
youhav er ead.

Whatnott
odo?

Iti
si mportanttounder standt hateffecti
v enote-
makingmeanswr it
ingnot esonwhat
youhav ereadiny ourownwor ds.Copy i
ngwhatot hershav
esai disnotnot e-t
akingand
i
sonl yappr opriat
ewheny ouwantt odi rectl
yquoteanaut hor.I tcanbet empting,
especial
lyifyourreadi
ngmat eriali
sonline, t
ocopyandpast estr
aightintoadocument .
Ifyoudot histheny ouar eunl i
kel
yt ol earnwhaty ouhav eread,ascopy i
ngi snot
engagingwi t
ht hetext.Al so,andespeci all
yifyouareastudent ,copiedt extthatends
upinanassi gnmenti spl agiarism -aser iousacademicoffence.Useonl inesour cesas
appropri
atebutsummar izes, re-wri
teand/ orparaphr
aseandal waysreference.

Ef
fect
iveSt
epsf
orNot
e-Taki
ng

Thereisnomagi cfor
mulatot akingnoteswhenr eadi
ng;youhav etof i
ndoutwhat
worksbestfory
ou.Yournote-
takingskil
lswil
ldevel
opwithpract
iceandasy oureal
i
ze
thebenef
it
s.Thetipsf
oref
fect
ivenot e-
taki
ng,bel
ow,shoul
dhelpy ougetstar
ted.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Ef
fect
iveNot
etaki
ngSki
l
ls

1.BeSel
ect
iveandSy
stemat
ic

Asy outakenot
esf r
om awr i
tt
ensource,keepi
nmindthatnotal
lofat
extmaybe
rel
evantt
oyourneeds.Thi
nkabouty
ourpurposef
orr
eadi
ng.

 Areyour
eadingf
oragener
alunderstandi
ngofatopi
corconcept
?
 Areyoureadi
ngforsomespeci
fi
ci nfor
mati
onthatmayrel
atetothet
opi
cofan
assi
gnment?

Befor
eyoustarttotakenotes,ski
mt hetext.Thenhighli
ghtormar kthemainpoi
ntsand
anyrel
evanti
nformationyoumayneedt ot akenotesfrom.Final
ly-keepi
nginmindyour
pur
posef orr
eading-r eadtherel
evantsectionsofthet extcar
efull
yandtakesepar
ate
not
esasy ouread.

Af
ewt
ipsaboutf
ormat

Setouty
ournot
ebookssot
haty
ouhav
easi
mil
arf
ormateacht
imey
out
akenot
es.

 Columnst hatdist
inguish t
hesourcei nformat i
on and y ourthoughtscan be
helpf
ul.
 Headings that i
nclude bibli
ogr
aphi
cr eference detail
s of t he sour
ces of
i
nformationareal
soi mport
ant.
 Theuseofcol ourtohighli
ghtmajorsections,mainpoi ntsanddi agr
amsmakes
noteseasytoaccess.BUTr ememberitisnotal l
owedt ohighl
i
ghtorscribbl
ein
thepubli
cbooks.

2.I
dent
if
ythePur
poseandFunct
ionofaText

Whetheryouneedt omakenotesonawhol etextorjustpar

tofit
,ident
if
yingthemain
pur
poseandf unct
ionofatexti
sinv
aluabl
eforclar
if
yingyournot
e-t
akingpurposesand
sav
ingtime.

 Readthetit
leandtheabst ractorpreface(ift
hereisone)
 Readtheintr
oductionorfir
stpar agr
aph
 Ski
mt hetexttoreadt opi
cheadingsandnot i
cehowt hetexti
sor
gani
sed
 Readgraphicmater i
alandpr edi
ctit
spur poseinthetext

Youraimistoident
ifypotent
ial
lyusef
uli
nfor
mat i
onbygetti
nganini
ti
alover
viewofthe
text(
chapt
er,art
icl
e,pages)thatyouhaveselect
edtoread.Askyour
self
:wil
lthi
stext
givemetheinf
ormationIrequir
eandwheremightitbel
ocatedint
hetext
?

3.Highlighti
ngandEmphasi zi
ng:aquickandeasywayt obeacti
vewhenr eadingisto
hi
ghlightand/ orunderl
i
nepart
softhet ext
.Althought
heprocessofhi
ghl
ightingisnot
‘
note-taking’i
tisoftenani
mpor t
antfi
rststep.Ofcour
se,t
hisisnotagoodi deaifthe

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
bookorj
our
nal
doesnotbel
ongt
oyou!

Hi
ghl
i
ght
ingkeywor
dsorphr
asesi
ntextwi
l
lhel
pyou:

 Focusy ouratt
enti
ononwhaty ouarereadi
ng–andmakei teasytoseekey
poi
nt swhenr e-
reading.
 Thinkmor ecar
efull
yaboutwhatthekeyconcept
sandideasi
nthetextar
e,the
bi
tst hatareworthhighl
ight
ing.
 Atag l
ancey ouwillbeabletoseet
hatyouhavealr
eadyr
eadpagesorsect
ions
ont ext.

Wheny oucomeacr osswordsorphrasesthaty

ouarenotfamil
i
arwi
thitmaybeuseful
toaddt hem toapersonalgl
ossaryofter
ms.Makeaglossaryonaseparatesheet(
or
document )ofnotes,so y ou can easi
l
yr ef
erand updateitas necessar
y.Wri
te
descr
iptionsoft
hetermsinyourown

4.Maki
ngWritt
ennot
es:alt
houghhighli
ghti
ngi
saqui
ckwayofemphasi
zi
ngkeypoi
nts,
i
tisnosubst
it
utef
ortaki
ngpropernotes.

Remembery ourmainpur posef ornot e-

taki
ngistol ear
n,andpr obabl
ytopreparefor
somef orm ofwrit
ing.Wheny ouf irstst
artoutnote-
takingyoumayf i
ndt
haty outake
toomanynot es,ornotenough, ort hatwheny our
ev i
sitt
hem theyareuncl
ear,orwhich
i
sy ouropini
onandwhi chistheopi ni
onoftheauthor .Youwillneedtoworkont hese
areas-li
kealll
if
eskill
s,taki
ngeff ectiv
enotesimprovewithpracti
ce.

Ti
psf
ormaki
ngef
fect
ivewr
it
tennot
es

Thef
oll
owi
nggui
del
i
nesmaybeofhel
p:

i
.Iti
simportantt
okeepyournot
esorganisedandwel
l-
str
uct
ured,
soy oucaneasil
yfi
nd
them l
ater
.Useanot ebookorsetupf older
sonyourcomputer-keepy ournot
esin
goodorder.

i
i
.Useheadi
ngsordi
ff
erentsheet
s(ordocument
s)t
osepar
atedi
ff
erentt
hemesand
i
deas.

i
i
i.Usebr
ightcol
ourstohighli
ghti
mportantpoint
sinyournot
es.Youmayfi
nditusef
ul
t
ohaveasimplesystem ofcol
ourcodi
ng,usingdif
fer
entcol
oursf
orr
elat
edar
eas.

i
v.Al
wayskeeparecordofyouri
nfor
mat
ionsour
ce,thi
sisgeneral
l
ygoodpr
act
ice–so
y
oucaneasi l
yfi
ndi nfor
mati
onagaini
nt hefutur
e.I nacademiaiti
sessent
ialt
o
r
efer
encey
ourwork.

 Whenreferri
ngtoabook,r ecordtheaut
hor’
sname,t
hedat
eofpubl
i
cati
on,
thet
itl
eoft hebook,t
her elevantpagenumber,t
henameoft
hepubli
sher
andtheplaceofpubli
cat
ion.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
  Whenr efer
ringt oamagazi neornewspaper ,recordthenameoft he
authorofthear t
icle,thedateofpubl i
cat
ion,thenameoft hear
ti
cle,t
he
nameoft hepublication,thepubli
cati
onnumberandpagenumber .
 Wh enrefer
ri
ngt oi nternetsources,recor
d( atleast
)theful
lURLorweb
addressandt hedat eyouaccessedt heinf
ormat i
on.

5.I
dent
if
yhowI
nfor
mat
ioni
sOr
gani
sed

Mostt ext
susear angeofor ganisingpr inci
plest odev elopi deas.Whi l
emostgood
writ
ing wil
lhav eal ogicalor der,notal lwr i
ters wil
luse an or ganisi
ng pr i
nci
ple.
Organi
singprinciplest endt osequencei nformationintoal ogicalhierarchy,someof
whichare:pastideast opresenti deas,thest epsorst agesofapr ocessorev ent
,most
i
mpor t
antpointtol easti mportantpoi nt,wellknowni deast ol eastknowni deas,si
mpl e
i
deast ocomplexi deas, generalideast ospeci f
icideas,thel ar
gestpar tstot hesmallest
part
sofsomet hing, problemsandsol uti
ons, causesandr esult
s.

6.Pagebypagenot es:Thesi mplestandmostdi rectwayoft aki

ngnot es,butalsothe
mostdet ail
ed,istowr i
tepage-by-pagenotes.Att hestar
tofy ournoteswr i
tetheful
l
ref
erenceoft hebook/ j
ournaletc.thaty ou aret aki
ng notesf r
om.Wr i
tethepage
numberi nthemar gi
nofy ournotebookandj otdown, i
nconcisephrases,thepointst
hat
str
ikey ouasr el
evantfrom eachpar agraph.Ifapar ti
cularpointremindsy ouofa
personalexperi
enceorofsomet hingsimil
art haty
ouhav eread,j
otthisdownt oo.

Ifapar ti
cularsent enceorquot ationappeal st oy ouorseemst oencapsulat
et he
essenceofapoi ntmadebyt heaut hororhighlightsthesubjectyouarestudying,
tr
anscri
bei tcompl etelyinsidequotationmar ks.Remembert orecordexactl
ywherethe
quotecamef rom.Asy ouwor kthrought hetext,highl
ightandmakenot esonthings
withwhichy oudisagr ee,stati
ngther easonswhy .

7.Summar i
es:Aswel l
aspagebypagenot es,youshouldcompi l
easummar yattheend
ofeachsect i
onorchapt er.Asummar yi s,bydef i
nit
ion,precise.I
tsai mistobr i
ng
togethertheessentialpointsandtosimplif
yt hemai nargumentorv i
ewpointofthe
author.Theaut horwillusuall
yexpandont heiri
deas,put t
ingt hem intocontextand
aidi
ngunder standi
ng.Youshoul dbeabl
etousey oursummar yinthefuturet
or ef
erto
thepointsraisedandusey ourownexpl
anationsandexampl esofhowt heymayapply
toyoursubjectarea.

8.Or gani
sing yournot es:Depending on yourcir
cumst ance you may f i
nd y ou
accumulatealotofnot es.Not esareofnousetoyouifyoucannotfindthem wheny ou
needto,andspendi ngal otoft i
mesi f
ti
ngthr
oughpil
esofpaper sisawast eoft i
me.
How y ouorganisey ournot eswilldependonwhethertheyar e‘physi
cal’
,wri
ttenon
paperor‘ di
git
al’storedonacomput er– oracombi nati
on.Somequi ckideasf or
organi
singandst or
ingnot esincl
ude:

 Fol
der
s:Eitheri
nthetr
adit
ionalsense-thet
ypey
oumayfindinafi
li
ngcabinet-
oron a computer,f
older
s are an easywayofkeepi
ng rel
ated documents

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 toget her.Fol dersarepar ti
cular
lygoodf orassembl i
ngi nformati
onandmat er
ial
forwr i
ttenassi gnments.Keepal lrelevantitemsi nafolder–ei therhardcopies
ordi gitall
y.It’ssomet imesusef ult oincludenot estoy ourselfi
ny ourfolderas
youpl anawr i
tt
enassi gnment .
 Binder s:Loose- l
eafri
ngbi nderscanenabl ey outoassembl eallyourpagenot es,
chapt ersummar i
es,mi ndmapsandal otofot herpr i
ntedmat er
ialsinone
l
ocat i
on. Bi nders can be used,l ike folders,to store additi
onalnot es and
i
nf ormat ion.
 Ca rds:Thesecomei nv ari
oussi zesandt ypesandenabl ey outokeepasket ch
ofwhaty ouhav eread.Car dscanbepar ti
cularl
yusefulwhenpl anningawr i
ti
ng
assi gnment-t r
yr e-
orderingthem orar rangingthem ont hefloorli
keal ar
gemi nd
map, alow- t
echwayofl inkingtogethery ourideasandt houghts.

9.I
ncl
udey
ourt
hought
s

Whentakingnotesforanassi gnmentitisalsohel
pfultorecor
dyourthoughtsatthe
ti
me.Recordyourthoughtsinasepar atecol
umnormar ginandinadif
ferentcol
ourto
thenot
esy outookf rom thetext.Forinst
ance,whatideasdidyouhaveabouty our
assi
gnmentwheny our eadthatinformati
on?How doy outhi
nkyoucoul dusethis
i
nfor
mationinyourassignment?

MODULE4.SPEAKI
NGANDWRI
TINGSKI
LLS

4.
1 SPEAKI
NGSKI
LLS

4.
1.1 Qual
i
tiesofanef
fect
iveCommuni
cat
or

Eveni ntoday’
selectronicage,effecti
vei nt
erpersonalcommuni cat
ionskil
l
sar eakey
factorinyourprof
essionalandpersonal success.Unfortunat
ely,communicationdoesn’t
comenat urall
yforeveryone.Thegoodnewsi sthaty oucanlearngoodcommuni cati
on
skill
sbyl ear
ningfrom thebestcommuni cator
s.Consi derthese10char acter
ist
icsof
effecti
vecommuni cat
or sthatwi
ll
hel pyoui mprovey ourowncommuni cat
ionskill
s.

 ACl
ear
,Conci
seMessage

Noonel i
kesar ambler
,sohav eyourpr i
marypurposeinmi ndwheny oubegin
yourcommunicati
on.Simpl
ifyyourthoughts,soyoucanpr esentyourpointi
na
preci
semanner.Oncey ouhavemadey ourfi
rsti
mportantpoint,moveont othe
next.

 Under
standi
ngoft
heReci
pient

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 Effect
ivecommuni
catorsknowwhot heyaretal
kingt
o, andt heyunderst
andthat
thestyleofcommunicati
onwi l
lvarybasedont herecipient.Forexample,you
probablyt
alkt
oyourco-worker
sverydi
ffer
ent
lythanyout alktoyourboss.

 Empat
hyf
ort
heReci
pient

Empathy i
nv olv
es putt
ing y
oursel
fi nt he otherperson’s shoes.Eff
ect
ive
communicatorsalwayssee the si
tuati
on fr
om t he perspect
ive oft
he ot
her
per
son,i
ncludingtheemoti
onsthatmightbeinvolvedwit
ht hemessage.

 Ef
fect
iveLi
steni
ng

Communi cationisn’
tallabouttal
kingtosomeone.Ef fecti
velist
eni
ngmeans
reall
yhear i
ngwhatt heotherper
sonissayi
ngaswell.Paraphrasi
ngthemessage
andr epeati
ngi tbacktotheindi
vi
dualwi
lll
etyouknowt hatyouunderst
oodthei
r
pointaccurately.I
talsoshowsthatyoucareenoughaboutt hei
rmessagetoget
i
tr i
ghtthef i
rstti
me.

 Aski
ngf
orCl
ari
fi
cat
ion,
whenNecessar
y

Eff
ectiv
ecommuni catorsdonotaf rai
dofaski ngforcl
ari
ficati
oniftheydon’t
underst
and t he message they ar er eceivi
ng.When y ou ask f or cl
earer
underst
anding,i
tshowst hatyour eall
ycar ewhatthepersonist al
ki
ngaboutand
ensurestheconversationt
opr oceedappr opri
atel
y.Cl
ari
fi
cationcancomef rom
paraphrasi
ngwhaty ouheardt heot herpersonsayorsimplyaski nghi
mt orelay
hi
smessagei nadiff
erentwayt hatiseasierforyoutounderstand.

 Adher
encet
otheFact
s

Effecti
vecommuni catorsaremuchmor einter
estedi npassingoff act
st han
assumpt ionsorgossip.Avoidt
herumormi l
latallcost s,andunl
essy oucan
verif
yy ourinf
ormat
ionthrought
heorigi
nalsource,donotpassi tontoothers.I
f
youar econv eyi
ngamessagef rom anotherperson,itisalsoimport
anttoget
thatperson’spermi
ssi
ont odosobeforepassi
ngt heinfor
mat i
onontoother
s.

 Awar
enessofBodyLanguage

Bodyl anguagemakesupal ar
geper cent
ageofourmessages,soef f
ecti
ve
communi cator
sl ear
nhowt otuneintothenonv er
balmessagetheyaresendi
ng.
Makeey econt actwiththepersony ouar etalki
ngt oasmuchaspossi ble,
par
t i
cular
lywhent hatper
sonisspeakingtoyou.Av oi
dpot
enti
all
yoff
ensivebody
l
anguagel i
kefidgeti
ng,bit
ingyourli
porr oll
ingy ourey
est hatmightconvey
boredom, cyni
ci
sm orlackofhonesty
.

 Pr
ovi
sionofPr
operFeedback

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 When y ou of
ferfeedback t
o anotherperson,make sur eitis const r
ucti
ve.
Feedbacki si
mpor t
anttomaintainaposit
iveconver
sationandensur ey ouar e
bothont hesamepage.Feedbackmi ghtinvolv
er equestsforclar i
fi
cati
ons,
questi
ons to expand a par
ti
cularmessage,orconst ruct
ive cr
iti
cism about
another’
s perf
ormance.Pepper potenti
alcrit
ici
sm wi th pl
enty of posi t
ive
feedbacksotherecipi
enti
smorel i
kel
ytohearyourmessageandt akeittoheart.

 I
ncl
usi
onofPr
aise,
whenAppr
opr
iat
e

Effectivecommuni cat
orsknowhowandwhent oofferpr
aise.Positi
vefeedback
i
sal way swelcome,asl ongast her ecipi
entknowsi ti
saut henti
c.Wheny ou
praiseanot herperson,bespeci f
iciny ourcompli
mentbyl inki
ngi tdir
ectl
ytoa
specif i
cactivi
tyorat tr
ibute.Pr
aisesomeonepubl i
cal
lywhenev eryoucan,and
makesur ethepr aisecomi ngoutofy ourmouthi sgenuine.Wheny oumust
conv eynegat i
veinf or
mat i
onorcr i
ti
cism tr
ystart
ingoutwithpraiseandendi ng
withaposi t
ivestatement .Thi
s“hambur ger”appr
oachusuallyhelpsotherstake
cri
ticism instr
ide.

 APosi
ti
veAt
ti
tude

Noonel i
kestolist
ent oacompl ai
ner
,soeffectiv
ecommuni cator
swor khardtokeep
thei
rmessagesposi t
ive.I
nsteadofusi
ngphr asesl i
ke,“Ican’
t”or“ Wewon’t”i
ny our
conversati
ons,f
ocusonwhaty oucandoforot hers.Evenifyoucannotgrantarequest
thewaysomeonehopes,keepi ngyourmessageposi t
ivewil
lall
owt heotherper
sont o
acceptyour“no”withgrace.

Eff
ecti
vecommunicatorsar
ety pi
call
ythesuccessfulpeopl
einli
fethatothersadmi r
e.I
f
you woul
dl i
ke t
oj ointhis eli
te gr
oup,practi
ce these ti
ps t
oi mprov ey ourown
communicat
ionski
ll
s.Theimpr ovementinyourprofessi
onalandpersonalrelat
ionshi
ps
wil
lmaketheworkony ourcommuni cati
onworththeef f
ort
.

4.
1.2 Speakingi npubli
candDev el
opingSkil
lsf
orOr alPresent
ati
on
Publicspeaki ngref
erstoadel i
veryofamessagei nt hespokenform,usuall
ytoa
specialgroupofpeopl eforaspeci al
purpose(Mohamed, 2002).I
ngener al
terms,
publi
cspeaki ngisaform ofcommuni cati
oninwhi chonepersontalksfacetoface
toar el
ati
v elybignumberofpeopl e.Threemajorelementsinthespeakingprocess
areinvolv
ed;
 speaker /sender
 Speech/message
 Li st
ener s/recei
versofamessage

Publ
i
cspeechi snor
mall
ydeli
ver
edaimingatanyofthefoll
owingpur poses;
 Infor
minganaudi
ence:Aimsatimpart
ingknowledgetot heaudiencesuchas
teachi
ngwhosesuccessdependsonwhethert
heaudi encehasl ear
ntwhatyou

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 i
ntendedt
oteach.Forexampl
e,ateachert
ell
i
ngstudentsontheimpor
tanceof
Communicat
ionSkil
lscour
seortheViceChancel
l
ort el
l
ingfi
rsty
earst
udents
aboutUDOM et
c.

