Dynamics of Rigid Bodies All Topics

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Dynamics of Rigid Bodies All Topics
Dynamics Of Rigid Bodies (Technological Institute of the Philippines)
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Lesson 1 Introduction to Dynamics
Definition of Dynamics
Dynamics is that branch of engineering mechanics which deals with the motion of bodies under the
action of forces. The study of dynamics in engineering usually follows the study of statics, which
deals with the effects of of forces on bodies at rest. Dynamics has two distinct parts:
1. Kinematics, which is the study of motion without reference to the forces which cause the motion;
and
2. Kinetics, which relates the action of forces on bodies to their resulting motions.
A thorough comprehension of dynamics will provide one of the most useful and powerful tools for
analysis in engineering.
History of Dynamics
Dynamics is a relatively recent subject compared with statics. The beginning of a rational
understanding of dynamics is credited to Galileo (1565-1642), who made careful observations
concerning bodies in free fall, motion on an inclined plan, and motion of the pendulum. He was
largely responsible for bringing a scientific approach to the investigation of physical problems. Galileo
was continually under severe criticism for refusing to accept the established beliefs of his day, such
as the philosophies of Aristotle which held, for example, that heavy bodies fall more rapidly than light
bodies. The lack of accurate means for the measurement of time was a severe handicap to Galileo,
and further significant development in dynamics awaited the invention of the pendulum clock by
Huygens in 1657.
Newton (1642-1727), guided by Galileo's work, was able to make an accurate formulation of the laws
of motion and, thus, to place dynamics on a sound basis. Newton's famous work was published in
the first edition of his Principia, which is generally recognized as one of the greatest of all recorded
contributions to knowledge. In addition to stating the laws governing the motion of a particle, Newton
was the first to correctly formulate the laws of universal gravitation.

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Basic Concepts
Space is the geometric region occupied by the bodies. Position in space is determined relative to
some geometric reference system by means of linear and angular measurements.
Time is a measure of the succession of events.
Mass is the quantitative measure of the inertia or resistance to change in motion of a body. Mass
may also be considered as the quantity of matter in a body as well as the property which gives rise to
the gravitational attraction.
Force is the vector action of one body on another.
A particle is a body of negligible dimensions. When the dimensions of a body are irrelevant to the
description of its motion or the action of forces on it, the body may be treated as a particle.
A rigid body is a body whose changes in shape are negligible compared with the overall dimensions
of the body or with the changes in position of the body as a whole.
Newton's Laws
Newton's three laws of motion are stated here because of their special significance to dynamics.
Law I. A particle remains at rest or continues to move with uniform velocity (in a straight line with a
constant speed) if there is no unbalanced force acting on it.
Law II. The acceleration of a particle is a proportional to the resultant force acting on it and is in the
direction of the force
Law III The forces of action and reaction between interacting bodies are equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction, and collinear.
These laws have been verified by countless physical measurements. The first two laws hold for
measurements made in an absolute frame of reference, but are subject to some correction when the
motion is a measured relative to a reference system having acceleration, such as one attached to the
surface of the earth.

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Newton's second law forms the basis for most of the analysis in dynamics. For a particle of mass m
subjected to a resultant force F, the law may be stated as
where a is the resulting acceleration measured in a non-accelerating frame of reference. Newton's

first law is a consequence of the second law since there is no acceleration when the force is zero,
and so the particle is either at rest or is moving with a constant velocity. The third law constitutes the
principle of action and reaction with which you should be thoroughly familiar from your work in statics

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Lesson 1.1 Kinematics of a Particle: Rectilinear Motion Concept
Introduction
We will begin our study of dynamics by discussing the kinematics of a particle that moves along a
rectilinear or straight-line path. Recall that a particle has a mass but negligible size and shape.
Therefore, we must limit application to those objects that have no consequence in the analysis of the
motion.
Rectilinear Kinematics
The kinematics of a particle is characterized by specifying, at any given instant, the particle's
position, velocity, and acceleration.
Position
The straight line path of a particle will be defined using a single coordinate axis s, Fig 1.2-1. The
origin O on the path is a fixed point, and from this point the position coordinate s is used to specify
the location of the particle at any given instant. The magnitude of s is the distance from O to the
particle. Realize that position is a vector quantity since it has both magnitude and direction.
Fig 1.2-1

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Displacement
The displacement of the particle is defined as the change in its position. For example, if the particle
moves from one point to another, the displacement is
In this case is positive since the particle's final position is to the right of its initial position, i.e., s' >
s. Likewise, if the final position were to the left of its initial position, would be negative.
The displacement of a particle is also a vector quantity, and it should be distinguished from the
distance the particle travels. Specifically, the distance travelled is a positive scalar that represents the
total length of path over which the particle travels.
Fig 1.2-2
Velocity
If the particle moves through a displacement during the time interval , the average velocity of
the particle during this time interval is
If we take smaller and smaller values of , the magnitude of becomes smaller and smaller.
Consequently, the instantaneous velocity is a vector defined as or

