MORALITY
 Can be harnessed as agents of influence.
 Morality refers to the set of standards that enable
people to live cooperatively in groups.
MORAL STANDARDS
 are the rules people have about the kinds of actions
they believe are morally right and wrong, as well as the
values they place on the kinds of objects they believe
are morally good and morally bad.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL STANDARDS
 Be independent.
 Regulate the behavior of individuals living in society.
 Not be written or documented.
 Emerge from the culture and customs of each society,
so they can vary between different populations.
 Being intrinsic values of human beings, such as
solidarity.
SUBJECTIVITY VS. OBJECTIVITY
 The distinction between subjectivity and objectivity is a
basic idea of philosophy particularly an epistemology
and metaphysics. Subjectivity and objectivity are often
contrasted and debated in various fields, such as
morality, journalism, and science. Subjectivist theories
base reasons and values on desires and emotions,
while objectivist theories deny such a dependence.
SUBJECTIVITY
 refers to the individual perspective or experience of a
person or a mind.
OBJECTIVITY
 refers to the independent existence or confirmation of
something regardless of any mind.
CULTURAL VARIATION
 refers to the differences in social behaviors, beliefs,
custos and traditions that exist among various groups
and societies.
HISTORICAL VARIATION
 refers to understand both the mechanisms of morality
and their function and shed light on moral learning.
NON-MORAL STANDARDS
 are the rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical
considerations and either not linked to morality or lack
ethical sense.
 Do not affect other people.
EXAMPLES OF NON-MORAL STANDARDS
 Standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as
good or bad.
 standards we call the law by which we judge something
as legal or illegal.
 standards of aesthetics by which we judge art as good
or rubbish.
RELATIONHIP TO PERSONAL PREFERENCES
 Individuals frequently alter their preferences for the
sake of their humans or perhaps more accurate.
 Affect the choice of a person.
INFLUENCE ON SOCIAL NORMS
 Can have beneficial or harmful consequences for
people’s well-being.
 Are central to how social order is produced and
maintained in society.
 Exert influence on people’s attitudes and behavior.
 Can be altered so that targets may directly observe the
social norms present.
Lesson 2: The moral dilemmas
Definition of Moral Dilemmas:
Moral dilemmas are ethical situations in which
individuals face difficult choices and the options available to them
seem to conflict with each other from a moral standpoint.
Moral dilemmas can emerge in various areas of life
such as personal relationships professional situations social
contexts or even philosophical debates.
Physician-Assissted Suicide:
Physician-assisted suicide also known as physician-
assisted death or aid in dying refers to a medical practice where a
physician provides the means or assistance for a terminally ill
patient to end their own life.
Ethical Decision-Making:
Ethical decision-making refers to the process of
evaluating and making choices that align with ethical principles
and values. Ethical decision-making typically involves the following
steps:
1. Identify the ethical dilemma: Recognize that there is
a conflict or question about what is morally right or
wrong in a given situation.
2. Gather relevant information: Collect all the necessary
facts data and perspectives related to the ethical issue
at hand.
3. Identify possible courses of action: Explore
different options and alternatives that could address
the ethical dilemma.
4. Evaluate the options: Assess the potential
consequences and impacts of each course of action.
5. Make a decision: Choose the course of action that is
most consistent with ethical principles and values.
6. Act and reflect: Implement the chosen course of
action while monitoring and evaluating its outcomes.
Utilitarianism:
Utilitarianism is a moral and philosophical theory that
focuses on the overall well-being or happiness of the greatest
number of people
Utilitarianism can be categorized into two main types:
act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism.
Act utilitarianism assesses each individual action
based on its expected consequences striving to maximize
happiness on a case-by-case basis.
Rule utilitarianism on the other hand focuses on
following general rules that when consistently adhered to would
produce the greatest amount of overall happiness.
Critics of utilitarianism argue that it can lead to the
neglect of individual rights and justice as the well-being of the
majority may justify the infringement on the rights and happiness of
a minority.
Deontological Ethics:
Deontological ethics is a moral framework that
emphasizes the importance of adhering to certain duties and
principles when making ethical judgments. It derives its name from
the Greek word "deon meaning duty or obligation.
Virtue Ethics:
Virtue ethics is an ethical theory that focuses on
character traits and moral virtues as the foundation of ethical
behavior. In virtue ethics moral decision-making is not guided
solely by rules or principles but by a consideration of what a
virtuous person would do in a given situation.
Virtue ethics also emphasizes the importance of moral
education and the role of communities in cultivating virtue.
Lesson 3: Foundation of Morality
The foundation of morality refers to the fundamental
principles or basis upon which ethical values and principles are