 Persuadi
nganaudi ence;Ai
msatconvinci
ngpeopletochangeinsomeways
especial
l
yonat ti
tudes, poi
ntofv
iews,bel
ieforwayofdoingthi
ngset
c.I
tcan
al
soconv incepeopl etodowhattheydidnotknowbefore.E.
gtheuseofnewly
discover
edmedi cine.

 Ent
ert
aini
nganaudi
ence:ai
msatmaki
ngpl
easur
etot
heaudi
encee.
g.comedy

 Demonst rat
ing:Aimsatteachi
ngthroughacti
ons.Suchaspeechwil
lbe
successfuli
fbyt heendofthespeechtheaudiencecandowhaty oushowed
them todo.Exampl e,
Ateacherdemonstrat
ingtostudent
showt omakepower
pointsl
ides.

Del
i
ver
ingEf
fect
ivePubl
i
cSpeech

Foref f
ectivepublicspeechdelivery
,f ourmajorconsiderati
onsneedbet akeni
nto
account :
- Deci dingont het opi
candpur pose:f orbetterr
esultsselectatopicandnarrow
yourpur posef oraspeech,readi ntensi
vel
yaboutandar oundthet opi
c,col
l
ect
andev aluateev i
denceyouwillusei nthespeech,ordertheinfor
mat i
onobtai
ned
refl
ectingtheav ail
abl
etimef orpresentati
on,outl
ineactivi
ti
estobedonewhi l
e
present i
ngandl ast
ly
thoroughlyedityourmateri
albyremov i
ngallcommuni cat
ionbarri
ers.

 Analyzingtheaudi ence:Analyseyouraudienceandadapty ourmessage.

Focusingon:
educat ionlevel,agerange,Languageabili
ty,soci
o-cult
ur albackgroundattit
udes,
professionalprofil
es,sex-dofemales/malesneedspeci alattenti
on,appearance-
doy ouappearsi mi l
arl
ytothem andanyot herv ar
iabl
ethoughti mportant
.
whatdoal lthesehelp?Theyleadapr esentertobeawar eofwhatt heaudienceis
l
ikelyt o know,whatmi ghti nt
erestthe audi ence,appr opr i
ate method of
presentati
on appr opriat
el ev
elofmat eri
alst o be present ed and reasonable
durati
onf ory ourpresentat
ion

 Appropriate appli
cation ofdel i
ver
y procedures:apply a sy stemat i
c deli
ver y
patt
ern-Introducti
on, bodyandconclusi
ont henconsiderthef ol
lowingaspects.
- Speaker’slivel
iness-notdull,adapttofeedbackdur ingthespeech,composur e
andcont r
ol-mov eey esaroundt heaudience,notbener v ous,dr essi
ngst yl
e-
adheretot heoccasi ondressingcode,t
alkf r
om notesnotr eadingev ery
thi
ng, be
generall
ypol i
teandbehav einamannert omakey ouwi ntheaudi ence’scredits.
Li
kewi se offeref f
ect i
veresponses to questions-do notmodi fy questi
ons,
provi
de compl ete answers,do nott ryt o answerquest ions you hav e not

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 understoodi nst
eadaskf rom theaudi enceandl astl
yappr opri
atelyapplyand
contr
oly ourbodylanguage.Speaki nar easonablespeedallowingy ouraudi
ence
tofol
low, adaptyourvol
umel eveltothesi zeoftheaudienceandv enue.Abideto
thestandardv ar
iet
y-consul
tdicti
onaries,watchTVpr ogrammesl i
ket heCNNfor
accuracy.Behonestbypr ovi
dingr esearchedknowl edge,bef l
exiblebyaccept
dif
fer
enti deasandasy oufini
shy ourpresentati
ony oubetterthankt heaudi
ence
forat
tendanceandact ivepart
ici
pation.

 Effectiveuseofv isualmedi a:Av i

sualai dr eferstoany t
hingt hatcommuni cates
i
tsmessaget hrought heey erathert hant heear .Thesear eobj ects/drawi ngs
used t o demonst rate processes/ systems i n a v isi
ble manner dur i
ng
teaching/ present i
ng.Forexampl e,maps,f i
gures,f l
ow char ts,drawi ngs,t ables,
comput erpowerpoi nt,actualobj ect s etc.consi dert he f ol
lowi ng:Choose
appr opriatev i
sual sf ory ouraudi encebasi ngonage,backgr ound,knowl edge,
atti
tudeandoccasi on,besur eofy ourabi l
itytooper atethev isualai dy ouhav e
chosen.I ncasey ouusedr awings,t heyneedt obeBI G,BOLD andBRI GHT,
simpl eandappr opr i
atetot het opicandaudi enceandcheckt hatal lel ectri
c
equipmenty ouusei spr oper
lyconnect ed.Ti ming-Displayeachv i
sualonl yasy ou
tal
kabouti t,focusony ouraudiencenoty ourv i
sual,fami l
iar
izey ourv isual before
thespeech,av oi
dl ongpausesasy oudemonst r
atet hest epsi napr ocesst o
mai ntai
nf ocus.
Andf i
nallyrehear sey ourspeecht ocheckr elevanceonv isualaid.

RolesofVisualai
ds:createi
nter
estandat t
racti
on,makecompl exi
deascl
earand
si
mpl e,
makeabst r
acti
deasconcret
e, maket heaudience’sat
tenti
onwit
hhel
dbythe
speaker’
smessage,helpaudiencetoor ganizeideas,savet i
mebycompr essi
ng
present
ati
ons,andfaci
l
itat
ememor yretenti
ont otheaudience

Stagefr
ight:isast ateofdev el opingananxi etywhichisexpr essedbyshi veri
ng,
sweati
ng,andexper iencingrapi dhear t
beat sfacingmanyi nexperiencedpubli
cspeaker
s.
Remov e/cont rolstagef r
ightby ;
 Recogni zingthaty ouar ebenef i
cialratherthanhar mful
 Maki ngat horoughPr epar ati
ont oy ourspeech
 Arrivi
ngear l
y
 Usingt hepodi um ifavailable
 Mov i
ngar oundt hev enueasy ouspeak
 Fami li
arizi
ngwi t
ht hev enue/mi crophone
 Talkingt opeopl e-audiencet obe...
getf amiliar
 Feel i
ngr el
axed
 Reduci nganxi ety
 Knowi ngt haty oucandoy ourbestasaspeaker
 Pract i
cing/rehearsingy ourpr esentationbef oretheact ualpresent
ation

4.
1.3 Howt ocommunicat
ewithof
fi
cial
s
Of
fici
alsi
nthecurr
entcont
extmeanpeopleser
vingpeopl
eint
hegov
ernmentatv
ari
ous

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
posit
ions.Atsomet imey oumayneedt oappealtoagov ernmentalof f
ici
altoactona
probl
em.Whet herhel pisgiv
enwi lldependuponhow per suasi
vey ouar e.Cr i
ti
calto
yoursuccesswi llbehow wel ly
oul ist
ent otheexpl anati
onsy our ecei
v e.Keept he
fol
lowingt i
psinmi ndsoast oeffecti
velyhel
py oucall
,wr i
te,andsetupmeet i
ngswi t
h
publi
cof f
ici
als.Themessagecanber enderedinperson,ont hephone,vialetter
s,faxes,
oremai l
s,asani ndiv
idualori
nagr oup.

Necessar ycondi t
ions
 Doy ourhomewor kbybei ngsur et haty ouunder st andt hei ssueofconcer nand
thatal ly ourf act sandf i
gur esar eaccur at e.
 Hav eacl ear,f ocusedpur posef ory ouract ion.Addr essonei ssueatat ime.The
mor e
 pr epar edy ouar e,t hemor eper suasivey oucanbe.Bespeci ficaboutwhaty ou
wantt oachi ev e.Whatdoy ouwanty oursenat or,repr esentative,orot herdeci sion
-makert odof ory ou?
 Lear nwhi chof ficialcanhel py ou.Donotwast et i
meappeal i
ngt opeopl ewhoar e
power l
ess.
 I fy ouwi l
lbespeaki ngt oaspeci ficof fici al,tryt ol earnmor eabouthi sorher
per sonal ity,powerandbi ases.
 Makeanappoi ntmentandar riveont imei ncasei ti sv i
aaf acet ofacet alk.
 Chooset hemet hodt hati smostcomf or tablef ory ou.Ther ear emanyway st o
makey our
opi nionsknown.Thei mpor tantt hi
ngi st ot akeact i
on.
 Showt heof ficialhowhi sorherposi t
ioni sspeci fical l
yaffect edbyorconcer ned
aboutt hei ssue.
 Pr esenty ourcasei naconci se, well-
organi sedmanner .Endwi thasummar yand
requestf oract ion.
 Speakef fect i
v elyandsi ncer ely,butav oidemot ionaldi splays.Ber espect ful,but
noti ntimi dated.
 Becour teousandr eliable.Don' tpromi sewhaty oucannotdel iverint ermsofhel p
or
infor mat i
on.Leav ey ourcont actinformat ion.Al way sf oll
owuponr equest sfor
addi t
ionalmat er i
als orf urthercl arificat ion.I fy ou hav e quest ions orwant
addit
ional
infor mat i
on,askt ospeakwi t
ht hest af fper sonwhowor ksont hei ssueabout
whichy ou
areconcer ned( forexampl e:“ MayIspeakwi t
ht hest affper sonwhowor kson
budget
issues? ”).Feel freet oaski fy oucanl eav eamessageonv oicemai li
fthest affis
unav ailable, andbesur et oincl udey ournameandphonenumber .
 Wheny ouhav ef inishedy ourpr esentat ion,askf oraspeci f
icdat eort imewhen
youcanl ear nwhet heract i
onhasbeent aken.
 Adayort wopr i
ort oy ourmeet ing,conf irmt heappoi ntmentbycal li
ngt he
schedul erorst af fper sonwi thwhom y ouwi llbev isiting.Inaddi tion,ifyouhav ea
writtenconf i
rmat ion, bringacopyt ot hemeet ing.
 Ont hedayofy ourmeet i
ng, bepr ompt .Ift hel egislat ororof ficialislate,be
SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 pat
ientandfl
exibl
e.
 Fol
lowupy ourappealbyspeaki
ngt
oorphoningtheoffi
cialt
oseewhatact
ion
hasbeentaken.Andalway
ssendathank-
younot
eafterameeting.

TI
PSONWRI TINGTOPUBLI COFFICIALS
Likephonecal ls,congressi
onaloff
iceskeept r
ackofemai l
sf r
om consti
tuentson
vari
ousissuesandr eportthenumberstotherepr
esentat
ivesandsenat
orsonar egul
ar
basis.Sendinganemai ltoy ourmemberofCongr essisanot heri
mportantwayt o
advocatefortheissuesaboutwhichyoucare.

 Emai lisaneasyandef fi
cientwayt osendamessaget oyourlegi sl
ators.Besur e
tosi gnup.Usei tt osendapr e-writtenl ettertodeci sion-
maker sonsel ect ed
topicsofconcer nt otheconcer nedof ficial
.(Youmayedi tthepr e-wri
ttenletter.
 Ifyouar ewr it
ingal ett
erofy ourown, itisbestt osendi tbyemai lorfax.Youmay
needt ocal lthepar li
ament aryof f
iceorl ookont heirwebsitet of i
ndt hecor rect
emai laddr essorf axnumber .Let t
er ssentt opar l
iamentgot hroughar igorous
andl engt hysecur i
tyscreeningpr ocess, slowingdel iver
ybysev eralday sormor e.
 Clear l
yst atey ourpur pose att he begi nning ofy ourl et
ter( include the bi l
l
name/ numberandwhaty ouwoul dliket hepar l
iamentt odo).
 When possi ble,include per sonalexampl es ofwhyy ou suppor t
/oppose t he
particularbi l
l.
 Addr essonl yoneissueperl etterandkeepy ourmessageshor tandt ot hepoi nt.
 Unlessy ouar eanof f
ici
alspokesper son, y
ourl ett
ersshoul dbesentbyy ouasan
i
ndiv idual andnoti nthenameoft heor ganization.

SendingEmai l
s
Whenaddr essinganemai ltoapubli
cof f
ici
al,
foll
owthesamesuggesti
onsasfora
pri
ntedletter.Forthesubjectli
neofyoure-mail,
ident
if
yyourmessagebytopi
corbi
ll
number .
Thebodyofy ourmessageshoul dusethi
sf or
mat :
YourName
Address
Cit
y,
Dear(Title)(LastName) ,
I
nserty ourmessageher e…
Addressi ngCorrespondencetoanMP
TheHonor able(Ful
lName)
Unit
edofTanzani aParli
ament

TIPSFORMAKI NGAPERSONALVI SI
TTOALEGI SLATOR
Meeti
ngwithamemberofPar l
iamentorthest affisanef f
ectiv
ewayt oconveya
messageaboutaspeci f
ici
ssueorlegi
slat
ivemat t
erandt obuildarelati
onship.
 Cal l
theMP’ soffi
cetomakeanappoi nt
ment .Askt ospeakt othescheduler.
 Of t
eny ouwi l
lbeaskedtofaxoremai lawr i
ttenrequest.Incl
udethenumberof
peoplejoi
ningyouandwhatissuesy ouwantt odiscuss.
 Adayort wopr i
ortoyourmeeting,confir
mt heappoi ntmentbycal l
i
ngt he

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 schedulerorst affpersonwithwhom y ouwi l
lbev i
siti
ng.Inadditi
on, i
fyouhav ea
writ
tenconf i
rmat ion,bri
ngacopyt othemeet ing.
 Ont hedayofy ourmeet i
ng,beprompt .Ifthelegisl
at ororoffi
cial
islate,be
pati
entandf lexible.
 Don’tbedisappoi ntedifyourmeetingiswi thast affperson,orifyourmeet ing
beginswiththepubl i
coffici
alandendswi t
hst aff
.Ther eisgreatvaluein
educati
ngandbui l
dingar el
ati
onshipwitht hekeyst affpeoplewhocov eryour
i
ssues—t heypl ayav it
alrol
einthelegislativ
edeci si
on-makingpr ocess.
 Bri
ngsomesucci nctwr i
tt
enmat eri
alsout l
ini
ngy ourpositionandleav ethem
withthepersony ouar evi
sit
ing.

Anef
fectivevisitshoul dincludet hefollowingcomponent s:
 Acl earstat ementofwhoy ouar eandwhyy ouar ethere
 Anexpl anat i
onoft heissue(s)andwhaty ouwantt hedeci si
on-
makertodo
aboutit
 Oneormor eper sonal st
oriesi l
l
ust r
atingwhyt heseissuesar esoimportantto
youandy ourcommuni ty(Thi sisagr eatopportunit
ytodi scussyourvi
ewsasa
personoff ait
h!)
 Adi r
ectask: “
Wi ll
y ousuppor t
/opposet hisproposal?”(Givethepersonyou’r
e
meet i
ngwi thtimet orespond)
 At hanky ou: Foll
owupont hemeet ingwi t
hat hank-youlett
eroutl
ini
ngwhat
wascov eredandr eit
eratey ourmai nmessageont heissue.

4.
2.0 WRI
TINGSKI
LLS

4.
2.1I
ntr
oduct
ion

Wri
ti
ngneedspl
anni
ngforef
fect
iveproduct.Toatt
ainsuchobject
ivet
hefoll
owi
ngt
en
hi
ntsonwri
ti
ngaspr
oposedbyForest(1998)shoul
dbeputint
oconsider
ati
on.

i
. Beforewr i
ti
ngany thing,makeashor tpl anofy ourent i
recomposi t
ion,using
anyhelpgiveni nthequest i
on.
i
i. Useonlywor dsandconst ructionswi t
hwhi chy ouar efamili
ar.
i
ii
. Av oidflower yandpompousl anguage.Thebestwr i
tersofEngl i
shexpr ess
themselvesi nsimpl eandcl earl anguage.
i
v. Av oidabbrev iati
ons.Thepl acef orthesei sinnotes.
v. Makey ourwr it
ingi nterestingbyi l
lustrati
ngwhaty ousaywi t
hexampl es
whererelevant .
vi
. Donotbegi nwr it
ingasent enceunt i
l youknowhowi twillconti
nueandend.
vi
i
. Begi napar agr aphf oreachnewt opic.
vi
i
i. Paycloseat tentiont omechani calskill
s-grammar ,spell
i
ngandpunct uati
on.
i
x. Donotswi tcht ensesunl esst hesenser equi
resy outo.
x. Checky ouwor kt horoughlyatl easttwi ce.Thiswi l
lnecessitat
eall
owingaf ew
minutesatt heendoft hetimeal lott
ed.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
4.2.3Let terWr i
ting
Thi spar thasbeent oalargeext entadopt edf om El
r iakimu,(2012( Ed.)
Despi tet hedev elopmentofsi mplifi
edmeansofcommuni cationot hert hanl etters,
communi cati
ont hr oughl ett
er shasr emai nedt obeav er
yusef ulandi mpor tantmeans
ofcommuni cationi nt hesoci etypar ti
cul arlyinor ganisati
ons.Amongt hel etterswr i
tten
i
ncl ude;j obappl icationletters,compl aintl ett
er s,resignat
ionl etters,l
et terst oaskf or
per missi on,cov eringl et
tersf orjobr ecommendat ion,inquir
y /orderlett
er s,conf i
rmat ion
l
ett erset c.Sincenotmanypeopl eunder standt heimpor t
anceofl ettersbef oret hey
star tj ob appl i
cat ions and t hatt he maj ori
ty ofpeopl ef ocus on ot herf orms of
communi cati
on, letterwriti
ngski l
lsremai nlargelyunknownt oar elati
velybi gnumberof
peopl e.Asar esul t,manypeopl ewr i
tepoorl ettersandsomedocopyt hei rfriends’
l
ett ers.Itshoul dbeknownt hatt helettery ouwr it
ef orjobappl icati
onorf oranyof f
icial
pur posei sagoodt ooltoj udgey ouri nt ell
ectualabi li
ti
esev enbef oreseei ngy ouor
i
nt erviewi ng you.Thewayy ou st r
uct ure,choosewor dst o usei ny ourl etterand
grammat icali
tyofy oursent encespor tray sy ourr ealit
ybef or ey ouraddr essee.I ti s,
ther efore,suggest edt hatpeopl eshoul dl earnt owr iteoffi
cial/businessl ettersbecause
l
ett erwr itingremai nscent r
al i
nt hedayt odayl i
fe.

Aspect
stoConsi
deri
nOf
fi
cial
Let
terWr
it
ing

 Of
fi
cial
let
ter
sshoul
dbei
nagoodst
ruct
urewi
thatl
eastt
woaddr
esses.
 Off
iciallet
ters should be short.Onl
yt he necessaryi
nfor
mat i
on should be
i
ncludedinal et
ter(i
.e.thepurposeofwri
ti
ngtheletter
)si
nceyouwillat
tachyour
CVwi ththelett
erwhi choff
ersmuchmor edescr i
pti
onaboutyou.Alett
ershould
beli
mi t
edtoonepage.
 Formal i
ty:Yourlettershoul d beformaland polit
e,do notusecol l
oquialor
shortenedwor dsiny ourlet
ter
,evenwhent headdresseei syourcl
osefr
iend.You
shouldbepol i
t eevenwheny ouarewr i
ti
ngal et
terf orcomplaint
.For
mal i
tyand
poli
tenessisshownt hroughthechoiceofwordsiny ourlett
er.

