SPECIAL REPORT:

POWER ELECTRONICS
APRIL 2023

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CONTENTS
FEATURES
2 DC to DC Power Distribution in
MilAero Applications
7 Simplifying Power Design with
Modular Architectures
12 A
 Systems Engineering
Approach to Sustainable
Power System
16 Powering Light Electric
Vehicles
POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT
TECH BRIEFS
18 M
 ulti-Layer Nuclear Thermionic
Avalanche Cell
20 Energy-Saving Technique for Faster
Communication Systems
22 Printed Thermoelectric Generators for
Power Generation
22 High-Performance MXene Electrodes for
Next-Generation Battery
23 Enhancing Fault Isolation and Detection
for Electric Powertrains of UAVs
ON THE COVER
Researchers have developed a technique
that will allow for faster communication
systems and better energy-saving
electronics. The breakthrough was made
by establishing how to remotely measure
the electric field inside a semiconductor
device for the first time. Learn more
about the technique on page 20.
(Image: Yuke Cao/University of Bristol )
APRIL 2023 1

Power Distribution in
MilAero Applications
P
ower system design is seeing
impact from steady growth
in the number, type, and
complexity of electrical systems
onboard aircraft. Advancements in
cockpit avionics and more electrically
actuated systems have designers
paying attention to a broader spectrum
of upgraded power needs and their
connection to SWAP-C goals.
At the same time, innovators
worldwide are investing in technologies
supporting smart energy storage,
viable for new transportation
applications. Fuel cells and batteries
are quickly advancing urban air
2 APRIL 2023
DC to DC
mobility for tangible commercial
advantage – and the U.S. Air Force’s
Agility Prime initiative has come
on board to amplify the impact.
Supporting the ideal of procuring
commercial technology with
military value, the Agility Prime
program leverages various assets
of the U.S. Air Force – such as
safety certifications, test ranges,
and assigned missions enabling
steady logging of flight hours – with
the goal of shaping, driving, and
accelerating the urban air mobility
market. Its stated role is intended
to reduce risk and build confidence
in the technology, create and
incentivise investment opportunities,
and ultimately accelerate the
development of aircraft.
Aiming to field a new class of aircraft
as soon as 2023, Agility Prime targets
three different areas for military value:
a people mover or air taxi type of craft,
capable of transporting three to five
individuals; a smaller variant designed
for one to two people; and a cargo-only
version. Resupply missions are top of
mind, but broad value is anticipated
from electrically-powered craft that can
reduce or eliminate heavily manned
missions into dangerous environments.
POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT
 Cockpit avionics, which typically rely on 28-volt systems, may only require
power conditioning from a local electrical bus or battery. (Image: iStock)

The Royal Air Force’s venerable Typhoon fighter aircraft will be replaced by
the Tempest, a 6th generation combat aircraft expected to enter service in
the mid-2030s. (Image: BAE Systems)

DC Power and Mitigating SWAP-C
While most aircraft power
distribution has historically been AC
(like a typical home), higher voltage
DC distribution may be more efficient.
It’s also more compatible with battery
storage and an increasing portion
of aircraft power load requirements.
At the same time, the gas turbines
present in traditional aircraft typically
fuel AC auxiliary power. Its requisite
AC-DC conversion can multiply power
electronics and ultimately increase cost,
complexity, and weight. The DC power
advances demonstrated by urban air
mobility are providing design insight,
storing DC power in batteries and
eliminating AC-DC power conversion
at the point of load. For designers
of power systems onboard more
traditional aircraft, it’s an approach
driving greater consideration of DC-
DC power distribution and conversion
strategies in aircraft design.
Power electronics are designed
with attention to diverse factors such
as magnetics, discrete components,
expected performance, and thermal
efficiency, helping developers define
and address design problems earlier.
This strategy also supports the
increasing need for design scalability
– reducing costs and accelerating
timelines in an environment anticipating
greater power needs across a spectrum
of flight-qualified applications. These
factors point to a more holistic
approach raising in importance as well,
recognising the enabling characteristics
of DC-DC power conversion and
distribution technologies.
Voltage conversion and power
conditioning are required when power
is distributed as DC, however these
factors vary with specific power
applications onboard the aircraft.
One design may deliver a chosen
voltage and then convert it up or

POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT APRIL 2023 3

Power Distribution

down at the device; another may adjust

a power level before it is distributed to its
intended application. In choosing a path,
designers must not only consider the
aircraft and its role in flight operations,
but also factors such as lifecycle,
required reliability, scalability, system
weight trade-off, and more. Because of
these complexities, as well as continued
rapid evolution of power demands for
aerospace applications, a building block
strategy proves useful. Developers can
accelerate development with proven,
modular designs that can be sourced
for both performance and scalability.

DC Power Distribution Designs

Individual areas of an aircraft may
only require power conditioning
from a local electrical bus or battery.
Cockpit avionics provide an example,
typically relying on 28-volt systems.
These systems, contained within a
specific area of the aircraft, provide
an example of power requirements
that may only require power
Experience gained by the automotive industry in terms of energy storage and designing secondary conditioning. Alternatively, designs
loads powered by DC sources can someday be applied to the air mobility market. (Image: iStock) may opt to centrally convert and
distribute 28 VDC to specific systems
and areas onboard. Because of
the cable weight associated with
wide distribution of power, it is the
smaller, simpler architectures that are
ideal candidates for this approach.
Redundancy and manageable
degradation of performance can
be built-in. For military airframes,
these values are critical to improving
safety and survivability.
As a design tactic, increased voltage
offers a functional trade-off against
cable weight. This can be illustrated
using a primary, 540-volt distribution
supported by a localized secondary
distribution of 28 volts. Because the
secondary 28-volt network can be
designed to support power needs of
several devices via a single conversion,
system developers can avoid designing
voltage step down into each specific
load. This adds critical value for
power electronics servicing relatively
The ability of urban eVTOL aircraft to transport people and supplies can readily extend to meet isolated or difficult to access areas of
the needs of the U.S. armed forces – keeping troops out of harm’s way, delivering equipment, the aircraft. It’s a strategy that also
conducting search and rescue missions, and more. (Image: iStock) reduces cable distances and, therefore,