built. It involves exploring the source or justification for what is
considered right or wrong, guiding individuals and societies in their
moral decision-making.
A. Philosophical Perspectives
 These perspectives provide frameworks for
understanding the nature of morality,
offering different insights into how
individuals and societies should approach
ethical decision-making.
Ethical Dilemma: Telling the truth about a friend’s mistake that
may harm their reputation.
A. 1 Meta Ethics
 Meta ethics is a branch of ethics that
explores the nature, meaning, and
justification of ethical concepts and
language. Meta ethics examines the nature
of ethical concepts.
Meta ethics Golden Rule: “Do unto others as you would have
them do unto you.”
A.2 Normative Ethics
 Normative ethics is the study of how people
“should” act.
A.3 Applied Ethics
 Applied ethics involves applying (and testing) moral
theories against real-world issues, typically in business,
medicine, or law.
B. Evolutionary Perspectives
 Seen in evolutionary perspective, racism becomes a
natural propensity to favor individuals to whom one
assesses to be more closely biologically related to one.
 It’s important to note that while the
evolutionary perspective provides insights
into the origins of certain ethical
tendencies, it doesn’t dictate what is
morally right or wrong in a prescriptive
sense.
B.1 Evolutionary Psychology
 Is the study of thoughts, behavior, and feelings . It
focuses on psychological adaptation , mechanisms of
the mind that have evolved to solve specific problems
of survival and reproduction
B.2 Social Contract Theory
 Social Contract Theory is a philosophical concept that
explores the idea that individuals enter into an implicit
agreement, or social contract, to form a society and
establish rules for mutual benefit.
 Social contract theory says that people live together in
society in accordance with an agreement that
establishes moral and political rules of behavior.
C. Religious and Cultural Foundation
- Religious and cultural foundations are
fundamental aspects of human societies,
influencing beliefs, values, and behaviors.
They play a significant role in shaping
individuals’ identities and guiding their
interactions within a community.
C.1 Cultural Relativism
 Cultural relativism is the position that there is no
universal standard to measure cultures by, and that all
cultural values and beliefs must be understood relative
to their cultural context, and not judged based on
outside norms and values.
 Relativism is the belief that there’s no absolute truth,
only the truths that a particular individual or culture
happen to believe.
C.2 Divine Command Theory
 Divine command theory is a meta-ethical theory which
proposes that an action’s status as morally good is
equivalent to whether it is commanded by God.
D. Contemporary View
1. Secular Morality
Given a definition of morality that concerns what
positively and negatively affects conscious beings, what
is secular morality founded on? Under a secular and
naturalist view, there is nothing transcendent that exists
outside this universe that is intelligent and that has
control over things that happen in our universe.
Humanism
Modern Humanism, also called Naturalistic
Humanism, Scientific Humanism, Ethical Humanism, and
Democratic Humanism, is defined by one of its leading
proponents, Corliss Lamont, as “a naturalistic philosophy that
rejects all supernaturalism and relies primarily upon reason
and science, democracy and human compassion.”
Secular Humanism is an outgrowth of eighteenth-
century enlightenment rationalism and nineteenth century
freethought.
Religious Humanism largely emerged out of
Ethical Culture, Unitarianism, and Universalism.
2. Moral realism vs. Anti-realism
What is moral realism? Moral realism, also called
ethical realism, is the theory that there are mind-independent
moral facts, and humans can make claims about them that
can either be true or false.
A moral truth is an accurate expression of a
moral fact. In other words, a moral fact is a feature of the
universe, and a moral truth arises when that fact is
discovered and stated.
Moral reasoning is the faculty that humans have
for discovering facts through logical analysis.
Moral realism is a branch of ontology, the study
of what is. Now, if something is morally true, then it is called
a moral fact. Moral facts are simply, objectively true. They
just are. However, for a moral fact to be true, it must always
be true.
Moral Truth and Reasoning
To put it simply, through language. Moral statements
are intended to be accurate. We believe something to be
true, and we express it as a fact, but it only is a fact if the
evidence in the world supports it.
Moral anti-realism
 a philosophical idea focused on ethics that moral
statements are neither false nor true, and question whether
they exist at all. In addition, moral anti-realism is also
broken into three categories: Noncognitivism, Error
Theory, and Non-objectivism.
A. Significance of Moral Dilemma
A moral dilemma is also called an ethical
dilemma and refers to a situation where an individual
needs to make a choice but faces a conflicting situation
between one or more alternatives.
B. Diversity in the Foundation of Morality
Moral diversity is important for creating
balanced and nuanced ethical opinions, allowing for
crucial debates that lead to better ethical decision
making.
WHAT IS CULTURE?
 Culture describes a collective way of life, or way of
doing things.
 It is the sum of attitudes, values, goals, and practices