Par
ts/Secti
onsofoffi
cial
letter
s
1.Sender’saddr
ess:Thisi swri
tt
enont opoftherighthandcornerofthepaper
.It
shoul
donlybethewr i
ter’
saddressandnothi
s/hernamesinthispart
.
2.Dat e:Itisimport
antto show t
hedat eofwrit
ing t
helett
er.Datehelpsfor
referenceswhenneededinfutur
e.Italsohel
psinunderst
andingi
fthelett
eris
received on t
ime,ort here were some delays somewhere.Itshould be
i
mmedi atel
yaf
tert
hewri
ter’
saddress.
3.Ref
erencenumber
:refer
encenumber
shel
pinkeepingandretr
iev
ingthef i
l
e
whenneeded.Ref
erencenumber
smaybearrangeddepar
tmentwise,school

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 wisedependi ngont heor ganisati
onalstructure.Takingexampl eoft heUni ver
si ty
of Dodoma wher e there ar e around 1000 st aff wor kers. The cent ral
admi ni
strationmayhav ecat egori
zedi t
sst affintermsofacademi cst affand
admi ni
strativestaff,andeachst affhashi s/herpersonalf i
leandcopyofl etters
writ
tent othesest affneedt obef il
edi ntheirpersonalfil
es.Wr i
ti
ngal ett
ert oany
academi c st aff
,the admi nistr
ati
on may use a r eference numbersuch as
UDOM/ AC/ PF538/6.UDOM st andsfortheUni versi
tyofDodoma;ACst andsf or
academi cst aff
;PF538st andsf orpersonalf i
lenumber538;and6st andsf ort he
numberoft heletterswr i
ttent othepar ti
cularstaffuntilthatpar t
iculart i
me.I f
youar erepl yi
ngtoal et
terwhi chhadar efer encenumber ,y
oushoul dr epeatt his
ony ourletterabovet headdr essee’saddress( Itshouldbepr ecededbyt hewor ds
“Yourref:).Leav easpacebet weent her eferencenumberandt headdr essee’s
address.
4.Thenameandaddr essoftheaddressee,thepersonyouarewr i
ti
ngthel
ettert
o.
Thisiswrit
tenbelowthedate,ont helefthandcornerofthepaper.Youshould
star
twr i
ti
ngt headdresswi t
ht het i
tleoft headdressee.Forexample,“The
general
manager,”“Theheadmast er,
”“TheDVCARC, ”etc.
5.Salutati
on:Thi
si swr it
tenbelowt headdr essee’
saddress.Leav easi nglespace
aftertheaddr essee’saddress.Sal ut
ationdependsonwhet hery ouknow t he
persony ouareaddr essi
ngtheletter,i
.e.ift
headdresseei samanorawoman.I f
youknow t hesexoft heperson,justwr iteDearsir
!(Foraman) ,Dearmadam!
(Forawoman) .Again,sal
utati
ondependsont hestatusoft heper sony ouare
wr i
ti
ngt helet
ter.Forexampl e,iftheaddr esseeisyoursubor dinate,sal
utati
on
cani ncl
udehi s/hername,e. g.DearEl i
akimu./Mr.Eliakimu,/DearFl or
a,/
Mr s.
Flora,/etc.
6.Tit
leoft helett
er:Thisiswr i
tt
enbel owt hesal ut ation.Itisthesy nopsi sofy our
l
etter
.Nor mal l
y,theaddresseewi l
lfir
stl ookatt het i
tl
eofy ourl ett
erbef ore
l
ookingatany t
hingelse.Sincet hetit
leoft hel etterintroducest heai m ofy our
l
etter
,itshouldbef ormattedtocat chy ourreader s’attenti
on.Ther efore,t
het itl
e
ofthelet t
ershouldeitherbebol dedorunder lined.Youshoul donl yunderlineit
wheny ourl et
terishandwr i
tten.Don’tdobot hbol di
ngandunder lini
ngatt he
samet ime.Somepeopl emaydeci detoi ntroducet het it
lewithapr eposit
ionr e
other
smayj ustwrit
etheheadi ng/t
itl
e,allareright .
7.Bodyofthel
etter
Thebodyofy ourl ett
ershouldbest r
uct ur
edi nf ourshortparagraphswiththe
fol
l
owingcont
ent s:
Paragr
aphone:St atewhyy ouarewr i
tingthel et
terandwher ey ousaworhear d
thejobadverti
sement.Forexampl eyoumaywr i
te:
Iwoul dli
ket oapplyforapostof…asi twasadv erti
sedont he
st
dail
ynewspaperon21 August2012.OrWi t
hr ef
erencet oyou
adverti
sementont hedai lynewspaperof21stAugust2012,Iam
writi
ngtoapplyforapostof …aty ourorgani
zati
on.OrIwoul dli
ke
toapplyforapositi
onasat eachingpartneratyouror gani
zat
ion,
i
ft hereisanyposi ti
ont oofferme.Ihav elearnedabouty our
SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 organi
zat
iont
hroughit
sout
standi
ngper
for
manceinser
vingthe
communityatruralar
easi
nAr ushaagai
nstHI
V/AI
DS rel
ated
probl
ems.

Par
agr
aph t
wo:Br iefl
y explain about y our qual if
ication and experiences,
especi al
l
yt hatwhi ch isrelated t
ot he j ob you are curr
ently
applying.Youmaygi v ethef oll
owi
ngar gumentsf orexampl e:I
havet woy earsexper i
enceofwor kingas…Dur ingthist i
meI
gained enough exper i
ence in desi gning and pr epari
ng new
tel
ev i
sionpr ograms.Orwor kingasacust omercar eoffi
cerf or
two y ears,Igai ned enough experience i n underst
anding and
wor ki
ngoncust omers’needs,especi allywi t
hnew customer si n
anor ganizat
ion.

Par
agr
apht
hree:Showt hatyoubelievethatyouar esuitableforthejobt haty ou
areappl yi
ng.Explainwhyt hecompanyshoul dempl oyy ou.Or
whyar ey ou seeking to change t he job you are cur rentl
y
empl oyed. For exampl ey ou may pr ovi
de t he f ollowing
argument s:Givent heexperiencesIhav ei nthisjob,Ihav ea
feel
ingt hatIcanwor ktomeett heneedsoft heor ganizati
on.
OrIbel iev
ethatIwi llbeabletobr i
ngmyusef ulexperiencest o
the success of y our company .Or ify ou of fer me t he
oppor t
unitytowor katy ourcompany ,Iwi l
lusemyt alents,
experiences,andcr eati
vi
tiestowor khar dforthesuccessof
youror gani
zati
on.

Par
agr
aphf
our
:Tel lt
hereaderthatyouar ereadytobei nt
ervi
ewedwhenneeded.
Iftheadvert
isementf orthejobdi dnotrequir
ey ourCV,include
yourphonenumber sinthisparagraphsot hattheycancont act
youforanintervi
ew.Forexampl e,youmaypr ovi
dethefollowing
arguments:
Iam readyforani ntervi
ewwhenneeded.Icanbecont act edat
0761000001.Orasr equestedi ntheadverti
sement,Iattacha
copyofmyCV wi t
ht hislett
er.Iam r eadyt oappearf oran
i
ntervi
ewifcontactedt hr
eeday sbef or
etheinter
viewdate.

8.Endi
ng:Toendt helett
ery
ouwoul
dwr
it
ephr
asessuchas“
your
ssi
ncer
ely
”or
“y
oursfai
thf
ull
y,
”etc.
9.Signat
ure:Youshoul
dsignyourl
ett
erbef
oresendi
ngit.Thi
sshoul
dcomeaf t
er
endingyourl
ett
erandyourf
ull
nameshoul
dappearjustbel
owthesi
gnat
ure.
Exampl
eofaJobAppl
icat
ionLet
ter

P.
O.BOX11031,
DODOMA,
TANZANI
A.
SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 28th Nov
ember
,
2014.
THEVICECHANCELLOR,
THEUNIVERSI
TYOFPONGWE,
P.
O.BOX411,
NAIROBI
,KENYA.

DearSir
,
AREQUESTFORAPOSTOFASSI STANTLECTURERI NLI
NGUISTI
CS
Iam wr it
ing t
o applyforthe postofassist
antlect
ureri
nli
ngui
sti
cs whi
ch was
adver
ti
sedont hedai
l ed24thOct
ynewspaperdat ober2014.

Ihol
dmaster’
sdegreeinlingui
sti
csandIhav eat woy ear
sworki
ngexperi
enceasan
Engl
i
shteacheri
nsecondar yschool.Ihav
eal sowor kedasapart-
ti
mei nst
ruct
ori
n
Engl
i
shattheUniversi
tyofMoshii nKil
imanjaroRegionandapart-
ti
mei nst
ruct
ori
n
communi
cati
onskil
lsattheinst
it
uteofJudi
cialEducat
ioninSi
ngi
daRegion.

Hav
ingenoughexperi
enceinteachingandbei ngav er
ymot i
v at
edt eacher,Ihav
ea
f
eel
ing thatIwi
llworkto meett heobject
ivesofest abli
shing thecour seaty our
i
nst
itut
ionify
ouoff
ermeachancet oworkasapar t
-t
imel ect
urerinLinguist
ics.

Ihav e att
ached a copyofmycur r
icul
um vi
tae t
oget
herwit
hthe copi
es ofmy
cert
if
icateswitht
hislett
erf
orr
efer
ence.Iam r
eadytoappearf
orani
ntervi
ew when
needed.

It
hanky
oui
nadv
ancef
ory
ourconsi
der
ati
on.

Yoursfai
thf
ull
y,
……………. .
Najut
aKuzaliwa

Let
ter
sAddr
essedt
oMor
ethanOnePer
son

Somer equestsrequireaut hor i

ti
esfrom headsofdi ffer
entsect ions.Forexampl e,an
employ ee ata Uni versi
tyr equesti
ng a per
mi ssi
on t otr av
eloutoft he region of
employ menthast or equestper mi
ssiontotravelfrom thecol legePr i
ncipal
.Fort he
coll
egePr i
nci
palt ogr antt heper missi
on,he/shehast oknow i ftheempl oy eehas
everyt
hingr el
atedtohi s/
herwor kinagoodor derbeforehist r
avelandhi sabsencemay
notaffectthecollege’
sf unct i
ons.ThePr i
nci
palwi l
lknowt hesethr oughtheheadoft he
departmentanddeanoft heschooli nwhicht heempl oy eeiswor ki
ng,oranyot her
authori
tiesdependingont heUni ver
sit
y.

I
nsuchci r
cumstances,al
ett
erhast
obeaddressedtomor ethanoneper
son.The
addr
essesforal
lthepeopl
ewhoshouldaut
hor
izether
equestarewri
tt
enonthelef
t

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
handsideoft hepaper.Allthesubor dinat
esi nt hehi er
archyarei ntr
oducedbyan
abbrevi
ati
onu.f .swhichst
andsf or‘ underfurthersignatur
e.’Thelett
ershouldhav eal
l
theaddressesforthepeopl
et oaut hor i
zeitinthelefthandsi dearrangedaccordingto
therankoft hepeopleaddressed,i.e.theaddr essoft heper sonwi t
hhighr ankinthe
organi
zati
onshouldappearatt hetopandf oll
owedbyt hosewi t
hlowerranks.Thisisso
becausethel et
terwil
lpasstot heof ficerswithlowerr anksbef or
ei tr
eachest hetop
author
it
ies.Forexample,alett
erwi l
lpasst otheheadofdepar t
mentbef or
ei tr
eaches
tothedeanofschool.Seetheexampl einthenextpages:

Exampl
esofLet
ter
sAddr
essedt
oMor
ethanOnePer
son

Box300,
Dodoma-
Tanzani
a.

25thJune,
2012.
TheDir
ect
orofHumanResourceManagement
,
Pat
apataSecondar
ySchool
,
Box201,
Dodoma.

u.f
.s.TheDisci
pli
neMast
er,
SchoolofFi
neAr
tsandAr
tsSubj
ect
s.

u.f
.s.TheHead,
Depart
mentofArtsSubj
ect
s,
P.o.box626,
Dodoma-Tanzani
a.

DearMadam!

RE:AREQUESTFORASTUDYLEAVE
Iwouldli
ketocallyouratt
enti
onontheheadi
ngabove.Iam El
iaki
muSane,whoi
san
employeeatyourschool
,worki
ngatt
heDepart
mentofArtsSubj
ects.

Iam wr i
ti
ngt oinformy outhatIi
ntendtost artmybachel
ordegreest udi
es(B.A.
Education)inthenextacademi c`year2013/2014attheUniver
sit
yofDodomaand,
theref
ore,Iam request
ingastudyl
eaveofthr
eey ear
s,t
hati
sfom 21stJanuar
r y,
2013to
pursuemyi ntendedstudi
es.

Iatt
achwiththi
slet
teracopyofmyadmi
ssi
onl
ett
erf
rom t
heUni
ver
sit
yofDodomaf
or
fur
therr
efer
ence.

Ihopet
haty
ouwi
l
lconsi
dermyr
equest
.

Your
ssi
ncer
ely
,

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
……………..
Eli
aki
muSane

Exampl
eofaLet
tert
oAskf
orPr
omot
ionatJob

27th December
,
2010.
THEDEPUTYVICECHANCELLOR(
ARC)
,
THEUNIVERSI
TYOFZIZO,
BOX305,
MWANZA-TANZANIA.

U.F.S.THEPRINCI
PAL,
COLLEGEOFARTSSTUDI
ES.

U.F.S.THEDEAN,
SCHOOLHUMANI
TIES.

U.F.S.HEADOFDEPARTMENT,
DEPARTMENTOFFI
NEARTSANDPERFORMANCE.

DearSi
r!

RE:REQUESTFORPROMOTI ON
Iam wri
tingt
hislet
tertorequestyourattent
iononmycar eer.Firstofal
l
,Iwouldli
keto
taket
hisopport
unit
yt oexpressmyt hanksandappreciati
onforaccommodat ingmeas
a memberofZI ZO academi cstaffwher e Ihave been working asa tut
ori nthe
depar
tmentofmat hemati
cs.Ihav ebeenwor ki
ngwi ththet eam whil
epursuingmy
master’
sdegreestudies(Mast erofScienceinMat hemati
cs)andIhav esuccessf
ull
y
complet
edmyst udieswit
hv erygoodpasses.

Hav
ingcompl
etedandpassedmymast
er’
sdegreest
udies,
Iam r
equest
ingy
out
omov
e
metoupwar
dpositi
onfr
om atut
ort
oanassi
stantl
ect
urerinMat
hemati
cs.

It
hanky
oui
nadv
ancef
ory
ourt
imeandconsi
der
ati
on.

Your
ssi
ncer
ely
,

………………….
JohnKajasho
NB: I
nsomeor gani
zat
ionsyoumaynotberequiredtowr
itealet
tertoaskforpromoti
on
becausetheymaybeaut omati
c.Themanagementmayknow t hatyouareonst udi
es
andwheny ougraduat
edorexpect
edtograduate.Rememberthatyoumighthaveasked
forastudyleavebeforeyouwentforthestudies,t
her
efor
ey ourprogr
essr epor
twill
help.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Inreply
ingt hel ett
er ssuchast hoseabov e,theper sonsaddr essedwi lluset hesame
channelstoi nformt hosei naut horit
yandt heper sonswi threquestst hatt her equest(s)
areagr eedornot .Usi ngonet hel et
ter
sabov e,forexampl e,thehumanr esource
managerwi llhav etheaddr essesoft hosewi t
hhi gherr anks( bel
lowhi m/ her )starti
ngat
thebottom andl astlythenameoft headdressor.Ift herear eotherpeopl ewi thhi gher
ranksandaut horit
iesorev enwi thlowerranksandaut horit
iesbutneedt obei nformed
aboutthemat ter,t
hesewi l
lbecar boncopiedt heletter, j
usttoletthem knowaboutt he
factandifther eisany t
hi ngtheyneedt odoaboutt hedeci sion.Inaddi t
ion, ther eplywil
l
havear efer
encenumbersi ncei twillbekeptint heper sonalfil
eoft heper sonwi t
ht he
request.Seet hefollowingexampl e:

Pat
apataSecondar
ySchool
,
Box201,
Dodoma.

18thDecember
,2012.
Ref
:PT/
AC/
PF-
23/
5

El
iakimuSane
Patapat
aSecondar
ySchool

u.f
.s.TheHead,
Depar
tmentofAr
tsSubj
ect
s.

u.f
.s.TheDisci
pli
neMaster,
SchoolofFi
neArtsandAr
tsSubj
ect
s,
P.o.box626,
Dodoma-Tanzani
a.

RE:
AGRANTOFSTUDYLEAVE

Referenceismadet oyourlet
terof25th June,2012.Iam gl adtoinf
ormy outhatyour
requestforstudyleaveisaccept edasf om 21st Januar
r y,2013asy our equest
ed.
Howev er,
youwi l
lberequi
redtosubmity ourprogressreporttotheheadmaster’
soff
ice
attheendofev er
ysemesterforthewholeper i
odofy ourstudy.

Patapatasecondaryschoolwoul
dli
ketocongr
atul
ateyouf
orhavi
ngbeensel
ectedt
o
pursueyourdegreeineducati
onatt
heUni
versi
tyofDodomaandwishy
ougoodlucki
n
yourstudi
es!

Par
apandaM.N.

…………….
HumanResour
ceManager

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
c.c.Headmaster
c.c.TheSchoolManager
c.c.Bur
sar

JOBRECOMMENDATI ON/COVERI NGLETTERS

Thesear el etterswri
ttentor ecommendsomeonet oapar ti
cularorganizat
ioninwhich
he/shei sappl yingforaj ob.Theyar eal
sowr i
tt
ent orecommendsomeonet opursue
fur
therst udies.Theyar eusuall
ywr i
tt
enbysomeonewhosuper vi
sedy ouinajob,t
aught
orsuper visedy ouineducat i
on.Youmustbehonestwhenr ecommendi ngsomeonef or
apar t
icularjobbecausey oumaycauseser i
ousproblemsbyr ecommendi ngsomeone
forapar ticularjobwheny ouknowt hatshe/hedoesn’tpossesst herequir
edquali
ties.
Justthinkhow y ouwi llcauseser i
ousproblemsbyr ecommendi ngsomeonef ora
medical doct orposi
tionwhi l
ethepersonisnotqual
if
iedfort heposit
ion.

I
mpor
tantThi
ngst
oConsi
derwhenWr
it
ingaRecommendat
ion/
Cover
ingLet
ter
s

 Youraddressandthecont
actinf
ormat i
on:Youshoul dhaveyouraddressand
contactinf
ormati
on,i
.e.youraddr ess (usual
lythe organi
zat
ion/
insti
tut
ion
address,
phonenumber
sande-mailaddress)writ
tenatthet
opri
ghtcornerofthe
paper.

 Date:Thedat eofwr it
ingthatr ecommendat i
onlet
tershouldappearj ustbelow
youraddr essandcont actinformat i
on.Leaveaspacebet weent headdr essand
thedat e.
 Addr essee’
saddr ess:Ifyouknowwher et hel
ett
erisgoing,uset hefulladdr
ess
oft headdr essee.Usual l
y,wedon’ tknow theaddr essees’to whom f orthe
recommendat i
onl et
tersaredirectedto.Thepersonyouar erecommendi ngmay
uset helett
erinmanypl aceswhenappl y
ingforj
oborposi ti
ons,wedonotwr it
e
addresses;instead,wewr i
teasent ence‘Towhom itmayconcer n:
’ont heri
ght
handsi deofthepaperbel owt hedate.

 Tit
leoft helett
er:Thi
sappearsbelow t
hewor ds‘ToWhom I tMayConcer n:
’It
shoul
di ncl
udet henameoft hepersonandt heorganizat
ion.Seet hefol
l
owi ng
examples,Eli
akimu’sservi
cewit
hAf r
ocquick;orEl
iaki
mu’sschool i
ngatUDOM;
orRe:Eli
akimuatUDOM; orRE:
ELIAKIMU
 Thebodyoft helet
ter
:Thebodyofthelett
ershouldhav et
hef ol
lowingstr
ucture
andcontents:

Par
agr
aphone:Int
roducet hatthepersoni sknowntoy ouandt heorgani
zat
ionandfor
howl ong.
Par
agr
apht
wo:Inthispar agraph,expl
aintheposit
ionoriftheappli
canti
sastudent
,the
coursest akenbyt heappli
cant.
Par
agr
aphthr
ee:Explainthest rengt
horweaknessesoft hepersonyouarewrit
ingthe
coveringlett
er.

I
nendi
ngt
hel
ett
er,i
ncl
udey
ourf
ullname,si
gnat
ureandy
out
it
le/
posi
ti
ony
ouhol
dat

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
t
hei
nst
it
uti
on.