4 APRIL 2023 POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT

Power Distribution

New Voltage Standards Taking

Cues From Automotive Advances
Power system design for systems at altitude is
entirely different from the design of power systems
integrated into automotive and racing vehicles. That
said, is it surprising that a motorsports technology
provider is part of the project team for Tempest,
the UK’s 6th generation combat aircraft?
Tempest replaces the Royal Air Force’s Typhoon and
is expected to come into service in the mid-2030s. The
fighter is an ambitious undertaking that will predictably
need extended amounts of electric power as well as
upgraded, higher power for distribution to various
advanced systems across the aircraft. Tempest anticipates
including augmented and virtual reality interactive
cockpit displays, drone management capabilities, and
advanced stealth and data fusion technologies.
Here the automotive industry has insight to share, long
focused on energy storage and designing secondary
loads powered by DC sources. Implementing battery-
driven systems may be a more familiar challenge for
automotive power system designers, however, the
demand is still shifting toward higher voltage systems
used for heavy end-loads and distribution across a
vehicle. Incorporating 800 VDC systems as a standard,
Porsche Taycan provides a luxury example ­— cable
size and weight are minimized, supporting high-
end vehicle performance and speedy charging.
In contrast, 270 volts has emerged as the DC power
distribution system standard in the current civil aviation
market. But future platforms are intent on extending this
to 540 volts since +/-270 volts can be effectively attained
on an aircraft even at typical altitudes ­— an environmental
factor that has unique impact on power system design.
For example, breakdown or arcing perform differently at
altitude, adding a new design challenge in the already
complicated world of high-voltage power distribution.
However, electric aircraft, including urban air taxis,
do not normally operate at the altitudes required
by civil or military aircraft. Without this limitation
and given their need for more robust electrical
requirements, these craft can easily operate at higher
voltages and may mimic the automotive market’s
currently established 800 volt standard. The altitude
parameters for military applications, however, may
drive to a different optimal distribution voltage.

weight as higher voltage power is
distributed and converted locally at the
device. Designers will, however, find
complexity increases when secondary
loads must deliver a range of voltages,
powering systems, and subsystems
requiring three, five, or 28 volts.
Modular Power Designs
Using pre-defined parametric models
featuring full-design models and
analysis, developers can customize
secondary power systems quickly.
Ideally, these building block devices
are engineered to meet a range of
requirements, a “superset” of design
parameters. By focusing on the device’s
efficiency — and expecting trade-offs
to maintain a simple, speedy design
process — power system developers
can significantly streamline the
resources required for a full-custom
design. Building blocks developed as a
family of options are interchangeable,
each operating within a window of
performance and creating a clear path
for designers to scale up or down as
efficiency dictates. A key benefit here
is flexibility, with the same building
blocks applicable to systems ranging
from a low-power, 100-Watt control unit
to end-loads as high as 6000 Watts.
Designers can further capitalize on
modularity within the end-unit itself.
Power distribution design for a 4 kW
or 6 kW application can tap into a 2
kW converter, designed for more than
just one type of use. Such a system
design could integrate five 2 kW
converters — separate but coordinated
system components — delivering a
nominal 10 kW. Proven technology is
applied to meet customised power
levels, while automatic power routing
simultaneously ensures system
reliability, even in the unlikely event
of failure of any single converter.
Isolated performance has been
a common theme in power control
system design used in aircraft
applications. However, built-in power
redundancy is a basic tenet of all-
electric aircraft — lighter than “A
Lane/B Lane” duplication strategies
and proving to be an optimized design
path for electric aircraft power.
Urban air mobility is imminent
and already transforming aviation
as we know it. Its ability to transport
people and supplies can readily
extend to meet the needs of the
U.S. armed forces — keeping troops
out of harm’s way, delivering
equipment, conducting search and
rescue missions, and more. DC power
technologies unlock the value of
electrified aircraft and represent an
important shift in the design of power
systems today — and tomorrow.
This article was written by Julian
Thomas, Engineering Director,
Aerospace & Defence, TT Electronics
(Woking, U.K.). For more information,
go to www.ttelectronics.com.