shared by individuals in a group, organization, or
society.
It’s significance in Shaping Morality:
 Culture reflects the moral and ethical beliefs and
standards that speak to how people should behave
and interact with others.
1. Cultural Relativism vs. Universal Morality
Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a
culture on its own terms and not to make judgments using the
standards of one’s own culture.
Universal morality, which holds the position that
moral values are the same for everyone.
Universal ethical standards
 Trustworthiness
 Respect
 Responsibility
 Fairness
 Caring
 Citizenships
Cultural relativism is also considered more tolerant than
universal morality because, if there is no basis for making moral
judgments between cultures, then cultures have to be tolerant of
each other.
B. CULTURAL INFLUENCE IN MORAL VALUES
1. FAMILY AND UPBRINGIN
2. EDUCATION AND SOCIALIZATION
3. CULTURAL NORMS AND TRADITIONS
John Beattee: “Culture is the way of life which is transmitted from
generation to generation”
Social Learning - process by which individuals acquire knowledge
from others in the groups to which they belong, as an normal part
of childhood.
Socialization Also called as enculturation;
• The process in which we socially learn culture including
morality;
• The process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of
society.
THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE A PERSONS MORAL
BEHAVIOR
• Family
– the basic unit in a society. It includes one’s biological or adoptive
family of orientation.
 School
– It may include formal or non- formal educational system that
provides a child with his learning needs.
• Church
• – determines the institution that what is specifically
considered as right or wrong. It is composed of believers in
the same faith.
• Mass media – determines the institution that what is
specifically considered as right or wrong. It is composed of
believers in the same faith.
• CULTURAL NORMS term "norms" refers to the accepted
standards or rules of behavior that are considered typical or
appropriate within a particular society, group, or community.
C. CROSS-CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN MORAL BEHAVIOUR
1. CASE STUDIES AND EXAMPLE
2. IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON CULTURAL MORALITY
CROSS-CULTURAL
•Pertaining to or contrasting two or more cultures or cultural
groups.
•A business environment where participants from different
countries or regions interact, bringing different values, viewpoints
and business practices
Globalization and Cross- Cultural Exchanges
1. Globalization has become an undeniable force shaping
our world today
2. Globalization has significantly influenced cross-cultural
exchanges in various domains.
Globalization
is the word used to describe the growing
interdependence of the world's economies cultures and
populations brought about by cross-border trade in goods and
services technology and flows of investment people and
information this process brought a big impact on our filipino
culture.
now here are some of the effects;
language the biggest impact of globalization on non-english
languages
entertainment some or most of the people in the philippines
especially teenagers loves to idolized k-pop
consumerism social media and internet are widely publicized and
it can easily broaden influence worldwide.
lifestyle ever since they colonized our country you can notice that
we are already driven by western culture filipino pride and
nationalism
D. CHALLENGE AND CRITIQUES
1. CROSS-CULTURAL RELATIVISM CONCERNS
2. BALANCING CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND UNIVERSAL
RIGHTS
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
• is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to
make judgments using the standards of one’s own culture.
• The goal of this is promote understanding of cultural practices
that are not typically part of one’s own culture.
FEATURES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM
1. Different societies have different moral codes.
In some cultures, it is considered acceptable to have multiple
spouses, such as having more
2. The moral code of our society has no special
status.
In some cultures, arranged marriages are a common practice.
Arranged marriages involve the selection of a spouse by the family
or community, rather than the individuals themselves.
3. We should adopt an attitude of tolerance.
The phrase “We should adopt an attitude of tolerance” relates to
cultural relativism in the sense that cultural relativism promotes the
idea of respecting and understanding different cultural practices,
beliefs, and values.
1. Relativism vs. Universality: Cultural relativism asserts that all
cultural beliefs, values, and practices should be understood within
the context of their own culture, without imposing external
judgments.
2. Challenges to Human Rights Standards: Cultural relativism
can make it difficult to establish and enforce universal human
rights standards.
3. Balancing Cultural Diversity and Human Rights: Cultural
relativism emphasizes the importance of respecting cultural
diversity and avoiding cultural imperialism.
4. Progress and Change: Cultural relativism can hinder moral
progress and social change by discouraging societies from
questioning and challenging harmful cultural practices.
I. THE MORAL AGENT: DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS
HABIT
A. UNDERSTANDING MORAL AGENT
1. MORAL AGENT
A moral agent is a person who can discern right from wrong and
be held accountable for his or her actions.
2. PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY IN MORAL DECISION
MAKING
Responsible decision-making involves considering ethical
standards, consequences, and the well-being of oneself and
others when making choices.
Here are three examples of how a person can demonstrate
responsible decision-making:
1) Considering consequences: A person can demonstrate
responsible decision-making by considering the potential
consequences of their actions.
2) Problem Solving: Responsible decision-making often involves
problem-solving skills. A person can demonstrate this by
identifying and analyzing problems or challenges they encounter.
3) Ethical Considerations: Responsible decision-making includes
considering ethical standards and values. An individual can
demonstrate this by evaluating their decisions in light of ethical
principles such as fairness, honesty, and respect.
B. ARISTOTLE VIRTUE ETHICS
1. Definition of Virtue Ethics
What is virtue ethics and who is Aristotle?
Aristotle (384-322 BC) is one of the great Greek philosophers as
Plato and Socrates. He was known for his works in morality such
as The Eudemian Ethics and the Nicomachean Ethics.
Virtue ethics is a broad term for theories that emphasize the role
of character and virtue in moral philosophy rather than either doing
one’s duty or acting to bring about good consequences. A virtue
ethicist is likely to give you this kind of moral advice: “Act as a
virtuous person would act in your situation.”
TELOS/END OF HUMAN ACTIVITY
Under the ethical framework of Aristotle, he means a lot that we
need to be aware of every action we make.
There are two things about the end as good:
1. Aristotle insists that any good end is achievable. - Nothing in
real life that good end is non-achievable by human action.
2. Every action that aims to achieve the good is the telos/end of
human actions. - It only means that the result of our ethical
decision-making is good.
Virtue ethics has been developed in three main directions:
1. Eudaimonism - bases virtues in human flourishing,
where flourishing is equated with performing one’s
distinctive function well.
2. Agent–based theories - emphasize that virtues are
determined by common-sense intuitions that we as
observers judge to be admirable traits in other people.
3. Ethics of care - the ethics of care, was proposed
predominately by feminist thinkers. It challenges the
idea that ethics should focus solely on justice and
autonomy; it argues that more feminine traits, such as
caring and nurturing, should also be considered.
2. VIRTUE AS HABIT
In the second book of NE, Aristotle explicates the acquisition of
character excellence by habituation (ethismos). Character
excellence and habit are the two important terms we need to
consider here.
Moral virtues
In terms of Moral Virtues, we must always remember that we
should act in a moderate way that is to act in a way that is too
much nor too little (neither in excess nor in deficiency).
Intellectual virtue
1. The intellectual virtue of wisdom (has the role of
governing ethical behavior)
2. The intellectual virtue of understanding
C. Developing Virtues as a Habit
- involves consciously practicing and embodying positive qualities
on a regular basis. And also Developing virtues as a habit is a
wonderful way to cultivate positive qualities and improve oneself.
1. Emphasis on Character - Virtue ethics places a
central emphasis on an individual's character rather
than on rules or consequences.
2. Virtuous Traits - Virtuous traits are qualities that are
considered morally good and desirable.
3. Development of Virtue - Virtue ethics encourages
individuals to cultivate and develop these virtuous traits
over time through education, practice, and self-
reflection
4. Practical Guidance - Virtue ethics provides practical
guidance for making moral decisions.
5. Balancing Conflicting Duties - Virtue ethics can help
individuals navigate situations where different moral
principles or duties appear to conflict.
6. Subjectivity and Context - Virtue ethics
acknowledges that moral judgments can be context-
dependent and that what is virtuous in one situation
may not be the same in another.
7. Long-term Perspective - Virtue ethics promotes the
idea that moral decision-making should be guided by a
long-term perspective of becoming a virtuous
individual.
8. Moral Exemplars - Virtue ethics often looks to moral
exemplars, individuals who embody virtuous traits, as
role models.
9. Critique of Rule-Based Ethics - Virtue ethics offers a
critique of rule-based ethical theories (such as
deontology and utilitarianism) by emphasizing that rigid
rules may not cover all moral situations and that virtue
can help in cases where rules are insufficient.
1. HABITUATION AND ROLE OF REPETITION
- refers to the process of becoming accustomed to a stimulus
over time, resulting in a decreased response to that stimulus.
2. ROLE OF REPETITION AND REFLECTION
Repetition plays a significant role in habituation by allowing us to
become accustomed to a stimulus and decrease our
responsiveness to it over time.
D. MORAL EXEMPLARS
1. Moral Exemplars and role models
Moral exemplars are individuals who consistently demonstrate
exceptional moral character and behavior.
1. Moral Exemplars - Moral exemplars are individuals who
consistently demonstrate exceptional moral character and
behavior.
2. Role Models - Role models are individuals who inspire and
influence others through their actions, achievements, and values.
3. Motivation and Aspiration - Moral exemplars and role models
can inspire us to strive for moral excellence.