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Eq. 1.2-1
Fig 1.2-3
The magnitude of the velocity is known as the speed. Occasionally, the term average speed is
always a positive scalar and is defined as the total distance traveled by a particle, , divided by the
elapsed time
For example, the particle in Fig. travels along the path of length in time ,so its average speed
is , but its average velocity is
Fig 1.2-4
Acceleration.
Provided the velocity of the particle is known at two points, the average acceleration of the particle
during the time interval is defined as

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Here represents the difference in the velocity during the time interval , i.e.,
The instantaneous acceleration at time t is a vector that is found by taking smaller and smaller values
of and corresponding smaller values of , so that or
Eq. 1.2-2
Fig 1.2-5
Substituting Eq, 12-1 into this result, we can also write
Both the average and instantaneous acceleration can be either positive or negative. In particular,
when the particle is slowing down, or its speed is decreasing, the particle is said to be decelerating.
Finally, an important differential relation involving the displacement, velocity, and acceleration along
the path may be obtained by eliminating the time differential dt between Eqs. and. We have
or
Eq. 1.2-3

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Fig 1.2-6
Keep in mind that although acceleration is in the direction of the change in velocity, it is not always in
the direction of motion. When an object slows down, its acceleration is opposite to the direction of its
motion. This is known as deceleration.
Take the subway train in the figure below as an example, the train decelerates as it comes into a
station. It is accelerating in a direction opposite to its direction of motion.
Fig 1.2-7
Misconception Alert: Deceleration vs Negative Acceleration

Deceleration always refer to acceleration in the direction opposite to the direction of the velocity.
Deceleration always reduces speed. Negative acceleration, however, is the acceleration in the
negative direction in the chosen coordinate system. Negative acceleration may or may not be

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deceleration, and deceleration may or may not be considered negative acceleration. For example,
consider Figure
Fig 1.2-8
(a) This car is speeding up as it moves toward the right, It therefore has positive acceleration in our
coordinate system
(b) This car is slowing down as it moves toward the right. Therefore, it has negative acceleration in
our coordinate system, because its acceleration is toward the left. The car is also decelerating: the
direction of its acceleration is opposite to its direction of motion.

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(c) This car is moving toward the left, but slowing down over time. Therefore, its acceleration is
positive in our coordinate system because it is toward the right.
(d) This car is speeding up as it moves toward the left. It has negative acceleration because it is
accelerating toward the left.
Graphical Interpretations
Interpretation of the differential equations governing rectilinear motion is considerably clarified by
representing the relationships among graphically. Fig. 1.2-9 is a schematic plot of the
variation of s with t from to time for some given rectilinear motion, By constructing the tangent
to the curve at any time t, we obtain the slope which is the velocity . Thus, the velocity can be
determined at all points on the curve and plotted against the corresponding time as shown in Fig 1.2-
10. Similarly, the slope of the v-t curve at any instant gives the acceleration at that instant, and the
a-t curve can therefore be plotted as in Fig.1.2-11.
Fig 1.2-9
We now see from 1.2-10 that the area under the v-t curve during time dt is vdt, which from Eq. 1.2-1
is the displacement ds. Consequently, the net displacement of the particle during the interval from
is the corresponding area under the curve, which is

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Fig 1.2-10
Similarly, from Fig.1.2-11 we see that the area under the a-t curve during time dt is adt, which, from
the first of Eq 1.2-2 is dv. Thus, the net change in velocity between is the corresponding
area under the curve, which is
Fig 1.2-11
Note another graphical relation. When the acceleration a is plotted as a function of the position
coordinate s, Fig 1.2-12, the area under the curve during a displacement ds is , which, from
Eq.1.2-3 is . Thus, the net area under the curve between position
coordinates is

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Fig 1.2-12
Constant Acceleration,
When the acceleration is constant, each of the three kinematic equations

and can be integrated to obtain formulas that relate and t.
Velocity as a Function of Time. Integrate , assuming that initially when
Eq. 1.2-4
Constant Acceleration
Position as a Function of Time. Integrate , assuming that initially when

t=0
Eq. 1.2-5
Velocity as a Function of Position. Either solve for t in Eq and substitute into Eq. or integrate
, assuming that initially at .

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Eq. 1.2-6
Caution: The foregoing equations have been integrated for constant acceleration only. A common
mistake is to use these equations for problems involving variable acceleration, where they do not
apply.