6 APRIL 2023 POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT

A typical GAIA modular
power supply board.
Simplifying
Power Design with
Modular Architectures
T
he design of complex, high-
power DC-to-DC converter
architectures poses some
challenges to engineers
developing aerospace and military-
grade power systems. DC-DC converters
must comply with multiple standards
and stringent requirements in terms
of input voltage, EMI (electromagnetic
interference) environmental conditions,
and thermal management.
A modular approach can significantly
simplify the design process, enabling
engineers to design complex power
conversion systems using COTS
and SWaP-C optimized building
blocks. Engineers can meet multiple
industry standards and power
requirements while optimizing their
power architectures according to new
industry standards such as the Sensor
Open System Architecture (SOSA).
POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT
Modular Power Solutions
Whereas a centralized power
solution tends to be a single unit that
provides multiple outputs, a modular
approach offers the same (or better)
performance through a combination
of modules. The structure of each
modular solution will vary according
to the application’s needs. Typically, it
will include several DC-DC converters
that change a common bus voltage
to meet the needs of the load(s).
Other modules may be included
to provide an auxiliary voltage rail
alongside EMI filters, limiters, and
hold-up modules. This way, the output
voltage remains present when there is
a ‘dip’ on the input, for example, when
cranking a vehicle engine. Depending
on the available supply type (AC or DC
voltage), there may be an AC-DC front-
end power supply including power
factor correction to create a voltage rail
to power all the modules in the system.
The modular approach offers
significant flexibility to meet non-
standard requirements without
involving the cost and complexity of
a custom design. As it typically uses
pre-qualified modules as building
blocks, challenges such as EMI are
already quantified, and necessary
approvals are already in place.
Military/Avionic Applications
For all power solutions in mili-
tary/avionic applications, the
most common power source is a
pre-de-fined bus that will deliver
either 24V DC or 28V DC. This
applies to both airborne and
ground-borne applications.
Various standards exist covering
power systems within military/
APRIL 2023 7
Power Design
Figure 1. Various international and national standards define requirements for airborne (top) and ground-borne (bottom) military/avionic power.
avionic applications, primarily to
sustain input voltage excursions
(including transients, spikes, dips due
to engine cranking, or power source
commutation and shut down).
While the nominal voltages available
within an aircraft or vehicle are
8 APRIL 2023
well defined, the nature of military
applications means that the system
design must allow for fluctuations.
Wide input range DC-DC converters
can cope with either a 24V DC or 28V
DC input and meet the excursions in
airborne applications due to abnormal
or emergency operating conditions. For
vehicular ground-borne applications,
the voltage deviations are most
commonly due to engine starting or
cranking or power source commutation.
Again, using a wide input range DC-
DC module will address this issue.
POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT
Figure 2. MIL-STD-461 and DO-160 define the requirements for conducted and radiated electrical noise in military applications.

To meet other requirements, other devices; they switch the DC input to radiated noise. For more stringent
types of modules can be added to create an AC waveform that is then standards, external filter modules
the solution. For example, transients regulated to give the output DC (like GAIA’s FGDS series) can
are addressed by GAIA’s LGDS series voltage. As mentioned, this approach be added to the input of DC-DC
voltage limiter modules, while EMI enhances size and efficiency. However, converters to reduce noise further.
filter modules (FGDS series) offer it also creates the potential for Many of GAIA’s DC converters are
compliance to EMI emission standards. electrical noise, which can have a equipped with a synchronization
The system should also continue detrimental effect on other system pin that allows the switching
to deliver power for a brief (defined) components if not properly controlled. frequency of the module to be
period in the absence of any bus For this reason, standards including ‘steered’ away from frequencies to
power. This ‘hold-up’ time is often MIL-STD-461 and D0-160 define the which the system may be sensitive.
addressed with a bulk capacitor maximum amount of permissible Additionally, in multi-module systems,
connected across the bus at the noise, both conducted and radiated. the switching frequencies of each
input to the DC-DC converter Many converters contain some module can be aligned exactly by
modules. However, there are two form of inbuilt noise suppression for connecting the synchronization
issues with this approach. Firstly, conducted noise and a grounded pins. In doing this, the designer can
the charged voltage of the capacitor metal case significantly diminishes eliminate the low frequency ‘beat’
being the nominal bus voltage, the
size of capacitor will be extremely
large. Secondly, a capacitor
that large will require external
circuitry to limit inrush current.
A hold-up module (such as
GAIA’sHUGD-300) can help address
these challenges. This module charges
the capacitor at a higher voltage
(usually in the range of 31V DC to 80V
DC) and manages any inrush current
associated with the bulk capacitor.
As the energy stored increases by the
square of the voltage, this approach
results in a much lower value of the
bulk capacitor, which is also physically
smaller and more affordable.

Electrical Noise
Due to the enhanced efficiency
and smaller size, almost all DC-DC
converter modules are switching Many of GAIA's DC converters are equipped with a synchronization pin.

POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT APRIL 2023 9

Power Design
Figure 3. Multiple harsh environmental tests are applied to ensure the power modules withstand the
conditions they will be used in.
noise that can be generated by
small differences in the switching
frequency of individual modules.
Operating Environment
Military/avionic systems may be
deployed in a variety of locations and
subjected to different and challenging
environmental conditions, including
temperature extremes, humidity,
shocks, and vibrations. A range of
standards defines the requirements
for the operating environment, along
with outlining the tests to undertake
to ensure that a module is compliant.
In the case of a custom power
solution from discrete components,
these tests would have to be passed
10 APRIL 2023
after the design is complete. This
process would involve a significant
amount of time, cost, and design risk
and probably require some design
changes. Also, any significant design
changes or upgrades would be subject
to re-test and re-certification — again
with time, cost, and risk. However,
the modular approach uses pre-
qualified modules that have already
demonstrated their ability to meet the
relevant standards, eliminating much
of the design risk and dramatically
simplifying the approval process.
Thermal Management
Heat is always an issue for any
power system, no matter how
efficiently it can operate. This is
especially true for any system used
in a confined and/or enclosed space,
as in military/avionic applications.
Any thermal design must include
some design margin to ensure
the reliability of the modules.
GAIA converter modules are
designed for a maximum case or
baseplate temperature (depending
upon the style) of 105 °C. In almost
all cases, thermal management
will be required, including forced
air cooling using a fan, thicker and
larger metallization on the circuit
board, some form of heatsinking, or
a combination of these techniques.
In many cases, a preferred method is
a thermally conductive heatsink that
is in contact with the metal case/
baseplate of the power module.
Conclusion
Designing power solutions
for military/avionic applications
can be challenging due to the
operating environment and the
stringent standards. In many
cases, taking a modular approach
using off-the-shelf, pre-approved
modules is the best approach as
it reduces design time and risk.
While many of the applicable
standards have been in use for
some time, there are updates
made to address new applications
or incorporate new technology.
Designers must ensure that the
modules used in their designs are
compliant with the latest versions
of all standards to ensure design
longevity. Additionally, other
organizations like the Sensor Open
Standards Architecture Consortium
(SOSA Consortium) are actively
enabling governments and industry
to develop open standards and
best practices that apply to the
military use of sensing devices.
This article was written by
Christian Jonglas, Technical Support
Manager, GAIA Converter (Laval, QC,
Canada). For more information, go
to www.gaia-converter.com.
POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT
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A Systems Engineering Approach to
Sustainable Power
Systems
S
ustainable energy is a cornerstone of the global effort to
reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Research and development
work continue to deliver cleaner, more efficient, and
more diverse ways of generating the energy we need
to power modern society. As we improve our ability to produce
clean energy, we should also consider the holistic environmental
impact of power systems that convert energy into work
—driving our cars, trucks, airplanes, and other machines.
Creating sustainable power systems will be another key
piece of our efforts to reduce emissions, but these systems
12 APRIL 2023
are difficult to develop and implement. This is mostly due
to the immense system-of-systems complexity involved
in the engineering, manufacturing, implementation,
and maintenance of a sustainable power system.
The Need for Sustainable Power Systems
In the U.S., transportation emissions contributed the
largest share of greenhouse gas emissions in 2020, at 27
percent (EPA, 2022).1 In the same year, it is estimated that
transportation accounted for 7.2 billion tons of carbon
POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT
dioxide emissions globally (IEA,
2021).2 As we work to reduce
our impact on the environment,
reducing these emissions is crucial.
Several solutions to the problem of
transportation emissions have been
proposed, tested, and even put into
production. The most prominent today
is the electric powertrain. In the last
five years, vehicle electrification has
gained widespread, global support
as a practical and expedient means
of reducing carbon emissions in the
transportation sector. By powering
vehicles with electricity instead of
gasoline, we can eliminate the tail-
pipe emissions that a traditional
vehicle generates as it burns fuel,
while delivering a comparable
driving and user experience. As
a result, this approach is gaining
significant momentum and should
continue to do so as more models
are brought to market, costs fall,
and new environmental regulations
come into effect around the world.
While progress is being made, the
electric powertrain still faces some
challenges with respect to their
overall impact on the environment.
The same is true for other forms of
alternative energy and sustainable
power systems. To create a truly
sustainable power system, companies
should approach its development,
implementation, and maintenance in
the field from a complete, system-of-
systems perspective. By doing so, they
can account for and minimize the total
environmental footprint of the system,
while also facilitating an innovative and
productive development environment
for their engineers and partners.
Sustainability Demands a
System-of-Systems Approach
The challenge of achieving this
system-of-systems approach to the
development of a sustainable power
system is monitoring and measuring the
numerous aspects that affect a product’s
or system’s sustainability. To do this,
companies need an efficient way to keep
track of the environmental specifics of
the many components, materials, and
POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT
All electric vehicles are increasingly common on public
roads today. The automotive industry is embracing
electrification to reduce emissions from the transportation
sector. (Image: Adobe Stock)
The process used to produce hydrogen is an important
consideration in the development of a hydrogen fuel-cell
propulsion system. Pictured here is an electrolysis process
powered by wind energy. (Image: Siemens AG)
sub-systems that go into a modern
power system and do that across various
connected industrial ecosystems.
Once they have this information, they
require a way to manage it and connect
it to power system requirements to find
synergies or uncover potential pitfalls for
the sustainable power system. Finally, to
be successful, companies must be able to
do this efficiently, without wasting time
and resources that could be better spent
in further refining the power system.
For example, consider the
sustainability decisions that go into the
sourcing, transportation, and storage
of hydrogen for a hydrogen fuel-cell
aircraft. First, where is the hydrogen
being produced and by what methods?
Today, most hydrogen production uses
steam-methane reformation, which
consumes large amounts of energy
and produces carbon dioxide as a
byproduct. Steam-methane
reformation facilities that employ
carbon-capture technology can
produce cleaner hydrogen, but
they do so at greater cost. An
entirely different process relies
on electrolysis of water to create
hydrogen without direct carbon
emissions, though this process
tends to be the most expensive.
Finally, since both steam-methane
reformation and electrolysis
require energy, it is also important
to consider whether this energy
is being derived from fossil fuels
or alternative sources of energy.
Additionally, how will the
hydrogen be transported from
its production facility to airfields,
and then stored for service to
the hydrogen fuel-cell airplane?
Hydrogen may be stored in
either liquid or gas form, but
both require specialized tanks
that can support either high
pressures, for gas, or extremely
low temperatures to prevent
liquid hydrogen from boiling.
Such infrastructure likely does
not exist at most airports and will
need to be constructed to enable
onsite hydrogen storage. These
storage considerations further
impact options for transporting the
hydrogen. While hydrogen pipelines do
exist, they are built to serve chemical
plants and petroleum refineries, not
airports. Thus, the hydrogen required for
the fuel-cell aircraft must be moved by
trucks or other ground transport. The
emissions of these ground transports
must be captured and considered to
create a complete sustainability picture.
Outside of the hydrogen, the aircraft
manufacturer will also need a way
to account for the materials used to
construct the aircraft itself, including the
hydrogen fuel cell, electronics, electric
motors, and more. So, as a company
developing a sustainable power
system, how do you coordinate your
development and implementation of the
power system with a complex web of
suppliers and partners across the globe
to achieve a truly sustainable system?
APRIL 2023 13
Sustainable Power Systems
Digitalization enables a system-of-systems approach, helping companies to account for the full
sustainability picture of a product or system. (Image: Siemens)
Digitalization Provides
Foundation for Sustainable
Development
Clearly the answer is digitalization.
Digitalization allows companies of all
sizes to develop collective intelligence
to capture, organize, and manage
the crucial sustainability metrics
to develop truly sustainable power
systems, across both the supply chain
and lifecycle of the power system.
It enables companies to connect
their entire lifecycle through a digital
backbone, with information flowing bi-
directionally throughout the organization.
Even partner companies can be
incorporated securely into your digital
backbone, ensuring faster and easier
collaboration between organizations,
and supporting accountability to
overall sustainability goals.
Digitalization provides a natural
foundation for a system-of-systems
approach to the design, manufacturing,
and service of sustainable power
systems. It can help companies
manage the development of their
power system (such as a hydrogen
fuel cell), while also reckoning with
the full sustainability picture of that
system: from the installation of the
power system to energy production,
transportation, and more.
14 APRIL 2023
With a digitalized, systems
engineering approach, sustainability
requirements can be added to the
initial product definition, making
them traceable throughout the
product development lifecycle. From
the beginning, the product and
production methods are created
with holistic sustainability indicators,
such as carbon emissions, pollutants,
energy use, and other sustainability
metrics, as requirements. Optimizing
for sustainability from the start
minimizes costly and time-consuming
design changes or manufacturing
modifications to reduce a product’s
environmental footprint. Furthermore,
these requirements can be cascaded
throughout the supply or value
chain, with automated reporting
to account for the totality of the
product’s development and creation,