EXAMPLEOFACOVERI
NGLETTERFORJOBRECOMMENDATI
ON

Box209
Dodoma
Tanzani
a
0762355321
JohnKajasho
Tanzani
achiefcoor
dinat
or
ki
joti
@gmai l
.com

17thDecember
,2012
Towhom i
tmayconcer
n:

RE:ELI
AKIMUSANE’ SSERVICEWI THAFROQUACK
I
nr egardwiththeheadingabov e,Eli
aki
muSaneisanindi
vidualwhoiswellknownto
Afr
oquickSocietyOrganizati
onwi t
har ecor
dofserv
icespanningthr
eeyears.Hehas
hadrolesofteachi
ngattheor gani
zati
onatthef
oll
owi
ngdates:

Engli
shlanguageteacher May
, 2006-January,2008
Afr
icanhist
oryteacher Febr uary,2008-January,
2009

Asat eacher
,Eli
aki
muwor kedasadv ancedsecondaryschoolstudent
s’teacher.Inhi
s
teaching,hewasr esponsi bleforprepar
inglessonplansandteachingthesubj ect
sto
Form FiveandSixst udents.Asat eacher
, El
i
akimuli
vedandwor kedwithotherteacher
s
comi ngfrom cr
oss-cult
ural env
ironment.

Af
roquickSoci
etyOr
ganizat
ioni
sachar it
ybasedorgani
zat
ionf
oundi
nAr
ushar
ural
,
pr
ovi
dingeducat
iont
ostudentsf
rom poorfami
l
ies.

Duringhisti
mewi t
hAfroquick,
Eli
akimuhasbeenwor
kinghar
d, passi
onate,
andr
eli
abl
e,
andhisef f
ecti
venessisindicat
edintheti
meshehasbeeninv
itedtoretur
n.
Pleasefeelfr
eet ocontactuswithanyquest
ion.
……………………. .
PoshKijoti
Thechiefcoordinator
-SouthernHighl
andzone.

4.
2.4Repor
tWr
it
ing

Areporti
saninfor
mati
vewrit
tendocumentthatiswri
ttenaf
terresearch,inv
esti
gat
ion
orcr
it
icalst
udyorobser
vat
ion.Usual
lyareportcont
ainsdet
ail
st hatcan’tbefoundin
nor
mal l
ett
ersandmemos.

I
mpor
tanceofRepor
ts

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
  Hel pindecisionmaki ng
 Effi
cientwayofdi sseminati
ngcompl exinfo.Systematicall
ytoalar
genumberof
peopleinbusiness
 Ar eaper manentr ecord
 Presentsuggest i
onsonway sinwhi chasi t
uati
onmaybei mpr
oved
 Keyf orfutureplans
 I
dent i
fytheweaknessesoft hecompany
 Hel pintheAssessmentoft heperformanceappr aisals
 Helpinmaki ngconcl usi
onsandi nterpret
ingtheinformation
 Forcompanyl it
eraturerevi
ew(sourceofr efer
ence)
 Evaluateandassesst heprogressoft hecompany

Qual
i
tiesofanef f ectiver epor t
 Ar epor twi l
lachi ev ei tsobj ectivesi fitprovidesthenecessaryandsuf f
ici
ent
balanceoft hef ol l
owi ngchar acteristi
csrelati
ngt othespecifi
caudi enceand
sit
uation.
 Accur acyoff act s
 Pr ecision-bei ngcl earwi ththepur poseofar epor t
.
 Rel evance-eachf actmustbesi gnifi
canttoar eport.
 Cl ari
ty-ev er ythingshoul dbemadecl ear.
 Desi gn( Organi sation, logicprogr essionandl ayout)
 Emphasi s( oft hemosti mpor tantpoi nts)
.
 Readeror ient ed–putt herepor tr eaderinmi ndasy ouwr i
te(l
aymanorexper t)
otherwi sei twi llnotbecompr ehended.
 Obj ect i
v i
tyofr ecommendat ions-t heyshoul dbei mpart
ial
/biasfr
ee.Theyshoul d
beder ivedf r
om l ogi calconclusi ont oinvest
igationandanalysi
s.
 Si mpleandunambi guousl anguage-usecommoncor eandformal l
anguage.
 Gr ammat i
cal accur acy – l anguage r ul
es,punct uati
on mar ks should be
appropr iatelygetappl i
ed.

I
ssuest
oconsi derbefor
ewr i
ti
nganyr eport
 Defi
net hepr obl
em andpur pose( TOR)
 Considerwhowi l
lreceivethereport
 Determinei deastoinclude
 Coll
ectneededmat erials
 Sort,
anal yzeandinterpretdat
a
 Organizedat aandpr eparefi
naloutli
ne(knowwhatwi
l
lfor
m whi
chchapt
er)
.

TypesofReport
s
BasedonTambwe( 2011),r
eportsareclassif
iedundervar
iouscrit
eri
aasf
oll
ows:
 Leveloff
ormali
tyi
.e.for
mal andinformal.
 Purposei
.e.i
nfor
mat i
veandanaly t
icalorinv
esti
gat
ivereport
s.
 Desti
nati
oni.
e.managementr eport,publi
crepor
t.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
  Timei nt
ervalofpr esent i
ngi.e.peri
odi
corrout
iner
eportsl
i
kethedai
ly
,weekly
,
monthly,annual repor t
s,
 Levelofcompl exityi.e.simplev scomplexr
epor
t.
 Eventori
ent ed-speci alreport
s.
 Lengthi.e. shor tandl ong.Theshor tones1-2pages)i
ncl
udespartofthe
el
ement sr equiredi nf ormalr epor
tswhil
elongonesmusthav eal
lrequi
red
el
ement sinaf ormal report.

BasedonShumbushoandMwai jande(2002)
a)Routine/Periodi
cr eports
Thesearereportst hataremadeonar egular,pr
escri
bedint
erv
alint
heusualrout
ineof
daytodayact i
vit
ies.Nor mall
yonl yfactsar epresent
edwithnorecommendati
ons.
 Manager s’reportsont hewor koft heirdepar
tments
 Equipmentmai ntenancer eport
s
 Progressrepor t
s, Acci
dentr eportsetc.

Theyaim atpresent
ingacorrectandcoher
entpi
ctur
eoft
hewor
kingoft
hef
ir
m
concer
neddur
ingtheperi
odconcer
ned.

b)Specialr
eport
s
Thesearereportswri
tt
eni nresponset orequest
sforspecif
icinfor
mation,f
ormar ket
resear
ch,regar
ding a changeofpol icy,ormadeaf terresearch and i
nvest
igat
ion.
Examplesi
nclude;Pr
oposal r
eport
s,feasi
bil
it
yreport
s,I
nvest
igati
vereport
s.

c) Progressrepor
t
Thesedescr i
beandassesst hepr
ogr essmadedur i
ngapar t
icularperi
od.Theyaccount
ont heworkal r
eadydone,workinpr ogr
esswi t
hotherrel
evantf act
sanddet ai
l
sy etto
becompl eted.
Theycov erabr i
efint
roducti
ontot heproj
ect;abr i
efaccountoft hewor kcompleted
plusany
specialproblemsencounteredandt hei
rsoluti
ons,i
mportantaspect softheworknot
yetcompletedandanyobst acl
esthatmightslowdownt hewor k.

d) Anal
yti
calreport
s
Thesearereport
sspeciall
ycommi ssi
onedtost udyimport
antaspect
sorev ent
swher e
ol
df i
l
esarestudied,per
sonali
nter
viewsareheld,quest
ionnai
resar
ecircul
ated,
rel
evant
l
it
eratur
eisstudiedandt henf
actsarecompiled,analysedandconclusi
onsaredrawn
andrecommendat i
onsfoll
ow.

Partsofareport
Partsofreportsdodiff
erfrom oner epor
ttotheotherdependi
ngonthenat
ureofiti
.e.
l
ength,subjectmatterpresented,l
eveloffor
mali
tyetc,howevermostcompl
exrepor
t s
i
ncludethef ol
l
owingelement s:
a)Prel
iminarysect
ions
 Titl
e

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
  Ter msofr eference
 Sy nopsi
s
 Tabl eofcont ents
 Listofil
lustrati
ons( abbr
ev.
,symbol
s)
 Glossary
b)Mainbody–I ntr
oduct i
on,Maincont
entpar
t,
(Li
ter
atur
erev
iew,met
hodol
ogy
,dat
a
anal
ysis
andpr esent
ationoff indi
ngs)
c)Conclusions,recommendat i
onsand
d)Listofrefer
encesandAppendi ces

For
mal
simpl
erepor
tsont
heot
hersi
decont
aint
hef
oll
owi
ngpar
ts;

Heading
Thereshoul
dbet
woheadi
ngst
oar
epor
t,t
henameoft
hecompany
,andt
her
epor
t
topi
c………….

Termsofref
erence
Thissect
ionshoul
dst at
eexactl
ywhyt herepor
tiswr
it
ten.Whyar eyouwri
ti
ngt
he
repor
t?Whatwasrequested?Whorequestedi
t?Whenwer
ey ouaskedtodoi
t?

Procedure
Givea br i
efdescr
ipt
ion oft
hemet hodsused to col
l
ecttheinf
ormat
ion.Perhaps
i
ntervi
ewswer eheld,vi
sitsmade,quest
ionnai
resi
ssued? Usenumberedpointsif
appropri
ate.

Fi
ndi
ngs
Thi
swil
lbethel
ongestsect
ionoft
hereport
.Gothroughthepr
ocedur
epoi
ntbypoi
nt
andusenumberandsubheadingsforthi
ssect
ion.Undereachheadi
ngstat
ewhat
i
nfor
mati
onwasgather
edateachst
age.

Concl
usi
on
Nonewfactmustbeint
roducedi
nthi
ssecti
on.Youmustlookatt
hefi
ndi
ngsandst
ate
thel
ogi
cali
mpl
icat
ionofthem.Whatcanyouinf
erorconcl
udefr
om t
hefi
ndi
ngs.

Recommendat i
ons
Againnonewf actsmustbeintr
oducedher e.Onthebasisofinformat
ionpresent
edi n
fi
ndingsandconclusi
ons,makesomesuggest i
onsforacti
on.Remembert hatthewri
ter
ofthereportcan’tmakereportdeci
sions-heorsheonl ysuggestswhatactionshould
betaken.

Closingsecti
on
Ar eportshouldbesi
gnedandther
eshoul
dbeanameandt
it
leshownatt
hef
ootpl
us
thedatether epor
twaswri
tt
en.

Exampl
eofaSi
mpl
eFor
mal
repor
t;

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
MbalamweziPet
roleum Company
Reportoncompl
aintsaboutpoorcust
omerser
vice

Termsofreference
Toi nv
est
igatecomplai
ntaboutpoorcust
omerservi
cepr
ovi
dedbyt
hest
affandmake
recommendations,asr
equest
edbyMr .
MoonPeter
.

Pr
ocedure
 Ani nter
viewwashel
dwit
hMr.NwankwoKanu,thesal
esmanageron2/
11/
013
 Intervi
ewswereheldwi
thacrosssect
ionofcust
omers(60)whoweprov
idet
o
ourservi
ces

Fi
ndi
ngs
 Int
erv
iew wi t
h Mr . Nwankwo Kanu , ( the sal
es manager
)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………

 I
nter
viewwi
thcust
omer
s
.
.…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………

Concl
usi
ons
1……………………………………………………………………………
2……………………………………………………………………………

Recommendat
ions
1……………………………………………………………………………
2……………………………………………………………………………

Bi
bli
ogr
aph/r
efer
ences
…………………………………………………………………………………

Fr
idaySt
ephano
Busi
nessadmini
str
ati
onof
fi
cer

4.2.
5 SpeechWr iti
ng
Intr
oducti
on
Aspeechi sal ogicalor
alpresentati
onofideasandconcept st
oagr oupofpeopl eina
specif
ied setti
ng.Speechwr it
ingont heotherhandisthepr
esentat
ionofor i
ginal
lyoral
i
deasandr el
atedconceptsinaf orm ofwr i
ti
ng.Normally
,aspeechismeantt oconvey
one’sthoughtsoropi ni
ons,shareinf
or mat
ionwithorspreadawarenessamongal ar
ge
numberofpeopl e.Agoodspeechhascl ari
tyofthoughtandexpression,accuracyof
factsandanunbi asedviewofissues.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Thisnot icemanualf ocusesonst ructur
ingt hespeechandut il
izi
ngpr operwr i
ti
ng
techniques.Eachspeechshoul dbecompr i
sedoft hreemajorpar
ts:int
roduct
ion,body,
andconcl on.Howev
usi er
,beforewrit
ingt hespeech,youar eadvisedt ooutli
nethe
maj orpoi nt
s.Anout lineprovidesaf ramewor kthatarr
angesthemaj orpointsand
suppor t
ingmat eri
als.Rearrangethemaj ori deasinthespeechunt i
lyoubel i
evethe
l
ay outwillhavethegreatestimpactonyourl i
stener
s.

Basi
cconsi der
ati
onsinwr iti
ng
Whenwr i
ti
ngany thi
ng,threemaj oraspectsshoul
dbemost l
ytakenintoaccount:
 Knowi ngyourreader-bef oreonebeginswrit
ingeventhef i
rstdraf
t,oneneedsto
thi
nkaboutwhowi llrecei
vet hemessage.Whoar ethey?Whywi l
ltheyreadthe
message?Whatdot heyalreadyknow aboutmysubj ectmat t
er?Whatar ethei
r
atti
tudest owardsmymessage?Answer st ot hesequest i
onsand anyot her
rel
ev antoneswi l
lguidet hewr i
ter
stoknow t hei
rreaders.Bett
ermessagesar e
thoseappealingtot hereader’
sneeds.

 Know y ourPurpose–Whatchangesdoy ouaimy ourmessaget oinsti

tut
eto
yourreaders?Isitj
ustforinf
ormi
ng,
requesti
ng,
confi
rming,
persuadi
ng, i
nqui
ri
ng,
complainingordemonst r
ati
ng?However,somemessagesdocombi net woor
mor eoft hesepurposes.Thiswi
l
lguideyoutowar
dsanappr opri
atedicti
onand
focus.

 Knowy oursubj
ect–fort
heclar
it
yofamessage,youwil
lneedt
oprompt l
yknow
yoursubjectwel
l.Thi
sknowledgemayemanatef r
om thejobexperi
enceyou
havehadbeendoi ngort
hroughdoi
ngf
urt
herresearchofthet
opi
cy ouwantto
tal
kabout.

 Devel
opingawr it
ingst
yle–t hi
sist
hemodali
tythr
oughwhi
chy
ourmessagewi
l
l
beorganized.I
sitinal
etter
,memoorrepor
tformat?

Wri
tingaSpeech
Af
tery ou have anal
yzed y
ouraudience,sel
ect
ed t
he topi
c,col
l
ect
ed suppor
ti
ng
materi
als,
andwritt
enanoutl
ine,
iti
sti
met owri
tet
hespeech.

TheI ntroduction
Thei nt r
oduct i
onusuallystatest hepur poseoft hespeech.Agoodi ntr
oductionser ves
as an at t
ention gett
er,pr eviews t he topic and mai nideas,and establi
shes y our
credibili
tyasaspeaker( O’Hair,Rubenst ein,&St ewart,2007).Somegoodway stogr ab
attentionincludeusingaquot ation, t
ell
i
ngast or y,posingquesti
ons,usi
nghumor ,using
startl
ing f acts orstatist
ics,pr ovidi
ng an illustrat
ion oranecdot e,orr eferencing
histori
cal orrecentevents.Apr ev iewstatementi dentif
iesthemainpointsofthespeech,
helpingt heaudi encefocusont hekeypoi ntsoft heremainderofthepr esent
at i
on.The
audiencedet erminesyourcr edibilit
ybasedont hei nt
roducti
on—theywantt oknowwhy
theyshoul dbel i
eve

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
whaty ouhavet osay.Ther ef
ore,est
abl
ishi
ngy oursel
fasacr edi
blespeakerinthe
i
ntroduct
ioni
si mperat
ive,especi
all
yforapersuasi
vespeech,sot hatt
heaudiencewil
l
wanttobeper suadedbyy ou.Youshouldincludesomeexperienceorknowledgethat
showswhyy ouarecredibl
eont hetopi
c.

TheBody
Thebodyi sthel ar
gestpar toft hespeech,wherey ouprovidet heaudiencewit
ht he
majorsupport
ingmat erial
s.Themai npoi
ntsofthespeechar econt ai
nedinthi
ssection.
Mainpointsshouldflowf rom thespeech’sgoalandt hesi
sstat ement.I
tisadvi
sabl
et o
l
imityourcontenttoi ncludebet weentwoandf i
vemai npoi nts,wi
thamaxi mum of
sevenmainpoints.Speecheswi ththreemainpointsarecommon.I fyouhavetoomany
mainpoints,youraudiencewi l
lf or
getthem.Focusi ngonaf ew point
sandpr ovi
ding
eff
ecti
vesuppor t
ingpoi nt
sf oreachmakesy ourspeechmor ememor abl
e.Supporti
ng
poi
ntsar ethesuppor tingmat eri
alsyouhav ecollect
edt oj usti
fyyourmai npoint s.
Thesehelptosubstantiateyourt hesi
s.

TheConcl usion
Theconcl usionwr apsupt hepr esent
ati
onbypr ovidingasummar yofwhatt heaudi ence
wassupposedt ohav el earnedorhav ebeenper suadedt ododur i
ngt hepr esent ation.
Youcansi gnalthattheconcl usionisappr oachingbyusi ngkeyphr ases, suchas“ fi
nal l
y,
”
“l
etmecl osebysay ing,”“I’
dl iketost r
esst heset hreepoi nt
s,”and“ i
nconcl usi on.”
Becauset heconclusioni sthel astopportuni t
yt omot i
v ateyourli
stener s,i tshoul dend
strongly.Foraper suasivespeech,ast rongendi ngwoul dbeacal ltoact ion,wher ey ou
tel
lt heaudi encemember st heyshoulddosomet hingwi ththeinf ormat iont heyhav e
l
ear ned.Manyt i
mes,y oucanuseami rr
or edconcl usionexampl et hattiesbackt oor
“mi r
rors”t heinformat i
ony oupr ovi
dei nt hei ntroduct i
on.Forexampl e,i fy ouuse
statist
ics as yourat tention-getti
ng met hod int he int r
oducti
on t o a speech about
recycli
ngoncampus,y ourspeech’ sbeginni ngandendi ngmi ghtsoundsomet hingl ike
this:

Int
roducti
on:“Accordi
ng tot he Universit
yofFl ori
da’
s Off
ice ofSustai
nabil
it
y,t he
campususedmor ethan4mi ll
iontrashbagsi n2006alone,weighi
ng163tonswi thout
thet r
ash.Altoget
her,UF generatesov er14,
000 tonsoft rash pery
ear”Mi
. rrored
Conclusi
on:“Eachti
mey ouareaboutt othrowa
bottl
e,can,ornewspaperinthetrash,deci det
or ecy
clei
tinsteadandhelpreducet he
14,
000t onsofwastewecr eat
eeachy earatUF.”

Conv ersati
onal Speech
Youshoul dwr itethespeechl ikeyout al
k.Followthesewrit
ingt i
pstomakey ourspeech
asconv er
sati
onal aspossibl
e:
•Useshor tsent encesof20wor dsorl ess.Youusuallydonotusel ongsent encesina
conversation.Shor tsentences—ev ensent encefr
agments—ar efinef
oraspeech.
•Av oidcompl icatedsent encest r
uctures.Simplesentencest hathaveasubj ect,verb,
andobj ectareper fectforpubl i
cspeaking.
•Usecont racti
ons.“ Donot ”and“ cannot ”areusuall
ytoof or
malformostspeeches.
“Don’t”and“ can’ t
”arefine.Becar efulofcont r
acti
onsendi ngin“-v
e”(e.
g.,“woul d’
ve,”

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
“could’v
e”)becauset heysoundl ike“wouldof”and“ coul
dof .
”
•Av oidjar
gonort echnicallanguage.Usewor dsthatyouraudienceknows.
•Roundl argenumber s.Det ail
ednumber s•User epetit
ion.Thesamewor dorphrase
usedr epeatedl
yemphasi zesamaj orpoint.
•Wr it
ewi thv i
sualimager y.Makey ourlisteners“see”whaty ouaresaying.Hel
pthem
visuali
zet hesituat
iony ouaredescribi
ng.

TypesofSpeeches
Speechescanbedi v
idedi
ntothefol
lowi
ngcat egor
ies:t
hei
nfor
mat
ivespeech,t
he
persuasi
vespeech,
andspeechesf
orspeci
aloccasi
ons.