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Lesson 1.2 Kinematics of a Particle, Rectilinear

Motion Solved Problems
Sample Problems
Problem No. 1
The position coordinate of a particle which is confined to move along a straight line is given by
, where s is measured in meters from a convenient origin and t is in seconds.
Determine the following:
(a) The time required for the particle to reach a velocity of 72 m/s from its initial condition at t=0
Solution
(a)
Problem No. 2
The velocity of a particle moving along the x-axis is given by where s is

in meters and v is in m/s. Determine the acceleration when s=2 meters.
Solution
At s=2meters,
At s=2meters, the acceleration is

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Problem No. 3
A particle travels along a straight line with an acceleration if , where s is

measured in meters. Determine the velocity of the particle when s=10m if v=5m/s at s=0
Solution
At s=10m,

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Problem No. 4
A small projectile is fired vertically downward into a fluid medium with an initial velocity of 60 m/s.
Due to the drag resistance of the fluid the projectile experiences a deceleration of ,
where v is on m/s. Determine the projectile's velocity and position 4 sec after it is fired.
Solution
Velocity
Position

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When t=4sec
Problem No. 5
During a test, a rocket travels upward at 75m/s and when it is 40 m from the ground its engine fails.
Determine the maximum height reached by the rocket and its speed just before it hits the ground.
While in motion the rocket is subjected to a constant downward acceleration of due to gravity.
Neglect the effect of air resistance. Determine also the Velocity at Point C
Solution
Maximum Height

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Velocity
OR
Problem No. 6
A particle moves along the x-axis with an initial velocity of ft/sec at the origin when t=0. For
the first 4 seconds it has no acceleration, and thereafter it is acted on by a retarding force which
gives it a constant acceleration ft/sec^2. Calculate the velocity and the x-coordinate of the
particle for the conditions of t=8 and t=12sec and find the maximum positive x-coordinate reached by
the particle. Find also the total distance travelled by the particle in the 12th second.
Solution
Velocity
At t=8sec,
At t=12sec
Position

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At t=8sec,
At t=12sec,
Maximum positive X-coordinate
Total Distance Travelled
From t=0sec to t=4sec

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Lesson 2.1 Curvilinear Motion;

Rectangular Coordinates
General Curvilinear Motion
Curvilinear motion occurs when a particle moves along a curved path. Since this path is often
described in three dimensions, vector analysis will be used to formulate the particle's position,
velocity, and acceleration. In this section the general aspects of curvilinear motion are discussed.
Position
Consider a particle located at a point on a space curve defined by the path function s(t), Fig 2.1-1.
The position of the particle, measured from a fixed point O, will be designated by the position vector
r=r(t). Notice that both the magnitude and direction of this vector will change as the particle moves
along the curve.
Fig2.1-1
Displacement
Supposed that during a small time interval the particle moves a distance along the curve to a
new position, defined by , Figure 2.1-2 . The displacement represent the change in
the particle's position and is determined by vector subtraction; i.e.,

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Velocity
During the time , the average velocity of the particle is
The instantaneous velocity is determined from this equation by letting , and consequently the
direction of approaches the tangent to the curve. Hence,
v or
v=dr/dt
Eq. 2.1-1
Since dr will be tangent to the curve, the direction of v is also tangent to the curve, Fig.2.1-3. The
magnitude of v, which is called the speed, is obtained by realizing that the length of the straight line
segment in FIg2.1-2 approaches the arc length as , we have
, or
Eq. 2.1-2

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Fig2.1-3
Thus, the speed can be obtained by differentiating the path function s with respect to time.
Acceleration
Fig2.1-4
Fig2.1-5
If the particle has a velocity v at time t and a velocity at . Fig 2.1-4, then the
average acceleration of the particle during the time interval is
where . To study this time rate of change the two velocity vectors in Fig2.1-4 are plotted in Fig2.1-5
such that their tails are located at the fixed point O' and their arrowheads touch points on a curve. This curve is
called a hodograph, and when constructed, it describes the locus of points for the arrowhead of the velocity vector
in the same manner. As the path s describes the locus of points for the arrowhead of the position vector, Fig2.1-1.

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To obtain the instantaneous acceleration, let in the above equation. In the limit will
approach the tangent to the hodograph, and so , or
a=dv/dt
Eq. 2.1-3
Substituting Eq,2.1-1 into this result, we can also write
By definition of the derivative, a acts tangent to the hodograph, Fig. 2.1-6, and in general it is not
tangent to the path of motion, Fig. 2.1-7. To clarify this point, realize that and consequently a
must account for the change made in both the magnitude and direction of the velocity v as the
particle moves from one point to the next along the path, Fig. 2.1-4. However, in order for the particle
to follow any curved path, the directional change always "swings" the velocity vector toward the
"inside" or "concave side" of the path, and therefore a cannot remain tangent to the path. In
summary, v is always tangent to the path and a is always tangent to the hodograph.

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Fig2.1-6
Fig2.1-7
Curvilinear Motion: Rectangular Components

Occasionally the motion of a particle can best be described along a path that can be expressed in
terms of its x,y,z coordinate.
Position

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Fig. 2.1-8
If the particle is at point (x,y,z) on the curved path s shown in Fig. 2.1-8, then its location is defined
by the position vector
Eq. 2.1-4
When the particle moves, the x,y,z components of r will be functions of time; i.e., x=x(t), y=y(t), z=z(t),
so that r=r(t)
At any instant the magnitude of r is defined as
And the direction of r is specified by the unit vector r/r
Velocity