4. Emotional Connection - Moral exemplars and role models
often evoke emotional connections and admiration.
5. Personal Growth and Development - By following the
example of moral exemplars and role models, we can enhance our
personal growth and development.
D. Moral Exemplars
2. Real-world Examples of Virtuous Individuals
 Mother Teresa: She was a Catholic nun and
missionary who devoted her life to serving the poor and
sick in India and other countries. She founded the
Missionaries of Charity, a religious order that runs
hospices, schools, and orphanages around the world.
 Mahatma Gandhi: He was a leader of the Indian
independence movement and a champion of
nonviolence and civil disobedience. He fought against
British colonial rule and advocated for the rights of the
oppressed and marginalized.
 Martin Luther King Jr.: He was a civil rights activist
and a Baptist minister who led the struggle for racial
equality and justice in the United States. He delivered
the famous “I Have a Dream” speech and organized
peaceful protests and boycotts.
 Nelson Mandela: He was a leader of the anti-
apartheid movement in South Africa and spent 27
years in prison for his activism. He later became the
first democratically elected president of South Africa
and won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to
reconcile the nation.
E. Challenges in Developing Virtue
Cultivating a virtuous character is something that happens by
practice. Aristotle compares the development of the skill of virtue
to the development of other skills.
1. Conflicts with External Influences
 Peer pressure: Friends, colleagues, or social groups
may exert pressure on individuals to conform to certain
behaviors
 Role models and mentors: These are people who
exemplify the virtues that one wants to acquire or
improve.
 Cultural norms and societal expectations: These
are groups of people who share common values,
norms, practices, and expectations.
 Media influence: Mass media, including television,
movies, and social media, can shape perceptions of
morality and influence behavior.
 Economic factors: Economic pressures, such as
poverty or financial insecurity, can force individuals to
make choices that compromise their moral principles.
2. Balancing Individual Virtue with Social Expectation
Balancing individual virtue with social expectation in developing
virtue means finding the right way to act according to one’s own
moral standards and values, while also respecting and fulfilling the
norms and expectations of the society one lives in.
This may involve some of the following steps:
 Understanding personal values: Before navigating
social expectations, individuals should have a clear
understanding of their own values and principles.
 Learning about the virtues and values of others, and
understanding the perspectives and reasons for them.
 Recognizing limitations and compromises: While
striving to uphold individual virtue, it's important to
recognize that certain situations may require
compromises or trade-offs.
 Evaluating the outcomes and consequences of one’s
actions and decisions, and assessing their consistency
and compatibility with one’s virtues and values. III.
Integrating Culture and Virtue
A. Culturally Grounded Virtue Ethics
1. Cultural Variations in Virtue
Cultural variation in virtue is the idea that different cultures have
different understandings and expressions of what it means to be
virtuous. Virtue, in this sense, is not a fixed or universal concept,
but rather a context-dependent and culturally relative one. Some
examples of cultural variation in virtue are:
Language: Different languages may have words or concepts that
capture aspects of virtue that are not easily translated or
understood by other cultures.
Religion: Different religions may have different sets of virtues that
they emphasize or value.
Gender roles: Different cultures may have different expectations
and norms for how men and women should behave and what
virtues they should embody.
Social hierarchy: Different cultures may have different ways of
organizing and ranking people in society, which may affect how
they view and express virtue.
2. Integration of Cultural Values and Virtuous Behavior
The integration of cultural values and virtuous behavior is
fundamental in fostering a cohesive and morally sound society.
Key Ways in integrating cultural values and virtuous behavior:
Education and Socialization: Cultural values are often
transmitted through education and socialization processes within
families, schools, religious institutions, and communities.
Role Modeling: Cultural values are reinforced through the
behavior of role models such as parents, teachers, religious
leaders, and community elders.
Social Norms and Expectations: Cultural values shape social
norms and expectations regarding acceptable behavior within a
society.
Cross-Cultural Dialogue and Understanding: Recognizing and
respecting cultural diversity are essential for promoting virtuous
behavior on a global scale.
2. Education and Cultural Virtue Development
1. Incorporating Virtue Ethics in Education
Cultivates ethical decision-making skills: Virtue ethics
emphasizes the development of moral virtues such as honesty,
integrity, compassion, and courage.
Promotes personal and social responsibility: Virtue ethics
emphasizes the importance of taking responsibility for one's
actions and their impact on others.
Fosters a positive school culture:
Virtue ethics emphasizes the importance of cultivating virtuous
character traits within individuals and communities.