even those parts that are developed
by suppliers and partners.
For the developer of the hydrogen-
powered aircraft in our example above, a
digitalized, system-of-systems approach
can help them set and execute on a
set of sustainability requirements for
the aircraft. These could include:
• Net-zero carbon emissions
across the entire development
lifecycle and supply chain.
• Minimized material usage and waste
due to prototypes, testing, and
manufacturing mis-builds. This may
also include targets for water and
electricity usage during production.
• Targets for the use of recycled
materials in the production of
the aircraft, propulsion system,
and other components.
Additionally, these requirements
can flow quickly down throughout the
organization and supplier network. With
requirements in hand, engineering teams
can rely more on advanced simulation
solutions to evaluate designs and test
power system capabilities without using
materials and resources on physical
prototypes. Meanwhile, suppliers can
be evaluated and selected based
upon their ability to meet program
requirements for emissions, energy
use, and more from manufacturing to
transportation. Automated reporting
processes then help the manufacturer
to gather reports and track the
complete environmental impact of
the aircraft and its power system.
Moreover, digitalization is a powerful
enabler of technological innovation,
collaboration, and informed decision-
making. By investing in digital
transformation, companies of all sizes
can tackle the challenges of sustainable
development by employing a system-
of-systems approach that is built on
digital threads of information. Such
an approach will prove critical in our
efforts to transform our industries,
economies, and societies into
greener, more sustainable versions.
References
1. E
 PA. (2022). Sources of Greenhouse Gas
Emissions. Retrieved from United States
Environmental Protection Agency: https://
www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-
greenhouse-gas-emissions#transportation.
2. IEA. (2021, November). Tracking Transport 2021.
Retrieved from International Energy Agency:
https://www.iea.org/reports/tracking-
transport-2021.
This article was written by Dale Tutt,
Vice President of Industry Strategy,
Siemens Digital Industries Software
(Plano, TX). For more information, visit
www.sw.siemens.com/en-US/.
POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT
Powering
Light
Electric
Vehicles
Considerations when replacing
lead-acid batteries with Lithium-ion
batteries in light electric vehicles.
L
ight Electric Vehicles (LEVs)
such as golf carts have been
traditionally powered by
lead-acid batteries. Original
Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs)
are transitioning to Lithium-ion (Li-
ion) batteries as they offer several
advantages over lead-acid batteries,
such as higher power density, longer
run time, and zero maintenance.
However, a successful transition
requires careful consideration of
the differences in the cell chemistry
and the battery pack behavior.
Li-ion batteries are designed with a
Battery Management System (BMS) to
provide safety and intelligence, which
increases their overall complexity.
This article discusses some of the key
considerations that OEMs need to
account for when replacing the lead-
acid batteries with Li-ion batteries. The
considerations are categorized into
four sections: charging, regeneration,
user interface, and power tripping.
Charging
The maximum charge voltage of a
battery pack depends on the chemistry
of the cells used. Comparing batteries
with similar nominal voltages, the
charge voltage for a lead-acid battery
16 APRIL 2023
is different from that of a Li-ion battery.
For example, for a vehicle with a
nominal voltage of 24V, the lead-acid
batteries can be charged to a maximum
voltage of 29V-34V, whereas a 24V
Li-ion battery pack with Lithium-Nickel-
Manganese-Cobalt-Oxide cathode
cells has a maximum charge voltage
between 28 and 29V. Using a lead-acid
charger to charge Li-ion batteries can
trigger over voltage protection and
result in reduced battery pack capacity.
Similar mismatch exists with the
maximum charge current. The charge
current for Li-ion batteries varies with
the temperature and State of Charge
(SOC). Overall, lead-acid batteries can
support higher charge current. Using
a lead-acid charger to charge a Li-ion
battery can trigger an over current
protection, or an over temperature
fault due to the heat generated in
cells with higher charge currents.
This will also eventually degrade
the lifecycle of the battery pack.
The presence of a BMS in Li-ion
batteries brings additional levels of
protection. During a severe cell under
voltage condition, the BMS activates
protection and to bring the battery
pack out from this protection state,
charging needs to be performed. A
Concept of delivery
electric tricycle scooter
with charging station
on city street. (Image:
Shutterstock/ Scharfsin
lead-acid charger may not be able to
charge the Li-ion battery as it looks
for a valid pack terminal voltage prior
to starting the charge process. Since
the pack is in a severe under voltage
protection, the pack cannot provide a
voltage at the terminals. This results in
a condition where the pack does not
get charged, and therefore, the user
may not be able to drive the vehicle.
The solution is to replace the lead-
acid charger with a Li-ion battery
charger with a charge algorithm
matching the chemistry of the cells
used. Using a smart charger lets the
BMS regulate the charge voltage and
current over digital communication
interface such as Controller Area
Network (CAN). The charger also needs
to account for the conditions during
which the battery cannot provide a
valid voltage on the terminals but
requires a charge voltage and current
to come out of that condition.
Regeneration
LEVs can generate regenerative
current while braking and transferring
that energy through the motor to be
used as the main braking mechanism
for the vehicle. The battery may
absorb the energy that is transferred.
POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT
Lead-acid batteries can do this
under all operating conditions, but
Li-ion batteries are limited in their
capability to accept regen current
at certain operating conditions.
These limitations include when
the cells are cold, when they are
fully charged, and when a charge
protection is active, such as a cell
over voltage or cell over temperature
fault. In addition, the amplitude of
regen current that the battery pack
can absorb also varies with SOC and
temperature. Typically, the BMS in the
Li-ion battery calculates the allowable
regen current in the battery pack and
broadcasts this information over the
supported digital communication
interface. Anytime a battery cannot
accept the regen current generated by
the motor, multiple issues can occur.
One of them is that the system voltage
can spike causing damage to the
components connected in the system
power bus, including the battery. It
also impacts the breaking power.
The battery installed in the vehicle
needs to be capable of absorbing
the generated regen current under
all operating conditions. The battery
or the system can add additional
regen absorption components, such
as a bleeding resistor, and sink the
additional regen current that the
battery pack
cannot
Figure 1: A smart gauge digitally communicating
battery parameters such as SOC, voltage,
and time-to-empty. (Image: Inventus Power)
POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT
absorb. This requires precise monitoring
of the regeneration current generated
by the motor and the regen current
absorption capability calculated by
the BMS. Switches can be used to
control the flow of the regen current
and ensure smooth functioning of the
braking and regeneration system.
User Interface
LEVs have a battery gauge installed
in the vehicle dashboard that displays
the battery voltage or SOC. If displaying
the SOC, it is typically calculated from
the measured battery voltage. This
works well for a lead-acid battery,
but not very well for a Li-ion battery.
The impedance of the Li-ion cells
along with the impedance of BMS
components impact the accuracy of
SOC calculated by such gauges.
One of the main functions of a
BMS in the Li-ion batteries is accurate
gauging of SOC and measuring of the
battery pack voltage. These values are
available over a digital communication
interface and can be read and displayed
by gauges that have the capability to
communicate with the battery packs.
A gauge with digital communication
is typically referred to as a ‘smart
gauge’. In addition, battery parameters
such as time-to-empty, temperature,
current, battery errors etc. are also
available from the BMS, and can be
displayed in the smart gauge. This
feature enhances the user experience
and helps the user to track battery
parameters accurately. Figure 1
shows a smart gauge that can
display battery parameters such
as SOC, voltage, current, time-to-
empty etc. over various screens.
The figure has 100 percent as
the SOC, 51.1V as the battery
pack voltage and 10 hours and
01 minute as the time-to-empty.
Another option is to use the
existing gauge in the vehicle that
works with a lead-acid battery,
without replacing it with a smart
gauge. This avoids the additional
cost of the smart gauge but requires
a different interface between the
Li-ion battery and the gauge.
Power Tripping
The main functionality of a BMS
in a Li-ion battery is protection. The
protection includes cell over voltage,
cell under voltage, over current and
over/under temperature. The BMS
monitors the current, cell voltages and
cell temperature to identify a faulty
situation and activates protection.
This process may end up cutting the
connection between the cell stack and
the pack terminals, which would result
in a tripping of power to the vehicle.
This does not happen if using a lead-
acid battery pack and presents a critical
safety hazard as the user could get stuck
in a busy intersection or lose braking
capability while riding down a hill. Certain
LEVs have a safety interlock that applies
the full brake when the battery pack
terminals lose power. This is a critical
safety hazard for the riders in the vehicle.
While retrofitting an LEV with Li-
ion battery pack, care must be taken
to avoid sudden tripping of battery
power. The battery pack needs to
account for the safety hazards that
could result from power tripping. There
are multiple design considerations to
be applied which solves the above
problems and ensures a smooth
and safe operation of the vehicle.
Li-ion batteries are enhancing the
user experience of golf carts and other
LEVs by providing longer run times, a
maintenance-free solution, and a more
reliable user interface. When choosing
to replace lead-acid batteries with a
higher performing, more sustainable,
and intelligent battery technology like
Li-ion, the key is to ensure the battery
being installed has been designed,
manufactured, and tested to perform
to the application’s requirements.
Consider asking your battery
manufacturer how their batteries
have been designed to handle
charging, regeneration, a vehicle’s
user interface, and power tripping.
This article was written by
Anvin Joe Manadan, Technical
Lead, Inventus Power (Woodridge,
IL). For more information, visit
www.inventuspower.com.
APRIL 2023 17
TECH BRIEFS
Multi-Layer Nuclear Thermionic Avalanche Cell
The device provides a compact, reliable, and continuous electrical source with high power
density capable of long-life operation without refueling.
Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA

I nnovators at the NASA Langley

Research Center have developed
the Multi-Layer Nuclear Thermionic
Avalanche Cell (NTAC), a novel
electrical generator, which transforms
nuclear gamma-ray photon energy
directly to electric power by liberating
intra-band atomic inner shell electrons.
The invention consists of several
NTAC layers arranged in a radially
concentric series separated by a
vacuum gap space. It is comprised of a
gamma-ray source and various layers
of emitters, collectors, and insulators.
Ideal emitter materials include elements
with high atomic numbers, while ideal
collector and insulator materials include
elements with low atomic numbers.
A high-energy gamma-ray (tens
of keV to MeV) is used to liberate a
large number of intra-band, inner-
shell electrons from atoms within the
emitter material for power generation
through the primary interactions of
photoelectric, Compton scattering,
photonuclear, and electron/positron
pair production processes. Secondary
and tertiary electrons are liberated
in the avalanche process as well.
If a power conversion process
effectively utilizes all liberated electrons
in an avalanche mode through a power
conversion circuit, the power output is
drastically increased. Because power
conversion is determined by the
absorption rate of high energy photons,
increasing power output requires either
thicker collector material or a sufficient
number of layer structures to capture
the high energy photons, leaving
no liberated electrons escaping (i.e.,
minimizing the leak of radioactive rays).
The selection of materials, the
thicknesses of the emitter, collector,
and insulator, as well as the number of
NTAC layers required are all determined
by the energy of photon source. The
thermal energy from radioactive decay