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Fig. 2.1-9
The first derivative of r yields the velocity of the particle. Hence,
When taking this derivative, it is necessary to account for the changes in both the magnitude and
direction of each of the vector's components. For example, the derivative of the i component of r is
The second term on the right side is zero, provided the x,y,z reference frame is fixed, and therefore
the direction (and the magnitude) of i does not change with time. Differentiation of the j and k
components may be carried out in a similar manner, which yields the final result.
Eq. 2.1-5
where
Eq. 2.1-6
The velocity has a magnitude that is found from

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and a direction that is specified by the unit vector v/v. As discussed in the General Curvilinear
Motion of this module, this direction is always tangent to the path, as shown in Fig. 2.1-9
Acceleration
Fig. 2.1-10
The acceleration of the particle is obtained by taking the first time derivative of Eq.2.1-5 (or the
second time derivative of Eq.2.1-4). We have
Eq. 2.1-7
where
Eq. 2.1-8
The acceleration has a magnitude
and a direction that is specified by the unit vector a/a. Since a represents the time rate of
change in both the magnitude and direction of the velocity in general a will not be tangent to the path,
Fig.2.1-10

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Motion of a Projectile
The free-flight motion of a projectile is often studied in term of its rectangular components. To
illustrate the kinematic analysis, consider a projectile launched at point , with an initial
velocity of , having components and , in Fig.2.1-11. When air resistance is neglected,
the only force acting on the projectile is its weight, which causes the projectile to have a constant
downward acceleration of approximately or
Fig. 2.1-11
Horizontal Motion.
Since , application of the constant acceleration equations from module 1 yields
The first and last equations indicate that the horizontal component of velocity always remains
constant during the motion.
Vertical Motion
Since the positive y axis is directed upward, then . From the constant acceleration formulas
from module 1, we get

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Module Key Points

Curvilinear motion can cause changes in both the magnitude and direction of the position,
velocity, and acceleration vectors.
The velocity vector is always tangent to the path
In general, the acceleration vector is not tangent to the path, but rather, it is tangent to the
hodograph
If the motion is described using rectangular coordinates, then the components along each of the
axes do not change direction, only their magnitude and sense (algebraic sign) will change
By considering the component motions, the change in magnitude and direction of the particle's
position and velocity are automatically taken into account.

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Lesson 2.2 Curvilinear Motion Solved Problems

Sample Problems
Problem 1
At any instant the horizontal position of the weather balloon in Fig.2.2-1a is defined by x=(8t) ft,
where t is in seconds. If the equation of the path is y=x^2/10, determine the magnitude and direction
of the velocity and the acceleration when t=2sec

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Fig 2.2-1a
Solution
Velocity
When t= 2seconds, x=8(2)=16 ft
When t=2sec, the magnitude of velocity is therefore
The direction is tangent to the path (see Fig2.2-1b)

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Fig 2.2-1b
Acceleration
Thus,
The direction of a, as shown in Fig2.2-1c below is
Fig 2.2-1c
Problem 2

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For a short time, the path of the plane in the figure is described by y=(0.001x^2)m. If the plane is
rising with a constant upward velocity of 10m/s, determine the magnitudes of the velocity and
acceleration of the plan when it reaches an altitude of y=100m
Fig 2.2-2a
Solution
At y=100m, then 100=0.001x^2; or x=316.2
Velocity
Thus,
The magnitude of the velocity is therefore

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Acceleration
When x=316.2m,
Fig 2.2-2b
Problem 3
At time t=0, the position vector of a particle moving in the x-y plane is r=5i m. By time t=0.02s, its
position vector has become 5.1i+0.4j m. Determine the magnitude of its average velocity during
this interval and the angle made by the average velocity with the positive x-axis.
Solution

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Problem 4
A particle moving in the x-y plane has a velocity at time t=6seconds given by 4i+5j m/s, and at t=6.1
seconds its velocity has become 4.3i +5.4j m/s. Calculate the magnitude aav of its average
acceleration during the 0.1-s interval and the angle theta it makes with the x-axis
Solution
Problem 5
If the velocity of a particle is defined as v(t)=(0.8t^2i+12t^1/2j+5k) m/s, determine the magnitude and
coordinate direction angles alpha, Beta, Gamma of the particles acceleration when t=2sec.
Solution
When t=2sec,

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=a/a= ?
Recall:
=a/a = 0.6022 i + 0.7984 j
Therefore:
Problem 6
The velocity of a particle is v=(3i+(6-2t)j) m./s, where t is in seconds. If r=0 when t=0, determine the
displacement of the particle during the time interval t=1sec to t=3sec.
Solution
Position
when t=1sec and 3sec,
Thus, the displacement of thee particle is
Problem 7

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A sack slides off the ramp as shown, with a horizontal velocity of 12m/s. If the height of the ramp is
6m from the floor, determine the time needed for the sack to strike the floor and the range R where
sacks begin to pile up.
Fig. 2.2-3
Solution
Vertical Motion
Horizontal Motion
Problem 8

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The chipping machine is designed to eject wood chips at =25ft/s as shown in the figure. If the tube
is oriented at 30 degrees from the horizontal, determine how high, h, the chips strike the pile if at this
instant they land on the pile 20ft from the tube.
Fig.2.2-4
Horizontal Motion
Vertical Motion