2. Cultural Sensitivity in Virtue Education

Cultural sensitivity is an important aspect of virtue education.

When teaching virtues, it's essential to take into account cultural
differences and respect the diversity of beliefs and values.

Cultural sensitivity

also involves being aware of potential biases and stereotypes that

may exist about certain cultures.

A. Recap of Cultural Influence on Moral Behavior

Cultural influence plays a significant role in shaping moral

behavior. Here's a recap of how culture can impact our moral
values and actions:

1. Cultural Norms: Each culture has its own set of norms

and values that define what is considered morally
acceptable or unacceptable behavior.

2. Relativism vs. Universalism: Cultures may differ in

their moral relativism or universalism.

3. Socialization: Cultural practices, traditions, and

institutions play a crucial role in socializing individuals
and shaping their moral behavior.

4. Role of Religion: Religion often plays a significant role

in influencing moral behavior.

5. Cultural Relativism: Cultural relativism recognizes

that moral values and practices can differ across
cultures and that judgments about right and wrong
should be made within the cultural context.

6. Cultural Evolution: Moral values and behaviors can

evolve over time within a culture.

B. Emphasizing the Importance of Virtue Development

Virtue development is of utmost importance in shaping individuals’

moral behavior and fostering a healthy and ethical society. Here
are some key points that emphasize the significance of virtue
development:

1. Personal Growth: Virtue development focuses on

cultivating positive character traits and moral virtues
within oneself.

2. Ethical Decision-Making: Virtues serve as a moral

compass that guides individuals in making ethical
decisions.

3. Building Trust and Relationships: Virtuous behavior

fosters trust and strengthens relationships.

4. Role Modeling: Virtue development sets a positive

example for others, especially for younger generations.