Gamma-Ray Liberated
Electron Populated e–
(Photoexcited Energetic Electrons)

Thermalized Electrons

Thermoelectric
Generator Φa
TE
Power χ ΦA

ΦI V out Collector
Avalanche Cell

EF ΦM

Radioactive Element E gl
Avalanche
Cell Power
EF,n = EF + ∑ I EI + κ Tc ∑ I In(nI/neq)
El EgM
Intra-band
Where EF + ΦA = EF + χ
EI + ΦI = EF + χ (Intra-band)
EM + ΦM = EF + χ (Intra-band)

Thermal Emission EM
Gamma Ray Emission α- Particle Emission β- Particle Emission

Energy diagram of photoexcitation and thermalization processes. Photoexcitation and thermalization processes initiated by gamma-ray and beta
particles from radioactive materials increase the conduction band population, creating a large thermionic current. The thermal energy generated by
radioactive coupling and decaying processes is converted by the TE device. (Image: NASA)

18 APRIL 2023 POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT

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Faster

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Designed by Engineers for Engineers, our MAGPro DC-DC Optimizer

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analysis tools are designed to enable
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based on sound engineering principles and
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The DC-DC Optimizer starts with your
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needed inductor specifications, identifies
off-the-shelf part numbers, and provides
The tool identifies optimal inductors for
buck, boost, and buck-boost converters. With
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TECH BRIEFS
can also be converted to electricity
using a thermoelectric device to
further increase power output.
The Multi-Layer NTAC technology
can be manufactured using existing
semiconductor fabrication technology
and can be tailored for small-to-
large scale power needs, including
kilowatt and megawatt applications.
The device provides a compact,
reliable, and continuous electrical
Energy-Saving Technique for Faster Communication Systems
Next-generation power and radio frequency electronic devices can be developed that are
faster, more reliable, and more energy efficient.
University of Bristol, United Kingdom
R esearchers have
developed a
technique that will
allow for faster
communication systems
and better energy-
saving electronics. The
breakthrough was made
by establishing how to
remotely measure the
electric field inside a
semiconductor device
for the first time.
Semiconductor device
design can be trial and
error, though more
commonly it is based on Quantifying electric fields in semiconductor devices. The schematic shows
a device simulation that electric field distribution in the channel of a GaN transistor; laser beams
then provides the basis highlight the second harmonic generation (SHG) nature of the technique.
for the manufacture (Image: Yuke Cao)
of the semiconductor
devices for real-life applications.
When these are new and emerging
semiconductor materials, it has
often been unknown how accurate
and correct these simulations are.
Semiconductors can be made to
conduct positive or negative charges
and can therefore be designed to
modulate and manipulate current.
However, these semiconductor devices
do not stop with silicon — there are
many others including Gallium Nitride.
These semiconductor devices, which
can convert an AC current from a
20 APRIL 2023
source with high power density
capable of long-life operation without
refueling. The Multi-Layer NTAC is
based on previous work at NASA
in which a single emitter device
captured high energy photons;
use of a multi-layer structure
greatly improves the performance
of the electrical generator.
Applications include power for
systems on small satellites, drones,
power line into a DC current, result
in a loss of energy as waste heat.
A voltage is applied to an electronic
device and as a result, there is an
output current used in the application.
Inside the electronic device is an
electric field that determines how
the device works and how long it
will be operational. To make good
performance and long-lasting
electronic devices out of these new
materials, it is important that research­
ers find the optimal design where
electric fields do not exceed the critical
commercial airliners, spacecraft,
electric vehicles, long-lived
nuclear batteries, and others.
NASA is actively seeking licensees to
commercialize this technology. Please
contact NASA’s Licensing Concierge
at Agency-Patent-Licensing@mail.
nasa.gov or call at 202-358-7432 to
initiate licensing discussions. For more
information, visit https://technology.
nasa.gov/patent/LAR-TOPS-335.
value, which would result in
their degradation or failure.
Experts plan to use newly
emerging materials such as
gallium nitride and gallium
oxide rather than silicon,
allowing operation at higher
frequency and at higher
voltages, respectively, so
that new circuits are possible
that reduce energy loss. This
work provides an optical
tool to enable the direct
measurement of electric
field within these new
devices. This will underpin
future efficient pow­er
electronics in applications
such as solar or wind
turbine stations, electric
cars, trains, and planes.
Since these devices are operated at
higher voltages, this means electric
fields in the devices are higher,
which in turn means they can fail
easier. The new technique enables
researchers to quantify electric
fields within the devices, allowing
accurate calibration of the device
simulations that design the electronic
devices so the electric fields do
not exceed critical limits and fail.
For more information, contact
Professor Martin H. H. Kuball at
Martin.Kuball@bristol.ac.uk.
POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT
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TECH BRIEFS

Printed Thermoelectric Generators for Power Generation

A new printing process creates inexpensive, three-dimensional thermoelectric generators.
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany

T hermoelectric generators (TEGs)

convert ambient heat into electrical
power. They enable maintenance-
free, environmentally friendly, and
autono­mous power supply of the
continuously growing number of
sensors and devices for the Internet
of Things (IoT) and recovery of waste
With the help of newly developed inks and special production techniques, such as origami, inexpen-
sive thermoelectric generators can be produced for various applications. (Photo: Andres Rösch, KIT)
heat. Scientists have now developed
three-dimensional component
architectures based on novel,
printable thermoelectric materials.
Conventional TEGs must be
assembled from individual components
using relatively complex manufacturing
methods. To avoid this, researchers
developed two innovative processes
and inks based on organic as well
as inorganic nanoparticles. These
processes and inks can be used
to produce inexpensive, three-
dimensional, printed TEGs.
The first process uses screenprinting
to apply a 2D pattern onto an
ultrathin flexible substrate foil using
thermoelectric printing inks. Then,
a generator about the size of a
sugar cube is folded by means of
an origami technique. The second
process consists of printing a 3D
scaffold to the surfaces of which
the thermoelectric ink is applied.
The new production processes
not only enable inexpensive
scalable production of TEGs but
also allow the component to be
adapted to the applications.
For more information, contact
Sandra Wiebe at sandra.wiebe@
kit.edu; +49 721 608-41172.

High-Performance MXene Electrodes for Next-Generation Battery

Two-dimensional MXene provides fast redox and high-rate energy storage.
City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon

T wo-dimensional MXene has become

popular in the energy world because
of its fast energy storage capability.
But unstable voltage output limits
applications. A research team developed
battery-like electrochemical Nb2CTx
MXene electrodes with stable voltage
output and high-energy density using
a high-voltage scanning strategy.
MXene is a large family of two-
dimensional nanomaterials and
has been the research focus of 2D
materials in the energy storage
field in the past decade. Because of
excellent electronic conductivity and
large surface area, MXene features Battery-like electrochemical MXene electrodes are the black substance inside the bottle. The
fast surficial redox and demonstrates silver “buttons” next to the bottle are batteries; in the background is the battery testing system.
high-rate energy storage. (Image: City University of Hong Kong)

22 APRIL 2023 POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT

 But the biggest challenge of MXene
energy storage is that all reported
MXene electrodes lack a distinct
discharge voltage plateau, which
means they discharge with a rapidly
descending output voltage. This
shortcoming deteriorates MXene’s
energy density and the stable energy
output at desired high voltage regions,
leading to limited energy density,
usually less than 100 Wh kg-1.
To overcome the problem
of unstable energy output, the
research team developed battery-
Enhancing Fault Isolation and Detection for Electric Powertrains of UAVs
A method for rapidly understanding, isolating, and informing response to faults in a
complex system.
Ames Research Center, Mountain View, CA
N ASA’s System-Wide
Safety (SWS) project is
developing innovative data
solutions to assure safe, rapid,
and repeatable access to a
transformed National Airspace
System. The increasing number
of electric propulsion systems
that will enter the airspace will
require systems that ensure
high safety standards in the
low-altitude airspace. One
element that can help ensure
safety is proper diagnosis of
failures via Fault Detection and
Isolation (FDI). NASA Ames
has developed a fault isolation
approach for electric powertrains
of unmanned aerial vehicles.
The approach leverages a combination
of Failure Mode and Effect Analysis
(FMEA) and Bayesian Networks (BN) to
create a dependability structure within
a diagnostic framework-mapping fault
and failure events from the FMEA within
a BN. This framework helps the fault
isolation process by identifying the
probability of occurrence of specific
fault or root causes given evidence
observed through sensor signals.
The tool developed through this
work merges information from
POWER ELECTRONICS SPECIAL REPORT
type Nb2CT MXene electrodes. The
team revealed completely different
electrochemical properties of the
Nb2CTx MXene electrode by regulating
the voltage windows from 2.0 V to
2.4 V. Under high-voltage scanning
up to 2.4 V, the Nb2CTx MXene
electrode showed typical battery-
type features different from the
one under low voltage and other
previously reported MXene systems.
The team discovered that the
Nb2CTx/Zn battery could exhibit
superior rate capability, durable
the electric propulsion system
design phase with diagnostic tools.
Information from the FMEA from the
system design phase is embedded
within BN. Each node in the network
can represent either a fault, failure
mode, root cause or effect, and
the causal relationships between
different elements are described
through the connecting edges.
This novel approach can help FDI,
producing a framework capable of
isolating the cause of sub-system level
fault and degradation. This system:
Identifies and quantifies the effects
cyclic performance, and high energy
density under high-voltage scanning.
More importantly, they succeeded
in equipping MXene with a flat and
stable discharge plateau of 1.55 V to
boost energy densities. A high-level
energy density among all aqueous
Mxene electrodes of 146.7 Wh kg-1
with 63 percent contribution from the
plateau region was also obtained.
For more information, contact
the Office of the Vice-President,
Research & Technology, at vprt@
cityu.edu.hk; +852 3442-6847.
of the identified hazards, the
severity and probability of their
effects, their root cause, and
the likelihood of each cause;
Uses a Bayesian framework
for FDI; Based on the FDI
output, estimates health of
the faulty component and
predicts the remaining useful
life (RUL) by also performing
uncertainty quantification
(UQ); Identifies potential
electric powertrain hazards and
performs a functional hazard
analysis (FHA) for unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs)/Urban
Air Mobility (UAM) vehicles.
Despite being developed for and
demonstrated with an application to
an electric UAV, the methodology is
generalized and can be implemented
in other domains. These domains
range from manufacturing facilities
to various autonomous vehicles.
NASA is actively seeking licensees
to commercialize this technology.
Please contact NASA’s Licensing
Concierge at Agency-Patent-
Licensing@mail.nasa.gov or call at
202-358-7432 to initiate licensing
discussions. For more information,
visit https://technology.nasa.gov.
APRIL 2023 23