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Problem 9
A team of engineering students designs a medium-size catapult which launches 8-lb steel spheres.
The launch speed is v0=80ft/sec, the launch angle is =35 degrees above the horizontal, and the
launch position is 6ft above the ground level. The students use an athletic field with an adjoining slop
topped by an 8-ft fence as shown. Determine:
(a) The time duration of the flight.
(b) The x-y coordinates of the point of first impact
(c) The maximum height h above the horizontal field attained by the ball
(d) The velocity (expressed as a vector) with which the projectile strikes the ground
Fig.2.2-5
Solution
(a) Because the y-coordinate of the top of the fence is 20+8=28feet, the projectile clears the fence.
We now find the flight time by setting y=20ft:

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(b) Thus the point of the first impact is(x,y) = (164, 20)
(c) For the maximum height:
(d) For the impact or final velocity
So, the impact velocity is

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Lesson 3.1 Kinetics of a Particle; Force and

Acceleration
Kinetics of a particle
Kinetics is a branch of dynamics that deals with the relationship between the change in motion of a
body and the forces that cause this change. The basis for kinetics is Newton's second law, which
states that when an unbalanced force acts on a particle, the particle will accelerate in the direction of
the force with magnitude that is proportional to the force.
3 General Approaches for Kinetics of Particles
1. Force-Mass-Acceleration Method
Newton's 2nd Law directly related to forces and acceleration

Best used when acceleration or the value of a a force at an instant is desired.
2. Work and Energy Principles
Newton's 2nd Law integrated with respect to position to get the principle of work energy
3. Impulse and Momentum Method
Newton's 2nd law integrated with respect to time to get the principle of linear impulse and
momentum

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Best used when velocity of the body for two different instants are to be related and the forces
involved can be related as functions of time
Good for studying collisions between bodies and variable mass systems
In this module, we will focus on the first approach which is the Force-Mass-Acceleration method.
Force-Mass-Acceleration Method
Equation of Motion
When more than one force acts on a particle, the resultant force is determined by a vector
summation of all the forces i.e., . For this more general case, the equation of
motion (Eq.3-1) may be written as
Eq.3-1
The magnitude and direction of each force acting on the particle (left-hand side of Eq.3-1) are
identified using a free-body diagram. A kinetic diagram identifies the magnitude and direction of the
vector ma (right-hand side of Eq.3-1).
Inertial Frame. Whenever the equation of motion (13.0) or (13.1) is applied, it is required that
measurements of the acceleration be made from a Newtonian or inertial frame of reference
A Newtonian or inertial frame of reference does not rotate and is either fixed
or translates in a given direction with a constant velocity (zero acceleration).
Equation of Motion for a system of Particles
The sum of the external forces acting on a system of particles is equal to the total mass m of the
particles times the acceleration of its center of mass G i.e.,
Eq.3-2
Equation of Motion: Rectangular Coordinates
When a particle is moving relative to an inertial x, y, z frame of reference, the (vector) equation of
motion (Eq.3-1) is equivalent to the following three scalar equations:

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Lesson 3.2 Force and Acceleration Solved

Problems
Sample Problems
Problem No. 1
The 50-kg crate shown in the figure rests on a horizontal surface for which the coefficient of kinetic
friction is = 0.3. If the crate is subjected to a 400-N towing force as shown, determine the velocity
of the crate in 3 s starting from rest
Solution:

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Using the equations of motion, we can relate the crate’s acceleration to the force causing the motion.
The crate’s velocity can then be determined using kinematics.
Free-Body Diagram.
The weight of the crate is W = mg = 50 kg (9.81 m/s 2) = 490.5 N. As shown in the figure below , the
frictional force has a magnitude F = and acts to the left, since it opposes the motion of the
crate. The acceleration a is assumed to act horizontally, in the positive x direction. There are two
unknowns, namely Nc and a.
Equations of Motion
Solving Equations 1 and 2 simultaneously,

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Kinematics
Notice that the acceleration is constant, since the applied

force P is constant. Since the initial velocity is zero, the velocity of the
crate in 3 s is
Problem No. 2
A 10-kg projectile is fired vertically upward from the ground, with an initial velocity of 50 m/s as
shown in the figure. Determine the maximum height to which it will travel if
(a) atmospheric resistance is neglected; and
(b) atmospheric resistance is measured as N, where v is

the speed of the projectile at any instant, measured in m/s
Solution:
Free-Body Diagram
As shown in the figure, the projectile’s weight is W = mg = 10(9.81) = 98.1 N. We will assume the
unknown acceleration a acts upward in the positive z direction

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Equation of Motion
The result indicates that the projectile, like every object having freeflight motion near the earth’s
surface, is subjected to a constant
downward acceleration of 9.81 m/s2
Kinematics
Initially, z0 = 0 and v0 = 50 m>s, and at the maximum

height z = h, v = 0. Since the acceleration is constant, then
Since the force N tends

to retard the upward motion of the projectile, it acts downward as
shown on the free-body diagram below
Equation of Motion

