BS BIO GNED 02 MIDTERMS REVIEWER A.
Y 2022-2023
OVERVIEW OF PHILOSOPHY
Ethics - branch of philosophy, “Ethos” custom or character.
Philosophy - Etymologically, it comes from two Greek
words “philo or philein” which means love or friendship
for, and “sophia” which means wisdom. This etymological
definition leads to its real definition which is “it is love of
wisdom.”
“When the Greeks speak of love, it refers to passion, and
when they speak of passion, again it does not mean an
overwhelming emotion for something. It rather refers to
an act or an activity”
Philosophers’ desire or search always starts with a
question, and all questions start with either wonder or
bewilderment. Philosophers are ordinary mortals in the
sense that they were born in a community that has.
What makes philosophers extraordinary is their method
and approach to ideas, information, knowledge, beliefs,
and practices that they experience around even if these
ideas or knowledge come from scientific discoveries,
tradition, practices of religion, or other reliable sources.
A philosopher is in the activity of constantly subjecting
everything, even his own beliefs, knowledge, and practices
to scrutiny or question.
1. Saint Augustine, a bishop, tried to explain and justify
certain religious points of view.
2. René Descartes, a scientist, attempted to interpret the
meaning and importance of various scientific discoveries
and theories.
3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a writer and composer,
fomented the French Revolution, and provided a basic
framework for classical republicanism which we presently
experience in the forms of civil society, our citizenship, and
mixed governance.
4. Blaise Pascal, a mathematician and theologian,
attempted to help in computing large numbers by
inventing the Arithmetic Machine, or the first calculator
which evolved as the personal computer.
5. John Locke and Karl Marx, have philosophized in order
to effect certain changes in the political organization of
society.
6. Carol Gilligan, a psychologist, was interested in justifying
or promulgating the innate capacity of women to effect
change in the society through care-based ethics. This later
on evolved as the advocacy and programs aimed at
promoting women in nation building.
Ethics is about making a decision and acting on that certain
decision when we are confronted with two conflicting
values which are both good but we cannot choose both, or
which are both evil but which we cannot refuse to choose
one
Ethics is a philosophical science that deals with the
morality of human behavior viewed from the ultimate
principles insofar as these principles are known by human
reason.
ETHICS, MORALS AND MORALITY
Morals
When we speak of morals, it refers to the individual’s code
of behavior which may come from religion, culture,
principles, or beliefs which are not right or wrong but
which may or may not be based on reason. In short, morals
may or may not be rational
Examples of morals:
- Wearing skimpy shorts is an expression of autonomy from
tradition since we live in a free world where women should
wear what they want.
Ethics
When we speak of ethics, it refers to a rational way of
deciding what is good for the individual or society, which
means not just to the self.
Example of ethics:
The principle of Categorical Imperative which states that
an act is right not because of the outcome but because of
the means. This is the principle where the famous quote
“the end does not justify the means” come from.
Morality
Judgment that can be attributed to a certain behavior
which follows from an execution of a decision based on
certain philosophical principles.
Example:
If a person adhered to the principle of categorical
imperative, and acts according to this principle, then the
principle is lived out in the decision made. That is the time
when morality as a term can be used.
TYPES OF ETHICS
Normative ethics
 Seeks to set norms or standards of conduct which an
organization, institution, country or profession should
follow.
o deontology,
o utilitarianism
o virtue ethics
o justice principle.
 “Do Good at all times.”
Metaethics
 Deals with questions about the nature of ethical
theories or moral judgments, such as the question
whether moral judgments are objective or not.
 “What is good?”
Applied ethics
 Deals with the application of normative ethical
theories to practical problems.
o business ethics
o environmental ethics
o media ethics
 Casuists – adherents of applied ethics
RULES, MORAL & NON-MORAL STANDARDS, MORAL
DILEMMA
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior
 Accepted rules are usually coupled with negative
consequences, that is why people follow them.
2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and
freedom.
 This appears usually in the form of a constitution.
However, the rule of majority is essential for a society to
enjoy the privileges these rules.
3.Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings.
 Rules are established to prevent the strong from
exploiting and dominating the weak.
 Both the strong and the weak will face the social and
criminal consequences if they transgress established rules.
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system.
 Rules are essential for a healthy economic system.
MORAL VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS
Always remember that not all rules are moral rules. Also,
not all standards are moral standards
MORAL STANDARDS
 These are the rules that people have about the kinds of
actions they believe are morally right or wrong
 These also include the values that people place on the
kinds of objects they believe are morally good and
morally bad.
NON-MORAL STANDARDS
 These are the rules that are unrelated to moral or
ethical considerations. They are not necessarily linked to
morality or by nature lack ethical sense
i. Rules of etiquette
ii. Fashion standards*
iii. Rules in games
iv. House rules*
v. religious rules, some traditions, and legal statutes
CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL STANDARDS
1. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or
significant benefits.
-Moral standards have serious impacts. They can
necessarily affect one’s life or wellbeing.
2. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other
values.
-Moral standards have overriding character or
hegemonic authority. It means that people have to do
such moral standards even if it conflicts with non-
moral standards, and even with self-interest.
3. Moral standards are not established by authority
figures.
 -Moral standards follow the principle which states that
“nobody made them, therefore nobody can destroy
them.”
*Natural Law
4. Moral standards are universal.
-Moral standards are true to anybody. This is reflected
in the Principle of Justice which states that “It cannot
be right for A to treat B in a manner in which it would
be wrong for B to treat A, merely on the ground that
they are two different individuals, and without there
being any difference between the natures or
circumstances of the two which can be stated as a
reasonable ground for difference of treatment.”
5. Moral standards are based on impartial
considerations.
-The term impartiality pertains to being free of bias or
prejudice. Moral standards usually consider the
interest of all concerned parties.
6. Moral standards are prescriptive.
-Moral standards are prescriptive: they are generally
put forth as injunctions or imperatives. Guilt is the
product of violating a moral standard. Non-compliance
to non-moral standards brings not as much guilt to an
individual.
DILEMMA AND MORAL DILEMMA
The term ‘dilemma’ refers to a situation in which a tough
choice has to be made between two or more options,
especially more or less equally undesirable ones.
Example of a dilemma (Peji, 2018):
You are very hungry at this moment. However, you
extremely hate vegetables. Sadly, the nearest cafeteria from
your location is the kind for vegans. The only place where
you can buy cooked meat (without any vegetable side dish)
is almost a kilometer away, and the only way you can get
there is by walking.
Will you push yourself to walk so far, or will you simply
endure your hunger?
Always remember that not all dilemmas are moral
dilemmas.
Moral dilemmas, also called ‘ethical dilemmas’, are
situations in which a difficult choice has to be made
between two courses of action, either of which entails
transgressing a moral principle.
Example of a moral dilemma (retrieved on 21 August 2018,
from www.buzzfeed.com):
You are an eyewitness to a crime: A man has robbed a bank,
but instead of keeping the money for himself, he donates it
to a poor orphanage that can now afford to feed, clothe,
and care for its children. You know who committed the
crime. If you go to the authorities to reveal who the robber
was, there’s good chance that the money will be returned
to the bank, leaving a lot of kids in need. What do you do?
Conflict is the most common element in all kinds of moral
dilemmas.
KEY FEATURES OF A MORAL DILEMMA
• The agent is required to do each of two (or more)
actions;
• The agent can do each of the actions, but he/she
cannot do both (or all) of the actions.
• Neither of the conflicting moral requirements is
overridden.
In a moral dilemma, the agent seems to be condemned to
moral failure; no matter what he does, he will do something
wrong, or fail to do something that he ought to do.
LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS
a) PERSONAL DILEMMAS
These include those that are experienced and
resolved on the personal level.
Examples of personal dilemma:
If a person makes conflicting promises, he/she faces
a moral conflict. When an individual has to choose
between the life of a child who is about to be
delivered and the child’s mother, he faces an ethical
dilemma.
b) ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMAS
 These include those ethical cases encountered and appropriately used by an informed and empowered
resolved by social organizations focused on public.
business, medical field, and public sector.