InformativeSpeech
Ift he speech’s purpose isto define,expl ai
n,descr i
be,ordemonst rat
e,itis an
i
nfor mative speech.The goalofan i nformat i
ve speech isto pr ov
ide inf
ormat i
on
compl etelyandcl earl
ysot hattheaudi enceunder standsthemessage.Exampl esof
i
nfor mativespeechesincludedescri
bingt he
l
ifecy clestagesofaneggt o achi cken,expl aininghow t o oper at
eacamer a,or
demonst r
ati
nghow t ocookasi dedi shf orameal .Theor ganizationoft hespeech
dependsony ourspecifi
cpurposeandv ariesdependi ngonwhet heryouar edefining,
explaini
ng,descr i
bing,ordemonst rating.I nf
ormative demonstration speeches lend
themsel veswelltot heuseofv i
sualaidst oshowt hest ep-
by-st
eppr ocesseswithr eal
objects.

PersuasiveSpeech
Persuasivespeechesar egiv entorei
nforcepeople’
sbel ief
saboutat opi
c,tochange
theirbel
iefsaboutat opic,ort omovethem toact.Whenspeaki ngpersuasi
vely,dir
ectl
y
statewhati sgoodorbadandwhyy out hi
nksoneart hebeginningofthespeech.Thisis
yourthesisstatementt hatyouwantt omakeear l
yon.Si nceyourpurposeistopersuade
usinglogicandr easoning,thiscommuni cat
estol i
stenersthatyouwantt oconv i
nce
them ofy ourpointofview.Onewayt ost r
uctureapersuasivespeechistouset he
fi
ve-partargument :

 The int roduction attr

actst he at t
ent i
on oft he audience,set st he tone,and
describeswhatt heper suasivespeechi sabout .Theintroducti
onusual l
yi ncludes
thethesi sst atement —thespeci fi
csent encethatexplainsthemai npoi ntoft he
argument .
 The backgr ound pr ovides the cont extand det ai
ls needed fora l istenert o
underst andt hesituationbeingdescr ibed,aswel lasthepr oblem oroppor tunity
beingaddr essed.
 Linesofar gumentmakeupt hebodyoft hespeech.Her eiswher ey ouincludeal l
theclai ms,r easons,andsuppor ti
ngev idencey ouhavet hathelpy oumakey our
pointsef fectivel
y.
 Refuti
ngobj ecti
onsmeansdi sproving,r uli
ngout ,andcount eri
nganypot ential
objectionsbef or
ethel i
stenerscant hinkofr easonsnott obeper suaded.
 Theconcl usioniswher eyoupr esenty ourclosi
ngar gument s.Tobeef f
ect i
ve,the
conclusi onshoul drestateyourt hesisst atementandsummar i
zet hemai npoints

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 ofy ourar
gument
.Ify
ouareadvocati
ngaparti
cul
arsolut
iont oaprobl
em ora
decisiont
obemade,y oushoul
dclosebyaski
ngy ourli
stenerst
oadopty our
pointofvi
ew.

Speechesf orSpecialOccasi ons

Speechesf orspecialoccasi onsar epr epar edforaspeci fi
coccasionandf oraspeci fic
purposedi ctatedbyt hatoccasi on( O’Hai retal .,2007).Speechesf orspeci aloccasi ons
canbei nformative,persuasi ve,orbot h,dependi ngont heoccasion.Twooft hemor e
commont ypesofspeechesf orspeci aloccasi onsaret hespeechofi ntroduct i
onand
thespeechofwel come.Thespeechofi ntroduct i
onisabr iefspeecht hatpr ovidest he
mai nspeaker ’squali
ficati
ons.Thi sspeechpr epar est
heaudi enceforthemai nspeaker
byest abli
shingt hespeaker ’
scr edibi l
i
tyandhel psmaket hespeakerf eelwel come.To
wr i
tet hespeechofi ntroduct i
on, gat herbi ogr aphicali
nformationaboutt hespeaker .Tr y
tof ind outoneort wo pi ecesofi nf or mat i
on aboutt hespeaker ’sbackgr ound or
credent ialsthatwouldest abl i
shar elationshi pwi ththe
audi ence.Thespeechofi nt
roduct ioni susual lyonet onomor ethant hr eemi nut esin
l
engt h.Thespeechofwel comeacknowl edgesandgr eetsaper sonorgr oupofpeopl e.
Thespeechofwel comeexpr essespl easur efort hepresenceoft heper sonorgr oup.
Thepur posei stomaket heper sonorgr oupf eelwelcomeandt oprov i
dei nformat i
on
aboutt heor ganizati
ony our epr esent.Fi ndoutsomet hi
ngaboutt heper sonorgr oup
befor ehandt hatyoucani ncl
udei nt hespeechofwel come.Thespeechofwel come
typicallylastsbetweent hreeandf ivemi nut es.

Speechf ormat:
•Begi nni ng:Apr e-speechnot e
Sal ut
ation
Occasi onofspeechandanannouncementoft opic:
•Dev elopmentoft opi c:
Ref er
encet onewspaper sstatist i
cs,ef fect
sandr esults,argument s,etc
•Wi ndi ngup: Summi ngupofal l
points
•Concl usion: Concl udewi thahopeoranappeal orawar ning
Endwi t
ha‘ ThankYou’
N.B;
Point st oremember :
•Iti
sv eryi mpor tantt oholdt heatt
ent i
onoft heaudi ence.Ther efore, keept
hespeecht o
the
poi ntandappeal ing.
•Star tthespeechwi thani nteresti
ngbi tofinf ormation,aquest ionoraquot ation.
•Conv eyy ouropi nionsandv iewsinanor ganisedandcoher entmanner .
•Dev elopeachpoi ntpr operlyandthenmov eont othenextone.
•Prov ideexampl es,statist
icsandf actst hatar eproper l
yresearchedandaut henti
c.
•Inter actwi tht heaudi encebyposi ngquest ionsandi ncludingsomehumour ,i
fitis
appr opr i
ate.
•Endwi thanemphasi sony ourpoi ntofv i
ew andper sonalinf erencessot hatthe
audiencet hinksaboutwhaty ouhav eexpr essed.
•Alway st hankt heaudi encef orli
steningt oy oubef oreleav i
ngt hest age.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Sampl
espeeches:
1.Youhav elatel
yr eadtheaccountofmanycasesofv i
olentbehavi
ourbyschool
chil
dren.Somei nstanceshavebeenqui t
einj
uri
ousandharmf ult
ot hevi
ctims.
Youar eshockedbyt heseaccountsanddecidetoshareyourv i
ewswi t
hy our
schoolmates.Prepareaspeechf orthemorni
ngassemblyonthet opi
c‘Growing
viol
enceinchil
dren:Causesandcur es’
.

Honour ablepri
ncipal
,respectedteachersandmydearf riends,
Iwoul dl i
ketoshar emyv i
ewsont hegrowingv i
olenceamongchi ldrentheseday s,
which is provi
ng t o be ratherdetri
mentaltot he chi l
dren’s pr
ogress.Lack ofan
appropriateenvi
ronmentandgoodpar ent
alcare,
andpr essur eofpeer
sar esomeoft he
fact
orst hatareresponsibl
ef orgivi
ngr i
setonegativ
eemot ionsinchil
dren.Feeli
ngsof
neglectandi mmensepr essurecauseangeranddi ssat i
sfacti
onint heseyoungsters.
Thegr owingexposur etocr i
mef i
lmsandt hri
ll
erstooraisest helevel
sofaggr essi
onin
them.

Mor eov er
,ther ushofconsumer i
sm hasar ousedachi ld’
sdesi r
etopossesswhat ever
heseesi ntheadv erti
sementsont hetelevi
sion.Andi ncaseofnon- f
ulf
ill
mentoft hese
desiresandwant s,therei
scausef orresentmentandf rust
ration.Televisionshowsl ike
WWFandv i
olentscenesi nmov i
esetcl eadthei nnocentchildrent oimi t
atethem.The
negat i
vechar actersi nmov i
esbecomet hei
rr olemodel swhom t heywantt oapei n
ordert oappear‘ cool’.Parent
s, t
eachersandsoci alref
ormer sshoul dinculcatetheright
valuesi nchildrent hroughper suasionandi nstructi
on.Beingt hetorch-beanessoft he
future,chil
drenneedt obegui dedwel landshownt hecorrectpat hinlife.Letushope
forabet t
erfuturewi ththechil
drenoft odaybecomi ngsensibleandsensi ti
vecit
izensof
tomor row.

Thanky
ou.

2. Wr
it
easpeechi
nabout150–200wor dson‘
Envi
ronmentalPol
l
uti
on’
,whi
chy
ou
hav
etodel
i
verdur
ingt
hemorningassemblyi
nyourschool
.

Respectedprinci
palandteachersandmydearfri
ends,
TodayIam goi ngtospeakont hetopic‘Envir
onment
alPollut
ion’
,whichisaser i
ous
probl
em t hatthewholewor l
disfaci
ngt oday.Thet
remendousincreaseinpopul
ati
onis
therootcauseofal lki
ndsofpolluti
on.Morepeopleont hi
sear t
hmeansmor ewaste
materi
al beingcreat
ed.

Anot herf actoristheadv ancementi nscienceandt echnol ogy.Ithasmadeourl i

ves
verycomf ort
ablebuthasal sogivenr i
setoav ar
iet
yofpr oblemst hatareharmingthe
environment .Poll
ut i
oncomesi nv ari
ousf orms.Airpol l
utioni scausedbyt hesmoke
fr
om f actori
es,theexhaustf umesf rom vehicl
esandt hebur ningofgarbagecontaini
ng
chemi calmat eri
als.Wat erpoll
uti
oni scausedwhent oxicwast emat er
ial
saredisposed
offintoseasandr i
vers.Soilpol
lut
ionisagai ntheresultofi ncorr
ectmethodsofwast e

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
disposal.Radi
oacti
vewav esfr
om elect
roni
cobj ect
sandnonbi odegr adablemat er
ial
l
ikepl asti
csal
socontaminat
etheairandthesoil
.Wi t
hmoder ni
sati
on, wehav er eached
ast agewher etheenormousnoisecausedbyi ndustr
ialandt ransportact i
vi
t i
eshas
becomeaheal thhazard.
Event houghitmaynotbepossi bl
ef ormankindt oeli
mi nateenv i
ronment alpolluti
on
totall
y,thehazardscanbemi nimisedbyadopt ingalter
natemet hodsandf ol l
owing
certai
nr ul
es.Wemustr ememberthatbyprot
ecti
ngt heenv ir
onment ,wear epr otecti
ng
ourselves.

Thanky
ou.

WORKSHEETS
1. Youhav etodel i
veraspeechi nt hemor ni
ngassembl yont herelevanceof
Mahat maGandhii nt
he21stcentury
, i
nIndia.Wegav ehimt hetitl
eof‘theFather
oftheNat i
on’,yetweappeartorememberGandhi j
i’
slif
e-workandhi ssacri
fice
forhismot herl
andonlyont woday soft hey ear—30Januar yand2Oct ober.
Poli
ti
ciansgivespeechesatpublicgatheri
ngs,t hefi
lm‘Gandhi’istel
ecastona
coupleofTVchannel s,
butinourdailyl
iveswet hi
nkitunnecessarytofoll
owhi s
example.Wr itethe speech i
n about150–200 wor ds,describi
ng Gandhiji’
s
contr
ibuti
ontoourcountry.

3.WheelchairWar r
ior
s,Sanj ana,Vi puland At ul,have been suf feri
ng from a
debi
li
tati
ng disease—muscul ar dy str
ophy—f or al
most t hree decades. The
symptomsst art
edappear ingwhent heywer eintheirear l
yteens.Butdi sabi
lit
y
hasnotdampenedt heirspir
it.Ithasonl ymadet hem mor edetermined.Youar e
deepl
ymov edbytheabov er eport.Your eali
sethatphy sical
lychall
engedpeopl e
canalsoplayaconst r
uctiveroleinsoci ety
.Weshoul dnei therunderesti
mat enor
i
gnoret hem;andweshoul ddef init
elynotpi tythem.Wemustgi vethem t he
opport
unitytoprovet hemsel ves.Gi veaspeechdur ingt hemor ningassembl y
urgi
ngyourschoolmat estounder standpeopl eli
keSanj ana,Vipul
andAt ul.

4. Thestudentcouncilofyourschoolhastoselectitspresi
dent
.Manyst udent
s
haveforwardedtheirnamesforthev ot
ingprocess.You,asanominee,haveto
motiv
atet hestudentstovoteforyou.Writ
easpeechst at
ingther
easonswhy
youshouldbeselected,y
ourposit
ivepoi
nts,
etc.

5.TheGov ernmentofTanzani ahasdeclared14October2014as‘ Nyerer

eDay’and
hasdistri
butedpost ersinschoolsaroundDodomast at
ing;
GrowMor eTr ees!For
•Mor eoxy genintheenvironment,Comfort
stheygi v
etomanki nd
•Treesar eman’ sbestfr
iendsagainstWeakroots,Cutt
ingdownoft r
ees
•Soilerosion
Usingideasf r
om t heabovepost erwri
teaspeechon‘Needf orPreserv
ati
onof
Plant
sandTr ees’.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 6.Ont heocassi onoft heWor l
dHeal t
hDay ,Kamay anihasbeenaskedt ogi v
ea
speechon‘ Needf orHeal t
hCar eCentr
es’.Takingi deasf r
om thenotesbel ow,
wr i
tet hespeechi nabout150wor ds,t
obedel iveredi nthemor ni
ngassembl y.
Gov ernment l aunched heal t
h car e schemes—pul se poli
o campai gn—r e-
emer gence of i nfecti
ons l i
ke dengue, chol era, etc—HIV i nfecti
on
mul ti
plied—ur
gent need of heal t
h cent r
es—can pr event diseases—ear ly
diagnosi s—ef
fecti
vecur e—wil
lensureadisease-
freenat i
on.

7. Stop!Stop!Stop!Femalef
oeticidedisal
lowedGirl
s–gifttohumanity
Gir
lsdeserveequalopportuni
tiesOpposi ngnatur
eFoetici
de-cr
eati
ngimbal
ance
i
sgirl
-boyrati
o.
Using yourideasaf t
erobser ving theposterabove,wr i
teaspeech forthe
morni
ng
assemblyon‘Femal ef
oeti
cideabane’ .Donotexceed150wor ds.

8.Youhavetogiveaspeechont het
opic,‘
Int
roduct
ionofthenewgradingsyst
em i
n
f
ormI V Nat
ionalExaminat
ionsresult
s.Youhav ereadaf ew newspaper
sand
made
t
henotesbel
ow, Wri
teyourspeechusingthesenotesinnotmorethan150words.

•Wil
ldecreasepr
essur eonthestudent
s
•Cumulati
veassessment
•Noratracefort
hest udents
•Fewercasesofstress-r
elat
edsuici
des

4.
2.6 Wr
it
ingMessagesonGr
eet
ingCar
ds

“Whatissooftenmissingfrom ourl
iv
est odayi
stheri
chnessofshar
edhumani
ty,t
hose
moment swhenwef eelreall
yconnect edtootherhumanbeings.Theactofwr i
ting
personalnot
esnotonlyfeedsourownsoul ,
butal
solet
susshareoursel
veswi
thothers
off
eringhopes,af
fi
rmingli
fe,connect
ing.”BySandraE.Lamb

Examplesoft het ypicaloccasi

onsandev ent
sf orwhi
chy oumaywantt osenda
greet
ingcardwit hyourwritt
enmessageare:bi
rt
hdays,weddi
ngs,bi
rt
handadopt
ions,
welcome,new y ear
s,empl oyeel
eavi
ng,r
etir
ement,pr
omoti
on,hol
iday
s,sy
mpathy
,get
well(si
ckness,
injur
ed)etc.

Pr
inci
plesandGui
del
i
neswhent
hinki
ngaboutt
hecont
entt
opr
esent

 Writ
eassoonasy ouhearandconf
ir
mt henews.
 Al
way saddyourownmessaget othatofagr eeti
ngcard,evenwhent
he
pr
intedver
seont hecardseemsper f
ect
.One’ sownwor dsmakethe
messagereal
lypersonal
,addthesender’
sv oice,andhelptomakethe

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 connect ion t he senderwant s when sendi ng a message f ora j oyful
occasi on, orasadone.
 Firstandf or emost , thinkaboutof feringencour agement .
 Rel yon t he pr evai l
ing r elationshi p witht he recipientt o dictatey our
message.
 Ifpossi ble,l earnsomet hingabouthow t her ecipientv i
ewshi sorher
sit
uat ionbef orewr i
ting.Focusont her ecipientanddon’ tmi sdir
ecty our
messaget owar dsy ourownf eel ings.
 Expr esssi mpl yt haty ouwer esor ryofhearaboutt heaccident /il
lnessi f
thati st hecase.
 Makeast atementabouty ourconcer n.
 Tryt or eli
ev eanypossi bleanxi etyaboutt hingsot hert hanther ecipient’
s
recov er y.
 Keept hemessagesunnyandupbeat .
 Beshor tandconci se.
 Consi dert he r eligious pr efer ences,et hnic mor es,f amilywi shes,and
organi zat i
onalcust omsoft her ecipientwhenwr i
tingy ourmessage,and
don’ti ncludeanyconf l
icti
ngi deol ogiesy oumayembr ace.
 Makeaspeci f
icof ferofhel p,i ndi cati
ngwhenandhow y ouwi l
ltaket he
nextst ept ocar ryouty ourof fer .
 Combi ney ourmessagewi thasmal lgiftofabookoranact i
vitythe
recipientcanenj oywhi l
er ecuper ating.
 Fort her ecov eri
ngchi l
d, buildant icipati
onofanupcomi ngev entatat i
me
whenheorshewi llbef ullyr ecov ered,andi ncludesomeki ndofr el
ated
act i
vityf ornow.
 Ifyousendf lower soranot hergi f t
, i
ncludeaper sonal note.
 Closeonawar m andposi ti
v enot e.

Av
oidi
ngwrongmessages:
 Don’
tmor ali
zeorincludeempt ystatement swhichmeantt obesy mpathet
ic
suchas, “i
tcouldhav ebeenmuchwor seoratleastyoudidn’
tdie…”
 Besur etoomi tanyhi ntorpi
ty.
 Donotof f
erunsolici
tedadv i
ce,thi
nkonl yofof f
eri
ngcomf ort.
 Avoi
di nsincereorempt yof
fersofhel p.
 Avoi
ddr amat icortragicwordsorphr asesinrefer
ri
ngtoei t
herthepat
ientor
yourown f eeli
ngs.Wor ds l
ike tragic acci
dent,the worstcase are not
comf ort
ing.
 Do notdwel lincompar ati
vest ories,likepeter’
sbrotherhad thesame
operati
on…”

Theaddi
ti
onofSender’sownmessagebecomeseasi eri
fhe/ she:
 Focusesont hesender’
sandreci
pient
’srelat
ionship.
 Focusesont heoccasionaboutwhichonei swr i
t i
ng,andi
tseffect
sont he
r
eci
pientorhowsheorhef eelsaboutit.Thesetwost epscreat
eaci r
cleof
l
i
ghtinwhichonewi l
lbeabl
etoeffect
ivelywrit
eone’ smessage.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
  Putshersel
f/himsel
fhow onefeel
saboutthereci
pient
,theevent
,andthe
person’
sreact
iontoiti
ntothi
scircl
e.Ref
lectal
ltheseli
ghtswhenwrit
ing
yourmessage.

Considerspecialsituati
ons:e.g.The inj
ury ori
ll
ness wi
l
lhav e sever
ef i
nancial
repercussi
onsforthereci
pient
.Inqui
ret
olearnhowbestt
oofferhel
p,butdon’
tlety
our
offertakeonthecharact
erofcharit
y.

4.2.
7 Curi
cul
lum Vi
taeWr i
ti
ng
Theter
mr esumeisusedbyAmer icanswhileCVbyt
heBrit
ishbutbot
hconv
eyt
he
sameinf
ormati
on.
• Somescholarscl
aimt hataresumei sshort
er(
max2pages)t
hanaCV.
• AgoodCVcanki
ckst
arty
ourcar
ri
erasi
tadv
ert
isesy
ou.
WhatisaCV?ACV i sadocumentwhi chgiv
esabri
efaccountofone’
sper
sonaldat
a,
educat
ionalqual
i
ficat
ions,workexper
ienceandot
heraddit
ionali
nfor
mati
ondeemed
i
mpor t
antfort
hejobonei sseeki
ng.