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Kinematics
Here the acceleration is not constant since depends

on the velocity. Since a = f(v), we can relate a to position using
Separating the variables and integrating, realizing that initially ,

(positive upward), and at z = h, v = 0, we have
Problem No. 3
A 75-kg man stands on a spring scale in an elevator. During the first 3 seconds of motion from rest,
the tension T in the hoisting cable is 8300 N. Find the reading R of the scale in newtons during this
interval and the upward velocity v of the elevator at the end of the 3 seconds. The total mass of the
elevator, man, and scale is 750 kg.
Solution
The force registered by the scale and the velocity both depend on the acceleration of the elevator,
which is constant during the interval for which the forces are constant. From the free-body diagram of
the elevator, scale, and man taken together, the acceleration is found to be

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The scale reads the downward force exerted on it by the man’s feet. The equal and opposite reaction
R to this action is shown on the free-body diagram of the man alone together with his weight, and the
equation of motion for him gives
The velocity reached at the end of the 3 seconds is
Problem No. 4
A small inspection car with a mass of 200 kg runs along the fixed overhead cable and is controlled by
the attached cable at A. Determine the acceleration of the car when the control cable is horizontal
and under a tension T 2.4 kN. Also find the total force P exerted by the supporting cable on the
wheels.
Solution
The free-body diagram of the car and wheels taken together and
treated as a particle discloses the 2.4-kN tension T, the weight W mg
200(9.81) 1962 N, and the force P exerted on the wheel assembly by the cable.

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The car is in equilibrium in the y-direction since there is no acceleration in

this direction. Thus,

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Lesson 4.1 Work and Energy

The Work of a Force
In mechanics a force F does work on a particle only when the particle undergoes a displacement in
the direction of the force.
The work dU done by the force F in displacing a particle dr is a scalar quantity defined by
where and is the angle between the tails of dr and F.

Work of a Variable Force. If a particle undergoes a finite displacement along its path from r 1 to r2
or s1 to s2 the work done is given by
Eq. 4.1-1
Work of a Constant Force Moving Along a Straight Line. Since both F and θ are constant
(straight line path)
Eq. 4.1-2

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Work of a Weight, W
Eq. 4.1-3
where the vertical displacement y is measured positive upward (so the work of the weight is positive
if the particle is displaced downward and negative if displaced upward).
Work of a Spring Force.

(a) Work of a Spring. The work of a spring is of the form , where k is the spring
stiffness and s is the stretch or compression of the spring.
(b) Work Done ON the Spring. If a spring is elongated or compressed from a position s1 to a
further position s2, the work done on the spring by the force Fs developed in the linearly elastic)
spring is positive, since, in each case, the force and displacement are in the same direction.
Then,
Eq. 4.1-4
(c) Work Done on a Body (or Particle) Attached to a Spring. In this case, the force Fs exerted on
the body is opposite to that exerted on the spring. Hence, the force Fs will do negative work on
the body (particle):

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Eq. 4.1-5
The Principle of Work and Energy
The principle of work and energy for a particle is described by the equation
Eq. 4.1-6
where and represent the kinetic energy of the particle at point1 and
point2, respectively, while represents the work done by all the forces acting on the particle
as the particle moves from point 1 to point 2.
The principle of work and energy is used to solve kinetic problems that involve velocity, force and
displacement (since these terms are involved in the equation describing the principle i.e., Equation
(4.1-6))

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Lesson 4.2 Work and Energy Solved Problems

Sample Problems
Problem No. 1
The 10-kg block shown in the figure rests on the smooth incline. If the spring is originally stretched
0.5 m, determine the total work done by all the forces acting on the block when a horizontal force P =
400 N pushes the block up the plane s = 2 m.

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Solution
First the free-body diagram of the block is drawn (figure below) in order to account for all the forces
that act on the block
Horizontal Force P
Since this force is constant, the work is determined using Eq.4.1–2. The result can be calculated as
the force times the component of displacement in the direction of the force; i.e.,
or the displacement times the component of force in the direction of

displacement, i.e.,

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Spring Force Fs.
in the initial position the spring is stretched s1 = 0.5 m and in the final position it is stretched s2 = 0.5
m + 2 m = 2.5 m. We require the work to be negative since the force and displacement are opposite
to each other. The work of Fs is thus
Weight W
Since the weight acts in the opposite sense to its vertical displacement, the work is negative; i.e.,
Note that it is also possible to consider the component of weight in the direction of displacement; i.e
Normal Force NB
This force does no work since it is always perpendicular to the displacement.
Total Work
The work of all the forces when the block is displaced 2 m is therefore
Problem No. 2
For a short time the crane in the figure lifts the 2.50-Mg beam with a force of F = (28 + 3s2) kN.
Determine the speed of the beam when it has risen s = 3 m. Also, how much time does it take to
attain this height starting from rest?