If a medical institution believes that human life

Regarding this program, the biggest issue is the budget
should not be deliberately shortened and that
allocation. The government can allocate bigger budget
unpreventable pain should not be tolerated, it will
for health services, but this would mean that the budget
encounter a conflict in resolving whether to
for other sectors will be cut down.
withdraw life support from a dying patient.
‘ONLY HUMAN BEINGS CAN BE ETHICAL’
This is a common moral dilemma faced by
healthcare organizations. Most philosophers hold that unlike animals, human
beings possess some traits that make it possible for
them to be moral.
Businesses can face moral dilemmas in the form of
Why are humans considered the only ethical species?
issues about corporate practices, policies, business
behaviors, and the conducts and relationships of 1. Only human beings are rational, autonomous,
individuals in the organizations. Other business-related and self-conscious.
dilemmas pertain to the social responsibility of
business, employee rights, harassment, labor unions, 2. Only human beings can act morally or
misleading advertising, job discrimination, and whistle immorally.
blowing. 3. Only human beings are part of the moral
In public sector, government leaders and employees community.
have a moral responsibility to act in a manner that is fair
and unbiased, that is loyal to the public by putting
public interest before personal gain, and that fulfills
duties of competency, integrity, accountability, and
transparency.

Public officials may face situations when they will have

to decide whether or not to favor a family, friends, or
campaign contributors over other constituents, political
party’s agenda over the good of the majority, and
accepting gifts if it is legally permitted but creates the
impression of impropriety.

c. STRUCTURAL DILEMMAS

These include cases involving network of institutions

and operative theoretical paradigms.

They usually encompass multi-sectoral institutions and

organizations, and they are larger in scope and extent
than organizational dilemmas.

One example of structural dilemmas is the “Kalusugan

Pangkalahatan” or the “Universal Health Care” wherein
every Filipino is entitled of the highest possible quality
of health care that is accessible, efficient, equitably
distributed, adequately funded, fairly financed, and