ACVFORMAT/I
NGREDI
ENTS
• PERSONALDATA
Name,
sex,dat
eofbi
rt
h,nat
ional
i
ty,
age,
mar
it
alst
atus,
cont
actaddr
ess,
phoneno.
• EDUCATIONBACKGROUND
Year Inst
ituti
on Qual
i
ficat
ion
2011-2013 Udsm M.
A( PSPA)
2006-2010 Udom BA( ACC)
 WORKEXPERI ENCE
2010todate -mar
ket
ingmanagersmithcomp.
2007-2010 -accountantMweneSec.school
.
……………………………………………………………………….
 OTHERWORKINGSKI LLS
Comput
er,
languageet
c
 WORKSHOPSANDCONFERENCESATTENDED
• HOBI
ESANDI
NTERESTS
• REFERENCES/REFEREES
Hereisasectionwhereyouwi l
ll
istpeople(usual
lyt
hree)whoknowy
oupr
ofessi
onal
l
y.
Thesecouldbe:
-Yoursuper
iorinyouror
ganizati
on,yourinst
ruct
orsetc.
-Youshouldgivethei
rful
lnamesandcont acts

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 • DECLARATI
ON,
SIGNATUREANDDATE
-Decl
arat
ioni
sthest
atementgi
vent
ocer
ti
fyt
hatt
hei
nfor
mat
iony
ouhav
egi
veni
s
t
rue.

-Si
gnat
ureabi
desy
out
otheCVi
.e.showi
ngt
hatt
hedocumenti
syour
s.

-Thedat
eshowshowr
ecenty
ourCVi
s.

5.2.8 EssayWr it
ing
Whati si t?
Essaywr iti
ng i soneofwr i
ti
ng wenor mal lydo i nacademi cl i
fe.Essaywr i
ting i
s
i
mpor t anti nacademi cl i
febecausei tisonewayofcommuni catingi deasi nv ari
ous
subj ect sofspeci ali
zat ions.Thusanessayi sapi eceofwr i
tingonapar t
icul arsubj ector
topic.I tcanbef ict i
onal ornonf icti
onal .
Char act eristicsofagoodessay
Uni ty:Sent ences shoul df ocus on one t heme ort opi c with a def inite pur pose
(homogenousent ityr atherthanasepar at eent it
y”
Or der: Logi cal organi zat i
onofi deasorar gument s( syst emat ici
ty)
Br evit
y :Essayshoul dnotbet ool ong.Atl east300wor ds.
Sty l
e:For malst y le:Nosl ang,col loqui alt ermsorcont ractions. Languageshoul dbe
simpl e, directandnat ural.
Coher ence:Al lsent encesi nshoul dber el at edt ooneanot herlogically.Coher encehel ps
ther eadert ofollowt hef l
owofwr iter’sideas.Coher encei nessay si sat t
ai nedbyusi ng
transitionalmar ker s( transit
ionalwor ds)whi chincl ude:suchas, and, also, furthermor e,
l
ikewi se,f ori nst ance,on t he ot herhand,af or ement ioned,he,she,i n cont r
ast,
conv er sely, similarly,agai n,additional ly,consequent ly,asf ollows,etc.
Cohesi on:Thi sisagr ammat i
caland/ orl exi calrelat i
onshi pbetweendi fferentel ement s
ofat ext .Rel at i
onshi pbet weensent encesi sachi evedbyusi ngcohesi onort ransiti
on
mar ker ssuchas: mor eov er,besides, inaddi tion,this, thef ormer,finally,
et c.
Compl et eness:Thi s means t hatt he subj ectoft he essay shoul d be adequat ely
dev elopedbypr ov i
dingdet ail
s,expl anat ions,def ini t
ions,ev i
dence,et c.Thi swi llmake
ther eadergetsat isfi
edandnotl eftwi t
hv agueexpr essi onsorunanswer edquest i
ons.
Per sonalt ouch:Anessayshoul dr ev ealper sonalf eel ingsoropi nionsoft hewr iter.One
hast oexpr esshi sownv i
ewsi nanessayr athert hanj ustquot i
ngot herpeopl e’si deas.
Peopl ehav et oknowy ourst and.
Useofci tationsandr ef erences: Properci tat i
onsandr ef er encing

Approachest owardsWr iti

ngGoodEssay s
1.BuildaRhet ori
calPower
Rhetorical powerisapowert opersuadeandt ocommunicate.I
tisthepowertoexpress
whaty ouf eel,whaty oubelieve,whatyouknow andwhaty ouhav edi
scoveredabout
yourselfandaboutt hewor l
dar oundyou.
Ar hetoricalpoweri sbuiltfrom readi
ng.Readinggener
ateswr i
ti
ng.From readi
ngy ou
canbeabl et odothef ol
lowing:
- l earnonapar ti
culartopicyouwantt owri
teon
- y oucanl earnthefeelingsofthoseyouwanttopersuadeorinfor
m

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 - Andy oucanl ear ngoodwr iti
ngst yles
2.Deci deont hePur poseofy ourEssay
Towr iteany t hingi ncludi ngessay sonemustdeci deont hepur poseofwr i
ti
ng.Thi s
process ent ai ls,bei ng cl earon r easons of wr iti
ng,one asks t hese quest ions
himsel f/her sel f:
 Doy ouwantt or epor tonsomet hi ng?
 Doy ouwantt odescr i
besomet hi ng?
 Doy ouwantt odi scussaboutsomet hing?
 Doy ouwantt ocompar eandcont rastoncer t
ai nissues?
 Doy ouwantt oout li
neonsomet hi ng?
 Ar ey oui nt endi ngt ocommentonsomet hing, et c
3.Deci deonWhatTy peofEssayy ouWantt oWr ite
Isitnar rat i
ve; exposi tory; descr iptive; ar gument at ive;imagi nat i
veet c
Nar rati
veessay : Consi stsofst or iesornar rationsofev ents.Someoft heev ent smaybe
historical, per sonal orf ictional .
Exposi tor yessay :I tisal socal ledexpl anat oryessay .Itexpl ainssomesubj ect ,termsor
i
deas; compar est hings; orexpl ainshowt odosomet hing( gi vesi nstruct ions) .Exampl es:
Causeandef fectessay s,compar eandcont rastessay s,t hosewhi chdef i
necer tain
concept sandt hosewhi chexposepr obl emsandpr ov i
desol utions.Exposi toryessay s
aret heessay st hatmostofcol legeanduni versit yst udent swr itedur i
ngt hei rtestsand
exami nat ions.
Descr iptiveessay :Descr i
besaboutpl aces,t hi ngsl ikeani mal sorbui l
dings,act ions,
phenomenaorev ent st hathappenedi nt hepast ,manuf actur edar t
iclessuchascar set c.
Argument at i
v eorper suasi v eessay :Essaywi tht heai m ofconv i
nci ngorper suadi ng,
mot ivating,orper suadi ngr eader st oacceptchangesort akeact i
onsandsomet imesi t
canbewr it
tenf ort hepur poseofdi scour agi ngsomebadbehav iouramongi ntended
reader s.
 I ti nvol v esi nduct i
v eordeduct iver easoni ng.I nduct iver easoni ngpr oceedsf rom
speci ficaspect sordet ailst ot hegener alaspect sori dea.Deduct iv ereasoni ng
pr oceedsf rom l ogi callygener al fact st ospeci ficdet ailsoraspect s.
Imagi nat i
v eessay :Essaywhi chexpr essesonesf eelingsaboutcer tai
nsi t
uat i
onor
exper i
ence.Awr iterpl aceshi msel forher selfi nsomeone’ sposi t
ionandst artswr i
t i
ng
aboutwhathef eel saboutt hatposi tionorcer tainexper ience.
4.Thi nkofy ourAudi ence
 Whoar ey ouwr i
t i
ngt o(audi ence) , aret heyl aypeopl e, t
echni cal , ornont echni cal
peopl e?Ori si tsi mpl yy ourl ectur er (s)
 Consi der at ionofy ouraudi encei snecessar ybecausei twi llaf fectt hechoi ceof
vocabul ar y,st ruct ureandappr oach( how y ouhav et osayi t),whaty ouhav et o
wr ite( cont ent )andst yleofwr i
t i
ngandpr esent ation.Thi sconsi derat i
onagai ni s
necessar ybecausebydoi ngsoy ouwi llbeput tingt her eaderi nf irstpr iorityf or
theessayi sai medathi m/ her.
5.TheEssayQuest ion
 Anywr itingandi npar t
icul aressaywr i
tingst artswi thanessayquest ion.For
ti
medessay st her eisusual lyaquest i
onsetf ory oubyy ourexami ner s/lectur ers.
Forf reewr i
ttenessay ,longr epor tort er m paperi tshoul dst artbyaquest ionof
yourownmaki ng.Thati s, makey ourownessayquest ion.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
6.Under
standtheRequir
ementsoft
heEssayQuest
ion
 Aftery
ouhav ebeenpresent
edwithanessayquest
ionoraf
tery
ouhavemade
yourownquestion,t
henthenextst
epistounder
standther
equi
rement
soft
he
essayquest
ion.

 Under standi ng t he demands oft he quest ion cor

rectl
yi s an i mpor tantskil
l
towar dst hebestappr oacht of ollow andpr oducinganef f
ect iveanswert othe
quest i
on.
 Ther ehav ebeenmanycaseswher estudent sproducest er eo t
ypeanswer s
particularlycopy ingfrom lecturenot esasi fallquest
ionshadt hesamedemands.
 Itshoul dbeunder stoodt hatinst r
uct i
onst oessayquest ionsenor mousl y.Each
essayquest ionhasi tsownspeci fi
cr equi
rement s.Withthet imedessay stut
ors
andexami nersnor mallyspel loutt heser equir
ement sint heessayquest i
ons
themsel v es.
Thust r
yt odev elopt heabi l
itytor ecogni seexact l
ywhati sr equi redbyt heessay
questi
on.
 Ther ear et hreei mportantt hi
ngst haty ouneedt odoi nor dertobeabl eto
under standt herequirement softheessayquest i
onandi nterpretiteffecti
vely:
I
.SubjectorTheme
 Identifythesubj ectorthemeoft hequest ion.Actual
lythisist hekeywor dofthe
essay .Thekeywor disabr oadar ea;i tmaybel andsurvey i
ng,economi cs,urban
pov erty,educat ion,t
radingsy stems, populationetc.
 Thiswi llhel py ouremembert hingsy ouknowaboutt het opicorsubj ect.

I
I.KeyI
nstructi
onalWor ds
 I
dent i
fythekeyinstruct
ionalwordsoft hequesti
on.Theseshowexactlywhatto
doint heessay.
 Thesewor dsar ethewor dsthatinst
ruct/di
rectthecandi
datewhatthequest
ion
demands.
 I
ti sgener al
ized t
hat,inmostcasest hei nst
ruct
ionalwordsdemand eit
her
FACTSorOPI NI
ONS,orBOTH.Letusl ookatsomeoft hesewordsandwhat
theydemand:
KEYINSTRUCTI ONALWORD DEMAND

FACTS OPI
NION

Di
scuss √ √

Def
ine √

Whati
sunder
stoodby
…. √

Commenton √

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 Descr
ibe √

Expl
ain √

Exami
ne √ √

Compar
eandcont
rast √ √(
somet
imes)

Out
li
ne √

I
dent
if
y √

Rev
iew √ √

Ev
aluat
e √ √

Anal
yse √ √

Theabov egener ali

zati
onsuggeststhatwhenast udentisasked to“discuss”for
example,he/sheshoul dputwhathe/sheknowsaboutagiventopi
c( f
acts)andgi ve
his/
herownexper ience(opi
nion)
.I
notherwordsadi
scussi
onisaseriesofar guments
andevidencespresentedbythewrit
eronpaper.

I
II
.Special
Conditi
ons
 I nadditi
ontot hekeyinst
ructi
onalwords,youar
eal
sosupposedt
onot
eany
special
condit
ionsf
oransweringthequest
ion.

 Speci alconditi
onsar ephrasesorcl auseswhi char einthequest iontoli
mitthe
scopeoft heessaybyset t
ingboundar iesi ntermsoft ime,place,andamountof
words/pages, extentetc.Theygi ver estri
ctionsi nor
dert ogetat opicwhichcan
becompl etelydevel
opedi nasi nglepaper .
Examples:
(
i)Explai
ni ny ourownwor dsthepr acticalpr oblem ofai r
crafttechnol
ogyi nthethi
rd
worl
dcountries.
 Theme/ subject: air
crafttechnol ogy
 Keyi nstructi
onalword: expl ai
n
 Speci alconditi
ons: i
ny ourownwor ds, andinthethirdworldcountri
es
(
ii
) Withv i
videxampl escompar eandcont rastf ormalandi nformalr eport
sont hei
r
f
ormatanduse.
 Theme/ subject: for
mal andinf ormal repor
ts
 Keyi nstructi
onalwords: compar eandcont r
ast
 Speci alconditi
ons: withvividexampl es;formatanduse

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
7.DecidingontheStructureofy ourEssay
Planni
nganessayquest i
oni nvolvesaneffortt
ot r
ytoor gani
zethemat eri
alanddeci de
ont hemostef fecti
veor derofpr esentat
ion.Deci
dingonor ganizati
onorst ructureof
presentati
onofther equiredinformati
onisdependentoncor r
ectandcar efulplanning.
Planni
nghel pstoshapet hedev el
opmentofy ouressay ,t
hecont enttoenterandhow
mucht imet ospendoneachpar toft heessayandt heenti
rewr it
ingprocess.Thus
makeapl an.Apl anist herefore,essent
ial
lyasket ch,anoutli
ne,af ramewor kora
skelet
onofy ouressay.

Stepsi nPl anni ng

1.Li stthepoi nt sy ouwantt ocov er.Listonl yt
hosepoi ntswhi chmeett heneedsoft he
quest ion,
y ourr eaderandofy ourpl an.
2.Sel ectt hosei tems/ pointswhi chy out hinkar emostr elevantt othet opi c
3.Br eakt hemat er i
ali ntol ogi caldeci sionst huscr eatingasenseofuni t
y.Thi scanbe
doneby
classify i
ng and anal yzing t he poi nts and deci di
ng t he or derofpr esent i
ng.For
exampl e:
 Gener al it
emst ospeci ficones;
 I mpor tanti temscomef irst,bef orel essi mpor t
anti temswhi lel argeritemscome
bef oresmal l
erones.
8.TheOr deroft heEssay
Asy stemat i
candgoodor derofanyessayi stopr esentt hei nformat ioni ntothr eepar t
s
whi char el ogical lyconnect edt oeachot hernamel y :
 TheI ntroduct ion
 TheBody /Di scussi on
 TheConcl usi on
Wr i
t i
ngI nt r
oduct ions:
Afterapl anwhatf ollowsi st hei nt r
oduct i
on.Thi si sani mpor tantar eaoft heessay .The
i
ntroduct i
onshoul dsuppl yanov er allframewor ksot hatt her eadercangr aspt hedet ail
s
thatl aterexpl ainanddev elopt heessay .Int heint roduct i
on:
 Or ientt her eader (s)bydef ining/expl aining keyt het ermsorconcept sand
prov idenecessar ybackgr oundi nformat ion.Tel lwhatcausesy out owr itethe
essay .Expl aincl ear lythepur poseofwr i
tingt heessay ;giv et heor gani zationof
theessayaswel l.Def inet erms:i ncl udedef i
niti
onsorexpl anat ionsofkeyt er
ms
andconcept s, especi all
yi fy ouar edescr ibingapr ocess.
 Pr ov i
det henecessar ybackgr oundi nformat i
on.Al thoughy ouknowwhaty ouar e
wr iti
ng/ speaki ngabout , t
her eader /li
stener sof t
endoes.
 St at et hepur poseofwr itingt heessay :or ientt her eadert oy ourt opic;ment i
on
ther easonf ory ourwr i
ting.Ther easonsmaybet oeducat e;t odescr ibe;to
expl ain; toi nfor m et c.
 St at et heor gani zat i
on/scopeoft heessay :t hisr eferstowhatt heessaywi ll
accompl ishf ort her eader .Inthi sar eay oushoul dshow t heaudi encewhatt he
essaywi lldoandhowi twi l
ldoi tst epbyst ep.Forexampl e:
Thi sessayi ntendst ohi ghlightt heuseoft eachi ngandl ear ningst rategiesand
theef fect

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 onstudentslear
ningi
nTanzani
anhigherl
earninginst
it
uti
ons.
 Thei
ntroducti
onisgener
all
yshor
t,usual
lyaparagraphortwo.

Dev
elopmentoft heMai nbody :
 The mai n body i st he sect ion wher et he wr i
terpr ov i
des al lt he r equi red
argument s,det ail
s,r easons,andexampl es.Thear gument sar eor ganiz edi n
paragr aphs.Thepar agr aphsshoul dhav euni ty ,coher ence, clear ,
andcompl ete.
 Each par agr aph shoul d hav eat opic sent ence.Topi c sent ence r efer st oa
sentencet hatcar riest hemai ni deaofapar agr aph.Thedev elopmentoft hemai n
body ’
s par agr aphs can f oll
ow ei t
heroft he f oll
owi ng pat terns;i nduct ive or
deduct ivepat tern:I nduct ivepar agraphi st hepar agraphwhi chi sor gani zedi n
suchawayt hatspeci ficdet ail
scomef irstendi ngwi tht hegener al/ mai ni dea.
Deduct i
vepar agraphi st heonei nwhi cht hegener al/mai ni deacomesf i
r st
foll
owedwi tht hespeci fi
cdet ails.Usuallyeachpar agraphcar ri
esonemai npoi nt.
Andpr incipl esofpar agr aphi ngsuchasuni ty ,coher ence,andor derhav et obe
consi dered.Al sopr incipl esofsent encest ruct ure,gr ammar ,punct uat i
onsand
thelikehav et obet akencar eof .
Wri
ti
ngaConcl udingPar agr aph:
 Concl usion, justl i
kei nt roduct ioni sthedi fficul tpar ttomostst udent s.Thi sist he
l
astandemphat i
cpar toft heessay .Theconcl usionshoul dbeconv i
nci ng.I t
i
nv olves t he f ollowi ng act ivit
ies: rest ating t he essay /thesis st atement ,
summar i
zingmai ni deas,pr ovidingconcl udi ngr emar ksandt hengi vingt hef i
nal
statement .Iti si nt heconcl usiononecanshowhi s/herownst and.Thi si ndi cates
theper sonal touchoft heessay .
PostWr i
tingSt age:
 Pr oofr eadt heessayt oi dent i
fyar easofweaknesses.
 Edi ttheessayi nor dert ohav ethecor r
ectv er sion.
 Addmor ei nf ormat ioni fsomesent encesar enotcompl ete.
 Ensur et hatt hebi bliogr aphy /referencesar ewr i
tteni nacor rectf ormat ,showi ng
names ofaut hors,y ear s ofpubl icati
on,t itl
es,edi tion number s,pl aces of
publication,namesofpubl isher sand/ orv ol umenumber s,i ssuenumber sand
pageswher ear ti
clesar el ocat edi nnewspaper sorj our nals.
 Makesur et hatnecessar ydet ailsli
key ourname,pr ogr ammeofst udyandot her
specif i
cationsar epr ov ided.
 Submi ttheessayont ime.