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Solution
We can solve part of this problem using the principle of work and energy since it involves force,
velocity, and displacement. Kinematics must be used to determine the time. Note that at s = 0, F =
28(103)N > W = 2.50(103)(9.81)N, so motion will occur
Work (Free-Body Diagram).
As shown on the free-body diagram the lifting force F does positive work, which must be determined
by integration since this force is a variable. Also, the weight is constant and will do negative work
since the displacement is upward.

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Principles of Work and Energy.
When s=3m
Kinematics
Since we were able to express the velocity as a function of displacement, the time can be determined
using v = ds/dt. In this case,
NOTE: The acceleration of the beam can be determined by integrating
using v dv = a ds, or more directly, by applying the equation of motion, F = ma
Problem No. 3

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The platform P, shown in the figure below (a), has negligible mass and is tied down so that the 0.4-
m-long cords keep a 1-m-long spring compressed 0.6 m when nothing is on the platform. If a 2-kg
block is placed on the platform and released from rest after the platform is pushed down 0.1 m, figure
(b), determine the maximum height h the block rises in the air, measured from the ground
Solution
Work (Free-Body Diagram).
Since the block is released from rest and later reaches its maximum height, the initial and final
velocities are zero. The free-body diagram of the block when it is still in contact
with the platform is shown in the figure above. Note that the weight does negative work and the
spring force does positive work. Why? In particular, the initial compression in the spring is s 1 = 0.6 m
+ 0.1 m = 0.7 m. Due to the cords, the spring’s final compression is s2 = 0.6 m (after the block leaves
the platform). The bottom of the block rises from a height of (0.4 m - 0.1 m) = 0.3 m to a final height
h.
Principle of Work and Energy.

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Note that here s1 = 0.7 m > s2 = 0.6 m and so the work of the spring as determined from Eq.4.1-4 will
indeed be positive once the calculation is made. Thus

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Lesson 5.1 Impulse and Momentum

PRINCIPLE OF LINEAR IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
The principle of linear impulse and momentum is obtained from a time integration of the equation
of motion and is described by the equation
Eq.5.1-1
Linear Momentum. Each of the two vectors of the form L = mv is referred to as the particle’s
linear momentum. It’s magnitude is mv and its direction is the same as that of the velocity v
Linear Impulse. The integral is referred to as the linear impulse. This is a vector
quantity which measures the effect of a force during the time the force acts. The impulse acts
in the same direction as the force F and has units of force-time e.g., N · s or lb · s.
The principle of linear impulse and momentum (Eq.5.1-1) states that the initial momentum of the
particle plus the sum of all the impulses applied to the particle is equivalent to the final
momentum of the particle. It provides a direct means of obtaining the particle’s final velocity v2
after a specified time period when the particle’s initial velocity is known and the forces acting on
the particle are either constant or can be expressed as functions of time
Principle of Linear Impulse and Momentum in Scalar Form

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Eq.5.1-2
PRINCIPLE OF LINEAR IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM FOR A SYSTEM OF

PARTICLES
The principle of linear impulse and momentum for a system of particles moving relative to an
inertial reference is given by
Eq.5.1-3
which states that the initial linear momenta of the system plus the impulses of all the external
forces acting on
the system from t1 to t2 are equal to the system’s final linear momentum.
Alternatively, in terms of the mass center G of the system, we have
Eq.5.1-4
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM FOR A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
When the sum of the external impulses acting on a system of particles is zero, Equation (5.1-3)
becomes
Eq.5.1-5
which expresses conservation of linear momentum i.e., that the linear momenta for a system of
particles remain constant during the time period t1 to t2
In terms of the mass center G of the system, we have
That is, the velocity vG of the mass center for the system of particles does not change when no
external impulses are applied to the system .
For application, a careful study of the free-body diagram for the entire system of particles should
be made to identify the forces which create external impulses and thereby determine in which
direction linear momentum is conserved.

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Impact
Impact occurs when two bodies collide with each other during a very short period of time, causing
relatively large (impulsive) forces to be exerted between the bodies. In general, there are two types
of impact:
Central Impact - when the direction of motion of the mass centers of the two colliding particles is
along a line (line of impact) passing through the mass centers of the particles
Oblique Impact - when the motion of one or both of the particles is at an angle with the line of
impact.
Coefficient of Restitution
The coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of the relative velocity of the particles’ separation
just after impact, to the relative velocity of the particles’ approach just before impact i.e.,
Elastic Impact: e = 1. Deformation impulse is equal and opposite to restitution impulse.

Plastic Impact: e = 0. No restitution impulse so that after collision, both particles stick together
and move with a common velocity

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Lesson 5.2 Impulse and Momentum

Solved Problems
Sample Problems
Problem No. 1
The 100-kg crate shown in the figure below is originally at rest on the smooth horizontal surface. If a
towing force of 200 N, acting at an angle of 45°, is applied for 10 s, determine the final velocity and
the normal force which the surface exerts on the crate during this time interval.
Solution
This problem can be solved using the principle of impulse and momentum since it involves force,
velocity, and time.
Free-Body Diagram.

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See the figure above. Since all the forces acting are constant, the impulses are simply the product of
the force magnitude and 10 s [I = Fc(t2 - t1)]. Note the alternative procedure of drawing the crate’s
impulse and momentum diagrams, as shown below.
Principle of Impulse and Momentum.
NOTE: Since no motion occurs in the y direction, direct application of the equilibrium equation
gives the same result for NC. Try to solve the problem by first applying ,
then
Problem No. 2
The 50-lb crate shown in the figure below is acted upon by a force having a variable magnitude P =
(20t) lb, where t is in seconds. Determine the crate’s velocity 2 sec after P has been applied. The

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initial velocity is v1 = 3 ft/s down the plane, and the coefficient of kinetic friction between the crate and
the plane is
Solution
Free-Body Diagram.
See the figure below. Since the magnitude of force P = 20t varies with time, the impulse it creates
must be determined by integrating over the 2-s time interval.
Principle of Impulse and Momentum.
At X direction
Equation of Equilibrium at y direction
NOTE: We can also solve this problem using the equation of motion

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Problem No. 3
Blocks A and B shown in below have a mass of 3 kg and 5 kg, respectively. If the system is released
from rest, determine the velocity of block B in 6 s. Neglect the mass of the pulleys and cord.
Solution
Free-Body Diagram
See figure below. Since the weight of each block is constant, the cord tensions will also be constant.
Furthermore, since the mass of pulley D is neglected, the cord tension T A = 2TB . Note that the blocks
are both assumed to be moving downward in the positive coordinate directions, s A and sB.

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Principle of Impulse and Momentum
Block A:
Block B:
Kinematics.
Since the blocks are subjected to dependent motion, the velocity of A can be related to that of B by
using the kinematic analysis as discussed. A horizontal datum is established through the fixed point
at C, and the position coordinates, sA and sB , are related to the constant total length l of the vertical
segments of the cord by the equation

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Lesson 6.1 Planar Kinematics of

Rigid Bodies
Planar Rigid Body Motion
In Chapter 2 on particle kinematics, we developed the relationships governing the displacement,

velocity, and acceleration of points as they moved along straight or curved paths. In rigid-body
kinematics we use these same relationships but must also account for the rotational motion of the
body. Thus rigid-body kinematics involves both linear and angular displacements, velocities, and
accelerations.
When all the particles of a rigid body move along paths which are equidistant from a fixed plane, the
body is said to undergo planar motion. There are three types of rigid body planar motion:
1. Translation Every line segment in the body remains parallel to its original direction during the
motion. Specifically, a body can undergo two types of translation:
i. Rectilinear Translation. All points follow parallel straight-line paths.

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ii. Curvilinear Translation. All points follow curved paths that are the same shape and are
equidistant
from one another.
2. Rotation about a Fixed Axis. All of the particles of the body, except those which lie on the axis of
rotation, move along circular paths
3. General Plane Motion. The body undergoes a combination of translation and rotation

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Take note that in translation, all points in a rigid body subjected to either rectilinear or curvilinear
translation move with same velocity and acceleration. As a result, the kinematics of particle motion
can also be used to specify the kinematics of points located in translation rigid body
Rotation about a fixed axis
Angular position , measured from a fixed reference line.
Angular displacement d , change in the angular position; measured in degrees, radians or

revolutions, where 1 rev=2 rad
Angular velocity , time change in the angular position
Angular acceleration , time rate change of the angular velocity.
Constant Angular acceleration

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Motion of Point P
Displacement:
Velocity:
Acceleration:
(tangential) (normal)
Take note that r is not the radius but the distance of the point to the fixed axis

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Dynamics of Rigid Bodies All Topics

Dynamics Of Rigid Bodies (Technological Institute of the Philippines)

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Lesson 1 Introduction to Dynamics

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Time is a measure of the succession of events.

Force is the vector action of one body on another.

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where a is the resulting acceleration measured in a non-accelerating frame of reference. Newton's

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Lesson 1.1 Kinematics of a Particle: Rectilinear Motion Concept

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Substituting Eq, 12-1 into this result, we can also write

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Misconception Alert: Deceleration vs Negative Acceleration

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When the acceleration is constant, each of the three kinematic equations

Velocity as a Function of Time. Integrate , assuming that initially when

Position as a Function of Time. Integrate , assuming that initially when

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Lesson 1.2 Kinematics of a Particle, Rectilinear

The velocity of a particle moving along the x-axis is given by where s is

At s=2meters, the acceleration is

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A particle travels along a straight line with an acceleration if , where s is

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Maximum positive X-coordinate

Total Distance Travelled

From t=0sec to t=4sec

From t=4sec to t=9sec

From t=9sec to t=12sec

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Lesson 2.1 Curvilinear Motion;

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During the time , the average velocity of the particle is

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Substituting Eq,2.1-1 into this result, we can also write

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Curvilinear Motion: Rectangular Components

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At any instant the magnitude of r is defined as

And the direction of r is specified by the unit vector r/r

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The first derivative of r yields the velocity of the particle. Hence,

The velocity has a magnitude that is found from

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The acceleration has a magnitude

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Since , application of the constant acceleration equations from module 1 yields

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Module Key Points