4.
3.0 PUNCTUATI
ONMARKSANDTHEI
R FUNCTI
ONS

Per
iod/Ful
lst
op(.)
 Toi ndi
cat
etheendofadeclarat
iv ence.Exampl
esent e:Herei
stheplace.
 Toi ndi
cat
ethatl
ett
ersar
eusedasabbr evi
atons.Exampl
i e:Dr
.Carl
eD.Rey nol
ds
 Toi ndi
cat
edecimalfr
act
i Exampl
ons. e:16.
34

Thr
eePer
iods--
Ell
i
pses(…)
 Toindicat
ethatapor
ti
onofquot
edmat
teri
somi
ted.Exampl
t e:“
Tor
ecei
ve,
obey
,
andpasson…”

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Comma(, )
 Tosepar ateindependentcl ausesj oinedbyaconj uction.Exampl e:Thisist he
str eet ,
butIdon’ tknowt henumberoft hehouse.
Not e: nocommai susedunl esseachst at ementi si ndependent .Exampl e:Youwi l
l
police
thear eaandmai ntainaf irewat ch.
 Tosepar atepar tsofaser ies.Exampl e:Monday ,Tuesday ,andWednesday
 Tosepar atecoor dinat eor“ equal ”adject ivesi naser i
es. Exampl e:aloud, shar p
blast
Not e: Unl esst headj ect i
vesmodi fyt hesamenouni nt hesameway ,theyar enoti n
seriesandnocommai sused.Tot est,checki ftheadj ect ivescanber eversed.I f
not, nocomma.
Exampl e:heav ywool encl ot hing
 Tosepar ateintroduct oryst atement sbegi nni ngwi thsuchwor dsaswhen, whi l
e,
since, i
f ,
because, unt i
l,although, andwhenev er( orot hersubor dinateconj unct i
ons)
Exampl e:
Whent her ai
nwasf all
ing, ther ewasv erylittl
ewi nd.
 Tosetof fintroduct orypr eposi tional phr ases( st artingwi thon, in,at,to,by,for,of,
thr ough, etc.)Exampl e:Byt het imeshecr awl edi ntobed, shewast ooexhaust ed
tosl eep.
Not e: Shor tpr eposi tional phr ases( 3wor dsorl ess)ar enotal way sfollowedby
commas.
Exampl e:I nJapanheser vedaspl atooncommander .
 Tosepar atenon- essent ial element sfr om t her estoft hesent ence.Anon-
essent ial elementi sawor dorgr oupofwor dst hatgi v esaddi tional i
dent i
fying
i
nf or mat i
onaboutsomeoneorsomet hingal r
eadyi dent i
fied;i
t’snon- essent ial
becauset hesent encei sst illcl
earwi thouti t.Exampl es:ThePr esident,whoi sthe
Commander -
in-Chi efoft hear medf or ces, ratesasal ut e.Iv i
sit
edAl bany,the
capi t aloft hest ateofNewYor k.
Note: Commasar eNOTpl acedar oundessent i
al element s—t hoset hatl i
mitmeani ng
orgiv e

 i
dent i
fyinginformationaboutsomeoneorsomet hingnotal readyidentif
ied.
Exampl e:Thepr ocedur ethatyouar er equiredt of oll
owi sexpl ai
nedinTM 5- 250.
 Tosetof fi
ntroductoryphr asesbeginni ngwi thv erbpar tici
plesendingi n–ing,-
ed, -
en,etc.
Exampl e:Hav i
ngt urnedof fthel
athe, Ist oppedt hemot or .
 Tosetof fsuchexpr essionsasy ou,no, well
, ontheot herhand, youmi ghtsay,and
ofcour se,(suchexpr essionsarecalledi nterrupter s)Exampl e:Hewas, ofcourse,
thefirstpersonIsaw.
 Tosetof fsuchexpr essionsashesai df rom directquot atons.Exampl
i e:“That
decision,”heexplained,“mustbey ourown. ”
Note: Nocommai susedt oseparatesuchex pressionsf rom t herestofthesent ence
i
fthe

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 sent
enceisanindi
rectquot
ati
on(
oft
eni
ntr
oducedwi
tht dt
hewor hat
).Exampl
e:
Heexplai
nedthatt
hedecisi
onmustbemyown.

 Tosepar
atecont
rast
ingel s.Exampl
ement e:Thewal
li
sgr
ay,
notbl
ue.

 Toprev
entmisr ng.Exampl
eadi e:Undressing,
thechil
dranint
othebathr
oom.
 Tosetofft
henameofapersonaddressed.Example:Fr
ank,mayIbor
rowyourski
l
l
saw?

Semi
colon(; )
 Tosepar ateindependentst at
ement sthatarenotj oinedbyacoor dinating
conjunct
ion(and,but,or
,nor ,
f or,y
et,so).Exampl e:Blackisami xt
ur eofal lcol
ors;
whiteisthecompl et
eopposi te.Note: I
ftheindependentst atement sar eshor t,
a
commamaybeused.
Example:Horsessweat ,menper spir
e.
 Tosepar ateindependentst at
ement swhent hesecondst atementbegi nswi thsuch
conjunct
iveadverbsorphr asesl i
ketherefore,howev er,t
hus,ot herwise, onthe
otherhand,forexample,infact ,
thatis,etc.Exampl e:Isubmittedar equestsi x
mont hsi
nadv ance;sti
ll
,Ididnotr eceiveaper mitint i
mef orthedepar t ure.

 Tosepar atei ndependentst atement sjoinedbyconj unctionsi fsuchst atementsare

longort heycont ai
nint er
nal punctuation.Ex ampl e:Cl assicsci encef icti
onsagas
i udeSt
ncl arTr ek,wit
hMr .Spockandhi sl argepoi ntedear s; Battl
est arGal act
ica,
withitsCy l
onRai ders;andSt arWar s, withHanSol o,LukeSky walker ,andDar th
Vader .
Apostr
ophe(’ )
 Toshowpossessi on( i
fthewor ddoesnotendi ns, addanapost ropheandan
s.)Exampl
. e:Thedoct or ’
sadv ice,t
hehousewi fe’schoi ce,man’ sclothi ng,Martin’
s
house
Note: I
fthewor dissingularandendsi nsoranssound, useapost ropheandans
Exampl e:Mr.Schultz’scarunl esspr onunci ationisawkwar d:
Exampl e:MissSi mmons’ coat
 Toi ndi
catet heomi ssionofl etter
sincont ract
ions.Exampl es:can’ t
,won’ t
,doesn’t
,
haven’t,i
t’
s.

 Tofor
mtheplur
alofl
ett
ers,
wor
ds,andsy
mbolsthatdonothav
elogi
cal
plur
als
Exampl
e:t
hree2’
s,t
oomany&’s,
andsevenc’
s

Dash(—)
 Toi ndi
cat
easudden,
abruptbreakofanunfi
nishedwor
dorsent
ence
Exampl
e:“
Shewil
ltakechargeofthi
spostand–Wai tami
nute.Whoar
eyou?
”

 Tosetoffasummar
yofaprecedingseres.Exampl
i e:Food,
clot
hing,
shel
ter
,anda
senseofhumor–t
hosear
ethet hingsamanneedstosurvi
ve.

Hy
phen(-)

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 Tojoint woormor ewor dsser vingasasi ngleadjecti
vebeforeanoun
 Exampl e:aone- wayst reet,chocol ate-coveredpeanut s
 Useahy phenwi thcompoundnumber s
 Exampl e:forty-six,sixty-
three
 Ourmuch- l
ov edt eacherwassi xty-t
hreey earsold.
 Toav oidconf usionoranawkwar dcombi nati
onofl etter
s
 Exampl e:re-
si gnapet iti
on( vs.resignf r
om aj ob)
 semi-i
ndependent( butsemi consci ous)
 shell
-l
ike(butchi ldli
ke)
 Useahy phenwi tht hepr efxesex-(
i meaningf or
mer ),sel
f-al
, l
-;
wit
hthesuf
fx-
i elect
;
betweena
 pref
ixandacapi talizedwor d;andwi thf i
guresorl et
ters
 Exampl e:ex-husband, sel f
-assur ed
 Todividewor dsatt heendofal ineifnecessar y
, orshowabr eakbet
weensyl
lables
 Exampl e:pre-fer-ence, sell
-ing

 QuotationMar ks( “__

”and‘ __’)
 Tosetof fquotedmat ter(includingpunct uati
onmar ks,usuall
y.Seeahandbookfor
detai
ls.)
 Exampl e:“Isawit,”her epli
ed.
 Note:Indirectquotesar enotsetof fbyquot ati
ons.
 Exampl e:Hesai dthatthedeci sionmustbemyown.
 Toindicat eaquot ati
onwi thinaquot ation(singl
equot ati
onmar ks)
 Exampl e:Irepli
ed, “
WhenIaskedhi mi fhehadev erhear doftheAmer ican
Revolution,
 hesaid, ‘
Isawi t.
’
”
 Toencl oset i
tl
esofshor tstories,poems, magazinearticl
es,port
ionsofbooks,
and
i
ndivi
dual
 tel
evi
sionshowepi sodes
 Exampl e:Gooddi agramscanbef oundi nthechapterentit
led“Engine
Construct i
ons”
 i
nDeanAust i
n’sbookAut omot i
veMechani cs.

 I
tali
cs_ __
_______
__ _
___
____
 Toindicatetheti
tlesofbooks,pl
ays,magazi
nes,
longmusical
composi
ti
ons,
works
ofart,
mov i
es,andt el
evi
sionshowser es.Exampl
i e:Ihi
ghl ecommendTheTechni
yr queof
ClearWriti
ng,byRobertGunning.

 Toi
ndi
cat
euseoff
orei ds.Exampl
gnwor e:Andt
her endi
eIwas, shabi
l
le.

 Toindi
catethatt
hewr i
teri
sref
err
ingt
oawordratherthantot
hesenset
hati
t
convey
s
Examples:Hemistookwasforsaw.Cany
ouspelpr
l ecede?

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 (Not
e:Letter
s,fi
gures,
andsymbol
s,whenusedassuch,
areal
soi
tal
i
cized.
)
 Examples:Them lookslkeaw.
i
 Type&r at
herthanand.

 Parent
heses()
 Tosetof fdi
gressionsorelementswhichpr ov
ideextrai
nformati
on
 Example:Thepr ogressreport(
Form #78)issubmittedeachweek.
 Itol
dhim( Travers)exactl
ywhattodo.
 Toenclosenumber sandlett
ersenumerati
ngpar ts
 Example:Thepr i
ncipalpart
sare(1)thepresenttense,(
2)thepastt
ense,
and(
3)
thepast
 part
ici
ple.

 Bracket
s[]
 Tosetoffmateri
alinser
tedi
nadi r
ectquotati
on
 Example:Audubonreport
sthat“
ifther
ear enotenoughy
oungt
obal
ancedeat
hs,
theend
 ofthespeci
es[Cali
forni
acondor
]isinevi
tabl
e.”

 Colon(: )
 Usedaf teranindependentclause(completesentence)todirectat
tentiontoali
st,
anapposi ti
ve,
 oraquot ati
on
 Exampl e:Helaiddownt hr
eer ul
es:nosmoki ng,noidl
et al
k,andnosl eeping.
 Exampl e:Arainbowconsistsofthefoll
owingcol or
s:red,or
ange, y
ell
ow, green,
blue,
 andv i
olet.
 Exampl e:Thespeakerquotedapopul arsaying:“Wegr owtoosoonol dandt oolate
 smar t
.”
 Tosepar atetwoindependentclauses(compl et
esentences)whent hesecondone
summar i
zesor
 explai
nst hefi
rst
 Exampl e:Fai
thisli
kelove:i
tcannotbef orced.

 Slash(/)
 Toi ndi
catetheendofal ineofpoetry
 Exampl e:Herewi t
haLoafofBr eadbeneatht
heBough,
/AFl
ashofwi
ne,
aBookof
 verse–andThou
 Tosetof fphonemi ctr
anscript
ions
 Exampl e:I
nFr enchthe/e/ispronouncedas/A/
.
 Tosepar atepairedter
ms( usesparingl
y)
 Exampl e:pass/fai
l

 pr
oducer
/di
rect
or

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
4.
4.0 Spel lingRul es
Preli
minary
Apr efi
xi sagr oupofl etter splacedatt hebegi nningofawor d,asuf fi
xi sagr oupof
l
ettersplacedatt heendofawor d.
Rules:
1.Awor dendi ngwi thasi lentel osest heei fasuf fixbegi nningwi thav oweli s
added:
Hat e- hat ing ; cont inue-cont inuat ion
Li ke -l iking
Ifthesuf fixbegi nswi t
h aconsonant ,t he e i snotdr opped e. g.ext remel y
,
encour agement
2.Thesuf f
ix–f ulhasonl yonel :
Del ightful Pl ay f
ul beaut i
ful hopef ul
3.Fi nal i
ei schangedt oywhen–i ngi sadded:
Li e -l yi
ng;di e dy ing
4.Qi sal way sf ollowedbyu, e.
g.quant ity,qual it
y ,equat i
onet c.
5.Af i
nal –ypr ecededbyaconsonanti schangedt o–i esint hepl ural:
Cr y-cr i
es;count ry-count r
ies
Iftheyi spr ecededbyav owel ,i
tremai nsyi nt hepl urale.g.donkey–donkey s;
monkey-monkey s
6.Whenasuf fi
xi saddedt o awor dofmor et hanonesy ll
ableendi ngin–y ,they
changest oi : happy-happi ness ; study-st udious
-
yi sr etainedbef oreasuf fixbegi nni ngwi thie. g.study+i ng=st udy i
ng
7.I fweaddasuf f
ixbegi nni ngwi thav owelt oasi ngleconsonant ,wedoubl et he
fi
nalconsonantpr ovidingt hepr ecedi ngsy llablei sst r
essedandcont ai
nsasi ngle
vowel .
Begi n - begi nning; pr efer - pr ef er
red;omi t– omi t
ted;f or bid–
forbidden
Itisobv ioust hati ft hewor dhasonl yonesy l
lable,cont ainsasi nglev oweland
endswi t
hasi ngl econsonantt hisrul emustappl y.Si t -si tt
ing;bi g–bi gger
8.When–l yi saddedt oanadj ectiveendi ngi n–lt of or m anadv erb,ther esultisa
doubl el ,e.g.del ight full
y ,
successf ully,orallyet c.
9.Whenapr ef i
xendswi t
ht hesamel et terast hef ir
stl ett
eroft hewor diti spl aced
befor e, t
her esul tisdoubl i
ng:
Mi s-mi sspel t;un-unnot iced; il
-ill
egal ; i
m-i mmeasur able
10.Whent hesuf fx–nessi
i saddedt oawor dendi ngi n–n, ther esultisadoubl en,
Keen–keenness;mean–meanness
11.Acer t aingr oupofv er bscont ainswhi let heircor respondi ngnounscont ainc:
Ver bs Nouns
Adv ise Adv ice
Pr ophesy pr ophecy
12.Ther ear eonl ythr eev erbsendi ngi n–ceed.Thesear esucceed, exceedand
proceed.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 13.
Ir
regul
arpl
ural
sdot
akedi
ff
erentf
ormsasf
oll
ows:

- Wordsendingi
n–o.someformtheirpl
uralsbysimpl ng–sasi
yaddi n:
Pi
ano–pianos;sol
o–sol os;dynamo–dy namos; r
adio–
r
adiosetc.
- Otherst
akethepl
ural ng–oes:
endi asincar go–cargoes;echo–echoes;her
o
–heroes
Potato–potatoes;v
olcano–v ol
canoes;mott
o-
mottoes

MODULE :5 I
NTERNETUSE

Grencoe (2000:562)poi ntsoutt hatt he i

nterneti sa comput er-
based,wor l
dwide
i
nformat i
onnetwork.Hef ur
therar
guest hatthei nternetusestel
ephonelinesandcable
l
inesandsat el
li
testoli
nkpersonalcomput erswor ldwide.Ontheotherhand,theFederal
NetworkingCouncil(FNC)def i
nesthet ermI nternetast heglobali
nformati
onsy st
em
thatislogi
call
yli
nkedtogetherbyagloballyuniqueaddr essspacebasedont heInter
net
Protocol(I
P)oritssubsequentext
ensions.

ABasi
cInt
ernetVocabul
aryLi
st

I
nt ernet–anet wor kt hatl i
nksnet wor kswor ldwi debysat elli
teandt elephone
Web–acol lecti
onofel ect ronicf il
esl inkedt oget her ;anatomysi milartoaspi der’
sweb
Sear chengi ne–acomput erpr ogr am t hatsear chesf orspeci ficwor dsorphraseson
theweb
Websi t e–acol l
ect ionofoneormor ewebpages
I
nt ranet-ani nt
er nal net wor kofdat aandi nformat iont hatisusedi nmanycompani es;
typical lypasswor dpr ot ected, accessi bleonl yf rom wi thinthecompany ’sconfines,and
housedonasepar at eser ver .Cont ainst hesamef eat uresast heinternet
Googl e-apopul arsear chengi ne; slangt erm meani ngt olookupi nformat i
onont he
i
nt ernet
Homepage–t hef i
rstpageofawebsi te; usuallycont ainsani ndexoft heentirewebsi t
e
Ser ver-sy stemst hatst or einf ormat i
onshownont heweb; storeswebpagesandot her
i
nf ormat i
onusedbot hont hei nternetandi ntranet
I
nt ernetExpl orer( I
E)–at ypeofbr owser
Addr essf i
eld–t hepl aceont hescr eeni nwhi chy out ypet heURLorwebaddr ess
Onl i
ne–bei ngconnect edt ot heI nt ernet
Firefox–at y peofbr owser
Stat usbar–asy mbol att hebot tom ofawebpaget hatindi catestheper centageoft he
paget hathasl oaded
Browser–sof t
war eusedf orsear chingt heweb
I
nt ernetser vicepr ov i
der( ISP)-acompanyt hatpr ov i
descust omer saccesst ot he
i
nt ernet
http:/ /-Hy per t
extTr ansf erPr ot ocol ;thepr otocol orst andar dt hatdefineshowal l
i
nf ormat i
oni ssentov ert hei nter net ;usual l
ypr ecedesaURL
URL–Uni form Resour ceLocat or;auni queaddr esst hatsendsar equestt otheser ver

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
whichhousest hei nf
ormat i
ony ouarelooki
ngfor
Window–ascr eenthatdisplaysawebpage
Domain–ani dentifi
cati
onst ri
nglocatedatt
heendofawebaddr ess;
exampl
es-.net,
.org,
.com
www–wor ldwideweb; theext ensi
onwhichbeginsmanyURLs
Hyperl
inks–t extandi mageswi t
hinawebsitethatr
eferenceot
herwebpagesorsites;
usual
lyappeari nadi f
ferentcolorandareunderli
ned.Cursorwi
llchangetoahandicon
whent ouched
Tab–af eaturethatall
owsy out oopenmul t
ipl
ewebpagesorwi ndowsatonce
html–Hy pert
extMar kupLanguage; thecodeinwhichmosti nt
ernetcont
enti
swrit
ten

UsingInt
ernetSearchEngi
nes
Searchenginesareatypeofsoftwarethatusestheuser’
skeywordt
ocompil
elist
sof
rel
atedWebsi t
es.Examplesofsearchenginesare,goggl
e,y
ahoo,
gmailet
c.t
hesecan
beaccessedbyt y ngwww.Googl
pi e.
com; www.yahoo.com

EvaluatingI nt
er netSources
Keepi nmi ndt hatt hequali
tyandr eli
abil
it
yofi nformati
ony ouf i
ndont heinter
netmay
varywi dely.Any onewi t
habi tofcomput erknow- how cancr eateawebsi teandpost
i
nformat i
ont her e.Suchaper soncanbeanexper t
,ahighschoolst udentoralayman.
Becar eful,then, tolookcloselyatyourelectr
onicsourceint hefoll
owingway s:
a)I nternetaddr ess-who i s sponsor i
ng the website.Lookt he partthat
fol l
owst he“dot.”Thefoll
owingt abl
emaygui deyou:
Ext ension meaning rel
iabi
li
ty
.com commer cial
/businessorganizati
on vari
es
.edu educati
onalinsti
tuti
on usuall
yreli
abl
e
.gov government rel
i
able
.net commer cial var
ies
.or g nonpr ofi
torganizati
on usual
lyrel
iabl
e

b)author-whatcr edent
ial
sdoest heauthorhav e?Hast heaut horpubl
ished
other
mat eri
alonthetopic?
c)Int
ernalevi
dence-doest heauthorseem topr esentmat er
ial
sobject
ivel
y?
Presentallsi desf ai
rl
ybef or
egi ving hi
s/herown opi ni
ons?Doest he
authorproducesol i
d,adequatesupportforhisorherv iews?
d)Date– i st heinformati
onupt odat eorar chai c?Checkatt hetopor
bottom ofthedocumentf orcopy r
ight,
publi
cation, orr
evisi
ondates.

Appl
icat
ionsoftheI
nter
net
Ontheinter
netyoucanreadt
henews,
shop,
paybi
l
ls,
sendemai
l
s,wat
cht
elev
isi
on
pr
ogrammes, t
ransf
erfi
l
esetc.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
  Tr
adi
ti
onal
coreappli
cat
ions:
Emai
l,NewsRemoteLogi
nFi
l
eTr
ansf
er

 Newappl
i
cat
ions:
Videoconf
erenci
ng,
Tel
ephony
,Int
ernetBr
oadcastet
c

Bet
terSearchingofMat erial
sonthei nternet
 Usekeywor dsnotf ul
lsentencesorquest ions.E.
g.i
nsteadofty
ping“Ineedti
ps
forgrowingt omat oes”simpl yty
pe“ gr
owi ngtomatoes”
.
 I fyoucannotf indwhaty ouwant ,
trytousedi f
fer
entwordsoradiff
erentwayof
expressingit.
 Pr acti
ceput ti
ngkeywor dsi ntothesear chboxandpr essingt
hesearchbutt
on.
 Al istofsearchr esul t
swill
appear ,wi t
ht hemostpopularwebsit
esnearthetop
ofthelist.
 Tov i
ewawebsi te, simpl
ycl i
ckont heli
nk.

MODULE6:
DICTI
ONARYUSEANDREFERENCI
NG

Whati sadicti
onary?
Adictionaryisarefer
encebookwithali
stofwordswhi
chareusuall
yinalphabet
ical
ordertogetherwit
hagui detothei
rmeani
ngs,pr
onunci
ati
on,
spell
i
ngort heir
equivalent
sinotherlanguages.

Dict
ionar
yTypology
Thereisnosi
ngleappr oachusedtotellt
henumberofdicti
onari
esproducedinall
humanl i
fehi
story.Thefoll
owingaretheappr
oachesusedtoclassi
fydict
ionary
:
1.Thenumberofl anguagesusedtocompil
ethedicti
onary
.From i
t,ther
earethr
ee
t
ypesofdicti
onariesasfol
lows:
a)Monol
i
ngual
dict
ionar
y-Madeupofonel
anguage
b)Bi
l
ingual
dict
ionar
y-Madeupoft
wol
anguages
c)Mul
ti
li
ngual
dict
ionar
y-Madeupofmor
ethant
wol
anguages
2.Theageoft
heuser
sappr
oachgi
vesust
wot
ypesofdi
cti
onar
ies
a)Chil
dren’
sdict
ionar
ies-
Thisty
peofdict
ionar
yhast hef
oll
owi
ng
charact
eri
sti
csli
kebigfontsi
ze,
att
racti
vecolourandfewci
tat
ionf
ormswi
th
pict
ures
b)School
dict
ionar
ies-Di
cti
onar
iesofdi
ff
erentsubj
ect
susedbyschool
goi
ng
agechi
ldr
en.
3.Thesi
ze-basedappr
oach

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 a)Unabr
idgeddi
cti
onar
y
I
tisabi
gdicti
onaryandconsi
stsofallwordsi
nthatlanguageatt
hat
par
ti
cul
arti
me.Itcannotbecar
riedeasi
ly,
usual
lyareputonthetabl
e.
b)Deskdi
cti
onar
y
I
tisrelat
ivel
ybigbutnotasunabr
idged.
Consi
stsofabout60000wor
dst
o
100,
000wor ds
c)Concisedict
ionar
y
I
tisal
itt
lebitbigwit
hlesst
han60000wor
ds
d)Compactdicti
onary
I
tisrel
ati
vel
ysmall
butbi
ggert
hanpocketdi
cti
onar
y
e)Pocketdi
cti
onar
y
I
tissmallandpor
tabl
edi
cti
onar
y
f
) Vestdi
cti
onary
Aver
ysmal landpor
tabl
edi
cti
onar
y
g)Mi
nidict
ionary
I
tist
hesmal
l
estone,
nor
mal
l
ywi
thwor
dsofspeci
ali
zedf
iel
ds

I
nformati
oni naDicti
onar
y
Anygooddict
ionarywil
lprovi
deyouwi
tht
hef
oll
owi
ngi
nfor
mat
ion:
1.LexicalEntr
y
Thi
sisaheadwordappear
ingi
nit
sappropri
atealphabeti
cal
placei
nadi
cti
onar
y.I
tis
al
waysi
nblackinkandist
hewordwit
hmi ni
mal affi
xati
on
2.Spell
ings
Agooddi ctionaryshowst heconvent
ionalspel
li
ngsofthewordsaswel
last
he
spell
i
ngsofi r
regularverbfor
msandpl ur
alsinbothvar
iet
iesofEngl
i
sh(
AmEand
BrE).
e.g.
Colour-col or
Programme-pr ogram
Center-cent r
e
3. Pr onunciation
Anygooddi ct
ionaryhasaspecialwayshowinghowwor dsar
epronouncedand
stressed,i
ncludingdif
fer
encesinpronunci
ati
onbetweenAmEandBr E.Forexamplei
n
thewor dsli
kebi rd,
parkthesound/r/i onouncedAmE whi
spr l
einBrEthesound/
r/i
s
pronounced.
4.Wor dclass
Agooddict
ionarywil
lshowwhethert
hewordiscommonl yusedasanoun,pronoun,
ver
b,adj
ect
ive,adv
erb,conj
unct
ionorpr
eposi
ti
on,al
thoughthi
sisl
argel
ydeterminedby

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
act
ual
usei
nasent
ence.
5.Meani
ng
Sincealmostever
ywor dhasmor ethanonemeaning,agooddicti
onarywi
ll
provi
dea
full
rangeofmeaningsthatawordhasi nuse.Toshowt hi
smeaningsareal
ways
number ed.Incaseswherethewordchangeswor dclass,sayf
rom v
erbtoadj
ecti
vet
o
assumeanewmeani ng,suchchangesarealsoi
ndicated
6.Usage
Agooddi
ctionaryshowshowwor di
sputt
ousewhet
hert
hewor
disusedasadi
alect
,
col
l
oqui
al,
asl ang,t
aboooreuphemi
sm
7.Idi
oms
Arefi
xedphrasesusual lymadeupofav erbfoll
owedbyanounphr ase.Anidi
om hasits
ownspecialmeani ngandi tisoftenimpossibletoguessmeaningofthewordphraseby
l
ookingatthesepar atewor dsthatitisf
ormedf rom.Orthesearephr
aseswher ebythe
meaningofitdoesnotassoci at
eorcor r
elatewiththewordsthatf
ormi t
.Forexample,
ki
ckthebucket-todi e,Rubshoul derswit
h-bef r
iendl
ywith,Hi
tasnag-befacedwitha
pr
oblem
8.Phrasalverbs
Thesear egroupsofwor dsusuall
ymadeupofav erbfol
lowedbyanadv erbandora
preposition.Thesegroupsofwor dsactlikeverbsandhav especi
al meaningswhichare
diff
erentf rom t
hemeani ngsofindi
vidualwordswhi chmakeupt hephr ases.For
exampl el ookdownupon-despise,lookupt o–r espect,
putupwi th-t
oleratewit
hout
compl aining
Phrasal verbsli
keidi
omshav esepar ateentr
iesli
stedinalphabet
icalorderinthe
dicti
onar y.
9.I nflecti
ons
Thisisachangemadei ntheform ofawor dinrelat
iont oit
suse.Forexampl e,the
pronoun‘he’changesto‘him’intheobjectposit
ion,‘crisis’
changest o‘cr
ises’
wheni ti
s
i
npl ur
alform andtheword‘swim’ changesto‘swam’ itispasttense.Agooddi ctionary
will
usuall
yshowi nfl
ecti
onsofwor dswhosewr i
ttenf ormsorpr onunciati
onisirregular
orwhent hereisali
keli
hoodofconf usi
on.
10.Abbrevi
ati
onsandAcr onyms
Abbreviat
ionsar eshor tenedfor
mssuchas
NB-fornot ewell
PhD–Doct orofPhi losophy
cf–f orcompar e
Acronymsont heot herhand, ar
eagr oupoflet
ter
softhenameofsomething.New
acronymsar ef r
eelypr oducedespecial
lybysci
enti
standadmi
nist
rat
orsandparti
cul
ar
fornamesofor ganisation
UDOM-Uni versi
tyofDodoma
COD-CashonDel i
ver y
UNICEF-Uni tedNationsI nter
nati
onalChil
dren’
sFund
RADAR-Radi oDetect i
ngandRangi ng

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 REFERENCI
NG

Refer
ences:Li
stofspeci f
icworksthatyouusedi
ny ourwork.Refer
encesusual
l
ycome
att
heendofat ext(essayorr
esearchreport
)andshouldcontainonl
ythoseworksci
ted
wit
hinthetext
.So, usetheter
m‘ Refer
ences’t
ocoverworkscited.

Bibl
iography :Li
stsofworksf orbackgroundorforf
urtherreadi
ng, t
hesemaybebooks
whichy our eadaspartofy ourresearch,
butwhichwer enotactuall
ycitedi
ny ourwork.
OR
ABibliographyisanylistofreferencesattheendofat ext,
whethercitedornot .I
t
i
ncludest extsyoumadeuseof ,notonlyt
extsyouref
erredtoiny ourpaper,butyour
ownaddi tionalbackgr
oundr eading,andanyotherart
iclesyouthinkthereadermi ght
needasbackgr oundreading.

 BothReferences.&Bi bli
ographymustbeinalphabeti
calor
der
;andeachentr
y
mustbe
l
aidoutinast ri
ctlyorderedsequence
 Bibl
i
ographyr eferstoalistofall
worksorsourcesofinf
ormat
ion;
books,ar
ti
cles,
newspaperset ccitedornotcitedinyourwor
kwhi chcanbeanessay,semi
nar
paper,
researchr eportandabook.

Therear emanyst y
lesorfor
matsofwr i
ti
ngbibli
ography.Butitisnotv er
yimportant
whichf ormatyouadopt.However
,onehast obeconsistentwiththef ormathe/shehas
chosen.Twof ormatsarecommon; APA( Ameri
canPsy chologicalAssociat
ion)and
MLA( ModernlanguageAssoci
ati
on).Forthepurposeofthiscourse,theAPAst ylei
s
discussed.

Gui
del
i
nesf orBi bliographyWr iti
nginAPASt yl
e
 Arrangeal lentriesinal phabetical order.Usesur names, author’sfirstnameor
ini
tials.
 Iftherear et woaut hors,thenpr ov i
debot hnames.
 Wher etherear emor ethantwoaut hors,wr i
tet hef i
rstauthor ,foll
owedbyt he
wor detal .Etal means“ andot hers” .
 Wher enonameofaut horexists,uset heedi tor’snameandi ndicat einbrackets
with( EdorEds)
 Likewi se,thenameoft heorgani sat i
onorcount rycanbeusedi nplaceoft he
nameoft heaut hor,suchasMzumbe, UDSM, Tanzani a,URTet c.
 Entriesinbi bliographyar enotnumber ed.
 Titl
esf orbooks, j
our nalsornewspaper sar eunder l
i
nedi fy ouar ewr i
tingusi nga
typewr it
er.Buti fyouar eusingacomput er,t
het itl
esar eitali
cised.
 Ti t
lesf orar ti
clesandunpubl ishedmat er i
alsar eenclosedi nquot ati
onmar ks
th
 Forbookswhi chhav ebeenr e-edited,useabbr eviat
ion( ed),l
ike4 ed.
 Placeofpubl i
cat i
onscomef i
rstf ollowedbynameofpubl i
sher ,separatedby
colon.Av oidusi ngt henamesofcount riesaspl acesofpubl i
cat i
on.Uset ownsor

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
 ot
herplaces,e.
gLondon, DaresSalaam,Mzumbe, Morogor
o,Tokyo,
NewYor
k,
et
c.ButnotTanzania,England,theUSAetc.
 Wheretherei
snopl aceofpubl i
cati
onorpubl
isher,useabbrev
iat
ion(
n.p)
 Use(n.
d)toindicat
ethatthereisnodateofpublicati
on.
 Toindi
cateonepage, use“p.”;
andmanypagesuse“ pp.”
 Toindi
cateonesectionuse“ s”andformanysect i
onsuse“ss”

Examples,
1.Books:
 Author
’sname( s)
 Yearofpubli
cation
 Titl
eofthebook( under
li
nedori
tal
i
cised)
 Numberofedi t
ion
 Placeofpubl
ication
 Nameofpubl i
sher .

Marti
n,J.( .ManagementAccount
2004) i
ng(4thed)
.NewYork:Pr
enti
ceHall
.
Lugano,SandChan,
S.( .Ef
1999) fect
iveBusinessComuni
cati
on.DaresSal
aam:
Dares
Sal
aam
Pri
nter
s.

2.Art
icl
esinJournals:
 Author
’sname( s)
 YearofPubli
cati
on
 Ti
tleoftheart
icl
einquotationmarks
 Ti
tleofjour
nalunderl
inedorital
i
cised
 Numberofv ol
ume, andissue
 Pagenumber( s)

Sal
i
m, S.(2008).“
Sexual
Har
assmenti
nHi
gherLear
ningI
nst
it
uti .Uongozi
ons” Jour
nal
.
Vol
.7,
No.11.pp.12-
34.

3.Ar t
icl
eFr om Newspaper s:
 Aut hor
’sname( s)
 YearofPubl ication
 Ti t
leofthearticleinquotati
onmarks
 Ti t
leofnewspaperunder l
inedori
tal
i
cised
 Numberofi ssue
 Pagenumber( s)
e.g.
IhuchaA.(Nover mber10, 2008)
.“Namangat orecei
vePowerf
rom Keny
a”.The
Guardian,No.
4359,.p. 2.
4.Unpubl i
shedPaper s:
 Aut hor
’sname( s)

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
  Yearofpresentat
ion
 Ti
tlei
nquot at
ionmar ks
 Whereitwaspr esent
ed.

Mwambalaswa,J.(
2006)
.“PedagogyandAndragogy
”.Paperpresent
edatt
he
Wor
kshopon
t
eachingUndernewCurri
culul
m atMzumbeUniversi
ty.

Unpubli
shedDi ssert
ati
on/Thesi s:
 Author’sname( s)
 Yearofr eportwri
ti
ng/ submi ssion
 Titl
einquot ati
onmar ks
 Wher eitwassubmi tt
ed/ presented
e.g.
Yahaya,O.(2010).“TheUseofEngl i
shLanguageTeachi ngandLearni
ngSt r
ategi
esand
the
Eff
ectonLanguageLear ninginTanzani anSecondarySchool
Classrooms:The
Caseof
Mbey aRegion”.UnpublishedM. A.Educati
onDissert
ati
on,Uni
ver
sityofDares
salaam.

Msami,T.(
2007).“AssessmentofPEDPImpl
ementat
ioninTanzani
a:ACaseSt
udyof
MorogoroMuni ci
pali
ty”
.Unpubl
i
shedM.ADi
ssertat
ion/
Thesi
sSubmit
tedt
o
f
acul
tyof
Educat
ion.Univer
sit
yofDaresSalaam.

GovernmentPubli
cati
ons:
 Country
’sname
 Yearofpubli
cati
on
 Titl
eofpubli
cati
on
 Placeofpubli
cati
on
 Nameofpubl i
sher
e.g.
Unit
edRepubli
cofTanzania.( .Economi
2003) cRev
ivalPr
ogr
amme.Daressal
aam:
GovernmentPri
nters.

El
ect
roni
cSour ces:
 Nameofaut hor
/editor/
organi
sat
ion/
inst
it
uti
on/
count
ry
 Yearofpubl i
cat
ion
 Titl
e
 Locat i
onofserver
,ifknown
 Publisher/mai
ntai
nerofsite(i
fknown)
 Websi te.
 Retri
ev i
ngdateandt ime
e.
g.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Sheri
,B.andAlison,R.(2007) .ActiveTeachingSt
rat
egies.Ret
ri
evedonAugust12th
,2010.Fr
om http://www. baker.edu/depart
ments/et
l/
trai
ningr
esources.
cfm.
MeaningofInit
ials:
 http:
Hy perTextTr ansferPr otocol
 www: WorldWi deWeb
 htmlorht m: HyperTextMar kupLanguage
 URL: Unif
or m ResourceLocat or

Sampl
eofBi
bli
ogr
aphyi
nAPASt
yle/
For
mat

APA=Ameri
canPsychologi
calAssociat
ion
 Notet
hat,i
nwrit
ingabibli
ographyinAPAst
yle,
thedet
ail
soft
hesour
cesshoul
d
beasfol
l
ows:

 Books: Author’
sname, y ear, t
it
le, edit
ionnumber ,placeofpubl i
cationandname
ofpubl i
sher.
 Art
iclesfrom journal:Aut hor ’
sname, year
,ti
tleofarti
cleinquotationmar ks,
tit
le
ofjournal,vol
umenumber ,issuenumberandpagenumber( s).
 Art
iclesfrom anewspaper : Author ’sname, year
,tit
leofar t
icl
einquot ationmar ks,
ti
tl
eofnewspaper ,issuenumberandpagenumber (s).
 Unpubl i
shedpaper :Aut hor’sname, year,t
it
leofar t
icl
ei nquotati
onmar ks,pl
ace
wher ethepaperwaspr esent ed.
 Unpubl i
shedDi ssert
ation/ Thesi s: Author’
sname, year ,
tit
leinquotationmar ks,
pl
acewher eitwassubmi tted/pr esented.
 Gov ernmentDocument s: Aut hor ’
sname, year,t
it
le,placeofpublicati
on, nameof
publisher.

Exampl es
Abbar del ,S.andPr i
scill
a, P.(Eds) (2005) .OrganisationalBehavi
our.London:Prenti
ce
Hal l
.
Felix,T.( Ed)( 2003) .Publ icPol i
cyFor mul ati
on.NewYor k:(n.
pub)
Kamando, A.(2007) .“Sel fHel pPr ojectsi nSameDi stri
ct:ACaseStudyofHedar u
Dev elopmentPr oject”.Unpubl ishedMADi ssert
at i
on,Uni
versi
tyofDaresSal aam.
t
h
Kinunda, J.(2007) .EnglishLanguage, 6 ed.( n.p):
NNPPubl i
shersLtd.
Machemba, J.( 2007) .“For cesofGl obalisati
on.”Brookv il
l
e:NewYor k.<ht
tp:
//www.
http://
web. l
exis-nexis.com/ universe>.Ret ri
evedon12thJanuar y.
2015
Machi ne, S.(Oct ober30, 2008) .“
Chi l
drenLear nThr oughI mit
ati
on”.TheGuardian.No.
4344,
p.9.
Mahi mbo, N.( 2008) .“Const r
aint
st oCombat ingPov er
tyinTanzani .I
a” nt
ernati
onal
Quar ter l
y
Rev i
ew, vol.3,no.6, pp.66-80.
Mi chael , K.(2002) .Communi cat
ionSki l
ls:Theor yandPr acti
ce.DaresSalaam:
Ahmadi yya
Printi
ngPr ess.

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Mr osso,
T.andMassawe, M.(n.d).Fudament
alsofPubl i
cAdminist
rati
on.Dodoma:
Jupit
er
Pri
ntersLtd.
Shoo,K.(1999).“
Quali
tyCont
rolinAfri
canUni
v er
sit
ies”.APaperPresentedDuri
ngthe
Quali
tyAssuranceWorkshopon3rd,November ,
1999atMzumbeUni ver
sit
y.

Shul
len( 2001)asci t
edinMajani,E.( .HumanResour
2008) cesManagementin
Tanzania.Dares
Sal aam:Gov ernmentPri
ntersLtd.
Shumbusho, G.N.( .Basi
1997) cAcademi cWrit
ing:ARef
erenceGuide.Mzumbe:
Researchand
Publ i
cationDepartment.
Unit
edRepubl i
cofTanzani a(
1967).Engli
shforTanzani
anSchools.DaresSal
aam:
Longman
Tanzani a.

BIBLI
OGRAPHY
Cl
ark,
R.W.andCl
i
nton,
B.L.(
1994)
.(3rded.
)Ef
fect
iveSpeechCommuni
cat
ion.
Gr
encoe/
McGr
aw-
Hil
lCompani
es:
Woodl
andHi
l
ls
Kadeghe,
M.(
2005)
.(3r )Communi
ded. cat
ionSki
l
ls:Theor
yandPr
act
ice.Dares
Sal
aam:
Afr
opl
usI
ndust
ri
esLt
d
Langan,
J.(
2005)
.(6thed.
)Col
l
egeWr
it
ingSki
l
ls.NewYor
k:McGr
aw-
Hil
lCompani
es
Makay
,J.
J.( .Publ
1992) i
cSpeaki
ng:Theor
yint
oPr
act
ice.NewYor
k:TedBuchhol
z
Mohammed,
H.( .Lear
2002) ntoCommuni
cat
eEf
fect
ivel
y.Mor
ogor
o:MzumbeBook
Pr
oject
( .Gr
2008) ammarandMechani
csofWr
it
ingi
nAcademi
cs.Mor
ogor
o:
Mor
ogor
o:MzumbeBookPr
oject

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM
Murphy,J.D.(2008).ContemporaryEngli
shGr
ammar :ref
erenceandPract
icethrough
Real
Engli
sh.NewDel hi
-2:BookPalace
Phil
l
ips,D.(1997).Effect
iveBusinessCommunicat
ion.NewYor k:
Lit
tonEducati
on
Publ
i
sher
Shumbusho,G.
N.( .Basi
1997) cAcademi
cWr
it
ing:ARef
erenceGui
de.Mzumbe:
Resear
chand
Publ
i
cat
ionDepart
ment

SHEKWAVIRAJABUO.(
SHECKY360)
PSPA-
UDOM